LIBRARY 

UNIVERSITY  OF 
CALIFORNIA 
SAN  DIEGO 


CT" 
_  J 


risvsesei  ^iei!UE>siiai 


1 


THE   N  E  W 
INTERNATIONAL 
E  N  C  Y  C  L  O  P  J^  D  I  A 


EDITORS 


DANIEL    COIT    OILMAN,    LL.  D. 

I'UESIDENT  OF    JOHNS  HOPKINS  UNIVERSITY  (1870-1901) 
AFTEliWAUDS   PRESIDENT  OF  THE   CARNEGIE  INSTITUTION    OK  WASHINGTON 

HARRY   THURSTON   PECK,  Ph.D.,  L.  H.  D. 

PROFESSOR    IN    COLUMBIA    UNIVERSITY 

FRANK    MOORE    COLBY,  M.  A. 


LATE    PROFESSOR    OF    ECONOMICS 
IN    NEW    YORK    UNIVERSITY 


VOLUME  I 


NEW  YORK 

DODD,  MEAD  AND   COMPANY 

1905 


Copyright,  190S,  1904,  1905 
By  Dodd,  Mead  and  Company 


All  rights  reserved 


Presswork  bv 
Thb  University  Press,  Cambridge,  U.  S.  A. 


PEEFACE. 

THE  work  which  is  now  given  to  the  pul)lic  after  years  of  diligent  preparation  is  not  a  new 
edition  or  revision  of  the  Iiilenialional  Cyclopcedia.  It  is  not  based  upuii  that  or  upon  any 
other  publication.  The  comparatively  small  portion  of  text  which  has  been  retained  unaltered  from 
the  Inlernalional  Cyclopcedia  and  incorporated  in  these  volumes  has  been  so  retained  because  it  has 
successfully  stood  the  test  of  searching  criticism,  and  because  the  Editors  regard  it  as  satisfying  the 
most  exacting  requirements.  This,  however,  is  the  full  extent  of  the  new  Encyclopoedia's  obligation 
to  the  old.  Tlie  present  work  has  been  planned  and  executed  as  a  wholly  independent  and  original 
undertaking.  It  represents  the  practical  knowledge  gained  from  an  editorial  experience  of  many 
years.  It  embodies  the  results  derived  from  a  critical  study  of  all  the  most  famous  works  of  refer- 
ence which  have  at  any  time  appeared  in  Europe  or  in  the  United  States. 

Every  encyclopapdia  which  has  secured  a  lasting  hold  upon  the  confidence  of  the  reading  public 
has  necessarily  been  distinguis.hed  by  some  especial  merit  of  its  own ;  yet  in  the  case  of  eacli  existing 
publication,  this  peculiar  merit  has  invariably  been  offset  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  by  some  coun- 
terbalancing defect.  Hence,  there  has  always  been  discernible  a  decided  difference  of  opinion,  both 
among  critics  and  among  readers,  as  to  which  one  of  the  standard  encyclop.'edias  best  fulfills  the 
proper  function  of  such  a  work.  The  ideal  encyclopiedia  is  one  that  combines  four  attributes  :  first, 
accuracy  of  statement ;  second,  comprehensiveness  of  scope ;  third,  lucidity  and  attractiveness  of 
presentation ;  and  fourth,  convenience  of  arrangement  Any  compilation  of  this  character,  which 
conspicuously  fails  to  embody  all  of  these  essential  qualities,  falls  short  to  that  extent  of  the  ideal; 
and  it  must  be  said  that  no  one  of  the  greit  encyclopaedias  which  are  already  in  existence  can  fully 
stan<l  tills  test.  In  the  course  of  time  there  have  gradually  been  developed  three  distinct  and  well- 
known  types  of  encyclopaedic  publications,  each  one  of  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  concrete  ex- 
pression of  a  single  predominating  purpose.  Thus  the  Encijclopeedia  Brilannica  represents,  in  most 
of  its  departments,  accuracy  coml)ined  withfuUne.ss  of  detail,  and  in  its  own  especial  sphere,  which  is 
that  of  science,  it  long  remaiaed  without  a  rival.  It  is,  indeed,  as  every  one  is  well  aware,  far  less  a 
true  encyclopedia  than  a  collection  of  elaborate  monographs,  so  scholarly  and  so  diffuse  tliat  many 
of  these  so-called  articles  have  actually  bc^en  published  separately  as  treatises  on  their  respective  sulv 
jects.  Nevertheless,  the  Enci/clopcedia  Brilannicn,  though  its  authority  has  been  very  great,  has 
never  proved  to  be  a  wholly  adequate  and  satisfactory  work  of  reference.  In  the  first  place,  through 
the  massing  of  its  information  under  a  comparatively  few  titles,  it  is  ill  adapted  for  popular  use,  even 
with  the  aid  of  the  ponderous  index  which  its  publi-shers  appended  to  it  in  a  fin.al  volume.  In  the 
second  place,  it  omits  so  many  topics  of  general  interest  as  to  oblige  its  purchasers  to  supplement  it 
by  some  more  popular  if  less  monumental  work.  Finally,  the  treatment  of  its  most  important 
topics  is  e.'itreinely  technical  and  therefore  to  the  great  majority  of  readers  almost  unintelligible. 
Hence,  the  Encyclopmdia  Brilannica,  while  generally  accurate  and  authoritative,  is  neither  truly 
comprehensive  in  its  scope  nor  lucid  in  its  method  of  presentation,  while  it  is  decidedly  incon- 
venient for  purposes  of  ready  reference. 

Tlie  great  French  encyolopasdia  of  Larousse  is  found  in  every  important  library  throughout  the 
world,  and  it  is  in  some  respects  a  model  work.  In  it,  the  different  departments  are  judiciously 
divided,  and  they  are  treated  in  detail  under  the  separate  titles  most  appropriate  to  these  divisions. 
The  work,  moreover,  is  unusually  complete,  and  the  literary  treatment  of  the  different  topics  in- 
cluded in  its   text   is   clear  and   at   times   vivacious  and   entertaining.     There   exists,  however, 


VI 

throughout  its  pages  a  lack  of  accuracy  which  frequently  misleads  the  reader,  while  the  number  of 
the  volumes  and  their  excessive  bulk  render  the  encyclopasdia  both  inconvenient  in  use  and  almost 
prohibitory  in  cost. 

The  famous  Conversalions-Lexikon,  completed  and  first  published  by  Friedrich  Arnold  Brock- 
haus  in  1S12,  and  continued  by  him  and  his  successors  through  many  subsequent  editions  down  to 
the  present  time,  is  an  approximation  to  the  ideal  encyclopaedia.  Its  accuracy  has  become  prover- 
bial. Its  selection  of  topics  and  its  careful  division  and  sub-division  of  them  for  treatment  in 
detail  have  secured  both  comprehensiveness  of  scope  and  convenience  of  arrangement.  Where  it 
falls  short  of  approaching  something  like  perfection  is  in  the  dryness  of  its  narration  and  its 
thoroughly  German  neglect  of  literary  form.  Nevertheless,  on  the  Continent  of  Europe  it  has  long 
been  accepted  as  the  standard  encyclopedic  work  of  reference,  and  it  has  been  translated  and 
imitated  in  almost  every  country,  notably  in  the  valuable  and  popular  encyclopaedia  of  Chambers,  of 
which  the  edition  that  appeared  at  Edinburgh  in  1860  was  not  only  based  upon  the  Conversalions- 
Lexikon,  but  was  confessedly  in  part  translated  from  it. 

These  three  types  of  encyclopaedia  represent,  as  it  were,  the  survival  of  the  fittest,  and  each  of 
them  owes  something  to  the  others.  Historically,  all  three  have  been  developed  out  of  the  ponder- 
ous compilations  of  the  eighteenth  century,  among  which  Zedler's  Universal-Lexikon,  in  sixty-four 
volumes  (1750),  d'Alembert  and  Diderot's  famous  Encyclopedie  in  twenty-eight  (1772),  and  Ersch 
and  Gruber's  Allgemeine  E>ia/clopadie  in  more  than  one  hundred  and  sixty  volumes  remain 
the  most  remarkable  examples.  The  gradual  evolution  of  the  modern  encyclopedia  forms, 
indeed,  an  interesting  study.  The  older  works  originally  grouped  their  articles  under  related 
departments  rather  than  in  alphabetical  order;  and  it  was  only  after  many  years  that  the  alphas 
betical  arrangement  came  into  general  use  as  being  infinitely  more  convenient  for  the  reader,  even 
though  theoreticaUy  less  scientific.  The  elaborate  system  of  cross-references,  which  is  now  a 
subject  of  especial  study  on  the  part  of  all  encyclopsedic  editors,  was  first  developed  by  Ephraim 
Chambers  in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  elucidation  of  the  text  by  means  of 
diagrams,  maps,  portraits,  colored  plates,  and  other  illustrations,  was  at  first  quite  sparingly 
employed ;  but  it  was  an  interesting  feature  of  the  Encydopccdia  Briiannica,  and  was  finally  adopted 
on  a  very  lavish  scale  by  Brockhaus  and  by  Meyer  in  Germany. 

All  modern  encyclopaedias  have  incorporated  these  three  features  as  being  absolutely  essential. 
■Such  fundamental  differences  as  are  perceptible  between  them  will  be  found  to  exist  partly  in  the 
:Scope  and  purpose  of  each  separate  publication,  and  partly  in  the  method  by  which  the  original 
•design  has  been  carried  out  by  those  to  whom  the  task  has  been  committed.  It  therefore  seems 
desirable  that,  in  writing  these  words  of  introduction,  the'  Editors  of  the  New  International 
Encyclopedia  should  set  forth  as  briefly,  yet  as  clearly  as  is  possible,  the  manner  in  which  they 
have  endeavored  to  insure  at  least  a  close  approximation  to  what,  in  their  best  judgment,  an  ideal 
encyclopaedia  should  be. 

Since  accuracy  is  very  properly  regarded  as  the  most  essential  of  all  the  attributes  of  such  a 
publication,  the  Editors  have  been  at  especial  pains  to  make  this  work  in  its  several  departments 
fitly  representative  of  modern  scientific  scholarship.  There  has  long  prevailed  in  certain  quarters 
a  definite  yet  quite  untenable  belief  tliat  this  result  can  be  most  satisfactorily  attained  by  assigning 
sets  of  articles  to  separate  contributors  of  eminence,  for  them  to  write  what  pleases  them  and  then 
to  sign  what  they  have  written.  The  signed  article,  it  has  been  claimed,  is  the  best  possible 
guarantee  of  accuracy,  since  it  carries  with  it  the  weight  and  the  authority  of  its  autlior's  name. 
This  theory,  however,  will  not  bear  a  close  examination.  For  it  is  evident  that  no  single  specialist, 
however  eminent,  can  be  so  thoroughly  equipped  at  every  point  as  to  leave  in  what  he  writes  no 
room  for  criticism.  He  has  his  individual  preferences  strongly  marked,  and  necessarily  also  his 
individual  bias.  In  treating  matters  of  scientific  doctrine,  therefore,  he  will  quite  unconsciously 
give  to  his  statements  the  coloring  of  his  own  personal  beliefs.  In  discussing  controversial 
topics,  he  will  with  the  same  unconsciousness  lay  more  stress  upon  the  theories  which  he  holds  him- 
self than  upon  those  which  are  accepted  and  maintained  by  other  men  of  equal  eminence.  Moreover, 
he  is  apt  to  ass\ime  upon  the  reader's  part  too  great  a  familiarity  with  the  subject,  and  hence  to 


Vll 

employ  language  which  is  excessively  technical  aud  difficult  to  understand.  Finally,  when  the 
individual  contributor  is  permitted  to  treat  his  chosen  topics  in  his  own  way  and  without 
reference  to  what  other  contrilmtors  have  done,  there  will  necessarily  result  a  lack  of  symmetry 
and  proportion  which  will  be  perceptible  to  the  most  casual  reader  of  the  completed  work.  These 
facts  have  been  so  often  demonstrated  in  the  past  as  to  have  led  the  editors  of  the  Brockhaus  Cort- 
versalions-Lexikon  to  reject  the  signed  article  altogether,  aM<l  to  substitute  for  the  individualistic 
system  another  system  under  whioli  each  article,  though  originally  written  by  a  single  specialLst,  is 
subsequently  criticised  by  other  specialists  through  whose  hands  it  passes  and  by  whom  it  is  so 
modified  as,  in  its  final  form,  to  be  no  longer  the  work  of  one  particular  individual.  It  represents 
instead  the  collective  knowledge  and  the  different  view-points  of  a  number  of  highly  traim^d  and 
able  men,  while  it  usually  receives,  as  well,  a  finishing  tovich  from  the  general  editor,  who  bears 
constantly  in  mind  the  inestimable  value  of  simplicity,  proportion,  and  clearness.  No  signed  article 
can  ever  have  the  completeness,  the  authority,  and  the  practical  value  of  an  article  prepared  in  such 
a  way  as  this;  aud  the  proof  of  the  assertion  is  found  in  the  undisputed  fact  that  the  encyclopaedia 
of  Brockhaus  has  been  universally  recognized  as  the  most  minutely  accurate  work  of  reference  that 
exists  to-day.  Moreover,  as  a  practical  matter,  the  signed  article  frequently  involves  a  certain  in- 
evitable deception.  As  new  editions  of  an  encyclopnedia  appear,  a  multitude  of  changes  in  the  text 
are  necessarily  demanded  in  order  to  add  new  facts  and  modify  old  theories;  and  these  changes  are 
often  made  by  other  hanils  than  those  of  the  original  contributors,  so  that  many  articles  to  which 
a  writer's  name  is  signed  are  no  longer  in  reality  his  own.  Hence  the  Editors  of  the  present  work 
have,  after  much  deliberation,  dispensed  entirely  with  the  signed  article.  In  its  stead,  they  have 
arranged  that  every  important  contribution  to  the  work,  while  written  by  a  specialist  of  acknowl- 
edged competence,  shall  nevertheless  pass  through  other  hands  and  receive  its  final  form  upon  tho 
basis  of  mutual  discussion,  criticisni,  emendation,  and  suggestion.  It  is  proper  here  to  acknowledge 
the  great  value  of  the  assistance  rendered  by  Mr.  Louis  Heilprin,  who  has  read  all  the  proofs,  and 
whose  minute  and  varied  knowledge  and  wide  experience  have  assured  a  very  high  degree  of 
accuracy. 

In  the  second  place,  the  endeavor  has  been  made  to  render  this  Encyclopaedia  more  comprehensive 
in  its  scope  than  any  other.  The  rapid  march  of  science  during  the  past  few  years,  the  new  inven- 
tions and  discoveries  that  have  been  made,  the  political  and  social  changes  that  have  been  effected, 
and  the  multitude  of  absolutely  new  interests  that  have  arisen  in  almost  every  department  of  human 
activity,  have  added  an  immense  mass  of  topics  to  the  list  with  which  former  encyclopedias  have 
had  to  deal.  It  is  believed  that  all  these  topics  have  here  received  adequate  and  accurate  attention; 
while  a  much  greater  completeness  than  is  usual  will  be  found  in  the  treatment  of  nearly  every 
department.  It  is  desirable  to  call  especial  attention  to  the  amount  of  space  that  has  been 
given  to  the  subject  of  Geography,  both  physical  and  political,  and  to  the  carefully  selected 
information  relating  to  municipal  organization  aud  the  management  of  public  utilities  —  informa- 
tion such  as  has  never  before  been  systematically  given  in  any  encyclopsedia  published  in  the  English 
language.  Something  also  should  be  said  of  the  fullness  and  the  modern  character  of  the  articles 
bearing  upon  the  several  departments  of  Biology,  Botany,  Education,  and  Psychology,  the  Mechan- 
ical Arts,  Physics,  Military  and  Naval  Science,  Sociology,  and  Biography.  As  to  the  last-named 
subject,  it  may  be  said,  without  fear  of  contradiction,  that  no  eucyclopsedic  reference-book  in  England 
or  America  contains  as  titles  so  many  names  of  men  aud  women;  while  the  information  given  under 
these  titles  is  brought  down  to  the  very  eve  of  the  publication  of  this  work.  Another  department 
of  great  interest  and  value  is  that  which  has  to  do  with  what  may  be  called  miscellaneous  infor- 
mation and  which  covers  a  range  of  topics  not  heretofore  included  in  a  general  encyclopsedia. 
Under  this  head  will  be  found,  for  instance,  the  titles  of  famous  books,  comprising  works  of  fic- 
tion, the  names  of  the  important  characters  in  imaginative  literature,  the  explanation  of  political 
nicknames  and  popular  allusions,  and  in  fact  all  that  class  of  subjects  which  has  ordinarily  been 
found  only  in  Readers'  Handbooks,  and  similar  special  compilations.  It  should  be  noted,  too,  that 
the  pronunciation  of  all  unusual,  technical,  or  foreign  words  has  been  carefully  figured  in  accordance 
with  a  simple  phonetic  system,  and  that  their  etymology  has  been  systematically  traced.     This  ety- 


vm 

mological  woi'k  has  been  done  with  careful  regard  to  the  conclusions  of  the  newest  scliool  of  philo- 
logical research,  and  the  facts  are  set  forth  as  simply  and  as  clearly  as  is  possible.  For  the  convenience 
of  the  general  reader,  all  the  words  and  stem-forms  belonging  to  the  Greek  or  to  the  Oriental  lan- 
guages have  been  transliterated.  Care  has  been  taken  to  supply  every  important  article  with  a 
well-selected  bibliography  for  the  guidance  of  those  who  may  wish  to  pursue  the  subject  in  all  its 
ramifications ;  and  the  bibliographical  material  will  be  found  to  comprise  not  only  the  standard 
works,  but  also  special  monographs,  pamphlets,  and  papers  published  by  the  various  learned 
eocieties.  The  Encyclopaedia  as  a  whole,  theu,  is  in  reality  a  library  whose  books  are  so  divided 
and  arranged  as  to  make  the  information  which  they  afford  immediately  and  conveniently  accessible 
to  the  reader.  It  is  this  completeness  which  justifies  the  title  "  International "  in  its  application 
to  this  work.  The  word  is  one  which  possesses  a  new  significance  to  Americans  at  the  present 
time,  when  our  country  has  shaken  off  its  former  isolation,  and  has  developed  so  many  points  of 
contact,  political  and  commercial,  witli  the  other  nations  of  the  earth.  Yet  while  the  work  is  inter- 
national, it  is  international  from  an  American  point  of  view,  and  it  very  naturally  gives  the  fullest 
treatment  to  those  topics  which  are  of  immediate  and  vital  interest  to  Americans. 

With  regard  to  the  third  essential  —  lucidity  and  attractiveness  of  presentation  —  the  recogni- 
tion of  its  value  which  has  been  expressed  above,  will  afford,  perhaps,  a  clue  to  what  the  Editors 
have  endeavored  to  accomplish.  There  exi.sts  a  kind  of  writing  which  has  become  so  stereo- 
typed as  to  be  well  known  to  every  one,  and  wliich  might  be  fittingly  described  as  the  encyclo- 
psedic  style.  It  is  in  literature  what  a  monotone  is  in  music  — utterly  devoid  of  individuality, 
of  variety,  and  of  interest.  It  sets  forth  every  possible  subject  in  the  same  dull  way  and  robs  the 
most  living  themes  of  their  vitality.  This  style  has  even  acquired,  by  the  influence  of  tradition, 
a  pseudo-sanctity,  until  many  persons  have  become  convinced  that  an  encyclopaedic  article  must 
inherently  and  inevitably  be  a  synonym  for  dullness.  This  view  the  editors  are  very  far  from 
entertaining,  or  from  desiring  to  perpetuate;  and  so  the  principal  contributors  have  been  selected 
not  only  for  their  special  knowledge,  but  also  for  their  possession  of  a  clear,  attractive  style ;  and 
in  those  articles  of  which  the  subjects  lend  themselves  to  a  distinctly  literary  treatment,  the  authors 
have  been  expected  to  write  with  the  same  freedom  and  with  the  same  personal  touch  as  would  char- 
acterize their  contributions  to  any  literary  publication  of  a  high  class.  As  the  Encyclopsedia  is 
intended  first  of  all  for  the  general  reader,  it  has  been  written  from  the  general  reader's  point  of 
view,  and  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  free  from  all  vexatious  technicalities.  Regard,  moreover,  has  been 
had  to  form,  and  to  a  logical  order  of  presentation.  In  every  detail,  the  endeavor  has  been  made 
to  compact  really  valuable  information  instead  of  loosely  assorted  and  often  unrelated  facts.  Even 
the  statistics,  wliich  in  many  works  of  this  character  are  thrown  together  in  a  mass,  have  been 
used  in  such  a  way  as  to  exhibit  comparisons  which  are  significant  and  which  possess  an  interest  of 
their  own  for  every  person  of  intelligence.  In  short,  the  aim  has  been  consistently  to  present  each 
subject  not  only  so  as  to  inform,  but  likewise  so  as  to  attract  and  entertain. 

The  fourth  essential  of  a  useful  encyclopaedia  is  found  in  the  practical  convenience  with  which  it 
may  be  consulted.  This  practical  convenience  has  been  studied  very  carefully  both  by  the  Editors 
and  by  the  contributors  with  the  object  of  enabling  a  reader  to  find,  with  the  least  possible  expenditure 
of  time  and  patience,  the  information  of  which  he  is  in  need.  This  end  has  been  attained,  first,  by 
giving  a  conspectus  of  each  topic  as  a  whole;  second,  by  treating  the  same  topic  more  in  detail 
under  all  the  natural  divisions  into  which  it  falls ;  and  finally,  by  working  out  a  system  of  cross- 
references  which  may  serve  as  guides  from  each  topic  to  the  others  which  supplement  it  and  pro- 
vide the  collateral  information  necessary  to  its  fullest  understanding. 

It  is  thought  that  the  illustrations  of  every  kind  will  be  found  superior  to  anything  hitherto 
attempted  in  any  encyclopaedia  These  illustrations  have  not  been  gathered  together  in  a  haphazard 
fashion  and  merely  for  the  purpose  of  providing  the  volumes  with  a  certain  number  of  attractive 
pictures;  but  they  were  suggested  and  selected  by  the  various  contributors,  or  prepared  with  their 
cooperation.  In  many  cases  much  assistance  was  derived  from  the  Governmental  Departments  in 
Washington,  where  all  the  plates  relating  to  Natural  History  were  examined  and  verified  by  experts 
in  the  Government's  employ. 


IX 


The  Editors  are  thoroughly  aware  of  the  fonniaable  character  of  their  undertaking.  No  one,  in 
fact,  who  lias  not  been  intimately  associated  with  the  making  of  a  great  encyclopaedia  can  fully 
understand  the  difficulties  which  are  inherent  in  such  a  task,  involving  as  it  does  the  cooperation  of  a 
large  body  of  highly  trained  and  scientifically  qualified  experts,  and  demanding  so  many  and  such  varied 
forms  of  effort-organization,  selection,  knowledge,  literary  skill,  critical  judgment,  and  a  true  sense  of 
r,roportion.  Nor  has  it  been  forgotten  that  such  a  work  as  this  should  be  something  more  than  a 
convenient  book  of  reference.  Encyclopaedias  have  in  the  past  performed,  and  they  are  still  perform- 
in-,  a  remarkable  educational  function  in  disseminating  exact  knowledge  upon  an  immense 
variety  of  subjects.  It  would  be  difficult  to  overestimate  the  influence  which  has  been  exercised  by 
such  famous  works  as  those  which  have  been  mentioned  in  the  preceding  pages;  for  they  have  been 
reallv  libraries,  and  to  thousands  upon  thousands  of  families  they  have  been  the  only  libraries  available. 
To  prepare  a  book  which  shall  professedly  discharge  a  function  so  important  is  no  light  undertaking; 
to  obtain  even  a  fair  measure  of  success  is  a  memorable  achievement.  It  is  the  hope  of  the 
Editors  of  this  Encyclopedia  that  the  test  of  time  will  show  them  to  have  profited  alike  by  the 
merits  and  by  the  defects  of  the  works  which  have  preceded  it ;  and  that  the  result  may  be  approved 
as  embodying  the  experience  of  the  past  with  an  intelligent  conception  of  the  requirements  of 
the  present.  DANIEL  COIT  OILMAN. 

HARRY  THURSTOX  PECK. 
FRANK  MOORE   C0L13Y. 
New  York,  June  5,  1902. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  IN   VOLUME  L 

COLORED  PLATES 

Finso  Paob 

Africa  —  Dark  Races 178 

Amauvllidaceae 420 

Antelopes 508 

Apples -  670 

Aquatic  Plants 682 

Architectlke,  Egyptian  —  Temple  of  Kavnak  (from  the  restored  model)   ....  748 

Architecture,  Greek  —  The  Partheuou  (from  the  restored  model) 750 

MAPS  •    ■ 

The  World Frontispiece 

Afghanistan l^^S 

Africa,  Physical  Map 172 

Africa 180 

Alabama 250 

Alaska  and  the  Klondike  Region 262 

America,  North,  Physical  Map 436 

America,  South,  Physical  Map 436 

America,  North 442 

America,  South 442 

Antarctic  Regions 594 

Antilles » 614 

Arctic  Regions 760 

Argentine  Republic 774 

ENGRAVINGS 

Abalone 4: 

Abu-Simbel  (Stone  Reliefs  at  Entrance  of  Rock  Temple) 48 

Abutilon 50 

Acacia 54 

Acanthus 58 

Addison,  Joseph 112 

Air  Ships  and  Flying  Machines 148 

Air  Compressors 236 

Air  Pumps 238 

Albany  —  the  Capitol 272 

Alexander  the  Great 312 

Ahiambra  —  Court  op  Lions 344 

Alma-Tadema,  Laurence  (At  the  Shriue  of  Venus) 384 

Alphabets 392 

Alpine  Scenery 398 


xu 

Facing  Page 

Alpine  Vegetation 400 

Amiens  Cathedral 464 

Anemone 550 

Angelico,  Fra  (Madonna  of  the  Star) 554 

Anglers  and  Batfish .  560 

Ant 592 

Ant-Eaters  and  Armadillos 596 

Antelopes    ..............     598 

Apes,  Anthropoid 642 

Apollo  Belvedere       .............  654 

Araucaria •     , 710 

Arches 720 

Archeology,  Mycensean  and  Early  Greek 724 

,  Mycenoean  and  Early  Greek 726 

,  American 734 

Architecture,    "Elevator"   (Saint   Panl's   Church,   New   York,  and  Surrounding 

Buildings) ,     .     .     .  754 

,  Mexican  (Temple  of  Palenque ;  Restoration) .  756 


Ctittors 


DANIEL    COIT     GILMAN,     LL.  D. 

PRESIDENT  OF  JOHNS  HOPKINS  UNIVERSITY  (1876-1901) 
PRESIDENT  OF  CARNEGIE  INSTITUTION 


HARRY  THURSTON  PECK,  Ph.  D.,   L.H.D. 

PROFESSOR  IN  COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 

FRANK  MOORE  COLBY,  M.A. 

FORMEFtLT  PROFESSOR  IN  NEW  YORK  UNIVERSITY 

3Cfsi9tnnt  .nicinnaino  «Bbitov 
ALBERT     WHITE     VURSE 


A  PARTIAL  LIST  OF  CONTRIBUTORS  AND  OFFICE  EDITORS. 

CLEVELAND  ABBE.  A.M..  LL.P..  F.  STUBliES  ALLEN.  LL.B.. 

Professor   of    Jlctcorologj'    in   the    United  Cliief  Editor   (under  Dr.  William  T.  Har- 

States  Weather  Bureau.  ris)  of  Wrhsler's  IntcnintionnI  Dictionari). 

Department  of  Meteoboiogt.  Department  of  Pronunciation. 


EENWICK  WYLIE  ABBOTT. 

Assistant  to  the  Managing  Editor. 

WILBUR  C.  ABBOTT,  B.  LITT., 

Professor    of    European    History    in    the 
,  University  of  Kansas. 

Foreign  Universities. 

CYRUS  C.  ADAMS, 

Topics  in  Geooraphy. 

THOMAS  SEWALL  ADAMS.  Ph.D.. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Economies  and  Sta- 
tistics in  the  University  of  Wisconsin. 

Topics  in  Political  Economy. 

WASHINGTON  IRVING  LINCOLN  ADAMS, 

Photography. 

GYRUS  ADLER,  A.M..  Pii.D.. 

Instructor  and  Associate  in  Semitic  Lan- 
giiapps,  .Johns  Ho])kins  I'liivcrsity;  Li- 
brarian Smithsonian  Institution. 

James  Smitiison. 

H.  B.  ALEXANDER.  Ph.D.. 

Office  Editor,  Philosophy. 

MANSFIELD  ALLAN,* 

Colleges  and  Societies. 


JOSEPH  SWEETJIAN  ASSIES.  Ph.D.. 

Professor  of  Physics  and  Director  of  the 
Physical  Laboratory  in  Johns  Hopkins 
University. 

Department  op  Physics. 

MICHAEL  ANAGNOS. 

Superintendent  of  the  Perkins  Institution 
for  tlie  Blind. 

Education  op  the  Blind. 

WALTER  TALL1\L\DGE  ARNDT,  A.M.. 

Biography. 

ROBERT  ARROWSMITH.  Ph.D.. 

Formerly  Professor  of  Latin  and  Greek  in 
Teachers  Colleue,  Columbia  University. 

Department  of  Reader's  Handbook  and  -\\rER- 
k'an  Colleces. 


CHARLES  DEXTER  ALLEN, 


Book  Plates. 


E.  W.  ALLEN.  Ph.D.. 

United  States  Department  of  A.L'i'ienltiire. 

Agbicultubax     Chemistry;     Animal    Produc- 
tion; Dairying;  and  Other  Articles. 
•Deceased. 


BLANCHE  PARKER  AVERY, 
SAMUEL  G.  AYRES, 


Bibliography. 
Hymnolooy. 


FREDERICK  R.  BAILEY,  M.D., 

College  of  Phvsicians  and  Surgeons,  New 

York, 

Topics  in  Bacteriology,  and  Pathology. 

FRANIv  BAKER.  Ph.D.. 

Professor  of  Anatomy  in  Georgetown  Uni- 
versity; Superintendent  of  the  National 
Zoological  Park. 

Anatomy. 


XIV 


MOSES  NELSON  BAKER.  C.E., 

Associate  Editor  of  the  Engineering  Vews. 
Depaetments     of     Engineering     and     Manu- 

factlkes. 

CHAPvLES  EEID  BAENES,  Ph   B.,        ^,     ^,  . 
Professor  of  Plant  Physiology  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago.  -or,,..^-,^ 
Topics  in  Botany. 

GEORGE  JAMES  BAYLES.  Ph.D 

Lecturer  in  Ecclesiology  in  Columbia  Uni- 
versity,  ^^^^^g  j^  Church  Government. 

WALTER  HENRY  BEAL,  M.E., 

United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 
Topics  in  Agricultural  Physics. 

IVLIRCUS  BENJAMIN.  Ph.D., 

Editor  to  the  United  States  Nat  onal  Mu- 
seum; formerly  of  the  Editorial  Stafl  ot 
the  Standard  Dictionary. 

Department  of  Inorganic  Chemistry. 

FREDERICK  MAYER  BIRD. 

rRE^ijr.  WiLLL^M  Lloyd  Garrison. 

CARL  HENRY  ANDREW  BJERREGAARD, 

Librarian  Astor  Branch,  New  York  Public 

^'^'''"'^'  Satanism;  Sufiism. 

FRANK  R.  BLAKE.  Ph.D.'. 

Instructor   in   Oriental   Languages,   Johns 
Hopkins  University. 

Philippine  Languages. 

WILLIAM  J.  A.  BLISS,  Ph.D. 

Collegiate     Professor     of    Physics.     John^ 
Hopkins  University. 

Constants  of  Nature. 


MAURICE  BLOOMFIELD.  Ph.D. 

Professor    of    Sanskrit    and    Comparative 
Philology  in  Johns  Hopkins  University. 

Topics  in  Oriental  Literature. 

PERCIVAL  R.  BOLTON,  M.D., 

Instructor    in    Surgery    in    Cornell    Lni- 

^"''^^'^y-  Surgery. 

MRS.  ELLA  A.  BOOLE.  PiuD 

President  New  York  State  T\ .  C.  i.  L  . 
Woman's      Christian      Temperance     Union; 

Young  Woman's  Christian  Temperance 

Union;  and  Other  Articles. 

EDWARD  GAYLORD  BOURNE,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  Historv  in  Yale  University. 

Philippines  (History). 

DAVID  JOSIAH  BREWER,  LL.D..   .     ^    ^^  ^ 
Associate    Justice    of    the    United    States 
Supreme  Court. 

United  States  Supreme  Court. 

ALBERT  PERRY  BRIGHAM,  A.M.. 

Professor  of  Geology  in  Colgate  University. 
Topics  in  Geology. 

CHARLES  A.  BRINLEY.  Ph.D.. 

President  of  the  American  Society  for  the 
Extension  of  University  Teaching. 

Unitorsity  Extension. 


WILLIAM  KEITH  BROOKS,  LL.D., 

Professor    of    Zoology    in    Johns    Hopkins 

University. 

Biology. 

W.  B.  BRYAN, 

Washington,  Y>.  C 

FRANCIS  M.  BURDICK,  LL.D.. 

Dwight  Professor  of  Law  in  Columbia  Uni- 
versity. __ 

Topics  in  Law. 

WILLIAM  VINCENT  BYARS,  A.M., 

Saint  Louis. 

THOMAS  J.  CAMPBELL,  S.J..  ,  ,    ,     „  , 

Formerly  President  of  Saint  John  s   (.col- 
lege, Fordham,  N.Y. 
'^  Casuistry;  Mass. 

GEORGE  CRAWFORD  CAPEN, 

President  Scott  Stamp  and  Com  Company. 
Postage  Stamps. 

HENRY  SMITH  CARHART,  LL.D.. 

Professor  of  Physics  in  the  University  ot 

Michigan.  ^^  _, 

Voltaic  Cell. 

WILLIAM  HENRY  CARPENTER.  Ph.D., 

Professor   of   Germanic   Philology   m   Co- 
lumbia University. 
Norwegian  Literature  ;  Icelandic  Language. 

PAUL  CARUS,  PH.D.,  ^^^^^^_ 

JOHN  WHITE  CHADWICK,  A.M.^^^^^  ^^^^^_ 

ALEXANDER  F.  CHAMBERLAIN.  Pn.D 

Professor  of  Anthropology  in  Clark   Uni- 
versity. .  „ 
Topics  in  Anthropology. 

CHARLES  J.  CHAMBERLAIN,  Ph  D 

Instructor  in  IMorphology  and  Cytology  in. 
the  University  of  Chicago. 

Topics  in  Botany. 


COLBY  M.  CHESTER,  ■  .     a     i- 

Rear-Admiral  U.  S.  Navy,  Superintendent 
Naval  Observatory. 

Naval  Orseevatory. 

EDWARD  POTTS  CHEYNEY.  A.M., 

Professor  of  European  History  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania. 

•'  Coats  of  Arms. 

RUSSELL  HENRY  CHITTENDEN,  Ph.D 

Director  of  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School, 

Y'ale  University. 

Physiological  Chemistry. 

ARCHIBALD  CHLTRCH.  M.D.. 

Professor  of  Nervous  and  Mental  Diseases 
and  of  Medical  Jurisprudence  m  tlie 
Northwestern  University  Medical  School. 

Neurology. 

HUBERT  LYMAN  CLARK,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  Biologv  in  Olivet  College. 

Topics  in  Zoology. 

LOUIS  WELLS  CLARKE,  ,     x,    •     •  „ 

Formerlv  Instructor  in  Textile  Designing 
and  Manufacturing  in  the  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology. 

Topics  in  Textile  Manufactubinq. 


XV 


J.  J.  CLEAVY, 


Tbenton. 


ADOLPHE  COHN,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  Romance  Languages  and  Lit- 
eratures in  C'Dluiiihia  University. 

Rousseau;  Voltaire;  Zoi^v. 

A  I.  DU  P.  COLEMAN, 

Instructor  in  Kn-ilish  in  tlie  College  of  the 
City  of  New  York. 

Office  Editor,  Church  History. 

Rt.  Rev.  LEIGHTON  COLEMAN,  S.T.D.,  LL.D., 
Bishop  of  Delaware. 

Church  of  England. 


CHARLES  B.  DAVENPORT,  Ph.D., 

Associate  Professor  of  Zoology  in  the 
University  of  Chicago;  Director  of  the 
Biological  Laboratory  at  Colil  Spring  Har- 
bor, N.  Y. 

Topics  in  Zoology. 

HENRY  A.  DA  VIES,  B.D.,  Ph.D., 

Sin;  Soul;  Theism. 

MICHAEL  M.  DAVIS,  Jr.. 

Topics  in  Economics. 

OZORA  S.  DAVIS.  Pn.D.. 

Pastor  of  the  Central  Congregational 
Church.  N'ewlonvillc,  Mass. 

Topics  in  New  Testament  History. 


THOIVL^S  LUTHER  COLEY,  U.D.,  HTIfiKFS  DAYTOX    M  D 

Associate     Editor     of     the      ThcrapeuUo    ^^^^^^J^^Xlsslur'tin  U^^^^^^ 
Monthly.  Therapeutics.  ^<^S<^-    "^    Physicians    and    Surgeons,    New 

York. 


A.  FREDERICK  COLLINS, 


Topics  in  Ophthaliiology  and  Materia  Medica. 


Wireless  Telegraphy. 


ISIDORE  DELSON, 


VARNL':^!   LANSINCx   COLLINS,   M.A., 

Reference  Librarian,  Princeton  University 
Library. 


Zionist  Mo^-ement. 


THEODORE  LOW  DE  VINNE,  A.M., 

Printinq. 
Metre. 


HERMANN   COLLITZ.  Ph.D., 

Professor   of   Comparative   Philology   and 
German  in  Bryn  Mawr  College. 

German  Language. 

FREDERIC  TABER  COOPER,  Ph.D., 

Formerly   Professor   of    Sanskrit   in   New 
Y'ork  University. 

Topics  in  Hungaeian,  Spanish,  Italian,  and 
Portuguese  Literatures. 

EDWARD  TANJORE  CORWIN,  D.D., 

Editor    of   the    Manual   of    the   Reformed 
Church  in  America. 

Dutch  Reformed  Church. 

JOHN  AIERLE  COULTER,  Ph.D., 

Head  of  the  Department  of  Botany  in  the 
University  of  Chicago. 

Department  of  Botany. 

HENRY  CHANDLER  COWLES,  Ph.D., 

Instru.tor  in  Ecology  in  the  University  of 

Chicago. 

Topics  in  Botany. 

ISAAC  J.  COX, 

Mexico  (City)  ;  Topics  in  Gazetteer. 

CHARLES  ALBERT  CRAMPTON, 

Chief  Chemist  of  Internal  Revenue  Bureau. 

Whisky. 

WILBUR  LUCros  CROSS,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  Engli-sh  in  the  Sheffield  Scien- 
tific School.  Yale  University. 

Department  of  English  Literature. 

HARRY  A.  CUSHTNG.  LL.B.,  Ph.D., 

Lecturer    in    History    and    Constitutional 
Law  in  Columbia  University. 

Topics  in  United  States  History. 


DAVIS  RICH  DEWEY.  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  Economics  and  Statistics   in 

the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 

Unemployment. 

MELVIL  DEWEY,  L.H.D., 

Director    of    the    State    Library,    Albany, 
N.  Y. 

Topics  in  Library  Administration. 

SAMUEL  WARREN  DIIvE,  LL.D., 

Secretary,  National  League  for  the  Protec- 
tion of  the  Family. 

Divorce. 

DANIEL  K.  DODGE,  Ph.D., 

Professor    of   the    English    Language    and 

Literature   in   the   University   of   Ulinois. 

Department  of  Modern  Philology. 

CHARLES  A.  DOWNER,  Ph.D., 

Assistant   Professor   of   the    French   Lan- 
guage   and   Literature   in   the   College   of 
the  Citv  of  New  York. 
Ff:LiBRiGE,  Mistral,  and  Other  Abticles. 

WILLIAM  A.  DOWNES,  M.D., 

Assistant  Surgeon  to  Saint  Mary's  and  the 
General  ilemorial  Hospital. 

Topics  in  Anatomy  and  Surgery. 

GEORGE  MATTHEW  DUT'CHER, 

Assistant  Professor  of  History  in  Wesleyan 
University. 

Topics  in  French  History. 

HENRY  OTIS  DWTGHT.  LL.D., 

Editorial     Secretary    of    the    Ecumenical 

Conference  on   Foreign   Missions   in   1900, 

and   editor  of  the  Eiwyclopwdia  of    Mi.i- 

sions. 

Ctiristlan  Foreign  Missions;   Turkish 

Language. 


XVI 


MORTIMER  LAMSON  EARLE,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  Classical  Philology  iu  Bar- 
nard College. 

Text  Criticism. 

R.  EDDY,  D.D., 

President  of  the  Universalist  Historical 
Society. 

Universalism. 

JAMES  C.  EGBERT,  Jr.,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  Roman  Archfeology  and 
Epigraphy  in  Columbia  University. 

Dictionary,      Gaul,      Tacitxs,      and      Other 
Articles. 

SAMUEL  ATKINS  ELIOT,  D.D., 

President  of  the  American  Unitarian  As- 
sociation. 

Unitarianism. 

RICHARD  T.  ELY,  Ph.D.,  LL.D., 

Professor  of  Political  Economy  and  Di- 
rector of  the  School  of  Economics  in  the 
University  of  Wisconsin. 

Political    Economt     and    Other    Economic 
Articles. 

EPHRAIM  EMERTON.  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  Ecclesiastical  History  in  Har- 
vard University. 

Erasmus;  Papacy. 

EDWARD  LATHROP  ENGLE, 

Office  Editor,  Literature. 

WILLIAM  HARRISON  EVANS,  Ph.D., 

United  States  Department  of  Afrriculture. 
Economic  Botany  ;  Plant  Diseases. 

FREDERICK  JOHN  FALDING,  A.M., 

Sulphuric  Acid. 

ROLAND  P.  FALKNER,  Ph.D., 

Chief  of  the  Division  of  Documents  in  the 
Library  of  Congress. 

Topics  in  Political  Economy. 

LIVINGSTON  FARRAND,  M.D., 

Professor  of  Anthropology  in  Columbia 
University. 

Topics  in  Anthropology. 

JOHN  ALFRED  FAULKNER.  D.D., 

Professor  of  Historical  Theology  in  Drew 
Theological   Seminary. 

Methodism  ;   Topics  in   ilETiioDiST  Biography. 

SAMUEL  D.  FAUST,  A.M.,  D.D., 

Professor  of  Church  History  in  the  Union 
Biblical  Seminary. 

United  Brethren  in  Christ. 

CHARLES  ERNEST  FXY.  AM.. 

Professor  of  Modern  Languages  in  Tufts 
College. 

^Mountain  Climbing. 

ALBERT  WARREN  FERRIS,  A.M..  M.D., 

Assistant   in   Neurology   in  the   College  of 
Physicians  and   Surgeons,  New  York,   and 
in   Medicine   in   the   University  and   Belle- 
vue  Hospital  Medical  College. 
Department  of  Medicine  and  Allied  Topics. 


JOHN  ROSE  FICKLEN,  B.L., 

Professor  of  History  and  Political  Science 
in  Tulaue  University. 

New  Orleans. 

HENRY  T.  FINCK, 

Musical  Critic  of  the  New  Y'ork  Evening 
Post. 

FOLK-MUSIC. 

J.  D.  M.  FORD,  Ph.D., 

Assistant     Professor     of     Romance     Lan- 
guages in  Harvard  University. 

Topics  in  Romance  Philology. 


ALFRED  EDMOND  FORSTALL, 


Gas. 


FRANK  HUGH  FOSTER,  Ph.D.,  D.D., 

Formerly    Professor    of    Theology    in    the 
Pacific  Theological  Seminary. 
Department  op  Systematic  Theology. 

FRANK  FOWLER,  N.A., 

Topics  in  Painting  and  Sculpttjee. 

JOHN  FOX,  D.D., 

Corresponding  Secretary  of  the  American 
Bible  Society. 

Bible  Societies. 

J.  E.  FRAME, 

Topics  in  New  Testament  History. 

HOLLIS  BURKE  FRISSELL,  D.D., 

Principal  of  Hampton  Institute. 

Negro  Education. 

A.  L.  FROTHINGHAM.  .Jr.,  Ph.D., 

Professor   of    Ancient   History    and   Arch- 
feology in  Princeton  University. 

Department  of  Architecture,  and  Topics  in 
Archaeology. 

HENRY  GANNETT, 

Geographer  of  the  United   States  Geolog- 
ical Survey. 

Topics  in  Geography. 

.JAMES  WILFORD  GARNER.  Ph.D.. 

Lecturer    in    History    in    Columbia    Uni- 
versity. 

Topics  in  United  States  History  .\nd  Politi- 
cal Science. 


G.  H.  GEROULD, 


Topics  in  Biography. 


FRANKLIN  H.  GIDDINGS,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of   Sociology   in   Columbia   Uni-- 

versify. 

Sociology  and  Topics  in  Social  Science. 

GEORGE  GLADDEN, 

Office  Editor,  Biography. 

HENRY  HERBERT  GODDARD,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  Psychology'  and  Education  in 
the  Westchester  State  Normal  School. 

Faith  Cure. 

JAMES  I.  GOOD.  D.D.. 

Professor  of  Dogmatics  and  Pastoral 
Theologv-  and  Dean  of  the  School  of 
Theology  in  Ursinus  College. 

Reformed  German  Church. 


J.  PAUL  GOODE,  Ph.D., 

Assistant  Professor  of  Geography  in  the 
University  of  Chicago. 

Topics  in  United  States  Gazetteeb. 

FRANK  J.  GOODNOW,  Ph.D.,  LL.B., 

Professor  of  Administrative  Law  in  Co- 
lumbia University. 

Administrative  Law. 

RICHARD  J.  H.  GOTTHEIL,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  the  (Semitic  Languages  in  Co- 
lumbia University;  Head  of  the  Oriental 
Department  of  the  New  York  Public  Li- 
brary. 

Jews,  and  Topics  in  Arabic  Histoby  and  Lit- 
erature. 

LOUIS  H.  GRAY,  Ph.D., 

Associate  Kditor  of  the  Orientalische 
liibliographie. 

Departments  of  ETTiioLOGY  and  Modern  His- 
tory OF  India. 


XVll 

S.  J.  J.  IIAUGER, 


A.  W.  GREELY.  Ph.D.. 

Brigadier-General,     Chief 
United  States  Armv. 


Signal     Officer, 

Polar  Research. 

JULIUS  N.  GREENSTONE,  RABBI, 

Yiddish. 

WILLIAM  ELLIOT  ORIFFIS,  D.D.,  L.H.D., 

Formerly  Professor  of  Physics  in  the  Im- 
perial University,  Tokio,  .Japan. 

Topics  in  Chinese  and  Japanese  Literatures. 


EDUARD  R.  GUDEHUS, 


W.  B.  GUITTEAU, 


Philadelphia. 


Topics  in  Social  Science. 

WILLIAM  BUCK  GUTHRIE, 

Illegitimacy. 

JAMES  E.  HAGERTY, 

Assistant     Professor     of     Economics     and 
Sociology  in  the  Ohio  State  University. 
Profit-Sharing  and  Otiiek  Ahticles. 

ROBERT  WILLIAM  HALL,  A.M., 

Professor  of  Analytical  Chemistry  in  New 
York  University. 

Chemical  Analysis. 

WILLIAM  HALLOCK,  Ph.D.. 

Professor  of  Physics  in  Columbia  Uni- 
versity. 

Topics  in  Physics. 

J.  TAYLOR  HAMILTON,  D.D., 

Resident  Professor  in  the  Moravian  Col- 
lege and  Theological  Seminary.  Beth- 
lehem, Pa. 

Moravians. 

A.  D.  F.  HAMLIN,  AM.. 

Adjunct  Professor  of  Architecture  in  Co- 
luyihia    L^nivcrsity. 

Topics  in  Art  and  Architecture. 

HANS  OLAF  HANSON, 

Topics  in  Gazetteer. 


HORSESUOEINa. 


E.  W.  HASSLER, 

Pittsburg   (Section  on  History). 

PAUL  LELAND  HAWORTH,  A.M., 

Topics  in  United  States  History. 

GEORGE  HENRY  HAYNES.  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  History  in  the  Worcester 
Polytechnic   Institute. 

Republican  Party. 

RODNEY  MULFORD  HEGGIE,  AM.. 

American  Cities. 

ANGELO  HEILPRIN, 

Formerly  Professor  of  Geology  in  the 
Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Philadel- 
phia; President  of  the  Geographical  So- 
ciety, Philadelphia. 

Volcano,    JIartiniqie,    Iceberg,    and    Other 
Articles. 

ERNEST  NORTON  HENDERSON,  A.M., 

Formerly  Instructor  in  Psychology  and 
History  of  Education  in  the  California 
State  Normal  School. 

Systems  of  National  Education. 


WILLIAM  JAMES  HENDERSON,  A.M., 


STUART  HENRY,  A.M., 


Singing. 


Topics  in  Gazetteer. 


DANIEL  WEBSTER  HERING.  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  Physics  and  Applied  Me- 
chanics in  New  York  University. 

Energetics. 

WALTER  LOWRIE  HERVEY.  Ph.D.. 

Formerly  President  of  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  University;  Examiner  for  the 
Board  of  Education,  New  York. 

Pedagogy. 

CHARLES  SITATTUCK  HILL,  C.E., 

Associate  Editor  of  the  Ewjineering  News. 

Departments   of   Engineering   and   Manufac- 
tures. 

.JOHN  HITZ, 

.Superintendent  of  the  Volta  Bureau. 

Visible  Speech. 

UILLIAil  IIKRBERT  ITOBBS,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  Mineralogy  and  Petrology  in 
the  University  of  Wisconsin;  A.ssistant 
Geologist  of  tiie  United  States  Geological 
Survey. 

Departments  of  Dynamic  Geology  and  Petrog- 
raphy. 

.JACOB  H.  HOLLANDER,  Ph.D.. 

Associate  Professor  of  Political  Economy 
in  Johns  Hopkins  University. 

Baltimore. 

CHARLES  ARTHTTl  HOLLICK,  Ph.D., 

Curator  of  the  Department  of  Fossil  Bot- 
any at  the  New  York  Botanical  Gardens. 
Paleobotany. 


XVlll 


EDWARD  W.   HOPKINS,  Ph.D.,  IX.D., 

Professor  of  Sanskrit  and  Comparative 
Philology  in  Yale  University. 

Topics  in  Comparative  Religion  and  Philologt. 

WILLIA:\r  TEMPLE  HORNADAY, 

Director  of  the  New  York  Zoological  Park. 

ZOOLOGICAX    GaBDENS. 

WALTER  HOrGH.  Ph.D., 

Assistant  Curator  of  Anthropology  in  the 
United  States  National  Museum. 

Topics  in  Anthbopology. 

GEORGE   ELLIOT  HOWARD,   Ph.D., 

Formerly  Head  of  the   Historical   Depart- 
ment in  Leland  Stanford.  .Jr.,  University. 
Department  of  Modebn  English  History  and 

BlOGEAPHT. 

Assisted  by 
George   Willis    Botsfobd,   Ph.D.;    George 
ICriehn,  Ph.D.;  Guernsey  Jones,  Ph.D.; 
.      and  Prof.  Howard  W.  Caldwell. 

LELAND  OSSIAN  HOWARD,   Ph.D., 

Chief,  Division  of  Entomology,  U.  S. 
Department    of    Agriculture. 

Topics  in  Entomology. 

PHILIP  E.  HOWARD, 

Publi-sher  of  the  Sunday  School  Times. 

Sunday  School. 

W.  H.  HOWELL,  Ph.D..  jSI.D.,  LL.D.. 

Professor  of  Physiology  and  Dean  of  the 
Medical  School  in  Johns  Hopkins  Univer- 
sity. 

Physiology. 

PHILIP  G.  HUBERT,  Jr., 

Author  of  The  Stage  as  a  Career. 

Theatre;  Stage. 


A.  V.  W.  JACKSON.  L.H.D.,  Ph.D., 

Professor   of    Indo-Iranian    Languages   in 
Columbia  University. 
Department  of  IndchIranian  Literature. 


J.  JACKSON, 


JAMES  R.  HUGHES, 


Scbanton. 


JAMES  G.  HUNEKER, 

Formerly  Music  Critic  of  the  New  York 
Sun. 

Music,  Opera,  and  Other  Articles. 

EDWARD  HU'NTER, 

Colonel,    Judge   Advocate,    United    States 
Army. 

^Military  Law. 

JAMES  HERVEY  HYSLOP,  Ph.D., 

Formerly  Professor   of  Logic   and  Ethics 
in  Columbia  University. 

Herbert  Spencer  ;  Spiritualism. 


JOHN  WILLIAM  IHLDER, 

GEORGE  ILES, 


Biography. 


Thomas  Henby  Huxley. 


Woecesteb. 


ERNEST  INGERSOLL, 


Office  Editor,  ZoSlogy. 


LAilBERT  L.  JACKSON,  A.M., 

Head  of  the  JIathematical  Department  in 

the  State  Normal  School,  Brockport,  N.  Y. 

Topics  in  Mathematics. 

S.  M.  JACKSON,  D.D.,  LL.D., 

Professor  of  Church  History  in  New  York 
University. 

Editor,  Protestant  Theology;  Religious  Biog- 
raphy. 

MELANCHTHON  W.  JACOBUS,  D.D., 

Hosmer  Professor  of  New  Testament 
Exegesis  and  Criticism  in  the  Hartford 
Theological  Seminary. 

Department  of  New  Testament  History  and 
Exegesis. 

HAROLD  JACOBY',  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  Astronomy  in  Columbia  Uni- 
versity. 

Department  of  Astronomy. 

EDGAR  .JADWIN.  A.M., 

Captain  in  the  Corps  of  Engineers,  United 
States  Army. 

Military  Engineeeing. 

JOSEPH  JASTROW,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  Psychology  in  the  University 
of  Wisconsin. 

Psychical  Research. 

MORRIS  JASTROW,  Jr.,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  the  Semitic  Languages  and 
Librarian  in  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. 

Department  of  Semitic  Archeology. 

JEREIMIAH  WHIPPLE  JENKS,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  Political  Economy  and  Poli- 
tics in  Cornell  L^niversity. 

Trusts. 

JUDAH  ACHILLES  JOFFE, 
Department  of  Slavic  Languages  and  Liteba- 
tures. 

ALVIN  SYDNEY  JOHNSON,  Ph.D., 

Office  Editor,  Political  Economy. 

JOSEPH  FRENCH  JOHNSON, 

Professor  of  Economics  and  Finance  in 
New  Y'ork  University. 

Topics  in  Economics. 

J.  NORTON  JOHNSON,  Ph.D., 
Office    Editor,     Philology,    and    Classic.*.l. 
Slavic,  and  Oriental  Literatures. 

CHRISTOPHER  .JOHNSTON,  Ph.D., 

Associate  Professor  of  Orienta>  History 
and  Archa;oIogy  in  Johns  Hopkins  Uni- 
versity. 

Depabtment  of  Egtptoix)QY. 


XIX 


R.  M.  JOHNSTON, 


Savonarola. 


DAVID  STARR  JORDAN,  Pn.D., 

President  Lcland  ^^tanford,  Jr.,  University. 

Salmon. 


\V.  H.  LAKRABEE,  D.D., 

Department  Editor  of  the  Christian  Ad- 
vocate, 

Minor  Religious  Denominations. 


ALFRED  O.  LEE,  M.D., 


Medicine. 


JOHN  W.  JOYES, 

Captain    in    the    Ordnance    Department, 
United  States  Army. 

Ordnance. 


MALTRIOE  G.  KAINS,  M.S.A., 

Formerly   t>pecial   Crop   Culturist    in   the 
United  States  Dei)artment  of  Af;rioulture. 

Office    Editor,    Horticllture ;    Agriculture; 

BOTA.NY. 

JOHN  DANIEL  KAPS, 

Assistant  in  Phniding  and  Practice  in  the 
School  of  Law,  Columbia  University. 

Topics  i.n  Law. 

WILLTAJI  BERESFORD  K.\VANAGH, 
Modern  Armies,  ^Military  Science,  and  Sports. 

CARL  KELSEY, 

Fellow  in  Sociology  in  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania. 

Topics  in  Social  Science. 

JAMES  FLTIMAN  KE:MP.  :M.K.. 

Professor   of    Geology    in    Columbia    Uni- 
versity. 

AniRONDACKS. 

CHARLES  FOSTER  KENT,  Ph.D.. 

Woolsey   Professor  of  Biblical   Literature 
in  Yale  University. 

Bible. 


CHARLES  LEONARD-STUART, 

British  Gazetteer  and  English  History. 

H.  LEWIS,  D.D., 

Editor  of  the  American  ifessenrier. 

Tract  Societies. 

WARREN  HARMON  LEWIS,  M.D.. 

Instructor  of  Anatomy  in  Johns  Hopkins 
University. 

Human  Embryology. 

WALTER  LICHTENSTEIN,  A.JI., 

Medieval  History. 

ROBERT  LILLEY,  D.C.L.. 

Topics  in  Chinese  and  Japanese  History  and 
Literature. 

SAMUEL  McCl'NE  LINDSAY'.  Ph.D.. 

United  States  Commissioner  of  Education 
in  Porto  Rico. 

Topics  in  Social  Science. 

BURTON  E.  LIVINGSTON.  Ph.D., 

Instructor  in  Plant  Physiology  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago. 

Topics  in  Botany. 


EDWARD  A.  KIMBALL, 


Christian   Science. 


GEORGE  W.  KIRCHWEY, 

Nash   Professor  of   Law  and   Dean   of  the 
School  of  Law  in  Columbia  University. 

Department  of'Law. 

GEORGE  WILLIAM  KNOX.  D.D.. 

Professor    of    Philosophy    and    History    of 
Religion  in  Union  Theological  Seminary. 

Japanese     Language     and     LiTERATtmE     and 
Oriental  Articles. 

GUSTAV  KOBBE.  A.il.. 

^lusic  Critic  of  the  Sew  York  Herald. 

Topics  in  Musical  Biography. 

GEORGE  KRIEHN,  Ph.D., 

Formerly  Assistant  Professor  of  .\rt  His- 
tory in  Leland  Stanford.  Jr.,  University. 

History  and  Theory  of  Art. 

C.  F.  LANGWORTHY,  Ph.D., 

Associate   Editor  of  the   Experiment    .S/a- 
tion  Record,  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture. 
Topics  Concerning  Foods  and  Feeding  Stuffs. 


FRANCIS  E.  LLOYD,  M.A., 
I'rofessor  of  Biologj', 
Columbia  University. 


Teachers    College, 
LiNN.SIUS. 


MORRIS  LOEB,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  Chemistry  in  New  Y''ork  Uni- 
versity. 

Coal-Tar  Colors  ;  Periodic  Law. 

HERBERT  GARDINER  LORD,  A.M., 

Professor  of  Philosophy  in  Columbia  Uni- 
versity. 

Schopenhauer. 

H.  M.  LYDENBERG. 

New  York  Public  Library. 

FREDERICK  AUGUSTUS  LUCAS, 

Curator  of  the  Division  of  Comparative 
Anatomy  at  the  United  States  National 
Museum. 

Flight;  Museum. 

LEROY  S.  LYON, 

Captain  in  the  Artillery  Corps,  United 
States  Army. 

Military  Signaling  and  Telegraphing;  Artil- 
lery. 

HAMILTON  WRIGHT  MABIE,   A,U.,  L.H.D., 
LL.D., 

Editor  of  the  Outlook. 

PoE  and  Other  Topics  in  Literature. 

WALTER  FI>AVIUS  McCALEB,  Ph.D., 

Office  Editor,  Gazetteer. 


XX 


JOHN  JAilES  ilcCOOK,  .    rr  ■  ■^. 

Professor  of  Jlodern  Languages  in  innity 

KELSON  GLENN  McCREA.  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  Latin  in  Columbia  University. 
Horace.  Epic  Poetry,  and  Other  Articles. 


E.  L.  Mcdonald, 


Saint  Joseph. 


W  J  lIcGEE.  LL.D., 

President  of  the  American  Anthropological 
Association:  Ethnologist  in  charge  of  Hi- 
Bureau  of  American  Ethnology  at  the 
Smithsonian  Institution. 

Departments  of  Anthropologt  and  Ethnology. 

EVANDER  B.  McGILVARY,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  iloral  Philosophy  m  Cornell 

University.  _ 

Department  of  Philosophy. 

J.  H.  ilcGREGOR, 


ROYAL  MEEKER, 

Tammany    Hall;     Merit     System;     Shipping 
Subsidies. 

CHARLES  EDWARD  MERRIAM,  Ph.D., 

Instructor  of  Political  Science  in  the  Uni- 
versitv  of  Chicago. 

So\'ereigiity  ;  State. 

ELMER  TRUESDELL  MERRILL, 

Robert  Rich  Professor  of  the  Latin  Lan- 
guage and  Literature  in  Wesleyan  Uni- 
versity. 

Topics   Relating  to   Roman   Topography  and 
Numismatics. 

ADOLPH  MEYER,  M.D.,  LL.D., 

Director  of  the  Pathological  Institute  of 
the  New  York  State  Hospitals  for  the 
Insane. 

Pathology. 


Topics  in  Paleontology. 

JE  \N  NEWTON  McILWRAITH, 

Biography. 

CHARLES  HOLBROOK  MANN,  A.M., 

General  Secretary  of  the  New  Church 
Educational  Association;  Editor  of  the 
Swedenborg  Monthly. 

Swedenborg  ;  Swedenboegians. 


DANIEL  LONG  MILLER, 

Bishop  in  the  German  Baptist  Brethren 
Church,  and  President  of  the  National 
Missionary  Society  of  the  German  Bap- 
tist Brethren  Church. 

German  Baptist  Brethren. 


J.  A.  MONTGOMERY, 
Nebuchadnezzab,     and     Other 
Semitic  Arch.eology. 


Articles     in 


F.  E.  MASON. 


Mental  Science. 


OTIS  TUFTON  :SL\SON,  Pn  D.,  LL.D., 

Curator  of  the  Division  of  Ethnology  m 
the  United  States  National  Jluseum ;  Pro- 
fessor of  Anthropology  in  Columbian  Uni- 

versitv. 

Topics  in  Anthropology. 

WILLlAil  DILLER  MATTHEW,  Ph.D., 

Associate  Curator  of  Vertebrate  Pale- 
ontology in  the  American  Museum  of 
Natural  History. 

Fossil  Hobse. 

\LBERT  JL\TTHEWS, 

National    Nicknajies;     Popular    Names    op 
States. 

CHARLES  HENRY  MAY,  M.D., 

Cliief  of  Clinic  and  Instructor  in  Oph- 
thalmology in  the  College  of  Physicians 
and  Surgeons,  New  York. 

Vision. 

DAVID  WILLI Alil  MAY.  M.S., 

Assistant  in  the  Office  of  Experiment  Sta- 
tions, United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture. 

Topics  Relating  to  Field  Crops. 

CHARLES  W.  MEAD, 

Department  of  Archeology,  Museum  of 
Natural  History,  New  York. 

Perih'ian  Antiquities. 

ElvnLY  FOGG  MEADE, 

Consumers'  League  and  Other  .Articles. 


PAUL  MONROE,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  the  History  of  Education  in 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 

Department  of  Education. 

JAMES  MOONEY. 

Ethnologist   in   the   Bureau   of   American 
Ethnology. 

American  Indians. 

CLIFFORD  HERSCHEL  MOORE,  Ph.D.. 

Assistant   Professor  of   Greek  and   Latin   in 
Harvard  L^niversity. 
Department  op  Greek  History  and  Philology. 


HENRY  FRANK  MOORE,  Ph.D., 
Scientific    Assistant,     U.     S. 
mission. 


Fish    Com- 


Oysteb. 


WILLIAM  A.  MOORE,  M.A., 
Navigation    Laws;    Monroe     Doctrine;     and 
Other  Articles  in  Law. 

W.  MOREY, 

Map. 

LEWIS  F.  MOTT,  Ph.D., 

Professor   of   the   English   Language   and 
Literature  in  the  College  of  the  City  of 
New  York. 
Provencal  Literature  and  Otheb  Abticles. 

W.  MAX  MULLER.  Ph.D.,     . 

Professor  of  Egyptian  Areha:ology  and 
Africanistics  in  the  Reformed  Episcopal 
Seminary,  Philadelphia. 

Topics  in  Egyptology. 


XXI 


DANA  CARLETON  MITNRO,  A.M., 

I'roffssor    of    Euiopcaii     History    in    the 

University  of  Wisconsin. 
Departments  of  E.\rly  English  Histobtt  and 

MeW.KVAL  II  I.STORY. 

CHARLES  EDWARD  MUNROE,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  Chemistry  and  Senior  Dean 
in  Columbian  liiiversity. 

GUNCOTTON  ;    PyBOTECHNY. 

EHRMAN  SYME  NADAL, 

Formerly  Secretary  to  the  United  States 
Enihas.sy  at  the  Court  of  Saint  .James. 

Clubs. 

CHARLES  ALEX.\NDER  NEt^SOX,  A.M. 

Dejiuty  and  Reference  Librarian  Columbia 
University. 

Index  and  Part  of  Libraries. 

\V1LLL\.M  WELLS  NEWELL,  D.D., 

Secretary  of  the  American  Folk-Lore 
Society. 

Superstition. 

DAVID  HALE  NEWLAND, 

Formerly  .\ssistant  in  the  New  York  State 

Geological  Survey. 
Office  Editor,  Geology;  Physical  Geography. 

JI.  H.  NORTHRUP, 

Syracuse. 

EDWARD  EVERETT  NOITRSE,  S.T.D., 

Associate  Professor  of  ISililical  Theology 
in  Hartford  Theological  Seminary. 

Topics     in     New     Testament     History     and 
exegesi.s. 

ALEXANDER  DANA  NOYES,  A.M., 

Financial  Editor.  New  York  Evcninq  Post. 
Stock  Exchange;  Trust  Company. 

THADDEUS  K.  OGLESBY. 

Formerly  Secretary  to  Alexander  rl. 
Stephens,  Vice-President  of  the  Confed- 
erate States  of  America. 

Alexander  H.  Stephens. 

GEORGE  N.  OLCOTT.  Ph.D.. 

Lecturer  in  Roman  Archsology  in  Colum- 
bia University. 

Numismatics;    Departments   of   Roman    His- 
tory^  and  Latin  Philology. 

ALPHEUS  SPRING  PACKARD,  LL.D., 

Professor  of  Zoiilogj'  and  Geologj'  in 
Brown  University. 

Evolution.  Cave  Animals,  and  Other  Topics 
IN   Biology. 

FRANCIS  R.  PACKARD,  M.D., 

Professor  of  Diseases  of  the  Ear,  Phila- 
deljiliia  Collejre  Clinic:  .Aurist  of  the  Out- 
Patient  Department  of  the  Pennsylvania 
llii>i]iital :  Kilitnr  of  the  .imerican  Jour- 
iKil  of  the  Medical  Sciences. 

Medical  Education. 

JAMES  PAGE. 

Editor  of  (he  Pilot  Charts.  X"nited  States 
Hyda'ographic  OfficCj  \\'ashington,  D.  C. 

Ocean  Currents. 

CONDfe  B.  FALLEN,  Ph.D.,  LL.D., 
Editor  of  Articles  Relating  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church. 


M.  V.  PAPAZIANTZ, 

Etchiuadzin. 

.lAMES  MORTON  PATON,  Ph.D., 

Associate  Professor  of  Greek  in  Wcsleyan 
University. 

Departments   of   Greek   and   Roman    Archae- 
ology'. 

DANIEL  LAWRENCE  PEACOCK.  A.M.. 

United  States  Gazetteer. 


HAROLD  W.  PEKCIVAL, 


TlIEOSOPHT. 


LEWIS  FREDERICK  PILCHER, 

Professor  of  Art  in  Vassar  College. 

Topics  in  Art. 

JOHN  WINTHROP  PLATNER,  D.D., 

Professor  of  Church  History  in  Andover 
Theological   Seminary. 

Department  of  Historical  Theology. 

FRANK  CHAMBERLIN  PORTER.  D.D..  Ph.D., 
Professor  in  the  Yale  Divinity  School. 

Revelation  of  .Saint  John. 

JAjMES  W.  POWELL, 

Colonel  of  Infantry,  United  States  Army 
(retired). 

Infantry. 

FREDERICK  D.  POWER,  LL.D., 

Pastor  of  the  Vermont  Avenue  Christian 
Church,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Disciples. 

THOMAS  W.  PROSCH, 

Seattle. 

MICHAEL  IDVORSKY  PUPIN.  Ph.D.. 

Professor  of  Electro-Mechanics  in  Colum- 
bia  University. 
Transmission  of  Power  by  Electricity. 

GEORGE   HAVEN  PUTNAM,  A.M.,  Litt.D., 

Formerly  Secretary  of  the  American  Copy- 
right League. 
Book;  Bookselling;  Liter^vrt  Property. 

HERBERT  PUTNAM, 

Librarian  of  Congress. 

Library  of  Congress. 

HENRY  FIELDING  RETD, 

Associate  Professor  of  Geological  Physics 
in  .Johns  Hopkins  University. 

Glacier. 

PAUL   SAMUEL   REINSCH.   Ph.D., 

Professor  of  Political  Science  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Wisconsin. 

Political  Science. 

ALFRED  REilY. 

Professor  of  Harmony  and  Counterpoint 
in  the  International  Conservatory  of 
^hisic,  New  York:  Lecturer  on  the  His- 
tory of  Music  in  the  New  York  College 
of  Music. 

Department  of  Music. 

CHARLES  RUSSELL  RICHARDS. 

Formerly  Professor  of  Manual  Training  in 
Pratt  Institute:  Professor  of  Manual 
Training  in  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
LTniversity. 

Manual  Trainino. 


Saint  Paul. 


xxu 

HEINKICH  RIES,  Ph.D.,  .    ^    ,  ^  .     ^^^^,,  ^-  ^-  ^^^'^^^^^ 
Professor  of  Economic  Geology  m  CorneU 

University;     Expert     Specml     Ag^nt     °"  ALBERT   SCHINZ,   Ph.D.,                         . 

Clay    for    the    United    States    Geological  professor   of   French   Literature   m   Bryn 

Survey.                                                ^„„„„.„  Mawr  College. 

Depabtment  of  Geology.  French  Language  and  Literature. 

RALPH   CURTIS  RINGWALT,             „,„„,;.  NATHANIEL  SCHMIDT,  A.M., 

Lecturer  in  Public  Speaking  in  Columbia  Professor  of  Semitic  Languages  and  Lit- 

University.                                            -o^.^^n  eratures  in  Cmiiell  University. 

-Q^^mna.  Topics  in   Semitic   Abch^oloqy. 


Reading. 


,    „    T^  JOHN  IGNACE  SCHULTE,                          _ 

FRED  NORRIS  ROBINSON    Ph.D.,  .  Ejitor  and  Expert  on  Field  Crops  in  the 

Assistant  Professor  of  English  in  Harvard  ^^^^    ^^     Experiment     Stations,     tnited 

University.                                    T.^^•.^T,rRv  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Department  of  Celtic  Literature.  f-       -                     -^---  ■ 


Topics  Relating  to  Field  Crops. 


L    M.  ROBINSON,  A.M.,                            in^ti^il  C.  P.  G.   SCOTT,  Ph.D.,- 

Professor   of  Liturgies  and  Ecclesiastical  Etvmologieal  Editor  of  the  Cenlunj  Dic- 

Polity  in  the  Philadelphia  C'Vinity  School.  ^^ 

Liturgies.  -^   ygj^^pt^jj.  VNn-ERSAL  Language. 


W.  W.  ROCHE,  ^^^^^^ 

THEOPHILUS  F.  I^O^^J^^OUGH  . 

Brevet    Brigadier-General,    Lnited    states 
Army    (retired). 

Department  of  Military  Science. 

JOHN  CAREW  ROLFE, 

Professor  of  the  Latin  Language  and  Lit- 
erature in  the  University  of  P™"^^^^;!^; 

WILLmi   JAMES   ROLFE,   L--^^^^^^^,. 

^ARAH  TYSON  RORER,  „     ,  . 

Principal    of    the    Philadelphia    Cooking 

S<=''"°1-  Cookery. 

MARTIN  A.  ROSANOFF, 

Formerly  on  the  Staff  of  Wurtz's  Dictton- 
naire  de  Chimie,  Paris.  r,^„r^v 

Department   of   General   Chemistry;    Office 
Editor,  Exact  Science. 

WORTH  G\^TNN  ROSS, 

Captain  in  the  United  States  Revenue 
Cutter  Service  and  late  Assistant  Inspec- 
tor of  United  States  Life-Saving  Stations. 

LIFE-SAVING  Serwce;  United  States  Revenue 
Cutter  Service. 

ISRAEL  C.  RUSSELL,  LL.D.,  " 

Professor  of  Geology  in  the  University  of 

Michigan. 

Rocky  Mountains. 


J.  W.  RUSSELL, 


Topics  in  Biography. 


EDWIN  RYALS, 

Savannah. 

ALBERT  ROBBINS  SABIN,  A.M., 

Professor  of  Audubon  Scliool,  Chicago. 

Chicago. 

MARSHALL  HOWARD  SAVILI.E,  . 

Professor  of  American  Archa'ology  in  Co- 
lumbia   University;     Curator    of    Mexican 
and  Central  American  Archaeology  in  the 
American  Museum  of  Natural  History. 
Archeology  and  Peoples  of  Mexico. 


FRED  NEWTON   SCOTT,   Ph.D.,  . 

Professor   of    Rhetoric   in   the   University 
of  Michigan.  „ 

Rhetoric  ;  Figures  of  Rhetoric. 

JAMES  B.  SCOTT,  J.U.D.,    ,      , .     ^,  .        ., 

Professor  of  Law  in  Columbia  University. 
International  Law;   War,  Laws  and  Usages 

OF. 

HENTIY  R.  SEAGER,  Ph.D., 

Adjunct   Professor   of   Political   Economy 

in  Columbia  University. 

Free  Tk.-uie  ;  Protection  ;  Tariff,  etc. 

LOUIS  L.  SEAIMAN,  >LD.,  LLB., 

Major,     and     formerly     Surgeon,     United 
States  Volimteers. 

Military  Surgery. 

JOSEPH  HAMBLEN  SEARS, 

Physical  Culture. 

LORENZO  SEARS,  A.M.,  , .,      , 

Professor     of     American     Literature     in 

Brown  University. 

Oratory. 

.T   B.  SEGALL,  Pn.D..  . 

Professor  of  Romance  Languages,  L  niver- 
sitv  of  Maine. 

'Rumanian  Language  and  Literature. 

THOMAS   JOSEPH   SHAHAN,   D.D., 

Professor  of  Church  History  and  Patrol- 
og>-  and  Lecturer  on  Roman  Law  in  the 
cTitholic  University  of  America. 

Roman  Catholic  Missions;  Roman  Catholic 
Church. 

CHARLES  C.  SHER]\IAN, 

Office   Editor,   Biblical  Criticism   and    ihe- 
ology. 


JA]\IES  A.  SHIPTON, 

Captain    in   the   Artillery   Corps,    United 

States  Army.  „ 

Artillery;  Ballistics. 

PAUL  SHOREY,  Ph.D.,  . 

Professor  of  Greek  in  the  University  of 

Chicago.  

Topics  in  Greek  Literature. 


XXIU 


D.  B.  SHI'MWAY,  Pii.  D.   (Odtt.), 

Professor  of  Germanic  Languages  and 
LitiTutuies  in  the  Lnivcisily  ul  I'ennsyl- 
vimia. 

Plattdeutsoh  ;  Dutch. 

FRANCIS  P.  SrEGFRIED, 

ProtVssur  of  I'liilosuphy  in  Saint  Charles 
Seminary,  Overl)rook,  Pa. 
SciioLiVSTicisM ;  Theological  Education. 


MARCUS  SIMPSON,  Ph.D., 


Saga. 


BEN.JAilTX  KLI  SMITH.  L.H.D,. 

Editor    of    the    Century    Cyclopadia    of 
Names. 

Encyclop^dla. 

CLAKENX'E  BE.UIAX  SMITH.  M.S., 

Editor  and  K.xpert  on  Horticulture  in  the 

Office     of     Ex])erinicnt     Stations     in     the 

United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Topics  in  Hokticiltuke. 

n.\.VlD  EUGENE  SMITH,  Ph.D., 

Professor    of    Mathematics     in    Teachers 
College,   Columbia   University. 

DeI'AHTMEXT    of    ilATHEMATICS. 

EDWARD   K.   SMITH,   A.M., 

Librarian  of  the  .\very  Architectural  Li- 
brary,  Columbia   University. 

ScuLPTUBE,  Section  Modekn  Sculpture. 

MUXROE  SMITH,  .T.U.D.. 

Professor  of  Roman  Law  and  Comparative 
Jurisprudence  in   Columbia    University. 
Topics  in  European  Law. 

WILLIA:M  ROY  SMITH. 

Associate  in  History  in  Bryn  Mawr  Col- 
lege. 

Persian  History. 

J.  R.  SPEARS, 

Yacht  and  Y'achting. 

FRED  .JOHN  SPLITSTONE, 


SAMUEL  WESLEY  STRATTON, 

Director,   National   Bureau   of   Standards. 
Weights  and  Measures. 

SIMEON  STRUNSKY, 

Office  Editor,  Histobt. 

JOSEPH  STRUTHERS,  Ph.D., 

Associate  Editor  of  the  Engineering  and 
Mining  Journal. 

Silver  Ores;   Soda. 

RUSSELL  STURGIS,  Ph.D., 

Arfhitect :    Editor    and    Chief    .\uthnr    of 
The  Dictionary  of  Architecture  and  Build- 
ing. 
Topics  in  Decobative  and  Industbiai,  Art. 

tho:nl\s  g.  taaffe,  ph.d.. 

Topics  in  Fraternal  Societies. 

RALPH   STOCKMAN  TARR, 

Professor  of  Dynamic  Geology  and  Phys- 
ical Geography' in  Cornell  University. 

Ru'EB;   Physiography. 

CHARLES  ANDRUS  TAYLOR, 

Topics  in  Gazetteee. 

FRANCIS  HORACE  TEALL, 

Punctuation  ;  Proof-Readinq. 


J.  K.  STOUT, 


Pittsburg. 


Topics  in  Patriotic  Societies. 


JOHN  BOYD  THACHER, 


Autogbaphs. 


CHAUNCEY  CLARK  STARKWEATHER. 

Sangali.0. 

ALFRED  R.  STARR,  ISI.D.,  D.D.S.. 

Professor  of  Operative  Dentistry  and 
Dental  Tlierapeutics  in  the  New  York 
College  of  Dentistry. 

Dentistry. 

REGINALD  H.  STARR,  D.D.. 

Formerly  Professor  of  Dogmatic  Theology 
in  the  University  of  the  South. 

Topics  in  Theology. 

EDWIN  A.  START,  A.l^I.. 

Formerly    Head    of    the    Department    of 
History  in  Tufts  College. 
Department  of  Modern  European  History. 

HARLAN  F.  STONE.  Ph.D.,  LL.B., 

Lecturer  in  Law  in  Colundda  University. 
Topics  in  Law. 


ALLAN  CLAPP  THOJLVS,  A.M.. 

Professor    of    History    and    Librarian    in 
Haverford  College. 

Friends. 

CALVIN  THOMAS,  A.M., 

Professor    of    Germanic    Languages    and 
Literatures  in  Columbia  University. 

Swedish  Language  and  Literature. 

CHARLES  L.  THOMPSON.  D.D., 

Secretary   of   the    Presbyterian   Board   of 
Home  Missions. 

Presbyterians. 

HOLLAND  THOMPSON,   A.M.. 

Instructor  in  History  in  the  College  of  the 
City  of  New   York. 

Biography. 

RALPH  S.  THOMPSON, 


Mi'SIC     AND     BlOGEAPHY. 

CHARLES  COMFORT  TIFFANY,  D  D.. 
Formerly  ,\rchdeacon  of  New  York. 

Protestant  Episcopal  Church. 

ROGER  EDIMITSTD  TILESTONE, 

Papeb. 

EDWARD  B.  TITCHENER,  Ph.D.,  F.Z.S., 

Sage  Professor  of  Psychology  and  Director 
of  the  Psychological  Laboratory  in  Cor- 
nell University. 

Df.partment  of  Psychology. 

CHARLES  HASKINS  TOWNSEND, 

Director  of  the  New  York  .Aquarinm. 

Deep-Sea   Exploration. 

N.  M.  TRENHOLME.  Ph.D., 

Instructor  in  Historv  in  the  Pennsylvania 
State  College. 

Topics  in  Modern  European  History. 


XXIV 


WILLIAM  PETERFIELD  TRENT,   LL.D., 

Professor    of    English    Literature    in    Co- 
lumbia University. 
Department   of   American   Literature. 

CHARLES  QUINCY  TURNER, 

Formerly  Managing  Editor  of  Outing. 

Topics  Relating   to  Sports. 

ALFRED  CHARLES  TRUE,   Ph.D., 

Director  of  the  Office  of  Experiment  Sta- 
tions in  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture. 

Departments   of  Agriculture   and   Horticul- 
ture. 

LEWIS  SAYRE  VAN  DtTZER, 

Lieutenant-Commander  in  the  United 
States  Navy,  Secretary  of  the  United 
States  Naval  Institute. 

Department   of  Naval   Science. 

GILBERT  VAN  INGEN, 

Special  Assistant  Paleontologist  for  the 
New  York  State  JIuseum,  and  Consulting 
Geologist  to  the  Office  of  the  State  Engi- 
neer, Albany. 

Dep.\rtment  of  Paleontology. 

HHNRT  CLAY  VEDDEIl,  D.D., 

Professor  of  Churoli  History  in  the  Crozier 
Theological  Seminary. 

Baptists. 

0.  W.  A.  VEDITZ,  Ph.D..  LL.B., 

Professor  of  Sociology  in  Bates  College. 

CRiMixoLooy,  AND  Otiier  Articles. 

LOUIS  VON  ELTZ, 

Formerly  Instructor  in  French  in  Yale 
University. 

Art  AND  Biography. 

HERHL^N  T.  VULTE,  Ph.D., 

Instructor  in  Chemistry  in  Columbia  Uni- 
versity and  Lecturer  on  Domestic  Science 
in  Teachers  College. 

Oils. 

HERBERT  TREADWELL  WADE. 
Office    Editor,    Physics,     Engineering,    and 
Manufactures. 

WILLISTON  WALKER,  Ph.D.,  D.D., 

Professor  of  Church  History  in  Yale  Uni- 
versity. 

Congregationalism. 

JAMES  J.  WALSH,  M.D.,  Ph.D..  LL.D., 

Lecturer  at  the  Champlain  Assembly  Sum- 
mer School  and  at  the  Western  Catholic 
Chautauqua. 

Topics  in   Church  History. 

RICHARD  WEBSTER, 

Biography. 

BENJAMIN   WILLIS   WELLS,   Ph.D., 

Late   Professor   of  Modern   Languages   in 

the  Univeisity  of  the  South. 

Department  of  Continental  Literature. 
MAX  WEST,  Ph.D., 

Pooling. 
CHARLES  C.  WHINERY,  A.M., 
Biography';  Office  Editor,  American  History. 
GUY   MONTROSE  WHIPPLE,  Ph.D., 

Cornell  University. 

Subliminal  Consciousness. 


HERBERT  PERCY  WHITLOCK,  C.E., 

Assistant  in  the  New  York  State  Museum. 

Mineralogy. 

JAMES  MAURICE   WHITON,   Ph.D., 

Stair  Editor  of  the  Outlook. 

Luther;  Melanchthon. 

ARTHUR  F.  WHITTEM,  A.M., 

Austen  Teaching  Fellow  in  Romance  Lan- 
guages   in   Harvard    University. 

Versification,  Section  Romance  Versification. 

EARLEY  VERNON  WILCOX,  Ph.D., 

Associate  Editor  of  the  Experiment  Stw- 
Hon  Becord,  LTnited  States  Department 
of  Agriculture. 

Veterinary  Science. 

CHARLES  WILHELMS, 

Lithography. 

WALTER  FRANCIS  WILLCOX,   Ph.D., 

Professor  of  Political  Economy  and  Sta- 
tistics in  Cornell  University. 
Statistics  ;  Vital  Statistics  ;  and  Population. 

ALLAN  HERBERT  WILLETT,  Ph.D., 

Instructor  in  Political  Economy  in  Brown 
LTniversity. 

Topics  in  Insurance. 

FREDERICK  WELLS  WILLIAMS,  LL.D., 

Professor  of  Modern  Oriental  History  in 
Yale  University. 

Chinese  Language  and  Liteeatdbe. 

TALCOTT  WILLIAMS,  LL.D., 


Newspapers. 


HENRY  PARKER  WILLIS,  Ph.D., 

Reciprocity. 

ELIZABETH  WILSON,  M.A., 

Secretary  of  Training  Department,  Ameri- 
can Committee. 
Young  Women's  Christian  Associations. 

GEORGE  PARKER  WINSHIP,  A.M., 

Librarinn  of  the  Jolin  Carter  Brown  Li- 
brary, Providence.  R.  I. 

Departments     of     Discovery,     Colonization, 
History  of  North  and  South  America. 

.JOHN  P.  WISSER, 

Major  in  the  Artillery  Corps,  United 
States  Army ;  formerly  Assistant  Pro- 
fessor of  Chemistry,  Mineralogy,  and 
Geology  in  the  Lhiited  States  Military 
Academy;  formerly  Instructor  in  Jlili- 
tary  Science  in  the  United  States  Artillery 
Scliool ;  Editor  of  the  Journal  of  United 
HIdteK  Artillery. 

Army  Organization;  Coast  Defense;  Militaby 
Tactics. 

EDMUND  .JACOB  WOLF,  D.D., 

Professor  of  Church  History  and  New 
Testament  Exegesis  in  the  Gettysburg 
Theological  Seminary. 

Lutherans. 

GEORGE    E.    WOODBERRY,    A.M., 

Late  Professor  of  Comparative  Literature 
in  Columbia  University. 

Shelley. 


J.  P.  YOUNG, 


San  Francisco. 


KEY  TO  PRONUNCIATION. 


a 

a 
S 

a 


€1 

a 


e 
4 


1 

i 

i 
5 
5 
d 
6 
o 


oo 

on 

n 

ii 

u 

u 


y 


ch 


1  ale,  fate.    Also  see  S,  below. 

senate,  chaotic.     Also  see  e,  below. 

glare,  care. 

am,  at. 

arm,  father. 

ant,  and  linal  a  in  America,  armada, 
etc.  In  rapid  speech  this  vowel  read- 
ily becomes  more  or  Jess  obscured  and 
like  the  neutral  vowel  or  a  short 
u  (u). 

final,  regal,  where  it  is  of  a  neutral  or 
obsoure  quality. 

all,  fall.- 

eve. 

elate,  evade. 

end,  pet.  The  characters  e,  a,  and  i 
are  used  for  «  in  German,  as  in  Gart- 
ner, Grafc,  Hiihnel.  to  the  values  of 
which  they  are  the  nearest  English 
vowel  sounds.  The  sound  of  Swedish 
a  is  also  indicated'  by  c'. 

fern,  her,  and  as  i  in  sir.  Also  for  6, 
oc,  in  German,  as  in  Giithe,  Goethe, 
Ortel,  Oertel,  and  for  rii  and  oeii  in 
French,  as  in  Neufchfitel,  Cr&vecoeur; 
to  which  it  is  the  nearest  English 
vowel  soinid. 

agency,  judgment,  where  it  is  of  a  neu- 
tral or  obscure  quality. 

ice,  quiet. 

quiescent. 

ill,  fit. 

old,  sober. 

obey,  sobriety. 

orb,  nor. 

odd,  forest,  not. 

atom,  carol,  where  it  has  a  neutral  or 
obscure  quality. 

oil,  boil,  and  for  eu  in  German,  as  in 
I'cui'rbach. 

food,  fool,  and  as  u  in  rude,  rule. 

house,  mouse. 

use,  mule. 

unite. 

cut,  but. 

full,  put,  or  as  oo  in  foot,  book.  Also 
for  «  in  German,  as  in  Miinchen, 
Miiller,  and  u  in  French,  as  in 
Buchez,  Budfi;  to  which  it  is  the 
nearest  English  vowel  sound. 

urn,  burn. 

yet,  yield. 

the  Spanish  Habnna.  Cordoba,  where  it 
is  like  n  v  mode  with  the  lips  alone, 
instead  of  with  the  teeth  and  lips. 

chair,  cheese. 


u  as  in  the  Spanish  Almodovar,  pulgada,  where 
it  is  nearly  like  tk  in  English  then, 
this. 

g      "    "    go,  get. 

u  "  "  the  German  Landtag,  and  ch  in  Feuer- 
bach,  bucli ;  where  it  is  a  guttural 
sound  made  with  the  back  part  of  the 
tongue  raised  toward  the  soft  palate, 
as  in  the  sound  made  in  clearing  the 
throat. 

II  as  j  in  the  Spanish  .lijona,  g  in  the  Span- 
ish gila ;  where  it  is  a  fricative  some- 
what resembling  the  sound  of  h  in 
English  hue  or  y  in  yet,  but  stronger. 

hw  "   «'7(  in  which. 

K  "  ch  in  the  German  ich,  Albrecht,  and  g 
in  the  German  Arensberg,  Mecklen- 
burg; where  it  is  a  fricative  sound 
made  between  the  tongue  and  the 
hard  palate  toward  which  the  tongue 
is  raised.  It  resembles  the  sound 
of  h  in  hue.  or  y  in  yet;  or  the  sound 
made  by  beginning  to  pronounce  a  fc, 
but  not  completing  the  stoppage  of 
the  breath.  The  character  K  is  also 
used  to  indicate  the  rough  aspirates 
or  fricatives  of  some  of  the  Oriental 
languages,  as  of  kh  in  the  word  Khan. 

n     as  in  sinker,  longer. 

ng     "    "    sing.  long. 

N  "  "  tlie  French  bon.  Bourbon,  and  m  in  the 
French  Etainpes:  where  it  is  equiva- 
lent to  a  nasalizing  of  the  preceding 
vow-el.  This  elFect  is  approximately 
produced  by  altempting  to  jironounce 
'onion'  without  touching  the  tip  of 
the  tongiie  to  the  roof  of  the  mouth. 
The  corresponding  nasal  of  Portu- 
guese is  also  indicated  by  N,  as  in  the 
case  of  Sao  Antflo. 

ah     "    "    shine,  shut. 

th     "    "    thrust,  thin. 

Til     "    "    then,  this. 

zh  as  z  in  azure,  and  ,?  in  pleasure. 

.\n  apostrophe  [']  is  sometimes  used  to  denote 

a  glide  or  neutral  connecting  vowel,  as  in  ta'b'l 

(table).  k."iz"ni    (chasm). 
Otherwise  than  as  noted  above,  the  letters  used 

in  the  respellings  for  pronunciation  are  to  receive 

their  ordinary  English  sounds. 

When   the   pronunei.nl ion    is   sufTicienlly  shown 

by  indicating  the  accented  syllables,  this  is  done 

without  respelling:  as  in  the  case  of  very  common 

English  words,  and  words  which  are  so  spelled  as 

to  insure  their  correct  pronunciation  if  they  .are 

correctly  accented.     See  the  article  on  Pronuk- 

CIATION. 


A  PARTIAL  LIST  OF  THE  LEADING  ARTICLES  IN  VOLUME  I 


A. 

Professor  A.   V.  W.  Jackson. 

ABERRATION,  SPHERICAL. 

Professor  Joseph  Sweetman  Ames. 

ABRAHAM.  ^    ^ 

Professor  Morris   Jastrow. 

ABRASIVES. 

Mr.  Charles  Shattuek  Hill. 

ABSORPTION,   IN   PLANTS. 

Professor  Charles  Reid  Barnes. 

ACADEMY. 

Professor  Paul  Monroe. 

ACOUSTICS.  ^       ^ 

Professor  Joseph  Sweetman  Ames. 

ADAM.  ^     ^ 

Professor  ISIorris  Jastrow. 

ADAMS,  JOHN; 
ADAMS,  SAMUEL. 

Dr.  H.  A.  Cushing. 

ADDISON,  JOSEPH. 

Professor  Wilbur  Lucius  Cross. 

ADIRONDACKS. 

Professor  James  Furman  Kemp. 

ADULTERATION.  ^       ^    ^ 

Mr.     Martin     A.    Rosanoff;      Professor 
George  W.  Kirchwey. 

AERONAUTICS. 

Mr.  Charles  Shattuek  Hill. 

^SCHYLUS.  ^       ^  ,  ^^ 

Professor  Cliflford  Hersehel  Moore. 

JSSTHETICS.  ^,       ^^  ^., 

Professor   Evander   Bradley  SIcGilvary. 

^™^^kr.  Henry  Gannett.  Mr.  Ernest  .Inger-     ANEMOMETER 

soil,     Mr.     George     Parker     Winship,  liotes>,or  (.leveiana  Jf.<iu>=. 

Professor  Edwin  A.  Start,  and  others.     ANGEL 


ALLOY. 

Dr.   JIarcus   Benjamin. 

ALMANAC. 

Professor  Harold  Jacoby. 

ALPHABET. 

Professor  James  Morton  Paton. 

ALPS. 

'Mr.  Henry  Gannett. 
ALTERNATION  OF  GENERATIONS. 

Professor  John  Merle  Coulter. 

ALUMINILINI. 

Dr.  Marcus  Benjamin. 

AjMATEUR. 

Mr.  Charles  Quincy  Turner. 

AMERICA.  ^        ^   ^ 

Mr.  Henry  Gannett,  Mr.  Ernest  Inger- 
soU.  ilr.  George  Parker  Winship  and 
others. 

AMERICAN   LITERATLTRE. 

Professor  William  Peterfield  Trent. 

ANALYSIS,  CHEMICAL. 

Professor  Robert  William  Hall. 

ANALYTIC   GEOMETRY. 

Professor  David  Eugene  Smith. 

ANATOMY. 

Professor  Frank  Baker. 

ANATOMY  OF  PLANTS. 

Professor   John   Merle   Coulter. 

ANCHOR.  ^      .        ^ 

Lieutenant-Commander      Lewis      bayre 

Van  Duzer. 


AFRICAN  LANGUAGES. 

Dr.  Christopher  Johnston. 

AFTER-IMAGES.  ^.    , 

Professor  Edward  Bradford  Titchener. 

AGENT. 

Professor  Francis  M.  Burdiek. 

AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION; 
AGRICULTURE. 

Dr.  Alfred  Charles  True. 

AINO.  _       ,     ,   . 

Professor  Alexander  F.  Chamberlain. 

AIR   COMPRESSOR. 

Mr.  Charles  Shattuek  Hill. 
ALABAMA  CLAIMS. 

Dr.   H.   A.    Cushing;   Professor  George 
W.  Kirchwey. 

ALCOHOLS. 

Mr.  Martin  A.  Rosanoff. 

ALFIERI. 

Dr.  Frederic  Taber  Cooper. 

ALFRED  THE  GREAT. 

Professor  Dana  C.  IMunro. 

ALG^. 

Professor  John  Merle   Coulter. 

ALGEBRA. 

Professor  David  Eugene  Smith. 


Professor  Nathaniel  Schmidt. 

ANGLING. 

Mr.  Charles  Quincy  Turner. 

ANGLO-SAXON  LAW. 

Professor  George  W.  Kirchwey. 

ANIMAL   PSYCHOLOGY. 

Professor   Ed\^■ard   Bradford  Titchener. 

ANTELOPE. 

:Mr.  Ernest  IngersoU. 

APHASIA. 

Dr.  Albert  Warren  Ferris. 

APOCALYPTIC  LITERATURE. 

Professor  Edward  Everett  Nourse. 

AQUEDUCT. 

Professor  Arthur  L.  Frothmgham. 

ARABIC  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 
Professor  Morris  Jastrow. 

ARCH.EOLOGY. 

Professor  .James  'Morton  Paton. 

ARCHAEOLOGY.  AMERICAN. 
Dr.  W  J  McGee. 

ARCHITECTtTRE. 

Professor  Arthur  L.  Frothmgham. 

ARIOSTO. 

Dr.  Frederic  Taber  Cooper. 


THE  NEW 
INTERNATIONAL 
E  N  C  Y  C  E  O  P  ^E  D  I  A 


A 


a.  Tlio  initial  letter  of  almost  every 
alphabet.  The  Kunie  "futhark," 
or  old  Gerniaiiio  alpliabet,  forms 
an  exception  to  this  rule.  The  a 
stands  in  the  fourtli  plaee  in  the 
"futhark."'  (See  Ku.nes).  A  sug- 
gestion has  been  made,  liut  ajiparenlly  witliont 
mtieh  acceptance,  that  the  position  of  a  in  the 
"futhark"  may  possibly  be  due  to  an  artificial 
arrangement  of  the  letters  modeled  perhaps 
upon  the  order  of  the  words  in  tlie  ohl  Teutonic 
form  of  the  Paternoster.  The  Ktliiopic  alpha- 
bet likewise  departs  from  the  conunon  scheme, 
for  it  places  aliph  in  the  thirteenth  place  instead 
of  the  first.  As  our  alphaljet.  moreover,  directly 
follows  the  Latin,  which  itself  is  based  on  the 
Greek,  the  form  of  our  letter  .1.  a  agrees  witli 
the  same  character  in  those  languages.  The 
letter  was  called  alpha  in  Greek,  whence  "alpha- 
bet," like  our  own  "A,  B,  C,"  or  "Absey  Book." 
Tlie  Greek  name  and  form  of  the  letter  agree 
.with  the  West  Semitic  alphabet,  as  shown  by  the 
Hebrew  and  the  Aramaic.  In  these  two  lan- 
guages it  is  designated  as  alcjih.  alph.  but  the 
real  meaning  of  llu>  name  and  tlie  origin  of  the 
symbol  have  not  yet  been  satisfactorily  deter- 
mined, and  the  subject  is  still  under  discussion. 
Phonetic  Ciiauactep..  In  regard  to  its  pho- 
netic character,  original  a  may  be  described  as  a 
"mid-back-wide"  vowel.  It  bad  what  we  may 
term  tl\e  o/i-sound,  familiarly  known  as  the 
"Italian"  or  "Continental"  a,  lu-ard  in  far, 
father.  By  nature  a  is  a  simple  and  easy  vowel, 
made  by  opening  the  throat  naturally  and 
expelling  the  breath  with  tlie  least  modification 
by  tlie  parts  of  the  mouth.  Such  is  the  soiiiul 
that  this  letter  has  in  most  languages:  in  Eng- 
lish, however,  it  lias  undergone  so  many  modifi- 
cations that  to-day  the  pure  o/i-sound  is  com- 
paratively scarce  in  our  speech,  and  instead  of 
calling  the  letter  itself  by  the  name  ah.  as  in 
most  Indo-Germanic  tongues,  we  now  term  it 
"ail''  (ocl,  as  in  Tennyson  {The  Kinr,  ad  fin.) 
"Jlouthing  out  his  hollow  oi:s  and  aes."  The 
Anglo-Saxon  or  earliest  English  preserved  the 
genuine  old  a/i-sound,  though  shorter  perhaps 
in  quantity  than  the  <i  of  father.  It  was  of 
quite  frequent  occurrence,  and  by  its  side 
existed  the  corresponding  long  n.  often  marked 
with  the  quantity  sign.  In  .\nglo-Saxon.  sliort 
a  was  subject,  however,  to  certain  modifications 
and   shiftings.     (See   Phonetic   Laws.)     These 


modifications  account  only  in  part  for  the  vari- 
ety of  sounds  which  the  Modern  English  (i  repre- 
sents, as  other  external  intluences  have  come  in 
t(i  alter  the  sound  still  more.  The  orthograpliy 
has  not  kept  pace  with  the  change  in  pronunci- 
ation; hence  the  anomalous  character  of  a  as  .a 
sound-symbol.  There  are  some  half-do/.en  dif- 
ferent sounds,  shorter  and  longer,  which  a  may 
represent  in  English;  some  of  these  sounds  are, 
of  course,  extremely  common :  others  are  com- 
paratively rare.     The  principal  are: 

(1)  f«t,  (4)    father, 

(2)  fote,  (;'))    fnlse, 

(3)  f«re,  (ti)    whfit,    wns. 

To  these  is  to  be  added  the  vowel  sound  in  n.sA", 
chance,  can't,  past,  which  varies  with  dilTercnt 
speakers,  and  is  apparently  to  be  placed  some- 
where intermediate  between  fat  and  father. 
Likewise  is  to  be  noted  the  indifferent  sound  of 
a,  approaching  the  u  in  hut.  that  so  frequently 
occurs  in  unstressed  syllables,  like  ogainst, 
abundnnt,  and  also  the  sjioradic  a  in  any,  man;/, 
where  it  approaches  a  short  e.  The  rounded 
vowel  above  noted  in  iras.  fal.ii',  and  the  like,  is 
due  to  the  inlluence  of  the  adjacent  consonant, 
w,  I.  The  former  sound,  the  a  in  itas.  is 
longer  than  the  a  in  all.  In  the  latter  case  with 
;.  we  find  niso  au  beside  a  to  express  the  sound, 
as  fault  beside  false.  The  commonest  short 
sound  of  a  in  English,  however,  is  the  flat 
vowel  in  hat.  Its  frequency  leads  to  our  calling 
this  the  "short  a  :''  as  the  corresponding  "long" 
we  generally  assign  the  vowel  in  hate,  although 
the  latter  is  really  the  long  c-sound  of  thei/. 
The  vowel  of  fare,  bare,  is  a  still  further  modi- 
fication. 

Inuo-Germanic  a.  In  the  liulo-Gernianic  lan- 
guages the  vowel  series  a,  i,  u  is  especially  ]uom- 
inent;  in  Sanskrit,  and  also  in  Gothic,  these  are 
the  only  short  vowels.  The  short  a  is  never  writ- 
ten in  Sanskrit  after  consonants,  but  is  regarded 
as  inherent  in  the  sign.  Owing  to  these  circum- 
stances it  was  believe<l.  until  within  recent 
years,  that  the  primitive  Indo-Germanic  speech 
possessed  only  a.  i.  u,  and  that  a  was  the  oldest 
and  purest  of  the  vowels.  This  view  has  since 
been  much  modified;  it  has  been  shown  tjiat  c 
and  0  must  have  existed  beside  a,  i.  m  in  the 
primitive  speech,  and  that  they  are  of  equal  age 
with  the  others.  As  an  instance  of  a  genuine 
Indo-Germanic  short  «,  we  may  take  Indo-Oer. 
*agro-s,  "field,  acre;"  Skr.,  djra-s;  Gk.  ^ypii; 


A. 


AALBOBG. 


Lat.,  ager;  Goth.,  akr-s.  The  corresponding  long 
(7  occurs  commonly  in  the  oldest  English,  as  in 
the  other  Indo-Germanic  tongues:  the  history  of 
its  development  into  the  modern  speech,  how- 
ever, has  been  somewhat  different,  as  it  has 
passed  over  chiefly  into  an  6-sound.  (See  Pho- 
netic Laws.) 

As  A  Symbol.  Standing  at  the  head  of  the 
alphabet  as  a  does,  it  is  commonly  used  as  a 
symbol  to  denote  the  first  in  order  in  a  row  or 
series.  It  is  therefore  so  employed  to  denote 
one  of  the  notes  {la)  in  musical  notation  (q.v. )  ; 
similarly  in  logic  (q.v. )  to  denote  the  universal 
affirmative.  In  algebra  (q.v.)  the  letters  u,  b,  c 
are  used  to  denote  known  quantities  as  opposed 
"to  X,  y,  z.  the  unknown  quantities.  In  abstract 
reasonings  and  hypotheses,  A,  B,  C  are  likewise 
•employed  as  convenient  designations  for  partic- 
ular persons  and  things.  In  writing  and  print- 
ing, the  series  a,  b.  c  is  commonly  used  for 
reference.  In  nautical  matters,  Al,  A2,  A3  are  in 
common  use  to  denote  the  class  and  quality  of 
ships  and  similarly  in  business  matters  to  indi- 
cate the  commercial  standing  of  a  house.  This 
usage  has  passed  over  into  popular  parlance, 
so  that  a  person  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  "Al" 
to  indicate  that  he  is  a  thoroughly  reliable, 
"first-class"  man.  A  stands  also  as  the  first  of 
the  Dominical  Letters    (q.v.). 

In  Grammatical  Forms.  This  same  letter  is 
■used  in  a  number  of  phrases  and  grammatical 
forms  in  English.  In  some  of  tliese  it  is  the 
mutilated  form  of  a  fuller  word.  The  first  use 
to  be  noted  is  its  employment  beside  an  as  an 
indefinite  article;  both  forms,  a,  an,  are  weak- 
ened from  the  A.  S.,  iin,  "one."  In  provincial 
dialects  a  ('a)  appears  as  a  pronominal  form 
for  he,  etc..  as  in  quotha,  "quoth  he."  Some- 
times it  thus  stands  for  Jiave.  It  appears  as  a 
preposition  for  A.  S.,  en,  with  a  verbal  noun  in 
certain  old  phrases,  as  a-hunting.  a-building: 
also  for  A.  S.,  of  in  Jack-a-lantern,  John  a  Gaunt ; 
and  similarly  as  a  prefix  for  A.  S.,  on  in  asleep 
(A.  S.  on  skepe) ,  aicay  (A.  S,  on  weg) ,  for  off  in 
adown  (A.  S.  of  dilne)  :  again  intensive  in 
a-thirst  (A.  S.  of-thirst) .  It  likewise  stands  for 
long  a  as  a  verbal  prefix,  arise  (A.  S.  urisan) , 
awake,  and  in  many  other  phrases.  Tlie  charac- 
ter a  is  used  in  Swedish  as  a  labialized  guttural, 
like   English   0.     See   Alphabet   and   Auurevia- 

TIONS. 

A.  As  a  note  in  music,  the  major  sixth  of  the 
scale  C  major.  See  Ivey  for  A  major  and  A 
minor. 

Al.  A  symbol  used  in  the  classification  of 
wooden  ships  by  Lloyds  Maritime  Insurance 
Association.  The  designation  follows  as  a  result 
of  examination  of  a  ship  by  one  of  the  Lloyds 
surveyors.  The  symbol  Al  denotes  tliat  hull 
and  equipment  of  the  ship  in  question  are  in 
good  condition;  the  letter  A  standing  for  con- 
struction and  the  numeral  1  for  equipment; 
wlien  the  latter  is  inadequate  the  figure  2  is  used. 
Should  the  symbol  be  preceded  l)y  figures,  thus, 
12A],  it  means  tliat  tlie  classification  is  good  for 
12  years.  .\1  vessels  may  receive  further  exten- 
sion of  classification  ( 1  to  8  years),  and  the 
symbol  becomes  I2-A1  Cont.  (SAl,  which  means 
original  12  year  class  continued  6  years.  If 
later  restored  it  would  still  be  possible  to  remain 
in  Al  class  with  the  following  symbol:  12.\1- 
Cont.  GAl-  Rest.  fiAl.  Wlicn  a  vessel  has  passed 
the  age  for  the  character  A,  but  is  still  found 


fit  for  conveying  perishable  goods  to  all  parts 
of  the  world,  it  is  registered  A  in  red.  Ships 
designated  A  in  black  form  the  third  class,  and 
are  allowed  to  carry  perishable  goods  on  shorter 
voyages. 

In  classifying  iron  ships  a  broad  A  is  used 
with  numbers  prefixed,  those  ships  classed 
100^  to  00  y\  inclusive  requiring  to  be  sur- 
veyed every  four  years,  and  those  classed  85^ 
and  under  requiring  a  special  survey  every  three 
years.  Tlie  numerals  referring  to  equipment 
are  the  same  as  for  wooden  ships.  In  the  classi- 
fication of  the  German  Lloyds,  Al  refers  to  new 
wooden  ships  and  repaired  ships  of  equal 
quality;  A  denotes  ships  not  equal  to  the  for- 
mer class,  but  yet  of  superior  construction; 
the  terms  BI,  B,  CL  and  CK  denote  those  of 
inferior  construction.  Iron  and  steel  ships  are 
designated  by  the  characters  f^,  Ji^,  /^,  with 
the  numerals  100,  05,  90,  etc.'prefi'xed '( 100  /\ 
for  example),  and  referring  to  the  structural 
strength.  The  number  under  the  cross-arm  of 
the  /\  denotes  the  number  of  years  that  may 
elapse  before  the  vessel  must  be  resurveyed. 
An  interesting  account  of  the  development  of 
the  methods  of  classification  and  surveying  of 
the  British  Lloyds,  as  well  as  the  history  of  the 
society  itself,  will  be  fomid  in  Annals  of  Lloyd's 
Register  of  British  and  Foreign  Shipping  (Lon- 
don, 1884).  The  rules  for  the  building,  equip- 
ment and  classification  of  ships  are  not  given  in 
the  annual  Register  of  Shipping,  but  are  pub- 
lished separately  in  four  volumes,  one  for  steel 
vessels,  one  for  iron,  one  for  wooden  and  com- 
posite, and  one  for  yachts. 

AA,  ii.  The  name  of  a  number  of  rivers  and 
streams  in  Holland,  Germany,  Switzerland,  Rus- 
sia, and  the  north  of  France.  As  many  as  forty 
have  been  enumerated.  The  word  is  said  to  be  of 
Celtic  origin,  but  it  is  allied  to  the  O.  N.  a, 
O.  Ger.  aha,  Goth,  ahra,  identical  with  the  Lat. 
aqua,  "water."  Ach  or  Aach  is  another  form 
of  the  same  word.  Four  streams  of  the  name 
of  Ach  fall  into  the  Lake  of  Constance.  The 
word,  in  both  forms,  occurs  as  final  syllable 
in  many  names  of  places,  as  Fulda  (formerly 
Fuldaha),  Biberach,  Bieberich,  etc.  In  the 
plural  it  is  Aachen  (waters,  springs),  which  is 
the  German  name  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (q.v.). 
Aix,  the  French  name  of  so  many  places  con- 
nected with  springs,  is  derived  from  Lat.  AqMB, 
wliicli  became  in  O.  F.  Aiyiies  and  then  Aim. 
Compare  the  Celtic  Esk,  Ex,  Axe,  Ouse. 

AACHEN,  ao'en.     See  Aix-la-Chapelle. 
AAHMES.     See  Amasis. 

AALBORG,  al'boriv  (Eel-town).  A  city  of 
Denmark,  capital  of  the  Amt  of  Aalborg,  in  Jut- 
land, on  the  south  shore  of  the  Limfjord  (Map: 
Denmark,  0  1).  The  town  has  a  cathedral,  a 
museum,  and  a  library  of  30.000  volumes.  It  is 
situated  on  one  of  the  branches  of  the  Danish 
State  Railway,  which  liere  cros.ses  the  Limfjord 
on  an  iron  Inidge  990  feet  long  and  16  feet  wide. 
The  manufactures  of  the  town  are  considerable, 
consisting  cliicHy  of  brandy  and  spirits,  cotton 
goods,  dj'ed  articles,  cement,  and  lumber.  Tliere 
is  an  electric  lighting  plant.  There  is  some  ship- 
building and  sea  trade,  the  latter  with  England, 
Norwa,^',  and  Sweden,  for  the  most  part  in  vessels 
owned  by  citizens  of  the  town.  The  harbor  is  too 
shallow  for  large  vessels.  Aalborg  has  long  been 
an  important  commercial  centre.  It  was  plundered 


AALBOKG.  J 

by  Wallcnstein  in   1027.  and  by  the  Swedes  in 
rU44  and  KJ.iT.     Pop.,  18!)0.  19,503;  1901,  31,4G2. 

AALESTJND.     See  Alesund. 

AALI  PASHA,  a'k^  pn-shii'  (1815-71).  A 
Turkisli  statesman  and  diplomat.  He  entered 
the  public  service  at  liftoen  years  of  age;  was 
churyc  d'affaires  in  London  in  ISliS,  and  from 
1841  to  1844  Ambassador  to  Great  Hritain.  He 
then  became  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  and 
several  times  after  1852  was  Grand  Vizier.  He 
was  also  promoted  to  the  rank  of  Field-Marshal 
and  Pasha.  In  1850  he  represented  the  Porte 
at  the  Congress  of  Paris,  and  in  1871  took  a 
prominent  part  in  tlie  London  conference  for  the 
settlement  of  the  Bhick  Sea  question,  lie  was 
favorable  to  progress,  and  strove  earnestly, 
though  inctVcctualiy,  to  introduce  reforms  in  the 
Turkish  Government. 

AALST,  alst.     See  Alost. 

AAR,  ilr  (perhaps  connected  with  Skt.  ara, 
swift).  Tlie  largest  tributary  of  the  Khiue  in 
Switzerland.  It  rises  in  the  glaciers  near  the 
Grimsel  in  Bern,  at  an  altitude  of  7;i45  feet 
(Map:  Switzerland,  C  1),  Hows  northwest  and 
enters  Lake  Brienz  after  forming  the  famous 
falls  of  Handeck.  200  feet  high.  Issuing  from 
Lake  Brienz  it  enters  Tiake  Thun,  passing  the 
town  of  Interlaken.  On  emerging  from  tlie  latter 
lake,  the  Aar  becomes  navigable,  and  after  a 
winding  course  westward  reaches  the  Jura 
Mountains,  and  Hows  along  their  soutliern  slope 
down  to  its  confluence  willi  the  Linimat.  where 
it  breaks  through  the  ridge  and  enters  tlu'  Rliine 
near  Waldshut.  Its  entire  length  is  about  175 
miles,  and  among  its  numerous  tributaries  the 
most  important  are  the  Saanc,  Zihl.  and  Kmme. 
Through  its  tributaries  (he  Aar  is  connected 
with  some  of  the  principal  lakes  in  Switzerland. 
Tlie  most  important  cities  on  its  banks  arc  Bern, 
Interlaken,  Solothurn,  and  Aarau.  There  arc 
several  small  rivers  of  the  same  name  in  (ier- 
many. 

AABAtr,  a'rou  (oar  +  Ger.  Aue,  meadow, 
from  alia,  water).  Capital  of  the  canton  of 
Aargau.  Switzerland,  near  the  Jura  Mountains, 
on  tlie  riglit  bank  of  tlie  Aar.  41  miles  northeast 
of  Bern  (Map:  Switzerland.  CI).  It  is  1100 
feet  above  sea  level,  and  lies  in  a  fertile  plain 
between  the  Jura  and  the  Swiss  plateau.  It  is 
well  built;  has  a  town  liall.  barracks,  several 
small  museums,  and  a  library  for  the  canton  of 
80.000  volumes,  rich  in  Swiss  historical  works. 
There  are  silk,  cotton,  leather,  and  cutlery  fac- 
tories, an  iron  foundry  famed  for  its  cannon  and 
bells,  and  other  workshops.  The  town  is  famous 
for  prodtieing  excellent  mathematical  instru- 
ments. North  and  northeast  of  the  town  are 
the  Wasserduh,  2850  feet  high,  and  the  Gisela- 
fluh.  2540  feet  high.  Tim  River  .Aar  is  here 
crossed  by  a  suspension  bridge.  Kight  fairs  are 
held  at  Aarau  yearly.     Pop],  1890,  7000. 

AARD-VARK,  ;ird''lirk'  (Dutch,  "earth- 
pig").  A  burrowing,  no'-turnal.  insect-eating 
mammal  {Oructrrofnifs  Capeiinisj ,  native  and 
common  in  South  .Africa.  It  is  about  5  feet 
long,  including  a  hmg.  tapering,  naked  tail.  , 
The  head  is  long,  thin,  and  somewhat  pig-like, 
with  a  tubular  snout  and  hiffli.  pointed  ears. 
The  body  is  stout,  fat.  and  thinly  covered  with 
bristly,  reddish  haiis.  The  limbs  are  short, 
strong,  and  equipped  with  daws  adapted  to  dig- 
ging in  hard  ground.     It  inhabits  open  regions, 


AARGATT. 

is  timid  and  mainly  nocturnal,  lives  in  burrows, 
and  feeds  upon  insects,  mainly  ants  and  termites, 
breaking  into  their  "hills"  and  gathering  them 
into  its  small  mouth  by  means  of  its  long,  pro- 
trusile  tongue,  which  is  coated  with  glutinous 
saliva.  Tlie  llesh  is  edible,  but  likely  to  taste 
of  the  formic  acid  in  its  food.  \  closely  allied 
species  (0.  .lUhioiticus)  inhabits  northeastern 
Central  Africa.  These  two  animals  (with  .sev- 
eral fossil  species)  represent  the  Orycteropo- 
dida",  a  family  of  Edentata  differing  from  the 
remainder  of  that  order  in  so  many  respects 
(including,  for  instance,  a  milk  dentition)  that 
some  naturalists  have  proposed  to  establish  a 
separaic  order  for  it.     See  Plate  of  Axt-eateks. 

AARD-WOLF  (Dutch,  "earth-wolf") .  A  noc- 
turnal, carnivorous  mammal  U'rotclcs  lalamlii) 
of  South  .Africa,  resembling  a  small  striped 
hyena  with  a  dog-like  head.  It  is  closely 
allied  to  the  hyena,  from  which  it  diflfers  mainly 
in  its  weak  jaws  and  peculiar  dentition,  which 
prevent  its  overcoming  and  eating  vertebrate 
prey  or  large  carrion.  Hence  its  food  consists  of 
small  carrion,  of  grubs,  and  largely  of  termites. 
Its  fur  is  coarse,  and  capable  of  erection  along 
the  back;  in  eohu'  it  is  ashy-giay.  irregularly 
striped  up  and  down  and  around  the  legs  with 
black;  its  muzzle  is  black  and  nearly  naked; 
legs  and  feet  dark  brown  in  front  and  gray 
behind :  ears  dark  lirown  outside  and  gray  inside. 
It  goes  abroad  only  in  the  night,  and  several  are 
said  to  live  in  the  same  burrow.  It  is  the  sole 
representative  of  the  f;uiiily  Protelidte.  See 
Plate  of  H\t:\'.\s. 

AARESTRUP.  a'restrup,  Emu,  (1800- 
1850).  A  Danish  poet,  born  at  Copenhagen. 
He  was  little  regarded  during  his  lifetime,  but 
since  the  publication  of  his  collected  poems, 
with  a  critical  essay  by  Georg  Brandos,  he  has 
been  deemed  one  of  the  first  lyrists  of  Denmark. 

AARGAU,  Ur'gou,  or  ARGOVIE,  iir'gd've'. 
A  canton  of  northern  Switzerland,  with  an  area 
of  540  square  miles  (ila]):  Switzerland.  C  1). 
Its  surface  is  mostly  mountainous,  but  there 
are  a  number  of  fine  valleys.  The  chief  rivers 
are  the  Aar.  a  tributary  of  the  Rhine,  and  its 
tributaries,  the  Reuss  and  the  Turgi.  There  are 
a  number  of  mineral  springs.  The  soil  is  very 
fertile.  The  vine  is  cultivated  extensively  in 
the  river-valleys  and  the  output  of  dairy  prod- 
ucts is  considerable.  The  manufacturing  indus- 
tries are  well  developed  and  give  occupation  to 
about  IS.OOO  pcojile.  The  production  of  textiles 
is  the  chief  industry.  For  purposes  of  admin- 
istration the  canton  is  divided  into  eleven  dis- 
tricts. The  legislative  jiower  is  vested  in  the 
assembly  (Cros.ic  h'al).  elected  at  the  rate  of 
one  member  for  every  1100  inhabitants.  The 
executive  power  is  in  the  hands  of  a  council 
( Hrftirninfi-irat)  of  five  members,  chosen  by  the 
assembly  for  a  period  of  four  years.  The 
referendum  is  frequently  resorted  to,  and  for 
private  initiative  in  legislation  5000  votes  are 
required.  In  the  National  Council  Aargau  is 
represented  by  ten  members,  rhe  population 
was  in:i5S0  iii  ISOO  and  20i;.4liO  in  1900.  The 
inhaliitants  are  mostly  of  German  origin,  and 
the  German  language  is  spoken  by  almost  the 
entire  population.  Capital.  .Aarau.  Aargau.  in 
its  original  extent  much  larger  than  the  present 
canton,  was  a  part  of  ancient  Helvetia,  and 
was  subdued  by  the  Franks  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury.    It    was    held    by    the    Hapsburgs    from 


AAKGAU. 

1173  till  1415.  when  it  was  taken  from  them 
by  the  Swiss  Confederates,  who  save  parts  of 
it  to  Bern  and  Lucerne.  In  1798  the  district 
was  divided  into  the  cantons  of  Aargau  and 
Baden,  which  became  members  of  the  Helvetic 
Confederation.  Ruled  mainly  by  the  aristocratic 
party,  Aargau  gained  a  liberal  constitution  in 
18.3]'.  and  since  then  has  been  the  champion  of 
democracy  against  the  reactionists  and  the 
clericals.  Con.sult:  Historische  Ge.iellschaft  des 
Kantons  Aargau  (Aarau,  1898),  and  J.  Heierli, 
Die  Archaologische  Karte  des  Kantons  Aargau 
(Aarau,  1890). 

AABHTJS,  ar'hoos.     A  seaport  and  episcopal 
city  of  Dennuirk.  capital  of  the  Amt  of  Aarhus, 
Jutland,  situated  on  a  bay  of  the  Kattegat,  in  a 
fertile  plain.   68  miles   northeast  of   Fredericia 
(Map:   Denmark.  D  2).     It  has  a  Gothic  cathe- 
dral, whose  erection  was  commenced  in  1201.  a 
museum,  an  exchange,  and  several  banks.  The  in- 
habitants are  engaged  in  shipbuilding  and  manu- 
facturingr.     The  town  is  connected  with  the  rest 
of  Jutland  by  the  State  Railroad,  and  there  are 
regular    lines    of    steamers    to    Copenhagen    and 
England.     The    harbor    is   well    protected   by   a 
breakwater,     and     admits     vessels     of     six     feet 
draught.     The  town  ranks  among  the  oldest  in 
Denmark,  for  it  had  the  first  Christian  church 
and  was  the  residence  of  a  bishop  in  948.  Aarhus 
was  the  scene  of  a  Danish  defeat  by  the  Prus- 
sians in  1849.     Pop.,  1890,  33.300;   1901,  51,909. 
AAEON,   ai-'un.     A  Jewish  High  Priest  and 
elder  brother  of  Moses.     When  Moses  was  sent  on 
his  mission  of  deliverance  to  Pharaoh.  Aaron  was 
appointed    his    spokesman    and    performed    some 
miracles,  even  bringing  on  some  of  the  plagues. 
He  is  always,  however,  the  subordinate  of  Moses, 
from  whoni  he  receives  his  ordination  as  High 
Priest.      (Ex.   xxix:   Lev.   viii  :  9.)      Aaron   was 
not    so    strong-minded    as    his    brother.     While 
Moses  was  absent  receiving  the  Ten  Command- 
ments, Aaron  acceded  to  the  importimities  of  the 
people  and   fashioned  for  them  the   golden  calf. 
Aaron  was  concerned  in  two  rebellions.     In  the 
first,  his  authority,  as  well   as  the  authority  of 
Moses,  was  called  into  question  by  the  Korahites 
(Num.   xvi).     The   miraculous   budding   of   the 
rod  of  Aaron  settled  that  dispute.     In  the  other, 
Aaron,    perhaps    inspired    by    Miriam,    rebelled 
against  the  authority  of  Moses,  but  here  Miriam 
w'as     punished.     Because     of     the     incident     at 
Meribah      (Num.     xx  :  8-13)      Aaron     was     not 
allowed  to  enter  Canaan,  but  died  and  was  bur- 
ied on  itount  Hor,   on  the  confines  of   Iduma'a. 
Eleazar,  his  son.  succeeded  to  the  high   priest- 
hood.    In  later  Hebrew  literature  Aaron  appears 
as    the    ideal    priest,    "loving    peace,    pursuing 
peace"    {Ethics  of  the  Fathers,  I  :  12),  and  as 
the    great    conciliator.      Those    who    accept    the 
modern   Biblical   criticism  call  attention  to  the 
fact   that   it   is   only   in   the   Pentateucli,   \vhich, 
they    assert,    is    post-exilic,    that    Aaron    is    re- 
garded   as    the    ancestor    of   all    lawful    priests, 
whereas  in  the  earlier  literature  he  is  merely  a 
prominent  figure  by  the  side  of  Moses  and  Mir- 
iam.    The    prophet    Ezckiel    does    not    trace    the 
origin  of  the  .lerusalem   priesthood  farther  back 
than  to  Zadok,  who  lived  in  the  days  of  Solomon, 
and  when  we  oonie  to  the  Elohistic  history   (see 
Elohist   at\'D   Yahwist)    we   find   Joshua,   and 
not   Aaron,    assisting   Moses    in    the   exercise    of 
religious  rites.    In  the  Yahvistic  document  Aaron 
is    practically    ignored,    so    that    we    conclude 
that  the  picture  drawn  of  him  in  the  Priestly 


ABACO. 

Code  and  later  portions  of  the  Old  Testament 
is  part  and  parcel  of  the  "theocratic"  theory 
which  led  Hebrew  writers  to  reconstruct  Hebrew 
history  to  so  large  an  extent.     See  Moses. 

AAEON.  A  character  in  the  Shakespearean 
play  of  Titus  Androfiicus,  a  villainous  Moor. 
The  resemblance  of  Aaron's  brazen  avowal  of  his 
wickedness  in  the  last  act  of  this  play  to  a  sim- 
ilar passage  in  Marlowe's  Jew  of  Malta  has  been 
cited  as  an  indication  that  the  Titus  Andronicus 
may  possibly  owe  its  origin  to  the  same  author. 
AAESENS,  iir'sens,  Feans  van  (1572-1041). 
A  Dutch  diplomat.  At  twenty-six  years  of  age 
he  was  sent  to  Paris  as  the  agent  of  the  States- 
General  :  later  he  became  ambassador  for  the 
United  Provinces,  and  long  represented  his  coun- 
try at  the  French  Court,  where  he  was  highly 
regarded  by  Richelieu.  He  was  also  at  different 
periods  Ambassador  to  Venice,  Germany,  and 
England.  Motley,  who  considered  Aarsens  one 
of  the  ablest  diplomats  of  Europe,  shows  that 
he  contributed  largely  to  the  unrighteous  death 
of   Barneveldt,   1619. 

AASEN,  a'sen,  Ivar  Andreas  (1813-96).  A 
Norwegian  philologist.  He  was  born,  at  Sond- 
more.  "He  at  first  studied  botany,  but  subse- 
quently turned  his  attention  to  researches 
respecting  the  native  dialects.  Assisted  by  the 
Go\'ernment,  he  traversed  nearly  the  whole  of 
Norway,  investigating  popular  speech,  upon 
which  he  sought  to  base  a  national  language 
that  should  be  free  from  Danish  influence.  In 
1848  he  published  Dct  ^orske  Folkesprogs  Gram- 
matil:,  and  in  1850  added  Ordhog  over  det  Norske 
Folkesprog,  enlarged  under  the  title  of  Tiorsk 
Ordhog  in  1873,  and  in  1856  Norske  Ordsprog, 
a  treatise  on  Norw-egian  proverbs.  Through  his 
linguistic  work  he  was  the  originator  of  the 
patriotic  movement  generally  known  as  the 
"Maalstrcev." 

AASVAE,  as'vilr.  Islands  off  Norway,  about 
latitude  66°  (Map:  Norway,  D  3).  They  have 
herring  fisheries,  in  which  more  than  10,000  men 
are  employed  in  December  and  January,  but  for 
the  rest  of  the  year  they  are  almost  deserted. 
The  fish  is  the  great  Nordland  herring,  and  the 
catch  often  reaches  200.000  tons  in  a  season. 

AASVOGEL,  as'fo-gel  (South  African  Dutch, 
carrion-bird) .  Any  of  several  South  African  vul- 
tures. 

AB,  ab.  The  fifth  month  of  the  Jewish  relig- 
ious year,  and  the  eleventh  (in  intercalary  years 
the  twelfth)  of  the  Jewish  civil  year.  The  first 
day  of  Ab  became  a  fast  to  commemorate  the 
death  of  Aaron;  but  of  far  greater  significance 
is  the  ninth,  commemorated  as  a  fast  to  mark 
the  destruction  of  the  first  temple  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, 586  B.C.,  and  of  the  second  temple  by 
Titus,  70  A.I).,  though  there  is  no  evidence  to 
show  that  the  latter  ever  took  place  on  that  day 
of  the  month.  Ab  corresponds  roughly  to  July- 
August  of  the  common  year. 

ABAB'BE.  A  Hamitic  people  west  of  the 
Red  Son,  below  Kosseir.  Their  habits  are  those 
of  the  desert,  the  camel  being  their  chief  domes- 
tic animal.  ,  . 
.  AB'ACA.  A  term  used  in  the  Philippme 
Islands  to  designate  the  plant  which  produces 
manila  liemp.     See  Hemp,  Makila. 

ABACO,  iL'Tja-ko,  or  Lucaya,  Great  and 
Little.  Two  of  the  Bahama  Islands,  150  miles 
east  of  Florida,  lat.  25°  51'  N.,  long,  77°  5'  W. 
(Map:  West  Indies,  J  1).     Together  they  cover 


ABALONE,     ETC. 


1.  AGATE    SHELL    (Achatina),  with   animal  extended.  5.  ABALONE    (Hallotis),  with  animal   extended. 

2.  WING   SHELL    (Avicula).  6.  ABALONE   (Interior),  showing  flattened  spine. 

3.  AUGER    SHELL    (Terebra).  7.  ANODON,  a   River  Mussel,  with  foot  extended. 

4.  ARK    SHELL    (Area).  8.  EGGS    OF    APPLESNAIL. 

9.  APPLESNAIL    (Ampullaria),  with  animal   extended. 


ABACO. 


ABANDONMENT. 


an  area  of  about  87!)  square  miles.  Shipbuild- 
ing, wrecking,  and  turtlelishing  arc  the  chief 
eniplovnicnts. 

AB'ACUS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  afia^,  ahax) .  A  cal- 
culaliii;.'  nuuhine  or  table  occasionally  employed 
in  moilcrn  piiuuiry  schools  to  make  the  elemen- 
tary operations  of  arithmetic  palpalile.  It  con- 
sists of  a  frame  with  a  number  of  parallel  wires, 
on  which  beads  or  counters  are  strung.  In 
ancient  times  it  was  used  in  practical  reckoning, 

and  is  thus  used 
still  in  China,  Per- 
sia, and  elsewhere. 
The  ancient  abacus 
consisted  of  a  frame 
separated  by  ver- 
tical lines  into  col- 
umns denoting  the 
several  orders, 
units,  tens,  etc.  In  these  columns  counters 
were  set  to  denote  the  units  of  each  order. 
Counters  above  a  horizontal  line  denoted 
five  units.  In  the  Abacus  Pyth(i</oririis  each 
counter  bore  a  number,  so  that  only  one  was 
nceiled  in  each  colunni,  and  more  complicated  op- 
erations could  be  performed.  See  Calcilatixo 
Macuinks. 

ABACUS.  In  architecture,  a  square  or  oblong 
level  tablet  on  the  capital  of  a  column.  It  sup- 
ports the  entablature.  In  the  Doric,  Old  Ionic, 
and  Tuscan  orders,  the  abacus  is  a  regular 
oblong;   but  in  the  New   Ionic,  Corinthian,  and 


CHINESE  ABACCS. 


A— Gcithir.  B— Porlc. 

Eoman  orders,  the  abacus  has  concave  sides,  with 
truncated  angles.  Square  marble  tablets  let 
into  walls,  and  fields  with  figures  in  them 
inserted  in  mosjiic  floors,  wei-e  also  included 
imder  the  term  abacus  in  ancient  architecture. 

ABAD,  iiljad'  (Pers.  and  Hind.,  equivalent 
to  Ijic  Kngl.  ahodr) .  .An  affix  in  the  formation 
of  nuiny  Oriental  geographical  names,  especially 
in  British  India  and  Persia,  as  Wyih'rnhnd  (Hai- 
daraliad),  the  ■■ilwclliiig"  or  city  of  Ilyder. 

ABAD  or  ABBAD.  Name  of  an  .\rab  family 
of  Emesa,  from  whicli  descended  three  Jloorish 
princes  of  Seville  known  as  .\hadides.  .\iiAi)  I. 
(Mohammed  ilm  Ismail  .\bu  al-Kasim  ibn  .\bad) 
founded  the  Abadide  dynasty  in  Seville  during 
the  civil  wars  of  the  eleventli  century.  In  102:! 
the  people  of  Seville  revolted  from  the  (^aliph  of 
Cordova,  and  Abad.  cadi  of  the  city,  was  called  to 
the  head  of  affairs.  He  soon  .seized  absolute  pow- 
er, maintained  his  position  against  the  efforts  of 
the  Caliph  to  bring  the  rebel  province  to  sub- 
mission, and  added  Cordova  to  his  possessions. 
He  died  in  1042  and  was  succee<led  by  his  son. 
Abad  II.  (.Abu  .\mr  ibn  .Mutadid)  was  a  cruel 
ruler,  and  carried  on  petty  wars  against  his 
Moorish  neighbors  to  extend  his  dominions.  He 
was.  however,  forced  to  pay  tribute  by  Ferdinand 
1.,  King  of  Castile  and  Leon.     He  died  in   lOGS. 


Abad  111.,  his  son  (.Mohammed  ibn  Abad,  called 
Al-Mutamid),  was  a  poet  and  patron  of  letters. 
He  was  tolerant,  and  peaceably  added  a  ])art  of 
Portugal  to  his  kingdom.  .Mt'onso  \'l.  of  Castile 
married  his  daughter,  and  tlie  alliance  roused  the 
jealousy  of  the  small  Moorish  princes,  who 
joined  with  the  Almoravides  of  Morocco  in  a 
league  by  which  Mohammed  and  .Mfonso  were 
defeated.  He  died  in  a  prison  in  Morocco  in  lO'.f.j. 
Mohannned's  verses,  written  while  in  ca|itivity. 
are  greatly  admired  by  .Mohammedan  readers.  He 
was  the  last  of  the  Abadides,  whose  reign  ended 
in  till'  conquest  of  the  Almoravides. 

ABAD'DON  (Heb.,  "ruin,"  "destruction").  In 
the  Old  Testament,  one  of  the  names  given  to 
Sheol.  or  rather  to  the  place  of  the  lost  in  Sheol; 
only  once  used  in  the  New  Testament  (Rev.  ix. 
11),  and  then  as  the  ])roper  Hebrew  name  of  tJie 
King  of  the  Abyss,  whose  Greek  name  is  Apoll- 
yon.     See  Apocalyptic  Number. 

ABAKA  KHAN,  ii-bjilca  Hiln'  or  k-in'.     See 

MON'COI.    OVNASTIK.S. 

ABAKANSK,  ii'ba-kjuisk'.  A  fortified  vil- 
lage in  the  ( loviTnment  of  Yeniseisk,  Siberia,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Uiver  Yenisei  (Map:  Asia, 
J  3).  It  was  founded  by  Peter  the  Great  in 
170",  and  is  situated  in  a  very  fertile  region  in 
tlie  vicinity  of  coal  mines  that  give  employment 
to  many  of  its  inhabitants. 

AB'ALO'NE  iSp.,  of  unknown  origin).  A 
name  in  California  for  the  several  local  species 
of  marine  gastropoils  (family  Haliotidic)  other- 
wise known  as  ear-shells  or  sea-ears;  reiiresen- 
tatives  are  numerous  throughout  the  warmer 
seas  of  the  world,  except  the  western  Atlantic. 
The  shell,  although  having  the  shape  of  a  shal- 
low oval  saucer,  is  really  a  widely  flattened 
spiral,  the  apex  of  which  is  near  one  end,  while 
the  turned-over  margin  is  the  cohnnella.  _  (See 
illustrations  on  Plate  of  .\balo.\e,  ktc.)  The 
animal  creeps  about  rocks  near  the  shore,  spread- 
ing a  fringed  mantle,  and  extending  tentacles 
through  the  row  of  holes  in  its  .shell ;  it  feeds 
upon  seaweeds,  and  when  qiiiet  or  alarmed  with- 
draws all  soft  parts  beneath  the  shield-like  shell, 
and  sits  down  with  great  tenacity,  after  the 
manner  of  its  near  relatives,  the  lim])ets.  The 
lining  of  the  shell  is  a  layer  of  richly  colored 
mother-of-pearl,  much  used  for  inlaying  and  for 
the  manufacture  of  small  ornaments,  buttons, 
etc.  The  animals  arc  eaten,  especially  by 
Orientals,  and  great  quantities  of  them  are 
collected  and  dried  on  the  coast  of  California, 
not  only  for  consum|)tion  by  the  local  Chinese, 
but  for  export  to  China  and  .Japan.  A  species 
in  the  Channel  Islands,  F.ngland,  is  regularly 
ciillcctcd  for  food,  and  is  called  ormer. 

ABANCAY,  ii'iian-ki'.  The  chief  city  of  the 
deparliiicnt  of  .Vpiirimac.  Peru.  I>.">  miles  west- 
southwest  of  Cuzeo,  im  the  Abancay  (Map: 
Peru.  C  fi).  It  posses.ses  extensive  sugar  refiner- 
ies, and  is  the  centre  of  the  best  sugar-growing 
district  in  Peru.  There  are  also  several  silver 
mines  in  the  ncigliborhood.     Pop..  1880,  3000. 

ABAN'DONMENT.  The  varying  and  dis- 
similar significations  of  this  term,  in  different 
blanches  of  tae  law.  render  a  single  definition 
of  it  impracticable.  For  its  most  important 
meanings  in  private  law.  see  E.\SEMENT;'  Insur- 
ance :  Patent.s.  and  Pkoi-erty. 

In  criminal  law.  abandonment  is  the  inten- 
tional eX])osure  or  desertion  of  a  dependent  per- 


ABANDONMENT. 


ABATIS. 


.son  by  one  who  is  un<!er  a  leg.al  duty  of  protect- 
ing and  maintaining  him.  A  parent  or  a  guard- 
ian of  the  person  of  a  young  eliild  is  guilty  of 
a  misdemeanor  at  conunon  law  if  the  child  is 
physically  injured  in  conseq\ience  of  the  aban- 
donment :  while  if  death  results  therefrom,  the 
abandoning  parent  or  guardian  is  guilty  of  mur- 
der. At  present,  the  offense  is  generally  defined 
by  statute.  In  some  States  it  lias  been  extend- 
ed to  the  abandonment  of  a  disabled  or  infirm 
animal  in  a  public  place.  Consult:  Wharton, 
Criminal  Law  (Philadelphia,  ISOH)  ;  Bishop, 
Commentaries  on  Criminal  Law   (Boston,  189.5). 

ABANO,  ii'lra-no.  PiETRO  Di  (1250-1310).  An 
Italian  physician  and  astrologer,  professor  of 
medicine  in  Padua.  He  became  famous  through 
his  work.  Conciliator  Differentiarum,  quw  inter 
Philosophos  ci  Afedicos  Yersantur  (Mantua, 
1472),  the  object  of  which  was  to  reconcile  the 
philosophy  and  medicine  of  the  time.  His  fame 
as  a  scientist  and  his  enormous  popularity  as  a 
physician  aroused  the  envy  of  less  successful 
men.  Charges  of  heresy  and  atheism  were 
brought  .against  him,  and  he  was  arraigned 
before  the  Inrjuisition,  but  died  in  prison  before 
the  end  of  the  trial. 

ABARBANEL,    a-Biir'ba-nel'.     See    Abraba- 

NEL. 

AB'ARIM.  An  ancient  name  signifying  prob- 
ably the  "parts  beyond,"  and,  when  used  with  the 
article,  applied  to  a  range  of  mountains  in  the 
land  of  Moab,  east  of  the  Jordan  and  facing 
Jericho,  which  was  plainly  visible  in  the  dis- 
tance. The  highest  point  of  the  range  was  Mount 
Nebo,  the  place  where  Moses  closed  his  earthly 
career  (Deuteronomy  xx.xii  :49). 

AB'ARIS  (Gk.  'ABapic).  A  legendary  hyper- 
borean miracle-worker,  possessor  of  a  magic  ar- 
row of  Apollo,  on  which  he  could  ride  through  the 
air.  'His  story  probably  originated  in  the  mysti- 
cal movements  of  the  sixth  century  B.C.,  thou'jh 
Abaris  is  first  mentioned  by  Pindar  and  Herodo- 
tus. The  New  Platonists  elaborated  the  legend 
and  made  Abaris  a  companion  of  Pythagoras. 

ABASCAL,  ii'Btis-kiil'.  Jose  Fernando  (174.3- 
1821).  A  Spanish  statesman  and  general.  He 
entered  the  army  in  17G2;  became  Governor  of 
Cuba  in  1796;  was  Viceroy  of  Peru  from  1806 
to  1816;  in  1816  he  was  made  a  marquis.  He 
was  noted  for  administrative  ability,  firmness, 
and  moderation. 

ABASIA,   ;i-bil'se-.a.     See  Abkhasia. 

ABASOLO,  ii'Ba-so'lo,  Mariano  (1780?-1819)  . 
A  Mexican  revolutionist,  born  at  Dolores,  Guana- 
juato. He  participated  in  the  revolution  started 
by  Hidalgo  in  1810,  and  rose  to  be  a  major-gen- 
eral. He  fought  at  Puente  de  Calderon.  was 
taken  prisoner  by  the  Spaniards,  was  tried  at 
Chihuahua,  and  was  sentenced  to  ten  years' 
imprisonment   at  Cadiz,  where  he   died. 

ABATE'MENT  (O.  F.  lessening,  from  Lat. 
a,  away -\- hatuere,  to  beat).  A  term  used  in 
various  senses  in  the  common  law  of  England  and 
the  United  States,  as  follows;  (1)  Abatrnirnt  of 
Freehold.  The  unlawful  entry  upon  and  taking 
possession  of  an  estate  of  inheritance  by  a 
stranger  after  the  death  of  the  ancestor  and 
before  the  heir  or  devisee  has  become  seized  of 
the  estate  by  entry.  See  Freehold;  Seisin. 
(2)  Abatement  of  Nuifsances.  A  remedy  against 
injury  by  nuisance  by  removal  of  the  nuisance. 
See  Nuisance.    (3)  Pica  in  Abatement.    A  plead- 


ing interposed  by  the  defendant  to  the  plain- 
tiff's complaint  or  declaration  by  which  the 
defendant,  on  some  formal  and  technical  ground, 
seeks  to  abate  or  quash  the  action.  If  sustained 
it  does  not  determine  the  merits  of  the  contro- 
versy, but  requires  the  plaintiff  to  begin  his 
action  anew.  See  Action  ;  Pleading.  (4)  Abate- 
nient  of  Legacies.  A  reduction  of  the  amount  of 
legacies  when  the  estate  of  the  testator  is  insuf- 
ficient to  pay  debts  and  legacies  in  full.  See 
Legacy.  (5)  Abatei),cnt  of  fiiiit.  Suspension  of 
proceedings  in  a  suit  in  Chancery  for  want  of 
proper  parties  to  proceed  with  the  suit.  Abate- 
ment may  result  from  the  death,  change  of 
interest  of  a  party,  or  marriage  of  the  plaintiff, 
if  a  woman.  After  abatement  the  suit  may  be 
revived  and  proceeded  with  by  the  legal  repre- 
sentative of  the  deceased  party,  or  by  the  hus- 
band of  the  plaintiff,  if  a  woman.  Action  at 
law  when  abated  could  not  be  revived  as  in 
equity.  This,  however,  is  now  permitted  by 
statute.  See  article  on  Action.  (6)  Abatement 
or  discount  in  conmiercial  law.  (7)  Abatement 
or  deduction  of  duties  levied  by  the  custom- 
house. See  articles  on  Customs  Duties  ;  Draw- 
back. (8)  Abatement  or  reduction  of  taxes 
imposed  on  any  person.  Regulated  wholly  by 
statute.     See  Tax. 

ABATEMENT.  In  heraldry,  an  addition  to 
the  paternal  coat  of  arms,  to  indicate  some  base 
or  ungentleman-like  act  on  the  part  of  the  bear- 
er. The  coat  is  then  said  to  be  abated,  or  low- 
ered in  dignity.  Marks  of  abatement  are  repu- 
diated by  the  best  heraldic  authorities.  Menes- 
trier  calls  them  sottises  anfflaises,  and  Montagu 
is  of  opinion  that  we  shall  seek  in  vain  for  a 
more  appropriate  designation.  Abatements  are 
carefully  to  be  distinguished  from  such  subtraet- 
ive  alterations  in  coats  of  arms  as  signify  junior- 
ity of  birth,  or  removal  from  the  principal  house 
or  senior  branch  of  the  family.  These  are  com- 
monly called  marks  of  cadency,  distinctions,  dif- 
ferences, or  brisures.  The  latter  term  is  gen- 
erally applied  to  marks  of  bastardy,  though 
these  are  sometimes  classed  .with  abatements. 

ABATI,  a-bii'te,  NiccoLO  dell'.     See  Abbate. 

AB'ATIS  (Fr.  abatis,  mass  of  crushed 
objects).  A  military  defense,  used  for  the  pur- 
pose of  retarding  an  enemy's  advance.  It  is  a 
device  as  old  as  the  art  of  war  itself,  and  still 
used  under  certain  conditions,  or  in  positions 
where  wire  entanglements  are  neither  possible  nor 


available.  It  consists  of  trees  felled  and  placed 
side  by  side,  the  stronger  boughs  and  branches 
intertwined,  and  pointed  in  the  direction  of  the 
enemy.  In  the  case  of  intrenehments  of  a  more 
permanent   character,   the  abatis    is   built   in   a 


ABATIS. 

slight  depression  in  fioiu  uf  the  trench  or  ditch, 
so  that  it  is  fairly  safe  from  artillery  fire. 

ABATTOIR,       fl'bA'twJir'.      See    Slaughter- 

Hcirsrs. 

ABATJZIT.  !l'b.Vzf',  Firmix  (lf)7n-17ii7) .  A 
From  h  schdUir.  He  was  born  in  Lanfrucdoc  and 
died  at  Ucneva.  His  parents  were  Protestants, 
and  at  the  revocation  of  the  Kdict  of  Xantcs 
he  was  sent  to  Geneva.  Hero  he  studie<l  dili- 
gently, and  became  versed  in  almost  all  the 
sciences.  He  traveled  in  Knj^land  and  lloHand 
in  Kins.  William  Til.  wished  to  retain  him 
permanently  in  England,  but  his  affection  for 
his  mother  induced  him  to  return  (o  Geneva. 
He  translated  the  New  Testament  into  French 
in  1720,  and  for  his  lucid  investigations  into  the 
ancient  history  of  Geneva  he  received  from  its 
authorities  the  rights  of  citizenship.  He  was 
the  author  of  numerous  theological  and  archa-o- 
logieal  treatises.  His  orthodoxy  has  been  dis- 
puted. RousseaB.  who  could  not  bear  to  praise 
a  contemporary,  penned  his  solitary  panegyric  on 
Abauzit  in  the  yourellc  Hrloise.  In  the  course 
of  his  long  life  Abauzit  became  the  friend  of 
Xcwton.  IJayle,  and  Voltaire. 

AB'BA  (Gk.  ufiBa).  The  Aramaic  form  of 
the  Hebrew  word  for  father.  It  occurs  three 
times  in  the  New  Testament  as  a  form  of  address 
to  the  Deity  (JIark  xiv  :."!():  Rom.  viii:15; 
Gal.  iv  :  111 .  where  its  meaning  in  Greek  is  added, 
for  the  benefit  of  readers  unfamiliar  with  He- 
brew. In  Talmiulic  literature  it  occurs  fre- 
quently as  a  title  of  honor  addressed  to  a  scholar, 
and  also  enters  into  the  composition  of  proper 
names.  The  title  Abba  is  frequently  met  with  in 
ecclesiastical  literature  and  is  applied  to  the  bish- 
ops of  the  Syriac.  Coptic,  and  Ethiopic  Churches. 

ABBABIE,  a'ba'de',  Antoi.ne  Thomson  d' 
(1810117).  and  Arnaud  Michel  u'  (181o-93). 
Two  French  explorers,  brothers,  born  in  Dublin. 
They  were  known  for  their  researclies  in  Abys- 
sinia, from  1837  to  I84.i.  According  to  their 
own  account,  their  objects  were  purely  ethno- 
logical and  geographical;  but  they  were  regarded 
by  certain  English  travelers  and  missionaries  as 
agents  employed  by  the  French  tJovernmcnt  for 
religious  and  political  purposes.  Among  the 
results  of  their  travels  were  a  catalogue  of 
Ethiopic  MSS.,  an  edition  of  the  Ethiopic  ver- 
sion of  the  Pastor  of  Hernias,  and  the  (Icodr.iie  dc 
la  Hautc-Kthwi>ie.  (1860-73).  The  English  expe- 
dition to  Abyssinia  led  Arnaud  to  publish,  in 
18(>S.  his  Diiii~f  (iius  daiui  la  Uatite-tlthiopie. 
Antoine  published  a  Dictionnaire  de  la  langue 
Aiiiiniiiiut  in   1881. 

ABBADIE,  Jacques  ( 16.54  ?-1727).  A  French 
Protestant  theologian,  who  died  in  London.  Of 
a  poor  family,  he  was  educated  by  his  friends, 
and  advanced  so  rapidly  that  at  seventeen  he 
was  granted  the  degree  of  doctor  of  theology  at 
Sedaji.  He  spent  several  years  in  Berlin  as 
minister  of  the  French  Protestant  church,  and 
in  1088  accompanied  Marshal  Schombcrg  to 
England,  becoming  minister  of  the  French 
church  in  London  called  "La  Savoye."'  He  was 
strongly  attached  to  the  cause  of  William  III., 
who  made  him  dean  of  Killaloe.  Ireland.  He 
wrote  a  defense  of  the  English  revolution  of 
1088,  but  was  best  known  by  his  theological 
works,  the  most  important  of  which  was  Traite 
de  la   vcrilr  dc  hi  religion  clin'ticnnc    (16S4). 

ABBAS    I.,    ab'bas     (1557-1628).     Shah    of 


^  ABBAS-MIRZA. 

Persia;  known  as  "the  Great."  He  was  the 
youn/'est  son  of  Shah  .Mohammed  Khodabendeh. 
He  rose  in  rebellion  against  his  father  and  gained 
possession  of  the  throne  at  the  age  of  eighteen. 
In  1597  he  defeated  the  U?,beks  in  a  great  battle 
near  Herat,  and  drove  them  from  the  country. 
During  many  campaigns  against  the  Turks  he 
added  a  great  deal  of  territory  to  his  possessions. 
He  overthrew  the  Turks  and  Tartars  near  Sul- 
tanieh  and  extorted  an  advantageous  peace  from 
them  (I()18).  T'pon  the  renewal  of  hostilities 
he  captured  Bagdad  after  a  year's  siege,  in  1023. 
His  reign  was  marked  by  the  magnificence  of 
his  court  and  by  the  many  important  reforms 
whii-b    lie    inlroduccd.      Sec    PERSIA. 

ABBAS  I.,  PASHA,  ab'bas  p;i-shii'  (1813- 
54).  Viieroy  of  Egypt  and  grandson  of  Mehemet 
Ali.  He  was  active  but  not  distinguislied  in 
Mehemefs  wars  in  Syria,  .\fter  Ibrahim's 
short  reign,  he  took  the  throne  (1848)  as  hered- 
itary successor,  and  proved  a  cruel  and  capricious 
ruler.  He  dismissed  all  Europeans  from  State 
service,  and  in  general  was  a  foe  to  civilization. 
In  the  Crimean  War  he  assisted  the  Sultan  of 
Turkey  with  his  fleet  and  15,000  men.  It  is 
supposed  that  he  was  murdered. 

ABBAS  II.,  Hn.Mi,  K.G.C.  (1874—).  Khe- 
dive of  Egypt ;  eldest  -son  of  Tewfik  Pasha.  He 
was  educated  at  Vienna,  and  succeeded  his  father 
ii!  18!)2.  Though  his  attitude  towaid  England 
in  Egjpt  is  unfriendly,  he  has  carried  ou  his 
govcniment  under  British  supervision  since  his 
abortive  attempt  to  form  an  anti-British  cabinet 
(1893  1.      Sc-  E(iYI>T. 

ABBAS  lux  Ann  al  Muttaub,  ab'bas  'b'n 
abd'  cl  mTTot-tii'U'b  (560-052).  Paternal  uncle 
of  Mohammed.  He  was  at  first  a  determined 
opponent  of  his  ne])hew.  but  his  defert  in  battle 
at  Bedr  was  followed  by  his  conversion,  after 
which  he  became  one  of  the  chief  apostles  of 
Islamism.  He  was  the  progenitor  of  the  Abbas- 
-ide  caliphs  of  Bagdad. 

ABBAS-MIRZA,  ab'bjis  mer'za  (1783-1833). 
A  Persian  prince,  the  son  of  Fath  Ali  Shah.  He 
possessed  great  ability,  and  was  a  friend  of  West- 
ern civilization.  As  provincial  Governor  of 
Azerbijan,  he  applied  himself,  with  the  aid  of 
Englisii  ollicers,  to  the  reform  of  the  army.  He 
commanded  the  main  Persian  army  in  the  unsuc- 
cessful >var  witli  Russia,  which  was  concluded  by 
the  peace  of  Gnlistan  in  1813,  when  Persia  lost 
its  remaining  possessions  in  the  Caucasus,  and 
was  fori  ed  to  acknowledge  the  flag  of  Russia  on 
the  Caspian  Sea.  At  the  instigation  of  Abbas, 
a  new  war  broke  out  in  1826,  between  Fath  Ali 
and  Russia.  The  Prince  fought  a  second  time 
with  extraordinary  bravery  at  the  head  of  the 
army,  but  was  again  obliged  to  yield  to  the 
superiority  of  I  lie  Russian  arms,  and  to  conclude 
a  peace,  on  February  22,  1828,  at  Turkmanchai, 
by  which  Persia  lost  most  of  her  Armenian  terri- 
tory. In  this  treaty.  Russia  guaranteed  to  Abbas 
the  succession  to  the  Persian  throne.  When,  in 
1829,  the  Russian  ambassador  at  Teheran  was 
murdered  in  a  ])opular  tumult,  which  he  had 
provoked  by  his  own  im])ruilence.  Abbas  went  in 
person  to  St.  Petersburg,  to  prevent  any  ill  con- 
sequences, and  to  maintain  tlie  peace.  He  was 
received  by  the  Emperor  with  kindness,  and  went 
back  to  Persia  loaded  with  presents.  His  eldest 
son,  Mohammed  Mirza,  mounted  the  throne  in 
1834.     See  Persia. 


ABBASSIDES. 

ABBAS'SIDES,  The  ( Ar.  al-'Abhanhjali) .  Ca- 
liphs of  Baailad.  and  the  most  celebrated  Moslem 
dynasty,  although  their  rule  never  extended  over 
the  wiiole  of  Islam,  as  had  that  of  the  Ommiads 
(q.v.).  It  was  never  aeknowledged  in  Spain 
and  only  nominally  in  Africa  outside  of  Egypt. 
Tlieirs  was.  liowever,  the  true  calipliate,  notwith- 
standing the  rival  claims  of  Cordova.  The 
Abbassides  claimed  descent  from  Abbas,  the 
uncle  and  adviser  of  Mohammed  (50fi-652  A.D. ). 
The  rivalry  l)etween  the  famih'  of  Abbas  and  the 
Onuniads  broke  ovit  into  open  war.  In  747  Ibra- 
him, the  head  of  the  Abbasside  faction,  was  over- 
thrown by  the  Caliph  Merwan  and  put  to  death, 
but  three"  years  later  his  brotlier,  Alju  al-Abbas, 
who  had  'proclaimed  himself  rightful  Caliph, 
defeated  Merwan  in  a  great  battle  near  the  river 
Zab  and  established  his  line  firmly  on  the 
throne.  In  Spain,  however,  Abd  al-Raliman,  one 
of  the  Ommiads,  who  had  escaped  from  the 
general  destruction  of  his  house,  succeeded  in 
establishing  the  great  independent  emirate,  or 
kingdom  (subsequently  caliphate)  of  Cordova. 
It  was  long  before  the  rulers  of  Spain  assumed 
the  title  of  Caliph.  The  successor  of  Abu  al- 
Abbas,  Almansur,  made  Bagdad  the  capital  of 
his  empire.  Under  his  followers  the  empire 
enjoyed  comparative  peace  and  attained  to  a 
splendid  de\elopment.  The  caliphs  became 
the  patrons  of  literature,  art,  and  learning, 
and  their  courts  were  the  homes  of  the  most 
extreme  luxury.  The  caliphs  Harun  al-Rashid 
(786-S09)  and  al-Mamun  (813-833/  were  fa- 
mous throughout  the  world  for  their  wealth,  their 
splendcr,  and  their  munificence.  But  the  martial 
vigor  of  the  Arabs  was  sapped  by  the  influence 
of  Persian  luxury,  and  they  gradually  ceased  to 
be  relied  upon  for  military  service.  In  Africa 
and  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Persia,  emirs 
seized  the  opportunity  to  declare  themselves 
indejiendent ;  in  the  west  the  Greek  Empire 
showed  a  revival  of  energy:  but  the  real  danger 
came,  as  with  the  Roman  Empire,  from  an  alien 
soldiery.  Mutasim  (833-842)  had  formed  a 
body-guard  of  Turks,  and  these  in  time  seized 
upon  the  real  powers  of  government.  They 
rssassinated  JIutawakkil.  the  son  of  JIutasim, 
in  801,  and  in  the  follo\\-ing  century  forced  the 
caliphs  to  delegate  the  chief  powers  of  govern- 
ment to  their  commander.  Gradually  the  empire 
of  the  Abassides  became  contracted,  until  it  was 
finally  narrowed  down  to  Bagdad  and  the  sur- 
rounding territory.  In  ]2i58  Hulaku  Khan,  the 
IMongol  ruler  of  Persia,  burned  Bagdad  and  put 
the  ruling  Caliph  to  death.  Deprived  of  all  polit- 
ical power,  the  Abbassides  found  refuge  witli  the 
Mameluke  rulers  of  Egypt,  who  paid  them 
respect  as  the  spiritual  heads  of  the  Moham- 
medan world.  The  last  of  the  Abbassides, 
IMutawakkil  III.,  died  in  1538  at  Cairo,  where 
he  was  living  under  the  protection  of  the 
Turkish  Sultan.  Consult:  Muir.  The  Caliphate 
(London.  1891)  :  Syed  Ameer  Ali,  A  ^hort  His- 
tory of  the  f^nrnrens  (New  York,  1899)  ;  and 
the  more  elaborate  work,  Weil,  Geschichte  der 
Chalifcn   (Mannheim  and  Stuttgart,  1846-62). 

ABBATE,  ab-bii'ta,  or  ABATI,  a-ba'te,  Nic- 
COLO  dkll'  (1.512-71).  An  Italian  painter,  who 
■was  born  at  Modena  and  died  at  Fontaine- 
bleau.  He  was  an  able  and  skillful  artist 
in  fresco-painting,  and  was  a  follower  both  of 
Raphael  and  Correggio :  yet  he  rather  blended  the 
two  styles  in  one  than  imitated  either  separately. 
His  earlier  works  are  to  be  seen  at  Modena,  his 


8  ABBE. 

later  ones  at  Bologna,  among  which  is  his 
''Adoration  of  the  Shepherds,"  considered  his 
finest ;  but  he  is  best  known  by  the  frescoes  which 
he  executed  for  the  palace  of  Fontainebleau, 
from  the  designs  of  Primaticeio.  His  "Martyr- 
dom of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul"  is  in  the  Dresden 
Gallery, 

ABBAZIA,  il'ba-tse'a.  An  Austrian  health 
resort,  charmingly  situated  at  the  head  of  the 
Gulf  of  Quarnero  ( Adriatic  Sea ) .  nine  miles  west- 
northwest  of  Fiume  (Map:  Austi-ia,  D  4).  Well 
sheltered,  Abbazia  is  a  favorite  summer  and  win- 
ter resort,  with  a  mean  temperature  of  50°  F. 
in  winter  and  77°  F.  in  summer.  It  has  a  Kur- 
haus,  various  bathing  institutions,  and  the  Carol 
Promenade,  built  in  1896  at  the  expense  of  the 
King  of  Rumania.  The  population  is  about 
1200.  mostly  Croats. 

ABBSS,  a'ba'.  Tlie  French  name  for  an  abbot 
( q.v. ) ,  but  often  used  in  the  general  sense  of  an 
unbeneficed  Roman  Catholic  ,  priest.  By  the 
famous  Concordat  of  Bologna  between  Pope  Leo 
X.  and  Francis  I.  (  August  18, 1510) .  the  French 
king  had  the  right  to  nominate  upward  of  200 
ahbcs  commendatairea,  who,  without  having  any 
duty  to  perform,  drew  a  considerable  proportion 
of  the  revenues  of  the  convents.  The  hope  of 
obtaining  one  of  those  sinecures  led  multitudes 
of  young  men,  many  of  them  of  noble  birth,  to 
enter  the  clerical  career,  who,  however,  seldom 
went  further  than  taking  the  inferior  orders 
(see  Orders,  Holy)  ;  and  it  became  customary 
to  call  all  such  aspirants  abbes — jocularly,  "abbes 
of  St.  Hope."  They  formed  a  considerable  and 
influential  class  in  society;  and  an  abbe,  distin- 
guished by  a  short  black  or  violet-colored  frock, 
and  a  peculiar  style  of  wearing  the  hair,  was 
found  as  friend  or  ghostly  adviser  in  almost 
every  family  of  consequence.  \\"hen  a  candidate 
obtained  an  abbey,  he  was  enjoined  to  take  holy 
orders;  but  many  procured  dispensation,  and 
continued  to  draw  the  revenues  as  secular  or  lay- 
abbots.  In  Italy  the  same  class  of  unbeneficed 
clergy  are  called  abbate. 

AB'BE,  Cleveland.  LL.D.  (1838 — ).  An 
American  astronomer  and  meteorologist,  born  in 
New  York  City.  He  graduated  in  1857  at  the 
Free  Academy  (now  the  College  of  the  City  of 
New  York) ,  and  studied  astronomy  with  F.  Briin- 
now  at  Ann  Arbor  (1858-60)  and  w'ith  B.  A.  Ciould 
at  Cambridge  (1800-04).  From  1804  to  1806  he 
resided  at  the  observatory  at  Pulkova,  Russia, 
and  from  1868  to  1873  was  director  of  the  Cin- 
cinnati Observatory,  where  he  inaugurated  a 
system  of  daily  weather  forecasts  based  upon 
simultaneous  meteorological  observations  report- 
ed by  telegraph.  This  led  to  the  establishment 
of  a  similar  system  b}'  the  Government ;  and  in 
December,  1870,  Professor  Abbe  was  called  to 
Washington  to  prepare  the  official  weather  pre- 
dictions and  storm  warnings,  and  was  appointed 
professor  of  meteorology  in  the  Weather  Bureau. 
To  him  is  due  the  initiation  in  May.  1879.  of  the 
movement  toward  the  introduction  of  the  present 
system  of  standard  time  and  hourly  meridians. 
In  January,  1873,  he  prepared  the  first  official 
Monlhlij  Weather  lieinetc,  which  has  continued 
under  his  editorship.  He  is  professor  of  meteor- 
ology in  Columbian  University,  Washington, 
lecturer  on  meteorology  in  Johns  Hopkins  Uni- 
versity, Baltimore,  and  a  member  of  the  National 
Academy  of  Sciences.  He  received  the  degree  of 
LL.D.  from  the  University  of  Michigan  in  1887, 


ABBE.  9 

and  from  the  Univorsitv  of  GIa-=<ro\v  on  tlio  occa- 
sion of  the  Kelvin  .Inliiloe  in  ISOli.  Anionjr  his 
publications  may  be  mentioned  the  AtiiiKnl  Siiin- 
mary  and  Renew  of  Prof/ress  in  Meteoroloriy 
(1873-88);  Treatise  on  Meteinolofiirnl  Appara- 
tus and  Methods  (1887);  Preparatory  Studies 
for  Deductive  Methods  in  Storm  and  ^yealher 
Predictions  (1880);  The  Mechanics  of  the 
Earth's  Atmosphere   (1891).         •• 

ABBE,  ab'be,  Erxst  (1840-100.5).  A  Ger- 
man plivsicist.  He  was  l)orn  at  ICisenach.  Thu- 
vintria,  and  after  studying  at  the  universities  of 
•lemi  and  (iiittingen  "became  assistant  at  tlie 
astronomical  observatory  in  Giittin^ien  and  lec- 
turer before  the  Physical  Society  of  Fraukfort- 
on-the-Main.  In  1870  he  was  made  professor 
at  Jena,  where  he  had  lectured  since  ISO.'?,  an.l 
in  1878  he  became  director  of  the  astronomical 
and  meteorolofrical  observatories.  In  ISOl  he 
gave  up  his  ordinary  professional  duties.  In 
addition  to  his  work  in  pure  science  Ah\>c  is 
known  for  the  part  be  played  in  the  desi<rn  and 
perfection  of  optical  instruments.  In  18(10  he 
became  connected  with  the  optical  establishment 
of  Carl  Zeiss  in  .Jena,  and  lar^rely  as  a  result 
of  his  experimental  work  the  instruments  and 
lenses  manufactured  by  this  firm  have  main- 
tained a  higli  de<rree  of"  excellem-e  and  have  dis- 
played many  improvements.  Especially  has  the 
improvement  been  marked  in  iihotoKrapbic  and 
microscopic  Nmiscs.  Alibe  invented  the  refracto- 
metcr  which  bears  his  name,  and  was  the  author 
of  Xeue  Apparate  zur  Bestiiiimung  des  Brech- 
ungs-  und  Zerstreuungsrermuyens  fester  -und 
fliissiger  K'irper  (Jena,  1874). 

AB'BESS.  The  superior  of  a  religious  com- 
munity of  women,  who  corresponds  in  rank  and 
authority  to  an  abbot  (q.v. ),  except  that  she  is 
not  allowed  to  exercise  the  spiritual  functions 
of  the  priesthood — such  as  preaching,  confession, 
etc.  Nor  can  she  release  her  nuns  from  their 
vows  or  suspend  or  dismiss  them.  Her  personal 
confessor  and  those  for  her  nunnery  mvist  be 
approved  by  the  bishop.  The  Council  of  Trent 
decreed  that  her  electors  must  be  profes.sed  nuns 
and  that  she  must  be  at  least  forty  years  old 
and  an  inmate  of  the  nunnery  over  which  she 
was  to  preside  for  at  least  the  eight  previous 
years. 

ABBEVILLE,  ab'vel'  (Fr.,  '"city  of  the  Ab- 
licy,"  of  St.  Ricpiier).  Capital  of  the  arron- 
dissement  of  Alilieville,  in  the  department  of 
Somme,  France  (Jlap:  France,  H  1).  Abbeville 
is  built  partly  on  an  island,  and  partly  on  the 
banks  of  the  River  Somme.  The  streets  are  nar- 
row, and  the  picturesque  houses  are  built  mostly 
of  brick  and  wood.  The  building  most  worthy  of 
notice  is  the  church  of  St. 'Wolfran,  connuenced 
in  the  reign  of  Louis  XII.,  a  splendid  exam|)le 
of  the  flamboyant  style.  Its  city  hall,  built  in 
1209,  is  a  curious  mediipval  structure;  the 
library,  containing  4.').000  volumes,  dates  from 
1690.  The  chief  manufactures  of  .\bbeville  are 
velvets,  serges,  cottons,  linens,  sacking,  hosiery, 
jewelry,  soap,  glassware,  glue,  paper,  etc.  It 
is  on  the  Northern  Railway,  and  is  connected 
by  canals  with  .Amiens.  Paris.  TJllc,  and  Bel- 
gium. \'essels  of  between  l.")0  niid  200  tons  can 
sail  up  the  Somme  as  far  as  .\bbcville.  whiih  is 
twelve  miles  from  that  river's  mouth  in  the 
British  Channel.  Abbeville  is  well  known  in 
the  scientific  world  from  the  renuirkable  fossil 
remains  of  extinct  mammals,  as  well  as  the 
Vol.  1—3. 


ABBEY. 

flint  implements  of  prehistoric  man,  which  have 
been  discovered  in  its  neighborhood.  Pop.,  1890, 
17,781;   1001.  20.:W8. 

ABBEVILLE,  ab'b^-vil.  A  town  and  county 
seat  of  -Milicvillc  Co.,  S.  C,  105  miles  west  of 
the  State  capital,  Columbia,  on  the  Southern 
and  the  Seaboard  Air  Line  railroads  (Map: 
South  Carolina.  H  2).  It  is  in  an  agricultural 
;-nd  cotton  growing  region,  and  the  principal 
industries  arc  cotton  ginning,  cottonseed  oil 
jiressing.  Hour  and  feed  milling,  and  brick  mak- 
ing.    Pop.,  1800.  ICOO;   1000.  ;!70fi. 

ABBEVILLE    tiili'v.M')    TREATIES.      Louis 
IX.  Ill  Fiaiur  appears  to  have  dmihtcd  tlie  validity 
of  his  title  to  some  of  the  former  possessions  of 
the  English  princes;  and  so  after  seventeen  years 
of    iiUermiltent    discussion    the    difficulty    was 
settled    in    a    treaty    of    peace    with    Henry    III. 
This   treaty,   named   from   Abbeville,   where   the 
two  kings  "met.  and  dated  May  20.  12.59,  was  in 
reality  negotiated  with  Earl  Simon  de  Montfort 
at  Pa"ris  and  concluded  with  Henry  during  his 
visit  to  France.  November,  1259.  to  April.  1200. 
By   its   terms    Henry   surrendered   all   claim   to 
Normandy,  Touraine.  Maine.  Anjou.  and  north- 
ern  Saintonge:    receiving   from   Louis   in   return 
Pt^rigord,     Limousin,     southern     Saintonge,     and 
some^  other   territory   south   of  the   Loire,   to   be 
held  as  fiefs,     Henry  gave  up  the  titles  of  Duke 
of  Normandy  and  Count  of  Anjou ;  w  hile  as  Duke 
of  Guienne  and  peer  of  France  he  agreed  to  do 
homage  to  the  French  monarch,  this  engagement 
being   performed    in   the   Garden    of   the   Temple 
at  P"aris.     The  inhabitants  of  the  districts  ceded 
to   Henry   were    ill    pleased,   and    in   later   times 
they  refused  to  celebrate  the  saint-day  of  Louis. 
A  treaty  between  Henry  Vlll.  and  Krancis  I.  was 
made  at  Abbevilje  in  1.527.     The  negotiations  on 
the  part  of  England  were  conducted  by  Wolsey. 
AB'BEY.     See  Monastery;  S.\nctuary. 
ABBEY,     Edwix     Austin      (18.52—).      An 
American    figure    painter,    whoso    first    successes 
were   in   the   field  of   illustration.     He  was  born 
in    Philadelphia,    studied    at    the    Pennsylvania 
Academy    of    the     Fine     Arts,     and    afterward 
worked  "in   New   York   until    1878,   when  he   re- 
moved to  England.     He  was  for  many  years  best 
known  as  an  illustrator  for  the  periodicals  and 
as  a  painter  of  water  colors.     His  illustrations  of 
Herriek's    poems    and    Shakespeare's    plays    are 
most    widely    known;     among    other    illustrated 
editions  are"  She  Stoops  to  Conquer.  Old  Songs, 
and   Who   is   Siiria?     Although   dealing  almost 
entirely  with  literary  sub,jects.  his  canvases  are 
of  high  artistic  merit.     They  include  ''A  May- 
Day     Morning"      (1890),     "  Fiametta's     Song" 
(1804),    and    ''Crusaders   Sighting    Jerusalem." 
In  1001  he  was  commissioned  to  paint  the  coro- 
nation of  Edward  VII.   His  most  important  work 
in  the  United  States  is  "  The  Quest  of  the  Holy 
Grail  "   (  1801-1002),  a  series  of  large  panels  on 
the   walls   of  the  delivery   room   of   the   Boston 
Public  Library.    He  has  also  produced  some  very 
individual  work  in  pastel,  full  of  sentiment  and 
color.      His   works   are   distinguished   by   careful 
archieological  accuracy  and  fine  sentiment.     His 
strong  feeling  for  color  is  remarkable  in  one  who 
passed  so  many  years  as  a  worker  in  black  and 
white;    he   may   be  ranked  among  the  strongest 
colorists    and  "  the    most     intellectual     painters 
America  has  produced.     He  is  Chevalier  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor,  and  a  member  of  the  National 
Academy.  New  York,  the  Royal  Academy,  Lon- 
don, and  other  foreign  societies. 


ABBEY. 


ABBEY,  Henry  (1842 — ).  An  American 
poet  and  merchant,  born  at  Rondout,  N.  Y.  He 
is  the  author  of  May  Dreams,  lUilph  and  Other 
Foems,  titories  in  terse,  Ballads  of  Oood  Deeds, 
The  City  of  Success,  and  Phaeton.  His  works 
are  collected  in  Poems  of  Henry  Abbey,  of  which 
there  are  tliree  editions. 

ABBIATEGEASSO,  ab-bya'ta-griis'so.  A  city 
in  nortli  Italy,  3'J4  feet  above  the  sea,  on  the 
Grande  and  Bereguardo  canals,  and  16  miles 
west  of  Milan  (Jlap:  Italy,  C  2).  It  manufac- 
tures fertilizers  and  markets  rice.  It  was  cap- 
tured in  1107  by  Emperor  Frederick  I.,  and  in 
1245  by  Emperor  Frederick  II.  In  1313  Matteo 
Visconti  vanquished  the  Guelphs  here,  and  in 
1524  Giovanni  de'  Jledici  the  French.  Pop., 
about  5000    (commune,  about   10,000). 

AB'BITIB'BIE,  or  ABBITIBBE.  A  Canadian 
river  and  lake.  The  river  flows  northward  to 
James  Bay  in  Hudson  Bay,  and  is  the  outlet  of 
the  lake  which  is  situated  in  latitude  49°  N.,  with 
a  trading  station  of  tlie  same  name  upon  its  shores. 

AB'BO  OF  FLEURY,  Here'  (Abbo  Floria- 
CENSis)  (i)45?-1004) .  A  French  theologian. 
He  studied  at  Rheims  and  Paris,  and  at  the 
request  of  Oswald,  Archbishop  of  York,  taught 
in  985-987  in  the  English  abbey  of  Ramsey. 
When  he  returned  to  France  he  was  chosen  Abbot 
of  Fleury,  whose  school  he  developed.  He  was 
sent  by  King  Robert  upon  a  diplomatic  mission 
to  Pope  Gregory  V.,  and  was  killed  at  the  priory 
of  La  Reole,  Gascony,  in  an  uprising  against 
his  reforms  in  monastic  discipline.  He  wrote 
an  Epitome  de  Yitis  Romanonim  Poiitifieum. 
Desinens  in  Gregorio  I.  (printed  in  1002).  His 
biography  was  written  by  his  pupil  Ainioin  in 
the  Vita  Abbonis  abbatis  Floriaceiisis. 

AB'BOT  (through  Lat.  abbas.  Gk.  <i/3/3of, 
abbas,  from  Syriac  abba,  father).  A  name  orig- 
inally given  as  a  term  of  respect  to  any  monk, 
especially  to  one  noted  for  piety,  but  afterward 
ordinarily  applied  to  the  superior  of  a  monaster}' 
or  abbey.  The  first  abbots  were  laymen,  as  the 
monks  were,  but  in  the  Eastern  Cliurch  priestly 
abbots  appear  in  the  fifth  century,  and  in  the 
Western  Church  in  the  seventh,  and  such 
ordained  abbots  are  now  the  rule.  After  the 
second  Nieene  Council  (  787 ) ,  abbots  were  empow- 
ered to  consecrate  monks  for  tlie  lower  sacred 
orders ;  but  they  remained  in  subordination 
under  their  diocesan  bishops  until  the  eleventh 
century.  They  exercised  absolute  authority  over 
their  monasteries.  As  abbeys  became  wealthy, 
abbots  increased  in  power  and  influence;  many 
received  episcopal  titles;  and  all  were  ranked 
as  prelates  of  the  Church  next  to  the  bishops, 
and  had  the  right  of  voting  in  Church  councils. 
Even  abbesses  contended  for  the  same  honors 
and  privileges,  but  without  success.  In  the 
eighth  and  ninth  centuries,  abbeys  began  to  come 
into  the  liands  of  laymen,  as  rewards  for  military 
service.  In  the  tenth  century  many  of  the  chief 
abbeys  in  Christendom  were  under  lay-abbots 
{abbates  milites,  or  abba-comitcs) .  while  subor- 
dinate deans  or  priors  had  the  spiritual  over- 
sight. The  members  of  the  royal  ho\iseliold 
received  grants  of  al)beys  as  their  maintenance, 
and  the  king  kept  the  richest  for  himself.  Thus, 
Hugo  Capet  of  France  was  lay-abbot  of  St. 
Denis,  near  Paris.  Sometimes  convents  of  nuns 
were  granted  to  men,  and  monasteries  to  women 
of  rank.     Tliese  abuses  w'ere,  in  great  measure, 


10  ABBOT. 

reformed  during  the  tenth  century.  After  the 
reformation  of  the  order  of  Benedictines,  monas- 
teries arose  that  were  dei)endent  upon  the 
mother-monastery  of  Clugny  and  without  abbots, 
being  presided  over  by  priors  or  pro-abbates.  Of 
the  orders  founded  after  the  eleventli  century, 
only  some  named  the  superiors  of  their  convents 
abbots;  most  used  the  titles  of  prior,  major, 
guardian,  rector.  Abbesses  have  almost  always 
remained  under  the  jurisdiction  of  their  diocesan 
bishop ;  but  the  abbots  of  independent  or  liber- 
ated abbeys  acknowledged  no  lord  but  the  Pope. 
In  the  Middle  Ages,  the  so-called  abbates  milrati 
frequently  enjoyed  episcopal  titles,  but  only  a 
few  had  dioceses.  Before  the  period  of  seculari- 
zation in  Germany,  several  of  the  abbots  in  that 
coimtry  had  princely  titles  and  powers.  In 
England  tliere  were  a  considerable  number  of 
mitred  abbots  who  sat  and  voted  in  the  House  of 
Lords.  The  election  of  an  abbot  belongs,  as  a 
rule,  to  the  chapter  or  assembly  of  the  monks, 
and  is  afterward  confirmed  by  the  Pope  or  by 
the  bishop,  according  as  the  monastery  is  inde- 
pendent or  under  episcopal  jurisdiction.  At  the 
time  he  must  be  at  least  twenty-five  years  of 
age.  From  early  times,  the  Pope  in  Italy  has 
claimed  the  right  of  conferring  abbacies,  and  the 
Concordat  of  Bologna  (August  18,  1516)  between 
Francis  I.  and  Pope  Leo  X.  gave  that  right  to 
the  king  of  France.  Non-monastic  clergy  who 
possessed  monasteries  were  styled  secular  abbots; 
while  their  vicars,  who  discharged  the  duties, 
as  well  as  all  abbots  who  belonged  to  the  monas- 
tic order,  were  styled  regular  abbots.  In  France, 
the  abuse  of  appointing  secular  abbots  was  car- 
ried to  a  great  extent  previous  to  the  time  of  the 
revolution  of  1789  (see  Abb^:)  ;  indeed,  often  mon- 
asteries themselves  chose  some  powerful  person 
as  their  secular  abbot,  with  a  view  of  "commend- 
ing" or  committing  their  abbey  to  his  protection, 
and  such  lay-abbots  were  called  abbes  conimenda- 
taires.  In  countries  which  joined  in  the  Refor- 
mation of  the  sixteenth  century  the  possessions 
of  abbeys  were  mostly  confiscated  by  the  crown ; 
but  in  Hanover.  Brunswick,  and  Wurttcmberg 
several  monasteries  and  convents  were  retained 
as  educational  establishments.  In  the  Greek 
Church,  the  superiors  of  convents  are  called 
hegumcni  or  mandrites,  and  general  abbots, 
archimandrites. 

ABBOT,  Benjamin,  LL.D.  (1762-1849).  A 
New  England  teacher,  who  had  among  his  pupils 
Jared  Sparks,  Daniel  Webster,  George  Bancroft, 
Edward  Everett,  and  others  who  became  famous. 
For  nearly  fifty  years  (until  1838),  he  was  at 
the  head  of  Phillips  Academj',  Exeter,  N.  H. 

ABBOT,  Charles,  first  Baron  Colchester 
(1757-1829).  A  Speaker  of  tlie  House  of  Com- 
mons. He  was  born  at  Abingdon  and  was 
educated  at  Christ  Church.  After  he  ha<l  occu- 
pied numerous  positions  under  the  Government 
he  became  Speaker  of  the  House  (1802)  and  held 
the  ortice  until  1810,  when  ill  health  compelled 
him  to  resign.  He  was  one  of  the  ablest 
Speakers  that  ever  occupied  the  chair,  and  also 
rendered  valuable  services  as  a  trustee  of  the 
British  Museum.  His  valuable  Diary  and  Cor- 
respondence was  published  by  his  son  in  1801. 

ABBOT,  Ezra  (1819-84).  An  American  bib- 
lical scholar.  He  was  born  at  .Jackson,  Waldo 
Co..  Me.,  and  died  at  Cambridge.  Mass.  After 
gradiiation  at  Bowdoin  College  (1840)  he  taught 


ABBOT. 


11 


ABBOT. 


school  in  Maine  and  in  Caiiiliriilye.  Mass.,  until 
in  185U  he  boeanio  assistant  lilmuian  uf  Har- 
vard I'niversity.  From  1S72  till  his  deatli  lie 
was  Bussey  Professor  of  Xcw  Testament  Criti- 
cism and  Interpretation  in  the  Divinity  .School  of 
Harvard  Universitv.  He  received  the  degrees  of 
LL.D.  (Yale,  18G9:  Bowdoin,  1878);  S.T.D. 
(Harvard,  1872)  ;  D.D.  (Edinburj^h,  1884).  His 
industry,  classical  scholarship,  wide  acquain- 
tance with  books,  and  rare  capacity  for  retaining 
iiiiiuitc  information  made  him  a  remarkable  bibli- 
oyrapher  and  textual  critic.  lie  won  fame  in 
the  first  direction  by  his  valuable  Litcniliire  of 
the  Doctrine  of  the  Future  Life  (1804).  append- 
ed to  \V.  R.  Alger's  book  on  the  subject,  and 
by  his  bibliographical  additions  to  Smith's  liihlc 
Dictionary  (American  edition,  Boston,  1807-70, 
4  volumes),  though  the  value  of  the  additions 
is  not  commensurate  with  their  number,  as  no 
critical  distinctions  were  made  between  the  books 
whose  titles  were  so  accurately  given.  But  nuich 
wider  was  his  fame  in  the  second  direction,  for 
his  acquaintance  with  the  text  of  the  Greek  New 
Testament  was  recognized  throughout  the  bibli- 
cal world,  and  gave  him  a  place  beside  Lach- 
nutnn.  Tischendorf,  Tregelles,  Scrivener.  West- 
eott,  and  Hort.  He  was  therefore  an  efficient 
member  of  the  American  Xew  Testament  Revis- 
iiin  Company  (1S71-81).  and  enabled  it  to  boast 
textual  scholarship  ecpnil  to  the  British.  Into 
the  revision  he  ])ut  the  most  painstaking  and 
accurate  learning.  He  displayeil  his  attainments 
in  ways  which  won  him  the  hearty  thanks  of  the 
authors  he  aided,  but  not  nnich  public  recog- 
nition. Thus  he  was  the  coadjutor  of  Caspar 
Ren6  Gregory  upon  his  prolegomena  to  the 
eighth  major  edition  of  Tischendorf's  Greek  New 
Testament  (Leipzig,  1884-',)t,  .'J  parts);  he 
revised  the  whole  of  Schatl's  Compitnion  to  the 
Xrir  Testament  (New  York,  lSS;i)  ;  and  greatly 
enriched  E.  C.  Jlitchell's  Critical  llaniilmok  of 
the  .Veil-  Testament  (New  York,  1880).  His 
modesty  made  him  indift'erent  to  fame,  and  he 
put  his  strength  upon  correcting  other  people's 
books  and  upon  monographs  which  the  scholarly 
world  appreciated.  These  latter  have  been  col- 
lected by  .J.  H.  Thayer,  and  are  published  under 
the  ca\>tion,  Critical  Essiii/s  (  Boston.  1888) .  Con- 
sult Barrows'  sketch  of  Ezra  A  bhot  (  Bi>ston,  1 884 ) . 

ABBOT,  Francis  Ellinowood  (I8:it!— ).  An 
American  writer  on  philosophy.  He  was  born  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  and  graduated  at  Harvard  Uni- 
versity (1859)  and  the  Meadville  Theological 
School  (1863).  After  having  had  charge  of 
linitarian  congregations  from  180.3  to  1808,  he 
turned  to  journalism,  and  from  1870  to  1880 
edited  a  weekly  journal,  the  Index,  dcvot<'d  to  re- 
ligious topics.  He  has  published  Scientific  Theism 
( 1880) ,  and  The  Way  (hit  of  Agnosticism   ( 18!)0) . 

ABBOT,  George  (I.ifi2-10.'!.S) .  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury.  He  was  born  at  fiuildford.  Sur- 
rey, and  was  educated  at  Oxford  (B..\.  1.582; 
M'.A.  1:38.5:  D.D.  15!17).  He  took  holy  orders  in 
158.5  and  rose  rapidly.  His  prononiiced  Puri- 
tanism brought  him  into  coiifliit  with  William 
Laud.  In  lOOi)  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Cov- 
entry and  Lichfield,  and  in  1010  lie  was  trans- 
hited  to  the  see  of  London.  In  1011  he  was 
enthroned  Archbishop  of  (^interbury.  He  owed 
these  successive  ajipointments  to  the  marked 
favor  of  James  I.,  and  useii  his  exalted  position 
to  advance  a  narrow  Protestantism  and  to  perse- 
cute   Roman    Catholics.      He    also    appeared    in 


jiolitical  life  as  the  determined  foe  of  Spain  and 
France,  largely  because  they  were  Roman  Cath- 
olic countries.  His  courageous  opposition  to  the 
King  on  several  momentous  occasions  cost  him 
after  I0I3  much  of  the  royal  favor.  While 
under  a  cloud  he  had  the  misfortune,  when  hunt- 
ing, accidentally  to  kill  a  gamekeeper.  His 
enemies  used  the  incident  against  him.  Laud 
brought  about  a  court  of  inquiry  into  the  alleged 
infringement  of  canon  law.  and  three  persons 
designated  to  bislioprics  refused  to  be  conse- 
crated by  him.  The  iiKiiiiry  came  to  nothing, 
but  the  stigma  remaincil.  'I'lie  death  of  .lames 
I.  (1025)  was  an  additional  misfortune  to 
Abbot,  as  Charles  I.  was  inllucnced  by  Laud. 
After  1027  he  was  practically  deprived  of  the 
rights  and  privileges  of  his  office.  He  died  at 
Croydon,  then  the  country  residence  of  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  -Xugust  4,  1033.  Of  his 
writings  the  most  popular  was  his  commentary  on 
the  Book  of  Jonah  (1000),  which  was  reprinted 
with  a  life  by  Grace  Webster  (London,  1845). 

ABBOT,  Henry  Larcom  ( 1831 — ) .  An  Amer- 
ican soldier  and  engineer.  He  was  born  at  Bev- 
erly, ilass..  and  graduated  at  the  United  States 
iliiitary  Academy,  West  Point,  in  1854.  entering 
the  corps  of  engineers,  in  which  he  served  with 
distinction  until  his  retirement  in  1895.  He  was 
engaged  in  the  survey  for  the  Pacific  Railroad 
and  the  hydrographic  survey  of  the  Jlississippi 
River  delta.  During  the  Civil  War  he  was 
engaged  in  engineering  and  artillery  operations. 
He  was  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Bull  Run  in 
1801.  In  the  operations  around  Richmond  he 
commanded  the  siege  artillery.  -\t  tlie  close  of 
the  war  he  was  brevetted  Brigadier-tJeneral  of 
United  States  Volunteers,  and  Major-tieneral  of 
the  United  States  Army.  For  many  years  he 
was  in  command  of  the  garrison  of  engineers  at 
Willetts  Point.  N.  Y.,  and  while  there  developed 
the  torpedo  and  submarine  defense  of  the  Long 
Island  Sound,  approach  to  New  York  City  and 
founded  the  school  for  engineers.  In  this  con- 
nection he  did  much  important  work  in  military 
science,  devoting  himself  to  the  design  and  con- 
struction of  submarine  mines  and  mortar  bat- 
teries, as  well  as  to  the  development  of  military 
engineering  equipment  and  drill,  and  serving  on 
the  Gun  Foundry  Board,  the  Board  on  Fortifica- 
tions and  Defenses,  and  numerous  other  military 
commissions.  He  was  a  member  of  the  board  to 
devise  a  plan  for  the  protection  and  reclamation 
of  the  Mississippi  basin.  In  1872  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences. 
He  served  as  president  of  a  board  of  consulting 
engineers  to  consider  the  question  of  a  proposed 
ship  canal  from  Pittsburg  to  Lake  Erie,  and 
designed  the  harbor  at  Manitowoc,  Wis.  In 
May,  1897.  he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the 
Technical  Committee  of  the  New  Panama  Canal 
Company.  He  is  the  author  of  Sief/e  Artillery 
in  the  Campaign  Against  Richmonel  (1867); 
Experiments  and  Inrestigations  to  Dci-elop  a 
Sysite^n  of  Submarine  }fincs  for  Defending  Har- 
bors of  the  United  States  (1881).  ami  with 
General  A.  A.  Humphreys,  Physics  and  Hydrau- 
lics of  the  Mississippi,  in  addition  to  a  large 
number  of  reports  of  military  and  engineering 
commissions  and  boarils. 

ABBOT.  .Joseph  Hale  (1802-73).  An  Amer- 
ican educator,  born  at  Wilton.  N.  H.  He  grad- 
uated in  1822  at  Bowdoin  College,  and  from  1827 


ABBOT. 


12  ABBOTT. 


to  1833  was  professor  of  mathematics  and  an 
instructor  in  modern  languages  at  Phillips 
Academy,  Exeter.  He  contributed  numerous 
valuable  papers  to  the  Transactions  of  tlie  Amer- 
ican Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  and  was  an 
associate  editor  of  Worcester's  Dictionary  of  the 
English  Lanyuage  ( 18G0 ) . 

ABBOT,  Samuel  (1732-1812).  An  American 
philanthropist.  He  was  born  at  Andover,  Mass., 
and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Andover 
Theological  Seminary,  to  which  he  gave  .$20,000 
in  1807  and  $100,000  more  in  his  will.  He  was 
a  successful  merchant  of  Boston  and  a  large  con- 
tributor to  charities. 

ABBOT,  The.  The  title  of  one  of  Sir  Walter 
Scott's  novels,  published  in  1820.  Its  incidents 
form  a  sequel  to  The  Monastery,  and  are  based 
upon  the  history  of  Mary.  Queen  of  Scots,  in  the 
years  1567  and  1508,  ending  with  the  battle  of 
Langside  and  her  escape  to  England. 

ABBOT,  Willis  .John  (1803—).  An  Ameri- 
can author  and  editor,  grandson  of  .John  S.  C. 
Abbott.  He  was  born  at  New  Haven.  Conn.,  and 
giaduated  at  the  University  of  Michigan  in  1884. 
He  is  best  known  by  his  Bine  Jackets  of  '61, 
Blue  Jackets  of  1812,  and  Blue  Jackets  of  '76, 
a  series  of  stories  for  boys  relating  to  the  naval 
history  of  the  United  States,  and  by  his  Battle 
Fields  of  1S61.  Mr.  Abbot  was  managing  editor 
of  the  Chicago  Times  in  1892  and  1893,  and 
from  1890  to  1898  was  on  the  editorial  staff  of 
the  New  York  Journal. 

ABBOT  or  JOY  (Abbe  de  Liesse).  The 
title  bestowed  upon  the  chief  of  a  brotherhood 
founded  at  Lille.  Accompanied  by  a  suite  of 
officers  and  servants  who  bore  before  him  a 
standard  of  red  silk,  he  presided  over  the  games 
which  were  held  at  Arras  and  the  neighboring 
towns  during  the  period  of  the  carnival,  coming 
imder  the  general  title  of  "Feast  of  the  Ass" 
(q.v.).     See  also  JIisri'LE,  T.ordjof. 

AB'BOT  OF  MISRULE'.  See  Misrule, 
Lord  of. 

AB'BOTSrOED.  The  estate  of  Sir  Walter 
Scott,  situated  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Tweed, 
about  three  miles  from  Melrose  Abbey.  Before 
it  became,  in  1811,  the  property  of  Scott,  the 
site  of  the  house  and  grounds  of  Abbotsford 
formed  a  small  farm  known  as  Clarty  Hole.  The 
new  name  was  given  it  by  the  poet,  who  loved 
thus  to  connect  himself  with  the  days  when 
Melrose  abbots  passed  over  the  fords  of  the 
Tweed.  On  this  spot,  a  sloping  bank  overhang- 
ing the  river,  with  the  Selkirk  Hills  behind,  he 
built  at  first  a  small  villa,  now  the  western  wing 
of  the  mansion.  He  afterward  added  the  remain- 
ing parts  of  the  building,  on  no  imifomi  plan,  but 
with  the  desire  of  combining  some  of  tlie  features 
(and  even  actual  remains)  of  those  ancient 
works  of  Scottish  arcliitecture  which  he  most 
loved.  The  result  was  a  picturesque  and  irregu- 
lar pile,  which  has  been  aptly  called  "a  romance 
in  stone  and  lime."  The  property  has  remained 
in  Scott's  familv  now  to  the  fourth  ceneration. 
Consult:  Irving's  Ahhotsford  (London,  1850); 
Lockhart's  Life  of  Scott  (Edinburgh,  1838).  and 
Mary  Scott's  Ahhotsford  (New  York,  1893). 

AB'BOTT,  Austin.  LL.D.  (1831-96).  An 
American  lawyer,  born  in  Boston,  Mass..  the  son 
of  Jacob  Abbott.  He  graduated  at  the  LTniversity 
of  the  C;ity  of  New  York  in  1851  and  was  admit- 
ted to  the  bar  in  the  following  year.     He  was  in 


partnership  with  his  brothers,  Benjamin  Vaughan 
and  Lyman'  (afterward  editor  of  the  Out- 
look). He  gained  a  national  reputation  as 
counsel  for  Theodore  Tilton  in  his  suit  against 
Henry  Ward  Beecher.  He  aided  his  brother 
Benjamin  in  the  preparation  of  his  well-known 
digests  of  laws,  and  published  many  legal  text 
books.  He  also  wrote,  in  collaboration  with  his 
two  brothers,  two  novels,  Matthew  Carahy  and 
Conecut  Conwrs.  He  was  an  able  lecturer  on 
law  and  was  Dean  of  the  Law  School  of  the 
University  of  the  City  of  New  Y'ork  from  1891 
until  his  death. 

ABBOTT,  Benjamin  (1732-96).  A  Methodist 
Episcopal  minister,  born  on  Long  Island,  N.  Y. 
He  was  apprenticed  to  a  hatter  in  Philadelphia, 
and  subsequently  to  a  farmer  in  New  .Jersey. 
He  was  converted  from  a  dissipated  life  when 
about  40  }-ears  old,  and  immediately  became 
an  itinerant  Jlethodist  preacher.  After  sixteen 
years'  service  in  New  Jersey  he  was  assigned  to 
the  Dutchess  (N.  Y.)  circuit  in  1789.  He  was 
transferred  to  the  Long  Island  circuit  in  1791,  to 
Salem,  N.  J.,  in  1792,  to  the  Cecil  circuit,  Mary- 
land, as  presiding  elder,  in  1793,  and  died  at 
Salem,  N.  J.,  in  1790.  He  was  famous  in  his 
day,  and  is  still  remembered  as  a  "rousing" 
preacher.  His  vehemence  was  such  that  he 
frequently  fainted,  and  generally  raised  a  com- 
motion among  his  hearers. 

ABBOTT,  Benjamin  Vaughan  ( 1830-90) .  An 
American  lawyer,  the  son  of  Jacob  Abbott.  He 
graduated  at  the  University  of  the  City  of  New 
Y'ork  in  1850,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1852.  In  legal  practice  his  brothers  Austin  and 
Lyman  were  associated  with  him.  He  produced 
nearly  100  vohunes  of  reports  and  digests  of 
Federal  and  State  laws.  In  1805,  as  secretary  of 
the  New  Y'ork  Code  Commission,  he  drafted  a 
penal  code  which,  when  adopted  by  the  Legis- 
lature, became  the  basis  of  the  present  code.  In 
1870  President  Grant  appointed  him  one  of  three 
commissioners  to  revise  the  statutes  of  the 
United  States. 

ABBOTT,  Charles  Conrad  (1843—).  An 
•American  rtrcha>ologist  and  naturalist.,  born  at 
Trenton,  N.  J.  He  studied  medicine  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania,  and  served  as  a  surgeon 
in  the  Federal  Army  during  the  Civil  War.  From 
1876  to  1889  he  was  assistant  curator  of  the 
Peabody  Museum  in  Cambridge,  Mass..  to  which 
he  presented  a  collection  of  20,000  archa'ological 
specimens,  and  he  has  given  freely  to  other  archce- 
ological  collections.  His  book  Primitive  In- 
dustry (  1881)  detailed  the  evidences  of  the  pres- 
ence of  pre-glacial  man  in  the  Delaware  Valley, 
and  is  a  valuable  contribution  to  archseology.  He 
has  also  published  many  books  on  out-door  obser- 
vation, such  as  A  Naturalist's  Rambles  About 
Home  (1884).  His  other  works,  besides  some  fic- 
tion, include:  Upland  and  Meadow  (1886); 
Wasteland  Wanderings  (1887);  Outings  at  Odd 
Times  (1890)  ;  Clear  Skies  and  Clo-udy  (1899)  ; 
and /»  Nature's  It ealm    (1900). 

ABBOTT,  Edward.  D.D.  (1841—).  An  Amer- 
ican clergyman,  journalist,  and  author,  born  at 
Farmington,  Me.  He  graduated  in  1860  at  the 
University  of  New  York,  studied  from  1860  to 
1802  at  t;he  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  and 
in  1863  served  in  the  United  States  Sanitary 
Commission  at  Washington  and  with  the  Army 
of   the   Potomac.      He   was   ordained   in    1803    to 


ABBOTT.  13 

the  Coiifijregationiil  iiiiiiistiv,  :iiul  was  pastor  of 
Pilgrim  C'liiirch,  Caiiibridgo,  Alass.,  from  1805 
to  liHi'J.  From  18(i!l  to  1878  he  was  associate 
editor  of  the  Coiigrri/atwiirilist,  and  from  1878 
to  1888  editor  of  the  Literary  World,  whose 
direction  he  again  assumed  in  1895.  In  1879 
he  was  ordained  a  priest  of  the  Protestiint  Epis- 
copal Church  anil  appointed  rector  of  St.  .lamcs's 
parish,  Cambridge.  His  pulilications  include 
The  Conrcrsdiioiis  of  Jesus  (1875),  and  I'hillips 
Brooks    (1900). 

ABBOTT,  Rkv.  Ei)wi.\  .Abbott  (1838—).  An 
English  author,  born  in  London.  He  graduated 
at  St.  John's  College,  Cambri<lgc,  with  distinction 
(B.A.  18(31,  M.A.  18(i4);  was  assistant  master 
in  King  Edward's  Si'hool,  Birmingham  (18U2- 
(14),  and  head-master  of  the  fit)'  of  London 
School  ( 18()5-18S9) ,  which  he  made  one  of  the 
best  daj'  schools  in  England;  retired  in  1889,  and 
received  a  jjcnsion  the  next  year.  He  was  twice 
Select  Prcaclu>r  at  Cambridge  and  once  at 
Oxford.  He  published  several  volumes  of  ser- 
mons and  other  religious  works,  as  Cambridge 
f^ermoxs  (1875),  Oxford  iicnnons  (1879),  Car- 
dinal Xewman  (1892),  and  .S'^  Thotnas  of  Can- 
terbury (1898).  He  is  best  known  by  his 
Shakespearian  Grammar  (1809;  third  edition 
revised  and  enlarged,  1870),  a  pioneer  work, 
which,  though  unscieiitifie,  has  hardly  been 
superseded. 

ABBOTT,  Emma  (Emma  Abbott  Wetiierell) 
(1849-1891).  An  American  soprano,  born  in 
Chicago,  HI.  She  began  her  musical  exj>erience 
in  the  choir  of  Plymouth  Church,  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.,  and  afterwards  studied  in  Milan  under 
San  (Jiovanni  and  in  Paris  under  Wartel  and 
Albert  James.  She  made  her  debut  at  Covent 
Garden,  London,  as  Maria  in  Iai  Fille  dii  Regi- 
ment. For  three  years  thereafter  slic  made  an 
operatic  and  concert  tour  of  England  and  Ire- 
land uniler  the  direction  of  Colonel  Mapleson. 
Subse(|uently  slie  returned  to  the  t'nited  States, 
where  she  sang  with  the  Abbott  and  Hess  Opera 
Company,  and  later  with  the  English  opera  com- 
pany long  known  by  her  name.  She  sang  in 
Martha,  Faust,  Les  Huguenots,  The  Chimes  of 
Xormandy,  and  the  more  popular  works  of 
Verdi,  Bellini,  and  Donizetti.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  Clara  Louise  Kellogg,  she  was  perhaps 
more  widely  known  than  any  other  American 
singer  of  lier  time. 

ABBOTT,  Frank  Frost  (1800—).  An  Amer- 
ican Latinist,  horn  at  Redding,  Conn.  He  grad- 
uated at  Yale  in  1882,  and  in  1891  received  the 
degree  of  Ph.D.  From  1885  to  ISill  he  was 
tutor  at  Yale;  in  1892  he  was  appointed  associ- 
ate professor,  and  in  1894  professor  of  Latin  in 
the  University  of  Chicago.  He  was  also  professor 
in  the  .Vmerican  School  of  Classical  Studies  at 
Rome,  from  1901  to  1902.  His  works  include 
A  History  of  liomait  Political  liistitulions  (Bos- 
ton, 1901).  and  numerous  philological  papers. 

ABBOTT,  fJouiiAM  DiMMKK  (1807-1874).  .\n 
American  Congregational  clergyman  ;ind  edu- 
cator, born  in  Hallowell,  Me.  He  graduated  at 
Bowdoin  in  1820  and  at  Andover  in  18;il.  With 
his  brotliers,  Jacob  and  ,Tohn  S.  C.  Abbott,  he  was 
a  pioneer  in  the  higher  or  collegiate  education  of 
young  women.  In  1847  he  founded  the  Spingler 
Institute,  in  New  York  City.  The  scluwd  main- 
tained a  high  re|nitation  during  its  brief  history. 
He  wrote  The  Family  at  Home,  \athan  W. 
Dickerman,  Pleasure  and  Profit. 


ABBOTT. 


ABBOTT,  Jacob  (I80:)-79).  .\  |)opular  juve- 
nile and  didactic  writer.  He  was  born  at  Hal- 
lowell, Me.  He  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College 
in  1820.  Like  his  brother  .John,  he  studied  for 
the  ministry  at  Andover,  and  was  ordained  to 
the  Congregational  ministry.  From  1825  to 
1829 he  was  professor  of  mathematics  and  natural 
philosophy  at  .\mherst.  He  then  established  a 
girls'  school  in  Boston,  and  in  18,34  organized 
the  Eliot  Churcli,  Roxbury.  Five  years  later  he 
moved  to  Farmington.  He  passed  the  remainder 
of  his  life  there,  in  Xew  York,  and  in  foreign 
travel,  devoting  himself  wholly  to  literature. 
He  died  at  Farmington,  October  31,  187)1.  Abbott 
published  more  than  two  hundred  volumes,  the 
most  noteworthy  of  which  are  The  Hollo  Iioot;s 
(28  volumes).  The  Franronia  Stories  (10  vol- 
umes). The  liainhou-  mid  Lucky  Series  (5  vol- 
umes), a  numl)er  of  juvenile  histories,  written 
in  collaboration  with  his  brother,  and  a  series  of 
histories  of  America.  He  also  edited  many 
school  books.  His  style  had  a  singular  fascina- 
tion for  the  young,  and  many  of  his  writings 
continue  to  be  popular. 

ABBOTT,  Sir  ,Ionx  JosEnt  Caldwell  (1821- 
93).  A  Canadian  statesman,  born  at  St.  -An- 
drew's, Quebec.  He  was  educated  at  McOill 
College.  Montreal;  studied  law,  and  in  1S47  was 
called  to  the  bar.  Bcgiiuiing  in  1859  he  repre- 
sented Argenteuil  County  in  the  Canadian 
Assembly  until  the  union  in  1807,  when  he 
became  a  member  of  the  Dominion  Parliament 
for  the  same  place.  In  1802  he  was  solicitor- 
general  in  the  cabinet  of  John  Sandlield  Mac- 
donald,  but  resigned  before  his  cliief  lost  power. 
In  1887  Sir  .lohn  A.  .Macdon;il(l  invited  him  to 
join  tlie  cabinet  as  a  minister  without  portfolio. 
In  .lune,  1891,  on  the  death  of  Sir  .lolin  A.  .\lae- 
donald,  Abbott  was  made  Premier  of  the  Domin- 
ion Government,  but  resigneil  in  November,  1S92, 
because  of  his  ill  health.  He  took  a  seat  in  the 
cabinet  of  his  successor,  Sir  John  Thomson,  but 
without  a  portfolio.  ?Ie  was  Dean  of  the  Facul- 
ty of  Law  of  Mctiill  University  for  ten  years, 
was  considered  an  authority  on  commercial  law, 
and  was  knighted  in  1892. 

ABBOTT,  .Toii.v  Stepiien.s  Cabot  (1805-77). 
An  .\merican  historian,  pastor,  and  pedagogical 
writer,  a  brother  of  the  equally  pr(dific  .laeob 
Abbott  (q.v. ).  He  was  born  at  Urunswick,  Me., 
and  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  in  1825.  He 
studied  for  the  ministry  at  .\ndover,  and  was 
ordained  a  Congregational  minister  in  1830. 
He  held  successive  pastorates  at  Worcester,  Rox- 
bury, and  Nantucket.  His  writings  were,  from 
the  outset,  popular.  Beginning  with  semi-relig- 
ious pedagogy.  The  Mother  at  Home  (1833), 
The  Child  at  Home,  etc.,  he  was  presently 
diverted  to  history,  and  after  1844  resigned  his 
pastorate,  giving  himself  entirely  to  literature. 
He  died  at  Fairhaven,  Conn.,  .ftine  17,  1877. 
His  most  noteworthy  books  are  The  French  Rcro- 
lution,  The  History  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte, 
Xapoleon  at  St.  Helena,  The  History  of  Xapoleon 
the  Third  (1808),  The  History  of  the  Civil  War 
in  .Imerica  (I8()3-05),  and  The  History  of  Fred- 
erick II.,  Called  Frederick  the  Great  ( New 
York).  All  these  are  readable,  but  none  of  tlwm 
has  any  critical  value. 

ABBOTT,  LvMAN,  D.D.  ( 183.5— ) .  An  Ameri- 
can Congregational  clergyman  and  editor.  He 
was  l)orn  at  Roxbury,  Mass.,  a  son  of  Jacob 
Abbott.     He  graduated  at  the  New  I'ork  Univer- 


ABBOTT. 

sity  in  1853  and  for  a  time  practiced  law  with 
his  brothers  Austin  and  Benjamin  Vaughan 
Abbott.  Afterward  he  studied  theology  with  his 
uncle.  Rev.  John  S.  C.  Abbott,  and  became  pastor 
of  a  church  at  Terre  Haute,  Ind.,  in  1800.  Five 
years  later  lie  was  made  secretary  of  the  Ameri- 
can Union  (Freedman's)  Commi.ssion  and  became 
pastor  of  tlie  New  England  Church  in  New  York 
City.  In  18(19  he  resigned  this  pastorate  and 
thereafter  was  successively  one  of  tlie  editors  of 
Harper's  Magazine,  the  principal  editor  of  the 
Ulustratcd  Clirintian  ^\'eekll|,  and,  as  associate 
of  Henry  Ward  Beeclier,  an  editor  of  the  Chris- 
tian Union  (now  the  Outlook) ,  of  which  he  after- 
ward became  editor-in-chief.  He  succeeded  Mr. 
Beeclier  as  pastor  of  Plymouth  Churcli,  Brook- 
lyn, in  18S8,  but  resigned  in  May,  1899,  and  has 
since  devoted  himself  entirely  to  editorial  and 
literary  work.  In  collaboration  with  his 
brothers  Austin  and  Benjamin  he  wrote  two 
novels,  Vonecut  Corners  (1885)  and  Matthew 
Carahy  (1888).  Among  his  other  numerous 
works  are  commentaries,  Jesus  of  Nazareth 
(1869);  a  Dictionary  of  Religious  Knowledge 
(1872,  with  Dr.  T.  J.  Conant)  ;  Life  of  Henry 
Ward  Beechcr  (1883)  ;  Evolution  of  Christianity 
(lS9i;);  Christianity  and  Soeial  Problems 
( 1890)  ;  The  Theology  of  an  Evolutionist  ( 1897  )  ; 
Life  and  Letters  of  Paul  (1898)  ;  Life  and  Liter- 
ature of  the  Ancient  Hebrews  (1901)  ;  The  Rights 
of  Man   (1901). 

ABBOTT,  Thomas  KiNGSMiLL  (1829—).  An 
Irish  scholar.  He  was  born  at  Dublin  and  was 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  where  he  afterward 
occupied  the  chair  of  moral  philosophy  (18G7- 
72),  of  biblical  Greek  (1875-88),  and  of  Hebrew 
(after  1879).  He  wrote  the  following  books: 
The  Eleujents  of  Logic  (third  edition,  1895)  ; 
Essays,  chiefly  on  the  original  texts  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments  (1892);  A  Commentary 
on  Ephcsians  and  Colossians  (1897);  a  trans- 
lation of  Kant's  Ethics,  with  a  memoir,  and 
Kant's  Introduction  to  Logic  (fifth  edition, 
1878). 

ABBRE'VIA'TIONS  (Lat.  ad,  to  +  hreris, 
short ) .  Contrivances  in  writing  for  saving 
time  and  space.  They  are  of  two  kinds,  consist- 
ing either  in  the  omission  of  some  letters,  or 
words,  or  in  the  substitution  of  some  arbitrary 
sign.  In  the  earliest  times,  when  uncial  or 
lapidary  characters  were  used,  abbreviations  by 
omission  prevailed,  such  as  we  find  in  the 
inscriptions  on  monuments,  coins,  etc.  In  these 
the  initial  letter  is  often  put  instead  of  the  whole 
word,  as  M.  for  Marcus,  F.  for  Filius.  It  was 
after  the  small  Greek  and  Roman  letters  had 
been  invented  by  transcribers  for  facilitating 
their  work  that  signs  of  abbreviation,  or  cbar- 
aeters  representing  double  consonants,  syllables, 
and  whole  words,  came  into  use.  Greek  manu- 
scripts abound  with  such  signs,  and  often  only 
one  who  has  expressly  studied  Greek  paleogra- 
phy can  make  them  out.  From  the  manuscripts 
they  passed  into  the  early  printed  editions  of 
Greek  books,  and  it  is  only  within  the  last  cen- 
tury that  they  have  quite  disappeared.  Among 
the  Romans  the  system  was  carried  to  such  an 
extent  that  L.  Anna^us  Seneca  collected  and  clas- 
sified 5000  abbreviations.  The  same  practice  has 
prevailed  in  all  languages,  but  nowhere  more 
than  in  the  rabbinical  writings.  The  abbrevi- 
ations used  by  the  ancient  Romans  were  contin- 
ued  and   increased   in   the   Middle  Ages.     They 


14 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


occur  in  inscriptions,  manuscripts,  and  legal  ' 
documents ;  and  the  practice  endured  in  these 
long  after  the  invention  of  printing  had 
made  it  unnecessary  in  books.  An  act  of  Parlia- 
ment was  passed  in  the  reign  of  George  II.,  for- 
bidding the  use  of  abbreviations  in  legal  docu- 
ments. Owing  to  these  abbreviations,  the  deciph- 
ering of  old  writings  requires  special  study  and 
training,  and  forms  a  separate  science,  on  which 
numerous  treatises  have  been  written.  One  of 
the  most  exhaustive  is  Tassin's  Xoui^cau  Traite 
de  Diplomatique  (6  volumes,  Paris,  1750-05). 
See  Paleography. 

In  ordinary  writing  and  printing  few  abbrevia- 
tions are  now  employed.  The  sign  <&,  originally 
an  abbreviation  for  the  Latin  et,  "and,"  is  one 
of  the  few  still  to  be  met  with  of  this  arbitrary 
kind.  It  does  not  stand  properly  for  a  word, 
for  it  is  used  in  diff'erent  languages,  but  for  an 
idea,  and  is  as  much  a  symbol  as  -f.  Tlie  abbre- 
viations by  using  the  initials  of  Latin  words 
that  are  still  in  use  are  chiefly  confined  to  titles, 
dates,  and  a  few  phrases;  as  M.A.  (magister 
artium) ,  Master  of  Arts;  a.d.  {anno  Domini) , 
in  the  year  of  our  Lord;  e.g.  {exempli  gratia), 
for  example.  Many  are  now  formed  from  Eng- 
lish Avords  in  the  same  way;  as  F.G.S.,  Fellow 
of    the    Geological    Sooiet}' ;    B.C.,    before    Christ. 

The  following  table  contains  many  of  the 
more  important  abbreviations  in  general  use. 
There  are  omitted  from  it  many  others  whose 
meanings  are  obvious,  and  all  abbreviations  for 
days,  months,  countries.  States,  many  proper 
names,  as  those  of  the  Scriptures;  grammatical, 
scientific,  and  other  technical  terms:  familiar 
titles,  as  Mr.,  Gov.;  and  the  majority  of  commer- 
cial terms,  as.  B/1,  bill  of  lading.  The  names  of 
many  societies  are  omitted,  especially  when  their 
abbreviations,  as  Y.M.C.A.,  are  well  known. 

A.B.,  Bachelor  of  Arts. 

Abp.,  Archbishop. 

A.C.    {ante  Christum),  Before  Christ. 

Acce\.  {accelerando) ,   In   music,   more   quickly. 

A.D.   {anno  Domini),  In  the  year  of  our  Lord. 

A.D.C.,  Aide-de-camp. 

A.H.  {anno  EegirrF),  In  the  year  of  the 
Hegira    (reckoning   from   622   a.d. ). 

Ad.  Lib.   {ad  libitum),  At  pleasure. 

Aet.  {(etatis).  Of  (his  or  her)  age. 

A.M.  {ante  meridiem).  Before  noon;  {anno 
niundi) ,  In  the  year  of  the  world;  {artium  mag- 
ister). Master  of  Arts. 

An.   {anno),  In  the  year. 

Anon.,  Anonymous. 

A.R.A.,  Associate  of  the  Royal  Academy  (Lon- 
don) . 

A.S.A.,  American  Statistical  Association. 

A.T.S.,  American  Tract  Society. 

A.U.C.  (at  urbe  condita) ,  From  the  building 
of  the  city — that  is,  Rome. 

A. v..  Authorized  Version. 

b..  Born. 

B.A.  or  A.B.  {artium  baccalaureus) ,  Bachelor 
of  Arts. 

Bart,  or  Bt.,  Baronet. 

B.C.,  Before  Christ. 

B.C.L.,  Bachelor  of  Civil  Law. 

B.D.,  Bachelor  of  Divinity. 

B.L.,  Bachelor  of  Letters. 

B.LL.,  Bachelor  of  Laws. 

B.M.,  Bachelor  of  Medicine. 

B.Mus.,  Bachelor  of  Music. 

Bp.,  Bishop. 

B.S.  or  B.Sc,  Bachelor  of  Science. 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


i; 


IJ.V.M.,  Blossod  Viij;in  Mary. 
C.    {centum),  a  hundred;   chapter;   c.    (circa), 
about;  c.  century.    Also  C.  =  Ccnligrade. 

Cantab.    (Cantahriiiiriisiii) .  Of  Cambridge. 

C.B.,  Companion  of  the  Bath. 

C.E.,  CivM  Engineer. 

cf.  or  op..  Confer:  compare. 

ex.,  Order  of  the  Crown  of  India. 

C.I.E.,  Companion  of  the  Order  of  the  Indian 
Empire. 

C.M.G.,    Companion    of    St.    Michael    and    St. 
George. 

Co.,  County. 

e/o,  Care  of. 

C.O.D.,  Cash,  or  collect,  on  delivery. 

Cr.,  Creditor. 

Crese,   { crescendo) ,  In  music,  more  loudly. 

C.S.I. ,  Companion  of  the  Star  of  India. 

cwt.,  Hundred-weight. 

d.  (denarius) .  Penny:  died. 

D.C.    (dfi  capo).  From  the  beginning. 

D.C.L.,  Doctor  of  Civil  Law. 

D.D.,  Doctor  of  Divinity:   doiium   dedit. 

D.D.S.,  Doctor  of  Dental   Surgery. 

D.G.  (Dei  gratia),  I?y  the  grace  of  God:   (Deo 
^ratios)  thanks  be  to  God. 

Dim.    (diminuendo) .   In   music,   less  loudly. 

D.Lit.,  Doctor  of  Literature. 

Do.    (Ital.  detto,  said).  Ditto,  the  same. 

D.O.M.    (Deo   Optimo    maximo) ,   To   God   the 
best  and  greatest. 

Dr.,   Doctor,  debtor. 

D.Sc,   Doctor   of   Science. 

D.S.O.,  Companion  of  the  Distinguished  Ser- 
vice Order. 

D.V.    (Deo   rolente),  God  willing. 

dwt.,  Pennyweight. 

e.g.  or  ex.  gr.   (exempli  firatia).  For  example. 

et.  al.    (cf  nlii).  And  others. 

etc.  (et  cetera).  And  the  rest:  and  so  on. 

et  seq.    (et  scquentia) ,  And  the  following. 

F.,  Fahrenlieit. 

f.   (forte) ,  loudly. 

F.  and  A.  M..  Free  anil  Accepted  Masons. 

F.D.    (fidei  defensor).  Defender  of  the  Faith. 

ff.   (fortissimo) .  Very  loud. 

f.  or  flf..  Following. 

fl.   (floruit).  Flourished. 

F.M.,  Field  Marshal. 

F.R.C.P.,  Fellow  of  the  Royal  College  of  Physi- 
cians. 

F.R.C.S.,  Fellow  of  the  Royal  College  of  Sur- 
geons. 

F.R.G.S.,    Fellow   of   the   Royal   Geographical 
Society. 

F.R!s.,  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 

F.S.A.,    Fellow    of    the    Society    of    Antiqua- 
ries. 

G.C.B.    (Knight).  Grand  Cross  of  the  Bath. 

G.C.M.G.      (Knight),     Grand     Cross     of     St. 
Michael  and  St.  George. 

G.C.S.I.    (Knight),  Grand  Commander  of  the 
Star  of  India. 

H.B.M..  His    (or  Her)    Britannic  Majesty. 

H.K..  His  Eminence:  His  KxccUciuy. 

H.I.H.,  His   (or  Her)   Imperial  Highness. 

H.M.S.,   His    (or   Her)    Majesty's   Service,   or 
Ship. 

H.S.H.,  His    (or  Her)    Serene  Highness. 

I.     (impcrator    or    imperatrix).    Eniperor    or 
Eirii)rcss. 

ib.  or  ibid,    i  ibidem).  In  the  same  place. 

Id.   (idem).  The  same:    (idus).  the  Ides. 

i.e.  (id  est).  That  is. 


ABBREVIATIONS. 

I. U.S.*    (lc<ius  Hominum  .Salrator) ,  Jesus  the 
Saviour  of  men. 

Incog.    (Ital.   incognito) .  Unknown. 

Inf.    (infra).   Below. 

In  loc.  (in  loco).  In  the  place  referred  to. 

1. N.R.I,     ilcsus    \a~arrnus    Rex    Judawrum), 
Jesus  of  Nazareth,  the  King  of  the  .lews. 

Inst,     (instante — mense    understood),    In    the 
current   (month). 

I.O.O.F.,   Independent  Order   of  Odd   Fellows. 

J.C.D.    (juris  civilis  doctor).  Doctor  of  Civil 
Law. 

J. P..  Justice  of  the  Peace. 

Jr.,  Junior. 

J.U.D.  (juris  utriusquc  doctor).  Doctor  of 
Laws,  i.e..  both  of  civil   and   canon   law. 

Kal.   (Kalcndxr).  Tlic  Kalends. 

K.C..  King's  Counsel. 

K.C.B.,  Knight  Commander  of  the  Bath. 

K.C.M.G.,  Knight  Commander  of  St.  Michael 
and  St.  Ijeorge. 

K.C.S.I..  Knight  Commander  of  the  Star  of 
India. 

K.P..  Knight  of  St.  Patrick. 

K.T..  Knight  of  the  Thistle. 

L.   (libra).  Pound   (in  English  money). 

tb.    (libra).  Pound    (weight). 

I.e.  (loco  citato).  In  the  place  cited;  (lower 
case)  snuiU  letters  in  printing. 

leg.  (te(;o(o) ,  smoothly. 

L.H.D.  )    (litterarum      humaniorum      doctor). 

Lift. I).  \   Doctor  of  Literature,  or  Letters. 

LL.B.  (Irrium  fcacca/./i/rrH.*:) .  Bachelor  of  Laws 
(the  double  L  denoting  the  plural). 

LL.D.    [Icgum  doctor).  Doctor  of  Laws. 

L.S.    (lociis  siqilli).  The  place  of  the  seal. 
•  M.,     Monsieur;     MM.,     Messieurs      (plural); 
(meridies)   noon. 

M.A.,  Master  of  Arts. 

M.B.,  Bachelor  of  iledicine. 

M.C.,  Member  of  Congress. 

M.D.    (mcdicince  doctor).  Doctor  of  Medicine. 

M.E..  Mining  or  Mechanical  Engineer;  Meth- 
odist Episcopal. 

mf.    (mcz~o  forte).  Moderately  loud. 

M.F.H..  Master  of  Fox  Hounds. 

Mile.,  Mademoiselle. 

Mme..  Madame. 

M.P.,  Member  of  Parliament ;  IMethodist  Prot- 
estant. 

^r.S.  or  M.Sc.  Master  of  Science. 

MS.,    JIanuscript:    MSS..    manuscripts. 

Mus.D.   (musica-  doctor).  Doctor  of  Music. 

N.B.    (nota  bene).  Mark  well. 

ncm.  con.  (nemine  contradicente) .  Unanimous- 

l.v. 

n.d.,  No  date. 

Non.   (noiKT).  The  Nones. 

N.S..  New  style. 

Ob.   (obiit).  Died. 

O.P.  (ordinis  prwdicatorum) ,  Of  the  Domin- 
ican Order. 

O.S.,  Old  stvle. 

O.S.A.,  Order  of  St.  Augustine. 

O.S.F.,  Order  of   St.  Francis. 

Oxon.   (O.poniensis) ,  Of  Oxford. 

p.    (piano) .  Softly. 

P.C,  Privy  Councilor. 

»Tliis  waBoriaiiwlW  writtpn  ins,  the  first  ttircc  firpek  let- 
ters nf  the  nnmc.Iesiis;  hut  its  orsrin  hiivinclio™  lo«t8iirht  of, 
by  siihstitiitinc  S  fnr  S  and  then  niiHtiikinc  tlie  r.reek  H  (long 
el  for  Ijltin  II.  a  sis;nillcntion  was  fonml  for  each  letter.  The 
Bynibol  was  further  developeil  hv  cnnverlinsr  the  horizontal 
Btroke,  which  was  the  sign  of  abbreviation,  into  a  cross,  in 
which  form  it  Is  the  recognized  device  of  the  Jesuit  order. 


ABBBEVIATIONS.  16 

Ph.B.  {philosopliiw  baccalaureus) ,  Bachelor  of 
Philosophy. 

Ph.D.  iphilosophicB  doctor),  Doctor  of  Philos- 
ophy. 

P.E.,  Protestant  Episcopal. 

Ph.G.,  Graduate  Pharmacist. 

P.L.,  Poet  Laureate. 

P.M.  {post  meridiem),  After  noon;  postmas- 
ter. 

pp.   {pianissimo) ,  Very  softly. 

P.P.,  Parish  priest. 

P.P.C.  (Fr.  pour  prendre  conge),  To  take 
leave. 

p.,  Page;   pp.,  pages. 

pro  tem.   {pro  tempore),  For  the  time. 

pro.x.  {proximo — mense  understood),  In  the 
next    (month). 

P.S.    {post  scriptum) ,  Postscript. 

P.T.O.,  Please  turn  over. 

Q.,   Query   or  question. 

Q.C.,  Queen's  Counsel. 

Q.E.D.  {quod  erat  demonstrandum).  Which 
was  to  be  proved. 

Q.E.F.  {quod  erat  faciendum) ,  Which  was  to 
be  done. 

Q.S.   {qtiantum  sufficit) ,  A  sufficient  quantity. 

q.v.  {quod  vide).  Which  see. 

R.  {rex  or  regina) ,  King  or  queen.  Also,  R.  = 
Rtaumur. 

R.  or  B   {recipe).  Take. 

R.A.,  Royal  Academician;  Royal  Artillery; 
Royal  Arch. 

rail,    {rallentando) .  More  slowly. 

R.A.M.,   Royal  Academy  of  Music. 

R.C.,  Roman  Catholic. 

R.E.,  Royal  Engineers. 

R.I.P.  {requiescat  in  pace).  May  he  rest  in" 
peace. 

rit.   {ritardando) ,  More  slowly. 

R.M.,  Royal  Marines. 

R.N.,  Royal  Navy. 

R.S.V.P.  (Fr.  repondez  s'il  vous  plait).  Please 
reply. 

R.V.,  Revised  version. 

S.,  Saint;   south:   shilling;    SS.,  saints. 

sc.    (soi'/icet) ,  Namely ;   understood. 

sf.    {sforzando) ,  With  marked  emphasis. 

S.J.,  Society  of  .Jesus. 

s.p.  {sine  prole).  Without  issue. 

S.P.Q.R.  {senatus  populusque  Romanus) ,  The 
Senate  and  People  of  Rome. 

sq.  {sequens).  The  following;  sqq.  in  the 
plural. 

Sr.,  Senior. 

S.S.,  Steamship;  Sunday  school. 

St.,   Saint;    street. 

S.T.D.  {sanctce  thcologiw  doctor).  Doctor  of 
Divinity. 

S.T.P.  {sanctre  theologiw  professor),  Doctor 
of  Divinity. 

sup.    {supra),  above. 

s.v.    {sub  voce).  Under  the  heading. 

T.C.D.,  Trinity  College,  Dublin. 

Twp.,  Township. 

ult.  (ultimo — mense  understood),  In  the  last 
(month) . 

XT. P.,  United  Presbvterian. 

U.S.,  United  States." 

U.S.A.,  United  States  of  America:  United 
States  Army. 

U.S.N.,  United   States  Navy. 

V.C.,  Victoria  Cross;  Vice  Chancellor. 

vs.   {versus),  Against. 

Consult,  for  a  reproduction  of  13,000  abbrevia- 


ABD-AL-LATir. 


tions   used   in  old  Latin  MSS.,  Campelli,  Dizio- 
nario  di  Abhreiiaiure  (Milan,  1899). 

ABBREVIA'TIO  PLAC'ITO'BUM:  (Lat., 
abridgment  or  abstract  of  pleas).  A  record 
of  judicial  decisions  in  the  itinerant  Court  of  the 
King's  Bench  (cMrta  regis,  q.v.)  in  the  Norman 
period  of  English  law.  It  is  one  of  the  earliest 
collections  of  judicial  precedents  in  our  law, 
antedating  the  Year  Books  (q.v.).  It  was  first 
published  in  1811.  See  articles  on  Norman  Law; 
Plea  :  Pleading  ;  Master  of  the  Rolls  ;  and 
Report. 

ABBRE'VIA'TORS.  In  the  Papal  Court,  a 
college  of  eleven  prelates  to  wliom  the  revision  of 
the  papal  bulls  and  other  similar  documents  is 
committed,  and  who  sign  them  in  tlie  name  of 
the  Cardinal  Vice  Chancellor.  Tliey  date  from 
Pius  II.  ( 14.")8-li4) .  and  derive  their  name  from 
the  fact  that  by  means  of  traditional  abbrevia- 
tions they  prepared  a  short  minute  of  the  decis- 
ion, which  they  subsequently  expanded  into 
proper  form. 

ABBT,  iipt,  Thomas  (1738-66).  A  German 
author,  born  at  Ulm,  educated  at  the  University 
of  Halle,  and  professor  of  mathematics  at  Rin- 
teln.  He  did  much  toward  the  improvement  of 
the  language  of  his  country.  Of  his  books  the 
more  important  ai-e  Vom  Verdicnste  (1765),  and 
Vom  Tod  fiir's  Vatetland  (1701). 

ABCHERON,  ab'shf-ron',  or  ABSHERON. 
See  Apsheron. 

ABD,  abd.  In  Arabic  and  in  the  Sem- 
itic languages  in  general,  '"slave"  or  "serv- 
ant." With  the  name  of  God,  it  enters  into  the 
composition  of  many  proper  names;  as,  Abd- 
Allali,  "servant  of  Allan;"  Abd  al-Kader,  seiv- 
ant  of  tlie  mighty  one;"  Abd  al-Latif,  "servant  of 
the  gracious  one,"  etc.  In  Hebrew,  we  have 
such  names  as  Abdeel,  "servant  of  God,"'  "Abdi," 
but  also  the  form  "Ebed,"  and  "Ebed  melech." 
In  Syriac  and  Assyrian  we  likewise  have  proper 
names  compounded  witli  this  word  under  the 
forms  Abad  and  Abdi  respectively. 
_ABD  ALLAH  IBN  ZUBAIR,  abd  ina  'b'n 
soo'bar'  (622-692).  Ruler  of  Mecca.  He  was  the 
son  of  Zubair  and  nephew,  by  alliance,  of  the 
Prophet.  Believing  himself  more  entitled  to  the 
calipliate  tlian  Yazid,  tlie  son  of  the  usurper,  Abd 
Allah  began  to  struggle  for  .supremacy  after  All's 
assassination.  He  seized  Mecca,  holding  it  against 
Yazid,  Caliph  of  Damascus.  During  the  siege  the 
Kaaba  was  destroyed,  but  Yazid's  death  saved 
the  city  from  capture.  Abd  Allah  was  acknowl- 
edged Caliph  of  Mecca,  and  rebuilt  and  restored 
the  city  by  685.  The  caliphs  of  Damascus  re- 
'newed  the  war,  and  Mecca  was  again  besieged, 
and  after  a  stubborn  resistance  was  finally  taken 
by  assault,  and  Abd  Allah,  who  retreated  within 
the  Kaaba.  was  slain. 

ABD  ALLAH  IBN  TASHFUR,  tiish'fuor 
(died  1058).  The  founder  of  the  Almoravide  sect 
in  Morocco,  which  in  a  short  space  of  time, 
through  the  propaganda  of  the  sword,  became 
transformed  into  a  temporal  power,  overran 
northern  Africa  and  conquered  ilohammedaii 
Spain.  Though  holding  supreme  avithority  for  a 
long  time,  he  was  content  with  no  other  title 
than  that  of  "Theologian." 

ABD-AL-LATIF,  abd'  al  la-tef.  See  Abd- 
il-Latif. 


ABD  AL  MTJMIN  ABU  MOHAMMED. 

ABD  AL  MUMIN  ABU  MOHAMMED, 
abd  ill  iiioTi'iiivii  Ulioo  inoliaiii'im"'(l  (e.lO!)4- 
1163).  The  foumler  of  the  dyiiastv  of  tlie  Alnio- 
hades  (q.v. ).  He  was  born  at  Tajira,  in  the 
Provinee  of  Tlemccn,  North  Africa,  and  was  a 
member  of  the  Kiiiiiiva.  one  of  the  lierber  tribes 
of  the  Atlas  region.  After  the  deatli  of  Ibn 
Tumart.  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  the  Alniohades, 
who  had  shown  great  favor  to  Abd  al  Miimin, 
ill'  was  ehosen  as  his  suceessor.  lie  now  as- 
sumed the  title  of  Caliph,  put  the  Almo- 
ravides  to  flight,  and  conquered  the  cities  of 
Oran,  Tlemccn,  Fez.  Sale,  Ceuta,  and  finally, 
after  a  siege  of  eleven  months,  Morocco  (1140- 
47).  He  extended  his  dominion  over  Al- 
Maghrib  and  the  other  provinces  of  North  Africa, 
and  passed  over  into  Spain,  conquered  Cordova 
(1148),  Almeria  (  U.'>1  I ,  an<l  Craiuida  (ll.'>4); 
in  short,  the  greater  part  of  Molianimedan  Spain. 

ABD-EL-KADER  IBN  MOUHI  AD-DIN, 
abd'fl-ka'dcr  'b'n  mnmic'  ad-dOn'  (c.  1S07-S;J). 
An  Algerian  ruler  and  patriot.  He  was  born 
near  Mascara,  and  was  educated  under  the  super- 
vision of  his  fatlicr  at  the  Glietna.  an  educational 
institution  of  the  JIarabouts.  His  father,  who  was 
esteemed  a  very  lioly  man,  exercised  great  in- 
fluence over  his  countrymen,  and  bequeatlied 
this  inlluence  to  his  son.  In  his  eightli  year 
Abd-el-Kader  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Mecca  with 
his  father:  and  in  1S27  he  visited  Egypt,  where, 
in  Cairo  and  Alexandria,  he  first  came  in  contact 
with  Western  civilization.  He  had  a  gifted 
mind,  and  a  character  marked  by  religious  enthu- 
siasm and  a  tendency  to  melancholy.  He  was 
free  from  cruelty  and  sensuality.  He  studied 
in  the  chief  schools  of  Fez.  maintained  the  faith 
of  his  people,  and  used  their  fanaticism  as  one 
of  his  most  important  sources  of  influence.  His 
public  career  began  at  the  time  of  the  conquest 
of  Algiers  by  tlie  French.  No  sooner  was  the 
power  of  the  Turks  broken,  than  the  Arab  tribes 
of  the  province  of  Oran  seized  the  oppor- 
tunity to  make  themselves  independent.  They 
obtained  possession  of  Mascara  and  elected  Abd- 
cl-Kader  their  emir.  He  established  his  author- 
ity over  a  number  of  the  neighboring  tribes. 
He  attacked  the  French,  and  after  two  bloody 
battles,  fought  on  December  .3.  1S.3.'?.  and  .lanu- 
ary  (i,  1834,  against  General  Dcsmichcls,  then 
commanding  in  Oran,  obliged  the  latter  to  enter 
into  a  treaty  with  him.  In  the  interior  of  the 
country  his  power  spread  rapidly.  The  cities 
and  tribes  of  the  provinces  of  Oran  and  Titeri 
acknowledged  him  as  their  sultan:  the  more 
distant  tribes  sent  him  ambassadors  witli  pres- 
ents. Hostilities  were  soon  resumed  between 
him  and  the  French.  General  Tr^'zel.  at  the 
head  of  a  French  army,  was  attacked  at  Makta, 
on  June  28,  183.;.  by  nearly  20.(100  Arab  cavalry, 
and  suffered  a  defeat.  The  tide  turned,  how- 
ever, and  after  a  struggle  of  si.\  years  .\bd-el- 
Kader  found  himself  obliged  (18411  to  take 
refuge  in  Morocco.  There  he  succeeded  in  organ- 
izing a  religious  war  against  the  enemies  of 
Islam,  and  the  arms  of  France  were  now  turned 
against  Morocco  for  the  support  giren  to  him. 
After  the  decisive  battle  of  Isly  (1844)  the  Sultan 
of  Morocco  was  obliged  to  give  up  .\bd-el-Kader's 
cause,  but  soon  found  that  the  latter  was  al  least 
his  equal  in  power.  The  end  of  Abd-cl-Kader's 
power,  however,  had  come.  On  the  night  of 
December  11,  1847,  he  made  a  bold  attack  on 
the  Moorish  camp,  in  which  he  was  defeated. 
He  fled  with  his  followers  to  Algeria,  where  the 


1 7  ABDICATION. 

greater  part  surrendered  to  the  French.  Dis- 
pirited. Abd-el-Kader  surrendered  December  22, 
1847.  to  General  Lamorici&re  and  the  Due 
d'Auinale.  He  was  kept  a  prisoner  with 
his  family  at  Toulon,  Pau,  and  the  Chateau 
d'.Amboise.  Liberated  in  18.52  by  Napoleon  III., 
he  li\ed  at  Brussa,  in  Asia  Minor,  till  18:").'). 
He  then,  for  a  time,  lived  in  Constantinople, 
and  finally  made  his  home  in  Damascus.  For 
his  services  during  the  Syrian  mass;(cres  of  1800 
he  received  the  (irand  Cross  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor  from  Na[)oleon  III.  In  180;)  he  visited 
Paris  and  England,  and  was  present  at  the  Paris 
Exposition  in  1807.  In  his  retirement  he  wrote 
a  religious  work,  a  translation  of  which  was  \nib- 
lished  al  Piiris  in  I8:")8,  under  the  title.  Uiijijul 
a  riiitclliiiciit :  avin  u  Vindiffiiint.  He  died  in 
Damascus.  Mav  20.  1HS3.  See  .\u:eria  :  consult 
C.  H.  Churchill,  The  lAfr  of  Ahd-cl-Kndcr  (Lon- 
don, 1807),  described  as  "written  from  his  own 
dictation  and  compiled  from_  other  authentic 
sources,''  highly  eulogistic,  and  in  no  sense  a 
scientific  biograjihy:  Lam^naire,  lie,  arcniurra, 
cnmbntx,  amours  it  jirixc  d'AhdclKader  (Paris, 
1848)  :  Bellemare.  Abd-cl-Kadt r,  xa  vie  politiiiue 
ct   iiiilildirr    (Paris.   1803). 

ABD-EL-MELEK,  iibd'cl-malgk.  See  Asmai. 

ABD-EL-WAHHAB,  abdVl-wJihliab.  See 
Wahabi.s. 

AB'DEMON.  A  Tyrian  who  distinguished 
himself  by  solving  the  riddles  which  had  been 
propounded  to  his  master,  Hiram,  by  King  Solo- 
mon. According  to  the  story,  Solomon  chal- 
lenged Hiram  and  the  Tyrians  to  ;i  contest  of 
wits,  each  side  sending  rid<lles  for  solution  by 
the  other.  Solomon  had  already  won  in  the 
competition  and  the  ;iniount  agreed  upon  as  a 
wager  had  been  paid  him.  when  Abdemon  entered 
the  lists,  and  not  only  found  answers  to  the 
riddles  which  had  baffled  his  countrymen,  but 
also  invented  others  with  which  to  try  further 
the  Israelite  king.  Solomon  failed  to  answer 
them  and  returned  the  forfeit. 

ABDE'BA  ((ik.  ■A/3(i7?pa).  A  town  on  the 
coast  of  Thrace  between  the  mouth  of  the  Nestus 
and  Lake  Uistonis.  It  is  fabled  to  have  been 
founded  by  Hercules  on  the  spot  where  his 
favorite.  Abderus,  was  torn  to  pieces  by  the 
steeds  of  Diomedes.  The  historical  colonization 
took  place  in  O.'iO  B.C.  under  the  leadership  of 
Timesius  of  Clazomenie.  Shortly  after  its  col- 
onization, the  town  was  destroyed  by  the 
Thracians,  and  in  .543  B.C.  it  was  recolonized  by 
the  inhabitants  of  Teos.  It  was  the  birthjilace 
of  Protagoras.  Democritus.  Anaxarchus.  the  later 
He(at;cus.  and  other  distinguished  nu'ii.  Its 
inhabitants  were,  however,  proverbial  for  their 
stupidity,  and  the  term  "Alidcrite"'  was  a  term 
of   reproach. 

ABD-EB-RAHMAN,     IBN     ABDALLAH, 

abd'er-riiii'nu'in  'b'n  ;ib  diil'h'i  (?-732) .  A  Sara- 
cen governor  of  Sp:iin.  .\t  the  head  of  ;il)out 
80.000  men  he  invaded  (iaul  in  732,  but  encoun- 
tered the  Franks  under  Charles  Martel  and 
Eudcs,  nciir  Poitiers  (October.  732).  After  si.x 
days  of  hanil-to-hand  fighting,  during  which  .\bd- 
er-Kalunan  w;is  shiin,  the  Christians  gained  a 
decisive  victory,  and  jiut  an  ctTectual  check  to 
the  conquests  of  tlie  Arabs  of  Spain. 

ABDICA'TION  (Lat.  abdicatio.  renuncia- 
tion, from  nil.  aw:iy  from  +  dicarc,  to  proclaim). 
The  renunciation  of  an  office,  generally  tlie  office 


ABDICATION. 


If 


of  ruler  or  sovereign.  It  is  rarely  done  out  of 
pure  preference  of  a  private  station,  but  is  gen- 
erally the  result  of  vexation  and  disappointment. 
The  general  well-being  of  a  State  is  sometimes 
served  by  the  abdication  of  its  ruler.  Military 
reverses,  popular  disaflectioiis,  court  scandals 
and  other  causes  often  render  it  imperative. 
History  records  many  abdications  of  this  char- 
acter. It  was  perhaps  voluntarily  and  from 
being  wearied  with  dominion,  that  Diocletian, 
and  along  with  him  Maximian,  abdicated  (30.3). 
Christina  of  Sweden  retired  from  the  throne 
(1654)  out  of  preference  for  the  freedom  of 
private  life,  but  wished  still  to  exercise  the 
rights  of  a  sovereign.  Charles  V.  of  Germany 
laid  down  the  crown  (1550)  and  assumed  the 
humble  habit  of  a  monk,  because  his  great 
schemes  had  failed.  Philip  V.  of  Spain  laid 
down  the  crown  in  1724,  but  resumed  it  on 
the  death  of  his  son.  Amadeus  VIII.  of  Savoy 
abdicated  (1449)  to  become  a  priest.  Victor 
Amadeus  II.  of  Sardinia,  who  abdicated  in  1730, 
wished  to  recall  the  step,  but  this  was  not 
allowed.  Louis  Bonaparte  resigned  the  crown  of 
Holland  in  1810  rather  than  consent  to  treat  that 
country  as  a  province  of  France.  Charles  Em- 
manuel II.  of  Sardinia  retired  from  the  throne 
in  1802,  not  finding  himself  able  to  cope  with  the 
French.  Victor  Emmanuel  I.  of  Sardinia  re- 
signed in  1821  in  consequence  of  a  revolutionary 
movement.  William  I.  of  the  Netherlands  re- 
signed ( 1840)  in  great  measure  by  reason  of  his 
mortification  at  the  disastrous  results  of  his 
])olicy  regarding  Belgium.  Foreign  force  com- 
pelled the  abdication  of  Augustus  the  Strong  of 
Poland  (1700).  and  later,  that  of  Stanislaus 
.  Leszczynski  (1735)  and  of  Poniatowski  (1795)  ; 
as  well  as  that  of  Charles  IV.  of  Spain  (1808), 
and  of  Napoleon  (1814  and  1815).  Insurrec- 
tions have  been  the  most  frequent  cause  of  forced 
abdications.  The  early  history  of  the  Scandi- 
navian kingdoms  abounds  in  instances.  In 
England,  the  compulsory  abdication  of  Richard 
II.  (1399)  is  an  early  example.  5Iore  recent 
times  saw  Charles  X.  of  France  ( 1830)  and  Louis 
Philippe  (1848)  retire  before  the  storm  of  revo- 
lution. The  abdication  of  Ferdinand  of  Austria 
(1848)  was  a  consequence  of  the  events  of  the 
year  of  revolutions ;  that  of  Charles  Albert  of 
Sardinia  (1849)  of  the  battle  of  Novara.  Of 
several  cases  among  German  princes,  the  chief 
is  tnat  of  Ludwig  of  Bavaria  ( 1848) .  Amadeus, 
King  of  Spain,  felt  himself  obliged  to  give  up 
his  crown  on  February  11,  1873.  Prince 
Alexander  of  Bulgaria  was  compelled  in  1880 
to  relin(|uish  liis  principality,  and  three  years 
later  King  Milan  I.  of  Servia,  worried  by  domes- 
tic troubles  and  beset  by  internal  dissensions 
in  his  kingdom,  left  the  throne  to  his  son  Alex- 
ander I.  In  some  countries,  the  king  can  abdi- 
cate whenever  he  pleases:  but  in  England,  the 
constitutional  relation  between  the  crown  and 
the  nation  being  of  the  nature  of  a  contract, 
the  king  or  queen,  it  is  considered,  cannot  abdi- 
cate without  the  consent  of  Parliament.  It  is, 
however,  said  that  the  king  does  abdicate,  or,  to 
speak  perhaps  more  correctly,  an  al)dication 
may  be  presumed,  and  acted  on  by  the  people. 
if  his  conduct  politically  and  overtly  is  inconsis- 
tent with,  and  subversive  of,  the  system  of  con- 
stitutional government  of  which  the  qualified 
monarchy  of  his  oHice  forms  part.  At  the  con- 
ference between  the  two  Houses  of  Parliament 
previous  to  the   passing  of  the   statute   which 


ABDOMEN. 

settled  the  crown  on  William  III.,  it  would 
appear  that  the  word  "abdicated"  with  reference 
to  King  .James  II.  was  advisedly  used  instead 
of  '"deserted" — the  meaning,  it  is  presumed, 
being  that  King  James  had  not  only  deserted  his 
ofiice,  but  that  by  his  acts  and  deeds,  of  which 
the  said  desertion  formed  part,  he  had,  in  view 
of  the  Constitution,  ceased  to  have  right  to  the 
throne.  From  this  it  may  be  inferred  tliat  abdi- 
cation was  considered  to  have  a  twofold  political 
signification,  involving  maladministration  as 
well  as  desertion.  The  Scottish  convention,  how- 
ever, more  vigorously  and  distinctly  resolved 
that  King  James  "had  forefaulted  [forfeited] 
the  crown,  and  the  throne  was  become  vacant." 
ABDI-CHIBA,  ab'de-che'ba.  A  governor  of 
Jerusalem  in  the  time  of  Ameuophis  IV.  ( 1403- 
1385  B.C.).  If  correctly  read,  his  name  probably 
designates  him  as  a  "servant  of  Hadad,"  the 
storm-god;  but  it  possibly  was  pronounced 
"Ardu-hipa,"  and  may  have  been  of  Mitanian 
origin  (compare  Pu-hipa,  Tadu-hipa,  Gilu-hipa). 
Among  the  letters  found  at  El  Amarna,  the  site 
of  Amenophis's  capital,  Chut-t-Aten,  in  1888, 
Alxli-chiba  was  the  author  of  at  least  six  (179- 
184,  edition  V)inckler)  and  possibly  of  two  more 
(185,  180).  He  is  also  mentioned  in  a  letter  of 
Shuwardata  (105).  These  letters  are  written  in 
ctmeiform  characters  and  in  a  Babylonian  lan- 
guage that  was  no  doubt  spoken  by  a  part  of  the 
population  in  Syria.  Abdichiba  apparently  came 
from  a  family  that  had  reigned  over  Jerusalem 
before  tlie  Egj'ptian  conquest,  as  he  repeatedly 
reminded  Amenophis  of  the  fact  that  his  father 
and  mother  had  not  made  him  a  ruler,  but  the 
strong  arm  of  the  great  king,  probably  Ameno- 
phis III.,  had  given  him  the  territory  of  his 
ancestors,  who  may  have  been  Mitanians  or  Hit- 
tites.  As  king  he  seems  to  have  had  a  certain 
control  over  the  governors  of  Palestine.  With  his 
neighbors.  Shuwardata  at  Kilti-Keilah  and  Mil- 
kili  at  Gath.  he  was  often  at  war.  He  was 
accused  by  them  of  having  plotted  with  the 
Khabiri  and  taken  possession  of  Kilti,  while  he 
charged  them  with  the  capture  of  Bit  Ninib,  a 
town  belonging  to  the  countrj'  of  Urusalim.and 
with  betraying  the  land  into  the  hands  of  the 
Khabiri.  These  were,  perhaps,  the  Hebrews  in 
the  widest  sense,  including  Israelitish,  Edom- 
itish,  Moabitish,  and  Ammonitish  clans.  The 
term  .\biru  probably  means  simply  a  "nomad,"  a 
"wanderer."  Neither  the  Eg^-ptian  resident,  nor 
the  king  himself,  seems  to  have  trusted  Abdi- 
chiba. and  the  correspondence  leaves  it  doulitful 
whetlier  the  relief  he  asked  for  was  finally  grant- 
ed. These  .Vmarna  letters  have  been  published  by 
Winckler.  in  Dn-  ThontdfeJfnnrl  ran  El  Amarna 
(Berlin.  1889-90),  and  KeUiufschriftUche  Biblio- 
thek.  Volume  V.  (1896).  They  have  also  been 
translated  or  discussed  by  Halevy  in  Journal 
.l.9m/ir/HC  (Paris,  1891).  and  in  Rrnip  fifmitique 
(Paris,  1893),  bv  Zimmern  in  Zriturhrift  fiir  As- 
.iiiriolofiie  (Leipzig.  1891.  vi  :  245-263),  by  Jas- 
trow  in  Journal  of  Biblical  Litrratnre  (Boston, 
1892.  95-124").  and  Frhraira.  ix  :  24-40  ( Chicago) , 
b\-  Pclattre  in  Revue  des  qnrstiona  hiKforiqiirn 
(Paris.  18901.  and  by  Eduard  Meyer  in 
T.niiritiara    (Berlin.   1897). 

ABDIEL,  .-ib'di-ol  (Heb.  'ahJ,  ser^\ant  +  'el. 
god).  In  Parndise  Lost,  the  faithful  nngel  who 
oiinosod  the  revolt  in  heaven  begim  by  Satan. 

ABDOTHEN.     Tlie  lower  cavity  of  the  human 


ABDOMEN.  19 

body.  The  trunk  of  tlio  liuiiian  body  i.s  divided 
by  the  diaphragm  into  two  cavities — the  upper 
being  the  tliorax  or  eliest,  and  tlie  lower  the 
abdomen  or  belly.  Hoth  tlie  cavity  and  the 
viscera  it  contains  are  included  in  the  term 
abdomen.  It  contains  the  liver,  pancreas, 
spleen,  and  kidneys,  as  well  as  the  stomach, 
small  and  large  intestine.  The  lower  bowel, 
the  Madder,  and  internal  organs  of  generation 
lie  in  the  lowest  part  of  the  cavity,  which  is 
called  the  pelvis.  The  abdomen  is  lined  by  a 
.serous  membrane,  the  peritoneiuii.  which  is 
folded  over  the  viscera,  allowing  them  a  certain 
freedom  of  motion,  but  keeping  them  in  their 
proper  relations  to  each  other.  The  abdomen  is 
divided  by  two  imaginary  horizontal   lines  into 


ABD-TJL-HAMID. 


ABDOMEN. 


three  principal  zones — the  upper  or  epigastric, 
the  middle  or  umbilical,  and  the  lower  or  hypo- 
gastric. Tliose  are  again  s>il)dividecl  by  two 
vertical  lines — the  side-divi-^ions  being  called  the 
hypocliondriac.  lumbar,  aiid  iliac  regions  res])ec- 
tivcly:  tlie  names  epigastric  and  umbilical  aie 
then  applied  in  a  restricted  sense  to  the  middle 
divisions  of  the  two  u])per  zones,  while  the 
middle  division  of  the  lower  is  called  the  hypo- 
gastric region.  The  abdominal  viscera  are  sub- 
ject to  many  important  acute  and  cbronie  ad'ec- 
tions.  to  which  reference  is  made  under  their 
res])eetive   headings. 

.\ni)O.MEN.  In  entomology,  the  last  of  the 
three  parts  into  which  the  body  of  an  insect  is 
divided.  It  is  composed  of  a  number  of  rings  or 
segments,  frequently  nine,  more  or  less  distinct 
from  each  other.  It  contains  a  portion  of  the 
intestines  and  the  sexual  organs.  In  the  perfect 
insect,  its  segments  bear  no  legs  or  wings:  but 
the  hind  legs  of  larv;r  or  caterpillars,  which 
afterward  disappear,  are  attached  lo  them.  In 
many  insects,  its  last  segments  bear  appendages 
of  various  uses  and  forms,  as  pincers,  stings, 
Imrcrs  or  ovipositors,  etc.  See  Anatomy  and  au- 
thorities thi're  referred  to. 

ABDUCTION.      The    English    coiiiniou    law- 


treated  the  abduction  or  unlawful  taking  away 
of  a  wife,  or  of  a  child,  or  of  a  ward,  as  a  tort 
or  private  wrong  to  the  husband,  the  parent,  and 
the  guardian  respectively,  and  gave  to  the 
injured  party  an  action  for  damages.  The  term 
is  generally  used,  however,  to  denote  the  crim- 
inal ollense  of  forcibly  taking  away  a  woman 
for  the  purpose  of  marriage  or  of  prostitution. 
As  distinguished  from  kidnapping  (i|.v.)  the 
crime  has  been  defined  by  statute  in  England 
for  more  than  five  hundred  years.  It  is  also 
a  matter  of  statutory  definition  and  regulation 
in  this  country.  The  tendency  of  our  legis- 
lation is  to  extend  the  scope  of  the  term  far 
beyond  its  conunon  law  limits.  For  example, 
many  statutes  declare  that  a  person  receiving 
or  harboring  a  female  under  the  age  of  sixteen 
years  for  the  ])ur[)ose  of  jirostitution  is  guilty 
of  abduction.  Nor  is  his  ignorance  of  the  girl's 
age  any  defense  to  the  al)duction.  lie  acts  at 
his  peril  in  so  harboring  or  receiving  her.  Under 
early  English  statutes,  abduction,  as  therein 
defined,  w'as  a  felony  without  benefit  of  clergy 
(q.v.).  In  this  country  it  is  a  crime,  punishable 
bj'  imprisonment  for  a  term  of  years  or  by  a 
heavy  fine  or  by  both.  See  the  authorities 
referred  to  under  CuiMiNAt,  L.wv.  Consult: 
Wharton,  Criminal  Law  (Philadelphia,  18'.)6)  ; 
Harris,  Principles  of  the  Criminal  Laic  (London, 
181I0). 

ABD-TIL-AZIZ,  iibd'yl-a-zez'  (1830-70).  Thir- 
ty-second sultan  of  the  Ottoman  Empire.  He 
was  the  second  son  of  JIalinuid  II.,  and  suc- 
ceeded his  brother  Abd-ul-Jledjid.  .lune  25,  I8G1. 
He  placed  the  government  in  the  hands  of  two 
ministers,  Fuad  and  Ali,  both  of  reforming  ten- 
dencies, largely  reduced  his  own  civil  list,  and 
aroused  hopes  of  an  imiirovement  in  the  condi- 
tion of  his  empire.  Hut  he  soon  lapsed  into 
reckless  extravagance,  and  the  projected  reforms 
proved  meaningless  and  inelfective.  In  ISti"  he 
made  a  tour  of  Europe,  visiting  the  Paris  Expo- 
sition and  several  capitals,  in  which  he  spent  a 
vast  amount  of  money  to  little  piirpose.  In  1808 
he  reorganized  the  council  of  state,  and  promised 
more  reforms  in  response  to  the  demand  of  the 
Powers:  b>it  the  revolt  in  Crete  took  his  atten- 
tion, war  with  Greece  was  probable,  and  the 
state  of  the  treasury  precluded  efficient  reform. 
The  Greek  difficulty  was  arranged  by  a  confer- 
ence at  Paris.  Ismail  Pasha,  Khedive  of  Egypt, 
took  advantage  of  the  Sultan's  financial  embar- 
rassment to  obtain  important  concessions,  among 
them  a  new  law  of  succession  for  his  house,  and 
nearly  all  the  prerogatives  of  an  independent 
sovereign.  The  Sultan's  affairs  grew  desperate. 
The  friendship  of  France  had  been  Turkey's  main 
reliance  during  the  Second  Empire.  When  that 
fell  in  1870.  the  rival  liussian  influence  became 
powerful  at  Constantinople.  When  the  revenues 
were  so  low  as  barely  to  pay  interest  on  the 
public  debt,  a  revolt  began  in  Herzegovina  ( 187.5) , 
and  soon  extended  to  Bosnia.  .\  renewed  and 
more  imperative  demanil  of  the  Powers  for  radi- 
cal reforms  was  embodied  in  the  ".Andrfissy  note" 
(December  ."JO.  187.5),  and  the  progressive  consti- 
tutional party  (Young  Turkey)  demanded  the 
Sultan's  abdication.  lie  was  deposed  by  the 
council  of  ministers  May  ,30.  1870.  and  on  .Tune 
4  was  found  dead  in  his  apartments,  whether  by 
assassination  or  suicide  is  not  known. 

ABD-UL-HAMID  (-ibd'ul-ha-med')  I.  (172.5- 
89).     Sultan  of  Turkev  and  son  of  Ahmed  IIT. 


ABD-TJL-HAMID.  20 

He  succeeded  his  brother,  ilustapha  III.,  in  177  1. 
He  was  twice  involved  in  wars  witli  Kussia.  By 
the  treaty  of  Kuteliuk-Kainardji  in  1774,  he 
was  eompelled  to  relinquish  his  suzerainty  over 
the  Crimea  and  other  Tartar  regions.  In  1788 
the  town  of  Otchakov  was  stormed  by  the  Rus- 
sians, a  humiliation  that  doubtless  hastened  his 
death.  Consult:  Assim  Tarischi,  History  of  Abd- 
ul-Hamid  and  Seliin  III.  (Constantinople,  1867). 

ABD-UL-HAMID  II.  (1842—).  Thirty- 
fourth  sultan  of  the  Ottoman  Empire;  second  son 
of  Abd-ul-Medjid.  lie  was  born  September  22, 
1842,  and  succeeded  to  the  throne  August  31, 
187C,  on  the  deposition  of  his  elder  brother, 
Murad  V.  Abd-ul-Hamid  came  to  power  at  a 
trying  time.  The  insurrection  in  Bosnia  and 
Herzegovina  was  gaining  strength,  Servia  had 
declared  open  war  upon  Turkey,  and  Russia  was 
fomenting  the  spirit  of  dissatisfaction  in  the 
Slav  states  tributary  to  Turkey.  The  party  of 
Young  Turkey,  led  by  Midhat  Pasha,  attempted 
to  establish  a  parliamentary  government  and  to 
escape  European  control  just  when  the  aid  of 
Europe  was  needed  against  Russia.  The  savage 
measures  taken  to  suppress  the  revolt  in  Bul- 
garia and  the  failure  of  all  Turkish  promises 
of  reform  quickly  alienated  the  Powers,  who 
gave  Russia  a  free  hand.  The  Czar  declared  war 
in  April,  1877,  a  Russian  army  at  once  invaded 
Turkey,  and  advanced  almost  to  Constantinople. 
Turkey  was  saved  only  by  European  jealousy 
of  Russia.  The  treaty  of  San  Stefano  between 
the  belligerents  was  materially  modified  by  the 
Congress  of  Berlin  (q.v. ),  but  even  then  Turkey 
lost  its  remaining  claims  to  suzerainty  over 
Montenegro,  Servia.  and  Rumania,  yielded  all 
real  sovereignty  in  Bulgaria,  Bosnia,  and  Herze- 
govina, and  lost  some  of  its  territory  in  Asia 
Slinor.  The  Sultan  was  bound  by  the  treaty  to 
introduce  reforms  in  the  Christian  provinces, 
but  he  failed  to  do  this,  and  adopted  a  distinctly 
reactionary  policy.  He  took  into  his  own  hands 
the  direction  of  the  council  of  jninisters  and 
made  his  government  a  personal  one.  The  Arme- 
nian outrages  from  1895  to  180(3  at  first  aroused 
the  signatory  powers  of  the  Berlin  treaty  to  ac- 
tion, but  the  international  relations  at  the  time 
were  complicated,  and  Abd-ul-Hamid  pursued  the 
policy  he  has  always  so  well  understood  of 
eluding  all  demands  for  redress  or  reform  by 
means  of  promises  and  excuses,  playing  off  the 
rival  Powers  against  one  another  in  the  meantime. 
In  1897  a  rising  in  Crete,  brought  on  by  Turk- 
ish misgovernment.  was  assisted  by  Greece  and 
led  to  war  between  that  country  and  Turkey, 
in  which  Greece  was  defeated  and  forced  to  con- 
sent to  a  rectification  of  the  Thessalian  border 
in  favor  of  Turkey  and  to  pay  an  indemnity. 
Conditions  which  threatened  to  revive  the  East- 
ern question  in  an  acute  form  were,  however, 
obscured  by  events  in  other  parts  of  the  world, 
and  Turkish  affairs  remained  quiet.  Abd-ul- 
Hamid  stands  as  the  representative  of  the  con- 
servative orthodox  Mohammedan  party,  and  has 
revived  the  pretension  to  the  actual  headship  of 
Islam.  Consult:  Bgrard,  La  Turquie  et  I'Hellc- 
nisme  contemporain  (Paris,  1893),  and  La  poli- 
tique du  sultan  (I'aris,  1807)  :  E.  Oilier.  Ca.i- 
sell's  Illustrated  History  of  the  Russo-Turkish 
War  (London,  1900),  voluminous,  but  not  criti- 
cal. 

ABDTJLLAh    IBN    ABDUL    MTTTTALIB, 

ah-di.il'la  'b'n  ali'di.il  ninnt-tii'U-b  (. 545-570 ) .     The 


ABD-UL-MEJII). 


father  of  Jlohannned.  He  was  an  only  child, 
and  was  about  to  be  sacrificed  by  his  father 
when  another  person  interfered  and  persuaded 
the  father  to  sacrifice  a  hundred  camels  instead 
of  the  boy.  Soon  after  Abdullah  married  Amina, 
a  daughter  of  Wahb,  and  of  this  union  came  the 
great  Prophet.  So  beautiful  was  Abdullah  that, 
according  to  tradition,  on  the  day  of  his  marriage 
two  hundred  maidens  of  Mecca  died  of  broken 
hearts. 

ABDULLAHI  IBN  SEYID  MOHAMMED, 
ab'dul-Ui'liA  "b'n  sa-yed'  mo-lium'med  ( e.  1845- 
99).  The  "Khalifa,"  foUower  of  the  Mahdi 
(q.v.),  whom  he  succeeded  in  1885.  He  extended 
his  dominions  in  the  Sudan,  but  incurred  the  en- 
mity of  his  followers  by  his  cruelty.  He  was 
defeated  b}'  the  British  under  Kitchener  at  Om- 
durman,  September  2.  1898,  and  iied  to  the  south 
with  the  remainder  of  his  army,  which  was  dis- 
persed in  the  battle  of  Om  Debrikat,  November 
24.  1899.  .'\b(lullahi  himself  being  slain. 

ABD-TJL-LATIF,  iibd'ul-la-tef  (1160-1231). 
A  prolific  Arabian  writer,  physician,  and  trav- 
eler. He  was  born  at  Bagdad,  and  died  while 
on  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca.  His  early  training 
consisted  in  memorizing  not  only  the  Koran,  but 
also  works  on  law,  philology,  and  the  standard 
poets.  He  then  went  to  Damascus,  whither  Sal- 
adin  had  assembled  the  learned  men  of  the 
Mohammedan  world.  Thanks  to  the  liberality 
of  Saladin  and  with  letters  of  introduction  from 
his  vizier,  Fadhl.  Abd  -  ul  -  Latif  was  able  to 
travel  to  Egypt,  and  in  Cairo  he  sought  out  the 
great  Jewish  doctor  and  philosopher,  Maimoni- 
des.  At  Cairo  he  taught  medicine  and  philos- 
ophy (subjects  with  tlie  Arabs  generally  com- 
bined), but  his  love  of  tiavel  brought  him  to 
Damascus  again  and  to  Aleppo.  Of  the  many 
works  of  Abd-ul-Latif  only  one.  The  Account  of 
Egypt,  is  generally  known.  This  was  translated 
into  Latin  by  White  (1800)  and  into  French  by 
De  Sacy  (I'siO),  Relation  dc  I'Eyyple  (Paris, 
1810).  Consult  Brockelmann,  (lesehichte  der 
arabischen  Littcratur   (Weimar,  1898). 

ABD-TTL-MEDJID,  abd'ul-mc-jed'  (1823- 
61).  Sultan  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  from  1839 
to  1801.  He  succeeded  his  father,  Mahmud  II., 
at  a  time  when  the  Turkish  Empire  was  threat- 
ened by  the  ambition  of  the  great  Viceroy  of 
Egypt, "  Mehemet  Ali.  The  army  had  been  de- 
feated and  dispersed  by  the  Egj-ptians  in  the 
battle  of  Nisib,  June  24,  1839.  "and  there  was 
nothing  to  hinder  the  victorious  Ibrahim  Pasha 
from  advancing  on  Constantinople,  where  .a  large 
party  was  favorable  to  the  elevation  of  Mchenict 
Ali  to  the  sultanate.  The  intervention  of  the 
Christian  Powers  saved  the  house  of  Osnian. 
The  treaty  of  July,  1849,  from  which  France 
kept  aloofi  rescued  the  young  Sultan  from  sure 
destruction.  Meheniet  Ali  had  to  submit.  No- 
vember 27,  1840,  to  the  restriction  of  his 
power  to  Egj'pt;  and  the  treaty  of  July,  1841, 
to  which  France  subsequently  adhered,  settled 
the  future  dependent  relation  of  Egv'pt  to  Tur- 
key. The  Sultan,  though  not  very  energetic  in 
body  or  mind,  proceeded  in  the  path  of  reform 
begun  by  Selini  III.  and  Mahmud  II.  In  this 
he  had  for  his  chief  adviser  Reshid  Pasha,  an 
intelligent  and  humane  Mussulman,  educated  in 
France.  The  aim  of  all  his  measures  was  to 
place  the  Ottoman  population  on  a  footing  with 
the  civilized  inhabitants  of  the  West.  A  proc- 
lamation   of    the    rights    of    all    suhjects,    irre- 


ABD-TJL-MEDJID.  21 

spective  of  creed,  was  issued  in  the  hatli-shcrif 
of  November,  ISaO.  Tliis  was  followed  by  lui- 
meious  refoinis  in  all  departments,  and  in  18r>0 
llu-  adherents  of  all  religions  were  deereed  equal 
in  llie  eye  of  the  law.  The  good  purpose  of 
Ihe-e  decrees  was  obstructed  by  the  illiberal 
.Moslems,  and  thev  remained  practically  a  dead 
letter.  In  1850,  the  Sultan,  in  spite  of  the  men- 
aies  of  Kussia  and  .Vu^lria.  rctused  to  >;ive  up 
Kossuth  and  the  other  Hungarian  refugees.  The 
Sultan  had  a  specially  ditlieull  part  to  play  dur- 
ing the  war  with  Russia  (1S.5:!-.')I>)  and  the 
diplomatic  negotiations  consequent  to  it.  Abd-ul- 
:Medjid  was  the  thirty-first  sovereign  of  the  race 
of  ()snnin.  He  died  .'lune  2.5.  1801.  and  was  sue- 
ceiided  by  his  brother,  Abdul-Aziz  (q.y.).  See 
Ottoman  Kmpibk. 

ABD-UR-RAHMAN,  iilid'i.ir-ni'nian  (1778- 
18.")!l).  Sultan  uf  Fez  ami  ^loroccu  from  1823 
to  I8.ji».  He  was  the  riglitful  heir  to  the  throne 
when  his  father  died  in  17".U,  but  was  super- 
seded by  an  uncle,  after  whose  death  he  as- 
cended the  throne.  The  first  four  years  of  his 
reign  were  ocevipied  in  quelling  insurrections. 
Austria  refused  to  pay  the  tribute  for  safety 
against  jdrates:  but  the  Sultan  wisely  adjusted 
the  dispute  by  relinquishing  tliis  s(nt  of  black- 
mail, fcirmerly  levied  on  Kiudpean  ships  in  the 
Mediterranean.  The  war  waged  by  Abd-el-Kader 
(q.v. )  against  the  French  in  Algeria  involved  the 
Sultan  in  its  events.  He  was  overwhelmed  by 
liugeaud  in  the  battle  of  Isly  (1844).  and  forced 
to  turn  against  Abd-el-Kader.  The  Sultan  was 
a  zealous  JIussnhnan  without  the  fanaticism 
connnon  among  his  countrymen ;  as  a  ruler  he 
wa>  strict  and  often  cruel.  He  was  succeeded 
by   his  eldest   son,   Sidi-ilohammed    ( 1803-187.'J) . 

ABD  -  UR  -  RAHMAN  ( 'Ann  al-Raiimax  ) 
KiiAX.  iiiin  or  kiin  (  18.30-inOl) .  Ameer  of 
Afghanistan  from  ISSO  to  1!)01.  In  the  confu- 
sion succeeding  the  death  of  his  grandfather. 
Dost  Mohammed  (q.v.)  (1803),  he  sup])Orted 
the  pretensions  of  his  father,  Afdal,  against  his 
uncle.  Shere  Ali.  who  had  been  named  as  his  suc- 
cessor by  the  late  Ameer.  The  rebellion  was 
at  first  successful,  and  Abd-ur-Rahman  was  in- 
stalled as  Governor  of  Balkh.  where  he  showed 
himself  a  wise  ruler.  In  180S  Sheie  Ali  over- 
threw his  rivals  and  Abd-ur-Ralnnaii  took  refuge 
in  Russian  territory,  living  at  Samarcand  upon 
a  liberal  Russian  pension.  In  187!)  he  returned 
to  his  old  province  of  I'.alkh.  which  had  always 
been  well  disposed  toward  him.  Yakub,  the  son 
of  Shere  Ali,  who  had  been  set  up  as  anjeer  by 
the  English,  and  then  left  to  shift  for  himself, 
was  unable  to  maintain  order,  and  a  new  war 
with  the  English  was  followed  by  his  deposition. 
Abd-ur-Rahman.  in  .Inly,  1880,  was  recognized  as 
ameer  by  the  leading  eliiefs  and  was  confirmed 
by  the  .Anglo-Indian  Government,  from  whom 
he  received  a  subsidy  of  £100.0110  a  year  and 
mu<'h  in  the  way  of  military  equipment.  It  had 
been  feared  from  his  previous  relations  with 
Russia  that  he  would  be  favorable  to  Russian 
designs;  but  he  at  once  resumed  the  pro-Knglish 
j)olicy  of  his  giandfather.  and,  by  a  firm  and 
skillful  control  of  the  tribes  of  his  realm,  he 
preserved  the  integrity  of  .\fghanistan  and 
maintained  peaceful  relations  with  his  powerful 
neiglibors.  In  1893  the  mountainous  district  of 
Kafiristan.  in  the  Hindu  Kush,  was  ceded  to  him 
by  tlie  .'\nglo-Indian  (iovernmcnt,  and  in  1896 
he  completed  the  subjugation  of  the  tribes  in- 


A'BECKETT. 

habiting  it.  He  was  an  intelligent,  well-meaning 
ruler,  of  a  masterly  habit,  which  stood  him  in 
good  stead  in  dealing  with  his  halt-barbarous 
people.  He  was  nuide  by  the  British  (govern- 
ment a  (irand  Commander  of  the  Bath  and  also 
of  the  Star  of  India.  He  died  October  3,  1901, 
after  a  brief  illness,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
eldest  son,  llabib  Ullah  Khan,  who  for  some 
time  had  borne  an  active  i>art  in  the  govern- 
ment and  shown  much  administrative  ability. 
See  .\i'(;ilA.MSTAN.  Consult:  J.  .\.  Gray,  At  the 
Court  of  the  Awccr  (London,  189.5);  Wheeler, 
The  Ameer  Abdurrahman  (lx)ndon,  1895);  Mo- 
hammed Khan  (Mir  Munshi  Sultan),  The  Life 
of  Ahdur  1,'ahman,  Ameer  of  Afghanistan  (Lim- 
don,  1900). 

ABEAM'.     See  Beahing. 

ABECEDARIANS,  a'be-se-da'ri-anz  (Lat. 
alireciliiriu!<.  pertaining  to  the  alphabet,  with 
reference  to  the  first  four  letters).  Followers  in 
1522  of  Nikolaus  Storcli,  a  clothmaker  of  Witten- 
berg, a  disciple  of  Luther,  who  imbibed  enthusi- 
astic views  commonly  called  Anabaptist.  They 
bidieved  it  was  best  not  to  know  how  to  read, 
since  the  Holy  Spirit  would  convey  knowledge  of 
the  Scriptures  directly  to  the  understanding,  and, 
as  education  might  be  a  hindrance  to  salvation, 
they  encouraged  pupils  to  leave  the  schools  and 
universities  and  learn  trades. 

A'BECE'DARY  CIR'CLES.  Rings  of  let- 
ters described  around  magnetized  needles,  by 
looking  at  which  friends  at  a  distance  were  sup- 
posed to  be  able  to  communicate  with  each  other. 

A'BECK'ET,  Thomas.    See  Becket,  Thomas. 

A'BECKETT,  Arthur  William  (1844—), 
son  of  (:;ill)ert  Abbott  A'Beekett.  An  English 
journalist,  novelist,  and  dramatist.  He  was  born 
in  London,  and  edited  various  comic  periodicals 
and  monthly  m.agazines.  In  the  Franco-Prus- 
sian War  he  was  special  correspondent  for  the 
London  iitandard  and  Globe.  In  1874  he  became 
a  member  of  the  staff  of  Punch,  and  in  1896 
editor  of  the  Naval  and  Military  Magazine.  He 
is  the  author  of  several  novels  and  dramas. 

A'BECKETT,  Gilbert  Abbott  (1811-56). 
An  English  humorous  writer,  born  in  London. 
He  became  a  lawyer,  and  during  the  last 
seven  years  of  his  life  was  a  metropolitan  police 
magistrate,  in  which  offii'c  he  displayed  marked 
ability.  He  also  devoted  nnich  of  his  time  to 
literature;  was  the  founder  of  Figaro  in  Lon- 
don, the  precursor  of  Punch,  and  became  one  of 
the  original  staff  of  the  latter.  He  wrote  more 
than  sixty  plays,  and  with  Mark  Lemon  drama- 
tized The  Chimes  and  other  works  of  Charles 
Dickens  at  his  request.  He  was  the  author  of  the 
Comic  Flistonj  of  England;  Comic  History  of 
Home;  Comic  Blackstonc,  and  Quizziology  of  the 
liritish   Drama. 

A'BECKETT,  Gilbert  Arthur  (1837-91). 
An  English  journalist  and  dramatist,  son  of 
Gilbert  Abbott  A'Beekett  (1811-50).  He  was 
born  in  London  and  studied  at  Westminster 
School  and  Christ  Church,  O.xford.  He  wrote 
many  successful  songs  and  the  librettos  of  Can- 
terbury Pilgrims  and  Saronarola,  operas  by  Dr. 
Villiers  Stanford,  and  was  joint  author,  with 
Herman  Merivale,  of  the  poetic  drama  entitled 
The  White  Pilgrim.  During  the  last  twelve 
years  of  his  life  .\'I5eckett  was  one  of  the 
best-known  contributors  to  Punch. 


ABEEL.  2 

ABEEL,  a-bel',  David,  D.D.  (1804-46).  An 
early  missionary  to  China.  He  was  born  in 
New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  June  12,  1804;  gradu- 
ated from  the  theological  seminary  of  the  Re- 
formed Dutch  Clmreb  in  his  native  town,  and 
became  pastor  in  Athens,  Greene  County,  N.  Y., 
1826.  Failing  health  compelled  his  resignation 
after  two  years  and  a  half;  in  1829  he  went  to 
China  as  chaplain  in  the  employ  of  the  Seamen's 
Friend  Society;  in  1830  was  transferred  to  the 
American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign 
Missions.  He  traveled  extensively  through  the 
Far  East,  and  on  his  way  home  invalided  he 
went  over  Europe  and  excited  great  interest  in 
missions  there,  as  he  did  later  in  America  (1833- 
36).  Again  thinking  himself  well  enough  for 
service,  he  returned  to  China  in  1838,  but  was 
compelled  by  his  increasing  debility  to  return 
home  (1845)  and  died  in  Albany.  N.  Y.,  Sep- 
tember 4,  1846.  As  one  of  the  earliest  and  most 
devoted  of  missionaries  he  is  still  remembered. 
His  addresses  in  London  led  to  the  formation  of 
the  Undenominational  Society  for  Promoting 
Female  Education  in  the  East  (1834)  ;  in  1844 
he  founded  the  Amoy  Mission,  now  under  the 
Reformed  Dutch  Church  Foreign  Jlission  Board. 
He  published  Journal  of  a  Residence  in  China 
(New  York,  1834;  second  edition,  1836);  The 
Missionary  Convention  at  Jerusalem,  or  An  Es- 
hibition  of  the  Claims  of  the  IV'ord  of  the  Gospel 
(1838).  For  his  biography,  consult  G.  R.  Wil- 
liamson   (New  York,   1848). 

ABEILLE,  a'ba'y'  or  a'bal',  Jonas  (1800—). 
A  French  military  surgeon.  He  was  born  at  St. 
Tropez  and  was  educated  at  Montpellier.  As  the 
chief  physician  of  the  military  hospitals  of  Paris 
he  was  one  of  the  principal  promoters  of  the 
method  of  treating  cholera  with  strychnine. 
After  1857  he  devoted  himself  more  particularly 
to  private  practice  and  to  scientific  research. 
His  publications  include:  Mcmoires  sur  les  in- 
jections iodfes  (1849;  honored  with  a  gold 
medal  by  the  Medical  Society  of  Toulouse)  ; 
Etudes  cliniques  sur  la  paraplegic  independante 
de  la  myilite  (1854;  prize  awarded  by  the  Medi- 
cal Academy  in  185.5)  ;  Chirurgie  cotiservative 
(1874);  Traitement  des  maladies  chroniqucs  de 
la  matrice  (second  edition,  1878). 

A'BEL  (Heb.  hcbel,  perhaps  kindred  to 
Babyl.  ablu,  son).  According  to  Genesis 
(iv  :  2),  the  name  of  the  second  son  of  Adam 
and  Eve.  In  contrast  to  his  brother  Cain,  who 
is  an  agiiculturist,  Abel  is  a  shepherd.  At  the 
close  of  the  year,  Cain  offered  up  of  the  fruits  of 
the  field  as  a  sacrifice  to  Jehovah,  while  Abel 
brought  the  firstlings  of  his  fiock.  The  latter's 
gift  was  regarded  with  greater  favor  by  Jehovah, 
in  consequence  of  which  Cain's  jealousy  was 
aroused  and  he  slew  his  brother  Abel.  (See 
Cain.)  The  story  of  Abel  and  Cain  has  been 
interpreted  as  expressing  the  superiority  of  the 
pastoral  over  the  agricultural  life.  Abel,  the 
shepherd,  is  a  representative  of  the  Palestinian 
nomad — tho\igh  of  the  milder  type — of  which 
the  patriarchs,  Abraham^  Isaac,  and  Jacob  were 
examples;  whereas  Cain  represents  the  Canaan- 
ites,  who,  at  the  time  that  the  Hebrews  entered 
the  country,  had  already  advanced  to  the  agri- 
cultural stage.  The  Hebrews  subsequently  be- 
came agriculturists  themselves,  but,  while  the 
ideal  held  up  in  the  Pentateuchal  legislation  is 
agricultural  life,  still  the  preference  for  the 
older  nomadic  conditions  crops  out  from  time  to 


2  ABEL. 

time,  and  as  late  as  the  days  of  Jeremiah  we 
find  a  party  known  as  the  Rechabites  who  not 
only  eschewed  agricultural  life,  but  continued  to 
live  in  huts  and  would  not  taste  wine,  which 
was  the  symbol  par  excellence  of  agricultural 
pursuits.  The  story  of  Cain  and  Abel  is  con- 
ceived in  the  spirit  of  the  Rechabites,  just  as 
there  is  a  trace  of  the  same  spirit  in  the  implied 
disapproval  of  vine  culture  in  the  tale  of 
Noah's  drunkenness  (Genesis  ix  :  20-21).  In  rab- 
binical theology,  however,  and  under  the  totally 
different  view  that  was  taken  of  early  biblical 
traditions,  Abel  became  the  tj'pe  of  the  pious, 
devoted  worshipper  of  Jehovah  who  sufl'ered 
martyrdom  for  his  devotion.  This  view  is  re- 
flected in  the  interpretation  put  upon  the  story 
in  the  New  Testament  where  (e.g.,  Hebrews 
xi  :  4)  Abel's  sacrifice  is  qualified  as  "better" 
than  Cain's,  and  Abel  himself  becomes  the 
"righteous"  man,  the  possessor  of  true  faith,  in 
contrast  to  Cain  the  wicked  (Matthew  xxiii  :  35; 
Luke  xi  :  51).  The  etymology  of  Abel  is  doubt- 
ful. The  Jewish  view,  which  gives  to  the  name 
the  force  of  "vanity,"  is  untenable ;  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  to  connect  the  name  with  the  Assyr- 
ian aplu  (or  ablu),  which  means  "son,"  is  also 
open  to  serious  objections,  since  there  are  no 
traces  of  Babylonian  or  Assyrian  influence  in  the 
story  itself. 

ABEL,  Carl,  Ph.D.  (1837—).  A  German 
philologist.  He  was  born  in  Berlin,  and  after 
studying  at  the  universities  of  Berlin,  Munich, 
and  Tubingen,  acquired  familiarity  with  all 
Euro])ean  and  several  Oriental  tongues.  He  was 
at  one  time  a  lecturer  at  Oxford,  taught  philo- 
sophical and  comparative  linguistics  at  the  Hum- 
boldt Academy  of  Science  at  Berlin,  and  was 
linguistic  assistant  in  the  German  Foreign  Office. 
His  publications  in  German.  French,  and  English 
are  numerous.  The  works  inchule  Linquistic 
Esmys  (1880),  Slavic  and  Italian  (1881),  and 
Russland  und  die  Lage  (1888). 

ABEL,  Sir  Frederic  Augustus,  K.CB.,  D.C.L. 
(1827-1902).  An  English  chemist.  He  was 
born  in  London  and  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  the 
science  of  explosives.  He  was  consulting  chem- 
ist to  the  British  War  Department  from  1854 
to  1888,  and  was  knighted  in  1883.  Abel  intro- 
duced important  improvements  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  gun-cotton  and  of  blasting  gelatine.  He 
published:  Gun-cotton  (1806);  The  Modern  His- 
tory  of  Gunpowder  (1866)  ;  On  Explosive  Agents 
(1872):  Researches  in  Explosives  (1875),  and 
Electricity  Applied  to  Explosive  Purposes  {ISSi) . 
He  wrote  also,  in  conjunction  with  (jolonel  Blex- 
am,  a  Handbook  of  Chemistry. 

ABEL,  .ToHN  (1857 — ).  An  American  physio- 
logical chemist.  He  was  born  in  Cleveland. 
Ohio,  received  his  education  at  the  LTniversity 
of  Michigan,  and  studied  medicine  in  Germany. 
On  his  return  to  this  country  he  became  con- 
nected with  the  Johns  Hopkins  University, 
where  he  was  made  professor  of  pharmacology 
in  the  medical  school  and  head  professor  of 
physiological  chemistry.  Dr.  Abel's  researches 
have  formed  valuable  contributions  to  our  knowl- 
edge of  the  fluids  and  tissues  of  the  animal  body. 

ABEL,  a1)el,  Karl  Friedrich  (1725-87).  A 
German  musician,  celebrated  as  a  player  on  the 
viola  da  gamba.  He  was  born  at  Cothen,  be- 
came a  pupil  of  Sebastian  Bach,  and  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Royal  Polish  Band  at  Dresden.  He 
went  to  England  in  1759  and  six  years  later  be- 


ABEL. 

came  chamber  nuisioian  to  Queen  Charlotte, 
lie  also  won  consjiderable  distinction  as  a  com- 
poser. 

ABEL,  HI)?],  Niels  Henrik  (1802'2n).  One 
of  the  most  brilliant  matlieiiiaticians  of  the  first 
part  of  the  nineteenth  century.  He  was  born 
at  Kindii,  Norway.  After  a  course  of  study  at 
the  University  of  (hristiania.  he  spent  two  years 
in  Paris  and  Berlin,  and  in  1S2T  was  made  in- 
structor at  the  university  and  at  the  school  of 
enfrineerinj;  in  Christiania.  lie  wa.s  the  first  to 
demonstrate  with  rigor  the  impossibility  of 
solving  by  the  elementary  processes  of  algebra 
general  equations  of  any  degree  higher  than  the 
fourth.  His  chief  contributions  were  made  to 
the  theory  of  functions,  of  which  he  was 
one  of  the  founders.  An  important  class  of 
elliptic  functions  (see  Fl'NCTio.NS)  are  known 
as  Abelian.  from  their  discoverer.  There  are 
also  Abelian  groups  and  bodies.  The  Binomial 
Theorem  (q.v. ),  proved  by  Newton  and  Euler, 
received  at  the  hands  of  Alicl  a  wider  generaliza- 
tion, including  tlie  cases  of  irrational  and  im- 
aginary exponi'nts.  .Abel's  works,  in  two  vol- 
innes,  were  pul>lished  by  the  Norwegian  Govern- 
ment (Christiania,  first  edition,  1839;  second 
edition,   1881). 

ABELARD  (Engl,  ab'f-ljird;  Fr.  d'bfl'lar'), 
PiKURK  (1079-1142).  A  scholastic  philosopher 
and  theologian,  the  boldest  thinker  of  tlie  twelfth 
century.  His  name  is  comnioidy  given  in  the 
French  form,Ab(!lard  or  Abailard;  in  Latin,  Abai- 
lardus  or  Bajolardus.  But  these  are  epithets  of 
uncertain  meaning,  the  latter  form  perhaps  from 
hajulus,  "teacher,"  the  former  from  nhcilh-.  a 
bee.  He  had  properly  the  single  name  Peter, 
I'llrus,  to  which  was  adilcd  rfr  I'nltiix,  from  the 
]>lace  of  his  birth,  Le  Pallet,  or  in  Latin  form 
Palatinus,  a  village  eight  miles  southeast  of 
Nantes,  Brittany,  western  France.  He  was  born 
in  1079.  His  father  was  the  knight  Berengar, 
lord  of  the  village;  his  mother  was  Lucia,  and 
they  both  later  on  entered  monastic  orders.  An 
irrepressible  thirst  for  knowledge  and  a  special 
pleasure  in  scholastic  logic  moved  Abflard  to 
resign  his  rights  of  primogeniture  in  favor  of 
his  younger  brothers.  His  first  teacher  was  Ros- 
cellin,  the  Nominalist,  during  the  latter's  stay 
at  Vanncs.  He  wandered  about  in  search  of 
knowledge  until  he  arrived  in  Paris,  where  he 
became  a  [)upil  of  William  of  Champeanx,  the 
Kealist.  the  hea<l  of  the  cathedral  school  of  Notre 
Dame  there,  but  soon  incurred  the  hatred  of  his 
master,  whom  he  puzzled  by  his  wonderful  subtle- 
ty. He  fled  to  Melun.  where  he  started  a  school 
of  his  own,  and  afterward  to  (\n'beil,  admired, 
yet  persecuted,  wherever  he  went.  He  then  re- 
turned home  for  the  restoration  of  his  health. 
With  renewed  strength,  he  returned  to  Paris, 
rcconcilc<I  himself  with  his  opponents,  and 
incdded,  by  his  influence  as  .a  lecturer,  some  of 
tlie  most  distinguished  men  of  his  age,  among 
whom  were  the  future  Pope  Celestine  TT.,  Peter 
Lombard,  Berengar,  his  future  apologist,  and 
Arnold  of  Brescia. 

At  this  time,  however,  there  also  lived  in 
Paris  with  her  uncle,  the  canon  Fnlbert.  H^lolse, 
the  eightcenyear-old  natural  daughter  of  a  cer- 
tain canon  .Tohn.  of  Paris,  already  remarkable 
for  her  beauty,  talents,  and  attainments.  At  Ful- 
bcrt's  invitation  .Vb^lard  made  his  home  with 
him  and  instructed  H^Ioise.  She  soon  kindled 
in  the  breast  of  Abelard,  then  thirty-eight  years 


23 


ABELABD. 


old,  a  violent  and  ovcrwiiclming  passion,  which 
was  returned  by  Ht/loise  with  no  less  fervor. 
The  lovers  were  happy  together  until  AbClard's 
ardent  poetical  effusions  reached  the  ears  of  the 
canon,  lie  sought  to  separate  the  lovers ;  but  it  was 
too  late.  They  lied  together  to  Abijlard's  home, 
where,  in  his  sister  Dionysia's  house,  H^lolse 
gave  birth  to  a  son,  and  was  privately  married 
to  AbC'lard  with  the  consent  of  her  uncle.  Not 
long  after,  HSloise  returned  to  Fulbert's  house, 
and  denied  the  marriage,  that  her  love  might  be 
no  hindrance  to  Abflard's  advancement  in  the 
Church.  Enraged  at  this,  and  at  a  second 
flight  which  she  took  with  Ab^lard  to  the  Bene- 
dictine nunnery  at  Argenteuil,  where  she  had 
been  educated,  a  flight  which  Fnlbert  interpreted 
as  showing  AbCdards  desire  to  rid  himself  of  his 
wife,  Fnlbert,  in  order  to  make  him  canonically 
incapable  of  ecclesiastical  preferment,  caused 
Ab^^lard  to  be  emasculated.  !n  deep  humiliation 
Alx^lard  entered  as  a  monk  the  abbey  of  St. 
Denis,  in  Paris,  and  induced  H^lolse  to  take  the 
veil  at  Argenteuil. 

But  the  lectures  which  he  began  to  give  soon 
after  exposed  him  to  new  persecutions.  The 
synod  of  Soissons  (1121)  declared  his  opinions 
on  the  Trinity  to  be  herctic.nl.  In  punishment 
he  had  to  throw  the  otTending  treatise  into  the 
fire,  t«  read  publicly  the  .\thanasian  Creed,  and 
to  endure  a  brief  imi)risonment.  The  charge  seems 
to  have  been  that  he  declared  Cod  the  Father 
alone  omnipotent.  But  what  cost  him  more  was 
his  declaration  that  St.  Dionysius,  the  patron 
saint  of  France,  had  been  bishop  of  Corinth,  and 
not  of  Athens,  for  this  stirred  up  court  opposi- 
tion. He  fled  from  St.  Denis  to  the  monastery  of 
St.  Aigulph,  near  Provins,  but  was  brought  back 
and  compelled  to  retract  his  opinions  concerning 
St.  Dionysius.  He  was  then  allowed  to  go,  and 
went  to  Nogent-sur-Seine,  and  there  built  of 
reeds  and  rushes  a  little  chapel  to  the  Trinity, 
and  later,  on  account  of  the  press  of  hearers, 
who  planted  their  huts  about  him.  a  structure 
of  wood  and  stone,  which  he  called  the  Paraclete, 
the  ruins  of  which  exist  to  this  day.  But  as 
everything  lie  did  i-auscd  adverse  criticism,  so 
the  name  that  he  gave  the  building — because  it 
brought  into  unusual  prominence  the  Holy  Spirit 
— involved  him  in  fresh  trouble,  and  he  left  the 
Paraclete  and  accepted  the  abbotship  of  St. 
Gildas  de  Rhuys,  on  the  coast  of  Lower  Brit- 
tany. It  was  a  sore  trial  for  him  to  contend 
with  the  Tinruly  monks.  ^Meanwhile,  the  eon- 
vent  at  Argenteuil,  where  Hfloise  was  prioress, 
had  been  broken  up.  Ab^'lard  transferred  H^lolse 
and  her  nuns  to  the  Paraclete  and  made  her 
abbess  of  the  nunnery  he  established.  It  was  a 
long  distance  from  St.  Cildas.  but.  as  spiritual 
director,  he  frequently  went  thither.  Naturally, 
he  fell  under  suspicion  of  renewing  his  intimacy 
with  H^'lolse,  and  so  the  lovers  finally  restricted, 
themselves  to  writing.  The  corresi)ondence  has 
been  preserved.  On  his  part  it  was  sternly  re- 
pressive, to  the  point  of  coldness;  on  her  part 
the  heart  expressed  its  love,  which  was  an  inex- 
tinguishable passion,  both  of  body  and  soul,  and 
tyrannical  in  its  demands  upon  the  monk  who 
had  ceased  to  share  it. 

After  ten  more  years,  AbC-lard,  fearing  an 
attack  upon  his  life,  left  his  monks  and  became 
a  wandering  teacher  again.  Two  men,  Norbert 
and  the  nnich  more  famous  Bernard  of  Clair- 
vaux,  were  always  on  his  track.  The  Council 
of  Sens,  held  in  1141,  under  the  influence  of  Ber- 


ABELARD. 


24 


nard,  condemned  his  teachings.  Abehird  ap- 
pealed to  the  Pope,  Innocent  II.,  and  the  latter 
confirmed  the  finding  of  the  council  and  ordered 
his  imprisonment  and  the  burning  of  his  writ- 
ings. Abelard  submitted,  reconciled  himself  with 
Bernard,  and  was  on  his  way  to  Rome  to  undergo 
his  punisment,  w'hen  lie  came,  worn  out,  to  the 
great  monastery  of  Cluny.  Through  the  friendly 
offices  of  Peter  the  Venerable,  its  noble  abbot,  he 
received  permission  to  retire  thither  and  a  re- 
lease from  the  order  of  imiirisonment.  He  had 
not  long  to  live,  but  the  time  was  well  spent  in 
religious  exercises  and  in  occasional  teaching. 
He  had  the  scurvy,  and  when  his  ills  increased 
he  was  removed  to  the  priory  of  St.  Marcel  at 
C'halon-sur-Saone,  where  the  air  was  better,  it 
was  thought.  There  he  died,  on  April  21,  1142. 
His  body  was  brought  to  tlie  Paraclete.  Heloi'se 
died  there  May  10.  11(U,  and  was  laid  l)eside  him. 
In  the  cemetery  of  Pere-la-Chaise  in  Paris  their 
bones  are  now  united  in  one  tomb,  erected  in 
1817.  The  figure  of  H^loise  is  really  that  of  a 
lady  of  the  Dormans  family,  and  was  originally 
in  the  chapel  of  the  old  College  de  Beauvais. 

The  loves  of  Abelard  and  Heloi'se  have  made 
them  immortal,  but  Abelard  also  has  importance 
as  a  philosopher.  He  followed  .John  Scotus 
Erigena,  the  ninth  century  philosopher,  in  his 
rationalism.  He  planted  himself  on  Aristotelian 
ground  (although  .t11  he  knew  of  Aristotle  was 
derived  from  Latin  quotations),  and  did  much 
to  overthrow  the  prevalent  realism.  His  great 
service  in  the  development  of  ethics  was  in  his 
treatment  of  conscience  by  dwelling  upon  the 
subjective  aspect.  He  also  has  great  importance 
as  the  virtual  founder  of  the  University  of  Paris, 
in  a  sense  the  mother  of  mediaeval,  and  .so  of  all 
modern,  universities.  This  claim  may  be  made 
for  him  because  he  first  established  schools  inde- 
pendent of  the  monastic  and  episcopal  schools. 
In  Melun,  in  Corbeil,  and  then  in  Paris,  at 
Nogent-sur-Seine,  he  had  thousands  of  pupils, 
and  gave  an  extraordinary  impetus  to  learning 
and  speculation.  His  example  as  an  independent 
teacher  was  followed.  Out  of  such  gatherings 
of  students  at  a  later  date  the  universities  were 
evolved.  By  his  appeal  to  reason  instead  of 
authority,  he  showed  the  path  to  intellectual 
freedom,  and  thus  became  the  prophet  of  the 
freedom  of  speech  and  research  for  which  the 
universities  properly  stand.  In  both  these  re- 
spects his  pedagogical  importance  is  great,  and 
30  his  particular  opinions  and  errors  are  of  com- 
paratively small  moment. 

His  works,  all  written  in  Latin,  first  printed  at 
Paris,  1616,  are  in  Migne.  Patrol,  hat.,  clxxviii. 
(Paris,  1855)  ;  also  as  edited  by  Victor  Cousin: 
Ouvrages  incdits  d'.ihrlard  (Paris,  18.36)  ; 
Opera  (1849-50,  2  volumes)  ;  to  which  should 
be  added  his  Kic  ct  'Nov,  editors,  E.  L.  T.  Henke 
and  G.  L.  Lindenkohl  (Marburg.  1851)  ;  Phinetus 
Virginum  fsrnel  super  filia  Jeptw  ffnladitce, 
editors,  W.  Meyer  and  W.  Brambaeh  (Munich, 
1886)  :  Tractal'ua  rfc  T'nitatcet  Trinitate  [discov- 
•ered,  edited,  and  published  by  R.  Stolzle  under 
title:  Ahclards  1121  zu  Hoissons  verurthcilter 
Tractatus,  etc.]  (  Freiburg-im-Breisgau,  1891); 
liis  JJymnnrius  Pararlitensiun,  editor  fJ.M.  Dreves 
(Paris,  1891).  The  letters  of  Abi^lard  and 
Heloi'se  have  very  often  been  published  and  trans- 
lated, e.g..  the  Latin  text  and  the  French  trans- 
lation by  Grftird  (Paris.  1885)  ;  complete  Eng- 
lish translation  by  J.  Berington,  with  the  Latin 
text,  The  History  of  the  Lives  of  Abeillard  and 


ABEN. 

Heloise  (Birmingham,  1788),  edited  by  H.  Mills 
(London,  1850)  ;  0.  W.  Wight,  Lives  and  Letters 
of  Abelard  and  Heloise  (New  York,  1861). 
Consult:  A.  S.  Richardson,  Abelard  and 
Heloise  (New  York,  1884),  with  selections  from 
their  letters;  H.  Morton,  Love  Letters  of  Abe- 
lard and  Heloise  (New  York,  1901),  and  the 
standard  biography  of  Abelard  by  C.  de  E^musat 
(Paris,  1855).  For  recent  literature  concern- 
ing him.  consult: -H.  Hayd,  Ahiilard  und  seine 
Lehre  iin  Verhiiltniss  zur  Kirehe  und  ihrem 
Dogma  (Ratisbon,  1863):  H.  V.  Sauerland, 
Abiilard  und  Heloise  (Frankfort,  1879)  ;  P.  Tiby, 
Deux  eouvens  au  moyen  age,  ou  rabbage  de  Saint 
Gildas  et  le  Paraelet  au  temps  d'Abilard  et 
d'Heloise  (Paris,  1851);  C.  A.  Wilkens,  Peter 
Abiilard  (Bremen.  1851);  C.  de  R^musat,  Abe- 
lard, a  drama  (Paris,  1877)  ;  S.  M.  Deutsch, 
Abalards  Verurtheilung  zu  Sens,  ll-'il,  nach  den 
Quellen  kritiseh  dargestellt  (Berlin,  1880)  ;  E. 
Vacandard,  Abelard,  sa  lutte  avee  Saint  Bernard, 
.sy;,  doetrine,  sa  methode  (Paris,  1881);  S.  M. 
Deutsch,  Peter  Abiilard,  ein  kritischer  Theologe 
des  zimlften  Jahrhunderts  (Leipzig,  1883)  ;  A. 
Hausrath,  Peter  Abiilard  (Leipzig,  1893);  G. 
Compayre,  Abelard  and  the  Origin  and  Earlg 
History  of  Universities  (New  York,  1893)  :  F. 
Thaner,  Abiilard  und  das  canonische  Recht 
(Gratz,  1900)  ;  J.  MeCabe,  Peter  Abelard  (New 
York,  1901). 

ABEL  DE  PUJOL,  a'bel'  dc  pu'zhfil',  Alex- 
andre Denis  (1785-1801).  A  French  historical 
painter.  He  was  born  at  Valenciennes,  and  was 
a  pupil  of  the  famous  David,  whose  classicism 
he  followed.  In  1811  he  won  the  Grand  Prix  de 
Rome  with  "Jacob  Blesses  the  Children  of 
Joseph."  He  painted  numerous  frescoes  in  St. 
Sulpice  and  other  churches,  in  the  Bourse,  the 
Louvre,  and  Fontaincbleau.  In  1835  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts. 
His  other  works  include  "The  Death  of  Britan- 
nicus"  (first  medal,  1814),  "Csesar  on  the  Day 
of  His  Assassination,"  "The  Baptism  of  Clovis" 
(in  the  cathedral  of  Rheims),  and  "Peter  Raises 
the  Dead." 

ABELE,  a-bel'.    See  Poplar. 

ABELIN,  ii'bc-len,  .Johann  Piiilipp  (  ?- 
1633?).  A  German  historian.  He  wrote  under 
the  names  Philipp  Arlanibiius,  Abeleus,  and 
Johann  Ludwig  Gottfried,  or  Gothofredus.  He 
produced  a  number  of  works  still  consulted, 
including  the  Arma  Suceica  (1631-34),  and  the 
Inventarium  Suecice  (1632),  descriptions  of 
military  events  of  the  time.  He  also  founded  the 
Theatrum  Europtvum^  (1635-1738),  a  serial 
work  on  contemporary  history,  for  which  he 
compiled  the  first  two  volumes.  Others  of  his 
publications  are  a  Historische  Ghronika  (1033) 
and  an  Historia  Antipodum  (1655).  See  Droysen, 
Arlanibiius,    Codofredus.   Abelinus    (1864). 

ABELITES,  a'bel-Its,  or  ABELONIANS, 
,"i'bel-o'ni-onz.  A  very  small  Christian  sect  of 
the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries,  found  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Hippo,  in  North  Africa.  Their 
chief  distinction  consisted  in  marrying  but 
abstaining  from  matrimonial  intercourse,  in  or- 
der not  to  propagate  original  sin.  They  kept  up 
their  numbers  by  adopting  children.  They  held 
that  Al)cl  so  lived,  because  the  Bible  mentions 
no  children  of  his. 

ABEN,  ii'ben.  A  form  used  in  the  translit- 
eration of  Oriental  names  instead  of  the  more 
correct  Ibn    ("son"). 


ABENCERBAGES.  25 

ABENCEHRAGES,  aljriis.  ■ra'jf-z;  .S>.  pron. 
!il)«>irtha-r;i'Hfts.  Ai-cordiii';  to  U'j;cnil.  a  nolile 
Moorish  race  whose  struggles  with  the  family 
of  the  Zegris  and  tragical  destrurtion  furni>sh 
the  material  for  the  historical  romance  Iais  _</iu'»- 
ras  civih's  dc  (Iraiiadd.  by  Gines  Perez  de  Uita 
(Saragossa,  1395).  From  this  Chatcauhriand 
composed  the  novel  Lc  lUrnici-  dcx  Alx  ii(tiu(ifS. 
There  was  actually  a  family  of  Abencerrages, 
powerful  in  the  lirst  quarter  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  but  their  history  has  l>een  so  embel- 
lished by  legend  that  it  is  ditlicult  to  say  what 
is  true  and  what  is  imaginary. 

ABEN-ESRA,  ji'ben  ez'ra.  properly  Abha- 
uam-bex-^Meiimux-Ksra  (1002-lUi7).  One  of 
the  most  learned  Jews  of  his  time,  lie  was  born 
in  Toledo,  Spain.  He  died  .January  23,  1107. 
He  was  master  of  the  Hebrew,  Arabic,  and  Ara- 
nuiic  languages;  had  considerable  knowledge  of 
mathematics,  astronomy,  and  medicine:  was  a 
scientific  observer  and  a  poet,  ami  generally  dis- 
tinguished himself  as  a  sagacious  thinker.  He 
visited  Lombardy.  Provence,  France,  Egypt,  and 
England,  and  passed  the  later  years  of  his  life 
in  Koine,  everywhere  teaching  grammar,  theology, 
astronomy,  etc.,  besides  writing  works  on  He- 
brew grammar  and  composing  numerous  poems. 
His  Commentaries  on  the  Old  Testament  are  the 
most  important- of  his  works,  though  his  scientific 
method  occasioned  opposition  upon  the  part  of 
the  Talnuulists.  He  also  prodviced  some  treatises 
on  astrology,  since  published  in  Latin.  The  schol- 
astic writers  mention  AbeuEsra  as  Auknake  or 
AvENAKU.  An  Englisli  translation  of  his  Isaiah 
has  been  made  by  M.  Friedliindcr  ( London, 
IST.'i).  of  his  Cant'icirs  by  H.  .J.  Mathews,  with 
original  text  in  Friedliindcr,  Miscetlani/  of  Be- 
l^reir  Literature,  vol.  ii.   (London,  1877). 

ABENSBEBG,  li'bens-berK.  A  town  in  Low- 
er Bavaria,  Germany,  situated  IS  miles  south- 
west of  Ratisbon  (Map:  Germany,  1)  4).  It  has 
warm  springs  and  ruins  of  a  castle.  On  April 
20.  ISOO.  Xapoleon  here  defeated  the  Austrians 
and  opened  the  way  for  tlie  victory  of  Eckmiil. 
Pop.,   1900.  2202. 

ABEOKUTA,  ii'liAA-kiio'tA.  A  large  city  in 
Yoruba,  on  the  Slave  Coast,  north  of  Lagos,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  rail  (Map:  .Xfrica. 
E  4).  It  is  situated  on  an  elevated  plain  and 
is  surrounded  by  a  higli  mud  wall.  It  occupies 
an  extensive  area,  but  its  general  appearance  is 
that  of  a  very  large  village.  .Abeokuta  was 
founded  about  182.)  as  a  result  of  the  shive- 
luuiling  expeditions  of  the  natives  of  Dahomey 
and  lba<lon.  It  was  founded  ])rimarily  on  the 
lines  of  a  confederation  for  mutual  protection, 
each  tribe,  however,  preserving  its  individual 
rights  and  customs.  The  population  is  esli- 
mated  at  from  80,000  to  l.SO.OOO.  and  consists 
of  about  GO  difl'erent  tribes.  The  inhabitants 
are  diietly  artisans  and  traders,  and  show  nuieh 
skill    in    tlieir    buildings 


and    textiles, 
ab'er-brothlk. 


See 


ABERBROTH  WICK, 
Arbkoath. 

AB'ERCARN  (Celtic .  aicr.  conlluence  of 
rivers  -{■  tiacl.  earn,  a  conical  heap  of  stones). 
A  town  in  Jlonmouthsliire.  Englanil,  five  anil  one- 
half  miles  southwest  of  Ponlypool.  It  is  a  pro- 
gressive municipality,  owning  waterworks  and 
cemeteries.  Pojiulation.  mostlv  engaged  in  coal 
mining.  1891.  10,400;  1901,  12,"COO. 
Vol.  I.— 4. 


ABERCROMBY. 

ABERCROMBIE,  :-ib'erkrum'bI,  James.  See 
Aberchomby,  .James. 

ABERCROMBIE.  .loii.v  (1780-1844).  An 
eminent  Scotch  physician.  He  was  born  at  Aber- 
deen, and  graduali'd  in  medicine  at  Edinburgh 
in  180:i.  He  practiced  his  profession  in  the 
Scottish  capital,  and  soon  became  recognized  as 
the  first  consulting  physician  in  Scotland. 
Among  the  honors  bestowed  upon  him  wera  the 
degree  of  M.D.  from  Oxford,  the  rectorship  of 
Marischal  College,  the  vicc-|)residency  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh,  and  the  oOice  of 
physician  in  "or<lin;uy  to  His  Majesty  for  Scot- 
land. Besides  his  professional  writings  he  pub- 
lished huiuiries  Co)ieernin(i  llie  InteUvetual  I'ow- 
ers  (Edinburgh,  1830),  and  I'bilosophti  of  the 
Moral  FecUiiys  (London,  1833),  both  of  which 
attained  a  remarkable  |)opularily.  They  cham- 
])ioned  the  views  of  the  Scotch  school  as  repre- 
senteil  by  Dugald  Stewart,  but  had  no  origi- 
nality, and  therefore  have  now  little  philosoph- 
ical value. 

ABERCROMBY,  ab'er-krinn'bi,  or  Aber- 
cROMBic.  .Jame.s  (ITO(i-Sl).  .\  British  soldier, 
born  at  Glassbangh.  Scotland.  He  entered  the 
army  as  colonel  in  1740.  and  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  major-general  and  sent  to  Amer- 
ica in  17.50,  where  in  17.58  he  replaced  Lou- 
don as  conimander-inchicf  of  the  British  and 
colonial  forces.  On  .luly  8,  1758,  at  the 
head  of  15,000  men,  he  attacked  Ticonderoga 
(q.v.).  but  was  repulsed  with  a  loss  of  fully 
2000  men.  This  attack  was  the  culmination  of  a 
career  of  incapacity,  and  in  September  he  was 
superseded  by  Sir  '.Jeffrey  Amherst.  Returning 
(1759)  to  England,  he  became  a  member  of 
Parliament,  and  was  conspicuous  as  an  upholder 
of  George  lll.'s  colonial  i)olicy.  For  his  record 
as  an  officer  in  America,  consult:  Parkman, 
Monteuhn   and  Wolfe    (Boston,   1884). 

ABERCROMBY,  Sir  Ralph  (1734-1801).  A 
distinguislu'd  British  general.  He  was  born  at 
Menstry.  near  TuUiliody,  Scotland.  October.  1734. 
He  was  educated  at  Rugby,  iind  studied  for  the 
legal  profession  at  l'".iliMl)urgli  and  Leipzig,  but 
preferred  the  army,  and  a  cornet's  commission 
was  obtained  for  him  in  1750.  In  1758  he  accom- 
|)anied  his  regiment  to  (iermany.  where  he  saw 
active  warfare,  and  gained  experience  in  army 
management.  At  the  conclusion  of  peace,  he 
was  stationed  in  Ireland  for  several  years.  He 
married  in  1707.  and  by  1773  had  risen  to  the 
rank  of  lieutenant-colonel.  He  entered  Parlia- 
ment after  a  bloodless  duel  with  his  defeated 
opponent,  and  strongly  opposed  the  American 
war,  a  course  particularlj-  honorable,  as  he 
desired  active  service.  The  war  with  France 
gave  him  his  oi)portunity.  Family  influence  and 
his  reputation  procured  his  promotion  to  be 
nnijor-gencral  of  a  brigade  ordered  to  Flanders, 
where  be  <listiTiguished  himself  so  highly  as  to 
be  publicly  thankeil  by  llie  Duke  of  York.  Under 
him  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  then  Lieutenant- 
Colonel  Wellesley.  conmianding  the  Thirty-third 
Regiment,  received  his  baptism  of  fire.  Aher- 
crond)y  wMS  knighted  on  his  return  to  England  in 
1795.  and  was  surprised  to  find  himself  famous 
as  his  country's  greatest  gener;il.  The  disastrous 
campaign,  however,  bad  shown  him  the  deteri- 
oration in  army  discipline,  and  his  energies  were 
devoted  to  the  rcmganization  of  the  whole  army 
system.  In  1790  he  I'onducted  a  successful  expe- 
dition to  the  West  Indies.     In  1797  he  went  to 


ABERCROMBY. 

Ireland  as  commander  of  the  forces.  He  strongly 
condemned  the  governmental  policy  toward  that 
country,  however,  and  this  caused  his  resigna- 
tion ;  but  he  was  at  once  given  a  similar  appoint- 
ment in  Scotland.  In  1709  he  was  placed  in 
command  of  the  expedition  to  Holland  and  began 
it  brilliantly;  but  he  was  superseded  by  the 
Duke  of  York,  and  the  campaign  ended  ignomin- 
iously.  Abercromby  alone  acquitted  himself 
witli  credit,  and  the  ministry  wished  to  make 
him  a  peer,  but  he  refused  to  have  his  name 
associated  with  a  failure.  In  1800  he  com- 
manded the  expedition  to  the  ilediterranean,  and 
after  some  brilliant  operations  defeated  the 
French  in  the  battle  of  Alexandria,  March  21, 
1801.  During  the  action  he  was  .struck  by  a 
miisket-ball  in  the  thigh;  but  not  until  the  battle 
was  won  and  he  saw  tlie  enemy  retreating  did  he 
show  any  sign  of  pain.  He  was  borne  from  the 
field  in  a  hammock,  cheered  by  the  blessings  of 
the  soldiers  as  he  passed,  and  conveyed  on  board 
the  flag-ship  Foudroyunt.  The  ball  could  not  be 
extracted;  mortification  ensued,  and  seven  days 
later,  on  March  28,  1801,  he  died,  Abercromby 
was  at  once  gentle  and  brave,  clear-sighted  and 
cool  in  deliberation:  in  action,  prompt  and  dar- 
ing. Apart  from  his  qualities  as  a  soldier,  he 
■was  a  man  of  liberal  accomplishments,  free  from 
prejudices,  and  of  sound  practical  judgment. 
The  national  gratitude  to  this  eminent  man  took 
the  form  of  a  peerage  conferred  on  his  widow, 
afterward  enjoyed  by  his  eldest  son,  with  the 
title  of  Baron  Abercromby.  Consult:  J.  Aber- 
cromby, Memoir  of  the  Life  of  .Sir  R.  Abercrom- 
by (Dublin,  1801)  ;  ,T.  Abercromby,  Baron  Dun- 
fermline, Memoir  of  Liciiti  nant-Gcneral  >S'tr 
Ralph  Ahcreromhy    (London,   1801). 

ABERDARE,  -ib'er-dar'.  A  town  in  Gla- 
morganshire, Wales,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Cynon,  four  miles  southwest  of  Mertliyr-Tydvil. 
It  is  situated  in  a  rich  mineral  district,  having 
extensive  coal,  iron,  and  tin  works  (Map: 
Wales,  C  5 ) .  Aberdare  is  connected  with  the 
coast  by  a  canal  and  railway.  Its  growth  has 
been  remarkable.  From  an  unimportant  village 
of  0.500  inhabitants  in  1841  it  has  developed  into 
a  thriving  town  of  38,500  in  1891  and  43,400  in 
1901. 

AB'ERDEEN'  (Celtic  aber.  confluence  of 
waters,  i,e.,  of  the  Don  and  Dee ) .  The  fourth 
largest  city  of  Scotland,  and  the  capital  of 
Aberdeenshire.  It  is  situated  in  the  southeast- 
ern part  of  the  county,  on  the  North  Sea,  about 
95  miles  north  of  Edinburgh  (Map:  Scotland, 
F  2);  It  forms  the  chief  part  of  a  parliamentary 
burgh  of  the  same  name,  and  comprises  all  the 
territory  l.ving  between  the  rivers  Dee  and  Don, 
thus  including  what  was  formerly  known  as 
Old  Aberdeen.  It  has  a  mean  temperature  of 
about  46°  F.,  and  is  about  B6  feet  above  the 
sea  level.  Aberdeen  is  a  handsome  city,  largely 
built  of  granite  quarried  in  the  neighborhood, 
and  is  therefore  known  as  the  "Granite  City." 
Its  streets  are  for  the  most  part  regular  and 
well  paved.  Union  Street,  its  principal  thor- 
oughfare, has  been  described  as  one  of  the 
handsomest  streets  in  Europe,  and  contains 
many  of  the  notable  public  buildings.  Chief 
among  them  are  the  municipal  and  county  build- 
ings, an  imposing  structure  in  the  Scotch  baro- 
nial style.  Nearby  is  "The  Cross,"'  a  curious  mon- 
ument adorned  with  medallions  of  Scottish  mon- 
archs.     At  the  western  end  of  Union  Street  are 


26 


ABERDEEN, 


the  Music  Hall  buildings,  particularly  notable 
in  point  of  architecture,  and  the  Trades'  Hall, 
in  which  are  kept  the  shields  of  the  difl'erent 
incorporated  trades.  Several  of  the  bank  build- 
ings are  tasteful  ediflces.  The  east  and  west 
churches,  although  comparatively  modern,  are 
interesting  from  the  fact  that  they  arc  built  on 
the  site  of  the  ancient  church  of  St.  Nicholas, 
and  are  connected  by  an  old  wooden  tower. 
Among  the  many  other  churches  of  Aberdeen 
the  Roman  Catholic  church  is  notable  for  its 
beautiful  spire,  two  hundred  feet  high,  and  the 
cathedral  of  St.  Machar,  begun  in  1357,  for  its 
severe  simplicity  of  .stjde.  The  River  Dee  is 
crossed  by  four  bridges,  one  of  which,  a  stone 
bridge,  dates  from  1527. 

Among  its  advantages  the  city  has  an  excellent 
harbor  and  immense  floating  docks,  enabling  it 
to  carry  on  a  large  maritime  trade  in  textile 
goods,  agricultural  products,  and  granite.  It  is 
a  large  manufacturing  centre,  the  chief  indus- 
tries including  cotton  spinning,  manufacture  of 
cotton,  woolen  and  linen  goods,  iron  foundries 
and  paper  mills.  Granite  cutting  and  shipbuild- 
ing are  also  quite  important,  although  the  latter 
industry  has  diminished  in. importance  since  the 
days  of  wooden  vessels,  when  the  Aberdeen  clip- 
pers were  famous.  Aberdeen's  means  of  com- 
munication are  excellent.  It  is  at  the  junction 
of  three  railway  lines,  and  is  connected  by 
steamer  with  Leith,  NewTastle,  Hull,  and  Lon- 
don. Its  own  shipping  comprises  about  180 
steam  and  40  sailing  vessels,  tonnage  about  100,- 
000.  Annually  3000  vessels,  representing  a  gross 
tonnage  of  nearly  2,000,000,  clear  the  port.  The 
chief  exports  are  fish,  spirits,  cloth  manvifac- 
tures,  coal  products,  stone,  etc.,  and  the  chief 
imports  barle.v,  wheat  meal,  maize,  oats,  flax- 
seed, sugar,  timber,  paper-making  materials, 
etc.  The  total  value  of  imports  and  e.xports 
averages  annually  £1,100,000  ($5,500,000).  Aber- 
deen is  the  fourth  port  of  importance  in  Scot- 
land. The  United  States  is  represented  there  by 
an  agent. 

Aberdeen  sends  two  members  to  Parliament, 
and  is  one  of  the  most  progressive  of  mu- 
nicipalities. It  has  the  usual  authorities,  con- 
sisting of  a  lord  provost,  bailies,  councilors,, 
etc.  (See  Great  Britain,  paragraph  on  Govern- 
ment.) The  city  owns  and  operates  its  water 
and  gas  works  and  an  electric  light  plant,  as 
well  as  its  electric  tramways,  and  maintains 
public  baths,  markets,  and  two  cemeteries.  It 
is  one  of  the  few  municipalities  which  have 
taken  up  the  question  of  the  proper  housing  of 
the  working  people,  and  as  a  result  it  has  estab- 
lished a  lodging  house  and  erected  several  work- 
men's dwellings.  Aberdeen's  educational  insti- 
tutions are  very  numerous,  and  include  the  Uni- 
versity of  Aberdeen  (q.v. ) ,  established  in  1800  by 
the  consolidation  of  King's  College  of  Old  Aber- 
deen, founded  in  1494,  and  Marischal  College 
of  New  Aberdeen,  founded  in  1593.  In  the  year 
1899-1900  there  were  about  900  students  in 
attendance.  The  university  libra:-y  contains 
about  130,000  volumes.  Among  the  other  col- 
leges and  schools  are  Gordon's  College,  which 
receives  a  yearly  grant  from  the  city,  an  art 
school,  a  navigation  school,  an  ancient  grammar 
school  dating  from  1203,  the  Free  Church  Divin- 
ity College,  and  the  Mechanics'  Institution. 
Among  the  benevolent  and  charitable  institutions 
are  the  Royal  Infirmary,  an  epidemic  hospital 
and  one  for  incurables,  a  large  lunatic  asylum. 


ABERDEEN.  2 

and  a  poorhouse.  Tlic  city  lias  two  fino  public 
parks.  Aberdeen  appears  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury us  a  populous  town.  William  the  Lion 
granted  it  a  charter  in  1179  and  Kobert  Bruee 
extended  its  privileges.  The  Knglish  burned  the 
town  in  133t),  but  it  was  rebuilt  and  named 
New  Aberdeen.  It  sulfered  severely  during  the 
civil  wars  of  the  .seventeenth  century.  A  period 
of  great  prosperity  began  in  ISLH.  with  the 
rediscovery  of  the  art  of  granite  polishing. 
Population  of  royal,  parliamentary,  anil  munic- 
ipal burgh,  1891,  123,000;  19U1,  153,108,  9380  of 
whom  overllow  into  Kincardineshire. 

ABERDEEN.  A  city  and  county  seat  of 
Jlonroe  Co..  -Miss.,  about  130  miles  southeast  of 
Memphis,  Tenn..  on  the  Tombigbee  Kiver.  and  on 
the  Illinois  Central,  the  Kansas  City,  Memphis, 
and  Birmingham,  and  the  Mobile  and  Ohio  rail- 
roads (Map:  Mississippi,  ,T  3).  It  has  grist- 
mills, lumber-mills,  cotton-gins,  and  other  indus- 
trial establishments,  and  is  principally  engaged 
in  the  cotton  trade.  Pop.,  1890,  34-19;  1900, 
5434. 

ABERDEEN.  A  city  and  county  seat  of 
Brown  Co.,  South  J)akota.  280  miles  west  of 
Minneapolis.  Minn.,  on  the  Chicago  and  North- 
western, the  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  St.  Paul, 
and  the  Great  Northern  railroads  (Map:  South 
Dakota,  G  4).  It  has  a  public  library  (Car- 
negie) and  is  the  seat  of  a  State  normal  school. 
The  city  has  important  commercial  interests, 
*and  manufactures  brooms,  mantels,  patent  medi- 
cines, and  artesian  well  supplies.  Settled  in 
1880,  Aberdeen  was  incorporated  in  1882.  The 
government  is  administered  under  a  charter  of 
1800.  which  provides  for  a  mayor,  elected  bien- 
nially, and  a  city  council  which  exercises  powers 
of  confirmation  in  the  executive's  appointments 
of  the  majority  of  administrative  olliiials.  The 
water  works  are  owned  and  operated  bv  the 
municipality.     Pop..   1890,  3182;    1900,  4087. 

ABERDEEN,  fourth  Eari,  of.  Geokoe  n.\M- 
iT.Tox  Gordon  (1784-1800).  A  British  states- 
man. He  was  born  at  Edinburgh,  .lanuary  28, 
1784.  He  was  educated  at  Harrow,  and  in  1804 
took  the  M.A.  degree  at  St.  .John's  College.  Cam- 
bridge. In  1801  he  had  succeeded  to  the  earl- 
dom and  made  a  journey  through  Greece,  which 
is  perpetuated  by  Byron's  satirical  distich, 

"  First  in  the  oat-fed  phalanx  phall  be  seen 
The  traveled  thaue,  Allienian  .\berdcen.'^ 

He  was  elected  a  Scotch  representative  peer  and 
took  his  seat  as  a  Tory  in  December.  ISOti.  In 
1813  he  was  appointed  Ambassadcu'  Extraordina- 
ry to  Austria,  where  he  gained  the  friendship  of 
Metternich,  whom  he  considered  a  pattern  of 
diplomacy.  He  signed  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  as 
one  of  England's  representatives,  on  May  30, 
1814.  He  was  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Viscount 
Gordon.  He  was  foreign  secretary  under  Wel- 
Hngton,  1828  to  1830,  and  under  "Peel,  1841  to 
1846,  in  1834  and  183.5  acting  as  Peel's  war  sec- 
retary. The  general  principle  which  guided  his 
policy  as  secretary  of  state  for  foreign  allairs 
was  that  of  non-interference  in  the  internal  af- 
fairs of  foreign  states,  which,  joined  to  his  well- 
known  sympathy  with  such  statcsnu'U  as  Metter- 
nicli,  exposed  him — not  always  justly — to  the 
suspicion  of  being  inimical  to  the  cause  of  popu- 
lar liberty.  His  gradual  abandonment  of  high 
Tory  |uinciplcs  was  evinced  by  his  support  of  the 
bill  for  the  repeal  of  the  test  and  corporation  acts_ 


•  ABERFOYLE. 

and  of  the  Roman  Calliolic  Emancipation  Act, 
The  cimclusion  of  the  Chinese  \\"ar,  the  .Ashburton 
Treaty,  and  the  Oregon  Treaty  were  the  principal 
^rvices  rendered  to  the  country  during  his 
administration  of  foreign  affairs.  In  18"i2,  on 
the  resignation  of  Lord  Derby,  the  extraordinary 
state  of  parties  necessitated  a  coalition,  and 
Lord  Aberdeen  was  selected  as  the  fittest  man 
to  head  the  lU'W  ministry,  which  for  some  time 
was  cxtrenu'ly  popular.  The  feeble  and  vacil- 
lating policy  displayed  in  the  conduct  of  the 
war  with  Kussia  gradually  undermined  its 
stability,  and  the  disastrous  mismanagement 
brought  to  light  in  the  winter  of  18r)4,  in  all 
departments  of  the  public  business  connected 
with  the  war,  llUcd  up  the  measure  of  popular 
discontent,  and  led  to  his  resigiuition  in  IS.i.i. 
He  <lied  in  London.  December  14,  ISiid.  Consult 
Gordon.  Karl  of  Aherdrcii  (London,  1893). 

ABERDEEN,  seventh  Earl  of.  Sir  John 
Campuei.l  Gdhdo.n  (1847 — ).  A  British  states- 
man. He  was  educated  at  St.  .\ndrcws  and  Uni- 
versity College.  Oxford;  in  1880  was  appointed 
Lord  Lieutenant  of  .Xbcrdeenshire,  and  from  1881 
to  1885  was  lord  high  c(unmissioner  to  the  gen- 
eral assembly  of  the  Church  of  Scotland.  In 
1 880  he  was  appointed  Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland 
by  Gladstone,  and  from  1893  to  1898  was  Gover- 
nor-General of  Canada.  In  1891  he  became  a 
vice-prisichiit  of  the  Hoyal  Colonial  Institute. 

ABERDEEN,  1'niver.sity  of.  A  university 
founded  in  1494  by  the  Bishop  of  Aoerdeen, 
William  Elphinstonc.  In  1505  the  College  of 
St.  Mary,  later  King's  College,  was  foimded 
within  tin'  university.  In  1593  Marischal  Col- 
lege was  founded  by  George  Keith,  Earl  Mari- 
schal of.  Scotland.  In  1800  these  two  were 
united  by  act  of  Parliament  into  the  L^niversity 
of  Aberdeen.  The  students  retain  the  old  divi- 
sions into  four  nations,  Mar,  Buchan,  iloray, 
Angus.  The  officers  are  a  chancellor,  lord  rector, 
vice-chancellor  and  two  secretaries.  There  are 
a  large  number  of  bursaries  or  scholarships,  ag- 
gregating over  £8000.  The  students  nundier 
about  900.  There  are  faculties  of  arts,  science, 
theology,  law,  and  medicine,  with  about  thirty 
professors  and  many  assistants.  The  University 
of  Aberdeen  has  a  library  of  over  130,000  vol- 
umes and  several  nui.seums. 

AB'ERDEEN'SHIRE.  A  maritime  province 
in  the  nrnthcast  division  of  Scotland;  bounded 
north  by  Banffshire  and  the  North  Sea:  east,  by 
the  North  Sea ;  south,  by  Kincardine,  Forfar, 
and  Perth  shires;  west,  by  Inverness  and  BanfT 
shires  (Map:  Scotland.  F  2).  Its  greatest 
length  is  102  miles;  its  greatest  breadth,  50 
miles,  with  flO  miles  of  sea-coast,  and  an  area  of 
1055  sqmire  miles.  It  is  popularly  divided  into 
five  districts.  ^lar,  Strathbogic.  Garioch,  For- 
martin  and  Buchan.  The  principal  towns  are 
Aberdeen,  the  capital,  Peterhead,  Fraserburgh, 
ITuntly,  Kintore,  Inverurii',  and  TurrifT.  The 
chief  industries  are  connected  with  agriculture 
and  sea  fisheries.  Pop.,  1801.  121.100;  1851, 
212.000;  1891,  284,0:ifi;  1901,  304,400.  Consult 
-\.  Smith,  Uistori)  of  Aberdcrnshire  (Aberdeen, 
1875). 

AB'ERDE'VINE'  (origin  unknown) .  A  bird- 
dealer's  name  for  the  English  goldfinch:  also 
abadavine.     See  Siskin. 

AB'ERFOYLE'.  A  village  in  Perthshire, 
Seotlauil.   a    few   miles   south   of  the  Trossachs. 


ABERFOYLE. 


28 


It  and  the  neighboring  Lake  of  Menteith  are  the 
scenes  of  incidents  in  Scott's  Rob  Roy. 

ABERGAVENNY,  ab'er-gan'ni,  or  ab'er-ga- 
ven'ni  (tlie  Roman  Oobamiium) .  A  market 
town  of  Monmouthsliire,  England,  13  miles  west 
of  Monmouth,  beautifully  situated  in  the  valley 
of  the  Usk  (Map:  England,  D  5).  The  town  is 
regularly  and  compactly  built,  and  many  im- 
provements have  of  late  years  been  made.  It  was 
incorporated  in  1890.  St.  Mary's  Church,  which 
was  once  a  tine  cruciform  structure,  and  contains 
many  interesting  monuments,  has  been  spoiled  by 
restorations.  The  castle,  built  by  Hammeline  de 
Baladun,  soon  after  the  Conquest,  is  now  a  ruin. 
There  are  collieries  and  iron  works  in  the  neigh- 
borhood.    Pop.,  1891,  7700;  1901,7800. 

AB'ERNE'THY.  A  village  in  Perthshire, 
Scotland,  on  the  Taj',  about  six  miles  southeast  of 
^Perth  (Map:  Scotland,  E  3).  It  is  believed  to 
'have  been  the  capital  of  the  Picts,  and  for  many 
years  in  the  ninth  century  was  the  seat  of  the 
only  bishopric  in  Scotland.  It  is  chiefly  notable, 
however,  for  its  ancient  round  tower,  like  which 
there  is  only  one  other  in  Scotland.  Pop.,  1901, 
police  burgh,  G23 :   civil  parish,  1270. 

ABERNETHY,  James  (1815-96).  A  Scotch 
civil  engineer.  He  \x'as  born  at  Aberdeen.  In 
1841  he  was  resident  engineer  of  the  Aberdeen 
harbor  works,  and  from  1842  to  18.52  was 
surveying  oflicer  for  the  Admiralty.  He  was  the 
first  to  apply  hydraulic  power  to  the  working  of 
lock-gates,  and  constructed  such  important  works 
as  the  Birkenhead  docks,  the  Hull  docks,  and 
the  Turin  and  Savona  Railway  (Italy),  He 
was  also  the  director  of  the  works  for  the  drain- 
ing of  Lake  Abukir,  Egypt,  by  which  twenty 
thousand  acres  were  reclaimed.  In  1881  he  was 
elected  President  of  the  Institute  of  Civil  Engi- 
neers. 

ABERNETHY,  John  ( 16S0-1740) .  An  Irish 
dissenting  minister.  He  was  born  at  Colerain, 
Ireland,  the  son  of  a  dissenting  Presbyterian  min- 
ister; was  educated  at  Glasgow  and  Edinburgh, 
and  was  licensed  to  preach  before  he  was 
twenty-one  years  old.  He  was  ordained  at 
Antrim  in  1703;  in  1717  he  was  invited  to 
a  congregation  in  Dublin  and  another  in  Bel- 
fast, while  Antrim  desired  him  to  remain. 
The  synod  was  appealed  to  and  decided  that 
he  should  go  to  Dublin,  but  he  declined  and 
remained  at  Antrim.  This  refusal  to  obey  the 
synod  \\'as  unheard  of  and  was  considered  ecclesi- 
astical rebellion,  and  a  fierce  controversy  en- 
sued, the  parties  dividing  into  "subscribers"  and 
"non  -  subscribers."  Though  himself  strictly 
evangelical,  Abernethy  and  his  associates  were 
remotely  the  occasion  of  the  contest  which  ended 
in  eliminating  Arian  and  Socinian  elements  from 
the  Irish  Presbyterian  Chiirch.  In  1726,  Aber- 
nethy and  all  the  "non-suliscribers"  were  turned 
OTit  with  due  ban  and  solemnity,  but  only  four 
years  afterward  he  was  called  to  a  "regular" 
congregation  in  Dublin.  In  1731,  in  the  con- 
troversy regarding  the  test  act,  Abernethy  took 
broad  ground  "against  all  laws  that,  upon  ac- 
count of  mere  differences  of  religious  opinions 
and  forms  of  worship,  excluded  men  of  integrity 
and  ability  frcmi  serving  their  country."  He 
was  a  century  ahead  of  the  time,  and  had  to 
argtie  against  those  who  denied  that  a  Roman 
Catholic  or  a  dissenter  could  be  a  "man  of  in- 
tegrity and  aliility."  Abernethy  was  foremost 
where   unpopular    trutli    and    right   were   to   be 


ABERRATION. 

maintained,  and  his  Tracts,  collected  after  his 
deatli,  did  good  service  for  generations.  He  died 
in  Dublin,  December,  1740.  Consult  Drechal, 
Sermons  of  John  Abernethy,  with  his  Life 
(London,  1748-51). 

ABERNETHY,  John  (1764-1831).  An  emi- 
nent English  surgeon.  He  was  born  in  London. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  John  Hunter;  in  1787  was 
appointed  assistant-surgeon  of  St.  Bartholomew's 
Hospital,  and  in  1815  chief  surgeon.  Soon  after 
his  appointment  he  began  to  lecture  in  the  hos- 
pital on  anatomy  and  surgery,  and  may  be  said 
to  have  laid  the  foundation  of  its  character  as 
a  school  of  surgery.  His  clear,  simple,  and  posi- 
tive style,  illustrated  by  an  inexhaustible  va- 
riety of  apt  anecdotes,  made  him  the  most  popu- 
lar medical  teacher  of  his  day.  In  1813  he  was 
appointed  surgeon  to  Christ's  Hospital,  and  in 
1814  professor  of  anatomy  and  surgery  to  the 
College  of  Surgeons.  His  practice  increased 
with  his  celebrity,  which  the  singular  eccentric- 
ity and  occasional  rudeness  of  his  manners  con- 
tributed to  heighten.  Of  his  works,  the  most  im- 
portant are  his  Observations  on  the  Constitu- 
tional Origin  and  Treatment  of  Local  Diseases 
(1800),  and  his  Lectures  on  the  Theory  and 
Practice  of  Snrgcry  (1830). 

AB'ERRA'TION,  Ciibomatic  (from  Lat. 
ab,  away  +  crrarc,  to  wander,  and  Gk,  XpiJ/ia., 
chroma,  color,  literally  colored  deviation).  A 
phenomenon  observed  when  images  of  an  object, 
emitting  white  light  are  formed  by  a  lens  or 
a  prism,  it  being  observed  that  there  is  then 
not  one  white  image,  but  many  colored  ones, 
which  do  not  occupy  the  same  position,  and  which 
are  of  different  sizes,  thus  producing  a  blurred 
image  with  a  colored  border.  It  is  explained  in 
the  article  Light  that  the  sensations  of  different 
colors  are  due  to  waves  in  the  ether  of  different 
wave-number  or  wave-length,  and  that  these 
waves,  in  passing  through  portions  of  trans- 
parent matter,  such  as  glass,  travel  with  different 
velocities,  depending  upon  their  wave-number. 
As  a  consequence  of  this,  in  passing  through 
lenses  or  prisms,  waves  of  different  wave-num- 
ber have  different  paths.  Wliite  light  is  shown 
to  be  due  to  the  reception  by  the  eye  of  waves 
of  different  wave-number;  or,  in  other  words, 
from  a  "white  object,"  or  an  object  "emitting 
white  light,"  waves  of  different  wave-numbers 
proceed  outward.  These  waves  are  such  that 
each  train  of  waves  of  a  definite  wave-number 
would  produce  in  the  eye  a  definite  color-sen- 
sation, e.g.,  blue,  gieen,  etc.  In  this  sense  we 
may  speak  of  "blue- waves,"  "green-waves,"  etc.; 
and  in  general  white  light  is  due  to  the  recep- 
tion by  the  eye  of  waves  which  cnrres]iond  to  the 
"colors  of  the  spectrum" — violet,  blue,  green, 
yellow,  orange,  red,  and  all  the  intermediate 
shades.  Therefore,  owing  to  tliis  difference  in 
path  in  a  lens  or  prism  of  waves  of  different 
color,  if  an  image  of  a  white  object  is  forined 
there  will  be  a  series  of  images  corresponding 
to  the  different  eoloi's,  these  images  differing  in 
position  and  size,  as  well  as  in  color.  This  re- 
sult is  said  to  he  due  to  the  "chromatic  aberra- 
tion" of  the  lens  or  prism.  (There  are,  of 
course,  ether-waves  which  do  not  affect  the  sense 
of  sight ;  and  any  prism  or  lens  which  is  trans- 
parent to  them  will  in  general  deviate  waves 
of  different  wave-number  differently,  and  so  have 
this  same  kind  of  aberration,  as  ordinary  glass 
lenses  have  for  visible  waves.)      Mirrors  do  not 


ABERRATION. 

have  c'lironiatic  iil)i'ii:itiuii,  as  tlicri'  irf  no  re- 
fraction of  the  rays.  Moreover,  it  is  possible, 
by  conibininf;  two  or  more  prisms  or  lenses,  to 
diminish  greatly  the  aberration.  (See  Aciikoma- 
Tis.M.)  Tile  colors  whieh  are  not  thus  brought 
to  the  same  foius  form  tlie  "secondary  spec- 
trum." 

Kcference  to  tlie  diagrams  will  possibly  serve 
to  e.xplain  the  matter  more  fully.     Fig.  1  shows 


FlQ.  1. 


the  dispersion  (q.v.)  of  a  beam  of  white  light 
on  passing  through  a  prism,  or,  in  other  words, 
its  separation  into  its  constituent  colors. 

In    fig.    2    let    MN    represent    a   convex    lens, 


which  may  be  considered  as  consisting  of  a  num- 
ber of  prisms  and  having  the  same  dispersive 
effect.  Let  A  represent  a  source  of  white  light. 
Considering  a  pencil  which  falls  on  the  lens 
at  c,  where  it  is  refracted,  it  is  found  that 
dispersion  takes  place,  and  the  red  rays  after 
being  deviated  proceed  to  D,  wheie  an  image  of 
the  object  A  is  formed,  while  the  violet  rays 
which  undergo  greater  refraction  proceed  to 
C,  and  there  form  an  image  of  the  object  A. 
Consequently,  if  the  image  at  C  is  examined  with 
an  eye-piece,  or  allowed  to  fall  on  a  screen,  it 
will  be  found  to  have  a  red  border,  while  that 
at  D  will  be  seen  surrounded  by  violet.  When 
correction  is  made  for  chromatic  aberration,  the 
purpose  for  which  the  lens  is  designed  must  be 
considered.  ( See  Telescope.  )  For  photographic 
work  the  violet  rays  aie  reejuired,  and  any  correc- 
tion (see  AciiiioMATisM)  should  aim  to  bring 
them  to  the  desired  focus.  For  a  visual  telescope 
or  microscope  the  yellow  rays  must  be  considered, 
and  such  a  combination  of  lenses  made  that  they 
are  brought  to  the  same  focal  j>lane.  The  chap- 
ters on  optics  in  Miiller-Pouillet's  Lchrhurh  dcr 
Phi/nik  (Brunswick,  1807)  tro;it  the  subject  most 
fully,  as  does  OlazebrooU's  I'luiximl  Optics  (Lon- 
don, 1898).  The  correction  of  this  evil  in  photo- 
graphic lenses  is  extensively  treated  from  the 
theoretical  standpoint  in  S.  P.  Thomjison's  trans- 
lation of  Lummer's  I'holiirimphic  Optics  (London. 
1900). 

ABERRATION,  Sphfrical.  A  term  used  in 
geomctiical  optics  (see  LicnT)  to  express  the 
difTercnce  in  |iath  and  effect  of  rays  of  light 
incident  perpendicularly  and  obliquely  upon  a 
mirror  or  upon  a  surface  separating  two  portions 
of  transparent  matter,  e.g.,  upon  a   surface  of 


29  ABERRATION. 

water.  If  a  source  of  light  is  very  small,  it  can 
be  called  a  "point-source,"  and  can  be  considered 
as  sending  out  "rays  of  light"  in  all  directions, 
like  the  radii  of  a  sphere.  If  one  of  these  rays 
is  perpendicular  to  the  surface  of  the  mirror  or 
to  the  surface  of  separation  of  the  two  media, 
the  rays  near  this  will  form  a  small  cone  or 
"pencil  of  rays:"  and  in  optics  it  is  shown  that 
such  a  per|iciKlicular  pencil  of  rays  always  gives 
rise  by  rellcction  or  refiaition  to  another  pencil 
of  rays  which  meet  in  a  point  called  the  "image" 
or  "focus"  of  the  point-source.  If,  however,  a 
small  cone  or  pencil  of  rays  be  chosen  around 
a  ray  which  falls  obliquely  on  the  mirror  or  sep- 
arating surface,  it  will  give  rise  by  reflection  or 
refraction  to  rays  which  do  not  form  a  cone 
and  therefore  do  not  have  a  point  as  n  focus, 
except  in  the  case  of  a  ])lain  mirror,  such  as  an 
ordinary  looking-glass.  If  the  incident  pencil 
is  narrow,  the  relied ed  or  refracted  rays  will 
have  two  foci,  in  the  form  of  two  short,  straight 
lines,  some  distance  apart  and  perpendicular  to 
each  other.  These  are  called  "focal  lines;"  .-ind 
in  between  them  the  rays  come  the  closest  to 
forming  a  point  focus,  producing  what  is  called 
the  "circle  of  least  confusion."  If  instead  of 
considering  a  narrow  jiencil  of  rays,  we  study  the 
whole  bundle  of  rays  falling  on  the  entire  retlect- 
ing  or  refracting  surface,  it  is  evident  that  the 
rays  are  brought  to  a  focus  on  a  surface  which 
can  be  thought  of  as  due  to  the  combined  efTect 
of  the  short  focal  lines  produced  by  the  indi- 
vidual i)cncils  of  which  the  bundle  of  rays  is. 
composed,  and  which  has  a  cusp  or  projecting- 
point  ending  at  the  point-focus  due  to  the  per- 
pendicular pencil.  A  section  of  this  "caustic 
surface"  is  often  seen  on  looking  down  on  a  cup 
of  coffee  or  a  glass  of  milk,  if  there  is  a  lighted 
lamp  near:  because  the  projecting  sides  of  the 
cup  or  glass  act  as  a  curved  mirror.  An  imme- 
diate consequence  of  spherical  aberration  is  that 
the  image  formed  of  any  object  by  a  curved 
mirror  or  by  a  lens  or  prism  is  not  "sharp."  hut 
blurred,  unless  care  be  taken  to  exclude  the 
oblique  rays.  This  is  done  ordinarily  by  the 
use  of  diaphragms,  such  as  are  seen  in  opera- 
glasses,  photographic  lenses,  etc.  The  smaller 
the  opening  in  the  diaphragm,  so  much  the 
sharper  is  the  image.     See  Cai'stio. 

The  accompanying  diagrams  will  slmw  tlie 
effect  of  spherical 
aberration  in  the 
case  of  spherical 
and  parabolic  mir- 
rors and  convex 
lenses.  In  fig.  1 
parallel  rays  are 
incident  on  a 
spherical  mirror. 
Those  falling  per- 
pendicularly o  r 
near  the  centre  of 
the  mirror  are  re- 
flected to  the 
point  Q,  which  is 
termed  the  princi- 
pal focus  of  the 
mirror.  Tlie  rays 
which  strike  the 
surface  more 
obliquely  do  not 
meet  at  Q  after  re- 
flect i<ui,  b\it  at  points  which  lie  on  the  caustic 
surface    whose    section    is    represented    by    the 


ABERBATION. 

heavy  line  with  a  cusp  at  Q.  In  fig. 2 the  elimina- 
tion of  spherical  aberration  by  the  use  of  a  para- 
bolic mirror  is  shown,  as  here,  by  the  peculiar 
property  of  a  parabola  (q.v. ),  all  rays  parallel 
to  the  axis  are  brought  to  a  point  at  F,  called 
the  focus.     For  this  reason  the  parabolic  mirror 


30 


ABERSYCHAN. 


is  theoretically  the  most  available  for  telescopes 
(q.v.),  but  in  practice  the  construction  of  such 
mirrors  presents  great  difficulties,  which  are  but 
rarely  effectually  surmounted.  The  effect  of 
spherical  aberration  in  the  case  of  a  lens  is 
indicated  in  fig.  3,  where  the  tays  passing 
through  the  lens  near  its  circumference  are 
brought  to  a  focus  at  C,  while  those  lying  nearer 
the  axis  AB  meet  at  or  near  F.  The  foci  for 
intermediate  rays  lie  between  that  point  >and 
C.  From  these  diagrams  the  advantages  obtained 
by  the  use  of  diaphragms  will  be  seen.  The 
oblique  rays,  or  those  which  strike  the  mirror  or 


Fio.  3. 

lens  at  a  distance  from  its  centre,  and  which 
do  not  come  to  a  focus  at  the  same  point  as 
those  passing  through  the  central  portion,  are 
accordingly  cut  off  and  the  image  rendered  more 
distinct.  The  spherical  aberration  of  lenses  can 
be  reduced  by  using  two  or  more  lenses  in  com- 
bination, as  is  done  in  the  case  of  most  photo- 
graphic objectives.  Two  lenses  with  equal  focal 
lengths  can  be  combined,  and  their  effect  is  the 
same  as  a  lens  with  one-half  the  focal  length, 
while  the  spherical  aberration  is  greatly  dimin- 
ished. The  books  of  reference  mentioned  under 
Aberration,  Chromatic,  will  also  supply  ample 
information  on  this  subject. 

ABERRATION  OF  LIGHT.  An  expression 
used  to  describe  the  phenomena  that  arise 
from  the  fact  that  light  requires  appreciable 
time  for  its  transmission  through  space. 
The  motion  of  light  traveling  from  a  star 
or  a  planet  toward  the  earth,  combined  with 
the  earth's  own  motion,  causes  .an  apparent 
displacement  of  the  stars  on  the  sky:   they  all 


appear  to  oceupj'  positions  a  little  different  from 
their  true  ones.  In  explaining  this  phenomenon, 
we  often  use  the  analogy  of  a  man  running  in  a 
rain-storm.  Though  the  raindrops  may  be  fall- 
ing straight  down,  they  will  seem  to  the  running 
man  to  descend  on  his  face  slantingly.  Light, 
too,  may  be  coining  down,  as  it  were,  vertically, 
but  as  the  earth,  with  the  observer  on  it,  is 
hurrying  through  space,  there  will  be  produced  a 
similar  apparent  slant  of  the  light,  and  we  shall 
see  the  stars  displaced  on  the  sky  in  the  direction 
of  the  terrestrial  motion.  But  since  the  motion 
of  our  planet  takes  place  in  a  closed,  oval  curve, 
the  apparent  displacement  of  the  stars  is  now 
in  one  direction,  and  now  in  another,  corre- 
sponding to  the  earth's  position  in  one  or  the 
other  half  of  its  oval  path.  The  result  is  that 
the  stars  themselves  seem  to  move  each  year 
through  a  small  curve;  and  this  is  a  sort  of 
miniature  reproduction  of  the  earth's  orbit 
around  the  sun.  When  the  celestial  body  under 
observation  is  itself  in  motion  with  respect  to 
our  earth,  as  is  the  case  with  the  other  planets 
of  the  solar  system,  a  further  somewhat  analo- 
gous displacement  is  produced.  Astronomers 
therefore  need  to  correct  all  their  observations 
by  a  process  of  calculation,  so  as  to  reduce  them 
to  what  they  would  be  if  no  such  thing  as  aber- 
ration existed.  Aberration  was  discovered  by 
James  Bradley,  and  was  announced  to  the  Royal 
Society  of  England  in  1729. 

The  Constant  of  Aberration.  From  what 
has  been  said  above  it  may  be  seen  that  the 
quantity  of  apparent  displacement  depends  on 
the  velocities  both  of  light  and  of  the  earth. 
The  nature  of  that  dependence  is  quite  sim- 
ple: the  velocity  of  light  is  known  in  miles 
per  second  from  laboratory  experiments ;  the 
amount  of  possible  aberration,  while  inversely 
proportional  to  the  velocity  of  light,  is  large 
in  proportion  to  the  earth's  speed.  If,  there- 
fore, we  could  determine  by  direct  observation 
of  the  stars  just  how  much  they  are  displaced,  it 
would  be  possible  to  calculate  the  earth's  orbital 
velocity  from  the  size  of  the  aberration.  The 
aberration  may  be  determined  by  the  simple 
method  of  observing  a  star  at  intervals  during- 
the  year  and  noting  how  much  its  position 
changes.  If  we  select  a  star  most  favorably 
situated  for  this  purpose,  we  find  that  its 
position  throughout  the  year  will  vary  from  the 
average  by  a  little  more  than  twenty  circular 
seconds.  This  number  (more  exactly  20". 47) 
is  called  the  constant  of  aberration.  To  meas- 
ure this  constant  with  the  utmost  possible  pre- 
cision has  long  been  the  object  of  very  earnest 
efforts :  and  few  other  astronomical  problems 
have  received  so  much  attention  in  recent  years. 
Its  particular  importance,  as  we  have  seen,  is 
due  to  the  computations  rendered  possible  by  a 
knowledge  of  the  constant.  Combined  with  the 
known  velocity  of  light,  it  gives  us  the  earth's 
orbital  velocity  in  miles  per  second.  From  this 
we  get  the  length  of  the  annual  terrestrial  orbit 
in  miles,  and  then  by  a  simple  calculation  we 
find  its  semi-diameter,  or  the  distance  from 
the  earth  to  the  sun.  This  last  is  the  funda- 
mental unit  for  astronomical  measures  of  dis- 
tance, and  its  exact  evaluation  is  considered  the 
most  important  of  all  astronomical  problems. 
See  Parallax,  section  Solar  Parallax:  Sun. 

ABERSYCHAN.  ."ib'f rsik'an.  A  town  in 
Monmouthshire,  England,  aliout  10  miles  north 
of  Newport,  in  the  coal  district   (Map:  England, 


ABERSYCHAN. 


31 


C  5).  Tticio  aie  iniiiicioiis  collieries  and  iron 
foumlries.      Pop.,    1891,    15,300;    I'JOl,    17,800. 

AB'ERT,  John  James  (1788-1803).  An 
American  military  en<;iiieer.  He  was  horn  in 
Shephorilstdwn.  \'irginia.  and  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1811,  but  rcsi;,'nod  from  the  army  and 
practiced  law  in  \\'asliinf,'ton.  lie  served  as  a 
private  in  the  battle  of  Bladcnsburg.  Auj;ust  24, 
1814.  Later  in  the  same  year  he  joined  llie  corps 
of  enj;incers,  and  in  1838  had  liccome  colonel  in 
command  of  the  topofjraphical  bureau.  He  was 
retired  in  18(')1.  Colonel  Abert  e.\ercised  an  im- 
portant inlluence  in  the  development  of  the 
earlier  en;..'ineerinf;  works  of  the  Government. 

AB'ERTIL'LERY.  A  town  in  Monmouth- 
shire, Kiifihiiiil,  fciiir  and  one-half  miles  northwest 
of  Pontypool.  Population,  ohieflv  engaged  in 
eoal-mining,   1801.   10.8.50:   1!)01,  22",000. 

ABERYSTWITH,  ilb'er-ist'with.  A  favorite 
watering-jilace  and  summer  resort  in  Cardigan- 
shire, \Vales,  on  Cardigan  Bay,  about  50  miles 
north-northeast  of  Swansea  (Map:  Wales, 
H  4).  On  a  hill  above  the  town  stand  the  ruins 
of  an  old  castle  ereclcil  by  Gilbert  de  Strong- 
l>ow.  Adjoining  it  is  the  I'niversitv  College  of 
Wales,  established  in  1872.  Pop.,  in'  1801,  6700; 
1001,  8000. 

ABERYSTWITH,    Universitt   College   of. 

See    W.VI.KS.    L'.NIVtK.SITY   OF. 

ABES'SA.  A  damsel  in'  Spenser's  Faerie 
(}uic,ii  I  I.  iii.),  who  personified  abbeys  and  con- 
vents. When  Una,  in  search  of  the  Red  Cross 
Knight,  called  out  to  her,  Ahessa.  frightened  at 
the  lion,  ran  into  the  house  of  Blind  Supersti- 
tion and  clnsed  the  door,  which  the  Iii>n  broke 
open.  The  meaning  is,  that  when  Truth  came, 
the  abbeys  .nnd  convents  were  alai'nied  ancl  barred 
her  out,  but  TIenry  VIII.  (the  lion)  broke  in  the 
door. 

ABEY'ANCE  (0.  F.  nhfinnee.  from  a,  Lat.  ad. 
at  +  O.  F.  bier,  Fr.  buyer,  middle  i>at.  batlare, 
to  gape,  to  expect).  A  legal  term  importing  that 
the  title  to  real  or  personal  pro]>erty,  a  dignity  or 
ollice  is  not  vested  in  any  one. but  is  in  expectation 
or  suspended  until  the  true  owner  appears  or  the 
right  thereto  is  determined.  Strictly  speaking, 
there  could  lie  no  abeyance  of  :i  freehold  ,at  com- 
mon law.  In  legal  contemplation,  there  must 
always  be  some  one  in  whom  is  vested  a  present 
estate  or  interest  in  the  hind.  This,  however, 
did  not  apply  to  future  est:>tes  which  might  be 
in  abeyance.  Thus,  when  one  man  holds  land  for 
life,  with  remainder  to  the  heir  of  another,  the 
latter  being  alive,  the  remainder  is  in  abeyance, 
since  the  heirs  of  that  other  remain  undetermined 
while  he  is  alive.  Titles  of  power  are  said  to 
be  in  abeyance  when  it  is  imcertain  who  shall 
enjoy  them.  Thus,  under  the  English  law.  when 
a  nobleman  leaving  a  title  de^cendibb"  to  his 
heirs  general  dies,  leaving  daughters  and  no  male 
issue,  the  king,  by  his  jnerogative.  may  grant 
the  title  to  any  one  of  the  daughters.  Until  the 
king  exercises  his  prerogative,  the  title,  w'hich 
is  thus  suspended,  is  said  to  be  in  abeyance. 
See  the  authorities  referred  to  under  the  article 

on   PllOPEKTY. 

AB'GAR.  A  eommon  name  or  title  of  several 
kings  of  Kdessa  in  nortliwestern  Mesopotamia, 
dni'  iif  tlu-m  is  known  from  an  alleged  ciu're- 
sponth'nce  with  Christ.  The  accoimt  given  by  Kusc- 
bius  {hk-elexidntieul  History,  xiii.,  i.)  stales  that 
ho    sent   a    letter   to    Christ    requesting   him   to 


ABIGAIL. 

come  to  Mesopotamia  and  heal  him.  To  this 
Christ  made  a  reply  that  although  unable  himself 
to  come,  he  would,  after  his  ascension,  send  a 
disciple.  Bnth  of  these  letters  Eusebius  claims 
to  have  found  in  the  archives  of  Edessa  and  be- 
lieves to  be  genuine.  Uther  versions  add  that 
Christ  sent  ti>  the  king  a  portrait,  now  displayed 
at  both  Kome  and  Genoa.  Consult:  R.  A.  Lip- 
sius,  Die  Edcssenische  Abgar  Sage  (Brunswick, 
1880). 

ABHOR'RERS.  In  English  history,  the 
name  given  to  tlic  Tory  element  that  expressed 
ablioirence  of  the  petitions  presented  to  Charles 
II.  for  the  reassembling  of  Parliament  (1080), 
and  that  uphelil  the  King  in  his  ellorts  to  con- 
trol public  opinion.  Their  opponents  were  called 
Petitioners.  Consult:  A  List  of  Abhorrers,  etc. 
(London.  IB82;  .  A.  .\.  Cooper,  First  Earl  of 
Shaftesbury.  About  Abhorrrrs  and  Addressers 
(London.  11182). 

ABI'ATHAR  (llcb.  father  of  plenty).  The 
hiiih  priest  whose  father,  Ahimelech  (I.  Sam- 
uel xxii  :  20),  was  slain  at  the  command  of  Saul 
for  having  received  and  helped  the  fugitive 
D.avid  (I.Samuel  xxii  :  9-10).  The  statement 
(II.  Samuel  viii  :  17:  also  I. Chronicles  xviii  :  16, 
where  for  .Vhimelech  we  must  read  Ahimelech) 
that  Ahimelech  was  the  son  of  Abiathar  must  be 
inverted  in  accord;ince  with  I.  Samuel  xxii  :  20. 
Abiathar  also  was  a  strong  adherent  of  David, 
and  showed  his  friendship  especially  during  Ab- 
salom's rebellion  (II.  Samuel  xv:20).  Later 
on,  Abiathar  favored  Adonijah  (I.  Chronicles 
1:7).  and  for  this  Solomon  deprived  him  of  his 
priesthood  and  banished  him  to  Anathoth  (I. 
Kings  ii  :  26-33).  With  his  deposition,  the  di- 
rect high  priest  by  line  of  Eleazar  comes  to  an 
end,  and  the  place  is  taken  by  Zadok  and  his 
descendants  (1.  Kings  ii  :  35.  See  Ezekiel  xl  : 
40;  xliii  :  10;  xliv  :  15).     See  Ahimelech. 

A'BIB.  The  older  biblical  name  for  the  first 
mcuitli  of  the  .Jewish  ecclesiastical,  and  the  sev- 
enth of  tlie  civil,  year.  In  this  month  the  feast 
of  Passover  is  celebrated  (Exodus  xiii  :  4; 
xxxiv  :  18).  In  the  later  books  of  the  Bible  rep- 
resenting the  period  when  the  Babylonian  names, 
together  with  the  Bal)ylonian  calendar,  were 
adopted  by  the  Hebrews  ( Nehemiah  ii  :  1 ; 
Esther  iii  :  7 ) ,  the  month  is  called  Nisan,  and 
this  name  is  used  at  the  present  time  in  the 
official  calendar  of  the  .Jewish  Church. 

ABICH,  Ji'biK.  WiLHELM  Heum.\nn  (1800- 
80).  .\  (Jerman  geologist  and  traveler.  He 
was  born  in  Berlin.  He  studied  at  the  university 
there,  in  1842  became  professor  of  mineralogy  in 
Dorjiat,  anil  in  1853  member  of  the  St.  Peter.sburg 
Academy  of  Sciences.  He  exjilored  the  Cau- 
casus, Russian  Armenia,  northern  Persia  and 
Daghestan,  and  published  several  books  on  the 
geology  ami  mineralogy  of  those  regions,  among 
which  may  be  mentioned:  Ueber  die  Xatronseen 
nuf  der  Araxesebeiie  (1840  and  1849);  .S'l/r  la 
.sinirtiiri-  ct  la  jjeologie  du  Daghestan  (1862). 

ABIES,  ii'hi-ez.    See  Fir. 

ABIGAIL  ( Heb..  my  father  is  joy.  or  father 
of  joy).  The  wife  of  King  David,  famed 
for  her  beauty  and  discretion.  Abigail  was 
(riginall.v  the  wife  of  Xabal.  and  gave  food  to 
David  iluring  his  flight  from  Saul,  after  her 
husband  had  refused  to  do  so.  "About  ten  days 
later"  Nabal  died,  and  David  took  Abigail  to 
wife    (I.    Samuel   xxv:2-42).     The   Amalekites 


ABIGAIL. 


32 


ABINGDON. 


captured  Abigail  during  a  raid  (I.  Kings  xxx  : 
5),  but  David  recovered  lier  (I.  Samuel  xxx  : 
18),  and  she  bore  him  a  son,  Cliileab  (II.  Samuel 
iii  :  3),  or  Daniel  (I.  Chronicles  iii  :  I).  Another 
Abigail  was  a  sister  of  David,  and  became  the 
mother  of  Amasa  (II.  Samuel  xvii  :25).  In 
modern  usage  Abigail  is  employed  as  a  general 
name  for  a  waiting-maid  or  a  lady's-maid. 

ABI'JAH  (Heb..  Yahweh  is  father),  or  ABI'- 
JAM.     The  name  of  several  Bible  characters. 

1.  King  of  Judah,  a  sou  of  Rehoboam  and 
Maacah,  the  daughter  of  Abishalom  (I.  Kings 
XV  :2).  He  succeeded  his  father  and  reigned 
about  three  years  ( 93C-934  ?  B.C.  I ,  during  wliich 
time  there  was  war  between  him  and  Jeroboam  I. 
( I.  Kings  XV  :  7 ) .  Abijah  probably  gained  a  vic- 
tory over  Jeroboam  near  Zenuiraim  (II.  Chroni- 
cles xiii),  but  the  number  of  combatants,  1,200,- 
000,  is  greatly  exaggerated. 

2.  A  son  of  Jeroboam  I.  of  Israel  (937-915? 
B.C.),  who  died  in  his  childhood  (I.  Kings  xiv: 
1-18).  The  Greek  version  brings  in  the  story  of 
his  illness  and  his  mother's  visit  to  the  prophet 
Ahijah  immediately  after  the  death  of  Solomon, 
consequently  before  Jeroboam  ascended  the 
throne. 

ABILDGAARD,  ;i'bi!d-gard.  Xikol-^i  Abra- 
ham (1743-1809).  A  Danish  historical  painter. 
He  was  born  at  Copcnliagcn,  and  first  studied  at 
the  Academy  there.  He  went  to  Rome  in  1772. 
was  appointed  a  professor  in  1777  and  in  1789 
a  director  of  the  Academy.  His  most  important 
work,  a  series  of  ten  pictures  in  the  castle  of 
Christiansborg.  was  burned  with  the  castle  in 
1794.  He  also  painted  scenes  from  Shakespeare 
and  Ossian,  and  four  from  the  Aiidria  of  Terence. 
He  was  one  of  Thor\valdsen"s  early  instructors. 

AB'ILE'NE.  A  district  referred  to  in  Luke 
iii  :  I  ("Lysanias  being  tetrarch  of  Abilene"). 
It  was  a  fragment  of  tlie  earlier  kingdom  of 
Iturea,  the  capital  of  which  was  Chalcis  in  the 
plain  of  Massyas,  between  the  Lebanon  and 
Anti-Lebanon  mountains.  When  the  Romans 
took  possession  of  this  region  the  Iturean  king- 
dom became  broken  up  into  four  tetrarchies,  of 
which  Abilene  was  one.  This  took  place,  prob- 
ably, between  30  and  23  B.C.  T)ie  Lysanias 
referred  to  by  Luke  was  the  second  of  that  name, 
the  first  Lysanias  having  been  ruler  of  the  still 
undivided  territory.  The  district  of  Abilene  was 
so  named  from  its  chief  town,  Abila,  on  the 
Abana  or  Barada.  tlie  stream  on  whicli  Damascus 
is  situated.  Abila  was  on  the  eastern  slope  of 
the  Anti-Lebanon  range,  just  where  the  Abana 
breaks  through  tlie  mountains.  Near  its  site  are 
an  old  cemetery  and  the  ruins  of  a  small  temple, 
both  belonging  to  Roman  times.  In  37  a.d.,  Cali- 
gula gave  Abilene  to  Agrippa  I.,  who  died  in  44. 
In  o3  it  was  given  by  Claudius  to  Agrippa  II. 
(mentioned  in  Acts  xxv),  who  ruled  it  until  his 
death  in  100.  when  it  became  a  part  of  the  Ronum 
province  of  Syria.  Consult  Schiirer,  History  of 
Ihr  ./riris/i   I'eoplf,  I.  ii.  32.5-344. 

ABILENE,  abl-len.  A  city  and  county  seat 
of  Dickinson  Co..  Kan..  1113  miles  west  of  Kansas 
City,  on  the  Smoky  Hill  River,  and  on  the  Union 
Pacific,  the  Chicago.  Rook  Island,  and  Pacific, 
and  the  Atchison.  Topeka,  and  Santa  Fe  rail- 
roads (Map:  Kansas,  E  3).  It  is  prinuirily 
a  residential  and  commercial  place,  contains 
Mount  Saint  Joseph  Academy,  manufactures 
merry-go-rounds,  creamery  |iroduets,  etc.  The 
water    supply    is    obtained    from    near-by    sand 


springs.  Settled  about  181)0,  Abilene  was  incor- 
porated in  18tl9,  the  charter  of  that  date  being 
still  in  operation,  and  providing  for  an  annually 
elected  mayor  and  a  municipal  council.  Pop., 
1890,  3547;'  1900.  3507. 

ABILENE.  A  city  and  county  seat  of  Taylor 
Co..  Tex.,  100  miles  west  by  south  of  Fort  Worth, 
on  the  Texas  and  Pacific  Railroad  (Map:  Texas, 
E  3 ) .  It  is  in  a  region  devoted  principally  to 
agriculture  and  stock-raising,  and  has  a  grain 
elevator,  fiour.  grist,  and  planing  mills,  cotton 
gins,  etc.     Pop.,  1890,  3194;   1900,  3411. 

ABIMELECH,  a-bim'e-lek  (Heb.  my  father  is 
king,  or  Moloch ) .  The  name  of  four  persons  in 
the  Old  Testament,  two  of  whom  appear  promi- 
nently in  the  narratives. 

1.  A  son  of  Gideon  (Judges  viii  :  31),  c.1200 
B.C.,  and  reckoned  as  one  of  the  judges  by  the 
narrative  in  Judges  x:I.  Upon  the  death  of 
his  father,  who  refused  to  take  the  title  of  king 
either  for  himself  or  children.  Abimelech  set  out 
to  claim  the  sovereignty,  slew  seventy  of  his 
brothers,  and  was  declared  king  (.fudges  ix  : 
1-0).  Three  years  afterward  the  Shechemites 
under  the  leadership  of  Gaal  made  an  unsuc- 
cessful attempt  to  throw  off  his  rule  (Judges 
xxii  :  41).  After  capturing  Shecheni  and  burn- 
ing the  temple  of  El-berith,  Abimelech  went 
against  Thebez.  and  here,  while  besieging  the 
place,  he  was  struck  on  the  head  by  a  piece  of 
millstone  thrown  from  the  wall  by  a  woman. 
To  avoid  an  ignominious  death,  he  ordered  his 
armor-bearer  to  run  him  through  (.Judges  ib.  43- 
57 ) .  His  reign  is  the  first  attempt  to  establish 
a   monarchy   in   Israel. 

2.  A  king  of  Gerar  mentioned  both  in  the 
biblical  narrative  about  Abraham  (Genesis  xx 
and  xxi  :  22-32).  and  about  Isaac  (Genesis 
xxvi  :  7-11:  20-33).  The  story  in  both  cases  is 
pretty  much  alike.  Abimelech  takes  Sarah  into 
his  harem,  after  Abraham,  for  fear  that  he 
should  be  killed,  declared  Sarah  to  be  his  sister. 
In  a  dream,  the  true  relation  between  Abraham 
and  Sarah  is  revealed  to  Abimelecli.  who  forth- 
with returns  .Sarah  to  her  husband  and  loads 
the  latter  with  presents  of  cattle  and  servants. 
Similarly  Isaac  declares  to  the  men  of  Gerar, 
among  whom  he  has  settled,  that  Rebekah  is  his 
sister.  Abimelech,  however,  discovers  the  true 
relationship,  and  reproaches  Isaac  for  having 
almost  been  the  cause  of  bringing  a  "great  sin" 
upon  Abimelech  and  the  men  of  Gerar.  In  view 
of  this  similarity,  it  is  generally  supposed  by 
modern  critics  that  the  two  stories  are  but  dif- 
ferent versions  of  onp  and  the  same  tale. 

3.  A  king  of  Gath.  according  to  the  title  of 
Psalm  xxxiv,  though  here  it  is  possible  tliat 
Abimelech  has  by  an  error  been  introduced  for 
Achisli   (1.  Samuel  xxi  :  20). 

4.  A  priest  according  to  1.  Chronicles  xviii  :  16, 
where,  however,  tlic  reading  must  be  corrected 
to  Abimelech.  as  we  find  the  name  writteTi  in 
II.  Samuel  viii  :  17  and  elsewhere  in  Samuel. 
See  AniMF.i.ECH. 

AB'INGDON.  A  city  in  Knox  County.  III., 
incorporated  in  1857.  on  the  line  of  the  Chicago, 
Burlington  and  Quincy  and  the  Iowa  Central 
railroads;  10  miles  from  Galesl)urg.  and  85  miles 
northeast  of  Quincy  (Map:  Illinois,  B  3).  It 
is  the  seat  of  Hedding  College  (Methodist  Epis- 
copal) and  of  the  .Abingdon  Normiil  ('ollege.  Ab- 
ingdon has  wagon  works,  an  aniuuil-trap  factory, 
said  to  be  the  largest  in  the  world,  and  other  manu- 


ABINGDON.  ; 

factiircs  of  less  extent.  'I'lic  lity  was  first  settled 
in  1828,  and  is  governed  liy  llie  charter  of  18')!), 
The  mayor's  term  is  one  year,  and  the  eity  eonn- 
cil  is  composed  of  five  members.  Pop.,  1890, 
1321;    I'.)00,  2022. 

ABINGDON.  A  town  and  county  seat  of 
Wasliiiifjlon  Co.,  Va.,  140  milfs  west  by  south 
of  Lynchburg,  on  the  Norfolk  and  Western  Rail- 
road (Map:  Virginia,  C  5).  It  is  the  seat  of 
the  Martha  Washington  College  (Methodist 
Episcopal,  South),  established  in  1858.  and  the 
Stonewall  .Jackson  Institute  (Presbyterian), 
opened  in  18(i!)  (both  for  young  ladies),  and  con- 
tains Aliingdon  .-Vcaclcmy.  'I'he  industries  are 
cigar  and  wagon  factories  and  planing  mills. 
.\bingdon  was  settled  about  1730  and  was  incor- 
porated in  1778.     Pop.,  1800,  1074;  11)00,  1300. 

AB'INGTON.  A  manufacturing  town  in  Ply- 
mouth Co.,  Mass..  20  miles  soutlicast  of  Huston, 
on  the  \ew  York,  New  Haven  and  llarlford  Rail- 
road (Map:  .Massachusetts.  F  3).  It  was  set- 
fed  about  1080,  and  incorporated  as  a  colonial 
town  1712.  The  town's  alfairs  are  administered 
by  the  town  meetings,  at  which  all  questions  af- 
fecting the  interests  of  the  town  are  discussed 
and  settled.  The  town  owns  and  operates  its 
waterworks.  Pop.,  1800,  4200;  1900,  4489.  Con- 
sult: li.  lloliart.  History  of  the  Town  of  Abint/- 
t<jn    (  Boston.   1800). 

ABINGTON,  Fi«.\NCES  (1737-1815).  A  fa- 
mous Kngli.sh  actress.  She  was  the  daughter  of 
Barton,  a  common  soldier.  ,\s  an  errand-girl, 
she  acipiired  French  from  a  milliner.  She  be- 
came a  tlower-girl  at  the  theatres,  and  made  her 
first  appearance  at  the  llaymarket  in  London 
(177.5)  as  Miranda,  in  The  liuxi/bodj/.  She  was 
married  to  Abington,  her  nuisie  teacher,  from 
whom  she  soon  separ:ited.  The  beaddress  she 
wore  was  adopted  by  the  women  of  fashion,  and 
the  ".\bington  cap"  became  famous.  Heturning 
to  Enghind  in  WO.'i,  at  the  invitation  of  (Jarrick, 
she  played  at  Drury  Ijane  for  eighteen  years, 
and  later  at  ("ovent  Ciarden.  She  was  the  orig- 
inal representative  of  Lady  Teazle  in  1777,  and 
played  many  Shakespearean  parts.  After  the  re- 
tirement of  Mrs.  Pritchard  and  Kitty  ('live,  she 
had  no  rivals  on  the  London  stage,  and  became 
the  first  comic  actress  of  the  period.  Her  last 
appearance  was  on  April   12,  1799. 

AB'IOGEN'ESIS.     See  Bio<;enesis. 

ABIPONE,  ii'h.'.-i)r>'nA.  A  South  American 
Indian  tribe  of  Guaycuran  stock,  which  formerly 
\\;indcrcd  over  the  (!ran  ('h:u()  region,  west  of 
the  I'araguay  liiver.  from  the  headwaters  of  the 
Rio  (irande  in  Bolivi:>  southward  to  the  Ver- 
mejo  in  Argentina.  Their  traditicms  pointeil  to 
a  more  northern  origin.  Thi'V  obtaineil  horses 
about  the  year  1040,  and  soon  developed  into 
bold  riders  and  implacable  foes  of  the  Spaniards. 
They  were  of  splendid  |)hysique.  and  lived  en- 
tirely by  hunting.  The  women  tattooed,  and  the 
men  practiceil  the  couv:ide.  Their  weapons  were 
the  bow,  the  lance,  and  the  shield.  The  .Tesuits 
established  missions  among  them.  1ml  owing  to 
constant  wars  with  the  Spiiniards  and  with  other 
tribes,  and  also  to  the  custom  among  the  women 
of  killing  all  but  two  children  born  to  a  f:imily, 
the  tribe,  whieli  about  1780  was  estimated  at 
."jOOO,  dwindled  rapidly  and  is  now  supposed  to  be 
entirely  extinct. 

ABKHASIA,  ab-Kii's.*-a.  A  district  of 
Asiatic  Russia  on  the  Black  Sea,  included  in  the 


i;j  ABNAKI. 

gnvprnnient  of  Kutais.  11  is  separated  by  the 
lofty  ridge  of  the  Caucasus  from  Circassia.  and 
is  hounded  on  the  southeast  by  Mingrelia  (Map; 
Russia,  F  0).  It  derives  its  name  from  the 
Abkhasians.  The  country  is  mountainous,  with 
well-watered  valleys,  and  has  rich  wiK)ds  of  oak, 
walnut  trees,  etc.  -Vrea,  about  2800  square  miles. 
The  northern  part  has  a  mild  and  healthful  <li- 
mate,  while  in  the  south  it  is  hot  and  unhcalth- 
ful.  Its  population,  nund)ering  about  ;')0.000, 
mainly  .Mingnlians  and  .\hkhasians,  is  engaged 
in  agriculture,  cattle-raising,  and  trade  in  lum- 
ber. This  country  was  subdued  by  the  Kmperor 
.lustinian,  who  introduced  the  Christian  religion. 
Subsequently  Persia,  (ieorgia.  and  Turkey  ruled 
in  succession,  the  latter  suppressing  Christianity 
and  establishing  Moslemism.  In  1810,  the  Khan 
of  .\bkhasi;t  embraced  Christianity  and  swore  al- 
legiance to  Russia,  reserving  to  himself  and  his 
heirs  the  right  of  governing  tlie  district.  The 
chief  town  in  this  region  is  Suklunnkale.  The 
peo]>le  speak  a  Circassian  dialect,  and  are  phys- 
ically akin  to  that  stock,  although  typically 
ruder  and  less  graceful.  Their  folk-life  is  also 
more  i)rimitive.  As  a  result  of  the  Russian  oe- 
cupatitm,  a  great  part  of  the  tribe  emigrated  into 
Turkish   territory.     See  Cii!c'assi.\ns. 

AB'LATIVE  CASE.     See  Deci.exsiox. 

ABLAUT,  .'ibHout ;  Vrer.  pron.  iip'lout.  or 
\()WEL  t;n.\i).VTio.v.  The  name  given  by  Ger- 
man scholars,  and  in  common  use  in  English,  to 
a  change  in  the  root  vowel  in  different  forms  of 
the  sam<'  word.  While  ablaut  appears  in  other 
Indo-European  languages  and  in  otlier  parts  of 
speech  in  the  Teutcmic  languages,  it  has  become 
the  essential  feature  in  the  strong  conjugation  of 
the  verbs.  (See  Cox.ll'GATION.)  .4  ?)/((««  is,  there- 
fore, not,  like  umlaut,  a  specifically  Teutonic 
change.  tlKnigh  its  ai)plication  to  the  verbal  con- 
jugation is  such.  Through  various  causes  ablaut 
has  been  obscured  in  modern  English,  but  in  Old 
English  six  ilasscs  or  grades  of  ablaut  can  be  ob- 
served. .\blaut  appears  also  in  connection  with 
the  reduplicating  verbs.  For  a  complete  list  of 
the  strong  verbs  arranged  according  to  the  classes 
of  ablaut,  see  any  Old  English  (Anglo-Saxon) 
granunar.     See  Puonetu'  L,\ws. 

AB'LEGATE  (Lat.  ub,  away,  from,  off  +  tc- 
iniie.  Ill  send  with  a  commission).  A  papal  en- 
voy (U-  emissary,  a  sjiecial  commissioner,  deputed 
by  the  papal  court  at  Rome  to  carry  the  luit  and 
red  biretta  to  a  newly  appointed  cardinal.  His 
oHicial  duties  are  completed  when  the  latter  has 
received  the  insignia  of  his  ollice.  The  so-called 
(iliusilulir  ablegates  are  of  higher  rank  than  those 
termed  /lontifieal. 

ABLTJ'TION.     Si'c  Pvrification. 

ABNAKI,  abna'ke  (■•Easterners").  A  con- 
federacy (if  .\lgoni|ui:ui  trilics,  including  the  Pas- 
samaciuoddics,  Pcnobscots,  Norridgewocks,  and 
others,  formerly  ociMipying  what  is  now  Maine 
and  so\itbern  Xew  Br\inswick.  On  the  northeast 
their  territory  adjoined  that  of  the  Micmacs, 
while  on  the  southwest  it  merged  into  that  of  the 
Penn;\cooks.  In  consecpiencc  of  King  Philip's 
War  (see  W.\MPANOAo),  they  attached  themselves 
to  the  French  sid"  and  nuiintained  unceasing  hos- 
tility against  the  encro;icliriient  of  the  Engli.sh, 
iintll  the  destruction  of  their  principal  town  at 
Xorridgewock  and  the  killing  of  their  mission- 
ary Rasle  in  1724,  after  which  the  greater  por- 
tion removed  to  Saint  Francis.  Canada,  whither 
other  refugees  from  the  New  England  tribes  had 


ABNAKI.  34 

already  preceded  tlieni.  Those  who  remained 
afterward  entered  into  an  arrangement  with  the 
Englisli  by  wliieli  tliey  were  confirmed  in  pos- 
session of  a  small  part  of  their  ancient  inher- 
itance. They  are  now  represented  by  the  Amal- 
ecites  on  Saint  John  River,  New  Brunswick  and 
Quebec  (820),  the  Passamaquoddies  on  the  bay 
of  that  name  in  Maine  (300),  the  Penobscots  at 
Oldtown,  Maine  (400),  and  the  Abnakis  at  Saint 
Francis  and  Becancour,  Quebec  (430).  Their 
language  is  preserved  in  the  monumental  dic- 
tionary of  Rasle. 

AB'NER  (Heb.  father  of  light).  The  son 
of  Xer.  and  cousin  of  Saul,  and  commander  of 
his  army  (I.  Samuel  xiv  :  50).  After  Saul's  death 
the  tribe  of  Judah  recognized  David,  while  Ab- 
ner  pre\ailed  upon  tlie  other  tribes  to  recognize 
Saul's  son,  Ishbosheth  (II.  Samuel  ii:8-ll).  Da- 
vid sent  his  army,  under  Joab,  into  the  field,  and 
at  the  pool  of  Gibeon  the  followers  of  Abner,  who 
was  in  control,  sulfered  defeat  (ibid.,  verses 
12-17).  In  his  flight,  Abner,  being  hotly  pursued 
by  Asahel,  turned  and  reluctantly  slew  him 
(ibid.,  verses  19-23).  Afterward  Abner  had  a 
quarrel  with  Ishbosheth  and  went  over  to  David 
(II.  Samuel  iii  :  7-11,  17-21)  :  but  the  death  of 
Asahel  produced  a  blood  feud  between  .Joab  ( Asa- 
hel's  brother)  and  Abner,  which  ultimately  led  to 
Abner's  death.  In  consequence  of  a  quarrel  be- 
tween Abner  and  his  master,  Ishbosheth,  who  ac- 
cused him  of  having  designs  ui)on  the  throne, 
Abner  espoused  David's  cause.  While  being  hos- 
pital)ly  entertained  by  David  at  Hebron,  Abner 
was  treacherously  killed  by  Joab  with  the  conni- 
vance of  his  l)rother  Abishai  ( II.  Sanuiel  iii  :  22- 
27 ) .  The  murder  called  forth  general  indig- 
nation, and  the  King  himself  acted  as  chief 
mourner.  He  ordered  a  public  mourning,  and  a 
portion  of  an  elegy  is  preserved  (II.  Samuel  iii  : 
33-34).  said  to  have  been  composed  by  David  in 
memory  of  Abner. 

AB'NEY,  Sir  William  de  Wiveleslie 
(1844 — ).  An  English  astronomer  and  physi- 
cist. He  was  l)orn  at  Derljy,  and  was  educated 
at  the  royal  Militar_y  Academy,  Woolwich.  He 
was  made  a  lieutenant  in  the  Royal  Engineers 
in  IStil  and  a  captain  in  1871.  From  1803  to 
1895  he  served  as  president  of  the  Royal  Astro- 
nomical Society,  and  in  the  latter  year  he  became 
president  of  the  Physical  Society  of  London. 
Subsequently  he  was  appointed  the  principal 
assistant  secretary  of  the  Science  and  Art  De- 
partment of  the  Board  of  Education.  He  is 
well  known  for  his  researches  in  ijliotograjihy 
and  spectroscopy,  and  has  published  a  num- 
ber of  important  books  on  these  subjects, 
including  Instniction  in  PJiotnpraphy  (1870); 
Treatise  on  Pholociraphy  (1875)  ;  Colour  Vision, 
■Colour  Mcasxirement  and  Mixture  (1893): 
Thebes  and  its  Five  Great  Temples  (187fi)  ;  and, 
with  C,  D.  Cunningham,  The  Pioneers  of  the 
Alps  (1888).  Captain  Abney  was  knighted  in 
1900  in  recogniticm  of  his  scientific  work. 

ABO,  .I'bo.  The  most  ancient  city  and  former 
■capital  of  Finland,  now  the  chief  town  of  the 
Russian  Government  of  Abo-Bjiirneborg,  situa- 
ted on  the  River  .^irrayoki.  near  its  embouchure 
in  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  128  miles  west  by  north 
from  Helsingfors  (Map:  Russia,  B  2).  Its  streets 
ure  broad  and  lined  with  rathej  low  stone  build- 
ings. Owing  to  its  antiquity,  Abo  has  a  number 
of  buildings  of  historical  interest,  among  them 
the  cathedral,  containing  a  magnificent  sarcopha- 


ABOLITIONISTS. 


gus  erected  in  1805  for  the  unfortunate  Queen, 
Catharine  Monsdotter,  who  died  in  1512.  In 
one  of  its  suburbs  is  the  spring  of  St. 
Henry,  in  which,  according  to  tradition,  the 
first  Finns  embracing  Christianity  were  bap- 
tized. It  is  in  regular  steamship  communication 
with  St.  Petersburg,  Stockholm,  and  other  ports 
on  the  Baltic,  visited  annually  by  some  700 
vessels,  whose  aggregate  tonnage  reaches  about 
200,000  tons.  Shipbuilding  is  an  important 
industry  here,  many  of  the  Russian  warships 
having  been  constructed  in  this  city.  The  great 
Crayton  works  supply  the  Russian  fleet  with 
torpedo  boats.  It  has  a  number  of  cotton  mills, 
tobacco  factories,  sugar  refineries,  and  machine 
shops.  Of  its  educational  institutions,  the 
School  of  Xavigation  and  the  School  for  Deaf- 
nuites  deserve  special  attention.  In  addition  to 
these  it  has  a  number  of  gymnasiums,  a  technical 
institute,  a  commercial  school,  and  a  normal 
training  school.  The  United  States  is  repre- 
sented bv  a  consular  agent.  Population,  1888, 
27,000:  1897,  35,000,  54%  being  Finns  and  nearly 
42%  Swedes.  The  town  grew  up  around  a  castle 
(which  is  still  in  existence,  and  is  used  as  a 
prison  at  present)  founded  in  1150  by  Eric  IX., 
and  became  an  important  place  in  tlie  following 
century.  It  was  repeatedly  attacked  and  de- 
stroyed by  the  Russians  in  their  many  wars 
with  the  Swedes,  and  finally  fell  into  their 
hands  in  1808:  since  then  it  has  remained 
a  Russian  possession.  It  was  the  capital  of 
Finland  until  1810.  In  the  year  1827  a  great 
part  of  the  town,  including  the  university  build- 
ings, was  destroyed  by  fire,  and  the  university 
was  removed  to  Helsingfors,  now  the  capital. 
The  Peace  of  Abo  (1743),  between  Sweden  and 
Russia,  gave  Russia  control  of  the  southern  part 
of  Finland  as  far  as  the  Kymen  River  and  put  an 
end  to  the  war  connnenced  b.y  Sweden,  under 
French  instigation,  in  1741. 

AbO-BJORNEBORG,  s'b6-byer'ne-borg.  A 
government  in  southwest  Finland.  Area,  0330 
square  miles.  Its  topography  is  like  that  of 
the  rest  of  Finland.  Among  the  mountain 
ranges  of  granite  crossing  it  there  are  about 
one  hundred  and  fifty  lakes  and  numerous 
marshes.  The  southern  section  is  more  hilly  than 
the  northern,  and  along  the  seashore  has  many 
safe  havens  for  sea-going  vessels.  Except  the 
River  Kunio,  Abo-Bjorneborg  has  no  navigable 
rivers.  It  has  a  temperate  and  healthful  climate, 
and  the  principal  industries  are  agriculture  and 
the  raising  of  cattle,  and  fishing.  There  is  a 
flourishing  mining  industry,  the  chief  products 
being  granite,  black  marble,  iron,  and  clay. 
Abo-Bjorneborg  is,  moreover,  the  foremost  manu- 
facturing province  of  Finland,  the  chief  branches 
of  industry  being  wood  and  metal  working,  distill- 
ing, brewing,  manufacture  of  leather,  paper,  and 
tobacco.  Population,  1897,  410,300,  of  whom 
about  one-seventh  lived  in  towns  and  villages; 
in  1888  there  were  380,500  people.  About  83  %  of 
the  population  are  Finns,  less  than  17%  Swedes. 

AB'OLI'TIONISTS  (Lat.  abolitio,  an  annul- 
ling, from  (iholere.  to  check  the  growth).  The 
term  used  in  the  United  States,  after  1835  and 
until  the  Civil  War,  for  those  opponents  of  slav- 
ery who  were  the  most  intense  in  their  desire  to 
secure  the  immediate  emancipation  of  the  blacks. 
Others  avowed  their  "anti-slavery"  opinions,  but 
these  advocated,  by  all  the  means  they  could 
command,    immediate    "abolition."     Their    posi- 


ABOLITIONISTS. 

tion  was  wpakciioil.  ami  tlirii  ropiifaf ion  fur 
sobriety  wa-^  ilaniairf'il.  'iv  tlicir  stcailfasl  refusal 
to  recognize  tlie  l)iiKliiif;  loroe  of  any  Ininian  laws 
which  recofniizod  human  slavery,  anil  even  of 
the  constitution ;  and  tlieir  extreme  demands 
and  radical  methods  repelled  the  sympathy  of 
many  conservative  men  who  desired  that  the 
abolition  of  slavery  should  be  seeureil.  allhoufjh 
by  ex|)edient  and  letfal  means.  .Mthouyh  dis- 
credited in  many  quarters,  the  abolitionists  were 
in  the  end  successful,  from  one  jioint  of  view, 
in  niakin;;  slavery  a  national  issue  ami  in  hasten- 
ing the  time  of  final  decision  as  to  its  contin- 
uance. Among  the  most  conspicuous  leaders  of 
the  abolitionists  were  William  Lloyd  (larrison, 
!i  vitjorinis  and  fearless  writer,  Wendell  Phillips, 
the  famous  orator,  (iervit  Smith,  a  generous 
philanthropist.  Arthur  Tappan.  William  Ooodell, 
and  Lucretia  Mott.  The  biograjihics  of  most  of 
these  leaders  have  been  written,  and  they  afVonl 
ample  illustrations  of  the  spirit  by  which  they 
were    governed.      See    Anti-Si.avkky     Society; 

G.\RRI.S(1N.    WlLI,I.\M    Ll.OYU:     (JlDDINGS,    J0.SJIIA 

R. :   and  P.\UKEi:.  Theodohk. 

ABOLITION  OF  SLAVERY.  See  Slavery. 

ABO'MA  (Portug.).  A  boa.  The  term  is 
widespread  in  tropical  America,  but  lately  has 
been  more  especially  ajiplied  to  the  Central 
American  thick-headed  or  singed  boa  f Eiticrdlis 
cenchria) .  which  is  of  gigantic  size,  and  is  dark 
yellowish-gray,  having  a  row  of  dark  brown  rings 
along  the  back,  and  the  sides  marked  with  dark 
blotches,  each  inclosing  a  lighter  crescent.  See 
Boa  and  Plate  of  Boas. 

ABOMEY,  a'brt-ma'.  The  capital  of  Daho- 
mey. West  .\frica.  situated  about  0(1  miles  inland, 
in  7°  \.  lat.  and  2°  4'  E.  long.  (Map:  Africa. 
E  4).  It  is  surrounded  by  a  wall  built  of  nnul 
and  a  deep  trench.  The  houses  aae  also  built  of 
mud  and  are  unpretentious  in  appearance. 
There  are  several  royal  palaces,  once  the  scenes 
of  religious  rites  and  barbaric  orgies.  P.efore 
the  French  occupation,  Abomey  was  an  important 
slave  market,  but  at  present  the  traflic  is  con- 
fined to  ivory.  |)alm  oil,  and  gidil.  The  town 
was  captured  by  the  French  in  1802.  The  pop- 
ulation is  estimated  at  about  20,000. 

ABORIGINES,  ab'.'rij'i-nez  (Lat.  nl>.  from 
-\- ori(/ii.  origin).  Properly,  the  earliest  inhal)- 
itants  of  a  country.  The  corresponding  term 
used  by  the  (ireeks  was  (tiiloclilhoiirx  (i|.v.).  Tlie 
Koman  and  (Jreck  historians,  however.  ai)])ly  the 
name  to  a  special  people,  who,  according  to 
tradition,  had  their  original  seats  in  the  moun- 
tains about  Reate,  now  Rieti:  but,  being  driven 
out  by  the  .Sabines,  descended  into  Latinm,  and. 
in  conjunction  with  a  tribe  of  Pelasgi.  subdued 
or  expelled  the  Siculi  and  occupied  (he  country. 
The  alxu'igines  then  disa[)))eared  as  a  distinct 
people,  they  and  their  allies,  the  Pelasgi.  having 
taken  the  name  of  Latini.  The  non-Pelasgic 
element  of  the  Roman  population  is  sup]iose<l 
to  represent  these  aborigines,  who  would  thus 
belong  to  the  Oscans  or  Ausonians, 

ABOR'TION  (Lat.  abort  in.  from  ah.  away + 
oriri,  to  rise).  The  exptilsion  of  the  olTspring 
from  the  womb  of  its  mother  before  it  is  capable 
of  living  imlcpcndently.  Abortion  occurring  in 
a  woman  before  the  sixth  niontli  of  pregnancy 
is  generally  called  a  miscarriage.  If  the  fa'tus 
leaves  the   womb  after  it   is  viable,  and  before 


35  ABORTION. 

tlie  proper  end  of  pregnancy,  the  occurrence  is 
termed  a  premature  delivery,  llegar  considers 
that  there  is,  in  women,  one  abortion  to  every 
ten  normal  pregnancies;  Devilliers  states  the 
ratio  as  one  in  three  or  four.  Whitehead  states 
that  80%  of  all  abortions  take  place  between 
the  second  and  fourth  months  of  pregnancy. 
It  is  therefore  important  that  a  mother  should 
have  special  care  during  the  early  months  of 
gestation.  Microscopical  examination  is  re- 
quired to  determine  the  fact  of  an  abortion  oc- 
curring within  four  weeks  of  conception.  After 
the  first  month  the  fuitus  commences  to  assume 
a  recognizable  sha])0. 

Cau.se.s  ok  Amoktion.  Abortion  may  be  due  to 
disease  of  the  father,  to  morbid  changes  in  the 
ovum,  to  morbid  changes  in  the  placenta,  or  to 
maternal  causes.  ( 1 )  Of  the  diseases  of  the 
father  that  may  cause  abortion,  syphilis  is  the 
most  iniport;int.  llal>itual  alKution  leads  to  the 
suspicion  of  sy|)hi!itic  taint,  although  other 
causes  may  bring  about  this  condition.  Old  age, 
tuberculosis,  or  kidney  disease  of  the  father  may 
so  atl'ect  the  vitality  of  the  germ  at  conception 
that,  although  pregnancy  may  occur,  there  is  not 
enough    strength    to    complete    the    development. 

(2)  Causes  due  to  disease  or  death  of  the  ovum 
itself,  apart  from  other  causes,  are  rare.  They 
are  usually  associated  with  some  defect  in  the 
formation  of  the  yoimg  cnd)ryo.  (3)  Placental 
causes  are  frequent.  If  the  placenta  does  not 
have  a  sullicient  area  from  which  to  draw  a  blood 
supply  for  the  fcetus,  the  latter  may  die;  or  if 
the  placenta  is  fastened  low  in  the  uterus,  hem- 
orrhage and   abortion  are  very  liable  to   occur. 

(4)  The  causes  which  are  due  to  disease  or  in- 
jury of  the  mother  are  the  most  frequent.  Dis- 
eases of  the  dccidua  of  the  viterus  and  of  the 
other  generative  organs,  such  as  tumor  of  the 
ovary,  distention  of  the  Fallopian  tulies.  inflani- 
matcuv  ailhesions  about  the  uterus,  and  badly 
formed  pelvic  organs,  are  among  the  local  causes. 
Certain  constitutional  diseases  may  also  cause 
abortion,  as  syphilis.  Alcoholic  excesses  are 
almost  as  pernicious.  Poisoning  with  metals, 
as  lead  or  mercury,  with  phosphorus  and  other 
poisons,  as  coal  gas  and  maiiy  volatile  oils,  and 
some  of  the  acute  diseases,  pneumonia,  yellow 
fever,  smallpox,  and  peritonitis,  have  brought 
al)out  abortion.  Shock  and  injury  are  very  im- 
portant causes.  Excessive  musctilar  fatigue,  bi- 
cycle riding,  horseback  riding,  lawn  tennis,  use 
of  the  sewing-machine,  and  swimming  are  espe- 
cially to  be  avoided.  Lack  of  hygiene  is  also 
responsible  for  numerous  cases.  InsufTicient  food, 
contaminated  air,  change  in  climate,  and  tightly 
laced  corsets,  all  interfere  with  the  proper  nour- 
ishment of  the  fietus  and  thus  induce  alxn-tion. 
After  aljortion  has  once  taken  ))lace,  others  are 
very  likely  to  occur,  even  in  comparatively 
healthy  women.  A  normal  healthy  mental  atti- 
tude is  a  saving  grace  from  this  accident. 

Symptoms.  The  cardinal  symptoms  are  pain 
and  hemorrhage  from  the  uterus,  these  varying 
greatly,  according  to  the  completeness  of  the 
process.  Kai'ly  symptoms  may  be  a  sensation  of 
weight,  with  (listress  or  slight  |>ain  in  the  back, 
increased  by  stamling  or  walking,  followed  by 
oozing  or  a  menstrual  How,  or  a  sudden  large 
hemorrhage.  This  may  occur  intermittently, 
sometimes  lasting  several  days,  with  small  dis- 
charges of  blood,  with  jiain,  and  then  a  cessation 
of  all  the  symjitoms  for  a  few  hours  or  more.  In 
later  abortions,  the  lUjuor  amnii,  in  which  the 


ABORTION. 


36 


ABORTION. 


foetus  is  suspended,  may  either  ooze  away  or 
come  away  in  a  gush. 

The  pain  is  rarely  continuous;  at  times  it 
resembles  the  intermittent  pains  of  a  colicky 
diarrhoea.  It  is  caused  by  the  contraction  of  th"e 
uterine  muscle  trying  to  eject  a  foreign  body. 
With  each  muscular  contraction  there  is  oozing, 
or  more  copious  bleeding,  or  the  expulsion  of 
the  product  of  conception.  If  the  pains  are 
comparatively  weak  and  occur  at  long  intervals, 
it  may  be  possible  to  prevent  the  abortion.  If 
they  are  strong  and  come  closely  one  after  the 
other,  the  chances  of  stopping  the  process  are 
less. 

Treatment.  Healthy  physical  and  mental  ex- 
ercise is  one  of  the  best  preventives  of  this 
accident.  In  families  where  the  mother  or 
grandmother  aborted  frequently,  special  care  of 
diet,  exercise,  and  clothing  should  be  taken. 
Constipation  should  be  avoided  by  the  use  of 
water  and  the  green  vegetables.  Should  the 
symptoms  mentioned  occur,  the  woman  should 
lie  down,  absolutely  quiet,  on  her  back  and  call 
her   regular   medical   attendant. 

There  are  occasional  cases  (as  where  the  out- 
let of  the  pelvis  is  very  contracted)  in  which  it 
is  necessary  for  physicians  to  induce  abortion. 
It  cannot  be  too  generally  known  that  all  at- 
tempts at  procuring  criminal  abortion,  either  by 
the  administration  of  powerful  drugs  or  the  ap- 
plication of  instruments,  are  accompanied  with 
extreme  danger  to  the  pregnant  woman.  It  can- 
not be  too  earnestly  impressed  upon  the  mind  of 
those  who  are  tempted  to  procure  a  criminal 
abortion  hy  means  of  drugs  that  the  danger  of 
causing  death  is  very  serious.  JIany  so-called 
emmenagogues  (q.v.),  which  induce  the  menstrual 
flow  in  a  woman  who  is  not  pregnant,  but  is 
merely  sutTering  from  amenorrhcea,  or  suppres- 
sion of  the  menses,  are  abortifacients  only  when 
given  in  such  doses  as  to  endanger  life,  or  to  set 
up  violent  internal  inflammations.  Among  these 
are  the  various  preparations  of  ergot  of  rye 
(q.v.),  savin  (the  most  powerful  of  all  emmena- 
gogues), borax,  rue,  tansy,  cantharides,  etc.  In 
the  South,  among  the  ignorant  negroes,  concoc- 
tions of  pennyroyal  and  cotton-root  bark  are 
used  for  the  same  purpose.  The  milder  enunena- 
gogues,  such  as  iron,  aloes,  etc.,  have  no  abortive 
tendenc.v,  except  in  the  case  of  those  women  who 
are  predisposed  to  abort.  Violent  purgatives,  in 
cases  where  they  have  caused  abortion,  have  not 
done  so  because  they  directly  exercise  an  ecbolic 
effect  on  the  uterus,  but  only  as  a  secondary  con- 
sequence of  the  excessive  intestinal  irritation 
which  they  cause. 

Aboution,  or  Miscarriage,  in  Law.  The 
courts  in  this  country  are  not  agreed  as 
to  the  nature  of  the  crime  at  common  law.  In 
a  number  of  States  there  are  decisions  or  dicta 
to  the  effect  that  "to  produce  an  abortion  on  a 
woman,  before  she  is  quick  with  child,  and  with 
her  consent,"  is  not  to  commit  the  common- 
law  crime  of  abortion.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
has  been  judicially  declared  in  Pennsylvania  that 
"it  is  not  the  nuirder  of  a  living  child  which 
constitutes  the  offense  of  abortion,  but  the  de- 
struction of  gestation  by  wicked  means  and 
against  nature,"  and,  consequently,  that  one  who 
intentionally  causes  the  miscarriage  of  a  woman, 
even  with  her  consent  and  before  the  ftetus  has 
quickened,  is  indictable  at  common  law.  This 
appears  to  be  the  correct  view,  and  it  has 
been  approved  by  several  courts.    Modern  stat- 


utes, as  a  rule,  have  given  effect  to  this  view. 
At  present  the  crime  is  generally  defined,  with 
much  particularit}-,  by  statute,  and  may  be  com- 
mitted by  one  of  three  classes  of  persons.  First, 
bj'  the  pregnant  woman  who  takes  any  drugs  or 
submits  to  any  treatment  with  intent  to  produce 
her  miscarriage,  unless  that  is  necessary  to  save 
her  life  or  the  life  of  the  child.  Second,  by  a 
person  prescriljing,  supplying  or  administering 
any  substance  to  a  woman,  or  treating  her,  with 
intent  to  cause  her  miscarriage,  unless  that  is 
necessary  to  save  her  life  or  the  life  of  the  child. 
Under  some  statutes,  such  .a  person  may  be  guilty 
of  the  offense,  whether  the  woman  is  pregnant 
or  not;  the  gist  of  his  crime  consisting  in  the 
intention  with  which  his  act  was  done.  Third, 
by  a  person  manufactiiring,  giving  or  selling  an 
instrument  or  substance  with  intent  that  it 
may  be  unlawfully  used  in  procuring  the  mis- 
carriage of  a  woman.  Acts  done  in  procuring  an 
abortion  may  subject  the  actor  to  punishment  for 
another  crime  also,  as  assault  (q.v.),  or  homi- 
cide (q.v.).  Consult:  Wharton,  Criminal  Lair 
(Philadelphia,  1890)  ;  Harris,  Principles  of  the 
CriiDinal  Law  (London,  1899). 

Abortion  in  Animals.  In  general,  two  forms 
of  abortion  are  recognized  by  veterinarians, 
the  non-contagious  and  the  contagious.  There 
are  a  number  of  conditions  which  may  produce 
non-contagious  abortion.  A  general  cachexia 
or  an;emia  may  be  among  the  predisposing 
causes  of  abortion;  and  among  other  conditions 
and  causes  wliich  may  lead  to  abortion  mention 
should  be  made  of  acute  diseases  of  the  vital 
organs,  contanious  fevers,  chronic  diseases  of 
the  abdominal  organs,  diseases  of  the  ovaries, 
kidneys,  or  bladder,  diarrhoea,  fatty  degeneration 
of  the  heart;  ingestion  of  large  quantities  of 
cold  water,  various  forms  of  indigestion,  espe- 
cially those  which  are  accompanied  by  tlie  forma- 
tion of  gas  in  the  stomach ;  imprudent  feeding 
with  succulent  forage  in  large  quantities,  such 
as  roots,  potatoes,  apples,  pumpkins,  ergotized 
grasses,  sweaty  or  rusty  grains  and  grasses; 
standing  in  stalls  with  too  great  a  backward 
slope,  nervous  excitement,  and  muscular  strain. 
Contagious  abortion  is  most  frequent  in  cows. 
It  occurs  also  in  sheep,  goats,  horses,  swine,  and, 
perl\aps,  in  the  dog  and  cat.  It  appears  in  an 
enzootic  or  e])izoiJtic  form.  The  disease  is  per- 
petuated iu  the  herd  or  transmitted  from  one 
herd  to  another  by  means  of  contagion.  If  an 
aborting  cow  is  placed  in  a  herd  which  has 
hitherto  been  healthy,  an  outbreak  of  abortion 
maj'  occur.  Bulls  that  have  served  aborting 
cows  may  transmit  the  disease  to  other  cows. 
In  general,  the  micro-organisms  to  which  the 
disease  is  due  are  found  in  the  male  and  female 
genital  organs,  and  on  the  afterbirth  from  aboi-t- 
ing  ammals. 

In  cows,  abortion  seldom  occurs  before  the 
foTirth  month  of  pregnancy,  but  may  occur  at 
any  time  after  that  period.  The  symptoms  of 
the  disease  are  not  prominent  or  characteristic. 
Cows  which  are  affected  with  the  disease  may  re- 
main apparently  healthy  until  abortion  takes 
place.  The  foetus  is  expelled  with  ease,  and  is 
usually  dead  at  birth.  If  abortion  occurs  at  the 
end  of  six  mouths  the  young  may  be  alive,  but 
lives  only  a  few  hours.  ]\Iares  abort  between 
the  fourth  and  the  seventh  month  of  gestation. 
The  premonitory  symptoms  of  abortion  in  mares 
are  enlargement  of  the  mammary  glands  and  a 
white  mucous  or  sometimes  purulent  discharge 


ABORTION. 

frnni  the  vagina  thiro  or  four  days  before  tlie 
cx|)ulsion  of  the  foetus.  The  tjeatnient  for  tliis 
disease,  which  lias  };iven  satisfaetory  results,  is 
the  applieation  of  tliorougli  antisepsis.  In  ease 
of  an  outbreak  of  abortion,  the  fietus  and  fa"tal 
membranes  from  aborting  aninnils  should  he 
l)urned  ov  doe))ly  buried,  the  posterior  ])arts  of 
the  animals  should  be  washed  in  some  antiseptic 
solution,  repeated  antiseplie  va;,'inal  dciuihes 
should  be  j,'iven,  and  the  stable  sliould  be  thor- 
oughly disinfeeted.  In  order  to  prevent  the  pos- 
sible spread  of  the  infection,  the  posterior  parts 
of  other  cows  or  mares  in  the  same  stable  should 
be  carefully  washed  with  a  solution  of  creolin, 
potassium  permanganate,  or  corrosive  sublimate. 
Contagious  or  cpizoJitic  aliortion  lia^  liccn  known 
in  all  |iarls  of  Kurope  since  the  eighteenth  ci'ii- 
tury.  The  disease  also  prevails  in  .Vustralia 
and  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  ilany 
extensive  outbreaks  are  recorded  in  dillerent  lo- 
calities. Consult:  Turner's  "Infectious  Abor- 
tion in  Mares,"  American  Veterinariiiit  Reiirir 
(H<)4):  Report  United  fifates  Department  of 
Agriculture.  IS'.irj,  Division  of  .Animal  Industry, 
Bulletin  3.  D.  K.  Salmon;  Special  Itcport  on  Mix- 
cellaneoiis  Inre.itigalions  Concerning  Infectioiia 
anit  I'liriisitie  Diseases  of  Domesticated  Animals 
(Washington,  1S!).3). 

.Vi'.oiniDN  IN  Pi.ANT.s.  That  kind  of  arrest 
in  development  by  which  an  organ  appears  in  its 
early  stages,  but  fails  to  develop  to  its  normal 
form  or  size.  For  e.vample.  in  many  flowers  cer- 
tain stamens  are  aborted,  their  primordia  having 
appeared,  but  having  failed  to  develop  into  func- 
tioning stamens.  The  abortion  may  be  of  any 
degree  bet\\een  the  first  appearance  of  the  organ 
and  its  complete  maturity.  A  very  closely  re- 
lated term  is  "suppression,"  in  which  not  even 
the  beginning  of  an  expected  organ  appears.  The 
phenomenon  is  chiefly  observable  in  connection 
with  the  flower  (q.v. ) . 

ABOU  BEN  ADHEM  (iiljoTT  ben  iid'hem) 
AND  THE  ANGEL.  A  short  narrative  jiocm 
by  Leigl:  Hunt,  the  significance  of  which  appears 
in  the  line. 

'■Writ.'  itie  as  ont*  that  loves  hia  fellowiiieu." 

ABOUKIR,  ii'booker'.    See  Abvkir. 

ABOULIA,   a-boo'li-a.      See  under   IxsAMTY, 

ABOUT'.     See  Tackixo. 

ABOUT,  a'hoo',  Kdmond  (1S28-8.5).  A  bril- 
liant, witty,  but  uneven  French  journalist,  nov- 
elist, and  writer  of  social  and  political  essays. 
He  was  horn  at  Dieuzc,  completed  his  studies  in 
Paris,  won  honcn'S;  and  was  sent  in  IS5I  to  the 
French  School  at  .Athens,  where  he  studied  lit- 
tle, but  observed  much  in  a  desultory  way.  The 
literary  result  of  his  two  years'  stay  in  Greece  is 
/,(/  (Irficc  eonteniporaine  (1S.54).  and  I,c  roi  iles 
moiitagnes  (IS.iO),  both  full  of  Immor  and  irony. 
They  were  jjopular,  often  translated,  and  had 
inllueiiie  on  what  passed  for  political  thought. 
In  IS.i.T  he  i)ublished  Tollii,  a  story  of  Italy,  bor- 
rowed in  part,  and  without  due  acknowledg- 
ment, from  an  Italian  novel,  Villoria  Sarnnlli 
(1841).  In  lS.'>n  he  essayed  the  stage  without 
success,  but  won  poptilarity  by  short  stories  col- 
lected undi'r  the  titles  Les  mariagcs  de  Paris 
(IS.'iti)  and  Les  mariagcs  de  prorince  (18(18). 
His  most  popular  stories  are  L'homine  A  I'oreille 
( (ix.si'r  (ISfil)  and  f,e  nez  du  notairr  (18til), 
both  often  translated.  He  had  a  gift  of  facile 
narration,  but  be  did  not  take  his  talent  seri- 


37  ABRACADABRA. 

ously,  and  ceased  writing  fiction  with  the  fall  of 
the  Second  Empire,  of  which  he  was  a  spoiled 
child.  To  politics  during  these  years  he  had 
contributed  //«  (/utslion  romaine  (1850),  Home 
contcmporuine  (18tjl),  La  Prusse  en  1S60,  La 
nouvclle  carte  de  I'lJurope  (1860),  and  Lc 
progris  (18G4).  After  the  fall  of  the  Empire 
he  became  editor  of  I.e  XIX.  Sirele.  and  published 
a  hitter  book  on  Alsace  ( 1872) .  He  was  ma<le  an 
academician  in  1885.  The  general  character- 
istics of  his  work  are  a  kindly  humor,  a  keen 
irony,  a  cleanly  taste,  and  a  rather  shallow  skep- 
ticism. 

ABOVILLE,  ji'bo've'y'  or  a'bo'vel',  Ffsax- 
rois  Marie  (1730-1817).  A  French  general 
of  artillery.  He  was  born  at  Brest.  During  the 
war  of  the  .\nicrican  Revolution  he  commanded 
Koehanibcau's  artillery  at  Yorktown.  In  1792  he 
commanded  the  armies  of  the  North  and  of  Ar- 
dennes, and  in  180!)  was  appointed  Governor  of 
Brest. 

ABOX'.  See  Box  Hauling. 
A'BRA.  ( 1 )  A  character  in  Prior's  poem  f!olo- 
mon  un  the  Vaniti/  of  the  ll'ocW.  She  appears 
in  the  second  part  of  the  poem  as  an  obedient 
concubine  of  the  King,  and  finally  captivates 
him.  (2)  A  character  in  the  media>val  romance  of 
Amarlis  of  (I recce.  She  is  a  sister  of  the  Sultan 
of  Babylon,  and  secures  his  throne  after  he  is 
killed  by  her  lover,  Lisnarte. 

ABRAB ANEL,  a  -brii'iia-ncl',  AB ARBANEL, 
a-njir'ba-nel',  or  ABRAVANEL,  a-brii'va-nel', 
Isaac  ben  Jeiiuiia  (1437-150S).  A  .Tewish 
scholar  and  statesman.  He  was  born  in  Lisbon, 
and  claimed  descent  from  King  David.  He 
was  treasurer  of  Alfonso  V.,  but  after  that 
king's  death  was  banished  from  Portugal  and 
his  property  confiscated.  In  Spain  he  made 
a  fortune  as  a  merchant,  and  was  in  high 
favor  with  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  in  1487, 
but  the  decree  of  1402  banished  all  Jews  from 
Spain,  and  .\brabanel  fled  to  Naples,  where  he 
found  royal  favor,  but  was  again  obliged  to  fly 
when  Naples  surrendered  to  the  French  in  1405, 
He  settled  last  at  Venice.  He  was  one  of  the 
ablest  men  of  his  time,  and  was  learned  in  bibli- 
cal e.xcgesis  and  philosoi)hy.  His  most  celebrated 
work  is  his  Herald  of  Sah-ation  (1526),  an  elab- 
orate presentation  of  the  Jewish  doctrine  of  the 
Messiah. 

AB'RACADAB'RA.      A    word    probalily    de- 
rived  from  the  same  root  as  Abraxas,  and  used 
by  the  (Jnostics  of  the  sect  of  Basilides   in   the 
Orient    (second  century  and  later)    as  a   magical 
formula  by  which  the  assistance  of  good  spirits 
was  invokcil  against  all  evils 
or  maladies.    Inscribed  upon     ABR.AO.ADABR.A. 
gems    it    formed   a    class    of       ABR.\CADABR 
the  so-called  Abraxas  stones,         ABR.ACADAB 
and  was  concealed  about  the  ABR.\C.\DA 

I)erson.     With  the  spread  of  ABRAC.\D 

magical     practices    it    came  ABRACA 

into  use  outside  the  Gnostic  ABRAC 

sect.     The  Gnostic  physician        ■         ABRA 
Sammonicus     describes     how  ABR 

it    can    be    made    eOicacious  AB 

against      fevers,      especially  A 

agues.     It  should  be  written 
several  times,  each  time  on  a  separate  line  and 
each  time  dropiiing  .a  letter,  the  letters  arranged 
so  as  to  form  an  inverted  triangle  and  to  read 
across   the   base   and   up   the   right   side.     This 


ABRACADABKA. 

amulet  was  to  be  folded  and  worn  on  the  bosom 
for  nine  days,  then  Hung  backward  before  sun- 
rise into  a  stream  flowing  eastward.  See  Abrax- 
as; Amulet. 

AB'RADA'TAS.  A  king  of  Susa,  who  at  first 
fought  against  Cyrus  the  Great,  but  who  after- 
ward, in  consequence  of  the  latter's  kindness  to 
Pantliea,  his  wife,  who  had  been  captured 
by  the  Persians,  yielded  to  Cyrus  and  became 
his  ally.  Abradatas  perished  in  the  war  against 
Croesus  the  Lydian.  The  story  of  his  romantic 
ail'ection  for  Panthea  and  her  suicide  after  his 
death  appears  in  the  fifth  book  of  Xenophon's 
Ci/ropcedia. 

A'BEAHAM.  The  Father  of  the  Hebrews, 
whose  story  is  given  in  Genesis  xi-xxv.  It  con- 
sists of  a  series  of  incidents  In  the  patriarch's 
life,  put  together  in  a  consecutive  narrative 
and  emanating  from  different  literary  sources. 
In  Genesis  xi  :  10  the  genealogy  of  the  Sheniites 
(or  sons  of  Shem)  is  taken  up,  leading  up  to 
Terah,  the  father  of  Abrani,  Nahor,  and  Haran. 
The  home  of  Terah  and  his  sons  is  Ur  of  the 
Chaldees — a  place  commonly  identified  with  the 
site  of  the  mound  Mugheir,  in  southern  Baby- 
Ionia — but  after  the  death  of  Haran  the  Tera- 
hites  joui-ney  northward  to  Haran  and  take  up 
their  settlements  at  that  place.  Terah  dies  in 
Haran,  and  Abram,  accompanied  by  his  wife 
Sarai  and  his  nephew  Lot  (the  son  of  Haran), 
quits  Babylonia  by  divine  command  and  pro- 
ceeds by  a  circuitous  northern  route  via  Damas- 
cus to  Canaan.  He  halts  at  various  places,  nota- 
bly Shechem  and  Bethel,  where  he  erects  altars 
to  Yahweh  (chap.  xii.).  Leading  a  pastoral  life, 
we  next  find  him  in  Egypt,  whitlier  he  has  been 
driven  in  consequence  of  a  famine  in  Palestine. 
Sarai's  beauty  attracts  the  attention  of  the 
Pharaoh,  and  but  for  Yalnveh's  intervention 
Abram  would  liave  been  obliged  to  give  up  his 
wife,  whom  he  had  represented  to  be  his  sister. 
Pharaoh  obliges  Abram  to  leave  Egypt,  and  he 
accordingly  returns  to  Bethel  with  Lot.  At  this 
juncture  the  separation  between  Abram  and  Lot 
takes  place  in  consequence  of  quarrels  between 
tlie  followers  of  the  two  chiefs.  Lot  chooses  for 
himself  the  rich  pasture  land  of  the  .Tordan  Val- 
le}',  while  Abram  remains  in  Canaan  proper, 
though  removing  to  Hebron.  He  becomes  in- 
volved in  a  war  with  the  kings  of  the  .Jordan 
Valley  in  order  to  rescue  Lot.  who  had  been 
taken  captive.  He  not  only  succeeds  in  this  en- 
terjirise,  but  aids  in  restoring  the  kings  of  Sodom 
and  Gomoriah  to  power  and  magnanimously  re- 
fuses any  compensation  for  his  services  (chap, 
xiv) .  At  the  time  that  Abram  left  Haran  he  was 
seventy-five  years  old.  At  Damascus  he  is  joined 
by  lOliezer,  who  becomes  his  trusted  servant,  and 
on  whom  the  succession  to  Abram's  property 
would  fall  in  the  event  of  Abram  remaining 
childless.  This  contingency  is  eliminated  by  the 
birth  of  Ishmael,  a  son  by  Hagar,  a  concubine 
of  Abram,  and  an  Egyptian  maid-servant  of 
Sarai.  Subsequently,  however,  when  Abram  is 
ninety-nine  years  old  and  Snrai  ninety,  a  son, 
who  is  called  Isaac,  is  born  to  them  (chap,  xvii), 
and  who  becomes  the  heir  of  »\bram  in  prefereiice 
to  Ishmael.  At  the  time  that  this  son  is  prom- 
ised to  Abram  and  Sarai.  through  the  appearance 
of  Vahweh  himself  to  Abram,  the  names  of  the 
patriarch  and  his  wife  are  changed  by  the  Lord 
to  Abraham  and  Saran,  respectively,  the  former 
being  interpreted  as  embodying  the  promise  that 


38 


ABRAHAM. 


the  patriarch  will  become  "the  father  of  a  mul- 
titude of  nations."  The  promise  of  a  son  to  be 
born  to  Sarah  is  confirmed  by  a  visit  of  Yahweh 
accompanied  by  two  angels,  all  three  in  hu- 
man form,  who  partake  of  Abraham's  hospitality 
and  make  a  similar  announcement.  The  two 
angels  proceeil  to  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  while 
Yahweh  remains  behind  and  reveals  to  Abraham 
the  intended  destruction  of  the  cities  of  the  plain 
because  of  the  wickedness  and  corruption  pre- 
vailing there.  Abraham  pleads  with  Yahweh  to 
save  the  cities  for  the  sake  of  the  righteous,  and 
Yahweh  agrees  to  do  so  provided  only  ten  right- 
eous men  are  found  in  the  district.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  the  cities  are  destroyed  and  only  Lot  and 
his  family  are  permitted  to  escape  (chap.  xvii). 
Before  Isaac  is  actually  born,  Abraham  is  rep- 
resented as  proceeding  to  the  extreme  south  of 
Palestine,  known  as  the  Xericb,  and  at  Gerar  en- 
counters the  King  (Abimelech  )  .who  takes  into  his 
harem  Sarah,  whom  Abraham  again  passes  off 
as  his  sister,  Jehovah  warns  Abimelech, and  Sarah 
IS  released  (chap.  .\x).  The  birth  of  Isaac  is  re- 
counted in  the  21st  chajiter.  Eight  days  after 
his  birth  he  is  circumcised— an  act  which  is  re- 
garded as  symbolizing  the  covenant  established 
between  Jehovah  and  those  descended  from  Abra- 
ham (Genesis  xvii  :  23-27).  Some  years  later 
the  faith  of  Abraham  is  put  to  a  severe  trial  by 
the  divine  command  to  sacrifice  his  beloved  son 
(chap.  xxii).  Abraliam  proceeds  to  carry  out 
the  decree,  but  is  withlield  from  doing  so  by 
Jehovah  himself,  who,  satisfied  with  the  test, 
accepts  a  ram  which  providentially  makes  its 
appearance.  The  last  three  chapters  of  the  nar- 
rative are  taken  up  with  the  account  of  Sarah's 
death,  lier  burial  in  the  cave  of  JIachpelah  at 
Hebron,  purchased  by  Abraham  from  Ephron 
the  Hittite.  the  marriage  of  Isaac  and  Rebekah, 
and  the  death  of  Abraham,  which,  however,  does 
not  take  place  until  his  marriage  to  Keturah, 
by  whom  two  sons  are  born  to  him.  The  death  of 
Abraham  takes  place  when  he  has  reached  the 
age  of  one  hundred  and  seventy-five  years,  and 
he  is  interred  by  the  side  of  Sarah  at  Machpelah. 
Many  modern  Bible  critics  regard  this  cycle  of 
Abrahamic  stories  as  embodying  a  mixture  of 
early  and  late  traditions,  a  recast  with  a  view  of 
presenting  Abraham  as  a  type  of  the  pious,  ob- 
servant Jew.  Besides  the  biblical  stories,  other 
tales  were  current,  or  became  current  among  the 
.Jews  of  post-exile  days,  many  of  which  were 
taken  up  into  that  portion  of  ralibinical  literature 
known  as  the  ilidrash.  In  this  way  the  biblical 
narrative  was  supplemented  by  incidents  in  the 
early  career  of  Abraham,  on  which  Genesis  has 
nothing  to  say.  These  stories  bring  Abraham 
into  association  with  Ximrod.  The  historical 
kernel  in  the  Genesis  chapters  is  quite  insignifi- 
cant. The  genealogical  lists  are  fictitious,  the 
names  representing  in  most  cases  not  individuals 
but  clans,  of  whom  some  faint  traditions  have 
survived.  There  is,  however,  no  reason  to  doubt 
the  existence  of  an  ancient  hero  whose  name 
was  preserved  in  two  forms,  Abram  and  Abra- 
ham, the  former  representing  perhaps  a  contrac- 
tion or  dialectical  variation  of  the  latter,  and 
to  whom  as  a  popular  personage  various  sto- 
ries that  had  come  down  from  various  periods 
were  attached.  Of  the  "historical"  Abram  or 
Abraham  hardly  anything  more  can  be  asserted 
than  that  his  home  appears  to  have  been  Hebron. 
The  wanderings  of  the  Terahites.  among  whom 
Abram  is  reckoned,  reflect  the  faint  recollection 


ABRAHAM. 


39 


of  the  origin  of  tlic  llubifws,  or  of  some  of  the 
clans  who  subsequently  fornivd  part  of  the  eouli- 
tion  known  as  Hebrews  from  the  Mesoi)otaniian 
district.  The  story  of  the  wanc!erinj;s  of  the  Tc- 
rahites  along  the  Euphrates  ami  theiue  into 
Palestine  is  typical  of  the  manner  in  which 
nomadic  bands  in  the  early  and  the  late  days 
of  Babylonian  history  proceeded  from  the  .\ral)- 
ian  desert,  and,  attracted  by  Haliylonian  cul- 
ture, skirted  the  western  borders  of  this  culture. 
some  making  more  or  less  permanent  settlements, 
while  others  pass  on  to  the  north.  A  sigiiilieant 
passage  in  Deuteronomy  (xxvi:5)  designates 
the  ancestors  of  the  Hebrews  as  "nomadic  Ara- 
maeans." Aram  here  is  a  designation  for  Mesopo- 
tamia, and  the  chief  value  of  the  story  of  Abra- 
ham's wanderings  lies  accordingly  in  thus  pre- 
serving a  picture  of  conditions  prevailing  at  the 
earliest  period  of  which  any  recollection  survived 
among  the  j)eople. 

BiBi.iooRAPUY.  For  the  rabbinical  legends  and 
traditions  about  Abraham,  consult:  Beer.  Uas  Lc- 
bell  Abraliaiiis  in  LebcnsrienHildcn  biblisclier  I'er- 
semen  luich  Auffasstinni  drr  jiidischcii  -SV/pc  (Leip- 
zig. 1859)  ;  Griinbaum.  .V(  iic  Beitriit/r  zur  semi- 
titchen  Sagenkunde  (Leipzig.  ISO.S),  which  also 
contains  the  Mohammedan  legends  about  .Abra- 
ham. For  archa'ological  aspects,  see  Tomkins"s 
Studies  OH  the  Times  of  Ahraham  (London, 
1878);  Sayee.  Patiirnchal  Pnlrsthic  (Utrecht, 
189.5)  (to  be  used  with  caution),  as  well  as  the 
early  chapters  in  histories  of  the  Hebrews  by 
Stade,  Kittel,  Guthe,  I'iepenhring,  as  well  as  the 
commentaries  on  Genesis  by  Gunkel,  Dillmann, 
Delitzscli.  etc. 

ABRAHAM  -  A  -  SANCTA  CLARA,  a'bra 
Iiani  a  sank'la  klar'a  (1044-1709).  A  popular 
(iennan  preacher  and  friar.  His  real  name 
was  Ulrich  Megerle,  but  he  is  generally  known 
by  the  name  given  to  him  when  he  joined  the 
Augustinians.  He  was  provincial  prior  of  the 
Augustinians  and  court  preacher  at  Vienna. 
Uncouth  puns,  coarse  expressions,  and  strange 
freaks  of  humor  marked  his  sermons.  He  lashed 
the  follies  of  all  classes  of  society  and  in  partic- 
ular exposed  the  vices  of  courtiers  and  court  life. 
He  was  an  honest,  faithful,  and  devoted  priest, 
as  was  proved  by  his  self-sacrificing  conduct 
during  the  plague  in  1079.  His  collected  works 
aggregate  twenty-one  volumes   (18.'?5). 

ABRAHAMITES,  aajra-ham-its.  or  BOHE- 
MIAN DEISTS.  The  name  under  which  a 
number  of  Bolirmians,  trusting  to  the  edict  of 
toleration  issued  by  .loseph  IT.,  avowed  them- 
selves (1782)  as  believers  of  the  doctrine  alleged 
to  have  been  held  by  Abraham  before  his  circum- 
cision. As  early  as  the  ninth  century  a  sect  of 
the  same  name  had  arisen  in  Syria,  and  had 
denied  the  divinity  of  Christ.  t?ut  the  Bohe- 
mian deists  professed  to  be  followers  of  John 
Huss,  though  they  held  no  Christian  doctrine 
beyond  that  of  the  unity  of  (iod,  and  accepted 
nothing  of  the  Bil)le  save  the  Ten  Command- 
ments and  the  Lord's  Praj'er.  As  they  would 
join  neither  Jewish  nor  Christian  sects,  the 
Emperor  refused  to  tolerate  them,  and  in  1783 
expelled  them  from  their  native  land,  and  scat- 
tired  them  in  various  parts  of  Hungary.  Tran- 
sylvania, and  Slavonia,  where  many  were  made 
converts  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  while 
others  died  clinging  to  their  simple  creed. 

A'BRAHAM-MEN'.  A  class  of  stunly  beg- 
gars    in     Kiigland     who     feigned     lunacy,     and 


ABRASIVES. 

wandered  about  the  country  in  a  disorderly 
nuvnner.  They  were  common  in  Shakespeare's, 
time,  and,  it  would  seem,  existed  even  as  late 
as  the  period  of  the  Civil  Wars.  The  term 
is  a  cant  one.  ".\n  Abram  cove,"  as  Decker, 
in  his  Eiiylish  VilUinics,  calls  one  of  those 
men<licants,  meant  one  who  jjcrsonated  a 
"Tom  o"  Bedlam."  He  would  "disguise  him- 
self in  grotesijue  rags,  with  knotted  hair, 
long  St  a  tT,  and  with  many  more  disgusting  con- 
trivances to  excite  pity,"  but  he  did  not  hesitate 
to  live  by  thieving  too;  when  detected  in  pil- 
fering or  in  any  species  of  depredation,  he 
pleaded  the  immunities  of  a  Bedlamite.  This 
word  connoted  originally  an  iiunatc  of  the  lunacy 
ward  of  Betlilehem  Hospital,  London,  under  the 
patronage  of  the  patriarch  .\braliam.  Wearing 
a  li:idge  for  iilenlilication,  such  a  man  was  for- 
nnilly  permitted  to  roam  about  the  country  when 
discharged  and  solicit  alms.  Many  mendicants 
took  wrongful  advantage  of  this  privilege  and 
preyed  upon  the  charitable.  The  term  is  still 
preserved  in  the  slang  phrase  "to  sham  Abra- 
ham.'' 

A'BRAHAM'S  BOS'OM.  A  term  used  to 
designate  the  abode  of  bliss  of  the  blessed,  not 
only  among  Jews  but  among  Christians.  Laz- 
arus reclining  in  Abraham's  liosom  was  a  figura- 
tive expression.  In  Byzantine  and  mediai'val  art 
the  souls  of  the  blessed  are  represented  as  being 
taken  into  .Abraham's  bosom  in  the  form  of 
little  children.  Abraham  is  the  central  figure 
in  the  fore-court  of  lieavcn. 

A'BRAHAM  THE  JE'W  AND  THE  MER'- 
CHANT  THE'ODORE.  A  mediaval  tale  of 
the  conversion  of  a  .lewisli  moneylender,  after 
occurrences  in  which  figures  prominently  the 
miracle-working  power  of  the  great  inuige  of 
Christ  in  the  copper  market  at  Constantinople. 
Theodore,  in  financial  straits,  twice  borrows 
money  of  Abraham  on  the  security  of  his  oath 
before  the  statue,  and  only  after  repeated  losses 
does  he  find,  while  on  a  foreign  shore,  means  to 
repay  the  loan.  F(n-  lack  of  other  mode  of 
transmission  the  merchant  trusts  his  box  of 
money  to  the  sea.  It  is  carried  by  the  waves 
safely  home  to  the  Jew,  who  denies,  however, 
after  the  return  of  Theodore,  that  he  has 
received  it.  The  Christian's  prayer  before  the 
inutge.  where  he  has  brought  Abraham  to  take 
oath,  leads  the  Jew  to  confession  of  the  Christian 
faith. 

ABRA-IGORROTE.  a'bra  e'gAr-nVta.  or 
CJuiN.VA.XE.  .\  hcad-liuuting  tribe  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Abra.  uortluru  Luzon.  See  Philippines. 
ABRANTES,  ;'i-briiu'ti'is.  .An  ancient  town 
in  Estrcmadura,  Portugal,  situated  on  the 
Tagus,  70  miles  ncjrt  beast  of  Lisbon  (Map: 
Portugal,  A  :!).  It  is  strongly  fortified,  being 
surrounded  by  walls  and  protected  by  a  castle. 
It  is  remarkable  for  the  grand  architectural 
features  of  its  monastery.  By  way  of  the  Tagus, 
Abrantes  has  a  brisk  trade  with  Lisl)ou  in  grain, 
olive  oil,  wine,  and  fruit.  Fr(un  this  town  ilar- 
shal  .T\inot  took  his  title  of  Duke  of  Abrantes. 
Pop.,  about   SIIIIO. 

ABRANTES,  a'hn'iN'tas',  Due  d'.  See  Ju.not. 
ABRANTES,  Dlchesse  d'.     See  Jcnot. 
ABRA'SI'VES    (Lat.    ah,    away -f  rurfcir,    to 
scrape,     scratch).     The    natural    and    artificial 
substances  used  in  the  arts  for  scraping,  grind- 
ing,    and    polishing.     The    principal    abrasives 


ABRASIVES. 

now  used  are  corundum,  emery,  garnet,  quartz, 
carborundum,  diatomaceous  eartli,  tripoli,  pum- 
ice, rouge,  crushed  steel,  abrasive  stones,  and 
sand.  Corundum  is  a  crystalline  mineral  sub- 
stance, large  deposits  of  which  are  mined  in 
North  Carolina.  The  process  of  manufacturing 
corundum  ore  into  an  abrasive  powder  consists 
in  crushing  and  grinding  it  to  a  powder,  which 
is  mixed  witli  water  and  fed  onto  sieves  or 
screens ;  the  properly  ground  material  passes 
through  the  screens  and  tlie  coarser  powder 
remains  on  top  and  is  reground.  Tlie  remain- 
der of  the  process  consists  in  refining  and  sizing 
the  powder  into  eight  or  ten  grades  for  the 
market.  Emery  is  an  impure  grade  of  corun- 
dum, and  is  prepared  for  tlie  market  by  crusli- 
ing,  screening,  and  sizing,  like  corundum  proper. 
Emery  is  used  in  the  form  of  powder  for  polish- 
ing plate  glass  and  stones,  as  emery  paper  and 
as  emery  wheels.  Emery  paper  or  emery  cloth 
is  paper  or  cloth  covered  with  hot  glue  and 
dusted  with  jjowdered  emery.  Emery  wheels 
are  sometimes  solid  emery  stone,  and  sometimes 
wheels  the  faces  of  wliich  are  coated  with  emery. 
Garnet  occurs  in  segregated  masses  scattered 
through  otlier  rocks.  Formerl}'  the  process  of 
production  was  to  separate  the  garnet  masses 
from  the  barren  rock  by  hand  after  the  rock  had 
been  broken  down  by  picks  or  by  blasting.  This 
method  of  separation  resulted  in  the  loss  of  a 
con.siderable  portion  of  the  garnet  in  the  rock, 
and  a  process  has  recently  been  perfected  by 
which  tlie  iocl<  is  crushed  by  machinery  and  the 
garnet  separated  from  the  barren  rock  by  water. 
Garnet  is  liarder  than  quartz,  and,  unlike  quartz, 
does  not  wear  smooth,  but  by  its  cleavage  pre- 
sents new  cutting  edges.  It  is  used  chiefly  in 
the  form  of  garnet  paper  or  as  a  facing  for  cylin- 
ders, disks,  belts,  etc.,  for  smoothing  and  finish- 
ing wagons,  cars,  carriages,  wooden  parts  of 
bicycles,  furniture,  etc.,  and  in  boot  and  shoe 
manufacture  for  smoothing  and  polishing  the 
heels  and  soles.  Carborundum  is  an  artificial 
product  manufactured  by  a  single  American  com- 
pany whose  works  are  at  Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y. 
The  raw  material  for  carborundum  manufacture 
consists  of  34.2  parts  coke,  54.2  parts  sand,  9.9 
parts  sawdust,  and  1.7  parts  salt.  This  mixture 
is  sntelted  bj'  electricity  in  special  furnaces  of 
fire-brick  IG  feet  long,  5  feet  higli,  and  5  feet 
wide.  In  the  centre  of  tlie  end  walls  are  the 
terminals  or  electrodes,  each  of  which  consists 
of  60  carbon  rods  30  inches  long  and  3  inches  in 
diameter,  into  the  outer  ends  of  wliich  small 
pieces  of  %  inch  copper  rods  are  fixed.  A  square 
copper  plate  bored  with  00  holes  holds  the  carbon 
electrodes  in  place.  The  carbons  having  been 
put  in  place  from  the  inside  of  the  furnace, 
the  spaces  between  them  are  tightly  packed  with 
graphite,  which  prevents  the  oxidation  of  the 
carbons  and  adds  materially  to  their  durability. 
The  charge  is  next  thrown  into  the  furnace  until 
it  is  a  little  more  than  half  full,  when  a  semi- 
circular trench  about  21  inclies  in  diameter  is 
made  the  full  lengtli  of  the  furnace.  Into  this 
trench  the  core  of  coke  is  placed  and  built  up 
to  form  a  cylinder  21  inches  in  diameter.  Around 
this  core  more  material  is  packed  to  the  full 
height  of  the  side  walls,  and  heaped  above  their 
to[)s,  the  furnace  then  being  ready  for  operation. 
This  consists  of  passing  an  electric  current 
through  the  cliargc  between  the  two  terminals, 
whi(^h  is  maintained  for  thirt.y-six  hours,  after 
which  the  furnace  is  allowed  to  cool  slowly  for 


40 


ABRASIVES. 


twenty-four  hours,  when  the  side  walls  are  torn 
down  and  the  charge  removed.  The  carborun- 
dum forms  a  layer  about  10  or  12  inches  thick 
around  the  coke  core.  This  is  crushed  and 
treated  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid  for  three  days 
at  a  temperature  of  100°  C.  to  remove  the 
iron  and  alumina.  Tlie  clean  material  is  then 
washed  with  water,  dried,  and  graded  according 
to  fineness.  Carborundum  is  used  like  emery 
and  garnet  in  the  manufacture  of  abrading  cloth, 
cylinders,  wheels,  etc.,  and  in  the  form  of  powder 
for  polishing  stones,  steel  balls,  etc.  Diatoma- 
ceous or  infusorial  earth  is  a  natural  product 
consisting  of  the  siliceous  framework  of  diatoms, 
which  is  ground  and  used  principally  in  polish- 
ing metals  and  finishing  wood.  Tripoli  is  die- 
tinguished  from  infusorial  earth  by  the  mode  of 
origin,  it  being  the  porous  silica  left  from  a 
siliceous  limestone  from  wliich  the  lime  has  been 
leached,  leaving  the  silica.  The  natural  product 
is  ground  in  a  mill  and  sifted  for  use  in  polish- 
ing metals,  horn,  shell,  etc.,  and  is  also  cut  out 
into  the  form  of  disks  and  used  in  household 
filters  for  filtering  water.  Ilougc  as  usually  sold 
is  made  by  dissolving  iron  in  sulphuric  acid  so 
as  to  form  iron  sulphate:  this  salt  is  heated 
and  the  sulphur  driven  off,  leaving  a  residue 
of  sesquioxide  of  iron,  which  after  washing  is 
known  as  rouge.  Rouge  is  used  for  polishing 
plate  glass.  Crushed  steel  and  steel  emery  are 
manufactured  preferably  from  pieces  of  high 
grade  crucible  steel  heated  to  a  temperature 
of  about  2.'500°  F.  and  then  quenclied  in  a 
bath  of  cold  water  or  other  suitable  hardening 
solution  which  gives  the  steel  a  granular  struc- 
ture. The  pieces  are  then  reduced  to  powder 
by  powerful  hammers  or  crushing  machines, 
after  which  the  steel  particles  are  tempered  in 
the  following  manner:  They  are  placed  in  a  steel 
pan  or  cylinder  and  heated  to  a  temperature  of 
450°  F.,  and  then  cooled  by  being  subjected 
to  cold  air  in  various  ways.  The  final  process 
is  the  grinding  and  sizing  of  the  powder.  Steel 
emery  is  made  exactly  like  crushed  steel  but  is 
given  an  intensely  hard  temper.  Crushed  steel 
ranks  close  to  the  diamond  in  hardness. 
Crushed  steel  and.  steel  emery  are  extensively 
used  in  stone  sawing  and  polishing,  in  lens 
grinding,  glass  beveling,  brick  grinding,  and  by 
lithographers,  engineers,  and  plate  glass  manu- 
facturers. Grindstones  are  cut  from  a  hard 
sandstone  of  a  peculiar  quality,  and  whetstones, 
scythestones  and  oilstones  are  quarried  and  cut 
from  similar  natural  rocks.  Millstones  or  huhr- 
stones  are  cut  down  or  built  up  from  various 
kinds  of  rock;  the  American  buhrstone  is  a 
quartz  conglomerate  which  is  known  under 
various  local  names:  the  German  buhrstone  is 
a  basaltic  lava,  and  that  which  comes  from 
France  and  Belgium  is  a  hard,  porous  material 
consisting  of  small  particles  of  silica  in  a  cal- 
careous cement.  The  foreign  stone  is  brought 
into  the  United  States  in  small  pieces,  which 
are  cut  and  built  up  into  wheels  with  cement, 
but  the  domestic  stone  is  worked  down  from 
quarry,  blocks  into  a  solid  wheel  of  the  required 
size.  Millstones  are  used  for  grinding  grains, 
cement,  pigments,  etc.  .S'ojid  is  cxtensivel.y  used 
as  an  abrasive  in  the  form  of  sandpaper  and 
in  the  sandblast  for  cleaning  castings,  structural 
iron-work,  etc.  Pumice  is  a  volcanic  ash  or 
tufa  which  may  be  ground  into  powder  for 
scouring  and  polishing  or  sold  in  lumps  for 
similar  purposes.     See  Sandpaper ;   Sandblast. 


ABRASIVES. 


41 


For  a  detailed  description  of  the  occurrence  and 
jneparation  of  abrasives,  reference  should  be 
made  to  the  Antuiul  Ilcports  of  the  United  IStates 
Geological  Siirvci/,  Mineral  Itesourcex  of  the 
Vnitrtl  States,  wliich  also  include  statistics  of 
production  and  importation. 

ABRAVANEL,    ilbrU'vA-n§I'.      See   Abbaba- 

KEL. 

•  ABRAX'AS.  A  term  used  by  the  Gnostic 
sect  of  Basilides  to  desifrnate  the  multiform 
manifestation  of  the  Supreme  Deity  in  the  uni- 
verse, because  when  the  word  is  written  with 
Greek  letters, these  letters, computed  numerically, 
have  the  value  of  365,  wliich  cipials  tlie  solar  year 
and  the  number  of  eons  or 
worlds  that  formed  the  total 
Gnostic  universe.  The  word, 
in  harmony  with  the  magical 
tendencies  of  the  Kast  in  the 
second  century,  was  engraved 
on  precious  stones  and  used  as 
an  amulet.  These  gems  often 
bore  strange  figures  of  Gnostic 
deities,  .sometimes  part  lion,  or 
serpent,  or  cock,  some  con- 
nected with  .Tewish,  some  with 
ABRAXAS  STONE.  Egyptian,  and  some  with 
Grffco-Roman  worship.  Tlipy  are  cliaracteris- 
tic  of  the  hybrid  religious  movement  that 
fought  for  supremacy  with  Christianity.  In 
many  cases  the  figure  represented  has  the  head 
of  a  cock,  the  body  of  a  man,  and  two  serpents 
instead  of  legs,  and  is  armed  with  a  whip  and 
shield,  with  the  inscription  lAii  {iao).  derived 
from  the  Hebrew  name  for  (iod.  Other  divine 
manifestations  inscribed  or  represented  on  the 
gems  are  Sabaoth.  Adonai,  EloT — Hebrew  names 
for  (tod — Astaphaios,  laldabaoth,  Chiiouphis. 
Others  have  names  or  tigures  of  .Jewish  an- 
gels (Michael,  Gabriel,  Uriel,  Onoel)  ;  others 
those  of  Egyptian  gods  ( Isis,  Osiris,  Phtah, 
Neith,  Hathor,  etc.);  others  those  of  Greek 
gods  and  heroes  (Zeus,  Hecate,  Aphrodite, 
Hercules).  It  is  a  fact  that  the  Christian 
Church  and  the  Christian  emperors  of  the  fourth 
and  fifth  centuries  found  it  far  more  diiricuU 
to  stamp  out  magical  beliefs  and  practices  than 
those  of  ollicial  paganism,  and  of  this  these 
stones  are  the  clearest  proofs.  (See  Auk.m'a- 
DABRA  and  .^Mll-ET. )  For  futher  information 
consult  Martigny,  Dictionnaire  dcs  antiiiuitcs 
rhrclii: lines  (Paris,  1877),  and  Kraus.  Heal  En- 
oiklopiidie  der  christlichen  Alterhiimer  (Frei- 
burg. 18S2-86). 

ABREAST'.     See  Bearing. 

ABRIDG'MENT  (O.  F.  ahriflier,  Lat.  abhre- 
viare,  to  shorten).  A  condensation  or  abbrevia- 
tion of  a  hook  or  treatise.  Tn  the  law  of  copy- 
right an  abridgment,  when  fairly  made,  is  deemed 
a  new  work,  and  consequently  its  publication  is 
not  an  infringement  of  the  copyright.  .Vn 
abridgment  is  to  be  distinguished  in  tlie  law  of 
copyright  from  a  compilation.  The  former  is  a 
condensation  of  the  substance  of  the  copyrighted 
article,  while  the  latter  is  a  reproduction  in 
part,  at  least,  of  the  language  of  the  copyrighted 
article  and  is  held  to  be  an  infringement. 
-Abridgments  of  the  rules  of  law  by  various  writ- 
ers have  been  of  gieat  importance  in  the  di'velop- 
menl  of  the  English  coiuirion  law.  liefnrc  our 
modern  methods  of  reportini;  decided  cases,  the 
abridgments  of  Comyn.  Viner.  Bacon,  and 
others  were  highly  valued  as  text-books,  and  were 
Vol.  I.— 5. 


ABRUZZI. 

the  chief  repositories  of  legal  learning.  They 
are  still  valuable  as  authorities  as  to  the  rules 
of   the  early   law. 

ABBOC'OMAS    AND    ANTHI'A.      One    of 

the  oldest  works  of  (Jreck  jirose  fiction:  also 
known  as  Ephisiaeu.  or  the  Lures  of  Anthia  and 
Abrocomas.  It  was  by  an  otherwise  unknown 
writer  named  Xenophon  of  Ephesus,  of  uncertain 
date,  supposed  to  liave  lived  about  the  time  of 
the  Antonines.  It  is  in  simple  narrative  style, 
but  abounds  in  improbable  incidents.  The  story 
is  the  ultimate  source  of  Jionieo  and  Juliet. 

AB'ROGA'TION  (Lat.  abrogatio,  from  ab, 
away  +  raiinrr,  tci  ask,  propose  a  law).  In  lav, 
the  annulling  or  rc|icaling  of  a  former  law  by  an 
act  of  the  legislative  body,  .Mirogation  may  he 
accomplished  by  cxi)rcss  provision  of  the  later  act, 
which  in  general  terms  abrogates  all  laws  in- 
consistent with  the  new  one,  or  names  specifi- 
cally the  laws  to  be  abrogated,  in  which  ease  the 
abrogation  is  said  to  be  express.  Abrogation 
may  also  be  implied,  when  the  new  law  is  neces- 
sarily inconsistent  with  earlier  laws.  Also, 
in  England  and  Scotland,  though  not  generally 
in  the  United  States,  when  a  statute  by  lapse  of 
time  becomes  unsuited  to  the  times  and  condi- 
tions, it  is  impliedly  abrogated.  Abrogation  of 
statute  law  revives  any  provision  of  the  common 
law  which  the  earlier  statutes  had  abrogated. 
See  Repe.^l. 

ABROLHOS,  abro'lyijs.  A  group  of  islands 
and  shoals,  oil  miles  otf  the  east  coast  of  Brazil 
and  .50  miles  east  of  Caravellas,  forming  part  of 
the  state  of  Bahia.  The  largest  island  of  the 
group,  Santa  Barbara,  is  the  site  of  a  lighthouse 
(Map  :  South  America). 

A'BRTJS  (Gk.  u(ip6c,  habros.  graceful, 
pretty).  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Leguininosa;.  The  only  known  species.  Abrnx 
precatorius,  is  a  shrul)  originally  belonging  to 
India,  where  it  is  chietly  fouml  in  clayey  soils, 
but  now  not  uncommon  in  the  West  Indies  and 
other  tropical  regions.  The  roots  possess  prop- 
erties similar  to  those  of  the  common  licorice. 
The  seeds,  often  called  crab's  eyes,  are  nearly 
spherical,  as  large  as  small  peas,  of  a  scarlet 
color,  with  a  black  scar,  and  are  familiar  to 
most  people  in  England  and  elsewhere,  being 
used  as  beads.  They  are  narcotic.  In  India  and 
Australia  they  are  believed  to  be  poisonous,  and 
a  number  of  criminal  cases  of  cattle  poisoning 
bv  this  means  were  reported  by  the  Cattle 
Plagiie  Commission  in  1870. 

ABRUZZI.  A-broot's6,  and  MOLISE,  m6- 
le'sa.  A  division  (compirrtimento)  of  central 
Italy,  situated  between  the  Apennines  and  the 
Adriatic  Sea,  and  comprising  the  provinces  of 
Terauio  (Abruzzo  llteriore  I.),  Chieti  (Abruz- 
zo  Citeriore),  Aquila  (Abruzzo  Ulteriore  11.), 
and  Campobasso  (Molise)  (Map:  Italy,  H  .5). 
The  area  is  ()3S0  square  miles.  It  comprises 
the  wildest  and  loftiest  portion  of  the  Apen- 
nines. The  rent  and  .jagged  mountain  gioups 
are  verv  picturesque  and  reach  in  II  Gran 
Sasso  d'ltalia.  or  "the  great  rock  of  Italy."  the 
highest  of  the  chain,  the  elevation  of  nOOO  feet. 
The  highlands  are  clothed  with  luxuriant  for- 
ests and  slope  precipitously  on  all  sides,  but  es- 
pecially toward  the  northeast  shore.  The  rivers 
are  minu-rous.  but  mostly  very  short,  and.  with 
the  sole  exception  of  the  IVscara.  are  of  littl-Mm- 
liortance.  The  climate  of  the  .\bruzzi  is  raw  in  the 
higher  regions ;  snow  rests  on  the  mountains  from 


ABKTTZZI. 

October  to  April,  and  on  some  of  the  peaks  all 
the  year  round.  While  the  mountain  slopes 
provide  ample  pasture  for  the  numerous  herds 
of  cattle  and  swine,  fertile  valleys  yield  olives, 
rice,  saffron,  wine,  and  gi'^^ins  in  abundance. 
Animal  products  form  the  chief  article  of  ex- 
port. Silk  is  produced  to  some  extent.  In 
former  times  the  district  was  considered  of  much 
strategical  importance,  owing  to  its  inaccessi- 
bility, wliich  rendered  it  especially  fit  as  a  pro- 
tection for  Naples.  Population  in  1881,  1,317,215  ; 
in  1901,  1,442,365.  The  inhabitants  lead  a  pas- 
toral life.  Consult  A.  de  Nino,  Usi  e  costumi 
ahruzzesi  (Florence,  1879-91). 

ABKX7ZZI,  Prince  LuiGi  Amadeo  of  Savoy- 
Aosta.  Duke  of  the  (1873 — ).  An  Italian  trav- 
eler and  Arctic  explorer.  He  is  the  son  of 
ex-King  Amadeus  of  Spain,  was  born  in  Madrid, 
and  studied  at  the  naval  college  in  Legliorn.  In 
1897  he  attracted  much  attention  by  making  the 
first  ascent  of  Mount  Saint  Elias.  On  June  12, 
1S99,  he  set  out  on  his  voyage  toward  the 
North  Pole,  his  plan  being  to  leave  his  ship,  the 
Stella  Polare,  in  harbor,  and  send  northward  a 
series  of  sledge  expeditions.  He  spent  one  winter 
in  the  Bay  of  Teplitz.  and  would  have  remained 
a  second  had  not  a  serious  injury  to  the  vessel 
compelled  his  return.  One  of  his  sledge  parties, 
under  Captain  Umberto  Cagni.  attained  the 
northernmost  latitude  as  yet  reached  ( 86°  33', 
239.15  statute  miles  from'  the  Pole).  On  Sep- 
tember 6,  1900,  he  returned  to  Christiania.  His 
explorations  determined  the  northern  coast  of 
Franz-Josef  Land  and  the  non-existence  of  Peter- 
mann  Land.  The  story  is  told  in  his  book.  On 
the  "Polar  Star"  in  the  Arctic  Sea  (1903).  Con- 
sult F.  de  Filippi,  La  spedizione  di  Luigi  Amadeo 
di  Savoia  al  Montr  Sant'  Elia   (Milan,  1900). 

AB'SALOM  (Heb.,  father  of  peace).  The 
third  son  of  King  David  (II.  Samuel  iii:  3;  I. 
Chronicles  iii:  2),  whose  romantic  career  makes 
him  a  prominent  figure  in  Old  Testament  history. 
Encountering  the  ill  will  of  David  through 
slaying  Amnon,  another  son  of  the  King,  in  re- 
venge for  an  outrage  committed  by  Amnon  upon 
his  sister  Tamar  (II.  Samuel  xiii),  Absalom  was 
banished  fronj  his  father's  court,  and  more  tlian 
five  years  elapsed  before  he  was  again  admitted 
into  the  presence  of  his  father  (II.  Samuel  xiv). 
A  complete  reconciliation,  however,  appeared  out 
of  the  question,  and  Absalom  shrewdly  laid  his 
plans  to  ingratiate  himself  in  the  hearts  of  the 
people  (II.  Samuel  xv:  1-6).  When  the  moment 
appeared  ripe  he  organized  a  rebellion  against 
David,  which  soon  assumed  such  dimensions  as 
to  force  the  King  and  his  court  to  leave  Jeru- 
salem and  fly  for  refuge  to  tlie  east  of  the  .Jordan. 
Absalom  entered  Jerusalem,  and  the  rebellion 
would  probably  have  been  successful  but  for  the 
crafty  intrigues  of  Hushai,  who,  while  pretend- 
ing to  espouse  the  cause  of  Absalom,  gave  coun- 
sel which  enabled  David  and  his  adherents  to 
obtain  time  for  gathering  a  following  (II.  Sam- 
uel xv:  17).  A  decisive  battle  was  then  fouglit 
"in  the  wood  of  Ephraim"  (TI.  Samuel  xviii  :  6) . 
in  which  Absalom  lost  his  life,  .\ccording  to 
the  narrative,  Joab,  chief  counselor  of  David, 
sent  three  darts  into  Absalom's  heart  while  he 
was  hanging  from  an  oak.  in  the  branches  of 
which  his  flowing  locks,  while  he  was  riding,  be- 
came entangled.  With  Absalom's  death  the  re- 
bellion came  to  an  end  (II.  Samuel  xviii:  7-17). 
David  is  represented  as  having  been  profoundly 


42  ABSCHATZ. 

grieved  at  the  death  of  his  son,  and  tliis  grief  is 
a  reflection  of  the  impression  made  upon  the 
people  by  the  romantic  career  of  Aljsalom.  In- 
stead of  denouncing  liim,  tlie  writer  tells  the 
story  in  a  manner  calculated  to  arouse  at  least 
partial  sympathy  for  Absalom,  who  is  described 
as  a  youth  of  extraordinary  beauty  and  attrac- 
tiveness (II.  Samuel  xiv:  25-27).  Absalom  was 
buried  near  tlie  spot  where  he  died,  and  tlie  grav* 
was  marked  by  a  great  heap  of  stones  (II.  Samuel 
xviii:  17).  The  date  of  Absalom's  death  may 
be  fixed  approximately  at  B.C.  980. 

ABSALOM  AND  ACHITOPHEL,  a  kit'5-fel. 
The  title  of  a  poetical  satire  by  .Jolin  Dryden, 
published  in  1681.  Absalom  represented  the 
Duke  of  Monmouth,  illegitimate  son  of  Charles 
II.,  whose  character  is  said  to  have  resembled 
that  of  the  rebellious  son  of  King  David. 
Achitophel,  David's  disloyal  adviser,  stood  for 
the  Earl  of  Shaftesbury,  against  whom  the  satire 
was  directed.  It  was  intended  to  ju.stify  King 
Charles  II.  as  against  the  Whig  party.  As  a 
political  document  it  was  extremely  effective, 
and  it  has  been  highly  praised  for  its  vigorous 
literary  qualities.  The  second  part,  published 
in   1682,  was  added  by  Nahum  Tate. 

ABSALON,  iib'sli-lon  (1128-1201).  A  Danish 
ecclesiastic,  statesman,  and  general.  He  was 
educated  at  Paris,  and,  during  the  reigns  of  Val- 
demar  I.  and  Canute  VI.,  served  as  minister 
and  general.  In  1158  he  was  chosen  bishop 
of  Roeskilde,  and  in  1178  became  archbishop 
of  Lund.  Absalon  aided  in  the  formulation  of 
the  code  of  Valdemar,  and  to  his  influence  is 
due  the  Historia  Danica  of  Saxo  Cirammaticus. 

AB'SCESS  (Lat.  ab,  abs,  away  +  cedere,  to 
go,  Gk.  aTroarritia,  apostema,  distance).  A  col- 
lection of  pus  formed  within  some  tissue  or 
organ  of  the  body  where  no  cavity  previously  ex- 
isted, and  due  to  injury,  toxication,  or  septic 
infection  from  bacteria.  An  abscess  is  thus 
formed :  First,  the  capillary  vessels  become  over- 
charged with  blood,  in  consequence  of  inflamma- 
tion. The  fluid  part  of  the  blood,  flowing  very 
feebly,  together  with  some  of  the  white  blood 
corpuscles,  exudes  through  the  walls  of  the 
capillary  vessels  and  becomes  pus.  This  matter 
gradually  disintegrates  the  tissues,  and  so  makes 
for  itself  a  larger  cavity,  and  frequently,  by 
gradual  dissolution  of  the  adjacent  parts,  works 
its  way  either  to  the  surface  or  to  some  natural 
cavity  of  the  body.  Pus  thus  making  its  appear- 
ance in  a  different  part  of  the  body  from  where 
it  was  formed,  constitutes  a  "cold  abscess."  It 
also  occurs  that  when  the  purulent  matter  does 
not  find  any  outlet,  either  naturally  or  arti- 
ficially, it  is  gradually  absorbed.  In  abscesses 
superficially  seated — either  in  or  close  under  the 
skin — the  early  treatment  consists  chiefly  in 
promoting  the  formation  of  pus  by  the  applica- 
tion of  moist  and  warm  bandages  or  poultices,  or 
limiting  the  process  by  the  applicatio"n  of  ice. 
The  next  step  is  the  removal  of  the  pus  and  pro- 
vision of  drainage.  When  this  is  too  long  de- 
layed, even  poisoning  may  ensue.  An  ab.scess 
niiist  be  regarded  not  as  a  disease  in  itself,  but 
as  the  result  of  disease,  or  as  an  effort  of  nature 
to  reniove  injurious  matters  from  the  system. 

ABSCHATZ,  iip'shats,  H.\N.s  Assmann,  Frei- 
hcrr  von  llfi46-!)9).  A  German  poet  of  the 
second  Silesian  School.  He  was  born  at  Wilr- 
bitz,  and  studied  at  Strassburg  and  Leyden.  He 
was  appointed  life  deputy  from  the  principality 


ABSCHATZ. 

of  I.R'{;iiitz  to  the  Silc.-iaii  Diet  at  Hroslavi  in 
lUT'.l.  Strongly  paliiutic  in  tone,  he  was  one  of 
the  hesl  known  of  (Jeinian  scventeenlli  century 
poets,  lie  transhited  the  I'a.itor  Fido  from  the 
Italian  of  Guarini.  His  I'ovtische  Ucbcrsetz- 
tiiigen  uiid  (Icdichir  were  puhlisheii  after  his 
death  (edited  hy  Christian  (irypliius,  17(M).  Se- 
lections also  appear  in  Volume  VI.  of  \V.  Miiller's 
llihliolhfh-  dciilscliir  Klastiikcr  des  siebzehnten 
.lohrliinidi  rls:   (  IS-i4). 

ABSCHIEDS  -  SYMPHONIE,  iip'shets-rfm- 
fone'  Kiev.  "Farewell  Sympliony").  A  symphony 
composed  by  Hayiln.  dated  1772  on  the  auto- 
graph score.  It  was  written  as  an  appeal  to  the 
Prince  Kszterhiizy  to  allow  the  musicians  leave 
of  ab.scnce.  One  after  another  stopped  playing 
and  left  the  orchestra,  and  lluydn's  object  was 
attaiiied'thronjih  this  delicate  hint.     See  IIayd.n. 

ABSCIS'SA.    See  Analytic  Geometry. 

ABSCOND'ING  (Lat.  aba,  away  +  condere, 
to  put  up  I .  In  law,  the  act  of  leaving  the  state 
or  concealing  oneself  therein  for  a  fraudulent 
purpose,  such  as  hindering,  delaying,  or  defraud- 
ing one's  creditors.  It  is  not  a  comuion-law  of- 
fense for  one  to  go  beyond  the  boundaries  of  his 
country,  nor  to  treat  his  house  as  liis  castle, 
that  is,  as  a  place  into  which  an  ollicer  has  no 
right  to  break  in  order  to  serve  civil  process. 
I'liit  if  a  debtor  went  abroad  or  locked  himself 
in  his  house  to  avoid  the  service  of  legal  process, 
or  if  he  was  about  to  do  either  with  like  intent, 
the  creditor  was  entitled,  upon  resorting  to  the 
])roper  proceedings,  to  seize  his  property.  The 
rights  of  creditors  against  absconding  debtors 
arc  regulated  usually  by  statute.  See  Akuest: 
Attach Mf:N'T;  1!ankiiui'tcy;  Insolvency;  Limi- 
T.\Tio.\  OF  AcrioNS. 

AB'SENTEE'.  A  capitalist,  especially  a  land- 
owner, who  derives  his  income  from  one  country 
and  spends  it  in  another.  Ireland  oilers  the  clas- 
sic exami)le  of  absenteeism  and  its  attendant  eco- 
nomic and  social  evils.  A  large  part  of  the  land 
is  owned  by  members  of  the  aristocracy,  who  ad- 
minister their  affairs  by  agents  and  rarely  visit 
their  possessions.  This  state  of  afTairs  dates  in 
the  main  from  the  union  with  Great  Britain  and 
the  transfer  of  Parliament  from  Dublin  to  Lon- 
don. It  has  always  been  a  matter  of  liiKcr  com- 
plaint. It  is  urged  that  the  system  drains  Ire- 
land of  its  wealth  and  leaves  it  in  poverty.  While 
some  writers,  notably  McCulloch,  have  considered 
this  complaint  fundamentally  wrong,  there  is  a 
general  consensus  of  opinion  that  absenteeism  is 
hurtful  to  the  economic  interests  of  a  region. 
It  removes  from  the  country  its  natural  lead- 
ers, those  whose  wealth  creates  emj)loyment,  and 
whose  personal  concern  in  the  uiibui!ding  of  tlie 
country  is  essei-tial  to  pulilic  welfare.  It  in- 
tensities the  struggle  between  (dasses  and  makes 
cooperation  dillicult.  It  is  likely  to  result  in 
misuse  of  the  land  by  owners  more  bent 
upon  securing  n;aximum  financial  returns  than 
upon  maintaining  and  increasing  its  earning  ca- 
pacity, while  the  m.magement  of  the  paid  over- 
seer is  not  tempered  by  the  spirit  of  iiofctev.fc 
oblige  which  generally  prevails  when  the  land- 
lord is  a  resident.  The  voluminous  discussion  of 
the  Irish  questiim  within  and  out  of  Parlia- 
ment teems  with  references  to  absenteeism. 

ABSENTEE,  THE.  A  story  by  Maria  Edge- 
worth  ((|.v.).  piil)lis!ied  in  ISI2.  "it  was  one  of 
the  series  called  Tuks  of  Fashionable  Life,  or 
Fashionable  Tales. 


43 


ABSOLUTE. 


ABSINTHE,  ab'sinth  (!•>.,  from  the  Gk. 
(iil'ivOinv,  apsinthion,  wormwood).  A  bitter  liquor, 
the  base  of  which  is  an  alcoholic  solution  of  cer- 
tain essential  oils  derived  from  a  number  of 
plants.  The  chief  source  is  a  form  of  worm- 
wood, or  absinthiinn  ( Artemisia  absinthium). 
(For  illustration,  see  Plate  of  Acantiu-.s.)  The 
leaves  and  tops  of  this  plant,  together  with  por- 
tions of  angelica  root  {Arrhan;irlica  o/firinalis), 
sweet-flag  root  {.\corus  eul(imus).  dittany 
{('unila  mariana),  star-anise  seeds  {lllicium 
ecrinn  ) .  and  other  aromatics,  are  macerated  in 
alcohol  for  eight  days  and  then  distilled.  The 
jiroduct  is  an  emerald-colored  liipior,  to  which 
anise  oil  is  added,  and  which  constitutes  the  gen- 
uine French  extrail  dUihsinthr.  Other  absinthe 
of  inferior  (piality  is  made  from  various  herbs  and 
essential  oils,  and  adulterations  are  numerous 
and  deleterious.  .\s  adulterants,  turmeric  and 
indigo,  and  in  some  cases  sulphate  of  copper, 
have  been  used,  chiefly  for  the  production  of  the 
green  color  in  the  inferior  gi-ades.  Two  kinds  of 
al>sinthc  arc  known  in  commerce,  common  and 
Swiss;  the  latter,  prepared  from  highly  concen- 
trated spirits,  being  the  more  trustworthy.  The 
chief  places  of  manufacture  are  XeuchAtel  in 
Switzerland  and  liordeau.v  in  France.  The  prod 
uct  is  consumed  mostly  in  France,  though  large 
quantities  aie  exported  to  the  United  States. 
Absinthe  was  first  used  by  the  French  soldiers 
in  the  Algerian  War  (1844-1847),  who  mixed  it 
%\ith  their  liquor  as  a  febrifuge,  and  who  later 
introduced  the  habit  in  France.  Absinthe-drink- 
ing has  become  in  France  so  great  an  evil  that 
its  use  ha.s  been  prohibited  in  both  the  army 
and  navy  of  that  nation. 

Absinthe  when  excessively  used  gives  at  first 
a  feeling  of  exhilarated  intoxication.  Later  the 
digestive  organs  are  deranged,  the  appetite  de- 
stroyed, then  thirst,  giddiness,  ringing  in  the 
ears,  hallucinations  of  sight,  heavy  mental  op- 
pression, anxiety,  loss  of  brain  power,  and  idiocy 
may  succeed  each  other.  The  use  of  absinthe  in- 
duces a  condition  of  alcoholic  intoxication  plus 
the  poisoning  by  the  essential  oils,  notably  by 
that  known  as  absinthol,  contained  in  the  worm- 
wood. It  is  doubtfnl  whether  the  hideous  pic- 
tures frequently  drawn  are  true  to  life;  they 
probably  represent  the  extremes.  Absinthe  is, 
however,  much  more  intoxicating  than  the  or- 
dinary liquors.  Consult  Mew  and  Ashton. 
Drinks  of  the  World  (New  York.  1892).  .See 
LiQiKiH;  WoRMwoon:  .Artemi.sia. 

AB'SOLON.  A  character  in  Chaucer's  Miller's 
Tiile.  lie  was  a  parish  clerk,  who  fell  in  love 
with  the  jealous  carpenter's  wife,  but  ludicrously 
failed  of  his  suit. 

AB'SOLTJTE  (Lat.  absolutus.  brought  to  a 
conclusion,  final,  complete,  from  ahsoh^cre.  to 
loosen  from,  bring  to  a  close,  complete).  A  term 
employed  in  philosophy  and  the<dogy  with  vari- 
ous meanings,  but  in  every  ease  in  direct  antithe- 
sis to  the  term  r.lalire.  Many  theological  phi- 
losophers speak  of  God  as  absolute,  meaning 
thereby  thai  He  »i<<v/  st.ind  in  no  relation  to  any- 
thing distinct  from  Himself.  Absolute  means  here 
independent  of  essential  relations  to  other  ob- 
jects. Herbert  Spender  speaks  of  absolute  ethics, 
meaning  ethics  dealing  with  a  standard  that  is 
unchanging,  as  opposed  to  the  relative  ethics  of 
any  particular  place  or  time.  With  the  Hegel- 
ians absolute  me. ins  all-inclusive:  essential  re- 
lation is  included  in  such  a  conception,  but  mere- 
ly    external     relation     is     excluded:     the     uni- 


ABSOLUTE. 

verse,  in  the  sense  of  all  existence,  including  all 
the  relations  binding  everything  to  everything 
else,  is  absolute  in  this  meaning  of  t)ie  word; 
and  the  universe  alone  is  absolute.  JIuch  of  the 
discussion  about  the  possibility  of  the  absolute 
has  turned  upon  the  ambiguity  of  the  word.  So 
also  with  the  question  whether  there  can  be 
knowledge  of  the  absolute.  If  by  the  absolute  is 
meant  something  that  exists  in  itself  apart  from 
all  knowledge,  and  if  knowledge  is  ocmsidered 
as  a  relation  between  two  independent  things, 
the  knower  and  the  known,  then  knowledge  of 
the  absolute  is  impossible.  This  is  Sir  Wil- 
liam Hamilton's  (q.v.)  contention,  and  also 
Spencer's  (q.v.).  If  knowledge  means  exhaustive 
comprehension  of  every  objective  detail  within 
the  unity  of  a  single  consciousness,  and  yet  if 
consciousness  and  its  object  are  not  looked  on  as 
independent  of  each  other,  then  absolute  knowl- 
edge would  be  possible  on  the  supposition  of  the 
existence  of  a  being  that  sustains  all  reality 
within  its  unchanging  consciousness  (T.  H. 
Green ) .  If  knowledge  is  not  synonymous  with 
exhaustive  knowledge,  and  yet  if  the  object  of 
knowledge  is  regarded  as  essentially  related  to 
the  consciousness  that  knows,  and  if  such  an  ob- 
ject also  stands  in  essential  relation  to  every 
other  object,  then  al!  knowledge  is  partial  knowl- 
edge of  the  absolute.  See  Knowledge,  Theory  of. 

ABSOLUTE,  Captain.     A  leading  character 

in  Sheridan's  The  RivnJs.  the  son  of  Sir  An- 
thony Absolute.  He  is  a  young  soldier,  and  the 
lover  of  Lydia  Languish,  to  gratify  whose  unprac- 
tical and  romantic  temperament  he  makes  his 
suit  in  the  assumed  guise  of  a  penniless  Ensign 
Beverley.  He  thus  wins  her  heart,  and  proves 
himself  his  own  successful  rival. 

ABSOLUTE,  Sir  Anthony.  A  celebrated 
character  in  Sheridan's  comedy  of  The  Jxivals. 
He  is  a  choleric  and  apparently  obstinate  old 
gentleman,  who  is,  however,  at  bottom  entire- 
ly kind-hearted.  He  avows  his  excessive  irri- 
tability in  the  first  act:  "No,  no,  Mrs.  Malaprop. 
Jack  knows  that  the  least  demur  puts  me  in  a 
frenzy."  But  when  finally  the  lovers  in  the  play 
are  united,  he  shows  himself  most  jovial  and 
sympathetic. 

ABSOLUTE  VAL'UE.  In  the  development 
of  mathematics  se  /eral  artificial  number  systems 
have  been  formed,  which  are  used  in  connection 
with  the  primitive  system  of  natural  numbers, 
e.g.,   negative    numbers.    — I,   — 2,   — 3,    ...., 

imaginary   numbers.    V  —  1.    V  —  2,    and 

complex  numbers,  3  +  V~^^,  2  — V^^.  The 
natural  number  which,  multiplied  by  ( — 1), 
equals  a  given  negative  number,  is  called  the  ab- 
solute value  of  the  negative  number:  thus,  the 
absolute  value  of  — 2,  expressed  | —  2  |,  is  2. 
Similarly,  the  coefficient  of  V  —  1  in  an  imag- 
inary number  is  called  the  absolute  value  of  the 
imaginary  number :  thus,  the  absolute  value  of 
V^^  (or  V"3"  V^^),  expressed  |  V~^^  |,  is 
V~3.  The  modulus  of  a  complex  number  (q.v.) 
is  called  its  absolute  value;  thus,  the  absolute 
value   of   3  +  V — 2,   expressed    I  3  +  V— 


'I\.    IS 
V  3-  +  (  V^  ^  a  usage  due  to  Weierstrass, 

ABSOLUTION.     Tlie  remission  of  sin  and  its 

lifiialtics  may  be  divided  into  sacramental  and 
canonical — one  relating  to  the  forum  internum, 
and  constituting  the  most  important  part  of  the 


44 


ABSORPTION. 


sacrament  of  penance;  the  other  to  the  forum  ex- 
ternum and  devoted  especially  to  tlie  remission  of 
ecclesiastical  censure.  Their  early  history  is 
closely  connected,  as  in  the  first  ages  of  the 
Church  all  grievous  public  sins  incurred  the 
penalty  of  absolute  separation  from  the  assembly 
of  the  faithful,  and  reconciliation  could  be  ob- 
tained only  by  undergoing  the  penance  imposed 
liy  the  Church.  The  bishops  were  the  chief  min- 
isters of  absolution ;  but  the  whole  body  of  the 
faitliful  \\ere  consulted  as  to  the  term  of  the 
public  penance,  since  they,  as  well  as  God,  were 
injured  by  the  sin.  With  the  gradual  decrease 
of  severity  and  of  public  penances,  absolution  was 
[ironounced  by  the  ])ricst  innnediately  after  con- 
fession, if  he  judged  the  repentance  sincere.  Formal 
exconununioation.  however,  could  even  in  later 
days  be  remitted  only  by  public  absolution  by  the 
bishop  or  his  dejiuty,  and  certain  sins  are  still 
'reserved'  to  the  same  authority  for  judgment. 
The  power  of  judicial  absolution  in  the  name  of 
God  is  attributed  by  Roman  Catholics  to  all 
priests,  on  the  basis  of  the  commission  in  John 
XX.  23 :  the  Protestant  churches  generally  ascribe 
only  a  declarative  power  to  their  ministers, 
ihough  the  Church  of  England  retains  the  abso- 
lute form  in  the  Order  for  the  Visitation  of  the 
Sick.  The  form  of  absolution,  since  none  was 
given  by  Christ,  has  varied  considerably;  the 
U'estern  Church  Aovnx  to  the  Twelfth  Century, 
with  rare  exceptions,  and  the  Eastern  churches  to 
the  present  time  employing  a  deprecatory  form 
("May  Christ  absolve  thee,"  etc.),  for  wliich  the 
indicative  form,  Eqo  absolro  te.  was  definitivelv 
substituted  by  the  Council  of  Trent.  The  differ- 
ence in  form,  however,  has  im])Iied  no  change  in 
doctrine.  See  Confession  ;  Penance  ;  Disci- 
pline, Ecclesiastical. 

ABSOLUTION,  Day  of.  .See  Good  Friday 
( so  called  from  the  ancient  practice  of  empha- 
sizing forgiveness   upon  that  day ) . 

AB'SOLUTISM  (Lat.  ahsolutus,  complete, 
unrestricted,  from  ab.  away  +  solvere,  to  loosen, 
free).  That  system  of  government  in  which  the 
supreme  power  is  vested  in  a  ruler  unchecked 
by  any  constitution  or  laws.  It  characterized 
all  the  ancient  monarchies  (a  brief  period  in  the 
ease  of  the  Roman  Empire  excepted ) ,  and  has 
prevailed  in  all  Oriental  monarchies,  down  to 
Japan  of  a  few  years  ago.  The  barbarian  in- 
vasions replaced  the  absolute  monarchy  by 
feudalism  in  Western  Europe,  but  with  the 
growth  of  towns  and  the  rise  of  the  commercial 
classes  came  the  necessity  for  a  strong  central 
government  to  protect  the  nation  against  the 
feudal  barons,  and  the  absolute  king  once  more 
arose,  master  of  a  regular  army,  uniting  in 
himself  the  diflfei'ent  functions  of  the  national 
life,  religious  as  well  as  political.  A  mild  form 
of  absolute  monarchy  is  familiar  to  the  student 
of  English  history  in  the  House  of  Tudor,  with 
its  nionarchs  of  strong  will  and  arbitrary 
methods:  but  a  representative  absolute  monarch 
of  modern  times  is  better  seen  in  Louis  XIV.  of 
France,  with  his  famous  assertion.  L'ftot-  c'est 
moi  ("I  am  the  state") .  The  only  absolute  mon- 
archies existing  in  Europe  now  are  those  of 
Russia   and  Turkey. 

ABSOB'BENTS.  See  Lacteals;  Lym- 
phatics. 

ABSOBP'TION  (Lat.  ah.  away  -f  sorhere,  to 
swallow).  When  certain  fluids  are  brought 
together    the   molecules   of   one   mix   intimately 


ABSORPTION. 

with  those  of  the  oilier  aiul  <liffiixi<in  takos 
place.  If  certain  solids  containing  fluids  are 
bron^'ht  in  contact  with  other  liquids,  some  of 
the  liquid  passes  into  the  solid  an<l  tihxurptiim 
takes  place.  Gases  may  also  be  absorhcd  simi- 
larly. Diffusion  acting  through  an  animal  or 
vegetable  membrane  is  called  oswosik.  Much 
of  what  is  termed  absorption  in  physiology  is 
really  osmosis.  Most  of  (he  (issues  of  living 
bodies  have  the  power  of  absorbing  llnids — a 
property  that  often  continues  after  death  and 
until  deioniposition.  Animal  subslanees  dilfer  in 
absorbing  power  according  to  ditFcrences  in  the 
liquid,  notably  if  they  differ  in  specific  gravity 
and  if  the  fluids  in  the  substances  brouglit  in  con- 
tact are  miscible.  The  following  table  from  (Ihev- 
reul  shows  the  amounts  of  li(|uid  absorbed  by 
different  substances  in  twenty- four  hours: 


100  Parts  of 


Cartilage    

Tendon    

Elastic  ligament    

Cartilaginous  ligament 

Cornea  

Dried  fibrin 


Parln  of      Saline 
^Vater.     Solution, 


231 
178 
148 
31!) 
4(il 
301 


114 
30 

370 
154 


OU. 


8.6 
7.2 
3.2 
9.1 


Activity  of  absorption,  or  osmosis,  varies  with 
the  freshness  of  the  membrane,  being  great  soon 
after  separation  from  the  principal  parts ;  and 
varies  also  with  pressure,  motion,  and  tempera- 
ture. Absorptioti  of  oxi/flcn  by  the  blood  in 
the  lungs  is  apparentl.v  instantaneous,  the 
change  in  color  from  dark  red  to  bright  red  as 
goon  as  it  arrives  at  the  |>uImonary  vessels, 
showing  the  action  of  the  gas  it  has  taken  from 
the  atmosphere.  This  ra[)idity  of  absorption  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  in  (he  circulation  of  the 
lungs  the  blood  is  spread  out  in  the  fine  capil- 
laries over  a  very  large  area,  and  to  the  inces- 
sant motion  of  the  blood  in  the  capillaries. 
Claude  Bernard  found  that  if  a  solution  of 
iodide  of  potassium  were  injected  into  the  duct 
of  the  i)arotid  gland  on  one  side  of  a  living 
animal,  the  saliva  discharged  bv  the  correspond- 
ing gland  on  the  other  side  almost  instantly 
afterward  contained  iodine.  In  a  measureless 
instant,  therefore,  the  iodine  was  taken  up  b.v 
the  glandular  membrane  on  one  side,  absorbed 
by  the  blood,  carried  to  the  heart,  absorbed 
from  the  blood  by  the  glandular  membrane  on 
the  other  side  and  furnished  to  the  saliva.  It 
is  by  this  process  of  absorption  that  the  elements 
of  nutrition  are  taken  from  the  intestines  and 
conveyed  to  the  tissues  they  are  to  nourish ; 
the  bones  absorb  much  calcareous  matter  from 
the  blood,  cartilages  less,  and  muscles  less  still ; 
the  brain  takes  more  water  than  does  muscle, 
and  muscle  more  than  bone.  The  active  prin- 
ciples of  drugs  and  poisons  are  dissolved  by  the 
juices  in  the  stomach,  and  by  osmosis  pass, 
unchanged  or  slightly  modified,  into  the  circu- 
lation. (See  L.\cTE.M..s;  Lymphatics.)  dpium 
dissolved  by  the  liquids  of  the  stomach  is 
absorbed  by  the  membraiious  lining,  taken  away 
by  the  blood  and  distribu(ed  well  through  the 
body:  at  the  brain  it  acts  on  the  brain  cells 
and  produces  sleep  or  narcotism  or  insensibility. 
The  quickness  of  absorptive  action  is  shown  in 
using    hypodermic    injections;    a    few    moments 


45  ABSORPTION. 

after  the  syringe  has  punctured  the  skin  of  the 
forearm  a  severe  pain  in  the  foot  is  sensibly 
relieved. 

ABSORPTION,  IN-  Pr.AXTS.  The  process  by 
which  sub-lanec-;  are  taken  into  the  boJv.  .\ 
few  plants  only,  being  devoid  of  any  external 
cover  to  the  protoplasm,  are  able  to  engulf  par- 
ticles of  food,  which  may  then  be  digested.  The 
most  prominent  of  these  are  the  My.\omycetes 
(q.v.),  or  slime  molds,  which  in  the  period  of 
their  vegetative  activity  consist  of  a  mass  of 
naked  protoplasm  (called  a  Plasmodium),  some- 
times as  large  as  one's  two  bands.  These  Plas- 
modia, like  huge  Am<eba'  (q.v.),  creep  about 
and  envelop  particles  of  decaying  organic  matter, 
etc.,  on  which  they  feed.  Tlie  zoospores,  or 
reproductive  bodies,  of  some  .Mga^  and  Fungi 
are  also  microscopic  bits  of  naked  protoplasm, 
but  they  probably  do  not  ingest  solid  food  during 
this  period.  Inasmuch  as  the  protoplasm  of 
ipost  |)lan(s  forms  on  its  surface,  as  the  first 
step  of  developnienf,  a  thin  jacket  of  cellulose 
or  some  similar  material,  the  taking  up  of  solid 
substances  is  thereby  absolutely  prevented. 
Whether  the  bod.y  consist  of  one  cell  or  many, 
it  presents  to  the  surrounding  medium  a  contin- 
uous membrane  with  no  visible  openings. 
Through  these  cell-walls,  therefore,  neither  solid 
nor  gaseous  substances  can  pass  without  pre- 
viously undergoing  solution.  The  materials 
whose  .absorption  is  to  be  explained  are  (1) 
dissolved  substances  or  solutes,  and  (2)  the 
solvent,  water. 

(1)  Soi.rTKS.  The  protoplasm  itself  and  its 
surrounding  mendirane  (the  cell-wall)  contain 
a  large  amount  of  water  ( ."iO  to  OS"')-  This 
water  may  be  conceived  of  as  lying  between  the 
particles  of  which  the  subslanees  named  are 
composed,  much  as  it  stands  between  the  close- 
set  stalks  of  plants  in  a  marsh.  Since  water 
always  pervades  the  structures  of  plants,  sub- 
stances in  order  to  enter  the  plant  body  must 
be  soluble  in  water.  When  so  <lissolved  they 
behave  essentiall,v  as  gases:  their  molecules, 
being  then  free  to  move  apart,  tend  to  distribute 
(hemselves  equally  throughout  the  solvent.  But 
the  diffusion  of  solufes  is  greadv  retarded  by 
the  molecules  of  the  water,  so  that  it  is  much 
slower  than  the  similar  diffusion  of  gaseous 
bodies.  It  is  also  retarded  somewhat  by  the 
particles  of  cell-wall  when  these  also  are  encoun- 
tered in  the  water.  But  the  distances  between 
the  particles  of  the  cell-wall  are  relatively  so 
great  that  most  solutes  are  able  to  pass  freely 
between  them.  The  structure  of  the  protoplasm, 
however,  is  such  that  many  s\il)s(ances  cannot 
readily  pass  (hrough  it.  Consequently,  some 
materials  which  can  enter  the  i>laiit  body  may 
travel  only  through  the  cell- walls  and  m;iy  never 
enter  the  living  protoplasm.  Tho  protoplasm 
permits  at  some  periods  substances  to  pass 
through  it  which  at  other  times  are  excluded: 
probably  due  to  ability  to  alter  its  structure 
on  occasion.  Such  substances  as  can  pass 
through  the  invisible  spaces  in  cell-wall  and 
protoplasm  are  therefore  free  to  travel  to  any 
part  of  the  plant  body.  If  any  such  substances 
be  removed  from  solution  through  use  or  storage, 
they  will  continue  to  be  supplied  from  the 
regions  of  greater  abundance,  and  consequently 
of  greater  pressure,  to  the  regions  of  lesser 
pressure,  i.e..  where  the,v  are  being  used.  The 
fact  that  different  amounts  of  a.  given  compound 
enter  plants  growing  in  the  same  soil  is  explic- 


ABSORPTION. 


46 


able  mainly  on  this  basis.  Thus,  wheat  and 
clovei-  may  grow  side  by  side;  the  ash  of  the 
wheat  will  contain  ()7.5%  of  silica,  while  that 
of  the  clover  cojitains  only  2.5%.  This  selective 
absorption  must,  however,  be  in  part  referred 
to  the  power  pos.sessed  by  protoplasm  of  regulat- 
ing the  admission  of  solutes. 

(2)  Water.  Entrance  of  water  into  the  plant 
to  supply  losses  by  evaporation  or  consumption 
depends  upon  similar  factors.  In  a  living 
mature  cell,  the  protoplasm  usually  lies  in  a 
thin  layer  close  to  the  cell-wall  and  envelops  a 
water-filled  space,  the  vacuole.  (See  Growth.) 
Many  substances  are  constructed  by  plants  which 
cannot  ordinarily  pass  through  the  protoplasm, 
and  remain  dissolved  in  the  water  of  the  vacuole 
or  cell-sap.  These  substances  exert  upon  the 
surrounding  layer  of  protoplasm  a  definite  pres- 
sure. If  tney  were  in  gaseous  form  this  would 
be  their  gas  pressure.  As  the}'  are  dissolved, 
it  is  called  their  osmotic  pressure.  The  osmotic 
pressure  of  solutes  in  the  water  outside 
the  plant  is  usually  less  than  that  of  solutes 
in  the  cell-sap.  As  the  solvent  moves  towaril  the 
region  of  higher  osmotic  pressure,  i.e.,  from  a 
place  where  there  is  a  greater  number  of  water 
molecules  in  unit-space,  to  a  place  where  there 
are  fewer,  water  usually  enters  the  plant.  But 
if  at  any  time  the  conditions  are  reversed,  the 
solutes  outside  the  plant  having  higher  osmotic 
pressure  than  those  inside,  water  will  leave  the 
plant.  This  happens  in  nature  sometimes,  and 
it  is  this  condition  tliat  makes  possible  the 
destruction  of  weeds  by  common  salt.  Gases 
are  absorbed  in  the  same  manner  as  solids ;  the 
a])parent  difl'erence  in  their  absorption  by  land 
plants  is  due  tti  the  fact  that  tliey  mostly  become 
dissolved  (and  so  fitted  for  absorption)  only 
when  they  come  into  contact  with  the  water 
saturating  the  cell-wall.  This  condition  among 
the  larger  land  plants  exists  only  in  the  walls 
of  cells  bordering  intercellular  spaces.  ( See 
Ai:R.\Tiox.)  While  land  plants  absorb  gases 
chiefly  from  the  atmosphere,  doubtless  some  ab- 
sorb them  by  the  roots,  notably  the  oxygen  re- 
quired for  their  own  respiration. 

ABSORPTION,  Klectrical.  A  phenomenon 
observed  in  electrical  condensers  (q.v. ),  in  which 
the  dielectric  or  insulating  material  between  the 
conductors  is  non-homogeneous,  e.g.,  a  piece  of 
glass.  It  is  noted  that  if  such  a  condenser  is 
charged,  then  discharged  and  allowed  to  stand 
for  a  short  time,  there  will  appear  another  charge. 
If  this  is  discharged,  another  charge  will  soon 
appear.  These  secondary  charges  are  said  to  be 
due  to  electrical  absorption.     See  Electricity. 

ABSORPTION  OF  Gase.s.  The  phenom- 
enon of  the  taking  up  or  absorbing  of  gases  by 
liquids  and  solids.  Tiie  number  of  cubic  centi- 
meters of  a  gas  which  can  be  absorbed  by  one 
cubic  centimeter  of  a  given  liquid  at  1.5°  C. 
is  called  the  "absorption  coeflicient"  of  the  liquid 
for  the  gas.  The  absoiption  coefficient  of  water 
for  ammonia  is  T.'iO:  for  carbon  dioxide,  1.0; 
for  chlorine,  2.4.  The  mass  of  the  gas  absorbed 
varies  directly  as  the  jjressure:  so,  if  a  gas  is 
forced  into  a  liquid  under  higli  pressure,  and  if 
the  pressure  is  afterward  released,  the  gas  will 
be  evolved.  This  is  what  ha])pens  in  the  case 
of  beer  and  aerated  waters.  The  .ibsor))tion  of 
gases  by  solids  is  called  occlusion.  The  most 
conspicuous  illustration  of  this  is  the  power  of 
palladium  to  occlude  nine  hundred  times  its  own 
volume  of  hydrogen. 


ABSTRACTION. 

ABSORPTION  OF  Waves.  Waves  of  any 
kind  in  any  medium  carry  energy  with  them; 
and,  if  the  energy  decreases,  the  medium  is  said 
to  absorb  it  or  to  exhibit  "absorption."  Thus, 
if  white  light  falls  upon  red  glass,  i.e.,  if  ether- 
waves  which  affect  the  normal  luiman  eye  with 
the  sensation  "white"  are  incident  upon  glass 
which  appears  red  to  the  same  eye,  all  the  waves 
except  those  which  produce  the  sensation  red 
are  absorbed  by  tk2  glass,  while  the  others  are 
transmitted.  ISodies  differ  greatly  in  the  qual- 
ity and  quantity  of  their  absorptive  power ;  bvit 
it  is  a  general  law  that  the  absorptive  power  of 
a  body  equals  its  emissive  power  under  the  same 
conditions.  (See  Kahiation.)  Absorption  is 
due  to  the  presence  in  the  pure  medium  carrying 
the  waves  of  some  portions  of  matter  whose  own 
natural  period  of  vibration  is  the  same  as  that 
of  the  period  of  the  waves;  and.  therefore,  these 
portions  of  matter  are  set  in  vibration  by  "reso- 
nance" ( q.v. ) .  Thus,  if  a  person  sings  a  pure 
note  near  a  piano  it  may  be  observed  that  the 
particular  string  of  the  piano  which  of  itself 
gives  the  same  note  is  set  in  vibration  by  the 
air-waves   sent   out   by  the   singer. 

If  air-waves  of  any  length  fall  upon  a  soft 
bod}',  such  as  a  cushion  or  a  curtain,  there  is 
absorption,  as  is  shown  bj'  the  fact  that  the  re- 
flected waves  are  nuich  less  intense  than  the 
incident  waves.  The  energy  thus  absorbed  is 
not  spent  in  emitting  other  waves,  but  is  dis- 
sipated throughout  the  body  producing  heat 
effects.  Similarly,  if  ether-waves  fall  upon  an 
absorbing  body,  the  energy  absorbed  is  dissi- 
pated in  general  throughout  the  smallest  par- 
ticles of  the  body  producing  heat  effects.  See, 
however.  Fluorescence. 

AB'STINENCE.    See  Pa.st. 

AB'STINENCE  SOCFETIES.  Associations 
to  iiromotc  total  abstinence  from  alcoholic 
liquors  as  beverages.     See  Temperance. 

ABSTRACTION  (Lat.  a  6s,  away  -f  trahere, 
to  draw).  In  logic,  the  jirocess  by  which  the 
mind  separates  out  marks  or  characteristics 
which  are  similar  in  various  objects,  and  disre- 
gards the  marks  or  characteristics  by  which  the 
objects  differ.  It  also  occurs  where  characteris- 
tics of  particular  objects,  or  classes  of  objects, 
are  replaced  by  a  more  general  characteristic. 
An  instance  of  the  first  kind  is  the  formation  of 
the  class  "biped"  by  the  inclusion  of  all  two- 
legged  animals.  An  instance  of  the  second  type 
is  the  substitution  of  the  general  mark  "repro- 
duction" for  the  more  special  marks,  "vivipa- 
rous," "oviparous,"  "fissipaious,"  etc.  The  re- 
sult of  this  process  is  also  called  an  abstraction, 
or,  if  it  appears  as  a  word,  a  concept.  The  psy- 
chology of  abstraction  consists  in  describing  the 
way  in  which  the  attention,  in  passing  from  one 
object  to  another,  fastens  upon  an  element  com- 
mon to  all  and  dissociates  it  from  its  context. 
Abstraction  is  carried  out  in  a  state  of  active 
attention  (see  Attention ),  as  when  the  phi- 
lologist searches  out  common  or  allied  roots  in 
different  languages,  or  when  the  geologist  iden- 
tifies strata  in  different  localities  and  forms  the 
abstraction  of  a  single  ei)och  in  which  they  were 
laid.  The  process  is,  however,  facilitated  by 
the  sheer  decay  of  mental  complexes;  a  decay 
which  obliterates  small  differences  and  reduces 
mere  similarity  to  indistinguishableness.  It 
th\is  comes  about  that  we  form  sketchy,  "ab- 
stract" images — as  of  "pen,"  "house,"  or  "book" 


ABSTRACTION. 


47 


ABU-HASSAN. 


— from  similar  tliiiif;:-,  ami  tluit  one  of  those 
schematic-  images  is  suiruiciit  to  fall  up  a  larj;e 
number  of  more  concrete  (unohliterateil)  ideas 
whenever  an  appropriate  incentive  is  given. 
( .See  Association  of  Ideas.  )  Consult :  R.  H. 
l.otze,  Logic  (Oxford,  1888)  :  W.  .lames,  I'linci- 
ples  of  I'sijrholoyy    (Xew  York,   1890). 

AB'STRACT  OF  TI'TLE.  A  brief  and  or- 
derly -tat'^iiuiit  ill  xvritinr;  of  the  successive  con- 
veyances and  other  events  throu^'h  wli-ich  a  per- 
son claiming  to  own  a  parcel  of  land  derives  his 
title.  A  purchaser  or  mort<ragee  of  real  prop- 
erty is  entitled — by  law  in  England,  liy  custom 
in  the  I'nited  States — to  receive  such  an  abstract 
from  the  vendor  or  mortgagor  in  ailvance  of  the 
consummation  of  the  transaction,  and  it  there- 
upon becomes  the  basis  of  the  examination  of 
title  (q.v.),  which  it  is  the  duty  of  the  solicitor 
or  attorney  of  the  purchaser  to  make.  X  perfect 
abstract  should  furnish  a  complete  history  of  the 
title  sought  to  be  transferred,  showing  not  only 
the  origin  and  nature  of  the  vendor's  interest, 
but  also  all  incumbrances  and  other  interests — • 
such  as  mortgages,  easements,  recorded  judg- 
ments, trusts,  etc. — which  afTect  his  title.  In 
England,  where  the  practice  of  i-ecor<Iing  deeds 
does  not  generally  obtain,  the  abstract  is  based 
upon  the  title  deeds  (q.v.),  which  are  carefully 
preserved  and  transmitted  with  each  transfer  of 
the  estate:  while  in  the  United  States  the  pub- 
lic records  of  conveyances  are  the  principal,  but 
not  the  exclusive,  source  of  the  information  upon 
which  the  maker  of  the  abstract  proceeds.  (See 
Recording  of  Deeds.)  Consult:  Warvelle,  .4. 
Practical  Treatise  on  Abstracts  and  Exumina- 
lions  of  Titles  to  Heal  Property  (Chicago,  18!)2)  ; 
and  also  Warvelle,  A  Treatise  on  (he  American 
Lair  of  \'cndor  and  Purchaser  of  Real  Property 
(Chicago.  1!)02)  ;  Comyns,  On  Abstracts  of  Title 
(London,   IS'.I.t). 

ABSUR'DTJM,  Redi'CTIO  ad  (Lat.  a  reduc- 
ing to  an  al)sindity) .  The  method  of  proving  a 
truth  by  showing  that  to  suppose  the  proposition 
untrue  would  lead  to  a  contradiction  or  absur- 
dity. 

ABSYR'TUS  (Gk.  'A^i'prof,  Ap.iyrtos). 
In  tin-  legend  of  the  Argonautie  expedition  (see 
Argo.n.\itsi  ,  the  younger  brother  of  ifedeii. 
She  carried  him  off  with  her  when  she  fled 
with  .Tason  from  Colchis,  and,  according  to  the 
common  version  of  the  story,  deterred  her  pur- 
suing parent,  ,Eetes,  by  cutting  the  boy  in  pieces 
and  scattering  his  body  on  the  sea  for  his  father 
to  gather  up. 

ABT,  apt.  Fraxz  (1819-8.5).  A  German  song 
writer  and  nuisical  conductor.  He  was  horn  at 
Eilenburg  and  sent  to  the  Thomasschule  at 
Leipzig  to  be  educated.  Here  he  met  Men- 
delssohn, who  is  said  to  have  persuaded  him  to 
follow  a  musical  career.  He  was  appointed 
kapellmeister  at  the  court  theatre  of  Bernburg 
in  1841,  hut  soon  relinquished  this  position  for 
a  similar  one  at  Ziirich,  where  he  remained  for 
eleven  years,  obtaining  great  ])opuIarify  ;is  a 
teacher,  composer,  and  leader  of  singing  socie- 
ties. He  was  called  to  Brunswick  in  1S.")2  as 
second  musical  director  at  the  court  theatre, 
was  appointed  court  kapellnu'ister  in  18.5.T,  and 
pensioned  in  1881.  He  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1872  at  the  invitation  of  several 
choral  societies,  and  everywhere  nu't  with  a  cor- 
dial reception.  Abt  was  a  prolific  coniposer.  and 
at  the  time  of  his  death  had  publishcil  nearly  (iOO 


hooks  (Hefte),  some  of  them  containing  from 
twenty  to  thirty  numbers.  He  belongs  to  that 
group  of  composers  which  includes  Truhn, 
Kiicken,  and  (iumliert.  His  vocal  compositions 
are  remarkable  for  their  simplicity  and  clearness 
of  melodic  construction.  Among  these  may  be 
nu'utioncd:  Uchh  die  Schitalben  heimuvirts 
zich'ii  ("When  the  Swallows  Homeward  Fly")  : 
(lute  \acht.  dit  mein  herziyes  Kind  ("Good 
Night,  My  Child")  :  Srhtaf  irohl,  du  siisser  Engel 
("Sleep  Well,  Sweet  .Xngcl")  :  I.eiichtendes  Augi 
("Marie,  or,  When  I  Am  Near  Thee"). 

ABTJ,  ii'boo.  One  of  tA\e  Aravulli  mountains 
(q.v.l,  India,  over  fiOOO  feet  high.  It  is  held 
in  high  esteem  by  the  .lainas  and  is  celebrated 
for  its  two  magnificent  temples  of  white  marble, 
sujiposed  to  have  been  built  in  the  twelfth  and 
thirteenth  centuries,  and  considered  the  finest 
specimens  of  Indian  architecture. 

ABU,  ii'boo.  The  Arabic  word  for  "father," 
«hich  in  modern  Arabic  often  becomes  abbrevi- 
ated to  lin.  It  is  prefixed  to  many  Arabic  proper 
names,  as  the  equivalent  syllable  Ab  is  prefixed 
to  Hebrew  names.  Example:  Abu-hekr,  cu'  more 
properly,  .\buhakr.  the  'father  of  Bakr.'  But  Abii. 
like  tlie  ?lclirc«  .\b.  often  is  not  to  be  interi)reted 
literally,  but  signifies  possessor,  or  is  >ised  to  in- 
dicate even  more  generally  the  notion  of  fullness, 
largeness,  and  the  like:  as  in  Abulfeda,  "possessor 
of  devotion,"  "the  devoted  one;"  Abner,  "the  liril- 
liant  one,"  literally  "father  or  possessor  pf  light." 

ABU-BEKR,  !i'bor;-bck''r  (his  original  name 
was  'abd  al-Ka'bah  ibn  Abi  Kuhafah)  (570-ti34). 
The  first  caliiih,  father-in-law  of  Mohammed. 
He  was  a  man  of  great  influence  in  the  Koreish 
tribe.  In  ()32,  when  Mohammed  died,  he  was 
made  caliph,  or  successor  of  the  Prophet.  After 
defeating  his  enemies  in  .Vrahia.  and  warring  suc- 
cessfully against  Persia  and  the  Byzantine  Em- 
peror Heraclius,  .Xbu-bekr  died  (Ij:i4  A.D.)  and 
was  buried  at  Jledina.  near  the  remains  of  Mo- 
hanuncd  and  the  Prophet's  wife  .Vyeshah    (q.v.). 

ABU-BEKR  MOHAMMED  IBN  TO- 
PHAIL,  a'liT7o-liek''r  mo  ham'miVl  'b'u  to'fa-el 
(linnS.T).  .\  famous  .\rabic  physician,  mathe- 
matician, poet,  and  philosopher.  He  was  born 
in  Andalusia  an<l  died  in  Morocco.  His  chief 
extant  philosophical  work  is  entitled  Hai  ibn 
Yalczan,  "the  Living,  the  Son  of  the  Awake."  It 
depicts  the  natural  progressive  development  of 
the  human  faculties  in  a  Robinson  Crusoe  horn  on 
an  island  till  nature  and  (iod  are  known.  To 
secure  this  comnninion.  positive  religion  is  vahf- 
able  for  the  vulgar,  but  religious  doctrines  are 
only  exoteric  presentations  of  the  mystic  truth. 
The  name  of  the  hero  and  the  subject  are  bor- 
rowed from  Ibn  Sina  (Avicenna).  with  this  dif- 
ference, that  while  Ibn  Sina's  hero  possesses  a 
supernatural  intellect,  that  of  Ibn  Tophail  per- 
sonifies a  man  of  ordinary  faculties.  Later 
translations:  Francisco  Pons  Bsigues  (Saragos- 
sii.  limO).  and  L.'on  (i:uiticr   (Algiers,  H100 ) . 

ABU-BEKR  MOHAMMED  AL-RAZI,  Ul 
rii'zc.     Sic  Kmazks. 

ABU-HASSAN,  irboo-hiis'iin,  surnamed  The 
Wag.  The  hero  of  The  f?leeper  Aicakened,  one 
of  the  stories  of  the  Arabian  Xiyhts.  He  was 
a  citizen  of  Bagdad  who  entertained  the  Calijih 
unawares  and  as  a  result  met  with  several  inter- 
esting experiences,  finally  becoming  the  trusted 
friend  and  favorite  of  the  Caliph. 


ABU-JAAFAR  IBN   MOHAMMED.         48 

ABIT   JAAFAR  IBN  MOHAMMED,   a^boo 

jii'far  'b'n  iiiu-ham'ined,  called  El  Sadik, 
••The  Righteous"  (0<J!)-765).  A  caliph,  one  of 
the  twelve  imams  of  the  Arabians.  He  wrote  a 
work  on  alchemy,  augury,  and  omens;  and  one 
of  his  pupils,  Abu  Musa  Jabir  ibn  Haiyan  of 
Tarsus,  compiled  a  work  of  two  thousand  pages, 
in  which  he  inserted  five  hundred  of  the  prob- 
lems of  his  master.  Abu  Jaafar  is  the  principal 
Arabian  representative  of  the  pretended  art  of 
prophesying  from  cabalistic  tablets,  and  all  the 
superstitious  disciplines  of  the  Arabs  are  usually 
ascribed  to  him,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that 
these  pseudo-sciences  undoubtedly  originated  in 
countries  farther  to  the  east. 

ABUKm,  ii'boo-ker'.  An  insignificant  village 
on  the  coast  of  Egj'pt,  about  13  miles  northeast 
of  Alexandria,  probably  the  ancient  Bukiris.  The 
important  city  of  Canopus  was  situated  in  the 
near  vicinity.  The  castle  of  Abukir  stands  on 
the  west  side  of  the  hay  of  the  same  name,  which 
is  west  of  the  Rosetta  branch  of  the  Nile.  This 
bay  is  celebrated  on  account  of  Nelson's  victory 
here  gained  over  the  French  fleet.  August  \-2, 
1798,  the  engagement  being  frequently  called  the 
Battle  of  tlie  Nile.  The  French  fleet  was  sta- 
tioned in  a  curved  line  near  a  small  island  guard- 
ed by  a  battery;  but  Nelson,  with  his  usual  in- 
trepidity, forced  a  passage  with  half  of  his  fleet 
of  fifteen  vessels  between  the  island  and  the 
French  line  of  battle,  while  the  other  half  at- 
tacked tlie  enemy  in  front.  The  French  ad- 
miral De  Bruyes  was  killed  by  a  cannon-ball, 
and  his  fiag-sliip,  VOrienf.  was  destroyed.  The 
French  fleet  was  completely  defeated,  and  only 
two  vessels  escaped.  Napoleon  defeated  the 
Arabs  here  on  July  ■25th.  1799,  and  Sir  Ralph 
Abercromby  (q.v.)  repulsed  the  French  near  this 
point  in  1801  (the  engiigement  being  known  as 
the  battle   of  Alexandria). 

ABU  KLEA,  UIjoo  kla'a.  A  place  in  the 
Sudan  situated  on  the  route  between  Korti  and 
Metemme.  both  of  which  are  on  the  great  bend 
of  the  Nile  below  Khartum.  It  was  the  scene 
of  a  battle  fought  on  January  17,  188.i,  in 
which  the  Mahdi's  forces  were  defeated  by  the 
English  troops  under  bir  Herbert  Stewart.  See 
Mahdi. 

ABTTIi  ALA  AL-MAARRI,  ii'boOl  a'la  al-ma- 
ar're  (937-10-27).  An  Arabian  poet  and  philos- 
opher. He  was  born  in  Syria,  and  at  an  early 
age  lost  his  eyesight.  In  his  poems — mostly  of 
a  philosophical  nature — he  sets  up  purity  and  un- 
selfishness as  the  highest  ideals  that  man  could 
follow.  A  collection  of  his  ,joenis  was  made 
at  Cairo  (1306).  Consult  Kremer,  Veber  die 
phUosophischen  Gedichte  des  Abil  l-Ala  ul-Ha'- 
arri  (Vienna,  1888). 

ABTILCASIM,  a'bool-kii'seni.  Commonly 
termed  by  Europi'an  historians  Abiil-Kasis.  A 
famous  Arabic  physician.  He  was  born  at  El- 
Zahra,  near  Cordova.  The  exact  date  of  his 
birth  is  unknown.  He  died  in  his  birthplace 
1106.  His  great  work,  At-Tusnf,  an  encyclo- 
picdia  of  medicine,  is  of  much  interest,  the  trea- 
tise on  surgery  contained  in  it  being  the  best 
that  has  come  to  us  from  antiquity,  and  still  of 
importance  in  tracing  the  progi'ess  of  surgery.  A 
partial  Latin  translation  of  Abulcasim's  work 
was  published  in  Augsburg,  l.')19;  the  section  <m 
surgery  was  published  in  the  original  Arabic 
with  a  Latin  translation  by  Channing  (Oxford, 
1778,  two  volumes). 


ABXTL  SU'UD. 
ABULFARAJ,   •I'bfTol-fa-raj'.      See   Bar  He- 

UR.EU.S. 

ABULFAZL,  a'bool-fii'zT,  MUBARAK  - 1 
ALLAMI  I  sixteenth  century).  Vizier  and  his- 
toriographer of  Akbar  (q.v.),  the  great  ilongol 
emperor.  His  chief  work  is  in  two  parts ;  the  first 
part  {Akbtn-  Xawali.  or  Book  of  Akliar)  is  a 
complete  history  of  Al;l)ar's  reign,  and  the  second 
half  [Ayin-i-AJc'bnr.  or  Institute  of  Akbar)  gives 
an  account  of  the  religious  and  political  consti- 
tution and  administration  of  the  empire.  The 
style  is  excellent,  and  the  second  jiart  is  of  unique 
and  enduring  interest.  Tlie  Persian  text  of  tlie 
Akbar  'Xamah  is  edited  in  the  Bibliothcca  Indica 
(1873-87),  and  a  translation  is  now  being  jssued 
by  Beveridge  in  the  same  collection.  The  Ayiii-i- 
Akbnr,  edite<l  in  the  Bibliotheca  Indica  (1807-77), 
is  translated  by  Blochmann  and  .Tarett  ( 1873-94) 
in  the  same  series.  Abnlfazl  died  by  the  hand  of 
an  assassin  while  returning  from  a  mission  to 
the  Deccan  in  l(i02. 

ABULFEDA,  aTiool-fa-da',  Arabic  Abu  al- 
Fida'  IsmaTl  ibn  'AlT  'Imad  al-DTn  ( 1273- 
1331).  A  Moslem  prince  and  historian.  He  was 
bcni  at  Damascus.  During  his  youth  he  distin- 
guished himself  in  several  campaigns  against  the 
Crusaders.  He  inherited  the  principality  of 
Hamah,  Syria,  in  1298,  but  in  consequence  of  a 
dispute  over  the  succession  the  dignity  was  abol- 
ished by  the  Sultan.  It  was  restored  in  1310  by 
Sultan  JIalik  al-Xasir  and  bestowed  upon  Abul- 
ftda  for  distinguished  military  services.  He  was 
given  practically  sovereign  powers.  From  1310  to 
the  time  of  his  "death  he  ruled  over  the  principal- 
ity, visited  Eg^spt  and  Arabia,  and  patronized 
literature  and  science.  Among  his  important  writ- 
ings were  An  Ahridyment  of  the  History  of  th<z 
Hiimun  Ii'nce,  in  the  form  of  annals,  from  the  crea- 
tion to  1328.  The  work  is  partly  a  compilation  and 
partly  original.  It  is  important  as  historical 
material  for  the  era  of  the  Crusades.  There  are 
several  translations  from  the  original  Arabic. 
A  part  is  contained  in  the  first  volume  of  ilura- 
tori,  Hcriplores  I'eriun  Italicariim.  The  part 
preceding  the  Mohammedan  era  was  rendered  into 
Latin  by  Fleischer  as  Abulfcdw  Historia  ante- 
If^lamiti'ca  (Leipzig.  1831)  :  the  part  on  the  life 
of  Mohammed  into  English  by  W.  Murray  (Lon- 
don) ;  and  the  later  part  by  Reiske  and  Adler 
{Annalrs  Moslemici,  5  vols.,  Copenhagen,  1789- 
94).  The  Geography  of  Abulfeda  is  chiefly  valu- 
able for  the  history  and  description  of  the  Mo- 
hammedan world.  A  complete  edition  was  pub- 
lished by  Reinaud  and  de  Slane  in  Paris  { 1840 )_ ; 
and  a  French  translation  by  Reinaud  appeared  in 
1848. 

ABtTL-HASSAN.  iTbool-has'san.  See  Judah, 
Ben  Samuel. 

ABULIA,  a-bou'li-a.     See  Psychiatry. 

ABUL  KASIM  MANSUR,  ii'bool  ka'sem 
man-suor'.     See  Firdai-si. 

ABULONE,  ;i-boo'16-n&.  A  wild  tribe  in  Zam 
bales  province,  Luzon.     See  Piiilippixe.s. 

ABUL  SU'UD,  a'boTTl  sn-oud'  (1828—).  An 
Arabian  poet.  He  was  born  in  a  village  of  Lower 
Egj-pt  of  poor  parents,  and  was  one  of  a  number 
of  pupils  annually  selected  from  the  primary 
schools  to  take  the  course  in  languages  at  the 
institute  founded  at  Cairo  by  Mehemet  Ali. 
He  at  first  imitated  the  elegiac  poets  of  Arabia ; 
afterward  his  verses,  many  of  whicli  Ijecame  very 
popular,  were  distinguished  by  a  wealth  of  ideas 


QQ      O 

CO 

<  ^ 

if) 


ABUL  SU'UD. 


49 


ABU  TEMMAM. 


ami  by  vnhiptiinus  niysti(;il  tiiiili'iioii>><.  The 
accession  of  Saul  Pasha  inspired  Abiil  Su'ud  to 
a  splen{li<l  kuriiln  (ode),  and  the  fall  iif  Silias- 
topol  was  celebrated  by  him  in  a  dithyninil) 
which  voiced  an  appeal  for  universal  brother- 
lio<id,  an  idea  till  then  little  known  in  the  Orient. 
ABUL   WEFA,    iil.ool   wa'fA.      See   Moiiam- 

MEII    ItKN     \blilA\f  MKI)    liE.N    ^'A1IAVA. 

ABUMESACKA,  abr;n'nift-sii'ka  (native 
name).  A  large  catfish  of  the  Xile  {Charotcs 
laticeps) . 

ABUNDA,  abnrrn'da.  A  Bantu  people  of  An- 
^'ola.  livini;  |>artly  on  the  low-lyin^  coastlands  and 
j)artly  on  the  terraced  esenrpmeiits.  and  hence  di- 
vided into  "lii<;hlanders"  and  "lowlandcrs."  'lliey 
have  Ion;;  been  in  contact  witli  Kiiropeans,  and 
there  is  a  considerable  admixture  of  white  blood, 
larpely  accountin>r  for  their  enterprise,  which 
travelers  praise  hifihly.  Most  of  them  s|)eak  both 
Portuguese  and  I  inbunda.  a  trade  lan{.'uaj.'e  which 
is  current  over  vast  areas.  It  is  said  that,  with  a 
knowledge  of  I'mbunda  and  Ki-Swahili.  also  a 
Bantu  dialect,  a  traveler  can  make  his  way  across 
the  lontincnt   from   Henguela  to  Zanzibar. 

ABU  NUWAS,  a1)iTn  nnfi'was,  ai.-IIasan 
IBN  Ham  al-1Iaka.\ii  (7(i2?-.Sl()?).  One  of  the 
most  celcbrateil  .\rabic  lyrii'  poets;  born  in  al- 
Ahwaz;  lived  a  riotous  life  in  Hasra,  Kufah.  and 
Bagdad,  thougli  under  tlie  special  favor  of  al- 
Harun  and  al-.Kmin.  His  collected  poems  contain 
4000  verses.  Those  whi(  h  celebrate  wine  are  best 
known;  but  he  al.so  wrote  love  ])ocms,  satires  (one 
of  which  was  the  cause  of  his  death),  poems  on 
the  chase  and  on  asceticism.  He  has  been  called 
the  Heine  of  Arabic  literature.  His  Diinin  has 
been  edited  and  partly  translated  by  von  Kremer 
(Vienna,  18').'))  and  Abhvardt  (flreifswaki, 
ISOl).  Comjiarc  P»rockclmann,  (leschivhtr  dcr 
arnhisihru   Lit  It  rut  iir   (1S!I8),  i.  p.  7.5. 

ABU  SAID  KHAN,  ii'boo  sa-M'  KSn.  See 
Mongol  Dynasties. 

ABUSE'  OP  PROCESS.  The  wrongful  em- 
ployment of  a  regular  judicial  proceeding. 
Courts  of  justice,  quite  as  nnuh  for  their  own 
protection  as  for  that  of  the  party  injured  there- 
by, refuse  to  lend  themselves  to  the  abuse  of  their 
procedure,  and  may,  accordingly,  stay  or  dismiss 
actions  and  strike  out  defenses  which  are  mani- 
festly frivolous  or  vexatious.  The  question 
whether  an  allegation  or  a  denial  comes  under 
this  description  is  addressed  to  the  discretion  of 
the  court.  The  jurisdiction  to  prevent  or  redress 
such  abuse  may  be  exerci.sed  on  the  motion  of 
the  party  aggrieved  or  at  the  instance  of  the 
court  itself.  In  order  to  sustain  an  action  for 
malicious  abuse  of  civil  i)rocess.  it  is  necess.ary 
to  allege  and  prove  both  a  want  of  probable  cause 
and  the  existence  of  a  malicious  motive.  Con- 
sult: Newell,  Laic  of  Malicious  I'ronrrution, 
Fal.ic  hiii>ris(iiniicnf,  and  Abuse  of  Lr/ial  Process 
(Chicago.   18112).     See  ilAi.iciois  Phoskc  i  tion. 

ABUSHEHB,,  rboo-shPr',  or  BUSHIBE, 
booshcr'  ( Pers.  Rcndershchr) .  \  Persian  sca- 
jiort  town  on  the  cast  coast  of  the  Persian  (iulf, 
about  130  miles  southwest  of  Shiraz,  with  which 
it  is  connected  by  a  caravan  route.  It  is  situ- 
ated at  the  extremity  of  a  peninsula  and  has  an 
extremely  hot  climate.  Owing  to  its  advan- 
tageous position  as  a  terminal  of  one  of  the  most 
important  caravan  routes  of  Persia,  .\bushehr 
has  a  very  considerable  trade,  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that   its   harbor   is   neither   safe   nor   deep 


enough  for  heavy  vessels,  which  are  compelled 
to  anchor  outside.  The  trade  (over  $7,000,000 
annually)  is  chiefly  with  Great  Britain  and  her 
colonies.  The  cx])orts  consist  of  opium,  raw  cotton 
and  silk,  mollier  of  pearl,  carpets,  tobacco,  and 
hides,  while  the  imports  are  made  up  chietly  of 
cotton  goods,  tea,  metals,  and  sugar.  Abushehr 
is  the  seat  of  several  Kurojiean  consuls,  as  well 
as  of  a  Persian  governor.  The  population  is 
about  l.'>,000. 

ABU-SIMBEL,  Ul)oo-sim'M  (InsAMiUL  or 
IpsAMiui. ).  .\  place  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Nile  in  Nubia,  lat.  22°  22'  N„  the  site  of  two 
very  remarkable  rock-cut  temples.  Both  were 
constructed  by  Ramescs  II..  who  de<licated  the 
larger  to  the  gods  Annnon  of  Thebes,  Harmaehis 
of  Heliopolis,  and  Ptah  of  Memphis:  the 
smaller  to  the  goddess  flathor.  The  larger 
temple  has  a  faqade  110  feet  broad  and  more  than 
100  feet  higli.  adorned  with  four  sitting  colossi, 
each  more  than  tio  feet  in  height,  representing 
the  King.  Upon  these  are  carved  inscriptions 
commemorating  the  visit  of  Phoenician  and 
Greek  mercenaries  in  the  service  of  King  Psam- 
metichus  II.  ( ,'504-589  B.o. ) .     The  interior  of  this 


temple,  which  is  180  feet  in  depth,  contains  two 
large  halls  and  twelve  smaller  chambers  and 
corridors,  all  decorated  with  sculptures  and 
paintings.  The  great  outer  hall.  58  by  54  feet, 
is  supported  by  two  rows  of  square  jiillars.  four 
in  each  row,  30  feet  high ;  and  to  each  of  these 
pillars  is  attached  a  standing  figure  of  the  King, 
reaching  to  the  roof.  The  walls  of  this  hall  are 
decovated  with  representations,  in  color,  of  vic- 
tories over  the  llittites  and  other  enemies  of 
Egj'pt.  In  front  of  the  smaller  temple  are  si.x 
statues,  each  33  feet  high,  representing  King 
Rame.ses  and  his  Queen.  These  temples  were 
discovered  by  Burckhardt.  In  1802,  Captain 
.Johnston,  K.IC,  repiiircd  the  front  of  the  larger 
temple,  ami  built  two  walls  to  protect  the  en- 
trance agiiinst  the  drifting  sand. 

ABU  TEMMAM,  •i'boo  tfm-mam'.  Habib 
(807  ?-84(>?) .  .\n  Aiiibic  poet,  the  exact  dates 
of  whose  birth  and  death  are  uncertain.  He  was 
born  in  Syria,  and  his  father  is  said  by  some 
avithorities  to  have  Ijcen  a  Christian.  But  few- 
facts  of  his  life  are  known.  At  an  early  age 
he  came  to  Egypt,  where  he  first  became  known 
as  a  poet.  He  led  the  life  of  a  wanderer,  and 
passed  from  Damascus  to  JIo.sul,  thence  to  Bag- 
dad, and  finally  settled  for  some  time  in  Hama- 
dan,  where  a  large  library  was  placed  at  his  dis- 


ABU    TEMMAM. 


50 


posal,  from  which  he  compiled  four  collections  of 
Arabic  poems.  The  most  famous  of  these  is 
known  as  the  Hamasa — i.e.,  "heroic"  anthology. 
Though  Abu  Temmam  achieved  high  renown  as  a 
poet,  his  reputation  rests  chiefly  upon  this  an- 
thology. The  Arabic  text  of  the  Hamasa  was 
published  by  G.  \V.  Freytag  in  two  volumes 
(Bonn,  1828-47).  and  an  edition  has  also  been 
published  in  Bulak  (1869)  and  Calcutta  (1850). 
The  German  poet  Friedrich  RvicUert  published  a 
German  translation  of  the  Hamasa  (Stuttgart, 
184ti). 

ABTJ'TILON  (Ar.  aubutililii) ,  or  Flower- 
ing Maple.  A  genus  of  mostly  shrubby  tropical 
or  semi-tropical  plants  of  the  natural  order  Mal- 
vace;e,  including  about  seventy  species.  A  num- 
ber of  species  aie  grown  like  Geraniums  or 
Fuchsias  in  pots  in  greenhouses  and  in  summer 
planted  out  in  borders.  The  leaves  are  long- 
stalked,  often  maple-like  or  vine-like,  and  gen- 
erally edged  or  mottled  with  white;  the  flowers 
are  pendant,  one,  two  or  more  inches  long,  vary- 
ing in  color  from  red  to  yellow  and  white  and 
intermediate  shades.  The  more  commonly  cul- 
tivated species  are:  Abutilon  striatum,  Abutilon 
Thompson!,  Abutilon  venosum.  Abutilon  in- 
signe,  etc.  Abutilon  avicenna'.  known  as  Velvet- 
leaf,  is  a  common  weed  in  ditl'ercnt  parts  of  the 
United  States.    See  Plate  of  Abutilon. 

ABUT'MENT  (Fr.  ahoutir,  to  end  in,  to 
touch  by  the  extremity,  from  buiif,  end,  compare 
Engl.  butt).  In  architecture,  that  part  of  a  wall 
or  pier  which  takes  the  weight  or  thrust  of  the 
construction  above  it,  as  of  an  arch,  vault,  or 
truss.  The  name  is  not  generally  used  to  designate 
minor  supports,  but  only  those  at  the  end  of  a 
series;  neither  does  it  refer  to  vertical,  but  to 
diagonal  thrusts.  An  abutment  arch  is  the  land 
arch  of  a  bridge,  or  any  arch  in  a  series  that 
is  next  to  the  abutment. 

ABU-YtrSUF  YAKUB,  ii'boo-yoo'suf  ya'kub, 
called  Al-MansAk,  or  "The  Victorious"  (1100- 
98) .  The  fourth  sultan  of  the  Almohade  dynasty 
in  Africa  and  Spain.  His  father  was  killed  at 
the  siege  of  Santarem.  1184,  and  as  soon  as  he 
had  quelled  certain  insurrections  in  Morocco, 
Abfl-Yflsuf  Yaki'ib  turned  his  arms  against  the 
Christians  and  carried  off  to  Africa  40,000  cap- 
tives. In  subsequent  expeditions  he  captured 
Torres  and  Silves.  in  Portugal,  and  defeated  the 
Christians  under  Alfonso  III.,  near  Valencia.  He 
died  in  Morocco.  See  Almohades. 
A'BY,  6'bs,  Christoph  Tiieodor.     See  Aeby. 

ABY'DOS  (Gk.  'A/3ii(!of  ) .  In  ancient  geogra- 
phy, a  town  of  Asia  Minor,  situated  at  the  nar- 
rowest part  of  the  Hellespont,  opposite  Sestos. 
It  is  celebrated  as  the  place  where  Xerxes  and 
his  vast  army  passed  into  Europe  in  480  B.C. ; 
also  as  the  scene  of  the  story  of  Hero  (q.v. )  and 
Ijeander.  The  people  of  Abydos  were  prover- 
bial for  their  effeminat*  and  dissolute  manners. 
There  is  another  Abydos  in  Upper  Egypt 
(Thebais),  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile  and  on 
the  main  route  of  commerce  with  Libya.  It  is 
mentioned  in  the  earliest  Egyptian  inscriptions, 
and,  especially  under  the  nineteenth  dynasty, 
was  a  city  of  considerable  extent  and  importance. 
Later  it"  declined,  and  in  the  time  of  Strabo, 
about  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  it  was 
in  ruins.  Abydos  was  celebrated  as  the  burial 
place  of  Osiris,  and  the  bodies  of  pious  Egyptians 
were    brought   thither    for    interment    from    all 


ABYSSINIA. 

parts  of  the  land.  Magnificent  temples,  dedi- 
cated to  Osiris,  were  built  at  this  place  by  Seti  I. 
and  by  his  son  Rameses  II.  In  the  latter  temple 
was  found,  in  1818,  a  portion  of  the  famous  tablet 
of  Abydos,  containing  a  list  of  Egyptian  kings. 
The  second  and  more  important  part  of  this 
tablet  was  found  in  1804  in  the  temple  built  by 
Seti  I.  In  recent  years  excavations  conducted 
at  Abydos  by  Amelineau  and  Flinders  Petrie 
have  brought  to  light  important  remains  of  the 
first  Egyptian  dynasty.  See  Petrie,  F.,  and  also 
Egypt. 

ABYDOS,  Bride  of.  A  narrative  poem  in 
two  cantos,  by  Lord  Byron  (published  1813). 
The  heroine,  Zuleika,  is  an  Oriental  character 
of  ideal  puritj'  and  beauty. 

AB'YLA  AND  CAL'PE.  See  Hercules,  Pil- 
lars of. 

ABYS'MAL  ACCU'MULA'TIONS.  Depos- 
its which  gather  upon  the  bottom  of  the  abysmal 
depths  of  the  ocean.  They  consist  chiefly  of 
red  and  gray  clays,  and  the  so-called  oozes, 
which  latter  are  combinations  of  the  clays  with 
the  shells  of  minute  organisms  such  as  Radio- 
larians,  Foraminifera,  and  Diatoms.  For  a 
more  detailed  description  of  these  abysmal  accu- 
mulations and  other  forms  of  deep-sea  deposits 
the  reader  is  referred  to  the  article  on  Oceanic 
Deposit. 

ABYSS'  (Gk.  u/3ot(toc,  obi/ssos,  bottomless, 
from  (i,  a,  priv.  +  ih'amr,  byssos,  depth,  bottom). 
A  designation  applied  in  the  Greek  translation 
of  the  Old  Testament  to  the  primitive  "chaos" 
as  described  in  Genesis  i  :  2.  The  Hebrew  terra 
—  tf'hdm — occurs  some  thirty  times,  and  was  mod- 
ified in  the  course  of  time  to  convey  the  notion 
of  the  "watery  deep"  in  general  surrounding 
the  earth,  on  which,  according  to  what  appears 
to  be  a  later  conception,  the  eartli  was  supposed 
to  rest,  and  fiom  which  springs  and  rivers  were 
fed.  The  situation  of  Sheol  being,  according  to 
primitive  Semitic  ideas,  in  the  depths  of  the 
earth,  the  term  "abyss"  is  used  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment (Romans  x  :  7)  as  the  designation  for  the 
abode  of  the  dead,  and  then  more  specifically  for 
the  prison  in  which  evil  powers  are  confined 
(so  in  seven  passages  of  Revelation,  ix  :  1 ; 
xi  :  7,  etc.  See  also  Luke  viii  :  31).  In  the 
Revised  Version  of  the  New  Testament,  the  Greek 
term  is  rendered  by  "abyss,"  but  in  the  Author- 
ized Version  and  in  both  the  Authorized  and 
Revised  Versions  of  the  Old  Testament  expres- 
sions like  "deep"  and  "bottomless  pit"  are  em- 
ployed. 

ABYS'SAL  rAU'NA.  See  Distribution  of 
Animals. 

AB'YSSINIA  (  Ar.,  from  a  root  connected  with 
Ar.  al-H abash,  "collection,  body  of  men" ) .  A  coun- 
try in  East  Africa,  situated  between  the  Red  Sea 
and  the  Blue  Nile,  and  extendiiiL.'  from  about  5°  to 
15°  N.  lat,  and  36°  to  43°  E.  long.  (Map:  Africa, 
H  4) .  It  is  bounded  by  Nubia  on  the  northwest, 
the  Italian  colony  of  Eritrea  on  the  northeast, 
the  country  of  the  Danakil  on  the  east,  British 
East  African  possessions  on  the  south,  and  the 
Eg\-ptian  Sudan  on  the  west;  but  its  boundaries 
can  hardly  lie  drawn  with  precision,  on  account 
of  the  changes  caused  by  foreign  treaties  and  fre- 
quent wars  between  the  Negus  and  the  neighbor- 
ing tribes.  It  comprises  the  kingdoms  of  Tigr6, 
Amhara  with  Gojam,  and  Shoa,  and  the  outlying 


ABUTILON 


1.  FLOWERING  MAPLE   (Abutllon   venosum).  3.  ALLSPICE   (Pimenta  officinalisi. 

2.  APRICOT  (Prunus  armeniacal.  4.  BELLADONNA   LILY  (Amaryllis  Belladonna). 

5.  AVOCADO  PEAR  (Persea  gratissima). 


ABYSSINIA. 


51 


ABYSSINIA. 


dependencies  of  Haiiar,  K:illa,  and  Knarea.  It3 
area  is  estimated  at  l.iU.OOO  square  miles,  and 
its   population   at  3,500,000. 

The  surfaro  of  Abyssinia  is  a  plateau,  with  an 
average  altitude  of  about  8000  feel,  and  a  •.■cneral 
depression  toward  Lake  Tzaiia  (q.v.)  on  the 
west.  Of  the  numerous  mountain  ehaius  in  this 
region  only  a  few  can  be  dearly  traced.  Tlie 
Samen  <;r(iup,  situated  at  the  northern  end  of 
the  country,  and  inclosed  by  the  bend  of  tlie 
Takazze,  has  an  average  altitude  of  about  10,000 
feet  and  rises  in  Ras  Dashan,  over  15,000  feet 
above  the  sea.  South  of  the  Sanu'n  group  is 
another  chain,  the  Talba  Wakha,  surrounded  by 
the  upper  course  of  the  Atbara  (q.v.)  on  its 
emerging  from  Lake  Tzana.  This  chain  is  in- 
ferior in  height  to  the  Samen,  its  greatest 
elevation  being  only  about  0000  feet  above  the 
sea.  The  southern  part  of  Abyssinia  is  less 
mountainous,  but  abounds  in  so-called  "anibas," 
isolated  rocky  hillocks,  most  of  them  very  pre- 
cipitous and  diflicult  of  ascent.  Although  at 
present  it  includes  no  active  volcanoes,  the  coun- 
try in 'its  entire  aspect  bears  evidence  of  violent 
volcanic  erui)tions  in  some  remote  age.  Even 
to-day  numerous  extinct  volcanoes  arc  to  be 
found,  with  their  craters  half  obliterated,  and 
there  are  several  hot  springs  in  the  vicinity  of 
Mount  Entoto,  sonic  of  them  with  a  temperature 
of  170  degrees. 

Among  the  rivers  the  most  important  are  the 
Abai,  or  Blue  Nile  (<i.v. ),  the  .\tl)ara,  or  Black 
Nile,  the  Takazze.,  the  main  head-stream  of  the 
latter,  and  the  llawash.  With  the  exception  of 
the  .\bai,  none  of  these  rivers  is  navigable,  and 
all  are  liable  to  sudden  rises,  often  accompanied 
by  great  disasters.  The  largest  lake  is  Tzana, 
called  also  Dembea. 

In  regard  to  climate  and  flora,  the  country 
may  be  divided  into  three  zones.  The  first,  em- 
bracing all  the  districts  lying  below  the  altitude 
of  4S00  feet  above  the  sea,  and  called  Kollas, 
has  an  annual  temperature  ranging  from  70°  to 
100"  v..  and  an  exceedingly  luxuriant  vege- 
tation, including  cotton,  indigo,  bananas,  sugar 
cane,  cotlec.  dale  palms,  and  rliony.  The  second 
zone,  \A"oina  Dega,  includes  all  the  countrv  be- 
tween 4800  and  0000  feet  above  the  sea.  "it  is 
characterized  by  a  moderate  temperature,  rang- 
ing from  00°  to  80°  F.,  anil  its  vegetation 
includes  many  of  the  grasses  and  cereals  which 
flourish  in  Europe,  besides  oranges,  lemons, 
olives,  tobacco,  potatoes,  onions,  the  band)oo, 
the  turpentine  tree^  etc.  The  third  zone.  Dega. 
which  comprises  all  of  the  country  situated 
above  OOOO  feet,  has  a  temperature  of  45  to  50 
degrees.  It  affords  excellent  grazing  grounds. 
and  its  soil  is  well  adapted  for  the  cultivation 
of  the  hardier  cereals. 

The  rainy  season  on  the  coast  lands  lasts  from 
Peccndier  to  May.  In  the  intericu-  of  the  country 
there  are  generally  two  rainy  seasons,  one  from 
April  to  .Tune,  and  the  other  from  .luly  to  Oc- 
tober.    The  climate  is  generally  healthful. 

The  fauna  is  not  inferior  in  variety  to  the 
flora.  It  includes,  among  other  animals,  the 
lion,  the  elephant,  the  rhinoceros,  the  giraffe,  a 
species  of  wolf  (the  kaberu),  the  hyena,  hippo- 
potanuis.  zebra,  and  several  forms  of  antelopes. 
Consult:  Blanford.  dcolnriii  and  Zoiiloiiif  of  Ahiix- 
xiiiin  (I.oridi.n.  1870).  .\niongthedoiiiestic.ini- 
mals  may  be  mentioned  the  horse,  mule,  donkev. 
camel,  ox.  sheep,  and  goat. 

Geologically  the  surface  of  Abyssinia   is  com- 


posed mainly  of  sandstone,  together  with  gran- 
ite, basalt,  trachyte,  and  other  varieties  of  ig- 
neous rocks.  The  minerals  include  gold,  which 
is  found  mostly  in  the  streams,  and  also  iron, 
coal,  silver,  and  rock  salt.  For  further  infor- 
mation about  the  geology  of  Abyssinia,  see 
.Vfric.v  and  (Jhe.vt  Kift  Valley. 

Indistiiiks.  .\byssinia  is  preeminently  an 
agricultural  country,  and  its  soil  is  csiiecially 
well  adapted  for  the  cultivation  of  cereals.  The 
land  is  ilivided  not  among  individuals  but  among 
families,  and  the  only  title  to  land  is  its  occu- 
pation. The  agricultural  methods  employed  are 
of  the  most  ])rimitive  kind,  a  fact  which,  to- 
gether with  the  extortionate  practices  of  the 
civil  and  military  olficials.  is  not  very  conducive 
to  the  agricultural  development  of  the  country. 
Wheat  anil  barley  are  the  chief  grains  raised. 
DilTerent  kin<ls  of  fruit,  such  as  oranges,  lemons, 
bananas,  etc..  are  found  in  abundance,  but  very 
little  attention  is  paid  to  their  cultivation. 
Cattle  raising  is  a  very  important  industry  in 
Abyssinia.  an<l  wool  is  one  of  the  chief  articles 
of  export.  Of  manufacturing  industries  Abys- 
sinia has  practically  none.  Ancient  remains 
found  in  several  parts  of  the  country  bear  traces 
of  skill  whicli  is  hardly  to  be  met  with  among 
the  modern  Abyssinia ns. 

Tradk.  -Abyssinians  do  not.  as  a  rule,  engage 
in  foreign  trade,  which  is  entirely  in  the  hands 
of  foreign  merchants.  The  trade'  is  not  consid- 
erable, as.  until  recently,  the  buying  was  done 
almost  exclusively  by  the  King  and  his  court. 
The  increased  security  of  life  and  |)roperty,  how- 
ever, which  the  .\byssinians  have  been  enjoying 
under  King  Menelek  has  promjited  an  increasing 
nundier  of  them  to  part  with  their  buried  treas- 
ures of  gold  and  silver  in  exchange  fur  all  kinds 
of  goods.  The  total  imports  in  18!»!)-1!I00  into 
the  two  chief  trading  centres  of  the  country, 
Addis  Aheba  an<l  Ilarrar,  were  estimated  at 
about  $.'!,500.000.  Great  Britain  and  the 
I'nited  States  being  the  two  leading  .sources,  and 
France  and  Germany  coming  next.  The  leading 
articles  of  import  are  cotton,  silk,  and  arms, 
the  American  cotton  being  pn'ferred  to  all  others. 
The  chief  articles  of  export  are  cofl'ee.  gold,  ivory, 
and  skins.  ColTce  is  exported  chictly  to  Arabiii, 
gold  to  India.  The  chief  obstacles  to  trade  are 
the  primitive  means  of  communication,  resulting 
in  slow  and  expensive  trans])ortation.  The  dis- 
tance from  Addis  Abeba  to  Ilarrar.  for  example, 
about  250  miles,  is  traversed  in  from  four 
to  six  weeks;  the  goods  are  carried  on  mules' 
and  camels'  backs.  The  railway  line  between 
.Tibutil.  in  French  Sonialiland.  and  Harrar.  which 
is  to  be  eventually  extended  to  .Addis  Abeba, 
will  have  a  total  length  of  about  500  miles,  of 
which  about  (iO  miles  were  completed  aiul  opened 
for  traffic  in  1000.  This  line  is  constructed  en- 
tirely by  French  capital,  with  a  political  rather 
than  a  commercial  aim,  although  it  will  cer- 
tainly attract  the  trade  between  Abyssinia  and 
tlu'  coast,  which  at  present  passes  thi'-ough  Zeila. 
in   British  Sonialiland. 

The  chi<'f  mediums  of  exchange  are  the  Maria 
Theresa  dollar  and  a  didlar  issued  by  King 
Menelek.  Salt  bars  of  luiiform  size,  and  car- 
tridges also  circulate  to  some  extent  in  certain 
parts  of  the  country. 

In  its  form  of  government  .Abyssinia  may  be 
considered  a  sort  of  feudal  monarchy.  The  pres- 
ent King,  or  Xegus,  is  undoid)tedly  the  real  ruler 
of  Abyssinia  ;   but  this  position  be  owes  more  to 


ABYSSINIA.  52 

his  personal  qualities  than  to  any  traditional 
rights.  Certain  parts  of  the  country  are  luled 
by  petty  kings  or  ras,  some  of  them  appointed 
by  the  Negus,  while  others  are  sufliciently  strong 
to  defy  his  authority,  and  may  throw  the  country 
into  a  state  of  disorder  at  his  death.  The  petty 
chiefs  have  retinues  of  followers  ready  to  support 
them  in  any  undertaking  so  long  as  there  is 
any  prospect  of  plunder.  This  class  of  profes- 
sional warriors,  whose  usefulness  lasts  as  long 
as  there  arf  any  insubordinate  tribes  to  pacify, 
is  a  great  hindrance  to  the  development  of  the 
country.  The  revenue  is  derived  from  tithes 
paid  in  kind,  and  taxes  on  commodities,  espe- 
cially gold  and  ivory  sold  in  the  market.  The 
collection  of  taxes  is  intrusted  to  the  governors 
of  the  villages  or  shums,  who  are  practically  un- 
restricted as  to  the  methods  used  or  amounts 
collected.  The  laws  of  the  country  are  supposed 
to  be  copied  from  the  old  Roman  code,  but  they 
are  almost  disregarded  by  the  native  judges,  who 
are  guided  in  their  decisions,  as  a  rule,  by  their 
personal  preferences  or  the  social  position  of  the 
defendant.  The  Abyssinian  army,  numbering 
about  150,000,  is  almost  entirely  composed  of 
cavalry  and  is  very  well  adapted  for  swift  move- 
ments, as  it  is  not  encumbered  by  any  commis- 
sariat, its  maintenance  being  obtained  from  in- 
habitants of  regions  through  which  it  passes. 
This  kind  of  commissariat  naturally  leaves  ample 
room  for  abuse  and  falls  most  heavily  on  the  ag- 
ricultural population.  The  regular  army  may  be 
supplemented  by  irregular  and  provincial  troops 
in  case  of  need. 

The  political  divisions  of  the  country  are  sub- 
ject to  continual  alteration;  but  the  following 
are  the  most  important :  ( 1 )  The  kingdom  of 
Tigre,  extending  between  the  River  Takazze  or 
Bahr-el-Aswad  (Black  River),  and  the  moun- 
tains of  Samen  on  one  side,  and  the  district  of 
Samhara  on  the  other.  Its  chief  towns  are 
Antalo  and  Adowa.  (2)  The  kingdom  of  Amhara, 
extending  on  the  west  of  the  Takazze  and  the 
Samen  Mountain,  and  including  Gojam.  The 
capital,  Gondar,  is  situated  in  the  northeast  of 
the  plain  of  Dembea  or  Gondar,  at  an  elevation 
of  about  7,500  feet.  (3)  The  kingdom  of  Shoa 
(including  Efat) ,  lying  southeast  of  Amhara  and 
separated  from  the  Galla  tribes  by  the  Hawash. 
This  is,  by  all  accounts,  the  best  organized  and 
most  powerful  state  now  existing  in  Abyssinia. 
The  capital,  Ankobar,  at  an  elevation  oif  about 
8000  feet,  contains  7000  inhabitants,  and  enjoys 
a  delightful  climate. 

The  capital  of  Abyssinia,  formerly  at  Adowa, 
was  transferred  after  the  Italian  w'ar  to  Addis 
Abeba,  which  has  grown  from  a  village  to  a 
city  of  about  80,000  inliabitants  within  two  to 
three  years. 

Population.  The  location  of  the  people  be- 
tween the  Nile  and  the  Red  Sea  permitted  the 
commingling  of  Hamites  from  the  north,  Him- 
varitic  Semites  from  Asia,  and  negroes  from  the 
south.  The  Abyssinians  are  of  medium  stature; 
in  color  they  vary  from  brunette  to  translucent 
black.  The  principal  language  of  the  upper 
classes  is  the  Amharic.  closely  allied  to  the  an- 
cient Geez  (still  used  in  ritual),  and  is  written 
in  a  syllabary  resembling  that  of  the  old  inscrip- 
tions in  VemeHj  Arabia.  The  Amharic  is  the  lan- 
guage of  the  court.  (See  Amhabic  Language.) 
Of  the  same  stock  are  the  Tigre  and  Tigrifia 
tongues.  The  language  of  the  common  people 
tliroughout  a  great   part  of  the  country   is  the 


ABYSSINIA. 

Agua  (Agow).  a  Hamitic  tongue.  The  Gallas, 
who  form  an  important  element  in  the  popula- 
tion, likewise  speak  a  Hamitic  language.  The 
Abyssinians  are  in  the  liand  epocli  of  the  iron 
age,  and  are  herdsmen.  Pol3'gamy  prevails  ex- 
tensively. They  have  little  that  deserves  the 
name  of  literature.  Education  is  in  the  liands 
of  the  clergy.  The  national  religion  is  a  per- 
verted Christianity,  introduced  into  the  country 
in  the  fourth  century.  The  tribe  of  tlie  Falashas 
profess  Judaism.  The  Gallas  are  Mohammedans. 
Hl.STORY.  x\byssinia  is  a  part  of  the  ancient 
and  vaguely  defined  Ethiopia.  (For  its  ancient 
history,  see  the  article  on  Ethiopia.)  The  people 
still  call  themselves  Ethiopians,  the  name  Abys- 
sinians, by  which  they  are  generally  known  out- 
side their  own  borders,  being  a  Portuguese  form 
of  the  Arabic  Habsh  or  Hahesli,  signifying  "mix- 
ture." and  referring  to  the  diverse  tribes  which 
compose  the  population.  The  traditions,  customs, 
and  language  point  to  an  early  and  intimate 
intercourse  with  the  .Tews;  and  the  Book  of 
Kings  professes  to  record  the  rulers  down  from 
the  Queen  of  Sheba  and  her  son  Jlenelek  by 
Solomon,  King  of  Israel ;  but  this  book  is  not 
to  be  depended  upon  unless  corroborated  by  in- 
dependent evidence.  Greek  influence  was  intro- 
duced through  an  invasion  by  Ptolemy  Euer- 
getes  (247-221  B.C.).  In  the  fourth  century 
Christianity  was  introduces!,  and  Frumentius, 
who  had  been  instrumental  in  its  introduction, 
was  in  326  consecrated  as  a  bishop  by  Atha- 
nasius,  patriarch  of  Alexandria,  and  became,  as 
Abuna  Salamah  ("our  father  of  peace"),  the 
head  of  the  Abyssinian  Church,  with  his  seat  at 
Axum,  then  the  capital.  The  Coptic  ri'e,  older 
than  that  of  Rome  or  Moscow,  has  prevailed  in 
Abyssinia  to  the  present  day,  in  spite  of  efforts 
to  introduce  other  forms  of  Christianity  made 
by  the  .Jesuits  in  the  sixteenth  century  and  by 
representatives  of  Protestant  churches  in  later 
years.  The  head  of  the  Church  is  still  the 
Abuna,  who  is  sent  from  Alexandria ;  but  he 
shares  his  ecclesiastical  authority  with  the  native 
Echegheh,  or  head  of  the  monastic  bodies.  Mo- 
nasticism  of  the  Oriental  type  was  introduced 
about  the  year  470,  and  became  a  permanent 
feature  of  the  life  of  the  country.  The  monks 
number  about  12,000.  In  the  sixth  century  the 
King  of  the  Homerites,  an  Arab  convert  to 
.Judaism,  began  a  persecution  of  the  Christians, 
and  King  Elesbaas,  or  Caleb  of  Axum.  invad- 
ed Arabia,  and  conquered  Yemen,  which  was 
ruled  as  a  province  of  Abyssinia  for  sixty-seven 
years. 

This  was  the  most  flourishing  period  of 
Abyssinia;  its  influence  then  reached  farthest 
and  it  was  most  in  touch  with  the  outside  world. 
In  590,  the  overthrow  of  Abrahah,  the  last 
Abyssinian  ruler  of  Yemen,  left  Arabia  open 
for  the  spread  of  Mohanunedanism.  which  soon 
rose  like  a  flood  and  rolled  around  Abyssinia, 
cutting  it  off  from  the  outside  world  and  from 
the  influences  that  had  been  urging  it  forward. 
It  thus  became  a  primitive,  half-barbarous  civi- 
lization in  a  state  of  arrested  development.  A 
line  of  usurpers  took  the  place  of  the  ancient 
sovereigns  in  the  tenth  century  and  reigned  until 
about  1300.  In  the  reign  of  Naakweto  Laab,  the 
last  of  this  line,  Tekla  Haimanot.  an  ar- 
dent patriot,  who  possessed  great  influence  be- 
cause of  the  dignity  of  his  character  and  the 
unselfishness  of  his  life,  succeeded  in  negotiating 
a  treaty  between  the  King  and  the  representative 


ABYSSINIA. 


53 


ABYSSINIAN  CHtmCH. 


of  tlu'  iilil  lino,  wliiih  >t;ll  lu'ld  the  government 
of  81ioa,  by  wliiili  Naakwcto  Laab  agioed  to  ab- 
dicate, receiving  in  return  a  certain  mountainous 
province  as  a  lieroditary  possession  and  tlie  rijjht 
of  sitting  on  the  same  kind  of  chair  as  that 
used  liy  the  sovereign.  By  tlie  same  treaty  one- 
tliird  of  the  kingdom  was  granted  to  the  clergy, 
and  it  was  provided  that  no  native  sliould  ever 
be  Abiina.  but  that  the  otlice  sliould  be  filled  by 
appointees  of  the  patriarch  of  Alexandria.  This 
was  an  attempt  to  renew  some  connection  with 
the  outer  world,  and  shows  that  the  nunc  intel- 
ligent Abyssinians  keenly  felt  their  isolation. 
The  rise  of  the  Mohammedan  power  cut  .Vbyssinia 
ofV  from  the  coast ;  the  invasion  of  the  rude 
Gallas  from  the  south  in  the  sixteenth  century 
introduced  an  alien  race  into  the  I'ountry,  which 
has  always  been  a  harmful  and  disturbing  ele- 
ment. The  true  Abyssinian  type  was  pr()duec<l 
probably  by  a  mingling  of  the  African  Hamitic 
and  the  .\siatic  Semitic  stocks,  which  here  came 
into  coiitaet. 

Portuguese  .Jesuit  missionaries  came  into 
the  country  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries,  and  Portugal  took  much  interest  in 
Abyssinian  affairs,  assisting  the  Negus  against 
his  enemies,  the  Turks.  The  attempts  of  the 
Jesuits  to  supplant  the  old  faith  with  that  of 
Rome  was  intensely  displeasing  to  the  Abyssin- 
ians, who  have  always  clung  loyally  to  their 
national  church.  The  .Jesuits  were  expelled  in 
1633,  and  Abj'ssinia  relapsed  again  into  prac- 
tical isolation  until  the  nineteentli  century.  Oc- 
casional African  explorers  entered  .Vbyssinia 
from  the  liftceuth  to  the  nineteenth  century 
(see  BiucK,  .Iamk.s),  and  some  remained,  volun- 
tarily or  constrained  by  the  laws  of  the  country, 
which  at  times  were  hospitable  to  tlie  admission 
of  travelers,  but  did  not  allow  their  departure. 
In  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  the 
power  was  in  the  hands  of  Ali.  a  ras  or  prince  of 
the  barbarous  Gallas,  when  it  was  seized  by  Lij 
Kasa,  an  adventurer  who  was  crowned  as  Negus 
with  the  name  of  Theodore,  in  18.54.  He  was 
at  lirst  very  friendly  to  the  English,  and  acted 
to  a  great  extent  under  the  advice  of  the  English 
consul.  Mr.  Plowden  ;  but  meeting  ditliculties  in 
his  task  of  imposing  unity  upon  the  disorganized 
country,  he  beeaiiie  morose,  and  taking  offense  at 
the  neglect  by  the  English  Government  of  a  letter 
sent  by  him  to  Queen  Victoria,  he  imprisoned 
Mr.  Cameron,  then  British  consul,  and  his  suite, 
and  followed  this  by  seizing  and  holding  the 
members  of  the  mission  sent  by  the  British  Gov- 
ernment under  Mr.  Rassam  to  negotiate  for  free- 
ing the  consul.  After  prolonged  and  useless  at- 
tempts at  negotiation,  an  army  of  English  and 
Indian  troops,  under  Sir  Robert  Napier,  invaded 
the  country,  and  in  a  vigorous  campaign  cap- 
tured Magdala,  Theodore's  chief  .stronghold,  and 
released  the  prisoners  (.-\pril  13,  ISOS).  Theo- 
dore at  once  committed  suicide.  Jle  was  suc- 
ceeded liy  .John,  run  of  TigiC.  who  proved  un- 
equal to  the  task  of  quelling  rebellion.  He  fell 
in  188!)  in  battle  with  the  dervishes  of  the  Su- 
dan, and  Menelek  II.,  nis  of  Slioa,  who  claims  to 
represent  the  old  line  of  kings,  obtained  the 
crown. 

Menelek  represents  in  the  main  the  spirit  of 
progress.  As  the  only  country  in  tropical  Africa 
suitable  for  the  residence  of  white  men.  with 
considerable  latent  resources,  and  its  position  in 
the  upper  basin  of  the  Nile,  Abyssinia,  with  its 
almost  impregnable  highlands,  is  an  important 


stronghold  on  the  l>orders  of  savage  Africa,  and 
a  commanding  point  with  relation  to  surround- 
ing territories  under  European  flags.  It  has 
therefore  become  an  object  of  interest  to  Euro- 
pean powers  since  the  opening  of  Africa  to  trade 
and  colonization. 

Italy,  eager  for  lands,  began  to  look  in  this 
direction  as  early  as  1870,  and  having  occupied 
several  hundred  miles  of  the  Red  Sea  littoral 
about  .Massowah  (1881-8.5),  it  commenced 
aggressions  upon  Abyssinian  territory,  which 
would  have  resulted  in  open  war  but  for  the 
intervention  of  England,  through  the  friendly 
mission  of  Sir  Gerald  Portal.  The  Italian.s 
claimed  a  protectorate  over  Abyssinia  by  virtue 
of  a  clause  in  the  treaty  of  Uclu'ili  ( 188!>).  which 
read  dillerently  in  the  .\mliaric  and  Italian  ver- 
sions. Menelek  denounced  this  treaty  in  1893, 
and  when  the  Italians  occupied  Kassala  in  the 
following  year,  as  an  outcome  of  the  Anglo- 
Italian  agieement  of  1891,  defining  the  spheres 
of  influence  of  the  two  nations,  Abyssinia  re- 
newed hostilities  (1895).  After  sustaining  a 
terrible  defeat  at  Adowa.  March  I.  1890.  Italy 
was  compelled,  in  the  treaty  of  .Vdilis  Abeba  ((Oc- 
tober 20,  1806),  to  recognize  fully  the  independ- 
ence of  -Vbyssinia.  Great  Britain,  by  treaty,  in 
1898  ceded  to  Abyssinia  about  8000  .square  miles 
of  British  Somalilaml.  and  established  a  political 
agency  at  the  Abyssinian  capital.  The  title  of 
the  Abyssinian  sovereign  is  ycf/tis  \rgiisli.  King 
of  Kings,  or  more  fully  in  English,  "King  of  the 
Kings  of  Ethiopia  and  Conquering  Lion  of 
Judah." 

See  Africa,  section  IH.itorif,  Italy.  Consult: 
VVylde.  Miidnn  Ahiixsiiiia  (London,  1891),  a  use- 
ful historical  and  descriptive  book  by  an  Eng- 
lish consul-general  to  the  Red  Sea;  Vivian, 
Mys.iiiiiu  (New  York.  1901),  a  recent  work  by 
an  intelligent  observer;  Portal,  -l/y  Missio)i  to 
Ahi/ssiiiin  (London,  1892)  ;  Rassam,  Xanative 
of  the  Hrilish  I/i.s.vi'om.  to  Abus.iinia  (London, 
1809)  ;  ilarkham,  .1  flixlori/  of  the  Abi/sxinidii 
ICxinditioii  (London,  1809),  containing  an  excel- 
lent summary  of  Abyssinian  history ;  Vigncias, 
I' lie  mixsion  frani:iiise  en  Ahi/ssiiiie  (Paris, 
1897);  Rohlfs,  Heine  Mission  niich  Ahi/ssdnien 
(Leipzig.  1883);  Stanford's  Compendium  of 
<leo(/nii)liii  and  Travel.  Volume  1.  (London. 
189!t)  :  ■^.  T.  Bent,  7'/ie  f<aered  Citij  of  the  Ethio- 
pians (  l.oniloii.  1S931  :  Welby,  'Twixt  Sirdar  and 
Menelel:    (London.   1901  ). 

AB'YSSIN'IAN  CHURCH,  The.  The  Church 
founded  al)c)ut  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century 
by  Frumentius  (q.v.).  whose  titles  .Vbuna  ("our 
father")  and  .Vbba  Salamah  ("father  of  peace") 
are  still  used  by  his  sui'cessors.  The  abuna.  the 
head  of  the  Church,  is  never  an  Abyssinian,  and 
is  appointed  by  the  Coptic  patriarch  of  -Alexan- 
dria. He  is  bishop  of  .Vxum.  In  Christology 
the  Church  is  monophysite;  the  secular  priests 
are  allowed  to  marry  once:  circumcision,  the 
Sabbath,  and  the  Levirate  law  are  aiihcrcd  to. 
Baptism  (of  adults  liy  trine  immersion,  infants 
by  aspersion)  and  the  Eucharist  (in  which 
grape  juice  is  e.\clusively  used)  are  accepted; 
but  <onfirmation,  transubstantiation,  extreme 
unction,  inirgatory.  crucifi.xes,  and  image  worslii|> 
are  all  forbidden.  There  are  180  festivals  and 
200  fast  days.  The  Scriptures  are  read  in 
(iecz  or  Etliiopic.  which  is  now  a  dead  language. 
The  attempts  of  Roman  Catholics  and  Protest- 
ants to  build  u])  missions  among  these  Christians 
have  not  been  permanently  successful. 


ABYSSINIAN  MEADOW  GRASS. 

ABYSSINIAN    MEAD'OW    GRASS.      See 

Meadow  Grass. 

ACA'CIA  (literally,  thorny,  Gk.  oK/f,  akis, 
point,  splinter,  thorn) .  A  genus  of  plants  of 
the  order  Leguniinos»T?,  differing  from  Mimosa  in 
the  greater  number  of  stamens  { 10  to  200 )  and 
the  absence  of  transverse  partitions  in  ihe  pods. 
There  are  about  4.50  species  of  Acacia,  300  of 
whicli  are  indigenous  to  Australia  and  Polynesia. 
The  others  are  found  in  all  tropical  and  sub- 
tropical countries  except  Europe.  The  flowers 
are  small  and  are  arranged  in  globular  or  elon- 
gated clusters.  The  leaves  are  usually  bipin- 
nately  compound;  but  in  many  of  the  Australian 
species  the  leaflets  are  greatly  reduced  and  the 
leaf  blades  correspondingly  enlarged  and  flat- 
tened into  what  are  termed  phyllodia.  Most  of 
the  species  having  phyllodia  inhabit  hot.  arid 
regions,  and  this  modification  prevents  too  rapid 
evaporation  of  moisture  from  the  leaves.  Many 
of  the  species  are  of  great  economic  importance : 
some  yield  gums,  others  valual)le  timber,  and 
still  others  food  products.  The  African  species, 
Acacia  gummifera.  Acacia  seyal.  Acacia  ehrenber- 
giana.  Acacia  tortilis,  and  Acacia  arabica,  yield 
gum  arable,  as  do  the  Asiatic  species.  Acacia 
arabica  and  the  related  Albizzia  lebbck.  A  some- 
what similar  gum  is  produced  by  Acacia  decur- 
rens  and  Acacia  dealbata  of  Australia  and 
Acacia  horrida  of  South  Africa.  Gum  Senegal 
is  the  product  of  Acacia  verek,  sometimes  called 
Acacia  Senegal.  The  drug  "catechu"  is  prepared 
from  Acacia  catechu.  The  astringent  bark  of  a 
number  of  species  is  extensively  used  in  tanning, 
especially  the  bark  of  those  known  in  .\ustralia 
as  Wattles.  For  this  purpose  Acacia  decurrens, 
the  Black  Wattle,  is  one  of  the  best,  the  air-dried 
bark  of  this  plant  containing  about  four  times 
as  much  tanning  extract  as  good  oak  bark.  The 
most  valuable  timber  tree  of  the  genus  is  prob- 
ably the  Blackwood  {Acacia  inelanoxylon) ,  of 
Australia.  The  tree  attains  a  large  size,  and 
the  wood  is  easily  worked  and  takes  a  high 
polish.  A  number  of  the  Acacias  have  been 
introduced  into  cultivation  in  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica, where  they  thrive.  The  California  experi- 
ment station  recommends  planting  several 
species  for  tanning  extract  and  for  timber.  A 
number  of  species  are  grown  in  mild  climates 
and  in  greenhouses  as  ornamentals,  partly 
because  of  the  fragrance  of  their  flowers.  The 
foliage  of  some  of  the  bipinnate  species  exhibits 
sleeping  movements  analogous  to  the  movements 
of  the  sensitive  plant.  Some  species  show  a 
remarkable  sensitiveness  to  weather,  the  leaves 
remaining  closed  while  the  sky  is  cloudy.  The 
common  American  Robinia  or  Locust  {h'ohinin 
pseudacacia)  and  the  Robinia  hispida  are  known 
as  Acacia  and  Rose  Acacia  in  Europe  and  else- 
where. Fossil  forms  of  Acacia  are  abundant  in 
the  Tertiary  beds  of  Aix  in  France,  and  an  allied 
genus,  Acaciajphyllum,  has  been  described  from 
the  Cretaceous  beds  of  North  America.  Consult: 
r.  von  Mueller.  Iconography  of  Aiixtralian 
Acacias  (Melbourne)  :  L."  H.  Bailey,  Ci/rlo/io'dia 
of  American  Horticulture  (New  York,  1900-01)  ; 
G.  Nicholson,  Jllust-rated  Dictionary  of  Garden- 
ing (London,  1884-89). 

ACACIANS,  u-ka'shi-anz.     See  ACACIUS. 

ACACIUS,  aka'slii-fis.  Bishop  of  Ciesarea 
(340-.'i0.5).  Ho  founded  a  sect,  named  after  him, 
whicli  maintained  that  the  Ron  was  like  the 
Father;  not  of  the  same  or  of  similar  substance, 


54 


ACADEMY. 


but  that  this  likeness  was  in  the  will  alone. 
Thus  he  differed  from  the  general  Arian  party. 
His  doctrine  was  actually  accepted  by  a  synod 
at  Constantinople,  which  he  manipulated  (359), 
which  gave  rise  to  Jerome's  famous  saying:  "The 
whole  world  groaned  and  wondered  to  find  itself 
Arian."  Yet  in  the  end.  as  formerly,  it  was  con- 
demned, and  he  was  exiled. 

AC'ADEM'IC  LE'GION.  A  name  applied 
particularly  to  an  armed  body  of  students  who 
participated  in  the  uprising  of  1848  in  Vienna; 
also  more  generally  to  similar  student  companies 
elsewliere  in  the  revolutionary  disturbances  of 
that  year. 

ACADEMIE  DES  BEAUX-ARTS,  a'ka'da'- 

me'  da  l)u'z;ir'.     See  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts. 

AC'ADE'MUS  (Gk.  'Aicd6!/fi,<(.  Akademos) . 
A  mythical  hero  of  Attica.  When  the  Tyndar- 
ida'  invaded  the  Attic  land  to  rescue  Helen  from 
the  hands  of  Theseus,  Academus  revealed  to 
them  the  place  v,'here  their  sister  was  hidden, 
and  in  return  for  this  act  the  Lacedajmonians 
then  and  thereafter  showed  the  hero  great  honor. 
The  Academia  was  thought  to  have  received  its 
name  from  Academus.  though  the  earlier  form, 
Hecademia,  seems  to  point  to  an  original  Heca- 
demus.  The  Academia  was  in  early  times  a 
sacred  precinct,  six  stades  northwest  of  the 
Dipylon  gate  of  Athens.  Later  a  gymnasium 
was  built  in  the  precinct,  and  still  later  the 
spot  was  made  a  public  park,  being  planted  with 
many  kinds  of  trees,  adorned  with  statues, 
watered  by  the  Cephissus,  and  laid  out  in  walks 
and  lawns.  Here,  in  the  gymnasium  and  the 
neighboring  walks,  Plato  conversed  Avitli  his 
pupils  and  held  his  first  formal  lectures  in  phi- 
losophy. Later,  having  purchased  in  the  neigh- 
borhood a  piece  of  land  and  built  thereon  a 
temple  to  the  Muses  and  a  lecture-hall,  he  trans- 
ferred his  school  thither.  This  spot  was  also 
called  Academia,  and  gave  its  name  to  the 
school. 

ACAD'EMY  (Gk.  MaSiiucia,  akadfmeia,  or 
oKafir/fiia,  akadrntia) .  Originally  the  name  of 
a  public  garden  outside  of  Athens,  dedicated  to 
.■Athene  and  other  deities,  and  containing  a  grove 
and  a  gymnasium.  It  was  popularly  believed  to 
have  derived  its  name  from  its  early  owner,  a  cer- 
tain Academus,  an  eponymous  hero  of  the  Tro- 
jan War.  It  was  in  these  gardens  that  Plato 
met  and  taught  his  followers,  and  his  school 
came  to  be  known  from  their  place  of  meeting 
as  the  Academy.  Tlie  later  schools  of  philosophy 
which  developed  from  the  teachings  of  Plato 
down  to  the  time  of  Cicero  were  also  known  as 
academies.  Cicero  himself  and  many  of  the 
best  authorities  following  him  reckoned  but  two 
Academies,  the  Old,  founded  by  Plato  (428-348 
B.C.),  and  including  Speusippus.  Xenocrates 
of  Chalcedon.  Polemo,  Crates,  and  Cranto;  and 
the  New,  founded  by  Arcesilaus  (241  or  240 
B.C.).  Others  have,  however,  reckoned  the  latter 
as  the  Middle  Academy,  and  added  a  third,  the 
New  Academy,  founded  by  Carneades  (214-129? 
n.c).  Others  again  have  counted  no  fewer  than 
five,  adding  to  the  three  above  a  fourth,  that  of 
Fhilo,  and  a  fifth,  that  of  Antiochus.  (See 
articles  Plato;  Arcesilaus;  Carneades; 
Philosophy;  and  references  under  the  last.) 
From  its  use  in  the  sense  of  a  school  the  word 
academy  has  come  to  be  applied  to  certain  kinds 
of  institutions  of  learning;  from  its  use  in  the 
sense  of  a  body  of  learned  men  it  has  come  to 


ACACIA,     ETC. 


1.  ALOE   (Aloe  vera). 

2.  ACONITE  ^Aconitum   napellusL 


3.  ACACIA  (Acacia   arabica;  var.   nilotica). 

4.  ARNICA  (Arnica    montana). 


ACADEMY.  55 

be  applied  to  vari(>\is  a>sociations  of  scholars, 
artists,  literary  men  ami  seieiitists  orj;anizecl  for 
the  proiiiotioti  of  general  or  special  intellectual 
or  artistic  interests.  Not  only  was  the  name  ap- 
plied particularly  to  the  followers  of  Plato,  Imt  it 
soon  came  to  he  given  as  well  to  general  societies 
of  learned  men  unconnected  with  a  philosophical 
school.  In  the  Middle  Ages  the  name  and  insti- 
tution survived  not  merely  among  tlie  Aral)s,  |)ar- 
ticularly  in  Spain,  hut.  passing  over  the  fahle  of 
Alfred's  foundation  of  an  academy  at  0.\ford. 
we  find  such  an  institution  under  the  name  of 
academy  among  the  group  of  .scholars  whom 
Charlemagne  gathered  around  him. 

.\t  the  Renaissance  the  academy  sprang  into 
sudden  prominence  as  a  favorite  form  of  intellec- 
tual organization,  and  took  its  place  as  an  intel- 
lectual force  heside  the  universities.  From  these 
it  dilt'ered.  as  it  does  to-day.  in  being  not  a  teach- 
ing body  but  a  group  of  investigators,  who, 
generally  tinder  royal  or  state  ])atronage,  en- 
couraged learning,  literature,  and  art  by  research 
and  publication.  Laying  aside  the  claims  of 
Alost  to  a  society  of  scholars  in  1107,  and  that  of 
Diest  to  a  society  of  poets  in  1302,  academies  of 
this  type  seem  to  have  first  appeared  in  Italy  and 
to  have  been  devoted  to  literature,  art,  and  arclii- 
teeture.  The  .\cadeniy  of  Fine  .\rts,  founded  at 
Florence  about  1270  by  Brunette  Latini;  tliat  of 
Palermo,  about  1.'300.  by  Frederick  11.;  and  the 
Academy  of  Architecture  of  Milan  (l;!80?)  were 
among  the  first  of  these.  Langtiage  and  litera- 
ture were  not  far  behind.  The  so-called  Academy 
of  Floral  Games  (Academic  dcs  Jcu.x  Floiaux), 
founded  at  Toulouse  about  l.'!25  by  one  Clemens 
Isaurus  as  a  part  of  the  great  Troubadour  move- 
ment, was  probably  the  earliest  of  these  literary 
academies,  and  has  had  an  almost  continuous 
history  till  the  present  day.  With  this  exce|)tion 
the  earliest  academies  rose  in  Italy,  and  found 
their  prototype  in  that  brilliant  group  of  schol- 
ars, critics,  and  literati  gathered  at  the  court  of 
Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  the  Magnificent,  and  Cosmo 
de'  Medici  in  Florence,  the  so-called  Platonic 
Academy  which. founded  about  1474,  wasdissolved 
after  the  expulsion  of  the  iledici  in  lo27.  It  was 
succeeded  in  Florence  b.v  the  .Vcadcmv  of  Flor- 
ence, formed  in  l.i40  especially  for  the  study  of 
Tuscan,  particularly  Petrarch.  Before  the  Pla- 
tonic Academy  of  the  Medici  only  Naples  boasts 
an  earlier  academy,  that  founded  in  1440  by  Al- 
fonso. But  the  sixteenth  century  was  rich  in 
academies  devoted  to  literature.  The  Introvati 
of  Siena,  1525:  the  InfiaiMiiiati  of  Padua.  15.'?4; 
the  Rozzi  of  Siena,  later  suppressed  by  Cosmo 
de'  Medici.  150S  ;  and  the  .\ccademia  dell  i  Crusca 
or  Furfuratorum,  founded  in  1587.  and  still  in 
existence,  the  most  famous  of  them  all.  are 
perhaps  the  best  known  of  that  astonishing 
burst  of  academic  vigor  wliich  produced  in  the 
sixteenth  centurv  in  Italy  a  number  variotisly 
estimated  from  170  to  700  of  this  form  of  organ- 
ization. In  these,  under  lurious  names  hut  with 
common  purpose,  tlie  Italian  aristocracv  espe- 
cially, barred  from  jiolitiial  interests  liy  tvrants 
and  republics  alike,  found  vent  for  their  activity. 

One  academy  of  distinction  alone  devoted  to 
science  appears  in  this  jieriod.  the  .\cademia 
Secretorum  Naturse.  founded  at  Xajiles  in  15(>0, 
and  after  a  short  existence  suppressed  by  the 
Church.  It  was  succeeded  by  the  .\ceademia'  della 
Lincei.  founded  by  Prince  Chesi  in  1(1(13.  count- 
ing Galileo  among  its  members,  and  still  ex- 
isting in  Rome  after  many  changes.     The  foun- 


ACADEMT. 


dation  of  this  scuiety  heralded  that  great  burst 
of  interest  in  sciences  of  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries  which  to  some  extent  suc- 
ceeded the  |)urely  literary  activity  of  the  six- 
teenth. The  Kefonnation  had  destroyed  or  altered 
much  of  the  ecclesiastical  power  which  had  served 
to  check  investigation  earlier,  and  the  foundation 
of  several  societies  indicated  a  new  interest  in 
science.  Of  these  the  .Xcademia  Naturie  Curiosor- 
11111,  Leipzig,  established  by  Ur.  .1.  L.  Bausch  in 
Kijl-52.  still  exists  under  the  name  of  Civsareo- 
Leopohlinia,  in  honor  of  the  Kmiieror  Leopold  1., 
who  patronized  it  liberally.  Since  1808  it  has 
had  its  head(piarters  at  Bonn.  The  Royal  Society 
in  Kngland  (q.v.),  the  -Academy  of  Sciences  in 
Paris,  the  Academ.v  or  Collegium  Curiosum 
established  by  Professor  Sturiii  of  the  University 
of  .Mtdorf,  and  similar  institutions  brought  about 
an  astonishing  increase  of  interest  and  conse- 
quent advance  in  scientific  pursuits  and  methods. 
The  importance  of  these  academies  to  science 
indeed  can  hardly  be  overestimated. 

This  was  maintained  in  the  eighteenth  century, 
and  the  establishment  of  academies  was  further 
stimulated  then  by  the  infiiience  of  Louis  XIV., 
so  important  in  this  as  in  so  many  other  intel- 
lectual as  well  as  political  interests  throughout 
Europe.  In  this,  however,  as  in  so  many  other 
wa.vs,  he  and  his  ministers  but  carried  further 
the  plans  of  their  predecessors.  In  l(i35  Riche-- 
lieu  established  the  most  famous  of  all  such 
organizations,  the  old  p'rench  Academy,  which 
had  its  inception  six  years  before  in  the  minds 
of  eight  men  of  letters.  It  consisted  of  forty 
members,  with  a  director,  a  chancellor,  and  a 
secretary,  and  its  avowed  purpose  was  to  control 
the  French  language  and  regulate  literary  taste. 
Its  constitution  provided  for  the  publication  of 
a  grammar,  a  treatise  on  rhetoric,  and  one  on 
poetry,  besides  a  dictionar,v  of  the  French  lan- 
guage. Though  its  condition  has.  been  somewhat 
changed,  it  is  the  same  in  all  essentials  to-day 
as  it  was  at  its  foundation.  In  this  plan  Riche- 
lieu was  copied,  as  usual,  bv  his  successor, 
Mazarin,  who  cstablisheil  the  .Xcademy  of  Fine 
Arts  (Beaux-Arts)  in  l(i55.  Colbert  continued 
this  policy  by  founding  the  Academy  of  Inscrip- 
tions and  Belles  Lettres  in  lli(i3,  as  a  committee 
of  the  old  academy  to  draw  up  inscriptions  for 
monuments  and  medals  to  comineinorate  the 
victories  and  glories  of  Louis  XIV.  This  was 
remodeled  in  1700.  Colbert  established  also  an 
Academy  of  Painting  and  Sculpture  in  1004,  the 
-Vcailcmy  of  Sciences  in  l(i(i(i,  the  Academy  of 
Arcliitecture  in  1071,  later  merged  into  the 
.\cadcm.v  of  Fine  Arts,  and  the  Academy  of 
France  at  Rome.  All  these,  save  the  last, 
ti'gelhcr  with  the  Acadeiii,v  of  Moral  and  Politi- 
cal Science,  founded  in  1832,  came  to  form  the 
Institute  (cj.v.).  To  Louis  XIV.  other  cities  in 
France  owed  the  charters  of  their  academies, 
notalily  Mont])ellier  in  1700. 

Largely  owing  to  these  two  causes,  that  is  to 
say.  the  interest  in  science  and  the  fashion  of  rov- 
al  patronage  set  by  Louis  XIV..  the  foniidatioii  of 
academies  reached  its  height  in  the  eighteenth 
centurv,  especially  in  Germany  and  the  north 
and  east  of  Kuroiie.  Frederick  I.  of  Prus- 
sia founded  the  iioyal  Acailemy  of  Sciences 
in  Berlin  in  1700,  on  a  plan  drawn  up  b.v 
Leibnitz,  its  first  president.  That  savant  aided 
also  in  drawing  up  the  scheme  adopted  bv  Peter 
the  Great  and  carried  out  hv  Catharine  1.  in  the 
foundation  of  the   Imperial  Academy  of  Sciences 


ACADEMY. 

at  St.  Petersburg  in  1725.  In  1739  the  Academy 
of  Seienees  of  Stockholm  was  established  with 
a  most  distinguished  member  in  LinniEUs,  and 
was  incorporated  in  1741  as  the  Royal  Swedish 
Academy.  In  1742  Christian  VI.  founded  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Copenhagen;  in  1750-51  the 
Gottingen  Academy  of  Sciences  was  established; 
in  1754  the  Electoral  Academy  at  Erfurt;  in  1755 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Mannheim  was 
founded  by  the  Elector  I'alatine,  Karl  Theodor, 
and  in  1759  the  Electoral  Bavarian  Academy  of 
Sciences  was  founded  at  Munich.  In  Spain  the 
Roj'al  Academy  of  Science  at  Madrid  began  its 
existence  in  1774:  in  Italy  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Sciences  of  Turin  originated  in  1759  as  a  pri- 
vate society,  receiving  royal  recognition  in  1783. 
Not  merely  were  academies  founded  in  the  broad 
field  of  science,  in  its  earlier  sense  of  all  human 
knowledge :  they  were  established  for  all  imag- 
inable special  p\irposes.  In  surgery,  the  Surgical 
Academy  of  Paris.  1731,  and  the  so-called  Acad- 
emy of  Surgery  at  Vienna,  more  properly  a 
college,  are  the  most  prominent  examples.  In 
archaeology  and  history  we  find  the  Royal  Acad- 
emy of  Portuguese  History  established  in  1720, 
a  similar  institution  at  JIadrid  chartered  in 
1738.  the  Archieological  Academy  of  Upsala 
founded  in  1710,  that  of  Cortona  in  1727,  and 
that  of  Herculaneum  at  Naples  in  1755.  In 
•  literature  the  Royal  Spanish  Academy,  founded 
by  the  exertions  of  the  Duke  d'Escalona  in  1713 
or  1714,  and  tlie  Royal  Academy  of  Savoy,  found- 
ed in  1719  by  Charles  Felix,  are  the  most  prom- 
inent of  numerous  similar  institutions,  including 
those  of  St.  Petersburg  of  1783,  later  a  part  of 
the  Imperial  Academy,  and  Stockholm  in  1786. 
In  music  and  the  fine  arts,  the  departments  to 
which  the  name  has  been  especially  applied  in 
England,  the  Royal  Academy  of  Arts  was  found- 
ed in  1708,  with  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  as  its  first 
president,  the  Academy  of  Arts  at  Jlilan,  that 
of  painting  and  sculpture  and  architecture  at 
Madrid  by  Philip  V.,  the  Swedish  Academy  of 
Fine  Arts  by  Count  Tessin  in  1733,  and  the 
Academy  of  Painting  'and  Sculpture  at  Turin 
in  1778." 

During  the  nineteenth  century  a  smaller  num- 
ber of  such  organizations  were  founded,  ]iartly 
because  the  field  was  so  well  covered,  partly  be- 
cause other  forms  of  activity  or  the  same  form 
of  institution  under  a  different  name  took  its 
place.  (See  Societies;  Advancement  of  Sci- 
ence, Associations  for  the.)  The  Royal 
Hibernian  Academy,  founded  in  1803,  the  English 
Royal  Academy  of  Music,  founded  in  1822  and 
incorporated  in  1830,  and  the  Royal  Scottish 
Academy,  founded  in  1826  and  chartered  in  1838, 
represent  the  English  activities  in  this  field. 
The  Philadelphia  Academy  of  Sciences,  founded 
in  1812  and  incorporated  in  1817,  and  the  Vienna 
Academy  of  Sciences,  founded  in  1846,  are  among 
the  most  important  scientific  foundations  of 
the  century.  Tlie  Celtic  Academy  of  Paris, 
founded  1800  to  1805  and  merged  in  1S14  into 
the  Society  of  Antiquaries  of  France,  and  the 
Academy  of  History  and  Antiquities  of  Naples, 
founded  by  Joseph  Bonaparte,  represent  the 
Napoleonic  period.  The  Academy  of  ]\Iedicine 
of  Paris,  founded  for  research  into  matters 
affecting  public  health,  1820,  has  performed 
excellent  service  to  the  community  at  large. 
But  the  most  important  event  in  academic  organ- 
ization of  the  century  was  the  reorganization  of 
the  French  Academy  "into  the  Institute  of  France, 


56  ACADEMY. 

an  account  of  which  may  be  found  under  that 
title  in  this  work.  The  French  Academy  as  now 
constituted  represents  the  old  academy  of  Rich- 
elieu, though  it  is  reckoned  ofticially  as  the 
highest  of  the  five  divisions  of  the  Institute. 
Its  membership  in  1902  was  as  follows,  in  order 
ot  seniority: 


Ernest  Legouve 
Eniile  Ollivier 
Alfred  Mezieres 
Gaston  Boissier 
Victorien  Sardou 
Due  d'Audilfret-Paequier 
A.  J.  E.  Rouese 


Ferdinand  Brunetiere 
Jose  M.  de  Heredia 
Albert  Sorel 
Paul  Bourget 
Henri  Houssaye 
Jule.^  Lemaitre 
Anatole  France 


R.  F.  A.  Sully-Prudhomme         Marquis  Costa  de  Beauregard 
Cardinal  Perraud  cBishop  of    Gaston  Pans 


Andre  Theuriet 
Comte  Albert  Vandal 
Conite  Albert  de  Mun 
Gabriel  Hanotaux 
C.  J.B.  E.  Guillaume 
Comte  Othenind'Haussonville    n  E  L  Lavedan 


Autun) 
Francois  Coppee 
Ludovic  Halevy 
V.  C.  O.  Greard 


Jules  Claretie 


P.  E.  L,  Deschanel 


Vicomte  E.   M.  Melchior  de    pg,,)  Hervieu 
Vogi'e  Emile  Faguet 

Charles  de  Freycinet  Marcellin  Berthelot 

Julien  Viaud  (Pierre  Loti)  Marquis    C.   J.    Melchior   de 

Ernest  Lavisse  Vogiie 

Paul  Thureau-Dangin  Edmond  Rostand 

It  remains  to  notice  in  detail  some  of  the  other 
more  important  existing  academies.  The  Royal 
Academy,  Burlington  House,  London,  the  asso- 
ciation of  English  artists,  holds  an  exhibition 
eacli  year,  open  to  all  artists,  and  corresponding 
to  the  French  Salon.  It  consists  at  present  of 
358  Academicians  ( R.  A. ) ,  four  Honorable  Re- 
tired Academicians,  six  Honorable  Foreign 
Acadcmicans,  thirty  Associates  (A.  R.  A.),  four 
Honorable  Retired  Associates.  Sir  Edward  John 
Poynton  has  been  its  president  since  1896.  The 
Royal  Academy  of  Berlin,  founded  in  1700,  owes 
its  present  statutes  to  the  .year  1881.  It  consists 
of  two  sections — physics-mathematics  and  phi- 
losophy-history. It  has  60  regular  and  20  for- 
eign, corresponding,  and  honorary  members.  Its 
publications  have  appeared  since  its  foundation. 
The  Imperial  Academy  of  St.  Petersburg,  found- 
ed in  1725,  has  three  divisions — physics-mathe- 
matics, Russian  language  and  literature,  history- 
philolog.y.  It  is  richly  endowed,  and  offers  year- 
ly prizes  for  contributions  to  learning.  Its  li- 
brar}^  is  very  large,  and  it  controls  a  number  of 
museums.  The  Royal  Swedish  Academy,  founded 
in  1739,  has  100  native  and  75  foreign  members, 
and  its  work  is  divided  into  nine  classes.  The 
Royal  Bavarian  Academy  includes  theology,  law, 
finance,  and  medicine  among  its  activities,  and 
has  three  classes — philosophy-philology,  mathe- 
matics-physics, and  history.  The  Imperial  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences  of  Vienna,  founded  in  1840, 
comprises  two  classes  —  philosophy-history  and 
mathematics-science — with  frequent  meetings,  and 
its  publications  are  especially  numerous  and  iin- 
])ortant.  It  is  well  endowed  by  ]irivate  benefac- 
tion, and  by  the  State,  and  is  enabled  to  send  out 
many  scientific  expeditions. 

In  the  United  States  there  are  many  such  soci- 
eties. The  earliest  founded  was  the  American 
Philosophical  Society,  organized  in  1743  through 
the  efforts  of  Benjamin  Franklin,  who  was  its 
first  secretary,  and  later,  until  his  death,  its 
president.  Tlie  interests  and  the  activities  of 
this  society  covered  the  whole  range  of  science 
pure  and  applied,  and  of  pliilosophy.  The  pul)- 
lication  of  Transact  ions  began  in  1799  and  of  its 
Proceedings  in  1838.     At  present  the  society  has 


ACADEMY. 

200  resident  ami  .'ioo  iii>ri-resi(lent  members. 
The  -American  Academy  »(  Arts  and  Sciences 
was  chartered  by  tlie  Legislature  of  Massachu- 
setts in  1780,  to  a  considerable  extent  tbrou;;li 
the  inllueuce  of  John  Adams.  Its  attention  was 
devoted  to  the  study  of  the  antiquities  and  the 
natural  history  of  .Vnicrica.  It  lias  pulilished  a 
series  of  memoirs,  be-^iuuinj;  in  178.").  and  I'luoctl- 
iHj/s  since  184ti.  The  Connecticut  Academy  of 
Arts  and  Sciences  was  founded  in  I7!l'.l.  ami  the 
Philadelphia  -Academy  of  Natural  .Science  in 
1812.  This  latter  academy  has  a  very  valuable 
library  and  museum,  especially  rich  in  coiichol- 
ogy  and  ornitholof;y,  and  has  published  .loiiniiils 
since  1817  and  I'rocccdiiui.i  since  1841,  besides 
the  American  Journal  of  Vonvholutjii.  The  New 
York  -Academy  of  .Science  was  foumlcd  in  1818 
as  the  Lyceum  of  Natural  History,  and  received 
its  present  title  in  IH7:J.  It  is  <iri,'anizcd  into 
four  sections,  as  follows:  -Astronomy  and  phys- 
ics, geolog>'  and  mineralof;y,  biolof-y,  and  anthro- 
pologj'.  psychologj-,  and  philolopy.  These  sec- 
tions hold  monthly  meetings,  and  the  -Academy 
holds  general  meetin<;s  and  {;ives  an  annual 
exhibit  of  scientific  progress  that  is  of  jjreal 
value.  Similar  scientific  academies  have  been 
orjianized  in  most  of  the  lari;c  cities  in  the 
I'nited  .States,  but  their  influence  is  chielly  local. 
Such  societies  usually  cover  the  entire  field  of 
the  exact  and  the  natural  sciences,  while  special 
societies  for  ])artieular  sciences  are  now  com- 
monly formed.  In  recent  years  Washington  is 
becoming  the  centre  of  scientific  interest  in  this 
country,  and  in  1808  its  various  scientific  .soci- 
eties combined  into  the  Washington  -Academy  of 
Science.  National  associations  of  the  same 
character  have  lieeii  formed.  In  18(),'!  Congress 
chartered  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences, 
which  was  designed  to  investigate  scientific 
questions  and  to  report  thereon  to  the  Govern- 
ment. As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  the  .Acad- 
emy has  not  been  frequently  employed  by  the 
Government.  T.vo  annual  meetings  are  held 
and  reports  and  memoirs  are  issued.  The  mem- 
bership of  the  -\cademy  originallv  was  limited  to 
50  members,  but  in  1870  this  limitation  was 
removed,  and  now  five  members  may  he  elected 
annually.  -At  present  there  are  8fl  members.  The 
American  -Association  for  the  .Advancement  of 
Science  was  organized  in  IS48  and  is  the  most 
active  and  the  largest  of  such  associations.  It 
now  has  about  1000  members  and  77(>  fellows, 
the  Ifttter  being  those  who  are  engaged  in 
advancing  science,  while  any  one  interested  in 
science  may  be  a  member.  In  fine  arts  both 
Philadelphia  and  New  York  possess  institutions 
under  the  name  of  academies,  founded  in  1805 
and  1828  respectively,  each  having  schools  of 
design  and  annual  exhibitions.  Many  other  such 
associations,  under  <lifTerent  names,  are  to  be 
found  in  this  country  for  the  pro.seeution  of 
research  and  publication  along  literary  as  well 
as  scientific  lines.  Of  these  last  the  .American 
Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science  of 
Philadelphia  is  perhaps  the  most  important.  It 
was  founded  in  1S8!),  has  a  large  membership, 
and  its  publications,  uniler  the  title  of  Annals. 
are  of  considerable  value.  See  Smitiiso.ni.w 
IxsTITfTION. 

In  the  sense  of  a  school  or  an  institution  of 
learning,  the  term  academy  has  come  to  be 
applied  to  an  educational  institution  between  the 
elementary  school  and  the  college,  particularly 
in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States,  thougli 
Vol.  I.— 6. 


57 


ACAMAPICTLI. 


used  occasionally  elsewhere.  In  his  Tractate  on 
i:jncation,  .lohn  Milton  calls  his  ideal  educa- 
tional institution  an  academy.  In  England  the 
term  applied  to  those  institutions  of  secondary 
rank  established  by  the  dissenting  religious 
bodies  during  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth 
and  in  the  eighteenth  century  to  provide  for  the 
general  education  of  their  youth,  especially 
those  intended  for  the  ministry,  since  such  edu- 
cation could  not  be  obtained  from  the  existing 
public  schools.  In  the  I'nited  States  the  term 
was  tirst  applied  to  the  institution  founded  in 
Philadcl]iliia  in  1740  under  the  leadership  of 
15eiiji"iiin  Franklin.  This  .Academy  and  College 
of  Philadelphia  was  chartered  in  1753,  and 
■became  tlic  (Iniversity  of  Pennsylvania  in  177'.). 
The  typical  academies  were  those  founded  during 
the  Re\oliitionary  War  period  at  Exeter.  N,  H., 
and  -Andover,  Mass.,  largely  through  the 
generosity  of  .lohn  Phillips,  after  whom  they  are 
named.  Such  academies  became  very  numerous 
and  took  the  place  of  the  old  Latin  grammar 
schools,  which  had  lost  their  po|uilarity  and 
.serviceableness  on  account  of  the  economic  and 
political  changes  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
Such  academies  are  controlled  by  trustees  usually 
of  some  one  religious  denomination,  and  are  not 
de])endent  upon  state  support.  Their  place  has 
been  largely  taken  up  by  the  modern  high  school : 
the  existing  ones  have  for  the  most  part  become 
college  preparatory  schools. 

The  term  is  also  used  much  more  widely  in 
a  lower  sense,  to  indicate  places  where  special 
accomplishments  are  taught,  such  as  riding, 
dancing,  or  fencing  academies.  A  more  restrict- 
ed use  is  that  in  connection  with  schools  that 
prepare  for  particular  ])rofessions,  as  the  United 
States  Military  .Academy  at  West  Point.  In 
France  and  -he  United  States  it  is  occasionally 
applied  to  buildings  devoted  to  particular  arts, 
especially  music;  hence  an  opera  house,  often 
called  an  academy  of  music;  and  occasionally 
by  analogy  to  the  theatre  as  well. 

ACAD'EMY  OF  DESIGN',  National.    See 

NaTION.\L  .Ac.\I)EMV  OI    DKSIli.N. 

ACA'DIA  (Fr.  AcikUc.  J/Acadic,  or  La  Catlie. 
from  the  Micniac  Indian  word  aliide,  meaning 
abundance).     See  Nov.v  .ScoTl.\. 

ACA'DIAN  SE'RIES.  See  C.\mhri.\n  System. 

ACAJUTLA,  ii'k:i-hoot'li\.  A  seaport  in 
the  Department  of  Sansonatc,  Republic  of  Salva- 
dor, Central  -America,  situated  on  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  10  miles  south  of  Sansonate  (Map:  Cen- 
tral .America,  C  4).  It  is  the  second  port  of  Sal- 
vailor  in  importance,  and  the  seat  of  a  consular 
agent  of  the  United  States, 

AC'ALE'PH.a;  (plural  of  Gk.  anaXi/pri .  al-- 
alrjihi',  a  nettle,  a  kind  of  jellyfish),  .A  group 
of  free-swimming,  discoidal  or  bell-shaped  medu- 
.sie.  the  lobed  jellyfishes,  with  downwardly  direct- 
ed nioiith,  gastro-vaseular  iiouches,  and  numer- 
ous radial  canals,  and  having,  as  a  rule,  the 
margin  of  the  umbrella  lobed;  called  Discophora 
bv  Iluxlev.    See  .Tei.i.vfish. 


ACAMAPICTLI, 
ACAMPICHTLI,   or 
hand    full    of    reeds'). 
king. 


.■'i  -  ka  •  m;'i  -  pcsl/tle.  or 
ACAMAPIXTLE  ("the 
-An  -Aztec  chieftain  or 
The  dates  of  his  reign  are  varioiislv  given 
as  l;?.-)2-S!),  Kiinnti.  and  1375-140.'!.  He' was  a 
vassal  of  the  King  of  the  Tepanecs,  and  ruled  but 
a  small  territory,  yet  he  maintained  peace,  began 
the  construction  of  the  canals  of  Lake  Tezcoco, 


ACAMAPICTLI. 


58 


ACAPULCO. 


and  built  many  stone  edifices  in  his  capital  of 
Tenochtitlan. 

AC'ANTHA'CE^  (for  derivation  see 
Acanthus  ) .  An  order  of  dicotyledonous  plants 
embracing  about;  130  genera  and  1600  species. 
It  is  found  chiefly  in  the  tropics,  but  also  occurs 
in  the  south  of  Europe  and  the  United  States. 
The  species  are  mostly  herbs  and  shrubs, 
although  a  few  become  trees.  Plants  of  this 
order  frequent  almost  every  situation,  from 
marshes  to  the  driest  of  conditions  where  plants 
are  able  to  survive.  The  leaves  are  usually 
thin  and  entire.  The  flower  parts  in  fours  or 
fives,  stamens  often  two  and  styles  two.  The 
fruit  is  a  two-celled  capsule,  upon  the  explosion 
of  which  the  seeds  are  thrown  out,  aided  by 
peculiar  outgrowths  from  the  base  of  their 
stalks.  The  chief  genera  are  Nelsonia,  Thunber- 
gia,  Strobilanthus,  Ruellia,  Blepharis,  Acanthus, 
and  Justicia. 

ACAN'THITE  (Gk.  imavOa.  akantha, 
thorn).  A  silver  sulphide  that  crystallizes  in 
the  orthorhombic  system.  It  is  iron-black  in  color, 
and  has  a  metallic  lustie.  It  occurs  with  argen- 
tite  and  stephanite  at  various  localities  near 
Freiberg  in  Saxony,  and  is  named  from  the 
peculiar  shape   of   its  crystals. 

ACAN'THOCEPH'ALA  (Gk.  uKavBa,  akan- 
tha, thorn,  prickle  +  Ke(fia?.r/,  kephalf.  head). 
An  order  of  round  parasitic  worms  distinguished 
by  an  elongated  cylindrical  body  and  a  proboscis 
armed  with  horny  hooks.  The  order  contains  three 
families,  viz.,  Gigantorhynchids,  Neorhynchida', 
and  Echinorhynchida'.  Echinorhynchus  gigas  is 
parasitic  in  the  small  intestine  of  swine.  Other 
.species  are  found  in  ducks  and  other  aquatic 
birds.  The  Acanthocephala  belong  to  the  class 
Nemathelminthes,  which  includes  also  the  Gor- 
diace*  and  the  Nematodes. 

ACANTHOPTERYGII,      ak'an-thop-ter-i.j'i-i 

(Gk.  (LKo^'Oa,  rikaiifhd,  thorn  -^-Trrefivywv,  ptcrygion^ 
wing;  plural,  fins).  One  of  the  primary  divis- 
ions of  the  osseous  fishes  (Teleostei).  It  in- 
cludes many  families,  among  which  are  largely 
the  most  specialized  forms  of  fishes.  They  are 
characterized  by  the  possession  of  spines  in  the 
anterior  portion  of  the  dorsal  fin  or  in  the  first 
dorsal  when  two  are  present,  and  by  the  usual 
absence  of  a  pneumatic  duct  connecting  the  air- 
bladder  with  the  (esophagus.  The  ventral  fins 
are  generally  thoracic,  i.e.,  fastened  to  the  shoul- 
der. The  acanthopterygian  fishes  include  the 
perch,  bass,  mackerel,  and  similar  forms. 

ACAN'THUS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  aKavenc, 
akanthos.  brankursine).  A  name  given  l)y  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  to  certain  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Acanthacese,  whicli  order  contains 
nearly  134  genera  and  IflOO  species.  The  plants 
of  the  order  are  herbs  or  shrubs,  rarely  trees, 
chiefly  tropical,  a  few  occurring  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean region,  in  the  United  States,  and  in 
Australia.  The  greater  number  are  mere  weeds, 
but  the  genera  Justicia,  Aphelandra,  and  Ruellia 
contain  some  of  our  finest  hothouse  flowers.  In 
cultivation  the  Acanthus  is  only  semi-hardy,  and 
needs  protection  in  England  and  in  the  United 
States  north  of  Virginia.  Of  a  dozen  varieties 
of  the  genus  Acanthus  two  only  were  anciently 
common  in  Mediterranean  lands:  the  wild 
Acanthus  (Acnnthua  .ipinosuf:) .  a  short  prickly 
plant  with  curly  leaves:  and  the  cultivated 
Acanthus  [Acanthus  mollis),  with  larger,  thick- 


er, smooth  leaves  without  thorns.     See  Plate  of 
Acanthus,  etc. 

In  Architecture.  The  leaves  of  both  of  the.se 
varieties  have  been  copied  in  architectural  deco- 
ration. Those  of  Acanthus  spinosus  only  were 
conventionalized  by  the  Greeks  in  the  Corinthian 
capital  (q.v.),  whose  characteristic  decorations 
they  formed,  as  well  as  in  other  details,  such  as 
the   acroterion     (q.v.)     of    temples,    monuments. 


ACANTHr*^. 


or  sepulchral  columns,  etc.  In  all  these  Grecian 
decorations  the  acanthus  leaves  are  straight  and 
pointed.  Etruscan  and  early  Roman  works 
show  a  form  of  acanthus  with  curling,  split 
leaves  of  quite  difi'erent  aspect.  The  typical 
Greek  three-lobed  acanthus  was  introduced  into 
Roman  architecture  before  the  close  of  the  Repub- 
lic, but  the  Roman  artists  of  the  time  of  the 
Empire  were  not  satisfied  with  its  simple  forms; 
they  conventionalized  it,  adopted  in  preference 
the  form  of  the  more  luxuriant  Acanthus  mollis, 
and  combined  with  it  the  forms  of  other  trees 
and  plants,  especially  the  olive,  laurel,  and 
parsley.  The  result  was  an  extremely  rich  dec- 
oration of  capitals,  friezes,  consoles,  moldings, 
and  cornices  quite  unknown  to  Greek  art.  The 
acanthus  came  into  use  also  in  other  forms  of 
decoration:  in  fresco  painting,  in  the  ornamen- 
tation of  table  feet,  of  vases,  candelabra,  furni- 
ture, goldsmith  work,  and  embroideries.  It 
naturally  passed  into  post-classical  ornament, 
together  with  the  Corinthian  capital,  which  was 
the  favorite  form,  and  we  find  it  in  early  Chris- 
tian, Byzantine,  and  Romanesque  art.  In  cer- 
tain parts  of  Italy  it  preserved  its  purity  until 
the  Renaissance  —  especially  in  central  and 
southern  Italy — and  in  southern  and  central 
France  it  was  superseded  only  by  Gothic  foliage. 
See  Column. 

A  CAPELLA,  a  ka-pel'Ia  (Ital.,  in  the  church 
style),  ilusie  for  voices  without  accompani- 
ment, like  the  early  church  compositions.  The 
term  is  also  used  when  the  accompaniment  is 
octaves  or  unison.  As  an  indication  of  time  it 
is  equivalent  to  alia  breve  (q.v.). 

A  CAPRICCIO,  a  ka-pre'cho  (Ital.).  At  the 
caprice  or  pleasure  of  the  performer,  regarding 
botli  time  and  expression.    A  musical  term. 

ACAPULCO,  a'ka-pool'k6  (a  corrupted  ab- 
breviation of  the  Latin  name  [Portiis]  Acqiice 
I'nlchrw.  [Port  of]  beautiful  water).  A  town 
on  the  Pacific  coast,  in  Guerrero,  Mexico,  231 
miles  southwest  of  the  City  of  Mexico,  of  which 
it  was  formerly  the  Pacific  port,  on  account  of  the 
excellence  of  its  harbor  (Map:  Mexico,  J  9).  It 
was  the  chief  centre  of  commerce  with  the  Phil- 
ippine Islands,  as  well  as  China  and  India,  until 
the  railroad  between  the  City  of  Mexico  and  San 
r.las  rolibcd  it  of  most  of  its  trade.  Population, 
aljout  4000. 


I 


ACANTHUS,     ETC. 


1.  ACANTHUS  lAcanthus   mollis,  var.   latifollusl. 

2.  AFRICAN    LILY  lAgapantus   umbellatusl. 

3.  LOVE-LIES-BLEEDING  lAmaranthus  caudatus). 

4.  ALMOND  (Prunus  Perslcal. 


5.  WORMWOOD  (Artemisia  Abslnthiuml. 

6.  ROCKY    MOUNTAIN    ADDER'S   TONGUE  (Erythronlum 

grandlfloruml. 

7.  PHEASANT'S  EYE  (Adonis  aulumnalls). 


ACABIASIS. 
ACARI'ASIS.  See  JIanue. 
AC'ABI'NA.     See  Mites. 

AC'ABNA'NIA  (Gk.  'AKOpvavia,  Akama- 
nia).  A  touiitiy  of  ancient  Greece,  separated 
from  Kpirus  on  llie  north  by  tlie  Ainl)raeian 
Gulf,  now  the  Gulf  of  Arta.  from  .Ktolia  on  the 
east  by  the  River  Acheloiis,  and  washed  south 
and  west  by  tlic  Ionian  Sea.  Ahiiij;  with  .Ktolia, 
it  forms  one  of  the  nomes  or  departments  of  the 
modern  kingdom  of  Greece,  with  an  area  of 
3013  square  miles  and  a  population  of  170,.5(i5 
in  1890.  The  western  part  of  Acarnania — from 
the  mouth  of  the  Acheloiis  or  Aspropotamo  to 
Cape  Actium  in  the  northwest — is  occupied  by  a 
mass  of  rocky  and  thickly-wooded  mountains, 
rising  abruptly  from  tlic  indented  coast  and  cul- 
minating in  the  summit  of  Berganti.  A  consid- 
erable part  of  Acarnania  is  overgrown  with  wood 
— a  rare  feature  in  modern  Greece.  There  is  no 
town  of  importance  in  the  whole  district,  though 
naturally  the  territory  is  not  destitute  of  re- 
sources. Consult  Oberhummer,  Akiirnanien, 
Ainbrakia,  Aniphilochicn,  Lcukas  im  Altertiim 
(Munich,  1887). 

AC'ABTJS  FOLLIC'TILO'EUM,  or  neimxUx, 
or  SUat<iZ(ion  folliruUnitm,  tlic  comnu'do  mite.  A 
microscopic  parasite  residing  in  the  sebaceous 
sacs  and  hair  follicles  of  the  human  skin.  It 
was  first  described  by 
Dr.  Simon  of  Berlin  in 
1842,  under  the  title  of 
Acarus  foUiculorum, 
which  was  suggested  by 
the  eminent  zoologist, 
Krichson  of  Berlin.  Ac- 
cording to  Professor 
Owen,  who  gave  it  the 
name  of  Demodex,  it 
represents  the  lowest 
form  of  the  class  Ar- 
nchnida,  and  makes  a 
transition  from  the  An- 
nelids to  the  higher  Ar- 
ticulata.  Their  pres- 
ence has  no  reference  to 
disease  of  the  skin  or 
of  the  follicles.  They 
are  met  with  in  almost 
every  person.  They  vary 
in  length  from  /„-th 
of  an  inch, 
accompanying 
figure  represents  the  magnified  parasite.  Their 
number  is  various;  in  some  persons  not  more 
than  two  or  three  can  be  found  in  a  follicle, 
while  in  others  upward  of  fifteen.  The  head  is 
always  directed  inward.  They  are  most  com- 
monly found  in  the  skin  of  the  face,  particularly 
that  of  the  nose;  but  they  have  also  been  met 
with  in  the  follicles  of  the  back,  the  breast,  and 
the  abdomen.  The  animal  possesses  eight  thor- 
acic appendages  (c,  c)  of  the  most  rudimentary 
kind,  each  of  which  is  terminated  by  three  short 
set.T.  The  integument  of  the  abdomen  is  very 
finely  annulated.  The  mouth  is  suctorial  or 
proboscidiform,  consisting  of  two  small  spine- 
shaped  ma.xilhe  (6),  and  an  extensive  labium 
capable  of  being  elongated  or  retracted;  it  is 
proviiled  on  each  side  with  a  short,  thick,  maxil- 
lary palji  (i(,  o).  consisting  of  two  joints  with  a 
narrow,  triangular  labrum  above.  The  sexes  are 
distinct,  but  the  differences  between  the  male  and 


59 


ACCA  LABENTIA. 


to      T^th 

and    the 


(a)  ACARUa  FOLLICULORna. 
(B)  DEMODEX   MOBNINie. 


female  are  not  well  recognized.  Ova  are  fre- 
cpu'ntly  seen,  both  in  the  body  of  the  female  and 
in  <letached  discharged  masses.  Acari  may  be 
examined  by  collecting  between  two  pieces  of 
thin  glass  the  expressed  fatty  matter  from  a 
nasal  follicle  and  moistening  it  with  a  drop  of 
oli\'e  <ul  befiirc  placing  under  a  micTosco])e  lens 
of  300  diameters.  Identical  animals  have  been 
found  in  the  skin  of  dogs,  hogs, 'and  cattle.  They 
damage  cowhides  in  some  instances.  No  treat- 
ment is  re(|uisilc. 

ACASTE,  ji'ki'ist'.  One  of  the  characters  in 
Molifere's  Mixa  nth  rope  (q.v.)  ;  a  self-satisfied 
young  marquis  who  easily  consoles  himself  when 
scorned  as  a  suitor  by  COlimtnc. 

ACASTO,  iikiis'td.  In  Otway's  tragedy  of 
Tlir  Oiiihiiit  (((.v.).  a  nobleman  retired  from  the 
court  who  is  the  giuirdian  of  Monimia.  the  hero- 
ine, and  father  of  Castalio  and  Polydore. 

ACAS'TUS  (Gk.  'AKnoTo^,  Akastos).  A  son 
of  Pelias,  King  of  lolcus;  one  of  the  Argonauts 
and  of  the  Calydonian  hunters.  He  revenged  the 
murder  of  his  father  (killed  by  his  daughters  at 
the  instigation  of  .Medea )  by  driving  Jason  and 
.Medea  out  of  lolcus.     See  Abgonauts  ;  Medea. 

AC'ATHIS'TUS  (Gk.  d,  a  priv.  +  KadiCuv, 
kathizein,  to  sit  down).  A  hymn  in  honor  of  the 
Virgin,  sung  standing  in  the  Greek  Church  on 
Saturday  of  the  fifth  week  in  Lent,  when  the 
repulse  of  the  Avars  from  Constantinople  is  cele- 
brated. 

AC'CAD.  One  of  the  chief  cities  of  the  land 
of  Shinar  (i.e..  Babylonia),  mentioned  in  Genesis 
X  :  10.  Originally  applied  to  a  city  only,  the 
name  was  afterward  extended  to  the  district  of 
which  Accad  (or  Akkad)  was  at  one  time  the 
centre,  and  among  the  titles  of  the  kings  of 
Babylonia  and  Assyria  we  find,  from  about  3000 
B.C.  on,  the  phrase  "King  of  the  land  of  Shumer 
(the  biblical  Shinar)  and  Akkad"  used  as  a 
designation  for  all  Babj'lonia.  If  the  identi- 
fication of  Accad  with  the  city  of  Agade,  men- 
tioned in  the  inscriptions  of  Sargon  I.  and  of  his 
son.  Naram-sin,  were  certain,  we  could  place 
this  ancient  city  of  Akkad  about  fifteen  miles 
west  of  Bagdad.  According  to  the  testimony  of 
Nabonidus,  the  last  ruler  of  Babylonia,  Sargon 
I.,  whose  seat  was  at  .\gade,  ruled  about  3800 
n.c,  but  the  statement  of  Nabonidus  is  open  to 
suspicion  as  overstating  the  length  of  time  be- 
tween him  and  Sargon,  and  the  identification  of 
.\kkad  with  Agade  is  not  certain.  The  city  of 
.Accad  was  still  in  existence  in  the  days  of  Ne- 
buchadnezzar I.  (circa  llS.'j  n.c),  who  makes 
iMcntiim  of  it  in  an  inscription.  The  .Vccadians 
belonged  to  the  white  race,  and  were  probably 
Semites,  the  theory  of  an  Accadian-Sumerian 
language  of  Turanian,  or  Uralo-AItaic,  affinities 
having  been  abandoned  by  the  best  authorities. 
Whether  they  were'  the  first  inhabitants  of  the 
iciuntrv.  in  which  they  are  found  so  early,  may 
be  doubted;  but  their  predecessors,  if  any,  were 
of  the  white  race,  possibly  Aryans,  or.  it  may  be, 
pecjples  akin  to  the  tribes  of  the  Caueasvis.  In- 
deed, the  .Vccadians  themselves  may  have  been 
in  part  .\ryan.  Consult  Hobert  William  Rogers, 
Jlislitrxi  of  linhjihmin  and  Asxi/ria  (2  vols..  New 
York.  l!i()0).  Sei'  the  articles  Assyria:  Baby- 
lonia; Si  MKHIA.X   I.A.NGIAGE. 

ACCA  LARENTIA.  In  the  story  of  primi- 
tive    Home,    the    wife    of    the    king's    shepherd. 


ACCA  LAB.ENTIA. 


60 


Faustulus,  wlio  found  the  twin  infants,  Romulus 
and  Remus,  and  carried  them  to  her  to  be 
nursed  and  brought  up.  But  this  is  a  later  leg- 
end. The  name  Acca  Larentia  seems  to  have 
meant  "Mother  of  the  Lares ;"  and  in  the  primi- 
tive Latin  mythology  she  was  the  cultus-heroine 
of  the  festival  Larentalia,  held  in  honor  of  the 
spirits  of  the  dead  on  December  23.  She 
was  perhaps  identical  with  Dea  Dia,  to  whose 
■worship  tlie  Fratres  Arvales  were  dedicated.  See 
Abval  Brotheks. 

ACCATTLT,  a'ko',  iliciiEL.  A  French  ex- 
plorer. He  was  a  lieutenant  of  La  Salle,  at 
whose  request  he  accompanied  Louis  Hennepin 
iu  the  exploration  of  the  upper  part  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi in  1679.     See  Hexnepin. 

AC'CELERAN1)0,  Ital.  pron.  a'cha-la- 
ran'du.  In  music,  with  gradually  increasing 
velocity  of  movement. 

ACCEL'ERATION  (from  Lat.  ad,  to  + 
celetare,  to  hasten).  In  theoretical  mechanics,  a 
term  which  denotes  the  rate  of  change  of  velocity 
at  any  instant  with  respect  to  the  time,  that  is, 
the  change  of  velocity  in  the  next  second  of  time 
if  the  rate  of  change  is  uniform;  in  other  words, 
the  change  which  would  take  place  in  the  velocity 
in  the  next  second  if,  during  that  time,  the 
change  were  to  continue  at  the  same  rate  as  at 
the  instant  considered.  An  example  of  accelera- 
tion is  furnished  by  a  body  fallin"  freely  toward 
the  earth.  Its  numerical  value  is  about  981  centi- 
meters, or  32.2  feet,  per  second.  Hence  a  body 
freely  falling  from  a  position  of  rest,  or  with 
velocity  equal  to  zero,  at  the  end  of  the  first 
second  would  be  moving  with  a  velocity  of  32 
feet  per  second,  at  the  end  of  the  second  second 
with  a  velocity  of  64,  at  the  end  of  the  third 
second  with  a  velocity  of  00,  and  so  on.  In  math- 
ematical language,  the  acceleration  is  the  lim- 
,iting  vahie  of  the  ratio  Av/_At,  where  At-  is 
the  "actual  change  in  the  velocity  in  the  interval 
of  time  At  seconds,  as  this  interval  is  taken 
shorter  and  shorter.  There  are  two  kinds  of 
acceleration,  linear  and  angular,  corresponding 
to  the  two  kinds  of  motion,  translation  and  rota- 
tion, and  there  are  two  types  of  each  of  these. 
See  Mechakics. 

ACCENT  (Lat.  accentus,  from  ad.  to  + 
cant  us,  singing,  chant).  A  special  stress  laid 
upon  one  syllable  of  a  word,  by  which  it  is  made 
more  prominent  than  the  rest.  In  the  Indo- 
European  languages  two  kinds  of  accent  are 
found,  varying  in  quality — the  musical  and  the 
expiratory]  The  first  is  found  in  Sanskrit  and 
Greek,  the  second  in  Latin  and  Teutonic.  The 
accent  may  also  be  distinguished  by  its  position, 
as  free,  in  Greek  and  primitive  Teutonic,  and 
fixed,  in  later  Teutonic.  In  English  the  general 
tendency  is  to  throw  the  accent  back.  In  com- 
pound words  the  accent  is  usually  on  the  first 
part,  as  in  courtyard,  highway.  \\'hen  the  first 
part  is  a  prefix  it  receives  the  accent  if  the  word 
be  a  noun  or  adjective;  the  root  is  accented  if 
the  word  be  a  verb.  This  rule  applies  also  to 
Bome  other  words,  as  pres'ent  and  present'.  Bor- 
rowed words  usually  ado|)t-  the  Englisli  accent. 
as  m-ator,  presence ;  but  some  recently  borrowed 
French  words  retain  the  original  accentuation, 
as  parole,  caprice.  The  absence  of  stress  on  final 
inflectional  syllables  has  played  an  important 
part  in  the  leveling  of  inllections.  (See  English 
Language.)  Besides  word-accents,  there  is  a 
sentence-accent,  by  which  some  word  in  the  sen- 


ACCESS. 

tcnce  is  given  greater  stress  than  the  others. 
This  is  always  a  free  accent,  the  position  of  the 
accent  depending  upon  the  meaning.  In  the  sen- 
tence, "Where  is  he  V  three  different  meanings 
can  be  given  by  shifting  the  position  of  the  ac- 
cent. The  eflfect  of  sentence  accent  is  often  seen 
in  the  development  of  doublets,  or  words  with 
a  common  origin,  but  a  difi'erent  form  and  mean- 
ing, as  to — too,  of — off.  ( See  Piio.vetic  Laws.  ) 
Accent  is  also  the  essential  principle  of  modern 
verse.  (See  Versification.)  For  the  primitive 
Indo-European  accent  and  its  eff'ect  in  connection 
with  conjugation,  see  Philology. 

In  Music,  the  term  is  analogous  to  accent  in 
language,  the  stress  or  emphasis  given  to  cer- 
tain notes  or  parts  of  bars  in  a  composition. 
It  may  l>e  of  three  kinds:  grammatical,  rhyth- 
mical, and  rhetorical  or  .Tsthetic.  The  first  al- 
ways falls  on  the  first  part  of  a  bar,  long  or 
compound  measures  of  time  usually  having 
additional  or  subordinate  accents — only  slightly 
marked.  The  rhythmical  accent  is  applied  to 
tlie  larger  component  parts  of  a  composition, 
such  as  phrases,  themes,  motives,  etc.,  and  marks 
their  entrance,  clima.x,  end.  The  rhetorical  ac- 
cent is  irregular,  and  depends  on  taste  and  feel- 
ing, exactly  as  do  the  accent  and  emphasis 
used  in  oratory.  In  vocal  music  well  adapted  to 
words,  the  words  serve  as  a  guide  to  the  right 
use  of  the  rhetorical  accent.  See  Syncopation  ; 
Ragtime. 

ACCEN'TOR  (Lat.,  one  who  sings  with  an- 
other, from  ad,  to  +  cantor,  singer).  A  book 
name  for  a  group  of  European  warblers,  of 
which  the  misnamed  British  hedge-sparrow  (Ac- 
centor modiilaris)  is  a  type:  and  also  for  the 
American  water-thi  ashes,  wood-warblers  of  the 
genus  Seiurus. 

ACCEPT'ANCE,  In  law,  the  signification 
by  tlie  drawee  of  his  assent  to  the  order  of  the 
drawer  of  a  bill  of  exchange  (q.v. ).  The  term 
is  also  employed  to  describe  the  bill  after  such 
acceptance. 

ACCEPT'ANTS,      APPEL'LANTS,        The 

names  given,  respectively,  to  those  among  the 
French  clergy  who  accepted  the  bull  Uniyenitus 
condemning  Jansenism  (1713),  and  to  those  who 
did  not,  but  appealed  to  a  general  council  to 
settle  the  controversy. 

ACCESS,  Right  of.  A  legal  incident  of  the 
ownership  of  property  abutting  on  the  sea  or 
other  navigable  waters  or  on  a  highway  or  other 
public  lands.  In  addition  to  the  general  right 
to  the  use  of  such  waters  and  lands,  which  he 
shares  with  the  public  at  large,  the  adjacent 
owner  has  a  right  of  free  access  which  is  consid- 
ered a  special  property  right,  and  of  which,  in 
this  country,  he  cannot  be  deprived,  even  by  the 
State,  without  due  process  of  law  and  compen- 
sation. The  existence  of  such  a  right  as  against 
the  State  was  long  disputed,  but  is  now,  as  the 
result  of  recent  decisions,  firmly  established. 
Peculiar  applications  of  this  right  are  to  be 
found  in  the  common-law  rights  of  mooring 
vessels  and  of  wharfing  out  in  navigable  waters. 
Its  infringement  has  usually  taken  the  form  of 
a  grant  of  the  shore  or  of  land  under  water 
for  railroad  or  wharfing  purposes,  wl\crcby  the 
access  of  the  riparian  owner  was  cut  oflf.  The 
right  is  not  to  be  confused  with  that  of  the 
abutting  owner  in  a  highway  or  private  stream 
subject  to  a  public  use  where  the  fee  of  the  high- 


ACCESS. 


61 


wav  nr  stroaiii  is  vested  in  siieh  owner.  .Xa  to 
tills,  see  Hldiw.w;  KlVKKS;  Kii'ARlAN  RuillTS ; 
Watek  Kic.iit.s.  Consult  Could,  Treatise  on  the 
Jaiic  i<!  Wutira   (Chicago,  lilOO). 

ACCES'SION  (Lat.  ad,  to  +  cederc.  to  go, 
move).  In  the  law  of  property,  a  mode  of 
acqiiirin;;  title  to  land  or  froods  by  their  annex- 
ation to  the  real  or  personal  property  of  another, 
whereby  the  thing  ainiexcd  loses  its  separate 
identity.  It  ix'curs  where  land  is  gradually 
increased  by  iicr;e(io»  (([.v.)  or  alliiiioii  (<|.v.), 
where  a  tenant  or  stranger  erects  a  building  or 
attaches  a  fixture  (q.v. )  to  land,  and  wliere  a 
chattel  belonging  to  one  is  improved  by  the 
addition  of  materials  or  labor  of  another,  as  in 
the  repair  of  a  wagon  by  adding  a  wheel  or  by 
painting  it.  or  in  the  conversion  of  leather  into 
shoes.  'Hie  legal  elfeet  of  the  annexation  is 
to  transfer  the  title  of  the  thing  annexed  to  the 
owner  of  the  property  so  ini[>r()ved  or  increased, 
the  identity  of  the  former  having  been  merged 
in  the  latter;  the  wheel,  the  paint,  and  the 
labor,  in  the  examples  given  above,  having  dis- 
appeared as  separate  articles  and  being  now 
inseparable  parts  of  the  wagon  and  the  leather. 
The  rule  governing  accessions  is  that  the  own- 
ership of  the  principal  thing  carries  with  it  that 
of  the  inferior  thing.  But,  as  the  question  of 
superiority  or  inferiority  is  not  always  one  of 
price  or  value,  the  rul«  is  sometimes  ditricult  of 
application.  Thus,  additions  and  improvements 
to  land,  however  extensive  and  valuable  they 
may  be,  always  accrue  to  the  owner  of  the  soil, 
and  a  chattel  may  be  doubled  or  trebled  in  value 
by  the  expenditure  of  skill  and  labor  without 
changing  its  ownership.  Hut  where  the  identity 
of  a  chattel  is  completely  changed  by  the  labor 
expended  upon  it,  as  by  the  conversion  of  malt 
into  \,^er,  or  where  it  is  enormously  increased 
in  value,  as  by  the  manufacture  of  pig  iron  into 
watch-springs,  the  product  belongs  to  the  person 
whose  money  and  labor  have  effected  the  trans- 
formation. See  the  article  on  Confusion;  and 
consult  Schoulcr.  Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Personal 
Property  (Boston,  189(5). 

ACCES'SOKY.  At  common  law,  a  person 
who  was  not  the  chief  actor  in  a  crime,  nor 
present  at  its  performance,  but  was  concerned 
in  its  commission,  was  an  accessory.  Treason 
and  misdemeanors  did  not  admit  of  accessories, 
however:  the  former,  Blackstone  says,  because 
of  the  heinousness  of  the  crime,  and  the  latter 
because  the  law  docs  not  descend  to  distinguish 
tlie  different  shades  of  guilt  in  petty  offenses. 
.\n  accessory  before  the  fact  is  one  who  counsels 
or  procures  the  commission  of  a  crime,  but  who 
is  neither  present  nor  engaged  in  furthering  the 
transaction  when  the  crime  is  committed.  .\n 
accessory  after  the  fact  is  one  who,  knowing  a 
felony  has  been  conunitted,  receives,  relieves, 
comforts,  or  assists  the  felon.  Several  reasons 
are  assigned  by  Blackstone  for  the  common  law 
distinction  between  principals  and  accessories, 
but  the  tendency  of  modern  legislation  is  to 
convert  accessories  before  the  fact  into  j)rinci- 
pals,  and  to  permit  the  trial  and  conviction  of 
an  accessory,  whether  the  principal  has  been 
tried  and  convicted  or  not.  Consult  the  author- 
ities referred  to  under  the  title  Ckiminai.  Law; 
also,  Wharton,  Vriniiiial  Lair  (Philadcl))hia, 
IH(Mi)  ;  Stephen,  .'I  T/isfoci/  of  the  Crimiiuil  l.iiio 
of  Piii/laiid  (London,  ISS.'i)  ;  Harris,  J'rinviples 
of  the  Criminal  La-ir,  (London,  1899). 


ACCIDENT  INSURANCE. 

ACCIDENT  (Lat.  ad,  to  +  eadere,  to  fall, 
happen,  occur).  In  the  law  of  torts,  a  trans- 
action in  which  one  is  harmed  by  another  while 
the  latter  is  acting  lawfully  and  in  the  exercise 
of  due  care  adapted  to  the  exigency  of  the  case. 
For  example,  .'\'s  and  li's  dogs  are  fighting:  A 
beats  them  in  order  to  separate  them,  and,  as 
he  raises  his  cane,  unintentionall.v  and  without 
negligence  liits  B,  who  is  standing  behind  him. 
B  has  no  cause  of  action  against  A,  as  the  injury 
was  iiccidental.  This  is  now  the  undisputed  law 
both  in  England  and  in  the  United  States, 
although  formerly  there  was  much  apparent 
authority  in  England  for  .\'s  liability  in  such  a 
case.  See  the  authorities  referred  to  under  the 
title  Toirr. 

In  e<iuity  accident  denotes  an  unforeseen  event, 
loss,  act,  or  omission,  not  the  result  of  negli- 
gence or  misbehavior  in  any  of  the  parties;  such 
as  the  loss  of  negotiable  or  other  papers:  or 
where  some  part  of  a  document  has  been  omitted, 
in  which  case  the  court  can  require  its  insertion. 
In  penalties  and  forfeitures,  where  the  injury 
caused  by  omission  of  duty  can  be  reasonably 
compensated,  as  in  case  of  failure  to  pay  rent 
on  a  given  da}',  the  court  may  relieve  the  offend- 
ing party  against  the  penalty  of  forfeiture. 
Where  tliere  has  been  neglect  or  omission 
through  want  of  information  or  through  negli- 
gence to  defend  a  suit,  the  court  may  permit  the 
proper  ste](s  to  be  taken.  But  as  a  rule,  a  court 
of  equity  will  interfere  only  in  favor  of  persons 
paying  a  consideration;  so  if  a  seal  should  he 
omitted  from  a  conveyance  made  without  con- 
sideration, or  a  clause  should  be  left  out  of  a 
will,  no  relief  would  be  extended.  It  is  also 
ruled  that  no  relief  will  be  granted  against  a 
purchaser  who  has  acquired  legal  rights  in  good 
faith  for  a  consideration  of  value.  Consult;  Bisp- 
ham.  Principles  of  Equity  Jurisprudence.  See 
Tort;  Crime;  Accident  Insurance;  Contract. 

ACCIDENT  (in  logic  and  philosophy).  See 
Chance;   Loi;ic,  and  Preuicable. 

AC'CIDEN'TAL.  In  music,  a  synibol  placed 
before  :i   note  and   intended  to  alter  its  pitch. 

ACCIDENT  INSUB'ANCE.  A  form  of 
insurance  which  indemnifies  the  insured  in  case 
of  disablement  or  death  as  the  result  of  bodily 
accident.  louder  the  usual  contract  of  accident 
insurance  the  only  injuries  insured  against  are 
those  caused  by  violent,  accidental,  external,  and 
visible  means.  It  does  not  therefore  cover  cases 
of  intentional  injuries,  whether  self-inflicted  or 
not,  nor  cases  of  injury  or  death  resulting  from 
surgical  operations,  where  the  operations  were 
themselves  rendered  necessary  by  natural  dis- 
ease or  weakness  and  not  by  external  accident. 
The  fact  that  the  accident  was  incurred  tlu'ougli 
the  misconduct  or  negligence  of  the  insured  will 
not,  in  general,  alTect  his  rights  under  the  policy, 
though  some  companies  seek  to  protect  them- 
selves by  stipulations  that  they  shall  not  be 
liable  in  cases  where  the  accident  was  due  to 
the  intoxication  of  the  insured,  or  was  incurred 
while  wilfully  exposing  himself  to  unnecessary 
danger.  The  general  principles  governing  acci- 
dent insurance  are  the  same  as  those  of  fire, 
marine,  and  life  insurance  (q.v.).  Employers' 
l^iabilitv  (q.v.),  under  nwnt  English  .st;ilutes, 
is  a  form  of  accident  insurance.  Consult:  May, 
Law  of  Insurance  (Bosliui,  1000)  ;  Porter,  Law 
of  Insurtmce   (London,  1898). 


ACCIPITBES. 


63 


AUCIP'ITBES  (Lat.  plural  of  accipiter,  the 
common  hawk),  or  Rapaces,  or  Raptores. 
See  Bird  of  Prey. 

ACCITTS.     See  Attius. 

AC'CLAMA'TION  (Lat.  acclamatio,  a  call- 
ing to,  from  ad,  to  +  clamare,  to  shout,  call). 
An  expression  of  opinion  of  any  assembly  by 
means  of  the  voice.  Among  the  Romans,  accla- 
mation was  varied  in  both  form  and  purpose. 
At  marriages  the  spectators  would  shout  "lo 
Hymen,"  "Hymenaee,"  or  "Talassio."  A  victorious 
army  or  leader  was  greeted  with  "lo  triumphe." 
In  the  theatre,  approbation  for  the  play  was 
asked  by  the  actor  speaking  the  closing  words, 
who  added  "Plaudite."  In  the  senate,  opinions 
were  e.Kpressed  and  votes  passed  in  such  forms 
as  "Omnes.  omnes,"  "Jjiquum  est,"  "lustum  est," 
etc.;  and  the  praises  of  the  Emperor  were  cele- 
brated in  certain  prearranged  sentences  which 
seem  to  have  been  chanted  by  the  whole  body  of 
senators.  At  first  the  acclamation  which  greeted 
the  works  of  poets  and  authors  recited  in  public 
was  genuine:  but  the  modern  rlnf/ne  was  early 
introduced  by  rich  pretenders  to  literary  al)ility 
who  kept  paid  applauders  not  only  for  them- 
selves, but  lent  them  to  their  friends.  Nero  gave 
a  specimen  when  he  caused  .5000  chosen  knights 
and  connnoners  at  a  given  signal  to  chant  his 
praises  in  the  theatre;  they  were  called  "Augus- 
tiani,"  and  were  conducted  by  a  regular  music- 
master.  In  the  early  times  of  the  Christian 
Church  it  was  not  unconuuon  for  a  eongreg,ation 
to  express  their  approbation  of  a  favorite 
preacher  duiing  the  course  of  his  sermon,  and  in 
this  manner  Chrysostom  was  frequently  inter- 
rupted. In  ecclesiastical  councils  voting  by  ac- 
clamation is  very  common,  the  division  being 
usually  put  in  the  form  "placet"  or  "non-placet." 

ACCLI'MATIZA'TION.  The  adaptation  of 
a  species  or  race  to  a  climate  different  from 
that  to  which  it  has  previously  been  accustomed. 
Acclimatization  is  often  confused  with  naturali- 
zation (q.v. ),  but  naturalization  is  rather  the 
establishment  of  a  species  in  a  new  country,  and 
does  not  necessarily  imply  a  slow  adjustment  to 
conditions  that  are  at  first  injurious,  as  is  the 
case  in  acclim.atization.  Naturalization  may  take 
place  without  any  real  acclimatization,  as  when 
the  new  country  is  climatically  like  the  old.  This 
case  is  illustrated  by  the  large  number  of  plants 
which  have  spread  eastward  or  westward  along 
parallels  of  latitude.  Again,  acclimatization 
may  occur  without  naturalization.  This  is  well 
illustrated  by  the  large  number  of  plants  that 
are  hardy,  and  yet  rarel}',  if  ever,  run  wild; 
prodnbly  the  struggle  for  existence  is  so  keen 
that  such  plants  fail  to  establish  themselves 
spontaneously.  Still  again,  naturalization  may 
accompany  acclimatization,  as  in  the  case  of 
plants  that  migrate  along  meridians. 

The  term  acclimatization  is  employed  by  the 
zoiilogists  in  a  somewhat  broader  sense,  espe- 
cially when  referring  to  the  adaptation  of  ma- 
rine organisms  to  7iew  conditions  of  existence. 
In  the  latter  case  climatic  changes  are  relatively 
tininiportant  factors.  The  changes  in  the  char- 
acter of  the  water,  as  respects  temperature,  con- 
tained food  supply,  marine  currents,  and  pres- 
sure as  determined  by  depth,  are  the  influential 
factors. 

1,\  l'L.\.NTS.  T'he  most  obvious  examples  of  ac- 
climatization are  found  in  cultivated  plants. 
Wliile  the  original  stock  as  well  as  the  home  of 


ACCLIMATIZATION. 

most  cereals  is  not  definitely  known,  it  is  be- 
lieved that  most  of  them  have  come  from  warm, 
temperate  or  semi-tropical  countries.  They  have 
now  become  fully  acclimatized  in  far  northern 
regions ;  indeed,  some  varieties  of  wheat,  barley, 
etc.,  flourish  even  better  in  cold,  temperate  dis- 
tricts than  in  their  original  home.  Tlie  peach  is 
believed  to  grow  farther  north  now  than  in  the 
days  of  the  ancient  Greeks.  Evidences  of  ac- 
clim.atization apart  from  man's  influence  are  not 
wanting;  for  example,  it  has  been  sho\vn  that 
plants  grown  from  seeds  that  mature  at  high 
altitudes  are  hardier  than  those  grown  from 
seeds  that  mature  at  low  altitudes. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  results  of  acclima- 
tization is  the  change  of  tlie  plant  periods.  In 
Finland  and  northern  Norway  barley  ripens  in 
89  days,  while  100  days  are  required  in  sQuth- 
ern  Sweden.  Varieties  of  corn  which  ripen  in 
New  York  in  93  days  require  10.5  days  in  Texas. 
Interesting  but  not  altogether  harmonious  re- 
sults have  been  obtained  from  deciduous  plants 
taken  from  temperate  into  tropical  evergreen  re- 
gions. In  most  plants  the  leafless  period  is  short- 
ened, and  in  some  cases  ( notoriously  in  the  peach 
tree)  it  is  eliminated  altogether,  the  plant  be- 
coming an  evergreen.  Schimper  has  observed  an- 
other change,  viz.,  the  gradual  loss  of  rhythmic 
giowth :  trees  of  temperate  climes  becoming  in 
this  respect  more  and  jnore  similar  to  native 
tropical  trees. 

In  some  cases  the  capacity  for  acclimatization 
is  incomplete,  i.e.,  plants  are  unable  to  adjust 
all  of  tlieir  structures  and  functions  to  a  new 
climate.  This  lack  of  adjustment  is  seen  in 
some  plants  of  warm  regions  which,  when  trans- 
ported to  cool  regions,  vegetate  well  Init  fail 
to  ripen  wood.  l\Iany  plants  that  can  perform 
all  their  vegetative  functions  may  still  be  un- 
able to  mature  seeds;  this  is  true  not  only  of 
plants  taken  into  cooler  climates,  but  also  in 
some  cases  of  plants  transported  into  warmer 
climates.  Some  species  occurring  naturally  in 
Spitzbergen  are  said  never  to  ripen  seed ;  since 
their  reproduction  is  now  wholly  vegetative, 
their  original  appearance  in  that  region  must 
necessarily  have  been  at  a  period  when  the  cli- 
mate was  much  warmer  than  at  present. 

Darwin  and  others  have  discussed  the  influence 
of  individual  variation  as  compared  with  varia- 
tion through  offspring  on  the  acclimatization  of 
.a  species.  There  can  lie  but  little  doulit  of  the 
gradual  adaptation  of  a  race  through  tlie  nat- 
ural selection  of  the  hardiest  individuals  of  each 
generation.  Darwin  also  believed  in  the  power 
of  an  individual  to  become  acclimatized.  The 
Wyoming  experiment  station  reports  that  po- 
tatoes from  the  same  stock  endure  in  the  up- 
lands frosts  that  would  destroy  them  in  the 
lowlands.  This  favors  the  idea  of  individual  accli- 
matization. Oranges,  liowcver,  propagate  hard- 
ier forms  by  seeds  than  by  grafts,  which 
shows  that  gradual  acclimatization  through  off- 
spring may  be  more  important.  Northern-grown 
seeds  are  preferred  by  farmers,  partly  because 
plants  grown  from  them  mature  sooner  than 
from  home-grown  seeds.  In  a  few  generations, 
however,  this  hereditary  peculiarit.y  is  lost,  and 
a  new  supply  becomes  necessary.  It  shovild  be 
borne  in  mind  that  many  of  the  above  statements 
are  based  on  imperfect  observations,  and  that 
there  is  the  greatest  need  for  careful  experiment 
ill  this  field. 

In  Animals.  The  capacity  of  adapting  them- 


ACCLIMATIZATION.  ^3 

selves  to  elianged  environment  is  not  possessed 
to  tlie  same  degree  l>y  dilFerent  species  of  one 
genus  or  by  the  individuals  of  any  species.  It 
varies  with  tile  hardiliood,  with  tlie  capacity  for 
ri'sistame,  Imth  of  tin-  individual  and  of  the  spe- 
cies. Just  what  the  changes  are,  whether  chem- 
ical or  physical,  that  go  on  in  the  protoplasm 
of  the  body  during  the  period  of  acclimatization, 
we  do  not.  in  many  cases,  know.  In  the  acclima- 
tization of  fishes  to  denser  media  it  is  apparent 
that  some  solids  are  taken  into  the  body,  for  the 
fishes  sink  when  transferred  again  to  fresh  wa- 
ter. Some  organisms  possess  a  remarkably  high 
degree  of  acclimatization.  Thus,  few  animals 
can  resist  a  temperature  of  over  115°  F..  while 
105°  F.  is  the  death-point  of  whole  groups. 
Yet  certain  organisms  live  in  hot  springs  in 
water  of  much  higher  temperature,  although 
they  may  be  similar  in  kind  to,  or  even  identical 
with,  those  that  live  in  cooler  waters  outside, 
and  probably  were  acclimated  to  the  high  tem- 
perature by  slow  degrees  as  they  made  their 
way  up  the  outlets  into  the  springs.  We  know 
from  experimentation  that  organisms  can  resist 
an  amount  of  heat,  of  .lensity  or  of  poison 
when  acoistomed  to  it  by  slow  degrees,  that 
would  have  been  fatal  ha<i  tliey  been  subjected 
to  it  suddenly.  We  owe  the  fact  that  certain 
doniestii-  animals,  such  as  the  horse,  cattle, 
clog,  cat,  fowls,  rats,  and  mice,  have  spread 
with  mankind  over  nearly  all  the  world  to 
the  great  capacity  for  acclitnatlzatiou  of  these 
forms,  most  of  which  have  originated  in  warm 
climates.  Likewise  the  ubiquity  of  such  food- 
plants  as  the  potato  and  cereals,  as  well  as  cer- 
tain weeds,  is  due  to  their  great  capacity  of  adap- 
tation; for  those  plants  and  animals  that  have  a 
limited  amount  of  adaptation  have  likewise  a 
limited  range  of  distribution.  The  quality  and  the 
strength  of  some  animals  seem  actually  to  itn- 
prove  in  a  new  clifiiate.  Thus  the  merino  sheep 
imported  into  Silesia  and  Pomerania  from  Spain 
seem  to  be  superior  iti  those  lands  to  their  Span- 
ish ancestors,  while  the  fleece  of  the  Syrian  sheep 
becomes  finer  in  Spain ;  but  in  such  cases  it  is 
dilTicult  to  say  just  how  much  is  due  to  climate 
and  how  much  to  the  breeder's  skill  and  care. 
Many  of  our  domestic  animals  have  been  so  long 
in  the  countries  in  which  we  now  find  them  that 
we  can  never  hope  to  know  anytliing  about  the 
history  of  their  importations;  but  the  silkworm 
is  comparatively  so  Intc  an  imixirtation  into 
Kurope  tliat  we  can  follow  its  i)rogress.  It  was 
brought  froui  China  first  into  Italy,  and  now  it 
is  acclimated  not  only  to  southern  France  but 
even  to  the  coast  of  the  Baltic  Sea.  and  it  is 
able  to  live  in  some  parts  of  the  United  States. 
Of  late  years  numerous  acclimatization  socie- 
ties have  been  formed  (the  best  known  of  whicli 
is  the  Soci^'t<'  d'.Acclim:itation  of  Paris),  having 
as  their  object  the  transference  of  seemingly  de- 
sirable animals  from  their  native  lands  to  other 
parts  of  the  world  where  they  may  thrive  to 
human  advantage.  This  has  been  found  feasible 
in  many  instances,  so  far  as  the  ability  to  be- 
eoine  acclimated  is  concerned,  but  in  many 
cases  the  expected  benefits  have  turned  to  evils 
through  overnuiltiplication  or  other  means  of 
becoming  a  local  pest,  and  such  experiments  are 
now  rarely  attempted.  The  introduction  of  sal- 
monoid  fishes  from  the  Pacific  to  the  Atlantic 
side  of  the  I'nited  States,  and  from  Euro|)e  to 
New  Zealand,  of  bumble-bees  into  Xew  Zealand, 
and   of   several    insects,    such    as    ladybirds,    as 


ACCLIMATIZATION. 


enemies  of  agricultural  pests,  are  instances  of  the 
more  benefuial  sort.  The  European  house-spar- 
row in  North  America,  the  muugoos  and  agua- 
toad  in  the  West  Indies,  the  rabbit  in  Australia, 
and  a  great  host  of  more  or  less  .iccidentally 
introduced  insects  destructive  of  plants,  etc.,  are 
cases  of  an  opposite  character.  For  particulars 
in  respect  to  these,  see  accounts  of  the  respective 
animals. 

In  People.  This  treats  of  the  ability  of  men  to 
maintain  themselves  in  a  country  with  radically 
different  climatic  conditions  from  those  from 
which  they  migrate.  At  present  the  inevitable 
teudeniy  of  European  and  .American  jieoples  to 
spread  over  the  major  i)art  of  the  earth  gives  the 
question  many  practical  bearings.  Can  a  race 
and  a  civilization  from  the  temperate  zone  be 
transplanted  to  the  tropics?  The  question  is  a 
double  one:  (1)  Can  individuals  from  the  tem- 
perate zone  live  in  the  tropics  for  a  few  years 
and  maintain  their  health  and  vigor;  (2)  can 
they  work  at  their  usual  occupations,  maintain 
their  customary  vigor,  energy,  and  ability,  rear 
families  and  prop;igate  their  kind  for  several 
generations?  On  the  first  point  most  authorities 
agree  in  the  allirmative,  provided  reasonable 
provision  for  sanitation  is  made,  and  temperance 
and  thrift  prevail  among  such  emigiants.  On 
the  second  point  authorities  differ,  with  the  bal- 
ance in  the  negative.  Races  differ  in  their  abil- 
ity to  adjust  themselves  to  new  climatic  condi- 
tions. The  individual  or  the  race  may  not  suc- 
cumb at  once  when  transferred  to  a  very  differ- 
ent climati",  and  yet  the  acclimatization  may  be 
only  partial.  Certain  organs  only  of  the  body 
may  be  affected  by  the  changes,  so  that  "diseases 
of  acclimatization"  may  be  induced.  Tlius  Euro- 
peans are  liable  in  tropical  countries  to  suffer 
from  diseases  of  the  liver,  while  natives  of  the 
tropics  are  subjected  to  pulmonary  troubles  in 
temperate  zones.  The  African  in  the  United 
States  has  a  high  death  rate  from  lung  affections. 
On  the  other  hand,  loss  of  hardihood  induced  by 
climate  may  express  itself  mainly  in  deteriora- 
tion in  size,  as  is  the  case  with  the  Shetland 
pony.  So  far  as  the  human  races  are  concerned 
there  seems  to  be  a  direct  ratio  between  intelli- 
gence and  capacity  for  acclimatization.  The  An- 
glo-German race  is  able  to  endure  climatic 
changes  with  less  loss  of  vigor  than  any  other 
European  race,  and  for  this  reason  has  been 
able  to  surpass  all  the  others  as  colonizers. 
High  moral  qualities  are  needed.  .  Homesick- 
ness is  a  frequent  cause  of  failure.  Temperance 
and  thrift  are  excellent  qualities  for  success,  as 
evidenced  in  the  history  of  Jewish  and  Chinese 
emigration.  Mankind  is  tolerant  of  great  ex- 
tremes of  climate.  — 07°  F.  to  154°  F.  being 
the  greatest  extremes  recorded  as  having  been  en- 
ditred  by  human  beings,  though  no  such  range 
of  variation  has  ever  been  endured  by  one  peo- 
ple or  in  any  one  place.  Xot  only  temperature 
but  also  meteorological  conditions  have  an  ef- 
fect, and  moisture  is.  next  to  temperature,  the 
most   important  element. 

Bini.ioGRAPTiv.  The  best  general  treatment  of 
acclimatization  may  be  found  in  .1.  Hann,  Iland- 
buch  dcr  Klimnfnlogic  (Stuttgart.  1807)  ;  Dar- 
win, Thi!  Variationn  of  Animals  and  Plants  Un- 
der Domcfiticiitioii,  revised  edition  (London, 
■iS75)  ;  Pavillard.  I'li'iiiriits  dc  bioloijie  vrgi'tale 
(Paris,  1001):  .'^chimper,  P/laitzctiricogrtii>hie 
(iuf  physiologischrr  (Inindlayc  (.Jena,  1808)  ; 
HoUick,  "Relation  Between  Forestry  and  Geology 


ACCLIMATIZATION. 


64 


ACCOMPANIMENT. 


in  New  Jersey.''  Geoloqical  Survei/  of  Nen-  Jersey, 
Annual  Report  (Trenton,  1899)  ;  Wallace,  Island 
Life  (London.  1S80)  ;  Heilprin,  The  GeoyrapUwal 
and  Geological  Distribution  of  Animals  (New 
York.  1887);  Wallace,  The  Geographical  Distri- 
bution of  Animals,  2  volumes  (London,  189G). 
A  popular  treatment  of  acclimatization  of  peoples 
is  given  in  Ripley,  Racial  Geography  of  Europe 
(Boston.  1899),  "in  which  book  there  are  also 
excellent  bibliographical  references:  also  A.  Ire- 
land, Tropical  Colonization  (New  York,  1899)  ; 
Peschel,  The  Races  of  Man  and  Their  Geograph- 
ical Distribution  (London,  1878). 
AC'CO,  or  AC'CHO.  See  Acre. 
ACCOLADE,  ak'kolad'  ( Fr.  an  embrace,  kiss, 
from  Lat.  ad.  to  +  collum,  neck) .  A  part  of  the 
ceremonies  of  conferring  knighthood  in  the  Middle 
Ages.  The  sovereign  or  other  superior  embraced 
tlie  aspirant  around  the  neck  (ad  collum).  The 
term  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  later  ceremony 
of  giving  a  slight  blow  on  the  shoulder  with  the 
flat  of  the  sword.  In  music,  the  accolade  is  the 
couplet  uniting  several  staves,  as  in  part  music 
or  pianoforte  music. 

AC'COLON.  In  Sir  Thomas  Malory's  Morte 
d' Arthur,  a  knight  of  Gaul,  who  obtained  posses- 
sion of  King  Artliur's  sword  Excalibur  through 
the  treachery  of  Morgan  le  Fay.  He  died  after 
his  fight  with  the  king  (Book  IV.).  which  had 
led  to" the  discovery  of  the  trick  and  the  recovery 
of  the  sword. 

ACCOLTI,  ak-k61'te,  Benedetto  (1415-66); 
called  the  Elder.  An  Italian  jurist.  He  was 
born  at  Arezzo.  Italy,  and  died  at  Florence.  At 
first  a  professor  of  law  at  Florence,  he  afterw.ird 
became  chancellor  of  the  Republic,  and  occupied 
this  position  until  his  death.  He  was  gifted 
with  a  marvelous  memory,  and  is  said  on  one 
occasion  to  have  repeated  word  for  word  a  Latin 
discourse  which  the  Hungarian  ambassador  had 
addressed  to  the  magistracy  of  Florence.  His 
historical  attainments  were  considered  inferior 
to  his  knowledge  of  law.  Aceolti's  principal 
publications  are:  De  Bello  a  Christianis  Contra 
Barbaras  Gesto  pro  Christi  i<epulchro  et  Judjea 
Recuperandis  Libri  Quatnor  (Venice,  1572; 
Florence,  1623,  w.th  a  commentary  by  Scoto), 
which  furnished  the  material  for  Tasso's  Jeru- 
salem Delivered;  and  Pncstantia  Virorum  8ui 
.-Ei'i  (first  published  at  Parma  in  1689  and  fre- 
quently reprinted).  Consult  Potthast.  Biblio- 
iheca  'Historica  Medii  .i:ri,  Volume  I.  (Berlin, 
1896). 

ACCOLTI,  Bernardo  (14651536).  An  Ital- 
ian poet,  a  son  of  Benedetto  Accolti  (q.v.).  He. 
was  born  at  Arezzo.  and  is  said  to  have  enjoyed 
so  much  popularity  as  a  poet  that  the  shops 
were  closed  and  uiultitudes  Hocked  to  hear  liim 
recite  his  verses.  But  although  styled  by  his 
contemporaries  "The  Unique,"  such  portions  of 
his  works  as  have  come  down  to  us  scarcely 
justify  so  high  an  estimate  of  his  ability.  His 
poems  were  first  published  at  Florence  in  1513 
under  the  title:  Virginia,  commedia,  eapitoli, 
e  strambotti  di  Messer  Bernardo  Accolti  Aretino. 
They  were  republished  at  Venice  in  1519  and 
havi-  since  been  frequently  reprinted. 

ACCOM'MODA'TION  (Lat.  ad,  to  +  corn- 
modus,  lit,  suitable).  The  power  of  altering  the 
focus  of  the  eye  so  that  r:iys  coming  from  an 
object  nearer  than  twenty  feet  are  brought  to- 
gether on  the  retina.     This  is  brought  about  by 


changes  in  the  convexity  of  the  crystalline  lens 
(q.v.).  The  latter  possesses  a  degree  of  elastic- 
ity which  tends  to  make  it  assume  a  spherical 
form.  The  lens  being  suspended  by  a  ligament 
extending  around  its  periphery,  the  ciliary  mus- 
cle is  so  attached  that  when  it  contracts  it 
causes  a  relaxation  of  the  suspensory  ligament. 
This  diminishes  the  tension  upon  the  latter  and 
allows  the  lens  to  become  more  spherical,  chiefly 
on  its  anterior  surface.  At  the  same  time  the 
pupil  contracts,  and  the  visual  lines  of  the  two 
eyes  converge.  The  range  of  accommodation,  is 
the  distance  between  the  "far  point"  or  the  far- 
thest point  of  distinct  vision  and  the  "near 
point,"  or  nearest  point  at  which  the  eye  can 
distinctly  see  objects.  As  a  person's  age  in- 
creases, the  power  of  accommodation  gradually 
diminishes  and  the  near  point  recedes.  At  ten 
years  it  is  2.8  inches;  at  thirty  it  has  reached 
5.6  inches,  and  after  forty-five  it  increases 
rapidly,  until  at  seventy  it  is  160  inches,  and  at 
seventy-five,  infinity.     See  Vision. 

ACCOMMODATION  (In  Theology).  Either 
the  practice  of  forcing  Scripture  texts  to  bear 
other  than  their  plain  meaning,  or  the  theory 
that  Jesus  Christ  in  his  teaching  fell  in  with 
certain  errors  of  his  time,  e.g.,  belief  in  de- 
moniacs, and  thus  accommodated  himself  to  the 
mental  and  moral  conditions  of  the  Jews. 

ACCOMMODATION  BILL  OB  NOTE.  A 
draft,  bill  of  exchange  or  promissory  note,  one 
or  more  of  the  parties  to  which  has  signed  it 
without  receiving  value  therefor,  and  for  the 
purpose  of  lending  his  credit  to  some  other  part.\ 
thereto.  Such  a  bill  is  a  valid,  negotiable  in- 
strument, and  the  accommodation  party,  whether 
known  to  be  such  or  not,  is  liable  thereon  to  a 
holder  for  value.  But.  as  between  himself  and 
the  party  accommodated,  he  is  only  a  surety,  and 
is,  as  such,  exonerated  by  the  giving  of  time  to 
the  principal  debtor  without  his  assent.  See 
Princip.«.  and  Surett;  Bill  of  Exchange: 
Negotiable  In.struments,  and  the  authorities 
therein  referred  to. 

ACCOMPANIMENT.  The  additional  in- 
strumental part  which,  in  music  written  for  a 
solo  voice  or  instrument,  gives  harmonic  and 
rhytlimic  support  to  the  solo  part  or  melody: 
as"  the  pianoforte  part  in  a  song,  the  orchestral 
part  in  a  concert,  etc.  An  ad  libitum  accom- 
paniment is  one  that  is  not  a  part  of  the  struc- 
ture of  the  composition,  and  may  therefore  be 
performed  or  omitted  at  pleasure.  An  obligajo 
accompaniment,  on  the  contrary,  forms  an  in- 
tegral part  of  the  music  and  is  indispensable. 
The  accompanist  of  the  present  day  has  an  easy 
task  compared  with  that  of  his  predecessors  in 
the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  and 
even  later.  In  the  scores  of  the  old  masters, 
especially  those  of  Handel  and  Bach,  the  accom- 
paniments were  not  written  out  in  full.  A 
single  bass  part  was  given,  and  the  aecompaiiy- 
ing'harmonics  were  indicated  by  figures  over  the 
notes.  This  species  of  musical  shorthand  be- 
came known  as  figiu'cd  or  thorough  bass,  and 
also  basso  continuo.  The  accompanist  at  the 
organ  or  harpsichord  translated  these  figures  at 
sight  into  their  equivalent  harmonies,  and  with 
tliem.  improvised,  with  runs,  trills,  and  various 
ornaments,  the  sort  of  accompaniment  that  tlie 
music  needed.  The  musicians  of  the  time  be- 
came very  expert  at  this  difficult  accomplish- 
ment, both  Handel  and  Bach  being  renowned  for 


ACCOMPANIMENT.  65 

their  wonderful  iiolyphonic  aocompaniments. 
Many  of  these  old  seoies  have  hecn  woiked  out 
by  skilled  musicians,  who  have  lilled  out  the 
missing  parts  and  arranged  the  accompaniment 
for  the  modern  orchestra.  Among  tlie  scores  to 
which  '"additional  accomiiaiiimcnls"  have  been 
written  arc  those  of  llaiidcl's  Messiah,  by 
Mozart;  Isriul  in  E<jij]il,  by  Mendelssohn;  and 
the  great  edition  of  liach's  works,  by  Franz. 
Consult  Apthorp,  Musicians  and  Music  Lovers 
I  New   VorU,   ISIill. 

ACCOM'PLICE  (through  confvision  with 
ttccomiilish,  for  earlier  complice,  companion,  es- 
jiecially  in  crime,  from  T.at.  complex,  closely  con- 
nected, ccmfcderate).  One  whose  participation 
in  a  crime  renders  him  liable  to  punishment, 
either  as  a  principal  or  as  an  accessory.  Hence, 
a  person  who  acts  only  the  part  of  a  detective 
is  not  an  accomplice,  although  he  may  pretend 
to  be  the  criminal's  confederate,  for  his  act,  not 
being  done  with  criminal  intent,  is  not  punish- 
able. The  term  is  most  frequently  used  in  cases 
where  one  of  several  criminals  has  turned  state's 
evidence.  As  his  testimony  against  his  fellows 
is  apt  to  be  given  in  the  hope  of  securing  im- 
munity for  himself,  the  court  usually  charges 
the  jury  that  it  is  open  to  suspicion,  and  many 
modern  statutes  declare  that  a  conviction  can- 
not be  had  iii)on  the  testimony  of  an  accomplice, 
unless  he  be  corroborated  by  such  other  evidence 
as  tends  to  connect  the  defendant  with  the  com- 
mission of  the  crime.  Consult  the  authorities 
mentioned  under  the  title  Criminal  Law;  also 
Wharton,  Criminal  Law   (Philadelphia,  1S06). 

ACCORAMBONI,  Ak'ko-rftmbf/ne,  Vittobia 
(M.-iS."!).  All  Italian  woman  remarkable  for 
her  beauty  and  her  tragic  history.  She  was 
sought  in  marriage  by  Paolo  Giordano  Orsini. 
Duke  of  Bracciano,  who  was  supposed  to  have 
murdered  his  wife,  Isabella  de'  Medici,  but  her 
father  gave  her  to  Francesco  Peretti,  nephew  of 
Cardinal  Montalto,  afterward  Pope  Sixtus  V. 
The  husband  was  assassinated  in  1581,  and  the 
\vidow  lied  from  her  father-in-law's  house  to  that 
of  the  Duke  of  Bracciano,  the  supposed  mur- 
derer. Pope  Gregory  XIII.  opposed  her  mar- 
riage to  the  duke  so  far  as  to  keep  her  a  prisoner 
in  the  castle  of  Sant'  Angelo  nearly  a  year,  but 
that  did  not  prevent  their  union.  Not  long 
afterward  the  duke  died,  leaving  nearly  the  whole 
<jf  his  fortune  to  the  widow.  This  .so  incensed 
Ludovico  Orsini,  a  relative,  that  he  caused  the 
widow  to  be  nnirdered  in  her  home  in  Padua, 
December  22,  1585.  Her  history  has  been  made 
the  subject  of  novels  and  plays,  among  others, 
of  Webster's  tragedy,  The  White  Devil.  Consult: 
Gnoli,  1  ittoria  Aecoramhoni   I  Florence,  1870). 

ACCORD'  AND  SATISFACTION.  In  the 
law  of  contracts,  a  mutual  agreement  entered 
into  by  the  parties  to  a  contract  by  which  one 
party  agrees  to  discharge  the  other  from  his 
obligation  under  the  contract,  in  return  for  the 
other  party's  promise  to  do  or  give  something. 
The  satisfaction  is  the  performance  of  the  prom- 
ise to  do  or  give  something.  The  agreement 
for  the  discharge  of  the  contract  may  be  unilat- 
eral, that  is,  the  promise  is  given  on  the  one 
side  in  return  for  an  act  on  the  part  of  the 
promisee,  in  which  case  the  accord  and  satisfac- 
tion come  into  e.xistenc*  simultaneously.  At 
common  law  it  was  early  held  that  an  accord 
with  satisfaction  was  a  good  defense  to  an  action 
founded  upon  simple  contract,  but  that  a  mutual 


ACCOUNT. 

agreement  to  discharge  a  pre-existing  contract, 
being  mere  promise  given  for  promise,  was  an 
accord  only  and  not  a  valid  defense  at  law. 
This  was  either  because  nnitual  pronxises,  not 
being  gocKl  consideration  for  each  other,  were 
not  regarded  as  binding,  or  because  the  law 
woubl  not  enforce  an  agreement  which  merely 
substituted  one  cause  of  action  for  another, 
or  for  both  reasons.  The  first,  owing  to  the 
changed  conception  of  consideration,  has  ceased 
to  exist,  and  the  second  is  now  generally  disre- 
garded, most  jurisdiitions  holding  that  a  mere 
accord  without  satisfaction  is  a  valid  discharge 
of  a  simple  contract,  though  the  decided  cases 
are  not  altogether  harmonious  on  this  point. 
Agreements  never  to  sue  on  the  earlier  contract 
were  regarded  as  a  good  accord  or  accord  and 
satisfaction  and  a  valid  defense,  but  agreements 
not  to  sue  for  a  limited  time  were  not  admitted 
as  a  defense  at  common  law ;  but  equity  might 
enforce  them  by  enjoining  action  on  the  earlier 
contract.  In  the  case  of  contracts  under  seal, 
before  breach,  accord  and  accord  and  satisfaction 
were  not  admitted  as  valid  defenses  at  common 
law,  but  after  breach  of  the  obligation  under 
seal,  it  was  regarded  as  a  mere  right  of  action 
for  damages,  of  no  higher  nature  than  a  simple 
contract  and  subject  to  the  same  defenses.  Equity 
under  proper  conditions  would  enforce  the  accord 
even  when  entered  into  before  breach  of  the  con- 
tract under  seal  by  enjoining  all  action  upon  the 
latter;  and  in  most  jurisdictions  where  equitable 
defenses  may  be  pleaded  at  law,  accord  or  accord 
and  satisfaction  may  now  be  set  up  as  a  defense 
to  an  action  on  the  instrument  under  seal.  An 
accord  must  always  be  an  agreement  founded 
on  good  consideration.  Thus,  a  mere  agreement 
founded  upon  a  promise  to  do  or  give  something 
which  the  promisee  was  already  bound  to  do 
(for  example,  an  agreement  to  pay  a  lesser  sum 
in  lieu  of  a  debt  for  a  greater)  is  not  valid  as 
an  accord.  An  apparent  exception  to  this  rule 
exists  in  cases  where  the  precise  amount 
or  character  of  the  obligation  under  the  earlier 
contract  was  uncertain,  in  which  case  an  accord 
by  way  of  a  compromise  agreement  is  regarded 
as  made  upon  valid  consideration.  A  real  excep- 
tion to  the  rule  was  allowed  in  case  of  compro- 
mise agreements  in  which  a  debtor  agreed  to 
pay  a  .smaller  sum  in  lieu  of  a  greater  to  his 
creditors  in  return  for  their  promise  to  release 
him  from  his  debts  tt>  them.  In  a  number  of 
the  Stales,  notably  New  York,  a  written  receipt 
given  by  the  creditor  to  a  debtor  without  consid- 
eration and  with  intent  to  release  the  debts  is 
allowed  to  be  a  valid  discharge  of  the  debts. 
This  is  anomalous.  See  the  authorities  referred 
to  under  Contuact. 

ACCOB'DION  (Fr.  accorder,  to  accord,  be  in 
harmony).  A  musical  instrument  which  pro- 
duces its  tones  by  the  vibration  of  metallic 
tongues  of  various  sizes,  while  wind  is  supplied 
by  the  action  of  a  hand  bellows.  Two  sets  of 
tongues  make  it  possible  to  produce  the  same 
tones  either  by  pressing  or  pulling  the  bellows. 
It  was  invented  by  Damian  of  Vienna  in  182!). 
See  CoNCEKTiNA  and  Hak.monii'M. 

ACCOUNT'  (Lat.  ad,  to  -f  computare,  to 
sum  up,  reckon,  compute).  In  its  broadest 
sense,  a  catalogue  of  items,  whether  of  debts  or 
credits,  arising  out  of  contracts,  as  in  the  case 
of  merchants;  or  a  fiduciary  relation,  as  in  the 
case  of  principal  and  agent;  or  a  duty  imposed  by 


ACCOUNT. 


66 


law,  as  in  the  case  of  an  administrator  or  public 
officer.  A  mutual  account  is  one  containing 
reciprocal  demands  or  charges  against  the 
parties;  as  the  account  between  two  merchants, 
or  between  a  niercliant  and  a  customer,  each  of 
whom  has  sold  goods  to  the  other.  Before  an 
account  is  rendered  or  adjusted,  it  is  spoken  of 
as  "open"  or  "cuiTent."  A  stated  account  is 
one  which  has  been  accepted  as  correct  by  the 
party  against  whom  it  states  a  balance.  The 
debtor's'assent  to  the  correctness  of  the  account 
as  stated  need  not  be  express ;  it  may  be  implied 
from  his  retention  of  an  account  rendered  with- 
out an  objection  to  it  within  a  reasonable  time. 
The  acceptance  of  an  account  stated,  or.  to  use 
the  ordinary  legal  phrase,  the  stating  of  an 
account,  is  said  to  be  in  the  nature  of  a  new 
promise:  and  the  creditor  suing  upon  such  an 
■  account  need  not  set  forth  the  subject  matter 
of  the  original  debt.  Originally  an  account 
stated  was  confined  to  transactions  between 
merchants:  but  in  England  and  in  most  of  our 
jurisdictions  its  scope  has  been  extended  to 
accounts  between  all  creditors  and  debtors.  In 
some  States,  however,  stating  an  account  between 
others  than  merchants  does  not  create  a  new 
cause  of  action,  but  is  avail.ible  to  the  creditor 
only  as  an  admission  by  the  debtor.  Even  after 
an  account  has  been  stated  it  may  be  corrected 
for  fraud  or  mutual  mistake. 

The  action  of  account  at  common  law  has 
fallen  into  disuse,  partly  because  it  was  difficult, 
dilatory  and  expensive,  but  chiefly  because  a 
court  of  equity  possessed  more  extended  author- 
ity and  better  machinery  in  cases  involving  an 
account.  Equity  will  entertain  an  action  for 
an  accounting  where  a  fiduciary  relation  exists 
between  the  parties,  such  as  that  of  principal 
and  agent  (q.v.),  trustee,  and  cestiii  que  trust, 
guardfan  (q.v.)  and  ward;  or  where  there  is 
a  mutual  account  between  plaintiff  and  defend- 
ant; or  where  there  are  circumstances  of  compli- 
cation, as  in  partnership  (q.v.)  accounts.  So  an 
accounting  may  be  had  as  incidental  to  the 
exercise  of  other  equity  jurisdiction,  as  in  mort- 
gage  foreclosures. 

ACCOUNT'ANT.      In   the   United    States    a 
term    applied    widely    to    any    one    who    keeps 
accounts,   i.e.,   a   bookkeeper,   though   there   is   a 
tendency  to  restrict  it  to  those  whose  accounts 
present" a  certain  difficulty  and  complexity.     In 
England  the  term  designates  an  officer  employed 
by  railway  companies,  banks,  etc.,  from  time  to 
time    to    inspect    and    verify    their    books    and 
accounts,  and  to  make  out  periodical  statements 
and  lialance  sheets.     It  is  recognized  as  a  special 
branch    of    business.     Generally    speaking,    the 
work  of  an  accountant  may  be  classified  under 
two    divisions:     (1)     All     those    matters     that 
involve  the  investigation  of  the  books  of  a  firm 
or    conlpany,    with    the   making    up    of   balance 
sheets,  statements  of  all  kinds,  and  reports:  and 
(2)    the    management    of     estates,     whether     of 
bankrupts    or    others.     While    the    last    named 
function  is  not  known  in  the  United  States,  the 
l)ractice   of   a    periodical    report   by   accountants 
not  permanently  connected  with   the  business  is 
growing  among  the  larger  financial  institutions. 
With  this  practice  there  have  arisen  professional 
accountants  whose  function  it  is  to  act  as  im- 
partial witnesses  to  the  accuracy  of  the  accounts 
of  corporations  and   similar  enterprises,   and   to 
make   expert  investigations   in   controversies   at 
law  involving  accounts. 


ACCTTBATION. 

ACCRA.     See  .\kkra. 

ACCRE'TION  (Lat.  accretio,  an  increase, 
from  ad.  to  +  crescere,  to  grow).  In  law,  the 
gradual  extension  of  the  boundaries  of  land  at 
the  expense  of  the  sea,  or  of  a  neighboring  owner, 
by  the  imperceptible  action  of  natural  forces, 
as  by  the  recession  of  the  ocean,  the  deposit  of 
silt  and  earth  by  a  stream,  the  drying  up  of  a 
pond,  etc.  The  word  is  sometimes,  though  im- 
properly, used  to  include  the  various  kinds  of 
accession  (q.v.)  and  as  the  equivalent  of  that 
term ;  but  it  is  in  its  legal  sense  properly  applic- 
able only  to  that  form  of  accession  in  which 
land  is  added  to  other  land  by  the  process  above 
described.  Where  the  hind  so  gained  is  washed 
up  by  the  sea,  or  deposited  by  a  running  stream, 
or  left  bare  by  the  gradual  drying  up  or  retire- 
ment of  the  "water  boundary,  it  is  known  as 
alluvion  (q.v.).  As  above  indicated,  the  process 
must,  in  order  to  result  in  an  accretion,  be  so 
slow  as  to  be  imperceptible  in  its  progress'.  If 
sudden,  no  change  of  ownership  results,  the 
land  so  exposed  remaining  the  property  of  the 
sovereign  or  of  the  neighboring  proprietor  af- 
fected thereby.  Thus  a  boundary  stream  may. 
by  changing  its  course  gradually,  little  by  little 
transfer'  the  ownership  of  the  land  on  one  side 
to  the  opposite  proprietor,  whereas  a  sudden 
change  of  course  would  not  affect  tlie  boundaries 
of  the  two  parcels  of  land  in  the  slightest  degree. 
Consult:  Gould,  Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Waters 
(Chicago,  1000)  :  Angell,  Treatise  on  the  Law 
of  Watercourses    (Boston,  1877). 

AC'CRINGTON.    A  manufacturing  town   in 
Lancashire,  England.     It  has  recently  increased 
much  in  size  and  importance,  and  lies  in  a  deep 
valley,  surrounded  by  hills,  about  20  miles  north 
of   Manchester   and    o   miles   east   of   Blackburn, 
on  the  banks  of  the  Hindburn    (Map:    England, 
D  3).     Among  its  notable  buildings  are  Christ 
Church,   a   fine   Gothic   edifice,   erected   in    1838, 
and  the  town  hall,  a  handsome  building  in  the 
Italian    style.     The    town    was    incorporated    in 
1878.     The   gas    and    water    supply    are    owned 
jointly   by  the  town   of   Accrington   and   several 
otlier  neighboring  towns.     The  town  owns  public 
baths,  markets,  slaughter-houses,  and  cemeteries, 
and  maintains  a  technical  school.     It  also  owns 
its  street  railways,  which  are  leased  to  private 
companies.  The  i'nhabitants  are  mostly  employed 
in   cotton   factories,   dye-works,   chemical   works, 
weaving,  and  calico-printing.     Accrington  is  con- 
sidered the  centre  of  the  cotton-printing  industry. 
There   are  coal   mines   in   the   neighborhood,   in 
which    many    of    the    people    find    employment. 
Accrington  "is  advantageously  situated  in  regard 
to  communications,  lieing  a  station  on  the  Lan- 
cashire  and  Yorkshire   Railway.     Its  growth   of 
population  has  been  very  rapid.     From  less  than 
9000  in   1841   it  rose  to  38,000   in   1891,  and  in 
1901,  to  43,100. 

AC'CUBA'TION  (Lat.  ad,  to  +  cubare,  to  lie 
down).  The  reclining  posture  of  Greeks  and 
Romans  at  table.  Among  the  Greeks  a  low  table 
was  placed  beside  each  couch,  on  which  usually 
two  persons  reclined,  resting  on  the  left  arm, 
which  was  supported  by  cushions.  Among  the 
Romans  three  couches  were  placed,  so  as  to  form 
three  sides  of  a  square,  and  three  persons 
reclined  on  each  couch.  The  middle  couch  was 
the  most  honorable.  Respectable  women  did  not 
adopt  this  position  until  the  time  of  the  Roman 
Empire. 


ACCTJM. 

ACCTJM,  iik'ki.im,  Friedrich  (1709-1838).  A 
German  chemist.  He  was  born  in  Westphalia, 
wont  to  London  in  1703.  and  l)Coame  professor 
of  chemistry  tliere  in  1H02.  He  was  known  cliielly 
on  account  of  his  work,  .1  J'nuliml  Traitite  an 
QasUijht  ;i81.">).  wliich  luul  the  cll'oct  of  intro- 
ducing tic  illuniinant  in  Knjiland.  Tlie  book 
was  traiislatcd  into  several  languages.  In  1822 
he  became  professor  in  a  technical  institute  in 
Berli'i.  wlicre  he  died. 

ACCU  MULA'TIONS  ( Lat.  ad,  to  +  cumu- 
laii.  ti'  |iili',  hcapi.  In  law.  the  accumulated 
interest  anil  income  of  property  held  in  trust 
upon  a  trust  created  for  the  purpose  ol  elfecting 
such  accumulation  for  the  benelit  of  the  cc.slui 
gue  trust  (q.v.).  The  law  relating  to  accumula- 
tion is  closely  related  to  the  rule  against  per- 
petuities (q.v.)  as  now  defined  b^-  modern  stat- 
ute. It  was  the  common  law  rule  that  any 
disposition  of  real  estate  which  postponed  a 
vesting  of  any  interest  in  the  estate  for  longer 
than  a  life  or  lives  in  being  an<l  twenty-<ine  years 
and  a  few  months  additional  was  absolutely 
void.  This  rule  was  deemed  to  be  violated  by 
the  creation  of  a  trust  for  accumulation  for  any 
greater  period.  This  continued  t«  be  a  lulc  of 
decision  until  the  passage  by  the  English  Par- 
liament of  the  so-called  Thollusson  Actu  (See 
Thellusson  r.  Woodford,  4  \'er.  p.  227,  Gray  Pub. 
Assoc.  Boston.)  This  act  placed  several  limi 
tations  on  the  common  lav,-  rule  as  to  accumula- 
tion. The  rule  relating  to  accumulation  is  now 
regulated  wholly  by  statute  in  most  jurisdic- 
tions, and  generally  the  power  to  create  trusts 
for  accumulation  is  limited  to  the  creation  of  a 
trust  for  the  life  of  the  grantor  only  or  lor 
twenty-one  years  or  during  the  minority  of  the 
beneficiary.  See  the  authorities  referred  to 
under  TiusT  and  Pliu'etuity. 

ACCUTttULA'TOBS.  Apparatus  for  equal- 
izing pressure  or  for  the  accunnilation  of  energy 
for  intermittent  use.  The  storage  battery  and 
the  1-eyden  jar  are  electrical  accunuilalors!  (See 
Si'OR.\(;e  Battkuv:  Conde.nsei!.)  Hydraulic  ac- 
cumulators are  extensively  used  in  connection 
with  hydraulic  machinery  for  operating  cranes, 
punching  and  riveting  machines,  presses,  etc. 
Tlie  simplest  way  of  storing  up  water  for  pres- 
sure purposes  is  to  erect  a  tank  at  a  sudicient 
height  to  give  the  required  pressure  by  the 
weight  or  head  of  the  water  column  alone.  This 
arrangement  is  generally  adopted  for  hydraulic 
elevators  in  warehouses  and  lofty  buildings.  (See 
Elevatous.)  U'here  very  higli  jjressures  are 
required,  however,  it  becomes  impracticable  to 
adopt  a  tank  or  water  tower,  since  the  elevation 
required  to  give  the  necessary  pressure  would  be 
impracticable  to  obtain,  700  pounds  pressure. 
for  instance,  requiring  a  tank  1(110  feet  high. 
In  such  cases  accumulators  are  employed,  and 
they  generally  assume  the  form  of  a  vertical 
cylinder  resting  on  a  firm  base  and  having  a 
plunger  woiking  through  a  stulling-box  at  the 
top.  This  plunger  has  at  its  upper  end  a  yoke 
which  carries  by  means  of  suspension  rods  a 
heavy  weiglit  of  cast  iron  or  other  heavy  mate- 
rial. A  power  pump  forces  water  into  the  cyl- 
inder at  a  pressure  sufficient  to  lift  the  weighted 
plunger  to  the  top  of  the  cylinder,  where  the 
plunger  strikes  a  slop  which  prevents  its  rising 
further  and  prevents  the  further  escape  of  water 
from  the  pump.  In  this  position  the  cylinder 
is  filled  with  a  column  of  water,  which  siipports 


67 


ACEFHALI. 


the  weighted  plunger  on  its  top.  As  water  is 
drawn  olf  from  the  cylinder  to  supply  the  crane, 
press,  riveter,  or  othei  machinery,  the  weighted 
plunger  descends,  always  keeping  a  pressure  on 
the  top  of  the  water  column  equal  to  the  com- 
bined weight  of  the  plunger  and  its  load.  .\s 
soon  as  the  plunger  descends  the  jiump  resumes 
work  and  raises  it  again.  I5y  this  combination 
of  operations  the  water  pressure  is  always  kept 
constant  for  supplying  the  hydraulic  machinery. 
Sometimes  steam  or  air  pressure  ai'ting  on  the 
top  of  the  plunger  is  substituted  for  tlie  more 
conunon  suspended  weights.  Hydraulic  accumu- 
lators are  built  to  give  pressures  ranging  from 
five  ])ounds  to  ten  tons  per  square  inch. 

AC'CTJSA'TION.  A  legal  term  which  signi- 
fies either  the  act  of  charging  one  with  a  crime, 
or  the  charge  itself.  When  the  chaige  is  made 
outside  of  a  judicial  i)rocccding  it  may  subject 
the  accuser  to  an  action  for  defamation  (q.v.), 
while  if  made  in  the  course  of  a  judicial  pro- 
ceeding it  is  generally  not  actionable.  A  threat 
or  a  conspiracy  to  acctise  another  ot  a  crime  is 
inclictalile.     See  BLAt'K.NtAiL  and  Extortion. 

ACCU'SATIVE   CASE.     See  Declexsion. 

ACELDAMA,  A-sel'dA-m4,  or  AKELDA- 
MA,  a-kel'daina  (R.  V.).  According  to  Acts 
i.  I!),  "the  Held  of  blood:"  Init  inasuuich  as  the 
original  Greek  text  furnishes  the  form  Acelda- 
macli,  it  has  been  suggested  by  August  Kloster- 
mann  {Prohlcnie  iin  Aposteltextc,  pp.  1-81  that 
the  second  element,  diimach.  is  the  Aramaic  word 
"to  sleep,"  so  that  the  real  meaning  of  tlie  term 
is  ''field  of  sleep."  Such  a  name  would  have  been 
appropriate  for  a  field  which,  according  to  Mat- 
thew xxvii  :  S,  was  bought  by  the  priests  of 
Jerusalem  as  a  field  in  which  to  bury  strangers. 
Aceldama  was  acquired  in  this  way  with  thirty 
pieces  of  silver  which  Judas  Iscariot  received  as 
a  reward  for- betraying  Jesus,  but  which  in  the 
hour  of  his  repentance  he  returned  to  the  priests. 
The  designation  of  Aceldama  as  a  '"potter's  field" 
in  both  of  the  passages  of  the  New  Testament 
referreil  to  connects  the  place  with  the  "potter's 
house"'  mentioned  by  Jeremiah  xviii  :  2:  xix  :  2. 
It  would  appear,  therefore,  that  Aceldama  is 
older  than  the  story  told  of  it  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, and  its  designation  as  a  "field  of  blood" 
is  but  a  play  upon  the  word,  introduced  to  add 
color  to  the  narrative  of  .Judas  Iscariot.  A  tra- 
dition of  considerable  antiquity  locates  Acel- 
dama on  a  level  overhanging  the  '"valley  of  the 
son"  (Hinnoni)  and  halfway  up  the  hill.  As 
early  as  the  sixth  century  tliis  traditional  site 
was  used  as  a  burying-place  for  Christian  pil- 
grims, and  continued  in  use  until  the  seven- 
teenth century.  ,\  history  and  description  of  the 
site  is  furnished  by  Schick  in  the  quarterly 
statement  of  the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund  of 
1802,  pp.  283-289. 

ACEPH'ALI  (Gk.  A,  a,  priv.  +  Ke<yt7f/. 
kriihiilr.  Iiead :  i.e.  headless).  A  name  given 
(1)  To  metropolitans  an<l  bishojis  who  have  no 
ecclesiastical  head  over  them.  (2)  To  certain 
ecclesiastical  parties:  (a)  those  bishops  at  the 
ecumenical  council  of  Ephesus  in  431  who  re- 
fused to  join  cither  the  party  of  Cyril  or  of  .John 
of  Antioch;  (b)  those  who  rejected  the  doctrinal 
decision  of  the  ecumenical  council  held  at  Chal- 
cedon  in  451  upon  the  nature  of  Christ  (see 
Cli!!isT()l.o(iY)  :  (c)  the  Eutychian  adherents  of 
Peter  Mongus.  w'ho  refuseil  to  subscribe  to 
the    Hcnoticon    in    482,    designed    to    end    the 


ACEPHALI. 


68 


ACETO-ACETIC  ESTER. 


Monophvsite  Controversy.  (3)  To  clergy  belong- 
ing to  no  (liocose.  (  4 )  To  the  Flagellants  (q.v.). 
ACEPH'ALOCYST  (literally,  a  eyst  with- 
out a  head;  Gk.  a,  a,  priv.  +  Keipalri, 
kephale.  head  +  nvart^,  kystis,  a  bladder, 
bag) .  A  hydatid  growth  found  in  the  liver, 
kidneys,  or  other  glandular  organs  of  man,  and 
sometimes  of  lower  animals.  It -is  a  globular  sac 
with  walls  of  condensed  albuminous  substance 
of  laminated  composition.  In  its  cavity  is  a  col- 
orless fluid  of  albuminous  and  gelatinous  compo- 
sition. Sometimes  many  secondary  cysts  occur. 
Tliey  are  of  parasitic  origin,  being  produced  by 
the  larvae  of  a  species  of  tapeworm  (Toenia  echi- 
nococcus) . 

A'CEB.    See  Maple. 

ACERBI,  a-cher'be,  Gutseppe  (1773-1840). 
An  Italian  naturalist,  born  at  Castel  (Joll'redo. 
He  studied  at  Mantua  and  became  proficient  in 
natural  science.  He  was  the  first  Italian  to  reach 
North  Cape  (17fl8).  In  1810  he  founded  the 
BihUoteca  lUiHnna,  a  literary  review  published 
at  Milan,  and  from  1820  to  1836  was  Aus- 
trian consul-general  in  Egypt,  where  he  made 
important  archa?ological  collections  for  the  muse- 
ums of  Vienna,  Padua,  Mil.an,  and  Pavia.  He 
published  (in  English)  Travels  Through  Sweden, 
Finland.  Lapland^  [2  volumes,  London,  1802). 

ACERRA,  a-eher'ra,  the  ancient  Acerr.e.  An 
episcopal  city  in  south  Italy,  nine  miles  north- 
east of  Naples  and  opposite  Mount  Somma,  from 
which  there  is  an  excellent  view  of  Vesuvius.  It 
has  a  cathedral  and  a  seminary.  The  country 
is  fertile,  but  until  recently,  when  the  marshes 
were  drained,  was  extremely  unhealthful,  owing 
to  the  inundations  of  the  Agno.  which  is  the 
CUinius  not)  wquus  Acerris  of  Vergil.  Pop.,  1901, 
16,443. 

ACET.  A  combining  form  used  in  various 
chemical  terms,  and  ultimately  'derived  from 
Lat.  acetum,  vinegar;  as  in  ocefal,  occfanilid, 
etc. 

ACETAL,  as'e-tal,  CH,CH(OC,H:,),.  A  color- 
less liquid  of  agreeable  odor  and  taste.  It  is 
readily  obtained"  by  heating  a  mixture  of  alde- 
hyde and  ordinary  alcohol.  It  has  been  used  to 
improve  the  flavor  of  wine. 

ACETANILID,  as'et-an'ihid.  A  crystal- 
line powder  made  by  the  action  of  acetic  acid 
on  aniline.  It  is  odorless,  slightly  bitter,  spar- 
ingly soUible  in  water,  but  freely  so  in  alcohol, 
ether,  and  chloroform.  Chemically,  it  is  phenyl- 
acetamide,  CHjCONHCoHb.  It  is  known  also  by 
the  trade  naiue  antifebrin.  Its  action  resembles 
that  of  antipyrine  ( q.v. ) ,  but  is  less  likely  to  cause 
eruptions,  respiratory  disturbance,  cyanosis,  and 
collapse,  and  its  administration  is  followed  by 
less  sweating.  In  health  it  does  not  affect  the 
temperature  to  any  extent.  Its  uses  are  similar 
to  those  of  antipyrine.  but  being  insoluble  it 
cannot  be  used  hypodermatically,  and  is  gener- 
ally given  in  tablet,  capsule  or  wafer.  The  dose 
required  is  nuich  smaller  than  that  of  antipyrine. 
ACETATES,  as'e-tSts.  The  salts  of  acetic 
acid,  which  are  generally  prepared  by  the  action 
of  acetic  acid  on  metallic  carbonates  or  hydrox- 
ides. Most  acetates  are  soluble  in  water.  To 
prove  the  presence  of  an  acetate  in  a  solution, 
the  analytical  chemist  adds  to  the  solution  some 
strong  sulphuric  acid  and  a  little  alcohol  and 
heats  the  mixture  for  a  few  seconds;  by  this 
treatment,   of   an   acetate   solution   ethyl   acetic 


ester  is  produced,  which  is  readily  recognized  by 
its  pleasant  and  characteristic  odor.  Some  of 
the  acetates  are;  {!) Aluminium  acetate.  This 
has  been  obtained  only  in  its  aqueous  solution, 
whicli  is  used  as  a  mordant  under  the  name 
of  "red  liquor."  (2)  The  acetate  of  iron,  known 
as  "black  liquor,"  is  likewise  used  as  a  mor- 
dant in  dyeing  and  printing  cotton.  The 
acetates  of  (3)  lead,  (4)  ammonium,  and  (5) 
potassium  are  much  used  in  medicine.  Lead  ace- 
tate, commonly  known  as  "sugar  of  lead,"  is 
used  for  external  applications  as  an  astringent. 
Ammoniuni  acetate  is  used  to  promote  perspira- 
tion; it  is  prepared  best  by  passing  an  excess  of 
gaseous  ammonia  into  strong  acetic  acid.  Po- 
tassium acetate  is  very  largely  used  as  a  diu- 
retic. Other  metallic  acetates  are  mentioned  un- 
der the  names  of  the  metals  (qq.v.). 

ACE'TIC  ACID,  CH.COOH.  The  sour  prin- 
ciple of  vinegar,  an  acid  composed  chemically 
of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen.  The  commer- 
cial acid  is  largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
acetates,  dye-stuffs,  etc.  Concentrated  acetic 
acid  burns  the  skin,  and  is  therefore  applied  as 
a  caustic  to  remove  small  warts  and  corns.  Like 
any  other  acid,  if  taken  internally  for  any  length 
of  time,  dilute  acetic  acid  impairs  the  digestion 
and  absorption  of  food. 

Acetic  acid  occurs  here  and  there  in  the 
oiganic  world.  It  is  found  ready  formed  in 
sweat  and  other  animal  secretions,  as  well  as  in 
the  juices  of  various  plants.  It  is  manufactured 
either  by  the  oxidation  of  ordinary  alcohol 
through  fermentation  (see  Vinegar),  or  by  the 
destructive  distillation  of  wood.  The  aqueous 
product  obtained  in  the  latter  process  is  sub- 
jected to  fractional  distillation,  and  the  fraction 
constituting  impure  acetic  acid  (called  pyrolici- 
neous  acid)  is  neutralized  with  soda  or  lime.  In 
this  manner  a  solution  of  sodium  or  calcium 
acetate  is  obtained ;  this  solution  is  evaporated 
to  dryness,  and  the  remaining  salt  is  freed  from 
water  and  organic  impurities  by  heating  above 
400°  F.  Pure  acetic  acid  is  prepared  by  dis- 
tilling the  acetates  thus  obtained  with  strong 
sulphuric  acid.  The  pure  anhydrous  acid  is  known 
as  glacial  acetic  acid;  at  temperatures  below 
62°  F.  it  is  solid  and  crystalline;  above  that 
temperature  it  forms  a  colorless  liquid  readily 
known  by  its  pungent,  penetrating  odor.  Since 
carbon  is  one  of  its  constituent  elements,  it  is,  of 
course,  classed  with  the  compounds  of  organic 
chemistry.  It  is  a  comparatively  weak  acid,  its 
salts  being  broken  up  not  only  by  the  strong 
mineral  acids,  but  even  by  many  organic  acids. 
Besides  the  methods  just  mentioned,  acetic 
acid  can  be  made  by  synthesis  from  tlie  constit- 
uent elements.  When  electric  sparks  are  passed 
between  carbon  poles  in  an  atmosphere  of  hydro- 
gen, acetylene  gas  is  produced ;  and  when  oxygen 
(furnished,  say,  by  chromic  acid)  is  made  to  act 
upon  acetylene  in  the  presence  of  water,  the 
acetylene  combines  with  oxygen  and  water,  and, 
as  a  result,  acetic  acid  is  formed  according  to 
the  following  chemical  equation; 

C,H,     +    O    +    H,0   =        C:HA 
Acetylene  Acetic  acid 

Tt  would  not  pay,  however,  to  use  this  method 
in  manufacturing  acetic  acid  for  practical  pur- 
poses. 

ACETO-ACETIC  (ris'e-tu-a-se'tik)  ES'TER, 
ClI,('0('tI.('00(',H,.  A  colorless  liquid  organic 
substance    obtained    by    the    action    of    metallic 


ACETO-ACETIC  ESTER. 


69 


ACETYLENE. 


sodium  on  the  ester  formed  by  the  union  of  acetic 
acid  and  ordinary  alcohol  ( i.e..  ethyl  acetic 
ester).  Aceto-ucelie  ester  mixes  in  all  propor- 
tions with  alcohol  or  with  ether,  but  is  only 
spariiifjly  soluble  in  water.  It  boils  at  180°  C. 
The  two  hy<lr<){;cn  atoms  of  its  CIL  group  are 
capal>le  of  being  replaced  either  by  metals  or 
by  hydroc.irbon  radicles  like  methyl  (CH,), 
ethyl  (C.Hr.),  etc.,  and  the  substitution  products 
thus  obtained  J'ield,  on  treatment  with  acids  and 
alkalies,  a  variety  of  important  carbon  com- 
pounds. The  ester  is,  therefore,  extensively  used 
for  the  artificial  preparation  of  various  sub- 
stances fnr  scientific  purposes. 

ACETONE,  asV-trm,  or  DiJirETnyi,  Ketone, 
ClijCOt'Hj.  A  colorless  organic  liquid  boiling 
at  5(i'.3  C,  and  having  at  20°  a  specific  grav- 
ity of  U.Tili:.  It  is  volatile  and  inllamniablc,  has 
a  pleasant  ethereal  odor,  dissolves  various  organ- 
ic substances  such  as  fats  and  resins,  and  mixes 
in  all  proportions  with  water,  alcohol,  and  ether. 
It  is  separated  from  its  aqueous  solutions 
by  means  of  calcium  chloride.  It  dissolves  con- 
siderable quantities  of  acetylene  gas  (q.v.),  and 
absorbs  a  very  large  amount  of  sulphurous 
anhydride.  It  is  used  as  a  solvent  as  well  as 
for  the  manufacture  of  chloroform,  iodoform, 
etc.  Acetone  is  produced  when  various  organic 
substances  are  subjected  to  destructive  distil- 
lation: it  is  thus  found  in  pyroligneous  spirit 
(see  Methyl  Alcohol)  obtained  by  the  dry 
distillation  of  wood.  It  is  separated  from  wood 
spirit  by  distilling  over  calcium  chloride.  It  is 
usually  prepared  by  distilling  barium  acetate 
at  a  moderate  heat,  according  to  the  follow- 
ing chemical  equation: 

(CH,C00)3a   =   CAO    -i-  BaCO, 
Barium  acetate  Acetone 

The  somewhat  impure  product  obtained  either 
from  wood  spirit  or  from  baiiuiii  acetate  may 
be  readily  ])uritied  and  dehydrated  by  the  use  of 
the  acid  sulphite  of  .sodium,  with  which  it  com- 
bines to  form  a  crystalline  solid  compound. 
Pure  acetone  is  obtained  from  the  latter  by  dis- 
tilling with  sodium  carbonate.  When  acted  on 
by  chlorine  in  the  presence  of  alkali,  acetone  is 
converted  into  chloroform.  Iodoform  is  sim- 
ilarly produced  by  the  action  of  iodine  (in  am- 
monium iodide  solution)  and  ammonia  upon 
acetone,  the  reaction  forming  the  most  sensitive 
test  for  acetone  that  is  known  to  chemists.  When 
acetone  is  distilled  with  strong  sulphuric  acid, 
niesitylenc  is  produced;  this  reaction  has  been 
of  great  value  in  determining  the  chemical  con- 
Btituti(jn  of  a  vast  number  of  benzene  derivatives 
allied  to  mesitylene.  Acetone  occurs  in  small 
quantities  in  the  blood,  and  is  present  in  the 
liquid  passing  over  when  urine  is  distilled.  It 
has  Umg  been  known  to  chemists  as  :i  product 
of  distillation  of  acetates^  its  composition  was 
first  determined  by  Lieliig  and  Dumas  in  18.32. 

ACETONES.     See  Ketones. 

ACETYL,  :'is'e-tTl.  An  atomic  group  or  radi- 
cle   in    organic    chemistry.      See    C.\rron    Com- 

POINIIS. 

ACET'YLENE  (from  rwrt,,l).  HC=Cn.  A 
colorless  gas  composed  chemically  of  carbon  and 
hydrogen.  It  is  present  in  small  quantities  in  ordi- 
nary illuminating  gas.  and  has  a  characteristic 
disagreeable  odor  somewhat  resembling  that  of 
garlic.  Its  "critical  temperature"  is  37°  C. 
(about   <)8°.6   F.)  :    that   is   to   say,   no   matter 


how  great  the  pressure  to  which  it  may  be  sub- 
jected above  .37°  it  will  remain  gaseous,  while 
at  37°  a  certain  pressure,  called  the  "critical 
pressure,"  is  necessary  and  sullicient  to  liquefy 
it ;  the  critical  pressure  of  acetylene  is  (iS  at- 
mospheres. Acetylene  burns  with  a  brilliant 
llame  and  is  u.sed  as  an  illuminant.  It  is  best 
made  for  scientific  as  well  as  for  industrial  pur- 
poses by  the  action  of  water  on  the  carbide 
of  calcium  (q.v.).  It  is  thus  produced,  for  in- 
stance, in  bicycle  "gas  lamps."  The  various 
apparatus  devised  for  the  manufacture  of  acety- 
lene produces  it  either  in  the  gase(ms  state  or, 
by  innnediate  compression,  in  tlic  liquefied  state. 
\Ve  will  distinguish  two  types  of  apparatus. 
In  the  first,  the  carbide  is  contained  in  an 
appropriate  reservoir,  into  which  water  is 
introduced  at  a  required  rate.  Such  apparatus 
is  rather  inconvenient  and  somewhat  dangerous, 
for  the  reason  that  in  the  mass  of  carbide  con- 
siderable 'ise  of  temperature  may  occur  at  the 
point  inuncdiately  attacked  by  water;  besides, 
a  crust  of  lime  may  form  on  the  surface  of  a 
lump  of  carliide,  and  when  the  water  at  last 
penetrates  to  the  core  of  the  lump  a  sudden  and 
more  or  less  violent  reaction  may  ensue ;  all  of 
which  would  naturally  result  in  uneven  genera- 
tion of  gas,  variations  of  pressure,  and,  perhaps, 
the  explosive  inflannnation  of  the  gas.  In  the 
second  type  of  api)aratus,  on  the  contr."ry,  the 
carhidc  is  thrown  into  a  considerable  mass  of 
icater,  whereby  tindue  elevations  of  temperature 
and  irregularity  of  action  are  completely  avoid- 
ed. As  the  presence  of  impurities  in  acety- 
lene adds  considerably  to  the  danger  of  using  the 
gas,  various  methods  of  purification  have  been 
proposed.  Now,  the  nature  and  quantity  of  im- 
purity in  acetylene  depends  entirely  on  the  com- 
position of  the  carbide  used  in  its  manufacture, 
and  a  very  pure  acetylene  has  been  produced  on 
quite  a  large  scale  sim])ly  by  employing  a  pure 
carbide.  With  air  or  oxygen  acetylene  forms 
extremely  explosive  mixtures;  mere  external 
friction  of  a  vessel  in  which  such  a  mixture  is 
contained  may  cause  an  explosion.  But  even 
when  isolated  and  pure  acetylene  is  explosive 
if  kept  under  pressure  of  more  than  two  atmos- 
pheres; and  it  is  very  dangerous  indeed  when 
preserved  in  liquid  form.  It  has,  instead,  been 
stored  in  solution  in  ordinary  acetone,  which 
absorbs  considerable  quantities  of  it.  If  the 
pressure  vinder  which  the  gas  is  dissolved  in 
jicetone  is  not  very  gieat,  explosion  can  occur 
only  in  the  gaseous  volume  ;ibove  the  surface  of 
the  liquid:  the  dissolved  portion  of  the  gas 
does  not  take  part  in  the  explosion.  Under  any 
circumstances,  sudden  com])ression  of  a  volume 
of  acetylene  may  cause  an  explosion.  Acetylene 
is  slightly,  if  at  all,  poisonous;  it  is  certainly 
mueli  less  poisonous  than  ordinary  illuminating 
gas. 

Acetylene  contains  a  high  percentage  of  car- 
bon, and  the  amount  of  lieat  generated  in  its 
combustion  is  very  large.  These  are  the  causes 
to  which  its  high  illuminating  power  is  due; 
for.  in  order  that  a  llame  may  be  luminous,  it 
must  contain  a  large  amount  of  carbon  par- 
ticles, ami  its  temperature  nnist  be  high  enough 
to  keep  those  particles  in  a  state  of  incandes- 
cence. Tn  order  that  acetylene  may  yield  a 
large  amount  of  light,  it  must  be  properly 
burned.  The  numerous  burners  devi.scd  for 
this  purpose  are  constructed  with  a  view  to 
burning   either   pure    acetylene   or    mixtures    of 


ACETYLENE. 

acetylene  and  other  gases,  such  as  nitrogen,  car- 
bonic acid  gas,  and  especially  marsh  gas.  We 
reproduce  here  the  Perrodil 
burner,  which,  while  adapted 
fur  use  with  pure  acetylene,  al- 
lows it  to  be  sufficiently  mixed 
with  air  before  it  reaches  the 
[loint  a,  where  it  begins  to 
burn. 

Acetylene  is  one  of  the  cheap- 
est illuniinants.  It  has,  be- 
sides, the  important  advantage  over  other  il- 
luniinants of  being  easily  produced  and  requiring 
110  special  establishment  for  its  manufacture. 
In  the  opinion  of  eminent  experts,  the  danger 
connected  with  storing  it  even  in  large  quanti- 
ties is  not  great  enough  to  justify  a  verdict 
against  its  introduction  into  common  use. 

VVe  will  mention  a  few  other  uses  to  which 
acetylene  may  be  applied: 

1.  If  calcium  carbide  were  cheaper,  acetylene 
might  be  used  as  an  enricher ;  i.e.,  to  increase 
the  illuminating  power  of  coal  gas  and  of  other 
combustible  gases. 

2.  When  acetylene  is  passed  into  an  alkaline 
solution  of  iodine,  the  substance  di-iodoforni 
(C^Ii)    is    produced.      This    substance   possesses 

the  antiseptic  properties  of  ordinary  iodoform 
without  having  the  strong  and  annoying  odor 
of  that  substance.  In  the  last  few  years  di- 
iodoform  has  been  manufactured  on  an  indus- 
trial scale. 

3.  Under  the  influence  of  electric  sparks  acety- 
lene combines  directly  with  nitrogen  to  form 
prusnic  (hj'drocyanic)  acid.  It  might,  there- 
fore, be  used  in  the  cyanide  industry. 

4.  A  process  has  been  patented  in  Ciermany 
for  the  manufacture  of  sugar  from  acetylene. 

5.  When  heated  with  hydrogen,  acetylene  is 
converted  into  ethylene,  and  by  the  action  of 
sulphuric  acid  and  water  the  latter  yields  or- 
dinary alcohijJ.  It  has  been  argued  that  if  pure 
alcohol,  manufactured  by  this  method,  could  be 
substituted  as  an  article  of  commerce  for  the 
highly  toxic  liquors  so  freely  sold  at  the  pres- 
ent day,  a  great  deal  would  be  accomplished 
toward  diminishing  the  evil  of  alcoholism.  Un- 
der the  present  conditions,  however,  the  process 
would  be  too  expensive. 

Chemically,  acetylene  is  an  unsaturated  com- 
pound, the  first  of  an  important  series  of  hydro- 
carbons. It  is  said  to  be  "unsaturated"  because 
it  combines  with  bromine  and  the  other  halo- 
gens without  at  the  same  time  losing  any  of  its 
own  elements.  It  combines  in  a  similar  man- 
ner with  hydrogen.  By  heating  a  mixture  of 
acetylene  and  hydrogen,  ethylene  gas  may  be  ob- 
tained, and  this  can  be  further  transformed  into 
ethane  gas  by  the  action  of  hydrogen  in  the 
presence  of  "platinum  black"  (finely  divided 
platinum).  Since  from  ethylene  gas  and  ethane 
we  can  derive  innumerable  other  compounds,  it 
was  a  highly  important  problem  to  prepare 
acetylene  itself  directly  from  its  elements.  This 
problem  solved,  we  could  claim  that  we  have 
been  able  to  effect  the  complete  synthesis  of  all 
those  compounds;  that  is  to  say,  that  we  can 
prepare  them  artificially  without  using  any  com- 
pound occurring  ready  formed  in  nature.  The 
importance  of  the  problem  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
it  has  been  asserted  that  many  such  compounds 
could  not  he  obtained  artificially ;  that  mys- 
terious forces  beyond  human  control  could  alone 
jir(jdu(e    them.     The    French    chemist    Berthelot 


70 


ACHJEA. 


ellected  the  interesting  synthesis  of  acetylene  by 
simply  passing  electric  sparks  lietween  carbon 
poles  placed  in  a  vessel  filled  with  hydrogen. 
Under  such  conditions  the  carbon  of  the  poles 
combines  directly  with  hydrogen  to  form  acety- 
lene. 

In  conclusion,  another  important  property  of 
acetylene  may  be  mentioned.  When  acetylene 
is  passed  into  a  solution  of  a  cuprous  salt  ( say, 
cuprous  chloride),  containing  some  ammonia,  a 
curiou--  and  characteristic  compound  of  acetylene 
and  copper  is  obtained,  called  copper  acctylide. 
When  a  chemist  is  called  upon  to  determine 
whether  acetylene  is  present  or  absent  in  a  given 
mixture,  he  tescs  it  with  a  solution  of  cuprous 
chloride  containing  some  ammonia  ;  the  forma- 
tion of  copper  acctylide  proves  the  presence  of 
acetj'lene.  It  is  currently  believed  that  the  ex- 
])losive  compound  of  copper  and  acetylene  will 
form  whenever  acet3'lene  comes  in  contact  with 
metallic  copper  or  its  alloys.  This  idea  has, 
however,  been  proved  .positively  false;  there  is 
no  danger  whatever  in  storing  acetylene  in 
metallic  vessels  of  any  kind.  Consult:  W.  E. 
Gibbs,  Lighting  hy  Acetylene,  Generators,  Burn- 
ers, and  Electric  Furnaces  (New  York.  1890), 
and  V.  B.  Lewes,  Acetylene:  a  Handbook  for  the 
Htudent  and  Manufacturer  (New  York.  1900). 
A  technical  journal  devoted  to  the  acetylene  in- 
dustry (Zeitschrift  fiir  Culcinmrarbid-Fabrika- 
tioH  und  Acetylen-Beleuchiung )  was  established 
at  Suhl  in  1S97  and  has,  since  1900,  been  pub- 
lished at  Berlin. 

ACH.a;A,  a-ke'a  (Gk.'Axaia).  (1)  The  south- 
east part  of  Thessaly,  the  legendary  home  of 
Achilles.  (2.)  The  northern  part  of  Pelopon- 
nesus, bordering  on  the  Corinthian  Gulf.  The 
land  rising  gradually  from  the  coast  to  the  hills 
of  the  interior  was  famed  in  ancient  times  for 
fertility  in  production  of  oil,  wine,  and  fruits, 
while  the  wooded  mountains  contained  much 
game.  In  the  modern  kingdom  of  Greece  Acluea 
forms  a  nome,  or  department,  in  the  extreme 
northwest  of  the  Morea,  and  its  chief  town  is 
Patras.  Excepting  the  west  coast,  the  land  is 
fertile,  and  produces  corn,  wine,  and  oil. 

In  early  times  the  Acha'ans  held  more 
or  less  aloof  from  participation  in  the  affairs 
of  the  rest  of  Greece.  There  were  twelve  prin- 
cipal towns,  the  names  ol  which,  according  to 
Herodotus,  were  Pellene,  .ICgeira.  -i^ga".  Bura, 
Helice,  .Egium,  Rhypes,  Patrae,  Phara-,  Olenus, 
Dyme,  and  Trita-a,  and  these  formed  a  confeder- 
acy, with  Helice  at  the  head.  After  the  destruc- 
tion of  Helice  by  an  earthquake  in  ;!73  B.C., 
i^<]gium  took  its  place  as  the  chief  city  of  the 
confederacy.  The  wars  and  rivalries  which  pre- 
vailed after  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great 
brought  about  the  complete  dissolution  of  the 
ancient  bond,  but  a  new  union  was  formed  in 
280  B.C.,  which  gradually  extended  itself,  and  in 
a  few  years  comprised  the  ten  cities,  Patrie, 
Dyme,  Phane,  Trita'a,  Leontium.  .ISgeira,  Pellene, 
^ICgium,  Bura,  and  Ceryneia.  This  second  con- 
federacy was  known  as  the  Achiean  League.  It 
first  came  into  prominence  as  an  important 
factor  in  Greek  and  Hellenic  politics  in  249  B.C., 
when  Aratus  joined  thereto  his  native  city, 
Sicyon.  The  aim  of  the  league  was  from  this 
time  forth  to  free  the  Greek  peninsula  from 
Macedonian  rule.  In  242  B.C.  the  Macedonian 
garrison  was  driven  from  Corinth,  and  this  city 
was  brought  into  the  confederacy.  Before  ihe 
last   quarter    of    that    century    the    league    had 


ACH^A. 

reached  its  most  flourishing  period  of  develojj- 
iiient.  It  included  the  wliole  of  northern  and 
miildle  Peloponnesus  and  many  cities  in  other 
parts  of  (Jri'i'cc. 

The  government  of  tlie  league  affords  perhaps 
the  best  example  in  antiquity  of  the  federal 
system.  In  foreign  affairs  the  union  acted 
as  a  whole,  but  in  internal  affairs  each  city 
was  a  unit,  and  had  equal  rights  with  every 
other  city.  Also,  each  state  still  preserved  its 
entire  independence.  There  was  a  public  council 
which  met  regularly  twice  every  year,  in  spring 
and  in  autumn,  and  was  attended,  not  by  depu- 
ties, but  in  person  by  all  male  citizens  of  thirty 
years  of  age  or  over.  Tlie  meeting-place  of  the 
council  was  at  first  a  grove  near  .Kgium,  but 
later  Philo[)a'mcn  instituted  a  change,  wlicrcby 
meetings  were  designed  to  be  held  in  rotation 
at  the  various  cities  belonging  to  the  league.  In 
this  council  the  affairs  of  the  league  were 
brought  up  to  be  disc\issed  and  passe<l  upon, 
and  a  record  was  kept  of  the  proceedings.  The 
cliief  officer  of  tlie  league  was  the  stratcgos, 
who  had  as  subordinates  a  hipparthoa  and  a 
naiiarchos.  There  was  also  a  secretary.  The 
xtrategos  was  commander-in-chief  of  the  army 
and  general  executive  officer.  He  was  assisted 
in  the  duty  of  calling  together  the  assembly  and 
presiding  thereat  by  a  board  of  ten  demiurgi. 
For  some  years  tlic  league  maintained  its  indepen- 
dence against  all  enemies.  Something  of  the  old 
power  of  Greece  seemed  to  return,  and  there 
was  a  promise  of  permanent  union;  but  it  soon 
appeared  that  the  league  was  bent  on  its  own 
destruction.  Instead  of  presenting  a  firm  front 
against  the  common  foes  of  Greece,  its  members 
were  divided  by  continual  discords.  The  ^^^to- 
lian  League  was  a  formidable  rival,  and  the 
Spartans,  led  by  King  Cleomenes  III.,  pressed 
the  confederacy  so  hard  that  Aratus  was  finally 
compelled  to  seek  the  alliance  of  the  Macedonian 
king,  Antigonus  Doson. 

This  act  was  nothing  less  than  the  begin- 
ning of  the  dependency  of  the  Acha'an  League 
on  the  Macedonian  power.  Another  dangerous 
enemy  was  Rome.  Led  by  the  wise  and  ener- 
getic policy  of  Fliilopicnicn.  of  Megalopolis,  the 
Achieans  held  out  against  enemies  at  home  and 
abroad  for  a  number  of  years,  but  in  198  B.C. 
they  were  induced  to  ally  themselves  with  the 
Romans.  In  1!I2  n.i'.  lMiiln]HPnicn  appeared  at 
Sparta  and  compelled  that  city  to  join  the  league, 
and  by  the  following  year  the  whole  of  Pelopon- 
nesus had  come  over  to  the  union.  This  power, 
however,  lasted  but  a  short  time.  The  hostilities 
of  Sparta,  the  intrigues  of  the  Romans,  and 
internal  dissensions  combined  to  bring  about 
the  fall  of  the  confederacy.  In  l(i7  li.r.  a  whole- 
sale deportation  of  leading  Acha^ans  to  Rome  as 
hostages  took  place.  In  140  n.r.  the  Aclueans 
were  defeated  at  Corinth  by  the  Roman  general 
Mummius.  This  defeat  not  only  dissolved  the 
leagiie,  but  destroyed  the  i)olitical  independence 
of  Greece.  Southern  and  central  Greece,  under 
the  name  of  Achaea,  became  a  Roman  province. 
Polybius,  who  was  one  of  the  Acha>ans  taken  to 
Rome  as  hostages  in  l(i7  n.c,  has  given  an  ex- 
tended account  of  the  league  in  his  history  of 
the  period  between  220  B.C.  and  146  B.C.  Consult: 
Schorn,  Oeschichte  Oricchcnlavds  von  der  Ent- 
sleliuiig  (lelnlisfhrn  mid  (ichiiixchcn  Hundcx 
(Bonn,  183.1);  Druniann,  Ideoi  zur  (lencliiflilc 
des  Verfalls  drr  yriecliixrhrn-  Staatrn  (Berlin, 
1811);      Ilertzberg,      (Icschichtv      (Iricrlnnliiiida 


7]  ACHARD. 

iinter  den  Romern  (Halle,  1875)  ;  and  Freeman, 
llixlory  of  Federal  Oovernment  (second  edition, 
L(jndon,   18i).J). 

(:i.|  I'ndcr  the  Romans,  the  province  contain- 
inir   all    (irccce  except  Tbessaly   and    Macedonia. 

ACHJEANS,  n-ke'(/nz  (Gk.  'A,fn'"i,  .-Lchaioi). 
Dnc  of  till'  races  of  ancient  (Ireece.  In  Homer  the 
name  sometimes  includes  all  the  (Jreeks.  The 
Achaeans  inhabited  the  southeastern  part  of 
Thessaly  and  much  of  the  Peloponnesus.  By  the 
Dorian  invasion  they  were  crowded  into  the 
northwestern  corner  of  the  Peloponnesus,  where 
tliey  later  formed  the  .\clitean  League.  (See 
Acil.EA.)  In  mytbologj-,  their  ancestor  was 
.Xcha'iis,  son  of  Xuthus  and  grandson  of  Hellen 
(,|.v.). 

ACH^MEITES,  A-kem'enez  (Gk.  'Axaiptf >''/<:. 
Arhaiiiicite.i).  ACS-'MM^^'IDJE.  The  names 
of  the  progenitor  and  of  tlie  dynasty  of  ancient 
Persian  kings,  Cyrus,  Cambyses,  Darius.  Xerxes, 
Artaxerxes,  and  their  successors.  The  rule  of  the 
Achicmenidie  over  Iran  lasted  5.5.H-;i;?0  B.C.  In 
the  old  Persian  inscriptions  Darius  proudly 
traces  his  lineage  back  to  [Jaxaiiiaiiisign  (in 
(Jreek.  ' Axaifiifric),  as  tlie  founder  of  tlie  royal 
line,  and  states  that  from  him  tlie  family  re- 
ceived tlic  name  Acliu'iiienians. 

ACHAIA.     See  .\cii.ka. 

ACHAMOTH,  ak'a-moth.  In  the  tlieological 
system  of  Valentinus  (q.v.  i  the  Gnostic,  a  per- 
sonification of  a  form  of  wisdom  inferior  to  the 
pure  .so/)/ii(i.  She  is  the  mother  of  the  world- 
maker,   Demiurgus.     See  Demiurge. 

ACHAQTJA,  :Vch;i'kwa.  An  Indian  tribe  of 
Arawakan  stock,  which  formerly  inhabited  the 
forests  of  the  upper  Orinoco  region  in  northeast- 
ern Colombia.  They  were  prominently  men- 
tioned in  the  last  century,  but  were  entirely 
uncivilized,  practicing  tattooing,  polyandry,  and 
the  destruction  of  female  infants.  About  500 
were  still  known  to  exist  on  the  Rio  Muco  about 
the  year  1850. 

ACHARD,  •io'iiit.  Franz  Karl  ( 17.5.S-1821 ). 
A  German  physicist  and  chemist,  born  in  Berlin. 
He  is  remembered  chiefly  as  the  fouiuler  of  the 
beet-sugar  industry.  He  devoted  several  years 
to  investigating  the  best  methods  of  raising 
sugar-beets  and  of  producing  sugar  on  an  indus- 
trial scale.  Finally,  at  the  instance  of  the  King 
of  Prussia,  experiments  were  successfully  car- 
ried out  in  Berlin  about  1800,  and  as  a  result 
Achard  was  enabled  to  establish  in  1801  the  first 
sugar  manufactory.  He  wrote  Pir  ctirojiiiisrhe 
Zuckerfahriktition  aus  Runkclriibeii  in  IVrftiji- 
ditng  tnit  der  Bcn'ittiiig  des  JinninttreiHS  (1812). 
Achard  was  for  a  time  director  of  the  class  of 
physics  in  the  Berlin  Academy  of  Sciences,  and 
published  four  volumes  of  Vorlesungcn  iiber 
ICrprriiiirnliiliihiifiik   ( 1700-92) . 

ACHARD,  A'shiir',  Louis  Am^dSe  EuofeNE 
(1814-75).  A  French  novelist.  He  was  born 
in  Marseilles,  and  was  at  first  a  merchant.  He 
entered  newspaper  work  in  his  native  place; 
continued  it  in  Paris,  and  went  as  a  reporter  to 
Spain  with  tlie  Due  de  Montpcnsicr  in  lS4(i, 
and  followed  the  French  armies  in  1870.  But  he 
is  eliielly  known  as  a  novelist,  his  romances 
being  numerous.  Among  them  are  La  belle 
rost:  (1847);  />f'.?  misrres  d'un  niiUionxnire 
(1801):  and  Histoire  d'liii  liomme  (18fi.3).  Hc- 
also  wrote  several  plays,  among  them  Histoire 
de  mcs  amis  (1874). 


ACHABNIANS. 


73 


ACHARNIANS,  ii-kiir'ni-anz,  The  (Gk 
■Axapueir,  Acharneis).  A  comedy  of  Aristoph- 
anes (q.v.)  produced  in  Athens  at  the  festival 
of  the  Lensea,  423  B.C.,  under  the  name  of  Callis- 
tnitux.  The  title  conies  from  the  character  of 
the  chorus  men  of  Acharnae,  an  Attic  deme  near 
Mount  Parnes,  and  the  play  is  in  opposition  to 
the  democratic  policy  of  war  with  Sparta. 
Diea;opolis,  the  hero,  is  an  lionest  farmer  wlio 
is  tired  of  the  fighting  and  his  attendant  losses, 
and  finally  makes  a  private  treaty  with  the 
Laceda;monians.  This  leads  to  a  farcical  but 
brilliant  display  of  the  contrasts  between  the 
discomforts  of  war  and  the  joys  of  peace. 

ACHATES,  a-ka'tez  (modern  Dirillo).  (1.) 
A  river  in  southern  Sicily  that  gave  its  name  to 
the  agate  {achates)  which  was  found  there, 
according  to  Pliny  (37,  139).  (2.)  A  faithful 
companion  of  ^Eneas  in  his  wanderings  (Vergil, 
yEneid.  i.,  188),  whence  the  name  fidiis  Aclujtes 
applied  to  any  faithful  friend. 
ACHEEN,  a-chen'.  See  Aciiix. 
ACHELOUS,  ak'g-lo'us  (Gk.  'A,tf^vof,  Ache- 
loos,  now  called  Aspropotamos,  i.e..  White  River, 
from  tlie  cream  color  of  its  waters).  The  largest 
river  in  Greece  (Map:  Greece,  C  5).  It  rises  in 
Mount  Pindus.  flows  southward,  separating 
vIStolia  from  Acarnania,  and  falls  into  the  Ionian 
Sea.  It  is  over  100  miles  long,  and  unnavigable. 
ACHEN,  aa'en,  or  ACKEN,  ak'en,  Johann 
or  Hans  von  (1352-1615).  A  German  painter. 
He  was  born  at  Cologne,  studied  there  and  under 
Kaspar  Renis  at  Venice,  and  in  1590  entered  the 
service  of  the  Bavarian  court.  At  the  invitation 
of  the  Emperor,  Rudolph  II.,  he  afterward  went 
to  Prague.  His  style  is  formal  but  skillful.  His 
works  include  a  "Crucifixion"  (in  the  Protestant 
church,  Cologne),  an  "Entombment"  (in  the 
cathedral  of  Bonn),  "St.  Mary  and  Carthusian 
Monk,"  "Portrait  of  Burgomaster  Broelman," 
"Christ  Raising  the  Widow's  Son,"  and  "Truth 
A''ictorious  Under  Protection  of  Justice." 

ACHENBACH,  ao'en-baa,  Andreas  (1815 — ). 
A  German  landscape  and  marine  painter.  He 
was  born  at  Cassel,  studied  under  Schirmer  at 
Diisseldorf.  and  is  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
painters  of  the  Diisseldorf  School.  He  painted 
chiefly  in  the  Rhine  country,  Holland,  and  Nor- 
way, "and  produced  realistic  works.  He  received 
a  medal  of  the  fir.st  class  in  Paris  in  1855.  Many 
of  his  paintings  are  in  private  galleries  in  the 
United  States. 

ACHENBACH,  Oswald  (1827-1905).  A 
German  landscape  painter.  He  was  born  in 
Diisseldorf.  and  was  the  brother  and  pupil  of 
Andreas  Achenbach.  He  painted  in  the  Bava- 
rian Alps.  Switzerland,  and  Italy.  His  conception 
of  nature  was  more  ideal  than  tliat  of  his  brother. 
Many  of  his  pictures  are  in  the  United  States. 
ACHENE,  li-kcn',  also  Achenium  and 
Akenb  (Gk.  n,  «,  priv.  +  ,v'"'''™'>  chainein,  to 
gape).  A  seed-like  ivnit  such  as  is  character- 
istic of  the  great  family  of  Composita>.  to  which 
belong  sunflowers,  thistles,  dandelions,  etc.  The 
pits  of  the  strawberry  and  the  small  fruits  form- 
ing a  head  in  the  centre  of  a  buttercup  are  also 
achenes.  The  seed-like  appearance  arises  from 
the  fact  that  the  wall  of  the  seed-vessel  hardens 
and  invests  the  solitary  seed  so  closely  as  to 
seem  like  an  outer  coat.     See  Frlot. 

ACHENSEE,     iiG'tn-za.      A    lake    in    north 
Tyrol,  Austria,  20  miles  northeast  of  Innsbruck. 


ACHILLEA. 

It  is  5V2  miles  long  and  a  half  mile  broad.  Its 
picturesque  shores  dotted  with  hotels  and  villas 
are  much  frequented  as  summer  resorts.  Steam- 
ers ply  on  its  waters. 

ACHENWALL,  ac'en-vlil,  Gottfried  (1719- 
72 ) .  A  German  economist  and  statistician.  He 
was  professor  of  philosophy  in  Gottingen  from 
about  1750  until  his  death.  Though  not  the 
originator  of  the  science  of  statistics,  he  was  the 
first  to  formulate  and  define  its  purpose. 

ACHEEON,  ak'e-ron  (Gk.  'A,xipuv,  Acheron) . 
Tlie  name  given  to  several  rivers  by  the  ancients. 
The  best  known  is  the  Acheron  in  Thesprotis, 
which  flows  through  the  lake  Acherusia,  and 
pours  itself  into  the  Ionian  Sea.  According  to 
Pausanias,  Homer  borrowed  from  the  river  in 
Thesprotis  the  name  of  his  infernal  Acheron. 
In  the  later  poets  and  mythographers  Acheron 
is  the  name  of  a  river  or  lake  in  the  lower 
world  across  which  the  souls  of  the  dead  were 
obliged  to  pass.  (See  Styx.)  The  lake  Ache- 
rusia in  Thesprotis  was  regarded  as  an  entrance 
t-^  the  lower  world,  and  the  name  was  also 
applied  to  other  places  where  the  same  belief 
prevailed,  e.g.,  a  walled  enclosure  near  a  temple 
at  Hermione  in  Argolis,  and  a  promontory  near 
Heracleia  in  Pontus.  ; 

A  CHEVAL  (a'she-val')  POSITION  (Fr.  d 
cheval.  on  horseback).  A  military  term  to  de- 
note the  position  of  an  array  where  a  river  or 
highway  separates  considerable  portions  of  the 
troops  and  is  perpendicular  to  the  front.  As  an 
instance  of  this  position  may  be  cited  the  case 
of  Wellington's  army  at  the  battle  of  Waterloo, 
where  it  was  a  cheval  on  the  road  from  Charleroi 
to  Brussels.  When  the  perpendicular  to  the 
front  is  formed  by  a  river,  possession  of  a  bridge 
is  necessary  in  order  to  secure  the  effective  co- 
operation of  the  troops  on  both  sides. 

ACHILL,  ak'il,  or  EAGLE  ISLE.  An  island 
off  the  west  coast  of  Ireland,  in  the  county  of 
Mayo.  It  is  15%  miles  long  by  121/,  miles  broad, 
and  has  several  mountains  composed  of  mica 
slate,  which  rise  to  an  elevation  of  about  2000 
feet.  There  are  several  villages,  and  a  popula- 
tion of  about  5000. 

ACHILLEA,  ak'il-le'a  (Lat.  achillcos,  mil- 
foil, yarrow,  said  to  have  been  discovered  by 
Achilles).  A  genus  of  plants  of  about  eighty 
species,  of  the  natural  order  Compositse,  having 
small  flowers  (heads  of  flowers)  disposed  in 
corymbs,  and  the  receptacle  covered  with  chaffy 
scales  (small  bractea;).  The  florets  of  the  ray 
are  fertile,  and  have  a  short,  roundish  tongue  or 
lip;  the  florets  of  the  disk  are  hermaphroditic, 
the  tube  of  the  corolla  flatly  compressed  and  two- 
winged;  the  involucre  is  imbricated.  The  com- 
mon Yarrow  or  Milfoil  {Achillea  millefolium) 
abounds  in  all  parts  of  Europe  and  in  many  ■ 
parts  of  North  America — into  which,  however,  1 
it  has  perhaps  been  carried  from  Europe —  ■ 
growing  in  meadows,  pastures,  etc.  It  is  about 
a  foot  in  height;  its  leaves  bipinnate,  the  pinna; 
deeply  divided,  the  segments  narrow  and 
crowded.  It  has  white  or  rose-colored  flowers. 
The  leaves  have  a  bitterish,  aromatic,  somewhat 
austere  taste,  and  little  smell;  the  flowers  have 
a  strong,  aromatic  smell,  with  an  aromatic  bitter 
taste,  and  contain  an  essential  oil.  a  resin,  bitter 
extractive,  gum,  several  salts,  and  traces  of  sul- 
phur. Both  leaves  and  flowers  are  used  in  medi- 
cine  as   a   powerful   stimulant  and   tonic.     The 


ACHILLEA. 

leaves  were  formerly  iiiueli  used  for  lieiiling 
wounds,  and  are  still  so  employed  by  tlie  com- 
luon  people  in  the  Ili<;lilaiiils  of  Scotland  and  in 
some  parts  of  the  Continent  of  Kurope.  The  ex- 
pressed juice  is  a  popular  spring  medicine  in  Ger- 
many. Yarrow  is  often  sown  along  with  grasses  in- 
tended to  form  jieriiianent  pasture  for  slice]),  hut 
in  the  United  States  it  is  generally  considered  a 
weed  in  pastures.  Achillea  moschata,  called 
IMusk  Milfoil,  is  cultivated  as  food  for  cattle  in 
Switzerland.  Achillea  moschata,  atrata,  and 
nana — all  natives  of  the  Alps — are  very  aro- 
matic, and  hear  the  name  of  Genipi  or  Genip. 
The  inhal>itant3  of  the  Alps  value  them  very 
highly,  and  use  tliem  for  making  wliat  is  called 
Swiss  tea.  Achillea  nana  is  said  to  be  used  in  mak- 
ing chartreuse.  They  are  very  stimulating  and 
tonic:  as  are  also  Achillea  setacea  and  Achillea 
nohilis,  both  natives  of  Switzerland  and  other 
middle  parts  of  Europe,  and  Achillea  ageratum, 
a  native  of  the  south  of  Kuroi)e.  used  by  the 
French  as  a  vulnerary,  and  called  hcrhe  au  chiir- 
pentier.  Sneezewort  {Achillea  ptarmica)  is  a 
native  of  Europe,  and  somewhat  introduced  into 
the  United  States,  one  to  three  feet  high,  with 
lanceolate  leaves,  and  much  larger  ilowcrs  than 
the  common  Milfoil.  It  grows  in  meadows  and 
damp  places.  The  root,  which  is  aromatic,  is 
used  as  a  substitute  for  Pellitory  of  Spain,  and 
the  whole  plant  is  pungent  and  provokes  a  flow 
of  saliva. 

ACHILLES,  a-kil'lez  (Gk.  'AxMi'ic,  ^chil- 
Icus).  The  hero  of  Homer's  Iliad,  and  the  type 
of  glorious  youth.  In  the  Homeric  poems  his 
story  is  simple.  The  son  of  King  Peleus  and  the 
sea-goddess  Thetis,  he  was  brought  up  at  his 
father's  court  in  Phthia  until  induced  to  take 
part  in  the  Trojan  War,  preferring  an  early  death 
with  fame  to  a  long  but  inglorious  life.  This 
fate  gives  Achilles  a  tinge  of  melancholy  charac- 
teristic of  the  Greek  mind.  While  the  Greeks 
weie  in  camp  before  Troy,  Achilles  plundered  the 
surrounding  country  and  secured  as  his  booty 
the  beautiful  Briseis.  The  Iliad  narrates  the 
wrath  of  Achilles  because  Agamemnon  deprived 
him  of  his  fair  slave  to  replace  Chryseis,  whom 
he  had  been  forced  to  restore  to  her  father  in 
order  to  avert  the  wrath  of  A])ollo  fiom  the 
Greeks.  In  the  absence  of  Achilles  the  Trojans 
drive  the  Greeks  to  their  ships,  and  their  de- 
struction is  averted  only  when  .\chilles  allows 
his  friend,  Patroclus,  to  lead  his  Myrmidons  to 
the  resciu>.  Pursuing  the  Trojans  to  their  walls, 
Patroclus  is  slain  by  Hector,  and  Achilles,  over- 
whelmed with  grief,  becomes  reconciled  with 
Agamemnon,  that  he  may  hasten  to  ol>tain  re- 
venge. He  returns  to  the  fight,  and  after  driv- 
ing the  Trojans  within  the  city,  slays  Hector 
and  drags  his  body  to  the  ships.  After  celebrat- 
ing the  funeral  of  Patroclus  with  gieat  pomp, 
he  yields  to  the  command  of  Zeus  and  allows 
Priam  to  ransom  the  body  of  his  son.  In  the 
Odyssci/  we  have  allusions  to  the  death  of 
Achilles,  his  splendid  burial,  and  the  renown  of 
his  son,  Neoptolemus.  Later  epic  poems  and 
other  eomi>ositions  add  many  details.  Accord- 
ing to  sonu'.  his  mother  rendered  him  invulner- 
able by  dipjjing  him  in  the  River  Styx;  but  his 
heel,  by  which  she  held  him,  was  not  immersed, 
and  here  he  received  his  <lealh  wound  from  an 
arrow.  He  was  educated  by  the  centaur  Chiron, 
and  was  afterward  hidden  by  his  mother  at  Sev- 
res, among  the  daughters  of  Lycomedes.  He 
was  needed,  however,  in  the  expedition  against 
Vol,  1— 7. 


73 


ACHIMENES. 


Troy,  and  was  deteited  l>y  the  craft  of  Odysseus, 
who  offered  a  sword,  as  well  as  trinkets,  to  the 
maidens.  When  a  trumpet  sounded  an  alarm 
.Achilles  at  once  seized  the  sword,  and,  being 
recognized,  was  then  easily  induced  to  join  the 
Greeks.  His  combats  with  Penthesilea,  ()ueen  of 
the  Auuizons,  and  with  .Mcmnim  (q.v.),  wlio  came 
to  aid  Priam  after  the  death  of  Hector,  were  fa- 
vorite subjects  with  Greek  artists.  He  met  his 
death  at  the  hands  of  Apollo  and  Paris  before 
the  Sca'an  gate,  or  in  the  temple  of  Apollo, 
where  he  had  gone  to  meet  Polyxena,  daughter 
of  Priam.  She  was  slaughtered  on  his  grave 
after  the  cajiture  of  Troy.  After  his  death  he 
was  transportc'd  to  the  Islands  of  the  Hlessed. 
where  he  was  imited  with  Medea.  Achilles  was. 
worshiped  in  l.aconia  and  other  parts  of  (ireeee, 
and  it  is  |)rol)able  that,  like  other  Greek  heroes, 
he  was  originally  a  god,  honored  especially  by 
the  Acha-ans  of  Phthiotis.  See  the  articles 
HoMEK  and  Tbo.j.\n  \Var. 

ACHILLES  TATIUS,  ta'shi-us  (Gk.  '.\,v(/- 
?.f  i'f  Tri-iof,  .lr;ii7/iii.s-  T(ilios).  A  Greek  writer, 
a  native  of  Alexandria,  who  ])robably  lived  in 
the  fifth  or  sixth  century  a.d.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  romance  in  eight  hooks,  entitled  The 
Hislorij  of  Lcucijipc  and  VUtophon.  in  which  he 
borrowed  freely  from  the  work  of  his  predecessor 
Heliodorus,  by  whom  alone  he  was  surpassed  in 
popularity.  \Vhile  his  work  is  graceful  in  style, 
it  is  inferior  to  that  of  his  model :  and  for  us 
it  is  marred  in  passages  by  the  grossest  pagan 
immorality.  It  was,  however,  freely  imitated 
by  later  writers,  especially  by  Eustathius  and 
Nieetes  Eugenianus  in  the  Byzantine  period. 
Suidas  says  that  the  author  became  a  Christian 
and  attained  to  the  oflHce  of  bishop,  but  the  truth 
of  his  statement  is  doubtful.  The  work  has  been 
edited  with  commentary  by  .Jacobs  (Leipzig, 
1821);  Hirschig  (Paris,"  18.3G)  ;  Hereher  (Leip- 
zig, 18.i8).  Consult  Rohde.  Drr  griechischc  Ro- 
man und  seine  Vorlinifrr  (Leipzig,  187G). 

ACHILLES  TEN'DON  (Lat.  Tendo  Achil- 
lis).  A  tendon  (o)  which  attaches  the  soleus  (6) 
and  gastrocnemius  muscles 
of  the  calf  of  the  leg  to  the 
heel-bone.  It  is  capable 
of  resisting  a  force  equal  to 
1000  pounds  weight,  and 
yet  is  occ;isionally  rup- 
tured bj'  the  contraction 
of  these  muscles  in  sud- 
den extension  of  the  foot. 
The  name  was  given  with 
reference  to  the  death  of 
Achilles  by  a  wound  in  the 
beel. 

ACHIMENES,  .•i-klm'^ 
nez  ( probably  from  Lat. 
Achwrnetiis,  Gk.  n,v"'/"'"'Vi 
achaimcnis;  an  amber-col- 
ored plant  in  India  used  in 
magical  arts).  A  genus  of 
plants  of  the  order  (ies- 
neracca;  (q.v.),  much  culti- 
vated as  a  greenhouse  herb. 
The  species  are  numerous 
— natives  of  tropical  Amer- 
ica. Aehimenes  is  propa- 
gated either  by  the  natural 
increase  of  the  rhizome  or 
by  cuttings.  If  the  rhizomes 
are  potted  by  April  1,  the  drooping  plant  comes 


ACDILLES  TEXDOS. 


ACHIMENES. 


74 


int.)  blossom  by  the  last  of  May  and  continues  to 
bloom  w-ithout  cessation  for  four  or  five  months. 
The  corolla  tube  is  cylindrical  and  the  limbs  are 
spreading.  The  blossoms  are  red,  blue  and 
■white,  with  all  intermediate  shades. 

ACHIN,  a-ehen',  or  ATCHEEN.  A  petty 
kingdom  of  about  20,000  sciiiaio  miles  area,  with 
more  than  half  a  million  inhabitants,  at  the 
north  end  of  Sumatra,  famed  from  ancient  times 
as-  part  of  the  Golden  Chersonese.  The  country 
is  mountainous  and  intersected  with  many  rivers 
The  famous  Gold  Mountain,  6000  feet  high,  is  at 
the  extreme  northern  point,  with  the  capital  city 
of  Achin  at  its  base. 

The  shorter  stature,  darker  color,  etc.,  ot  tne 
aborigines  of  Achin  has  led  some  authorities  to 
separate  them   from   the   Sumatrans   in   general, 
and  their  language  is  by  others  held  to  be  Poly- 
nesian rather  than  Malay  at  bottom.     While  un- 
doubtedly Jlalays,  the  Achinese,  like  several  other 
peoples  of  the  East  Indies,  may  have  a  strain  of 
Arab  blood.     In  the  seventh  century  the  Hindu 
missionaries   introduced  civilization,   and   many 
enii.'rants    from    India    settled    here.      In    the 
thirteenth  century  the  people  were  converted  to 
the  faith  of  Islam,  the  sultans  of  Achin  claiming 
descent  from  the  first  Mohammedan  missionary. 
When  in  the  sixteenth  century  Europeans  reached 
Achin,  thev  found  astonishing  wealth.     The  Ach- 
inese  sent"  an   embassy   to   the   powerful   Dutch 
republic,  and  the  envoys  had  audience  of  Prince 
Maurice  in  his  camp  before  Grave  in  1002.     ilie 
Dutch    kept    up    intermittent   trade   intercourse 
with  them  until   1811.  when  Sumatra  was  ceded 
to  the  British.     W  hen  the  Dutch  regained  nom- 
inal   possession.    Great    Britain    stipulated    that 
none  but  British  citizens  should  reside  in  Achin, 
and  that  the  Dutch  should  not  conquer  the  little 
kingdom,  the  English  wishing  to  retain  the  com- 
merce.    The  piratical  instincts  of  the  Achinese, 
liowever,  led  them  into  conflicts  with  the  Dutch, 
who    found    it   necessary   to   chastise   them.      In 
Tsn   by  the  Hague  Treaty,  the  British  withdrew 
their  reservation,  and  the  Dutch  sent  an  expedi- 
tion in  1873  to  capture  the  chief  city  and  invade 
the  country.     They  were  beaten  in  this,  as  well 
as  in  other  expeditions,  and  the  country  was  not 
pacified  until   several  years  later,   when  a  civil 
government    was    instituted.      The    Achin    wars 
have  cost  the  Netherlands  12,000  lives  and  nearly 
one    hundred   million   dollars    for   blockade    and 
naval  and  military  operations,  and  the  country 
is    yet    practically    unsubdued    in    the    interior. 
This  is  not  merely  owing  to  the  fanatical  spirit 
of  independence  in  the  natives,  but  also  and  more 
because    Achin    furnishes    a    rich    and    tempting 
field   for   British  blockade   runners.     There   was 
an  outbreak  in  1001.     There  are  numerous  wm-ks 
in  Dutch  treating  of  Achin,  and  there  are  in  Hol- 
land many  monuments  and  ti"Pl>i«s  of  ^he  war. 
Besides    tie    historical    work    of    Veth,    Atchui 
(Levden,    187:!),    the   standard    treatise   on   the 
Achinese  is  Snouck,  De  Ajehers    (two  volumes, 
Batavia,  18il3-n5). 

ACHMET,  aK'iuet.  See  Ahmed. 
ACHMET,  iiK'mgt,  or  AHMED,  iiii'med. 
The  name  of  three  sultans  ot  Turkey,  of  whom 
Achmet  III.  (reigned  170o-:iO)  was  the  most 
famous.  It  was  this  sovereign  who  sheltered 
Charles  XII.  after  his  defeat  at  Pultowa  in  1700. 
He  wrested  the  Morea  from  the  Venetians  in 
1715.  Having  invaded  Hungary,  he  was  defeated 
by  Prince  Eugene  at  Peterwardein  in  17 IG,  and 


ACHROMATISM. 

later  near  Belgrade,  and  compelled  to  cede  to 
Austria,  by  the  treaty  of  Passarovitz,  1718,  Bel- 
grade, the  Banat,  and  other  territories.  The 
soldiers  drove  him  from  the  throne  in  1730,  and 
he  died  in  prison  in  1730. 


A'CHOR.  A  valley  which  forms  the  north- 
ern boundary  of  Jud'ali  ( Joshua  xv  :  7 )  near 
Jericho.  Its'  identification  is  uncertain,  though 
Wady-el-Kelt  has  been  suggested,  which,  how- 
ever," is  not  broad  enough  to  become  "a  place 
for  the  herds  to  lie  down  in"    (Isaiah  Ixv  :  10). 

ACHO'RION.     See  Favus. 


ACHRAS,  fik'ras, 
ACHROMATIC, 


See  Black  Bully. 

ak'ru-mat'ik.       See 


Tele- 


scope 

ACHRO'MATISM 

a    priv.  +  xpi-if'tt, 


colorlessness,    from    Gk. 
a    a   piiv.-r  .i/-,-.   ^■l"oma,   color).     The  prop- 
erty by  virtue  of  which  certain  combinations  of 
lenses  and  prisms  refract  a  beam  of  white  light 
without  producing  dispersion   of   certain   colors 
( See  Disi-ERSiox. )      Newton,  misled  by  impei  feet 
experiments,  concluded  that  dispersion  could  not 
be  annulled  without  annulling  refraction      Hall, 
in  1733  and  later.  DollomK  independently),  found 
that  certain  media  have  large  rowers  of  refrac- 
tion  with    small    dispersion,    while    others    give 
small  refraction  with  large  dispersion;   so  that 
the   dispersion   of   two   colors   produced  by   one 
medium  can  be  corrected  by  that  due  to  another, 
while  the  deviation  of  the  light  from  its  orig- 
inal direction  is  not  entirely  annulled.     lor  ex_ 
ample,  by  properly  combining  a  convex  lens  of 
crown-glass  with  a  concave  one  of  fnt^glass  a 
"achromatic   lens"  can  be   produced  which  will 
have  the  same  focus  for  the  two  selected  colors, 
while  the  foci  for  the  other  colors  are  at  neigh- 
boring points  along  the  axis  of  the  lens      It  is 
thus  seen  that  the  achromatism  in  the  above  ar- 
rangement is  not  perfect.     In  Fig.   1   a  beam  of 
white  light  having  the 
direction     c     d     meets 
the    crown-glass    prism 
and  is  refracted.     Dis- 
persion      also       takes  ^ 
place,  and  the  beam  as  '' 
it  emerges  is  separated 
into  its  component  col- 
ors.     Adjacent    to    the 
prism  of 'crown-glass  is  one  of  flint-glass,  whose 
action  is  to  bring  together  the  rays  so  that  they 
emerge  parallel,  with  the  desired  deviation.  The 
reason  is  that  prisms  of  difierent  media  do  not 
give  cYactly  similar  spectra,  the  colors  being  dis- 
persed  according  to   different  laws   for   diff'erent 
"     1,  T7i:„    .i"  ,.u.-.,,rc-    nr.livriTT-inf ip   conibin.ations 


Fig.  1. 

ACHROMATIC  miSM. 


media.      Fif; 


shows  achromatic  combinations 
of  lenses  where  the 
flint  and  crown  glasses 
are  combined  with  the 
same  efl'ect  as  in  the 
achromatic  prism  il- 
lustrated. A  combi- 
nation of  three  lenses, 
or  prisms,  gives  a  bet- 
ter approximation  to 
absolute  achromatism 
than  a  combination  of 
two. 

If  a  lens  is  to 
be  used  for  visual  ob- 
servations, it  is  "corrected"  generally  for  a  defi- 
nite  wave-length  in  the  yellow  and  one  in  the 


ACUROMATIC  LENSES. 


ACHROMATISM. 

bluish-grpen,  i.e.  tlu'^e  twii  culois  are  brought 
t(i  tlw  saiiio  fdoiis;  Imt  if  it  is  to  Ix'  used  for 
photo<jraphic  purposes,  it  is  "oorrected"  for  two 
wave-lenstlis,  wliicli  incliide  lliose  radiations  pos- 
scssiiij,'  tlie  greatest  pliotogiaptiic  action.  There 
are  two  defects  whieli  a  lens  may  liave,  owing  to 
chromatic  aberration  (q.v.),  in  tluit  the  colored 
images  may  be  at  different  distances  from  the 
lens  and  that  they  may  be  of  ditVerent  sizes.  The 
second  of  these  defects  is  in.signiticant  if  the  lens 
is  thin;  and  tlie  first  may  be  '■ciirrei'tcd,"  as  just 
described,  by  combining  two  tliin  li'nses.  If  tlie 
lens  is  thick,  or  if  tlie  lenses  of  the  lens-system 
are  some  ilistance  apart,  the  second  of  the  above 
mentioned  errors  becomes  serious.  It  may,  how- 
ever, he  corrected. 

ACHTERMANN,  iic'ter-mAn,  Theouore 
Wii.iiKi.M  I  ITD'.i  -  KSS4).  A  (Jerman  sculptor. 
In  his  sculptures  he  devoted  himself  principally 
to  New  Testament  subjects.  While  at  Rome,  in 
1841.  he  prepared  a  statue  of  Christ  and  an 
"Ecce  Homo"  for  the  Duke  of  Aremberg.  His 
most  celebrated  luoductions  are  preserved  in  the 
cathedral  at  lliinster,  and  consist  of  a  "Pietil" 
and  a  "Descent  from  the  Cross."  Another  ad- 
mirable work  is  the  marble  altar  on  which  are  de- 
picted three  episodes  from  the  life  of  Christ  ( in 
relief),  prepared  in  I.S73  for  the  cathedral  at 
Prague. 

A  CHtJLA,  a-sho75'la  (Portug.).  A  dance 
similar  to  the  fandango   (q.v.). 

ACHURCH',  .Janet.  The  stage  name  of 
Janet  Achurch  Sharp,  an  English  actress,  the 
wife  of  Mr.  Charles  Charrington.  She  was  born 
in  Lancashire  and  first  appeared  in  London  at 
the  Olympic  Theatre  in  January,  1883.  In  1887 
she  joined  Beerbohm  Tree's  company,  and 
at  the  Novelty  Theatre,  June  7,  188!),  created 
in  English  the  part  of  Nora  Helmer  in  A  Doll's 
House.  This  was  the  first  presentation  of  an 
Ibsen  play  to  the  English  public.  She  has  since 
toured  with  a  (ompany  in  India  and  Australia, 
and  appeared  in  the  United  States  with  Richard 
Mansfield  (18n,5),  and  independently.  In  June, 
1897,  at  the  Olympic  Theatre,  London,  she  took 
the  Shakespearean  part  of  Cleopatra  to  the 
Antony  of  Louis  Calvert. 

ACHZIB,  flk'zib.  (1).  A  Phoenician  city 
claimed  by  Asher  (Joshua  xix  :29),  but  not 
conquered  (Judges  i:IU);  the  modern  Ez-Zib 
on  the  promontory  of  Ras-en-Nakurah.  Aehzib 
is  mentioned  by  Sennacherib.  (2)  A  town  in  the 
Shephelah  of  .Tudah  (Joshua  xv  :  44).  Possibly 
the  modern  'Ain-el-Kezbeh.  near  Bet-Nettif. 

ACIDASPIS,  !ls'r-(lris'])rs  (Gk.  aKi(,  akis, 
spine  -|-  (jaTr/f,  (/.<i/)i.s,  sliicld).  A  peculiar  genus 
of  triloliites  foiiiul  in  rocks  of  Silurian  and 
Devonian  age  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  world. 
The  individuals  arc.  as  a  rule,  small,  and  are 
.remarkable  becau.sc  of  the  spiny  ornamenta- 
tion of  the  dorsal  shield  or  carapace.  The  loba- 
tion  of  the  head  shield  is  rather  peculiar  and 
quite  unlike  that  seen  in  any  other  genus  of 
trilobites,  the  trilobite  divisicm  being  obscured 
by  a  number  of  supplementary  furrows  and  by 
the  strong  development  of  two  longitudinal  false 
furrows  between  the  normal  dorsal  furrows. 
The  thorax  contains  nine  or  ten  segments,  and 
the  tail-shield  is  of  rather  small  size.  In  some 
species  a  row  of  slender  spines  is  developed  upon 
the  sides  of  the  head-shield  and  a  long  spine 
projects    from    each     posterior    angle.     Besides 


75 


ACIDS. 


these  there  are  often  two  long  straight  or  curved 
spines  directed  upward  and  backward  from  the 
middle  posterior  edge  of  the  head.  Each  .seg- 
ment of  the  thorax  is  produced  laterally  into 
long  spines,  and  there  are  also  two  short  spines 
on  the  raised  median  portion  of  each  segment. 
The  tail-shield  is  in  nearly  all  species  likewise 
furnished  with  spines,  so  that  on  the  whole 
these  animals  must,  though  of  small  size,  have 
presented  a  rather  formidable  aspect  to  larger 
animals  which  sought  to  prey  upon  them.  A 
few  species  of  the  genus  are  of  particular  interest 
on  account  of  the  abnormal  development  of  the 
eyes,  which  are  placed  at  the  summits  of  highly 
elevated  slender,  though  immovable,  stalks, 
which  arrangement  enabled  the  animal  to  com- 
mand a  view  in  all  directions.  This  elevation  of 
the  eye  recalls  the  stalk-eyes  of  some  nifidern 
crabs  and  lobsters.  For  illustration,  see  Plate  of 
Tbilobites. 

ACIDIMETRY,  as'I-dlm'^-trl  (Lat.  acidus, 
sour  +  tik.  /lirpdi;  metrnn,  measure).  The 
determination  of  the  amount  of  acid  contained 
in  a  solid  or  liquid  substance.  When  the  cnm- 
])ound  is  a  solid,  the  determination  is  usually 
made  by  the  gravimetric  method,  which  consists 
in  the  dissolving  of  a  known  weight  of  the 
material,  and  its  sub.sequent  treatment  by  such 
reagents  as  will  yield  an  insoluble  compound, 
from  the  weight  of  which  the  amount  of 
acid  can  be  calculated.  When  the  substance  is 
a  liquid,  free  Irom  foreign  matter,  the  proportion 
of  acid  may  be  ascertained  by  determining  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  solution  by  means  of  a 
hydrometer,  but  in  case  of  mixtures  the  acidity 
of  a  solution  is  best  ascertained  by  the  volu- 
metric method,  which  is  described  under  Alkali- 

METEU. 

ACIDS,  fisldz  (Lat.  acidus,  sour).  A  large 
and  important  class  of  chemical  substances. 
They  all  contain  hydrogen,  part  or  all  of  which 
is  replaced  by  metals  when  the  acids  are  brought 
in  contact  with  metallic  hydroxides.  The  com- 
pounds formed  by  substituting  metals  for  the 
hydrogen  of  acids  are  termed  the  salts  of  those 
metals,  and  therefore  the  acids  themselves  may 
be  regarded  as  salts  of  hydrogen.  An  example 
inav  render  these  definitions  more  clearly  intel- 
ligible. When  the  sour  principle  of  vinegar  is 
brought  in  contact  with  potassium  hydroxide, 
a  reaction  ensues,  resulting  in  the  formation  of 
a  new  substance.  A  chemical  analysis,  com- 
bined with  a  determination  of  the  molecular 
weight  of  the  sour  principle  of  vinegar,  shows 
that  the  molecule  of  the  latter  must  be  repre- 
sented by  the  formula  CJI.O,:  on  the  other 
hand,  the  substance  fiu-mcd  with  ]iotassium 
hydroxide  is  represented  by  the  formula  CJl.KO,. 
Evidently,  part  of  the  hydrogen  of  the  sour  prin- 
ciple of  vinegar  has  been  replaced  by  the  metal 
|iotassium  ( K ) .  We  tlieref(ue  class  the  sour 
principle  of  vinegar  with  the  acids  (it  is  the  well- 
known  acetic  acid)  :  and  wr  class  the  substance 
obtained  by  its  action  on  potassium  hydroxide 
with  the  salts  (it  is  called  the  acetate  of  potas- 
sium, while  acetic  acid  itself  may  be  called  the 
acetate  of  hydrogen). 

Most  acids  have  a  sour  taste  and  change  the 
blue  color  of  litmus  to  red.  These  properties, 
however,  are  not  strictly  characteristic  of  acids, 
silicic  acid,  for  instance,  possessing  neither, 
thoush — like  a  true  acid — it  combines  with 
metallic  hydroxides  to  form  salts. 


ACIDS. 

According  to  the  maximiini   number  of  their 
hydrogen  atoms  replaceable  by  metals  acids  are 
termed   mono-basic,   dibasic,   tri-basic,   etc.     No 
matter  how  great  the  excess  of  potassium  hydrox- 
ide employed,  only  one  hydrogen  atom  of  acetic 
acid,  CjH.O;,  can  be  replaced  by  potassium,  the 
only  resulting  salt  having  the  formula  CjHjKO,. 
Acetic  acid  is,  therefore,  said  to  be  a  mono-basic 
acid.     By   the   action    of   a    limited   amount  of 
potassium  hydroxide  on  sulphuric  acid   (H^SOJ 
a    salt    called    the    acid    sulphate    of    potassium 
(HKSOj)    may  be  obtained;  this  salt  is  formed 
by  substituting  the  metal  potassium  for  one  of 
the  hydrogen  atoms  of  sulphuric  .acid.     But  if 
an  excess  of  potassium  hydroxide  is  used,  both 
of   the    h3'drogen    atoms    of    sulphuric    acid    are 
replaced  by  potassium,  and  the  salt  known  as 
the  neutral   sulphate  of   potassium    (K-SOJ    is 
produced.     Sulphuric    acid    is    therefore   said   to 
be  a  di-basic  acid.     In  like  manner  phosphoric 
acid  (HjPOj)  is  found  to  be  a  tri-basic  acid,  etc. 
Acids  containing  carbon  among  their  constit- 
uent elements  are  called  organic  acids,  because 
some    of    them    were    originally    foiuid    in    the 
organic  world.     Jlost  organic  acids  arc  found  to 
contain  one  or  more  carboxyl  groups    (COOH)  ; 
it  is  the  hydrogen  of  these  groups  that  is  replace- 
able by  metals.     These  acids  are  called  carboxylic 
acids,  and   their  basicity   is   determined  by  the 
number  of  carboxyl  groups  they  contain.     The 
carboxylic  acids  are  subdivided  into  carbocyclic 
and   fatty   acids,   according   as   their   molecules 
do  or  do  not  contain   those  rings  of  which   the 
so-called    aromatic   benzene-nucleus    is   the   most 
important.     Thus  benzoic  acid,  C'aHjC'OOH,  is  a 
carbocyclic    acid;    acetic    acid,    CHjCOOH,    is    a 
fatty  acid.     An  interesting  group  of  substances 
belonging  to  the  aromatic  series  and,  like  acids, 
combining    with    metallic    hydroxides,    are    not 
included  among  the  true  aromatic  acids  because 
they  do  not  contain  the  carboxyl  group.     These 
substances,   called   phenols    (q.v. ),   are  found   to 
be    weaker    than    the    weakest    carboxylic    acid 
known,  viz.,  carbonic  acid. 

The  specific  strength  of  an  acid  depends,  natu- 
rally, on  its  composition  and  chemical  consti- 
tution. But  the  precise  nature  of  that  relation  is 
as  yet  unknown.  The  correctness  of  the  very 
methods  of  measuring  the  strength  of  acids  is, 
according  to  some  eminent  authors,  still  subject 
to  doubt.  It  is,  however,  remarkable  and  cannot 
be  denied,  that  the  dilTerent  methods  employed 
yield  very  nearly  coincident  results. 

One  of  those  methods  consists  in  determining 
the  avidity  of  acids  for  a  metallic  hydroxide, 
as  shown  by  the  proportion  in  which  the  latter 
is  distributed  between  two  acids  when  brought 
in  contact  with  a  mixture  of  the  two,  the  amount 
of  metallic  hydroxide  employed  being  insufficient 
to  saturate  both  acids  completely.  For  example : 
sodium  hydroxide,  sulphuric  acid,  aiul  nitric 
acid  are  weighed  out  in  such  quantities  that 
the  sodium  hydroxide  is  just  sufficient  to  neu- 
tralize either  one  of  the  two  acids.  When  the 
three  substances  are  now  mixed  together  in 
aqueous  solution,  it  is  found  that  two-thirds 
of  the  sodium  hydroxide  have  been  taken  up  by 
the  nitric  acid  and  only  one-third  by  the  sulphu- 
ric acid.  The  conclusion  is  drawn  that  nitric 
acid  is  twice  as  strong  an  acid  as  sulphuric  acid. 
It  is  similarly  found  that  hydrochloric  acid,  too, 
is  twice  as  strong  as  sulphuric  acid,  and  lionce 
possesses  the  same  strength  as  nitric  acid.  Acetic 
acid  is  found  to  be  very  weak. 


76 


ACIDS. 


Another  interesting  metliod  of  determining  tiie 
relative  strength  of  acids  consists  in  measuring 
the  rapidity  with  which  various  acids  are  capa- 
ble of  effecting  the  inversion  of  sugar ;  that  is  to 
say,  the  decomposition  of  sugar  into  dextrose 
and  levulose,  a  reaction  taking  place  under  the 
influence  of  acids,  according  to  the  following 
equation : 

C,.H„,0„    +     H,0     =     C'„H,,0„    +     C„H,,0, 
Cane-sugar  Dextrose  Levulose 

For  example,  if  equivalent  quantities  of  nitric 
and  hydrochloric  acids  are  added  to  two  equal 
portions  of  a  solution  of  cane-svigar,  it  is  found 
that,  under  the  same  conditions  of  temperature 
and  concentration,  the  inversion  takes  place  with 
equal  rapidity  in  both  cases;  the  conclusion  is 
drawn  tliat  nitric  and  hydrochloric  acids  are  \ 
equally  strong  acids.  It  is  similarly  found  that 
these  acids  are  about  twice  as  strong  as  sul- 
phuric acid,  while  acetic  acid  is  found  to  be 
very  weak. 

When  an  acid  is  dissolved  in  water,  its  mole- 
cules are  assumed  to  become  dissociated  into 
ions,  some  of  which  are  charged  with  positive, 
some  with  negative,  electricity.  Thus  acetic 
acid  is  supposed  to  break  up  according  to  the 
following  equation:  ^ 

CR,COOH     =     H     -f     CH:,COO  I 

Acetic  acid  M 

The  dissociation  is  usually  incomplete;  that  is 
to  say,  only  a  fraction  of  the  amount  of  acid 
in  solution  is  dissociated  into  ions,  the  rest 
remaining  undissoeiated.  So  that  a  solution  of 
acetic  acid,  for  instance,  contains  three  kinds 
of    particles,    viz.,    (I)    positive   hydrogen    ions, 

H;  (2)  negative  ions,  CH,COO;  and  (3)  electri- 
cally neutral  (undissoeiated)  acetic  acid  mole- 
cules, CH.COOH.  The  magnitude  of  the  fraction 
dissociated,  or,  as  it  is  called,  the  degree  of 
dissociation  of  an  acid,  depends  (a)  upon  the 
amount  of  acid  in  solution;  (b)  upon  the  tem- 
perature; and  (c)  upon  the  nature  of  the  acid. 
Under  the  same  conditions  of  concentration  and 
temperature  the  number  of  free  ions  in  solutions 
of  different  acids  depends  U])on  nothing  but  the 
nature  of  the  acids.  And  as  according  to  the 
electrolytic  theory  the  capacity  of  an  acid  for 
conducting  electricity  depends  upon  nothing  but 
the  presence  of  free  ions  in  its  solution,  tlie 
electrical  conductivity  of  the  solution  may  be 
taken  as  a  measure,  so  to  speak,  of  the  nature 
of  the  acid. 

Now,  when  the  acids  are  tabulai'ly  arranged 
in  the  order  of  their  electrical  conductivit}^,  it  is 
found  that  the  order  is  the  same  as  when  they 
are  arranged  according  to  their  avidity  for 
metallic  hydroxides,  or  when  they  are  arranged 
in  the  order  of  the  rapidity  with  which  they 
can  effect  the  inversion  of  cane-sugar. 

A  remarkable  relation  is  thus  seen  to  exist 
between  three  phenomena  having  apparently  no 
connection  with  one  another.  The  common  cause 
of  these  phenomena  is  assumed  to  be  the  pres- 
ence of  free  hydrogen  ions  in  an  acid  solution. 
Furthermore,  on  this  assumption  the  neutrali- 
zation of  acids  by  metallic  hydroxides  is  ex- 
plained in  the  following  manner.  The  fact  that 
pure  water  is  a  non-conductor  of  electricity 
proves  that  its  molecules  are  not  dissociated 
into   ions.     If   ions   formed  by  the   elements   of 


ACTDS.  -; 

wafer  meet  in  n  solutiDii.  they  must  immeiliatoly 
eomhiiic  to  form  uiuiiss<niiited  nmleiiilcs  of 
water.      Now,    while    the    solution    of    an    aciil 

+ 
contains   electropositive   hydrogen   ions,   H,   the 
solution  of  a  metallic  liyilroxide  contains  electro- 

ncfiative  hydroxyl  ions,  OH.  When  the  solutions 
are  mixed,  these  ions  combine  into  neutral  mole- 
cules of  water,  according  to  the  following  equa- 
tion: 

+  — 

H     +     OH      =      H,0 
Water 

The  disappearance  of  free  hydroxyl  and  hydro- 
yen  ions  as  sudi  causes  the  simultaneous  disap- 
pearance of  the  |)ropertics  both  of  the  basic 
liydroxide  and  of  the  acid;  and  the  acid  and 
base  are  said  to  have  neutralized  each  other. 

ACIBEALE,  a'chfrft-ii'Ift  (Sicil.  laci) .  A 
city  in  Sicily,  r)2.5  feet  above  the  sea,  at  the 
mouth  of  tlic  River  Aci,  which  descends  from 
^tount  Etna  to  form  a  small  harbor  here,  9 
miles  northeast  of  Catania  (Map:  Italy,  K  10). 
The  broad  streets,  spacious  houses,  and  high 
towers  rest  on  beds  of  lava,  from  which  many 
of  them  were  constructed.  The  climate  is  con- 
sidered very  healthful,  and  in  summer  the  Terme 
di  Santa  \cncrc  oilers  baths  of  tc])i(l  mineral 
water  containing  sulphur,  salt,  and  iodine.  There 
are  pleasant  walks  and  drives  to  neighboring 
villages  on  the  slopes  iif  ilount  Ktna,  and  the 
grotto  of  (Jalatea  iind  the  cave  of  I'olyphemus 
are  in  the  neighborhood.  The  coast  south  of 
Acireale  is  stec|),  and  has  risen  more  than  40 
feet  during  the  historical  period.  In  the  sea 
near  by  rise  the  Scogli  de'  Ciclopi.  the  rocks 
which  according  to  tra<liti(in  were  luulcil  after 
the  wily  LHysses  by  the  ))linded  Pi>Iy]>l\finus. 
The  most  beautiful  of  them  is  about  2:!0  feet 
high  and  2300  feet  in  circuTuference,  and  consists 
of  biisalt  containing  wonderful  crystals  and  cov- 
ered with  hard  limestone  that  carries  fossil 
shells.  The  city  has  a  gymnasium  and  a  techni- 
cal school,  and  one  of  the  old  families  possesses 
a  splendid  collection  of  Sicilian  coins.  The  man- 
ufactures are  silk,  linen,  and  cotton  goods,  knives 
and  shears,  and  there  is  an  important  commerce 
in  Max  and  grain.     Pop.,  1881,  39,000. 

A'CIS  (Gk.  "A/cif,  Akis).  A  small  stream 
flowing  from  the  foot  of  Mount  Etna  in  Sicily. 
Legend  derived  the  name  from  Acis,  son  of 
I'aunus  and  Sym;rtliis.  beloved  by  the  nymph 
(ialalea.  The  Cyclops  Polyphemus,  jealous  of 
the  boy,  crushed  him  under  a  rock,  and  his 
blood,  gushing  forth,  was  changed  into  the  river. 
See  Galatea. 

A'CIS  AND  GAL'ATE'A.  TIic  title  of  a 
pastoral  seren;itii  or  cantata  composed  by  Handel 
and  produced  about  1720.  The  words  are  by 
Gay,  Pope,  and  Hughes.  It  was  acted  as  an 
opera  at  the  Hayniarket  Theatre,  London,  in 
1732,  without  the  consent  of  the  composer,  and 
has  Ix'cn  since  repeated  at  Drury  Lane. 

ACKERMANN,  ak'erinan,  KoKRAD  Ernst 
(1712-71).  One  of  tlic  founders  of  'icrman  dram- 
atic art.  He  lieg:in  his  career  as  an  actor  with 
the  famous  Schrnicmann  company  at  Liincburg  in 
Jantiary,  1740.  Upon  the  outbreak  of  the  dis- 
astrous Seven  Years'  War  he  sold  a  theatre  he 
h:id  erected  in  Kiinigsberg.  and  the  loss  thus  en- 
tailed compelled  him  thenceforth  to  lead  a  wan- 


7  ACKNOWLEDGMENT. 

dering  life  with  his  troupe.  t)u  .luly  31,  17(1.5, 
he  opened  ii  new  theatre  at  Hamburg,  which, 
according  to  Lessing,  eventually  set  the  standard 
for  theatrical  performances  in  Germany.  He- 
sides  the  members  of  his  own  family,  the  com- 
panies organized  by  .\ckerman  included  some 
of  the  ablest  talent  in  (iermany.  The  theatre 
was  conducted  by  him  initil  17(17.  when  it  passed 
into  the  hands  of  twelve  citizens  of  Hamburg, 
and  was  thereafter  known  as  the  Deutschcs  A'a- 
tionnltliriitcr.  Ackerman's  representations  were 
models  of  freshness  and  vigor,  and  although  he 
lacked  qualifications  requisite  for  heroic  and 
emotional  parts,  his  acting  of  many  character 
roles  was  remarkable. 

ACKERMANN,  Rinoi.pn  (1704-1834).  A 
(icrmiin-lMiglisIi  inventor  and  publisher.  He  was 
born  at  Schnceberg.  Saxony,  and  followed  the 
occupation  of  coach  builder  and  saddler  in  vari- 
ous German  cities,  as  well  as  in  Paris  and  Lon- 
don. He  established  an  art  scluxd  in  London  in 
179,5.  In  1801  he  patented  a  method  of  render- 
ing paper,  cloth,  and  other  fabrics  waterproof, 
and  for  this  purpose  erected  a  factory  at  Chelsea, 
Lngland.  He  also  contributed  greatly  to  the  de- 
velopment of  lithography.  It  is,  however,  as  a 
l)utilishcr  of  fine  art  subjects  that  Ackermann 
is  best  known.  His  greatest  achievement  in  this 
field  was  tlie  llcixtxilortj  of  Artx,  Literature, 
Fdfihiaiif:,  Mfiinifactiircn,  etc.,  a  publication  which 
was  continued  regularly  until  1S28,  when  forty 
volumes  had  appeared.  Many  of  the  plates  were 
supplied  by  Kowlandson  and  other  eminent  art- 
ists. Among  his  other  numerous  illustrative 
works  is  The  M'orld  in  Miniature  (43  volumes, 
12mo.  (i:!7  (ilatcs.  1821-2(11. 

ACKNOWL'EDGMENT.  (1.)  An  admission 
by  a  i^erson  that  he  is  owing  a  debt  or  is  subject 
to  a  liability,  which,  but  for  such  acknowledg- 
ment, would  be  barred  by  the  statute  of  limita- 
tions. It  need  not  be  in  any  set  form  of 
words,  but  it  must  be  a  clear  admission  of  an 
identified  liability,  and  modern  statutes  often  re- 
quire it  to  be  in  writing.  (2.)  The  term  is  also 
a|)plied  to  the  formal  act  of  declaring,  before  a 
notary  public  or  other  proper  ofiicer.  that  a  writ- 
ten instrument  executed  by  the  declarant  is  his 
act  and  deed.  It  is  applied  also  to  the  certificate 
of  the  ofiicer  setting  forth  the  facts  connected 
with  such  declaration.  .\n  iicknowledgmcnt  is 
not  essential  to  the  valiility  of  ;ni  instrument,  un- 
less made  .so  by  statute,  althougli  by  recording 
acts  (q.v.)  it  is  generally  required  in  order  that 
the  instnnncnt  may  be  lawfully  recorded.  In 
England  and  in  many  of  our  States,  a  deed  of  con- 
veyance or  release  of  dower  by  a  married  woman 
is  declared  invalid  by  statute,  unless,  upon  an 
examination  apart  from  her  husband,  she  ac- 
knowledges that  she  executed  the  deed  of  her 
own  free  will.  Such  a  conveyance  has  t:iken  the 
place  of  the  conveyance  by  fictititnis  siiit.  known 
as  a  fine  (q.v.).  The  object  of  this  legislation 
has  been  declared  by  the  United  States  Supreme 
Court  to  be  twofold:  not  only  to  protect  the 
wife  by  making  it  the  duty  of  the  ofTicer  taking 
the  acknowledgment  to  certify  that  she  has  not 
acted  under  compiilsion  of  her  husband,  or  in 
ignorance  of  the  contents  of  the  deed,  but  also 
to  facilitate  the  conveyance  of  the  estates  of 
married  women,  and  to  secure  and  jwrpetuate 
evidence  upon  which  innocent  grantees  as  well 
as  subsequent  purchasers  may  rely  that  the  re- 
quirements   of    the    statute    necessary    to    give 


ACKNOWLEDGMENT.  78 

validity  to  the  deed  have  been  complied  with. 
Such  an  examination  and  certificate  is  a  quasi- 
judicial  act,  and  can  be  impeached  and  invalided 
only  for  fraud.  Judges,  clerks  of  courts,  mayors, 
notaries  public,  commissioners  of  deeds,  and  jus- 
tices of  the  peace  are  authorized  in  most  States 
to  take  acknowledgments.  The  laws  of  the  State 
in  which  the  acknowledgment  is  to  be  used  de- 
termine its  sufficiency.  For  forms  of  acknowl- 
edgments consult  Hiibbell,  Lrgal  Directory  for 
Lawyers  and  Business  Men  (New  York,  revised 
annually).  See  the  authorities  referred  to  under 
Deeh. 

AC'LAND,  Christian  Henrietta  Caroline 
( 1750-1815) .  Commonly  known  as  Lady  Harriet 
Acland,  the  wife  of  John  Dyke  Acland,  an  Eng- 
lish officer  in  the  American  revolution.  She  was 
married  in  1770,  and  in  1776  accompanied  her 
husband,  then  commander  of  grenadiers,  to  Amer- 


ACNE. 


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ACLINIC  LINE. 


ica,  and  with  him  endured  most  of  the  hard- 
ships of  the  Burgoyne  campaign.  Major  Acland 
became  dangerously  ill  in  Canada,  but  was 
nursed  back  to  health  by  her,  and  was  again 
tenderly  cared  for  by  her  after  being  wounded 
in  the  battle  of  Hubbardton  (July  7,  1777).  In 
the  second  battle  of  Saratoga  (October  7,  1777) 
he  was  severely  wounded  and  became  a  prisoner 
in  the  hands  of  the  Americans.  Lady  Acland, 
hearing  of  this,  bravely  entered  the  American 
camp,  where  she  was  received  v.-ith  the  utmost 
courtesy.  She  rejoined  her  husband  at  AUiany, 
and  nursed  him  until  his  wounds  had  healed, 
when  she  returned  with  liim  to  England.  IMajor 
Acland  died  in  1778,  as  the  result  of  a  cold  con- 
tracted while  fighting  a  duel  to  vindicate  the 
courage  of  the  Americans,  and  Lady  Harriet, 
contrary  to  the  usual  accounts,  did  not  marry 
again.  Consult:  Stone,  Skcteh  of  Lady  Harriet 
Acland,  in  Hallads  and  Poems  liclating  to  the 
Burgoyne  Campaign   (Albany,  1893). 

ACLAND,  Sir  Henry  Wentworth  Dyke 
(1815-1900).  An  English  physician.  He  was 
born  at  Exeter  and  was  educated  at  Oxford.  He 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Oxford  University 
Museum,  and  in  1859  published,  with  Ruskin, 
an  account  of  the  aims  of  that  institution.  He 
accompanied  the  Prince  of  Wales  to  America  in 


1860.  In  1894  he  tendered  his  resignation  as 
regius  profes.sor  of  medicine  at  O-xford,  which 
position  he  had  occupied  since  1858.  His  more 
important  publications  included  the  Memoir  on 
the  Visitation  of  the  Cholera  in  Oxford  in  lS5.!i, 
and  Village  Health   (1884). 

ACLAND,  .John  Dyke.  See  Acland,  Chris- 
TiA.x   Henrietta  Caroline. 

ACLIN'IC  LINE  (Unbending,  unwavering, 
from  Gk.  d,  a,  priv.+ KA/wn',  klincin,  to  incline). 
This  is  an  imaginary  line  around  the  earth  be- 
tween the  tropics  where  the  magnetic  needle  has 
no  inclination;  that  is,  where,  when  balanced 
free  to  turn  in  any  direction,  it  places,  itself 
horizontal.  It  is  called  the  magnetic  equator, 
and  is  about  90  degrees  from  the  magnetic  poles. 
The  line  is  variable  and  irregular.  In  1901,  in 
the  Western  Hemisphere,  it  was  south,  and,  in  the 
eastern,  north,  of  the  geographical  equator.  See 
Magnetism,  Terrestrial. 

AC'MITE  (Gk.  d«//^,  CTfcme,  point,  edge).  A 
sodium-iron  silicate  that  crystallizes  in  the 
monoclinie  system,  has  a  vitreous  to  resinous 
lustre,  and  is  red  to  bro\vn  and  green  in  color. 
It  occurs  in  the  older  rocks  in  Sweden  and 
Cireenland,  and  in  the  United  States  minute 
crystals  have  been  found  in  northwestern  New 
Jersey,  while  fine  prismatic  crystals,  frequently 
eight  inches  in  length,  occur  at  Hot  Springs  and 
Magnet  Cove.  Ark.  It  is  called  acmite  from  the 
sharp  pointed  extremities  of  its  crystals. 

ACNE  (probably  from  Gk.  i.Kfiif,  akme,  a 
point).  An  inflammatory  structural  disorder 
of  the  sebaceous  glands  or  follicles  of  the  skin 
(q.v. ).  Dust  plugs  the  outlets  of  some  follicles, 
forming  "black  heads"  or  comedones.  Retention 
of  the  sebum  causes  irritation  of  the  follicle, 
leading  to  increased  secretion  and  congestion  of 
the  surrounding  tissue.  Pressure  with  a  watch 
key  or  the  finger  nails  causes  expulsion  of  the 
sebum  in  a  little  spiral  white  mass,  with  a  black 
point  or  anterior  end,  erroneously  regarded  as  a 
worm.  In  the  midst  of  the  white  mass  of  seba- 
ceous matter,  a  parasite,  Aearits  follieidorum.  is, 
however,  often  found.  Some  points  suppurate 
and  some  intermediate  follicles  become  inflamed, 
and  pimples  (papules),  as  well  as  hardened 
masses,  appear.  This  variety  of  acne  is  called 
Acne  vulgaris.  Antemia,  dyspepsia,  consti- 
pation, and  uterine  disorders  may  be  the  indirect 
causes  of  acne,  the  immediate  cause  being  the 
entrance  of  the  Staphylococcus  pyogenes  (the 
germ  of  suppuration)  into  the  sebaceous  follicles. 
Treatment  must  be  directed  against  the  indirect 
causes  mentioned,  and  also  vigorous  local  treat- 
ment must  be  employed.  Internal  remedies  in- 
clude aperients,  mineral  waters,  cod  liver  oil, 
hypophosphites,  malt  extract,  arsenic,  iron,  mer- 
curj',  and  sulphur.  External  remedies  include 
salicylic  acid,  ichthyol,  mercury,  borated  alcohol, 
sulphur,  zinc,  and  caustic  potash.  Acne  rosacea 
is  a  chronic  hypera-mic  disease  of  the  face,  more 
especially  of  the  nose,  characterized  by  hyper- 
trophy, redness,  dilatation  of  the  blood  vessels 
and  acne.  In  one  form  acne  papules  and  pus- 
tules are  plenty,  and  appear  on  a  background  of 
bright  red  infiltrated  skin.  In  the  other  form 
of  Acne  rosacea  there  is  a  general  erythema  or 
redness,  with  enlargement  of  the  superficial 
veins  of  the  skin,  and  frequently  a  hypertrojihy 
of  the  nose  or  chin.  If  extensive,  and  if  the 
hypertrophy   becomes   excessive,   the   term   Acne 


ACNE. 

hyportropliica  is  applied  to  tlipsp  casps.  If  the 
usual  acne  tieatinent  fails,  scarification  or  re- 
moval (if  the  surface  with  the  knife  is  necessary 
in  -Acne  rosacea  and  Acne  hypertrophica.  In 
Acne  atrophica,  which  usually  occurs  upon  the 
temples  and  liorder  of  the  scalp,  wings  of  the 
nostrils  and  between  the  eyebrows,  there  is  ne- 
crosis of  the  tissues  with  result  inf;  contractions 
and  pits.  In  Acne  keloid  there  is  a  deep  infil- 
tration of  the  true  skin  with  destruction  or  al- 
teration of  the  hair.  Its  favorite  seat  is  on  the 
back  of  the  neck,  where  it  appears  as  nodulated, 
hard   tumors.     Cauterization  is  the  treatment. 

ACOCK'BILL.     See  Anchor. 

AC(EMET.ffi,  as'A-rae'tS  (Gk.a,  a,  priv. + 
KOt/jdaOai,  koiiniislliui,  to  sleep).  A  class  of 
Greek  monks  called  watchers,  who  chanted  service 
continuously  day  ami  night,  dividing;,  like  sailors, 
into  tliree  watches.  They  <uiginatcd  about  400 
A.D.  on  the  Euphrates,  later  appeared  in  Con- 
8tantino]de,  and  established  many  monasteries, 
the  chief  one  being  the  Studium  in  Constanti- 
nople itself,  erected  by  the  consul  Studius  in 
471.  They  were  excommunicated  in  .5.'i4  by  Pope 
John  U.  for  opposing  the  foriiuila,  "One  of  the 
Trinity  sullered,"  and  thus  placing  themselves 
on  the  Xcstorian  side. 

ACOIN,  flk'd-In.  A  white  crystalline  sub- 
.stance.  soluble  in  water,  derived  from  guanin, 
and  (dosely  related  to  caffeine  and  theobromine. 
Chemically,  it  is  dipara-anisyl-mono-phen-ethyl- 
puanidin-chlor-hydrate.  Experiments  have  shown 
that  it  is  less  toxic  than  cocaine  (q.v.). 
like  which  it  is  employed  as  a  local  an.-psthetic 
in  the  eye.  It  has  been  used  by  dropping  an 
aqueous  solution  upon  the  conjunctiva,  causing 
more  pain  than  cocaine,  and  also  seeming  less 
etfective  than  cocaine  in  cases  in  which  there  was 
congestion.  In  other  cases  it  has  been  found 
as  rapidly  eflicient  as  cocaine,  but  producing  no 
change  in  the  pupil,  accommodation  or  intra- 
ocular tension.  After  cocainizing  the  conjunc- 
tiva it  iiuiy  be  injected  without  pain. 

ACOLLAS,  i\'k6'la'.  Emile  (182(1-91).  A 
French  jurist  and  publicist.  He  was  born  at 
La  CliAtre,  and  was  educated  at  Bourges  and 
Paris.  He  was  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  rep- 
resentatives at-the  Congress  at  Geneva  in  1867, 
when  the  formation  of  a  general  European  demo- 
cratic confederation  was  advocated,  and  upon  his 
return  to  France  was  condemned  to  one  year's 
imprisonment  for  his  active  participation  in  the 
deliberations  of  that  party.  In  1871  the  Paris 
ConiimiiK'  nominated  him.  during  his  absence  in 
!>witzerl:ind,  president  of  the  legal  faculty,  and 
in  IKSO  lie  was  appointed  inspector-general  of  the 
penitentiaries.  .Among  his  numerous  publica- 
tions, all  of  which  emphasize  the  principles 
"Droit  et  Liberte,"  the  most  important  is  Cours 
iliinnituirc  dr  droit,  a  work  consisting  of  seven 
volumes,  published  in  the  form  of  manuals. 

ACOLYTES,  ak'6-lits  (Gk.  aKO/oiftif,  aVo- 
loulluju.  a  follower).  A  name  occurring  first 
about  the  third  century,  and  applied  to  func- 
tionaries who  assisted  the  bislio])s  and  priests  in 
the  performance  of  religious  rites,  ligliting  the 
candles,  presenting  the  wine  and  water  at  the 
connnunion,  etc.  They  were  considered  as  in  holy 
orders,  and  ranked  liext  to  sub-deacons.  These 
services  have  since  the  seventh  century  been  per- 
formed by  laymen  and  boys,  who  are  imjjroperly 
called   acolytes;   but   in   the   Koman   Church   as- 


79 


ACONITE. 


pirants  to  the  priesthood  are  still  at  one  stage 
consecrated  as  acolytes,  and  receive  candles  and 
cups  as  the  s^inbojs  of  the  office.  See  Ordeks, 
Holy. 

ACOMA,  ii'kfi-mft.  An  Indian  puM)Io  In 
Valencia  County.  New  Jlexico.  about  70  miles 
west  of  .\ll>U(iuer<iue  (.Man:  New  Mexico,  E  2). 
Population,  in  lilOO,  4!I2;  in  HI02,  estimated.  G50. 
With  Isleta  it  has  the  distinction  of  occupying 
its  sixteenth-century  site,  and  is  the  oldest  con- 
tinuously occupied  town  in  the  United  States. 
It  was  visited  (1540)  by  niend)-<rs  of  Coronado's 
exjwdition,  by  Espejo  ( 1583),  and  Juan  de  Ofiate 
(1598).  Espejo  named  it  Aconuj ;  previously  it 
was  known  as  Acus.  Acuco,  and  Coco.  In  De- 
cember, l.')!)8,  Juan  de  Zaldivar,  of  Onate's  force, 
visited  Acoma  and,  with  half  his  party  of  30, 
was  killed  by  the  natives.  In  the  next  month  his 
brother  \'icente  killed  half  the  Acoma  pojjulation 
of  ,'iOOO  and  partly  burned  the  piu-blo.  Francis- 
cans labored  here  before  1020  and  later  estab- 
lislied  the  San  Estevan  Mission.  The  Acomaa 
stjccessively  occupied  many  village  sites  in  pre- 
historic times,  the  last  before  Acoma  being  Kat- 
zinio,  the  enchanted  mesa,  three  miles  distant. 
Water  in  the  Acoma  mesa  is  obtained  from  natural 
cavities  in  the  rocky  summit  (.'i57  feet  high). 
The  Acoma  reservation  comprises  05,702  acres. 
Consult:  H.  H.  Bancroft.  I/I.stunj  of  Arizona 
and  Xew  Mexico  (San  Francisco,  1889)  ;  Lum- 
mis,  ]Aind  of  Poco  Ticmpo  (New  York.  180.3); 
and  Hodge.  "The  Enchanted  Mesa."  in  Sntional 
Geo3r«/j/i.rc-l/«3asinc,  vol.  viii.(WaBhington, 1897). 

ACONCAGUA,  a'k6n-ka'g\va ;  Span.-Amer. 
pron.  kii'wa.  An  extinct  volcano  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  Andes,  situated  in  lat.  32°  39'  S., 
long.  70°  W.,  on  the  boundary  line  between 
Chile  and  Argentina,  and  belonging  to  the  lat- 
ter (Map:  Chile.  C  10).  It  is  usually  consid- 
ered tlie  loftiest  mountain  in  America,  its  es- 
timated height  being  about  23,000  feet.  A  river 
of  the  same  name  rises  on  the  southern  slope  of 
the  mountain  and  enters  the  Pacific  after  a 
course  of  over  200  miles.  Consult:  E.  Fitzger- 
ald. "The  First  Ascent  of  Aconcagua,"  in  Mc- 
Clure's  .Wavacine,  Volume  XI.  (New  York,  1898)  ; 
Sir  M.  Conway,  ".-Vconcagua  and  the  Volcanic 
Andes,"  Harper's  Magazine,  Volume  C.  (New 
York,   1899). 

ACONCAGUA.  A  central  province  of  Chile, 
bounded  by  the  Chilean  provinces  of  Coquimbo 
on  the  north,  Santiago  on  the  south  and  Valpa- 
raiso on  the  southwest.  Argentina  on  the  east, 
and  the  Pacific  on  the  west  (Map:  Chile,  C  10). 
It  covers  an  areji  of  6220  square  miles.  The 
mountainous  regions  which  occupy  the  larger 
part  of  the  province  are  mostly  barren,  while  the 
valleys  of  the  Aconcagua  River  and  other 
streams  are  highly  fertile  and  produce  different 
kinds  of  fruit,  as  well  as  hemp  and  some  grain. 
The  province  also  contains  considerable  deposits 
of  copper.  The  population  in  1895  was  113,165. 
Capital,  San  Felipe   (q.v.). 

ACONITE,  AcoxiTlM  (Lat.  aconUum,  Gk. 
(iKdviTov,  ukoniton,  wolf's-bane).  A  genus  of 
plants  of  the  order  Kanunculacea',  having  live  ir- 
regular sepals,  the  upper  one  hooded  and  two 
spurred  [wtals  concealed  under  the  hood.  The 
roots  are  usually  fusiform  and  clustered.  The 
whole  plant  is  very  ])oisonous,  containing  a  num- 
ber of  alkaloids,  among  which  are  acouine,  aeon- 


ACONITE.  80 

itinc.  and  isacoiiitine.  Some  of  these  are  em- 
ployed in  medicine,  being  administered  in  small 
doses  for  nervous  and  other  disorders.  The 
Wolfs-liane  or  Monk's-hood  {Aconitum  napellus) 
is  often  cultivated  for  its  racemes  of  handsome 
blue  flowers.  A  number  of  species  is  said  to 
be  employed  in  India  in  the  manufacture  of  the 
bikh  poison.  Aconitum  album,  witli  white  flow- 
ers, and  Aconitum  lycoctonum,  with  yellow  flow- 
ers, European  species,  are  often  met  with  in 
flower  gardens.  Aconitum  uncinatum.  which  has 
blue  floAvers,  and  Aconitum  reclinatum,  with 
white  flowers,  are  found  in  the  eastern  United 
States,  while  Aconitum  columbianum  is  common 
from  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the  Pacific.  It  is 
reputed  poisonous  to  stock,  especially  to  sheep. 
Consult:  H.  G.  L.  Reichenbaeh.  iionographia 
Generis  Aconiti  (Leipzig.  1820)  :  W.  Weil,  trans- 
lated by  H.  D.  Millard.  A  Monoijruph  upon  Aco- 
nite (New  York,  1860)  :  L.  H.  Bailey,  Cyclopaedia 
of  American  Horticulture  (1900-1901).  For 
illustration,  see  Plate  of  Acacia. 

ACONTITJS,  .T-kon'shl-iis  (Gk.  'Xkovtioc, 
Akontios).  The  hero  of  a  classic  love  story  con- 
tained in  a  lost  poem  of  Callimaclius,  and  also 
given  by  Ovid  {Ileroicles  xx.  21).  He  is  a 
youth  from  Ceos,  who.  being  at  Delos  and  in 
love  with  Cydippe  (q.v.),  throws  at  her  feet  an 
apple  on  wliich  he  has  written,  "I  swear  by  the 
sanctuary  of  Artemis  to  marry  Acontius."  In- 
advertently she  reads  the  words  aloud,  and  in 
spite  of  her  inclination  to  have  nothing  to  do 
with  the  youth,  is  held  by  tlie  goddess  to  her 
vow  thus  made.  Consult :  Morris,  "The  Story  of 
Acontius  and  Cydippe,"  in  The  Earthly  Paradise, 
part  iii.    (London,  1872). 

ACOBN,  .'I'kiirn  (properly,  fruit  of  tlie  field, 
A.  S.  (rcrr.  a  field).  The  nut-like  fruit  of  dif- 
ferent species  of  oak.  It  consists  of  the  nut 
proper  and  tlie  cupule.  or  saucer  or  cup.  The 
acorns  from  difTerent  species  differ  much  in  size, 
form,  color,  and  taste.  In  some  the  cup  is  deep 
and  very  rougli ;  in  others  it  is  smooth  and  shal- 
low. A  few  kinds  of  acorns  are  sweet  and  not 
unlike  chestnuts  in  flavor,  but  most  are  bitter 
and  more  or  less  astringent  in  taste,  owing  to 
the  presence  of  quercin,  or  some  similar  bitter 
principle,  and  tannin.  On  an  average,  fresh  acorns 
have  the  following  percentage  composition:  Wa- 
lter, 37.12;  protein,  4.11;  fat,  3.05;  nitrogen 
free  extract.  4.5.27;  crude  fibre,  8.95;  and  ash, 
1.50.  The  shell  makes  up  14  per  cent,  of  the 
total  fruit,  the  flesh,  85  per  cent.  Acorns  are  a 
favorite  food  of  wild  hogs,  and  have  been  used 
since  earliest  times  as  feeding  stuff  for  domestic 
animals,  especially  pigs.  It  is  customary  to  let 
the  pigs  gather  this  food.  Acorns  and  beechnuts 
are  commonly  spoken  of  as  mast.  The  agreeable 
flavor  of  the  pork,  ham,  and  bacon  of  the  razor- 
back  hog  of  the  southern  United  States  is  attrib- 
uted in  no  small  degree  to  its  being  fed  on 
acorns.  On  the  other  liand.  an  excess  of  acorns 
may  j)roduce  a  soft,  spongy  flesh  and  an  oily 
lard.  This,  however,  is  usually  obviated  by  feed- 
ing corn  for  two  or  three  weeks  before  slaughter- 
ing. Acorns  have  been  successfully  fed  to  milch 
cows  and  to  poultry.  Horses  also  are  said  to 
eat  them.  In  the  United  States  acorns  are  not 
nuich  eaten  by  men.  Under  the  name  "Biotes," 
the  fruit  of  (^luercus  Emorvii  is  used  as  food  in 
t)ie  southwest.  Sweet  acorns  are  eaten  occasion- 
ally in  diflerent  regions,  mainly  by  cliihlren.  The 
Indians  of  the  Pacific  coast  region  from  nurtli- 


ACOSTA. 


ern  California  to  Mexico  use  acorns  in  consider- 
able quantities.  Dried  and  pounded,  they  are 
made  into  a  sort  of  mush,  and  also  into  bread. 
The  acorn  meal  is  usually  leached  to  free  it  from 
tannin  and  whatever  bitter  principle  is  present. 
When  the  meal  is  used  for  bread  a  kind  of  clay 
is  sometimes  mixed  with  it.  In  several  regions 
of  Italy,  notably  Umbria,  Tuscany,  Emilia,  and 
the  Marches,  acorns  made  into  a  sort  of  bread 
with  the  addition  of  two-thirds  giound  grain  are 
a  common  article  of  diet.  The  bread  is  black 
and  heavy  and  not  readily  digestible.  Dried 
acorns  are  sometimes  used  as  a  substitute  for 
cofl'ee.     See  Oak. 

ACOBN-SHELL,  a'kiirn-shel.  A  sessile  bar- 
nacle of  the   family  Balanidse.     See   Barkacle. 

AC'ORtrS  (Gk.  (jOTpof,  alcoros,  sweet-flag). 
A  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Araceae. 
(See  Arum.)  The  plants  of  this  genus  have  a 
leaf-like  scape,  wliich  bears  upon  its  side  a  dense, 
cylindrical,  greenish  spike  of  flowers.  Here  be- 
longs the  Sweet-flag  iAcorus  cnlainufi),  which 
was  brought  to  Europe  from  Asia  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  but  has  become  naturalized  in  Eng- 
land, Germany,  etc.,  growing  in  marshes  and 
ditches.  In  North  America  it  is  found  from  Nova 
Scotia  to  Florida,  and  west  through  ]\Iinnesota 
and  Iowa.  Its  root  (rhizome)  is  perennial,  di- 
vided into  long  joints  about  the  thickness  of  the 
thumb,  has  a  bitterish,  acrid  taste,  and  is  very 
aromatic.  It  is  a  powerful  medicine  of  transient 
tonic  effect,  occasionally  used,  especially  in  cases 
of  weak  digestion.  In  many  places  on  the  Conti- 
nent of  Europe  it  is  found  in  confectionery  shops 
sliced  and  prepared  with  sugar.  It  is  also 
used  to  correct  the  empyreumatic  odor  of  spirits 
and  to  give  them  a  peculiar  flavor.  It  is  called 
Calamus  root.  In  Great  Britain  it  is  chiefly  em- 
ployed by  perfumers  in  the  manufacture  of  hair 
powder.  The  other  species  of  Acorns  are  like- 
wise aromatic,  and  are  applied  to  the  .same  uses. 
Acorus  gramineus  is  cultivated  in  China.  Some 
fossil  species  of  Acorus  have  been  found  in  rocks 
of  the  Tertiary  Age  in  North  .\nierica  and  on  the 
island  of  Spitzbergen,  and  in  later  formations  in 
other  parts  of  the  world. 

ACOSTA,  a-kos'ta,  Gabriel,  later  Uriel 
( 1594  ?-lli47) .  A  Portuguese  philosopher,  de- 
scended from  a  Jewish  family.  He  was  born  at 
Oporto.  After  being  educated  in  the  doctrines 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Churcli.  w)ien  twenty-five 
years  of  age  he  became  skeptical,  and  then  adopt- 
ed the  .lew'ish  faith;  but  as  the  profession  of 
such  was  not  allowed  him  in  his  own  country, 
he  fied  to  Amsierdam,  where  he  was  formally  re- 
ceived into  the  Jewish  community,  and  changed 
his  name,  which  had  been  Gabriel,  to  Uriel.  But 
what  he  conceived  to  be  the  Pharisaism  and  spir- 
itual pride  of  the  Amsterdam  Jews  disgusted 
him,  and  he  opposed  many  of  their  ideas,  and  es- 
pecially denied  that  the  doclriiie  of  immortality 
had  any  Mosaic  sanction.  Hence  he  became  in- 
volved in  a  controversy  with  liis  rabbinical  teach- 
ers. On  account  of  his  work,  entitled  Examcn 
dos  tradifoens  Phariseas  conferidas  con  a  ley 
escrita  ("Examination  of  Pharisaic  Traditions 
Compared  with  the  Scripture"'),  1024,  he  was 
charged  with  atheism  by  the  .lews  before  the  city 
magistracy  and  fined.  He  was  also  excommuni- 
cated, ami  so  remained  for  seven  years,  when  he 
recaiitod  after  ignominious  treatment.  He  died 
in  11)47  liy  suicide.  His  autnldograpliy  was  first 
]iiildislicd   liy  P.  Limborch   in   Latin,    1087;   Eng- 


ACOSTA. 

lisli  tniiislatioii,  l.dndon,  1740;  Latin  anil  Oor- 
inaii  edition,  H.  .Idlinpk,  Lcipzifr,  1847.  He  is 
the  luid  (if  an  elfiH-tivc  tragedy  l>.v  (iutzkow. 

ACOSTA,  .ToA(jriN-  (?-18")2).  A  South  Aniori- 
caii  geofiiaiilier.  He  was  born  at  Giiadiias, 
C'oloniliia.  In  !8:i4  he  made  a  lour  witli  the 
botanist  tVspt'des  through  tlie  valley  of  the  Soeor- 
ro  as  far  as  ttie  Maf;(hUeiia,  ami  seven  years 
afterward  traveh'd  from  .\nlioi|uia  to  Anserma 
for  tlie  ]nirpose  of  studying  the  history  and  ens- 
toms  of  the  native  tribes.  Besides  an  e.\eellent 
7nap  of  New  Oranaihi,  Acosta  |)ublished  the  fol- 
lowing interesting  and  valuable  works:  Coiii- 
pciidio  historico  del  (Icscubriiiiiciito  y  coloniza- 
cidn  (le  la  Xiirra  (Inmnda  en  cl  siglo  d^ciino 
sexto  (Paris,  1848);  tSemeiwrio  de  la  Xucva 
(Irnnadd,  M  iscrllihua  de  eioieia.^,  Uteratura, 
arlex  e  iiiduslriii.  with  portraits  and  map,  pub- 
lished in  eonjunetion  with  Laserre  under  the  di- 
reetion  of  Franeiseo  .Jos^i  de  Caldas  (Paris,  184!)). 

ACOSTA,  Jose  DE.  (1530-lGOO).  A  Spanish 
Je-<uil.  He  was  born  at  Medina  del  C'ampo, 
Spain.  He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  and 
went  as  niissionarj'  to  Peru,  where  he  labored 
for  many  years.  I'pon  his  return  home  he  be- 
came sujierior  of  the  Jesuit  Seminary  of  Valla- 
ilolid,  and  afterward  rector  of  the  University  of 
Salamanca,  wliere  he  died.  His  fame  rests  upon 
his  work  on  the  natural  history  of  the  New 
World  and  tlie  cll'orts  put  forth  for  its  evangel- 
ization, published  in  Latin  at  Salamanca  in 
]r)8<.),  and  in  Spanish  (Seville,  1590).  The  last- 
nan'ed  publication  was  under  the  caption  His- 
toria  natural  y  moral  de  lafi  Iitdins.  and  was 
several  times  reprinted  and  translated  into 
Krench,  Butch,  and  English  {The  \aturalc  and 
Morale  Historic  of  the  East  and  West  Indies, 
London.   lt)04). 

ACOUCHY,    a-k<7n'slu\    or    ACTJCHI.        See 

Acori  1. 

ACOUMETER,  a-kou'nie-ter  or  a-kCC-,  or 
ACOUSIM'ETER  {C.k.  OKitt'eiv,  akoiiein,  to 
hear  -f  fihimv,  metron.  measure).  An  in- 
strument used  to  determine  the  aeuteness  of 
hearing.  It  is  a  small  steel  bar  which,  when 
str\ick  by  a  hammer,  gives  a  uniform  sound. 

ACOUSTICS,  a-kou'stiks  or  a-koo'-  (Gk.  qkou. 
o-iKof,  akdiislitus,  relating  to  hearing,  from  dxoe- 
ttv,  aliouein,  to  hear).  The  name  applied  to  the 
science  of  the  phenomena  of  souml.  The  name 
"sound"  is  given  to  the  sensation  perceived  by 
the  auditory  nerves,  and  it  is  a  matter  of  every- 
day e.\perience  that  the  innnediate  cause  of  the 
sensation  is  some  vibrating  body,  e.g.,  a  violin 
string,  a  drum  head,  a  hammer  when  striking  a 
nail.  This  was  early  recognized,  and,  so  far  as 
acoustics  is  considered  as  a  science  dealing  with 
the  vibrations  of  matter  and  with  the  waves  pro- 
ihu'cd  in  the  air  by  this  motion,  the  history  of 
its  development  is  identical  with  the  progress 
of  mathematics  and  dynamics  from  the  time  of 
Galileo  and  Newton  to  the  present.  Few  dates 
can  be  assigned  to  definite  discoveries.  The 
laws  of  vibrations  of  a  stretched  string  were 
first  deduced  mathematically  by  ISrook  Taylor  in 
1715  and  by  Daniel  HcrnouUi  in  1755.  althotigh 
they  had  been  discovered  experimentally  by 
Mersenne  in  KiiUi.  Longitudinal  and  torsional 
vibrations  of  bars  were  first  investigated  by 
Chladni  (1750-1827).  Daniel  Bernoulli  was  the 
first  to  attack  the  problem  of  the  lateral  vibra- 
tions of  bars;  but  the  mathematical  treatment  of 


81 


ACOUSTICS. 


the  question  is  still  of  interest.  Poisson  (1829) 
was  the  first  to  give  a  correct  mathematical  so- 
lution of  the  free  vibrations  of  a  membrane,  and 
good  experimental  work  on  the  subject  has  been 
done  by  Savart,  Bourget,  and  Elsas.  The  vibra- 
tions of  plates  have  been  studied  mathematically 
by  Poisson.  KirchhofI",  and  more  recent  writers, 
and  experimentally  by  Chladni,  Savart,  and 
Wheatstone.  A  full  account  of  the  history  of 
the  mathematical  side  of  acoustics  will  be  found 
in  Rayleigh's  gieat  work  on  the  Theory  of 
Hound. 

The  history  of  tliat  portion  of  acoustics  which 
considers  the  plienoniena  of  the  sense  of  hear- 
ing, harmony,  discord,  pitch,  etc.,  begins  un- 
doubtedly with  the  earliest  days  of  civilization. 
It  was  known  to  Pythagoras  (sixth  century  B.C.) 
— and  to  whon\  before  him  no  one  can  tell — that 
sounds  were  in  harmony  when  produced  by  two 
stretched  strings  of  tlie  same  material,  cross-sec- 
lion  and  tension,  provided  their  lengths  were  in 
the  ratio  of  1  :  2,  2  :  3,  or  3  :  4.  Mersenne  discov- 
ered in  1030  that  the  frequencies  of  such  vibrat- 
ing strings  varied  inversely  as  their  lengths,  and 
so  proved  tliat  for  two  notes  to  be  in  harmony  it 
was  necessary  for  their  frequencies  to  bear  sim- 
ple numerical  relations  to  each  other.  No  ex- 
planation of  this  fact  was  given  until  the  great 
research  of  Helmholtz,  begun  in  1854,  the  results 
of  which  were  published  in  1802  in  his  classical 
work  on  the  >Seiisalio>is  of  Tone.  Helmholtz 
was  the  first  to  discover  the  existence  of  summa- 
tional times,  although  the  dilTerential  tones  were 
discovered  probably  by  Koniieu  in  1743,  and  cer- 
tainly by  Sorge,  the  court  organist  at  Loben- 
stein,  in  1745.  Helmholtz's  theory  of  vowel 
sounds  is  still  under  discussion.  Most  interest- 
ing work  on  audition  has  been  done  in  recent 
years  by  Rudolf  Kc'inig  of  Paris  and  Professor 
Mayer  of  Hoboken. 

Many  of  the  physical  properties  of  sound  are 
matters  of  common  ex])erience  and  can  readily 
be  appreciated.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  well 
known  that  an  interval  of  time  elapses  between 
the  vibration  of  the  body  and  the  perception  of 
the  resulting  sound  if  the  vibrating  body  is  at 
a  considerable  distance;  thus  the  flash  of  a  gun 
is  seen  before  the  sound  is  heard.  It  was  shown 
by  Otto  von  (Juerickc  that  if  a  bell  is  set  ringing 
in  a  glass  jar  from  which  the  air  has  been  ex- 
hausted no  sound  is  heard;  so  that  the  presence 
of  some  material  medium  between  the  vibrating 
body  and  the  ear  is  essential  for  the  production 
of  sound.  This  medium  need  not  be  air,  but 
may  be  water,  or,  in  fact,  any  gas,  liquid,  or 
solid  which  can  carry  waves.  The  whole  mecha- 
nism is,  then,  as  follows:  The  vibrations  of  the 
body,  e.g.,  a  drum-head,  luoduce  waves  in  the 
medium  in  contact  with  it,  e.g.,  the  air:  these 
waves  spread  out  through  the  medium  and.  after 
a  certain  interval  of  time,  reach  the  ear;  in  the 
ear  tlie  waves  produce  motions  of  the  eardrum 
and  corresponding  efl'ects  in  tlie  internal  ear 
where  the  auditory  nerves  have  their  endings. 
It  should  be  noted  that  not  every  vibration  will 
produce  waves  in  a  fiuid  medium;  because  if  the 
number  of  vibrations  per  second  is  too  small,  the 
lluid  will  simply  flow  around  the  body  as  it 
vibrates,  and  so  w'll  not  be  compressed ;  conse- 
quently, in  order  to  produce  waves  in  a  fluid,  the 
frequency  of  the  vibrations  of  the  body  must 
exceed  a  certain  number,  which  depends  upon  the 
viscosity  and  density  of  the  fluid.  Further,  it 
is  evident  that,  since  lluids  can  carry  only  com- 


ACOUSTICS. 

pressional  (i.e.,  longitudinal)  waves,  the  pro- 
duction of  the  sound-sensation  is  due  to  waves  of 
this  kind.  The  ditl'erence  between  the  longitu- 
dinal and  the  transverse  wave  can  be  appreciated 
by  reference  to  the  accompanying  diagram.  Fig.  1. 


•   •  .  .   •   . 

•  .   •  *  •   .  •  * 

— • ■      ■      ■  1  i  t  ■ — a  ■  i i ■         ■       ■ — B  I  1  I  ■     >      I         I 1 

4  5  4. 


In  this  illustration  1  represents  a  row  of  par- 
ticles at  rest;  these  particles  displaced  to  form 
a  simple  transverse  wave  are  shown  in  2,  while 
a  longitudinal  wave  is  shown  in  3.  Here  each 
particle  moves  to  and  fro  in  the  direction  of  the 
line  of  propagation  of  the  wave,  and  the  ampli- 
tude of  the  wave  is  the  distance  that  each  par- 
ticle moves  from  its  position  of  rest,  while  the 
wave-length  is  the  distance  between  similar 
points  of  condensation  and  rarefaction,  as  from 
4  to  4.  Although  sound  is  produced  by  longi- 
tudinal waves,  there  is  no  reason  for  believ- 
ing that  all  compressional  waves  will  produce 
soimds :  some  may  be  too  long  or  too  short  to 
affect  the  nerves  of  the  ear. 

Our  sense  of  hearing  distinguishes  between 
two  great  classes  of  sounds:  noises  and  musical 
notes.  A  noise  is  recognized  as  being  abrupt, 
discontinuous,  and  exeeedinglj'  complex;  a  musi- 
cal note  is  smooth,  continuous,  and  with  a  definite, 
regular  character.  We  distinguish,  further,  be- 
tween different  musical  notes  as  being  simple  or 
complex,  meaning,  by  the  latter,  a  note  in  which 
we  can  recognize  the  presence  of  several  simple 
tones.  Thus,  if  a  piece  of  paper  is  torn,  or  two 
blocks  of  wood  struck  together,  we  call  the  re- 
sulting sound  a  noise.  The  viltrations  of  a  tun- 
ing-fork cause  a  simple  musical  note;  while  if 
a  banjo  string  is  plucked  we  hear  a  complex 
note.  Complex  notes  differ  greatly  in  their 
character.  They  are  said  to  have  "quality"  or 
"timbre;"  thus,  a  sound  produced  by  an  organ- 
pipe  has  a  quality  entirely  different  from  one 
produced  by  a  piano  or  by  a  drum.  Simple  notes 
may  differ  in  loudness  and  in  shrillness  or 
"pitch;"  thus,  a  note  of  a  definite  pitch  may  be 
loud  or  feeble,  and  the  pitcli  of  a  piccolo  note 
is  quite  different  from  that  of  a  note  produced 
by  a  flute. 

Waves  and  Vibrations.  Since  the  direct 
cause  of  a  sound  is  the  reception  into  the  ear  of 
waves  in  the  air,  it  is  necessary  to  analyze  the 
nature  of  these  waves.  We  may  have  an  irregu- 
lar, isolated  disturbance,  which  is  analogous  to 
a  "hump"  passing  along  a  stretched  rope,  or  to 
the  effect  of  <lropping  several  stones  at  random 
intervals  into  a  pool  of  water;  or  we  may  have  a 
regular  continuous  succession  of  waves  identical 
in  all  respects,  which  is  called  a  "train  of 
waves."  The  simplest  kind  of  train  of  waves 
is  what  is  called  a  "simple  harmonic"  train, 
such  as  is  produced  in  any  medium  by  a  simple 
harmonic  vibration  of  the  body  whicli  is  causing 
the  waves.  (Vibrations  of  a  pendulum  are  simple 
harmonic.)  Such  a  train  of  waves  is  character- 
ized by  its  "wave-number"  and  "amplitude;" 
the  wave-number  being  the  number  of  individual 
waves   which   pass   a   given   fixed   point    in   one 


82  ACOUSTICS. 

second,  while  the  amplitude  is  the  extent  of  the 
path  of  vibration  of  any  particle  of  the  medium 
through  which  the  waves  are  passing.  The 
velocity  of  waves  of  a  definite  character,  e.g., 
compressional  ones,  in  any  definite  homogeneous 
medium  depends  upon  the  properties  of  the  me- 
dium itself,  not  on  the  wave-number  or  ampli- 
tude of  the  waves.  So,  if  A  is  the  wave-length, 
i.e.,  the  distance  from  one  point  in  the  medium 
to  the  next  point,  measured  in  the  direction  of 
advance  of  the  waves,  where  the  conditions  arc 
identical  with  tho.se  at  the  first  point,  and  if  .\ 
is  the  wave-niunlier.  the  velocity  of  the  waves  V 
is  given  by  the  formula 

V=N  I 

Consequently,  if  A'  is  known,  A  can  be  calculated, 
and  vice  versa :  and  the  characteristics  of  the 
simple  harmonic  train  of  waves  may  be  said  to 
be  its  wave-length  and  its  amplitude.  If  sev- 
eral trains  of  waves  are  passing  through  the 
same  medium  at  the  same  time,  the  resulting 
waves — called  a  "complex"  train — is  simply  the 
sum  of  the  individual  waves,  the  motion  of  any 
particle  of  tlie  medium  being  the  geometrical 
sum  of  the  motions  which  it  would  have,  owing 
to  each  of  the  separate  trains  of  waves.  (This 
is  rigidly  true  only  if  the  amplitudes  of  these 
separate  trains  are  very  small  compared  with 
their    wave-lengths,    as    in    general    they    are.) 


This  is  shown  in  Fig,  2,  where  A  and  B  are  two 
sets  of  simple  harmonic  waves  which  form  the 
resultant  wave  C.  This  wave  is  olitained  by 
taking  the  algebraic  sum  of  the  motion  of  the 
particles.  The  point  b"  is  obtained  by  taking 
n"h",  equal  to  the  sum  of  a  6  and  a'b',  c"  d"  is 
the  sum  of  c  d  and  c'd',  the  latter,  as  it  occurs  be- 
low the  axis,  considered  as  having  a  negative 
sign.  Conversely,  it  may  be  shown  that  any  com- 
plex train  of  waves  may  be  analyzed  into  simple 
harmonic  trains.  Therefore,  complex  trains  of 
waves  may  differ  in  several  ways;  1.  The  num- 
ber of  the  component  simple  harmonic  trains. 
2.  Their  wave-numbers  and  amplitudes.  3. 
Their  relative  "phases,"  for  two  waves  are  in 
different  phase  if  the  maximum  displacement  due 
to  one  train  does  not  coincide  in  position  with 
that  due  to  the  other ;  or,  looked  at  in  another 
way,  the  component  trains  may  have  been 
started  at  irregular  intervals.  Since  waves  are 
due  to  the  vibrations  of  some  elastic  body  (e.g., 
a  tuning-fork,  the  air  in  an  organ-pipe  or  horn), 
it  is  necessary  next  to  analyze  the  nature  of 
vibrations.  We  may  have  an  irregular  vibra- 
tion, consisting  of  only  a  few  to  and  fro  motions, 
then  a  sudden  change  into  another  viln'ation  of 
a  different  character,  the  whole  motion  lasting 
only  a  short  time,  e.g.,  when  a  piece  of  stiff 
paper  is  torn  or  when  a  scratching  pen  is  used 
in  writing;  or  we  may  have  a  regular  continuotis 


ACOUSTICS. 


83 


ACOUSTICS. 


periodip  vibration.  The  simplest  possible  pcri- 
oilic  vibration  is  like  that  of  a  simple  pendulnm, 
anil  it  is  called  "simple  harmonic."  It  is  char- 
acterlzeii  by  a  ilefinite  nnmber  of  vibrations  per 
second,  i.e..  its  "frequency,"  and  by  the  extent 
of  the  swing,  i.e.,  its  "amplitude."  If  a  second 
pemlnliiin  is  suspended  from  the  bob  of  the  first, 
and  a  third  from  the  bob  of  the  second,  the  vi- 
bration of  the  third  and  lowest  bob  is  no  longer 
simple  harmonic  in  general.  Its  vibration  is 
called  "complex;"  and  it  is  evident  that  it  is 
the  sum  of  the  vibrations  of  the  separate  pen- 
rtnlnnis.  Complex  vibr.itions  may,  therefore, 
differ  in  the  number  of  the  component  vibrations, 
and  in  their  frequencies,  amplitudes,  and  rela- 
tive phases. 

S()t'Ni>  Skn'S.\tion'.     It  would  be  expected  tb.at 
there  sliould    be   some    connection   between    the 
nature   of  the  vibrations  of  the   vibrating  body, 
that    of    the    waves    iiroiluced,    and    that    of    the 
sound  heard.     Such   is  the   case.     .V   iu)ise    is   al- 
ways produced  l)y  an  irregular,  disconnected  dis- 
turbance in  the  air;   and  this  in  turn   is  due  to 
an   ii regular  successioti  of  vibrations,   each  last- 
ing for  a  brief  interval.     A  simple  musical  note 
is   always    due    to    a    simple    harmonic    train    of 
waves,  and  this  to  a  simple  harmonic  vibration. 
The  loudness  of  the  note  varies  directly  with  the 
amplitude  of  tiie  waves;   whatever  increases  the 
amplitude  of  the  waves  increases  the  loudness  of 
the  sound,  and  vice  versa.     It  is  increaseil,   there- 
fore, by  an  increased  amplitude  of  the  vibration; 
and  it  decreases  as  the  distance  from  the  ear  to 
the  vibrating  body   is   increa.sed.     (It  should   not 
be  thought,  however,  that  numerical   values   can 
be  given  the  loudness  of  a  soun<l,  or  that  there 
is  any  lixed  numerical  relation  between  the  am- 
plitude  of  the   waves    and   the   intensity   of    the 
sensation.)     The  pitch  of  the  note  depends  upon 
the  wave-number  of  the  waves  entering  the  ear; 
whatever  increases  the  wave-number  "raises"  the 
pitch,   and  rire  versa.     Therefore,   if   the  ear  and 
the  vibrating  body  are  at  a  fixed  distance  apart, 
and  at  rest  with  reference  to  their  positions   in 
space,  the   iiitoli   will    vary  directly  with   the   fre- 
quency of  the  vibrating  body;   thus  we  often   use 
the   expression,    "a    pitch    of   300,"    meaning   the 
pitch  of  a  sound  produced   by  a  vibrating  body 
which  makes  ;:!00  complete  vibrations  in  one  sec- 
ond.     If,    however,    the    vibrating    body    is    ap- 
proaching the  ear,  or  if  the  ear  is  approaching 
the  vibrating  body,  the  number  of  waves  enter- 
ing the  ear  is  greater  than  it  would  be  if  there 
were  no   such    motion;   and  so  the   wave-number 
is  greater  than   the   freqtiency  of  the    vibrating 
body,  and  the  pitch  of  the  sound  is  raised.     Sim- 
ilarly,  if  the  distance  between   the  ear  and   the 
vibrating   body   is    increasing,   the    wave-number 
is  less  than  the  frequency  of  the  vibration,  and 
the  pitch  is  lowered.     This  change  of  pitch,  due 
to  the  relative  motions  of  the  ear  and  the  vibrat- 
ing body  in  the   surrouniling  medium,  is  known 
as    Dopjilers    Principle   (q.v.),    and    is   illustrated 
by  the  sudden  drop  in  pitch  if  one  stands  on  the 
platform  of  a  railway  station   and   listens  to  the 
whistle  of  a  locomotive  passing  at  a  high  speed. 
A   comjilex    musical   note   is  always    due  to  a 
complex  train  of  waves,  and  this,   in  turn,  to  a 
complex  vibration,  if  there  is  only  one  vibrating 
body.     Further,  two  notes  which  dirter  in  qual- 
ity nuvy  he  shown  to  be   due  to  complex   trains 
of    waves    which  differ    in    complexity.      Hut    it 
should   he   note<l   that  all  experimental   evidence 
points  to  the    idea  that    differences    in    relative 


phases  of  the  component  trains  of  waves  do  not 
cause  differences  in  the  quality  of  the  sound 
heard.  In  other  words,  two  complex  trains  of 
waves  made  up  of  the  same  simple  waves  will 
produce  the  same  sound,  regardless  of  the  phases 
in  the  two  trains.  This  may  be  explained  by 
saying  that  the  ear  automatically  resolves  a 
complex  train  of  waves  into  its  simple  harmonic 
component  trains,  hears  the  simple  tones  due  to 
each  of  these,  and,  therefore,  has  a  complex  sen- 
sation. This  statement  is  called  "Ohm's  law  for 
sound-sensation." 

Kl-.\D.V.MEN'TAI„  P.VRTI.\I,.  .WD  COMniX.VTroN'-*.!. 

Viiii{.\Tioxs.  Musical  instruments  may  be  di- 
vided roughly  into  two  classes,  wind  and  string 
instruments.  In  the  former  class  are  included 
organ-pipes,  horns,  llutes,  etc.;  in  the  latter, 
pianos,  violins,  harps,  etc.  In  all  wind  instru- 
ments a  column  of  air  inclosed  in  a  metal  or 
wooden  tube  is  set  in  vibration  by  suitable 
means,  and  this  vibrating  mass  produces  the 
waves  in  the  surrounding  air.  In  string  in- 
struments, tiexible  .strings  are  stretched  between 
pegs  fastened  to  a  solid  frame — -in  general  a 
wooden  board — and  they  are  set  in  transver.se 
vibration  by  bowing.  ])lucking,  or  striking.  As 
a  result  of  the  vibration  of  the  string,  the  frame 
holding  the  pegs  is  itself  set  in  vibrations  of  the 
same  frequency,  and  it,  as  well  as  the  siring 
itself,  produces  the  waves.  The  importance  of 
the  so-called  sounding-board  is  at  once  evident. 




1 

^   1 

h . 

^a 

c 

* 

b' 

■— __i,j 

d'^_^ 

4 

•>'!— — 

i.l 

4 
Fio.  3. 

A  stretched  flexil)le  string,  -l  B,  can  vibrate  in 
many  waves;  as  a  whole,  with  its  middle  point 
its  point  of  greatest  amplitude,  as  in  1  (fig.  3); 
in  two  parts,  with  its  middle  point,  6,  at  rest, 
and  the  two  halves  vibrating  like  separate 
strings  in  opposite  phases,  as  in  2  (lig.  3);  in 
three  parts,  with  two  points,  c  and  l>,  at  rest,  di- 
viding the  string  into  three  equal  vibrating  seg- 
ments, as  in  3  (fig.  3),  etc.  The  frequencies  of 
these  different  modes  of  vibration  are  in  the 
ratios  of  1:2:3:4,  etc.  The  vibr.ation  of  the 
string  as  a  whole  is  called  the  "fundamental;" 
the  others,  the  "  upper  partials."  The  frequency 
of  the  transverse  vibrations  of  a  stretched  flex- 
ible string  is  given  Ijy  the  formula 

where  T  is  the  stretching  force  or  tension,  m 
is  the  mass  of  each  unit  l<'ngth  of  the  string.  // 
is  the  length  of  the  vibrating  segment.  Thus, 
in  the  fundamental,  /.  is  the  length  of  the  string; 
in  the  lirst  upper  partial  it  is  one-half  the  length 
of  the  string,  etc.  When  the  string  is  set  vi- 
brating by  a  random  blow  or  tmwing,  it  will 
make  complex  vibrations,  resulting  from  the 
combination  of  the  fundamental  and  some  of 
the  upper  partials,  the  number  and  relative  in- 
tensities of  these  depending  largely  on  the  point 
where  the  blow  is  struck,  or  the  bow  applied, 
anil  on  the  character  of  the  impulse.     So,  when- 


ACOUSTICS. 

ever  a  musical  tone  is  produced  by  a  string 
instrument,  the  ear  can  recognize  in  the  complex 
sound  simple  tones  due  to  the  fundamental  and 
the  upper  partials;  and  differences  in  the  qual- 
ity of  sounds  caused  by  different  string  instru- 
ments, ■tthich  have  fundamentals  of  the  same 
frequency,  are  due  to  differences  in  the  number 
and  character  of  the  upper  partials.  which  de- 
pend in  turn  on  the  material  of  the  string,  the 
point  where  the  impulse  is  applied  to  set  the 
string  in  motion,  and  the  character  of  this  im- 
pulse. Similarly,  the  vibrating  column  of  air  in 
organ-pipes,  horns,  etc.,  can  vibrate  in  different 
■ways;  and  in  a  complex  vibration  there  is  a 
fundamental  and  upper  partials  vrhose  frequen- 
cies are  in  the  ratios  of  1:2:3:4,  etc.  The 
frequency  of  the  vibrations  of  the  fundamental 
in  an  open  organ-pipe  is  given  by  the  formula : 


84 


ACOUSTICS. 


v= 


2  L 


where  V  is  the  velocity  of  waves  in  the  gas 
which  fills  the  pipe,  and  L  is  the  length  of  the 
pipe  approximately.  The  similar  formula  for  a 
"stopped"  pipe  is: 

i  L 

(In  stopped  organ-pipes  the  vibrations  are  in 
the  ratios  1:3:5:7,  etc.)  In  other  in- 
struments than  wind  and  string  ones,  such  as 
drums,  cymbals,  etc..  there  are  upper  partials 
besides  the  fundamental;  but  there  is  no  simple 
matliematical  relation  between  their  frequencies. 
When  two  organ-])ipes  on  the  same  wind-chest 
are  "sounded"  loudly,  the  resulting  waves  in  the 
air  are  not  diie  simply  to  eacli  fundamental  and 
its  upper  partials,  but  also  to  certain  extra  vi- 
brations due  to  the  combined  action  of  the  two 
vibrating  columns  of  air  on  the  surrounding  air. 
Tlius,  if  the  fundamentals  of  the  two  pipes  have 
frequencies  1000  and  600.  there  will  be  present 
waves  showing  the  existence  of  vibrations  whose 
frequencies  are  1000 -f  600  and  1000— fiOO.  The 
sounds  heard  owing  to  these  vibrations  are  called 
"summational"  and  "differential"  tones,  or,  in 
general,  "combinational"  tones;  they  are  always 
difficult  to  hear.  The  existence  of  both  partial 
and  combinational  vibrations  may,  however,  be 
established  by  means  of  resonators   (q.v.). 

Harhony  Ayo  Discord.  If  two  organ-pipes 
whose  frequencies  do  not  differ  much  are  sounded 
together,  the  ear  observes  a  fluctuation  in  the 
loudness  of  the  resulting  sound.  It  is  first  loud, 
then  weak,  loud  and  weak,  etc.,  giving  rise  to 
what  are  called  "beats,"  the  number  of  beats 
per  second  being  equal  to  the  difference  in  the 
frequencies  of  the  pipes.  Tlius,  two  pipes  of 
frequencies  280  and  285  produce  5  beats  per 
second.  The  explanation  of  the  phenomenon 
lies  in  the  superposition  of  the  two  resulting 
trains  of  waves ;  for,  if  the  wave-number  of  one 
train  exceeds  that  of  the  other  by  five,  it  will 
happen  five  times  in  the  course  of  a  second  that 
when  one  train  of  waves  reaches  the  ear  in  a 


certain  phase,  the  other  train  will  reach  the  ear 
in  an  exactly  opposite  phase;  and  so  the  two 
waves  will  tend  to  neutralize  each  other's  action 
and  thus  make  tlie  sound  weak;  whereas,  in  be- 
tween these  instants  of  weakness  there  will  be 
others  when  the  two  waves  reach  the  ear  in  the 
same  phase,  and  so  reinforce  each  other  and  thus 
make  the  sound  loud.  Tliis  is  shown  diagi-am- 
matieally  in  fig.  4,  where  there  are  two  trains  of 
waves  of  unequal  wave-number  which  interfere 
and  produce  beats.  The  wave-length  of  one  set 
is  A  (I,  which  is  four-fifths  of  A  I,  the  wave 
length  of  tlie  other.  The  two  waves  at  A  are  in 
the  same  phase,  and  there  is  increased  sound; 
but  as  the  motion  progresses,  one  train  loses  with 
respect  to  the  other,  until  they  are  in  opposite 
phase,  as  at  C  and  D,  where  silence  ensues.  Beats 
are  disagreeable  to  hear,  for  the  same  reason 
that  a  flashing  light  is  unpleasant  to  see,  or  a 
tickling  feather  to  feel,  namely,  the  nerves  being 
first  stimulated,  then  allowed  to  partially  re- 
cover, then  again  stimulated,  etc.,  are  disagree- 
ably affected.  The  degi-ee  of  unpleasantness  de- 
pends in  part  on  the  number  of  beats,  but  also 
on  the  pitch  of  the  note,  whose  intensity  is  fluc- 
tuating. Beats  can  be  formed  by  the  interfer- 
ence of  the  upper  partials  as  well  as  by  the  fun- 
damentals, and  by  the  combinational  vibrations 
also.  Thus,  if  two  organ-pipes  of  frequencies 
500  and  252  are  sounded  together,  the  first  upper 
partial  of  the  pipe  whose  fundamental  is  252, 
i.e.,  a  note  of  frequency  504.  will  beat  with  tlie 
other  fundamental  whose  frequency  is  500.  it. 
however,  two  organ-pipes  are  sounded  who^e 
fundamentals  are  sucli  that  there  are  no  beats 
except  between  the  upper  partials  of  high  or- 
ders, the  sensation  should  be  a  pleasant  one; 
and  such  is  observed.  To  secure  such  a  condi- 
tion it  is  e\'ident  that  the  ratios  of  the  frequen- 
cies of  the  fundamentals  must  be  simple  frac- 
tions, 1  :  1,  I  :  2,  1  :  3,  2  :  3,  1  :  4,  3  :  4,  etc. 
Such  combinations  of  two  notes  produce  what  is 
called  "harmony."  On  the  other  hand,  whenever 
beats  can  be  expected  between  two  notes  or  their 
partials,  or  their  combinational  notes,  an  un- 
pleasant sensation  called  "discord"  is  observc<l, 
it  being  possible  to  predict  the  degree  of  the  di^* 
cord  from  the  number  of  beats  wliich  most  oc- 
cur. This  explanation  of  harmony  and  discord 
is  due  to  Helmholtz.  The  explanation  of  "mel- 
ody," that  is,  the  pleasant  sensation  perceived 
when  notes,  suitably  chosen,  are  sounded  consec- 
utively, is  undoubtedly  psychological,  not  physi- 
cal. For  the  discussion  of  tlie  formation  of  musi- 
cal scales  liascd  on  these  simple  harmonies,  see 
Major  :  IIixor. 

Limits  of  Hearing.  Aerial  waves  of  all  wave- 
numbers  do  not  affect  the  auditory  nerves  of  the 
normal  human  ear,  it  being  found  by  trial  tliat 
wave-numbers  less  than  30  do  not  produce  a 
musical  tone,  and  wave-numbers  exceeding  about 
20.000  do  not  produce  sound  at  all.  For  niu~i 
cal  purposes  the  extremes  are  about  40  and  40110. 
To  study  waves  whose  wave-numbers  e.xceed 
10,000   (and  in  fact  for  those  of  much  less  num- 


ACOUSTICS. 

ber)  the  t)est  iiistriniR'iil  is  tlio  "sensitive  llame," 
■whicli  Cdiisists  ordinarily  of  an  ignited  jet  of  gas 
escaping  from  a  small  circular  orilice  under  high 
pressure,  thus  giving  a  more  or  less  cylindrical 
llame  about  a  foot  high.  W  hen  waves  of  a  great 
wuve-nuniher  fall  u])(in  such  a  llame  they  hreak 
through  the  inclosing  envelope  separating  the 
gas  from  the  air,  thus  causing  the  jet  to  "Hare" 
out  like  a  fan. 

Velocity  of  Soind.  The  waves  produced  in 
the  air  by  vibrating  bodies  arc  often  called 
"sound  waves,"  although  the  name  is  not  a  good 
one.  Similarly,  eonipressional  waves  in  any  me- 
dium, solid,  liquid,  or  gas,  arc  called  "sound 
waves"  in  these  media.  These  waves  sjjread  out 
from  the  vibrating  body  into  the  surrounding 
medium  with  a  velocity  called  the  "velocity  of 
sound,"  which  (Icjiciids  alone  upon  the  elasticity 
of  the  medium  with  respect  to  a  compression  and 
upon  its  density,  if  the  medium  is  homogeneous. 
Like  all  waves,  they  may  exi)erience  reflection, 
e.g.,  echoes :  refraction,  as  when  ])assing  from 
cold  air  to  hot  air,  or  dense  air  to  rare;  disper- 
sion; interference.  Reference  should  be  made 
to  a  paper  by  Professor  R.  \V.  Wood  in  the  I'hilo- 
sophical  M'ifidrinc,  \'oliune  XLVIII.,  p.  218,  1899, 
for  a  description  of  a  most  interesting  series  of 
experiments  on  these  properties  of  aerial  waves. 
The  best  determinations  of  the  velocity  of 
these  waves  are  given  in  the  following  table: 

Gases  at  0".  C. 

Air   (dry) 331.:j(i  meters  ])er  second 

Hydrogen    1286.  " 

0.xvgen    317. 

Carbon  dio.xide.     2(i2. 

.S'o//(/.s'  and  Lliiuids. 
Aluminium.....'  5104.  "  "         " 

Steel     499(t.  "  "  " 

Glass,   about ....  uoOO.  "  "         " 

Water    1435. 

The  velocity  of  eonipressional  waves  varies 
greatly  with  the  temperature.  For  a  gas  the 
velocity  at  t°  C.  equals  that  at  0°  C.  multiplied 


/ 


273  +  t 
273 


When  waves  pass  from  a  region  where  the  air 
is  cold  into  one  where  it  is  warm,  rcllection 
takes  place  at  the  bounding  surface,  and  thus 
the  entering  waves  are  not  only  refracted  but 
also  weakened  in  intensity.  The  presence  of  fog 
by  itself  in  the  air  has  very  little  etTect  upon  the 
waves,  unless  there  are  currents  or  layers  of 
hot  or  cold  air.  The  velocity  of  waves  in  air 
is  practically  independent  of  the  intensity  of  the 
vibration,  although  the  waves  produced  by  a  sud- 
den e.\plosion  travel  at  first  slightly  faster  than 
do  ordinary  waves. 

AcoisTic  PuorEUTiES  OP  Halls.  When  an 
organ-pipe  or  any  elastic  body  is  sounded  in  a 
room  and  then  suddenly  sto|)ped,  it  is  noticed 
that  the  sound  doe.s  not  instantly  cease,  but  con- 
tinues for  several  seconds.  This  is  called  rever- 
beration ;  and  the  acoustic  success  of  a  room  de- 
pends largely  upon  its  duration.  It  should  not 
exceed  two  seconds  by  more  than  a  few  tenths  of 
a  second  if  the  room  is  to  be  used  as  a  music 
hall  or  opera  house.  It  is  found  that  the  rever- 
beration in  a  given  room  is  practically  inde- 
pendent of  the  place  where  the  vibrating  body  is 


85  ACQUISITION. 

situated,  or  of  the  pu>iliuu  of  the  hearer;  it  de- 
|)ends  upon  the  volume  of  the  room,  upon  the 
material  of  the  walls  and  lloors,  upon  the  cush- 
ions, the  audience,  etc.,  and  to  a  certain  extent 
upon  the  intensity  of  the  sound.  The  following 
approximate  fciinula  has  been  develojied  by  Pro- 
fessor Sabine  of  Harvard  University: 

(a  +  6,  a-,  +  6,  a-. +  etc.)   r  =  0.IG4r 

Where  a  is  a  constant  depending  upon  the  ab- 
scubing  i)ower  of  the  walls  of  the  room. 

b  is  a  coellicieiit  of  "absorption"  for  one 
square  meter  of  a  definite  material  put 
anywhere  in  the  room,  the  standard  of 
comparison  being  the  absor])tion  of  one 
.square  meter  of  open  window. 

w  is  the  number  of  square  nu'tcrs  of  the 
material. 

t  is  the  duration  of  reverberation. 

F  is  the  volume  of  the  room  in  cubic 
meters. 

The  absorption  coefficients  for  some  substances 
are  as  follows: 

Hard  [due  wood  sheathing O.OGl 

Plaster  on  woo<l  lath 0.034 

Plaster  on  wire  lath 0.033 

Audience   (per  square  meter)  ....  0.96 

Isolated  woman 0.54 

Isolated   man 0.48 

Carpet    rugs 0.20 

House   plants 0.11 

Upholstered  chairs 0.30 

Hair  cushions  (per  seat) 0.21 

The  duration  of  reverberation  in  certain  nmsic 
halls  and  auditoriums  is  as  follows: 

Old  Music  Hall,  Boston,  Mass 2.44 

New  Music  Hall,  Boston,  Mass 2.31 

(iewiindhaus.   Leipzig,   Germany 2.30 

Sanders'  Theatre,  Cambridge,  Mass.  .  .  .  3.42 

BiBLiOGUAPiiY.  Rayleigh,  Theory  of  Sound,  2 
volumes  (London,  1890),  a  mathematical  treat- 
ment, but  with  several  descriptive  chapters; 
Helmholtz.  Sensations  of  Tone,  translated  by 
Ellis  (London,  1895),  the  standard  authority  on 
harni<my  and  music;  Sabine.  Arcliilrcttiral 
Acoustics  (Boston,  1900),  which  contains  the 
only  satisfactory  treatment  of  this  important 
question;  Thomson  and  Poynting.  ,.S'ohh</  (Lon- 
don. 1899),  a  text-book  for  schools  and  colleges, 
and  a  storehouse  of  accurate  information, 

ACQUI.  .-i'kwe  (Ancient  Ai/itrr  Staticlla-).  An 
epi.scopal  city  of  northern  Italy,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Bormida,  37  miles  northwest  of  Genoa 
(Map:  Italy,  C  3).  Every  winter  more  than 
GOOD  persons  take  the  cure  at  the  hot  and  cold 
sulphur  springs  that  gave  it  its  name.  It  has 
a  Gothic  cathedral  of  the  eleventh  century,  a 
seminary,  a  college,  and  the  ruins  of  a  Roman 
aqueduct.  The  chief  trade  is  in  silk,  lace,  rope, 
and  wine.     Poj).,  1901,  13,780. 

AC'QUISI'TION.  In  law.  a  term  which  has 
the  double  meaning  of  the  acquirement  of  ter- 
ritory by  the  state,  and  of  title  to  real  or  per- 
sonal property  by  the  individual.  In  the  case 
of  the  state  it  is  efTected  in  three  ways:  ( 1 )  By 
occui)ation.  (2)  by  treaty  and  convention,  and 
(31  by  conquest  (q.v. ).  As  referring  to  the 
origin  of  title  to  lands  or  goods,  acquisition  is 
either  original  or  derivative.  The  former  com- 
prehends occupation,  accession,  and  prescription 


ACQUISITION. 

or  limitation;  the  latter,  the  more  usual  modes 
of  acquiriug  title,  as  alienation  by  gift  or  sale, 
exchange,  inheritance,  and  transfer  by  will 
(qq.v.).  In  the  English  and  American  law  of 
real  property  the  whole  subject  is  dealt  with 
under  the  head  of  title  (q.v. ).  Consult:  Black- 
stone,  Commentaries  on  ihe  Laics  of  England; 
Kent,  Commentaries  on  American  Laic. 

ACQUIT'TAL  (0.  F.  aquiter,  from  Lat.  aiJ, 
to  +  ijiiictarc,  to  quiet).  In  criminal  law,  the 
judicial  discharge  of  the  accused.  It  may  result 
from  some  technical  defect  in  the  proceedings, 
or  from  a  verdict  in  the  accused's  favor  on  the 
merits.  In  the  former  case^  it  is  not  a  bar  to 
a  second  prosecution  for  the  same  offense;  in 
the  latter  case,  it  is  a  bar,  as  well  by  common 
law  as,  in  this  country,  by  constitutional  pro- 
vision.   See  ArTREFOis  Acquit  and  JEorAKDY. 

ACRA'NIA  (Gk.  d,  a,  priv.  -f  upavlov,  kran- 
ion,  skull).  A  group  of  vertebrates  having 
no  skull  or  heart,  and  represented  only  by  the 
lancelcts.     See  Ampiiioxus. 

ACEA'SIA  (Gk.  aK/maia,  akrasia,  intemper- 
ance). A  beautiful  enchantress  in  Spenser's 
Faerie  Queen.  Her  name  denotes  her  character. 
She  dwells  in  a  "Bower  of  Bliss,"  on  a  floating 
island  of  sensuous  delight,  and  the  fairy  queen 
sends  Sir  Guyon  to  make  an  end  of  her  seductive 
abode. 

ACRA'TES  (Gk.  aKpari/c,  akrates,  intem- 
perate ) .  A  male  character  in  Spenser's  Faerie 
Queen,  typifying  intemperance  in  the  pursuit  of 
pleasure. 

A'CRE.  A  word  identical  with  Lat.  ager,  Gk. 
aypdi,  agros,  a  field,  and  the  Ger.  Acker,  which 
means  both  a  field  and  a  measure  of  land.  Most 
nations  have  some  measure  nearly  correspond- 
ing; originally,  perhaps,  the  quantity  which  one 
could  plow  in  a  day;  uniformity,  therefore,  is 
not  to  be  looked  for. 

The  English  statute  acre  consists  of  4840 
square  yards.  The  chain  with  which  land  is 
measured  is  22  yards  long,  and  a  square  chain 
will  contain  22  X  22,  or  484  yards;  so  tliat  10 
square  chains  make  an  .acre.  The  acre  is  divided 
into  4  roods,  a  rood  into  4  perches,  and  a  perch 
contains  SOy^  square  yards.  The  Scotch  acre 
is  larger  than  the  English,  and  the  Irish  than 
the  Scotch.  One  hundred  and  twenty-one  Irish 
acres  ^196  English  nearly;  48  Scotch  acres  ::= 
61  English.  The  following  table  shows  the 
values  of  the  more  important  corresponding 
measures  compared  with  the  English  acre.  The 
German  Morgen  below  are  becoming  obsolete.  The 
German  l-Impire,  Austria-Hungary,  Spain,  and 
Portugal  have  adopted  the  French  metrical  system, 

English    acre    1.00 

Scotch        "       1.27 

Irish  "        1.02 

Austria,  joch    1.42 

Baden,    morgen 0.89 

Belgium,  hectare   ( French ) 2.47 

Denmark,   tiinde  land 5.05 

France,  hectare   (^100  ares)....  2.47 

France,  arpent   (common) 0.99 

Holland,       "  2.10 

Naples,  moggia   0.83 

Portugal,  geira    1.43 

Prussia,   little  morgen 0.63 

Prussia,  great  morgen 1.40 

Russia,  desyatina 2.70 

Saxony,   morgen    1.3G 


86  ACROBAT. 

Spain,  fanegada  1.06 

Sweden,  timne  land  1.13 

Switzerland,  faux   1.62 

"  Geneva,  arpent 1.27 

Tuscany,  saccata  1.22 

United  States,  English  acre 1.00 

Wiirttemberg,  morgen 2.40 

Roman  jugerum    (ancient) 0.66 

Greek  plethron    (ancient) 0,23 

ACRE,  a'ker  or  a'ker,  or  St,  Jean  d'Acre. 
A  scapoi't  on  the  coast  of  iSyria,  a  few  miles 
north  of  Mount  Carmel.  It  has  aboiit  7000 
inhabitants.  The  harbor  is  partly  choked  with 
s.ind,  yet  is  one  of  the  best  on  this  coast. 
Acre  is  the  Accho  of  the  Bible,  and  has  been 
known  at  difl'erent  periods  as  Aeco,  Akka,  Aeon, 
Accaron,  and  in  Roman  times  Ptolema'is.  It  is 
first  mentioned  in  a  dispatch  sent  by  King  Bur- 
raburiash  of  Babylon  to  Amenhotep  IV.  ( 1400 
B.C.?).  It  was  taken  by  the  Assyrians  under 
Sennacherib  and  given  by  Esarhaddon  to  the 
King  of  Tyre,  with  which  it  came  subsequently 
into  the  possession  of  the  Seleucid  kings  of 
Syria,  The  Romans  made  it  a  colony.  In  638 
the  town  was  captured  by  the  Arabs.  In  1104 
it  was  taken  by  the  Crusaders;  in  1187  it  was  re- 
captured by  the  sultan  Saladin,  and  in  1191  fell 
once  more  into  the  hands  of  the  Crusaders,  and 
became  the  seat  of  a  bishop  and  of  the  Order  of 
St.  .John.  It  was  the  last  stronghold  of  the 
Crusaders  in  Palestine,  being  surrendered  to  the 
Saracens  in  1291,  after  an  obstinate  defense  by 
the  crusading  orders.  In  1517  it  was  captured 
by  the  Turks.  In  1799  it  was  besieged  by  the 
French  imder  Napoleon  Bonaparte  for  sixty-one 
days,  but  was  successfully  defended  by  the  garri- 
son, aided  by  a  body  of  English  sailors  and 
marines  under  Sir  Sidney  Smith.  In  1832  it 
was  stormed  liy  lliraliini  Pasha,  son  of  the  vice- 
roy of  Egypt,  and  continued  in  his  possession 
till  it  was  bombarded  and  taken  in  1840  by  a 
combined  English,  Austrian,  and  Turkish  fleet. 
See  Egypt;  Seleucid-^i:, 

A'CRES,  Bob.  A  character  in  Sheridan's 
Rivals.  He  appears  as  a  somewhat  rustic  gen- 
tleman, of  bombastic  manners  and  ludicrous  cow- 
ardice, noted  particularly  for  what  he  calls  his 
"oath  referential  or  sentimental  swearing." 

ACRI,  a'kre.  A  city  in  Calabria,  southern 
Italy,  13  miles  northeast  of  Cosenza  (Map:  Italy, 
L  8),  The  neighboring  country  is  beautiful, 
healthful,  and  fertile,  and  produces  oil,  wine, 
fruit,  and  cotton.    Pop.,  about  4000. 

ACRID'ID.a:.     See  GRAs.snoppER. 

ACROBAT  ( Gk.  one  walking  on  tiptoe,  from 
u/tpof,  akros,  highest,  -(-  i^aifetv,  bainein,  to 
go).  The  presence  of  the  word  in  very  early 
times  in  most  European  languages  may  be  taken 
to  indicate  the  remote  origin  of  the  exer- 
cise which  called  the  term  into  use.  Originally 
it  was  doubtless  used  to  denote  the  acrobatic 
feats  of  the  rope-dancers,  but  in  the  course  of 
centuries  its  meaning  has  extended  so  that  it  in- 
cludes many  things  which  were  unknown  to  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  as  familiarly  as  were  the 
rope-dancers,  who,  as  Terence  in  his  prologue  to 
Eccyra  complains,  distracted  the  attention  of 
the  public  from  his  play;  and  so  does  history 
repeat  itself,  a  writer  in  the  Tutler  expresses 
his  surprise  at  finding  so  small  an  audience  at 
the  opera,  because  the  rope-dancer  was  not  in 
the  bill  that  night.     Tlie  most  recent  celebrated 


I 


ACROBAT.  87 

exponpiil  of  tlio  (>ri;;iiuil  art  was  Blondin,  who 
crossed  Xiagain  Kails  on  a  rope,  cariyinf;  a  man 
on  bis  t>.ic'U.  Hut  this  was  no  unhcanlof  feat, 
for  when  Isat)el  of  Havuria,  Queen  to  Charles  VI. 
of  Krante,  made  her  entry  into  Paris,  says  Frois- 
sart,  who  was  an  eye  witness,  a  cord  was 
stretched  from  the  hijjhest  house  on  the  bridge 
of  St.  iMiehel  to  the  topmost  gallery  of  the 
Church  of  Our  l.ady  and  an  acrobat  carried  two 
boys  holding  lighted  candles  over  it.  From  be- 
ing a  rope-dancer,  or  rather  balancer  only,  the 
acrobat  gradually  added  to  his  exhibits  other 
balancing  and  tumbling  acts.  Vaulting  and  jug- 
gling and  contortions  became  part  of  the  enter- 
tainments of  the  Middle  .\ges.  Edward  III.  ])aid 
jugglers  handsomely  for  exliibitiug  their  acro- 
batic skill  and  the  llcxibility  of  their  bodies.  The 
austere  Queen  iMary  even  relaxed  at  their 
pranks;  and  when  (>)ueen  Elizabeth  attended  the 
revels  at  Kenihvorth  t'astle,  which  Sir  Walter 
Scott  has  immortalized,  she  was  vastly  enter- 
tained by  acrobatic  tumblers.  Even  the  wonder- 
ful balancing  feats  of  tlic  . Japanese  with  ladders 
at  right  angles,  up  and  down  which  a  second 
man  climbs  in  a])parent  defiance  of  the  laws  of 
equilibrium,  had  their  inntotypes,  if  not  equals, 
among  the  luiropcaii  acrnliats  of  two  liuudred 
years  ago.  while  modern  somersault-throwing 
and  leaping  through  hoops  are  illustrated  in 
manuscripts  as  far  back  as  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury. The  more  liberal  interpretation  of  the 
word  now  includps  perfornumces  on  the  trapeze, 
the  horizontal  bar,  and  the  other  pieces  of  appa- 
ratus usually  found  in  gymnasiums  for  the  de- 
velopment of  the  suppleness  of  the  body.  Con- 
sult: Le  Rotix  and  (larnier,  Acrohals  and 
Mountrlxuiks.  translated  by  A.  P.  Morton,  illus- 
trated (Lomlon.  ISOO). 

AC'BOCERAU'NIA  (literally,  "Thunder- 
Heights,"  from  (ik.  c'iKpac,  ahros,  highest,  + 
Ktpavvo^,  Iccruunus,  thunderbolt).  The  north- 
western promontory  of  Kpirus,  which  forms  the 
termination  of  the  Ccraunian,  or  Acroceraunian, 
Mountains.  It  was  a  dangerous  ])oint  for  sivil- 
ors,  and  was  named  from  the  frequent  thunder- 
storms that  occurred  there.  It  is  the  modern 
Cape    (Jloss^i. 

AC'ROCORIN'THtrS  (Ok.  'AK/ioKop/rfof, 
Akrakorinthax).  \  steep  hill  2000  feet  in 
height  which  was  the  citadel  of  ancient  Corinth, 
and  is  still  crowned  by  ruined  Byzantine  fortifi- 
cations.    The  hill  commands  a  superb  view. 

ACROLEIN,  a-kro'le-in  (Lat.  uccr,  sharp  + 
olrrr.  to  smell),  CjH.CHO.  A  colorless  liqiiid  hav- 
ing an  extremely  irritating  odor.  It  is  produced 
in  the  incomplete  cond)Ustion  of  fats  and  when 
ordinary  glycerin  is  distilled  with  K\il])huric 
acid  or  other  deliydrating  agents.  Some  acrolein 
is  produced  when  fats  are  overheated  in  cooking, 
and  when  the  wick  of  a  candle  just  blown  out  is 
left  smoldering.  Its  reactions  show  that  it 
contains  the  atomic  group  ClU);  it  is,  there- 
fore, classed  with  the  aldehydes.  Bromine  adds 
itself  directly  to  acrolein,  formjng  an  "additive 
product"  of  the  composition,  C.H.BrX'IIO:  which 
shows  that  acrolein  must  be  classed  with  the  un- 
saturalcd  organic  compounds. 

AC'ROLITHS  (Ok.  o/tpof,  akros.  highest,  ex- 
treme +  /iO<i<;.  lithoK,  stone).  In  the  early 
development  of  (Ireek  art  there  came  a  period 
when  the  ideal  of  the  Hellenes  no  longer  permit- 
ted them  to  look  upon  a  god  as  a  mere  iclol,  but 
as  a  being  endowed  with   mind  and   conscious- 


ACROSTIC. 


ness.  Therefore,  instead  of  a  tawdry  representa- 
tion, they  conceived  a  worthier  image  carved  in 
wood.  The  body  was  ornamenteil  with  a  thin 
armor  of  gold;  the  head  and  lower  extremities 
were  formed  of  stone  oi-  marble.  The  figures  so 
const  met  ed   wire  called  acroliths. 

AC'ROMEG'ALY  (Gk.  unpor.  akrox,  high- 
est, extreme  +  /''yc.  meyaa,  great).  -V 
chronic  nervous  disease  characterized  by  a  grad- 
ual and  permanent  enlargement  of  the  head,  tho- 
rax. h:imls.  and  feet,  and  by  a  curvature  back- 
ward of  the  spine.  It  was  first  described  in  ISSO 
by  Marie.  It  occurs  in  both  men  and  women,  be- 
ginning apparently  about  the  age  of  eighteen 
or  twenty.  Some  pains  and  functional  disturb- 
ances, as  well  as  anamiia,  accompany  its  on- 
set. Both  soft  tissues  and  bones  are  enlarged, 
the  lower  jaw,  tongue,  lips,  and  nose  being  veiy 
gieatly  hypertrophied.  The  hand  .sometimes 
reaches  S  inches  in  length,  the  foot  12  inches, 
while  the  circumference  of  the  head  may  reacli 
2*!  inches.  The  cause  of  this  perversion  of  nutri- 
tion is  unknown,  t^onsult:  ]3ana.  Text-book  of 
Xirroiis  Diacascs  (New  York,  1001). 

A'CRON  (Gk.  'AKpav,  Akron).  A  physician 
of  the  fifth  century  R.C.,  native  of  Agri- 
gentum  in  Sicily.  Tradition  says  that  he  suc- 
cessfully comliated  the  great  plague  in  Athens 
in  430  B.C.  by  building  large  fires  to  purify  the 
air.  The  Empiricists  claimed  him  as  the  father 
of  their  school.  His  medical  works  are  wln)lly 
lost. 

ACROP'OLIS  (Gk.  uxpof,  akros,  highest  + 
7rd/(if,  polis,  city).  Originally  the  fortified  ref- 
uge of  a  district,  usually  containing  the  pal- 
ace of  the  chief.  For  this  purpose  a  natural 
stronghold  was  selected  and  strengthened  by  arti- 
ficial defenses.  Around  the  acropolis  a  city  fre- 
quently arose,  and  when  this  was  defended  by  a 
wall   the  acropolis   sometimes   lost   its  military 


ACROPOLIS  OF  ATHENS. 


A — Parthenon. 

if — Fuiiiulution  of  Earlv 

Tem|ile. 
C — MuBeuai. 
IJ — Terrnce. 
E — Ereohtbeuin. 
i^'— Propyltea. 


G — Precinct  of  .\rtenii8 

Briiuronia. 
// — Temple  of  Victory. 
/— Ag:rli»pa  I'edestal. 
,/  — Plnacotlieea. 
K — Altar  to  Home  and 

Augustus  Caesar. 


character  and  was  given  over  to  temples,  as  hav- 
ing been  the  centre  of  the  oldest  cults.  The 
acropolis  of  Athens  is  the  best  example  of  this 
change,  and  is  also  the  most  celebrated.  (See 
Athens.)  Other  noteworthy  acropolises  are 
the  Larissa  at  Argos,  Acrocorinthns  at  Corinth, 
Jlount  Ithome  at  Messene,  and  the  Cadmea  at 
Thebes.  The  name  is  frequently  a])plied  to  any 
fortified  hill  commanding  an  ancient  site;  so  at 
Troy,  Myeemc,  Tiryns,  Pergamum,  Priene,  etc. 

ACROS'TIC  (Ok.  aK/mv.  akron,  extremity, 
eiiil  +  arixnr,  sticltos,  line,  verse).  A  Greek 
term  for  a  number  of  verses,  the  first  letters  of 


ACROSTIC. 

wliich  follow  some  predetermined  order,  usually 
forming  a  word — most  commonly  a  name — or  a 
phrase  or  sentence.  Sometimes  the  final  letters 
spell  words  as  well  as  the  initial,  and  the  pe- 
euliai-ity  will  even  run  down  the  middle  oi  the 
poem  like  a  seam.  Sir  John  Davies  composed 
twenty-six  Hymns  to  Astrca  (Queen  Elizabeth), 
in  every  one  of  which  the  initial  letters  of  the 
lines  form  the  words  Elisabetha  Regina. 

In  the  acrostic  poetry  of  the  Hebrews  the  initial 
letters  of  the  lines  or  of  the  stanzas  were  made  to 
run  over  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  in  their  or- 
der. Twelve  of  the  psalms  of  the  Old  Testament 
are  written  on  this  plan.  The  lliHh  Psalm  is 
the  most  remarkable.  It  is  composed  of  twenty- 
two  divisions  or  stanzas  (corresponding  to  the 
twenty-tfl'o  letters  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet),  each 
stanza  consisting  of  eight  couplets,  and  the  first 
line  of  each  couplet  in  the  first  stanza  begins  in 
the  original  Hebrew  with  the  letter  (ilrph,  in  the 
second  stanza  wilh  both,  etc.  The  divisions  of  the 
psalm  are  named  each  after  the  letter  that  begins 
the  couplets,  and  these  names  have  been  retained 
in  the  English  translation.  With  a  view  to  aid 
the  memory  it  was  customary  at  one  time  to 
compose  verses  on  sacred  subjects  after  the  fash- 
ion of  those  Hebrew  acrostics,  the  successive 
verses  or  lines  beginning  with  the  letters  of  the 
alphabet  in  their  order.  Such  pieces  were  called 
Abecedarian  Hymns. 

AC'ROTE'KION  (Gk.  aKpariipmv,  akrote- 
rion,  the  sinnmit  or  e.xtremity).  A  term  in  archi- 


ACROTEUION. 

tecture  for  a  statue  or  otlier  ornament,  often  a 
palmette,  placed  on  the  apex  or  at  one  of  the 
lower  angles  of  a  pediment. 

ACT  (Lat.  actus,  the  doing  or  performing  of 
a  thing;  actum,  a  public  transaction,  record). 
A  term  of  law  applied  to  the  written  expression 
of  the  will  of  the  legislature  formally  declared. 
As  conunonly  employed,  it  is  synonymous  with 
statute  (q.v. ).  The  term  is  derived  from  the 
acta  of  Roman  public  life,  whicli  compreliended 
all  public  official  procedure  as  well  as  the  offi- 
cial record  thereof.  An  act  of  one  legislature 
cannot  tie  the  hands  of  its  successors,  unless  it 
amounts  to  a  contract,  .so  that  its  repeal  would 
come  within  the  constitutional  inhibition  upon 
legislative  acts  which  impair  the  obligation  of 
contracts.  In  England  even  this  exception  does 
not  exist,  each  Parliament  being  an  absolutely 
sovereign  legislature.  Still,  certain  acts  of  Par- 
liament have  been  passed  in  the  hope,  if  not 
with  the  intention,  of  arresting  ''the  possible 
course  of  future  legislation;"  and  some  of  them 
have  commanded  a  respect  almost  equal  to  that 
accorded  in  this  country  to  written  constitutions. 
To  this  class  belong  the  Bill  of  Rights   (q.v.)  : 


88  ACT. 

the  Act  of  Settlement  (12  and  13  Will.  III., 
c.  2)  fixing  the  descent  of  the  crown;  the  Acts 
of  habeas  corpus  (q.v.)  ;  the  Acts  of  Union 
with  Scotland  (1  James  I.,  c.  1),  and  with  Ire- 
land (3!)  and  40  Cleo.  III.,  c.  67)  :  and  the  Sep- 
tennial Act  of  1716  limiting  the  life  of  a  Parlia- 
ment to  seven  years.  "Act"  is  used  in  connection 
with  other  words  in  a  number  of  familiar 
phrases.  For  example,  act  of  honor,  the  acce])t- 
ance  by  a  stranger  of  protested  jjaper  for  the 
honor  of  some  party  thereto;  art  of  God.  an 
inevitable  accident  resulting  from  superhuman 
causes,  such  as  lightning,  tempest,  or  fioods ;  act 
of  state,  act  done  or  commanded  by  the  govern- 
ment of  a  foreign  state,  for  which  the  person  in- 
jured has  no  redress  in  the  courts  of  his  own 
country,  but  must  seek  redress  through  the  dip- 
lomatic agencies  of  his  government. 

ACT.  In  the  drama,  the  name  for  one  of  the 
l)rincipal  parts  of  a  play.  In  performance  the 
acts  are  commonly  separated  by  intervals,  during 
which  the  dropped  curtain  conceals  the  stage. 
An  act  which  may  in  tuin  be  subdivided  into 
scenes  should  be  in  a  certain  sense  complete  in 
itself,  and  at  the  same  time  should  form  an  es- 
sential part  of  the  whole  drama.  As  every  dra- 
matic plot  naturally  divides  itself  into  three 
parts — the  exposition,  tlie  development,  and  the 
conclusion  or  catastrophe — a  division  into  tlireo 
acts  seems  most  natural ;  but  practically  this 
would  often  require  undue  condensation,  and 
tlie  well-known  classic  custom  defined  by  Hor- 
ace in  his  .Irs  Poctiea  is  that  a  play  should  be 
in  five  acts.  Normally,  the  first  act  indicates 
the  general  nature  of  the  drama,  introduces  the 
characters,  and  begins  the  action.  The  second 
act  leads  up  to  the  third,  which  develops  the 
crisis  of  the  plot.  In  the  fourth  the  conclusion 
or  catastrophe  is  prepared,  but  should  by  no 
means  be  anticipated  so  as  to  weaken  the  effect 
of  the  denouement,  which  is  reserved  for  the  fifth 
act.  The  Greeks  did  not  make  the  formal  dis- 
tinction of  acts  in  their  drama,  though  Greek 
tragedies  are  subjectively  capable  of  division 
into  parts  or  episodes,  which  are  indeed  prac- 
tically separated  by  the  lyrical  parts  of  the  per- 
formance. ( See  Chorus.  )  In  modern  drama 
the  requirement  for  five  acts  began  early  to  be 
neglected,  especially  in  comedy.  (See  Moliicre. ) 
On  the  present  stage  plays  are  common  in  any 
nximber  of  acts  below  five.  The  four-act  play  is 
most  common. 

ACT,  or  Ceremony  of  "Inception."  The 
commencement  or  degree-taking  formerly  in 
use  in  English  universities,  but  now  discon- 
tinued (save  as  a  form  in  Cambridge).  The 
student  or  "respondent"  who  "keeps  the  act" 
reads  a  Diesis  in  Latin  wliich  lie  defends  against 
three  "opponents"  named  by  the  proctors.  Some 
such  practice  survives  in  most  German  universi- 
ties. In  a  quaint  pamplilet  on  New  England's 
First  Fruits,  published  in  1643,  there  is  an  ac- 
count of  the  late  conunencement  at  Harvard  in 
which  the  word-  "acts"  is  familiarly  employed, 
as  one  may  see  from  this  extract:  "The  Students 
of  the  first  Classis  that  have  beene  tliese  foure 
yeeres  trained  up  in  University-Learning,  for 
their  ripening  in  the  knowledge  of  the  Tongues 
and  Arts,  and  are  approved  for  their  manners, 
as  they  have  kept  their  ])iiblick  Acts  in  former 
yeares,  our  selves  being  present  at  them,  so  have 
they  lately  kept  two  solemne  -Acts  for  their 
Commencement,     when     the     Goveinour.     Magis- 


ACT. 

tratcs.  find  tlio  iliiiislcrs  from  nil  parts,  with  all 
sorts  of  Scliollars.  miiiI  others  in  <;rpat  numbers 
wore  ])r('scTit.  and  did  Iicare  their  Kxercisos.*' 

ACTA  lliiRXA,  Poi'iLi,  l.nnANA,  or  Pin- 
LICA  laets  daily.  ].o|iular,  municipal,  or  jjuhlio). 
.\  sort  of  daily  clironicle  of  events  pul)lished  in 
aneient  Kome  Kiviiifr  summaries  of  the  prinei|)al 
legal  and  jiolitieal  orations,  the  decisions  of  the 
courts,  news  from  the  army,  and  the  latest  gossip 
of  the  town.  Tliey  seem  also  to  have  contained 
accounts  of  the  transactions  of  tlie  as^emhlies  of 
the  people,  also  of  births,  deaths,  nuirriafies.  and 
divorces,  accidents,  prodigies,  and  the  like,  all  of 
which  weie  preser\ed  as  sources  of  future  his- 
tory. W  hen  Antony  olfi'red  Cicsar  a  crown  on 
the  feast  of  the  Luperealia.  Caesar  ordered  it  to 
be  noted  in  the  Acta  Diurna.  The  Acta  are  fre- 
quently said  to  have  been  introduced  by  Julius 
C'lcsar.  but  others  believe  them  to  have  existed 
long  before  C^psar's  time,  and  to  have  sup])lunled 
the  Annulis,  which  fell  into  disuse  aliout  the 
year  131  n.c.  The  Latin  scholar  Iliil)ner  has  ad- 
vanced strong  arguments  in  support  of  the  for- 
mer view,  although  it  was  the  practice  before 
Cassar's  time  for  scribes  to  compile  a  manu- 
script chronicle  of  public  events  in  the  city  of 
Rome,  wliich  was  often  forwarded  with  private 
letters  to  absent  friends.  The  Aniuilcs  took  note 
only  of  the  most  important  events,  whereas  mat- 
ters of  far  less  im])ortance  were  included  in  the 
Acta  Diurna.  The  nuiterial  for  the  Acta  was 
gathered  by  reporters  called  acttiaiii,  and  the 
Acta  were  exposed  in  public  places  to  be  read  or 
copied  by  any  who  chose  to  do  so.  After  a  rea- 
sonable period  of  time  tliey  were  taken  down  and 
preserved  with  other  public  documents.  Persons 
in  Rome  were  accustomed  to  keep  tlieir  friends 
who  were  sojourning  out  of  town  informed  of  the 
progress  of  events  and  of  the  news  generally,  as 
gathered  from  the  Acta  Diurna.  A  passage  in 
Petronius  (cap.  S.S)  gives  an  imitation  of  the 
Acta.  From  this  it  would  appear  that  the  style 
was  very  simple  and  that  oidy  the  bare  facts 
■were  stated.  Consult:  Le  Clerc.  Den  journaux 
chez  h:i  /{omriiiin  (Paris.  1838),  a  treatise  to  be 
read  with  caution;  and  Hiibner,  Ue  Senatus  Pop- 
vllque  JioiiKini  Aclis   ( l>>ipzig,   18(>()). 

ACTiE'A  {Gk.  aKTia,  o/,-^r(/,  elder  tree).  A  ge- 
nus of  plants  of  the  natural  order  HanunculaceiC. 
Aclau  sjiicata,  the  Baneberry  or  Herb  Christo- 
pher, is  a  native  of  the  north  of  Europe,  found 
in  bushy  places  in  some  ])arts  of  Kngland.  It  is 
a  perciniial  licrbaceous  plant,  about  I  to  2  feet 
high,  with  triternate  leaves,  and  the  leaflets  deep- 
ly cut  and  serrated,  the  flowers  in  racemes, 
the  berries  black  and  poisonous.  A  variety  of 
Actcra  spicata  var.  rubra  with  red  berries,  and 
ActiTa  nihil  with  wliite  berries  are  common  in 
the  I'niled  States,  where  they  are  known  as  Red 
and  \\  bile  Haneberry. 

ACT^'ON  (Ok!  'AKraiui;  M.ftiiOn).  A 
mythical  personage,  a  grandson  of  Cadmus.  He 
was  trained  as  a  hunter  by  Chiron.  Having  of- 
fended .\rtcmis,  he  was  changed  by  her  into  a 
stag  and  torn  in  pieces  by  his  own  dogs.  The  sin 
of  Actiron  is  variously  stated.  According  to 
Euripides,  Artemis  was  jealous  because  Acta>on 
had  boasted  that  he  excelled  her  in  bunting.  The 
most  popular  version  in  later  times  was  that  he 
had  come  upon  the  goddess  while  bathing. 

ACTA  E'K.TTDITO'B,TJM    (Lat.    Proceedings 
of  the  licarned).     A  Latin  monthly  and  the  first 
German     literary    serial     (117     volumes,     lti82- 
Vol.  I.— k. 


89  ACTINIARIA. 

1782).  It  was  founded  l>y  Professor  Otto 
jMenckc  of  Leipzig,  and  was  owned  by  his  fam- 
ily till  1754,  after  which  it  rapidly  deteriorated. 
The  series  contains  a  record  of  the  progress  of 
science  to   177(>. 

ACTA  MAR'TYRUM  (Lat.  Acts  of  the 
Martyrs).  .\  name  given  by  the  ancient  Church 
to  the  records  of  the  trials  and  deaths  of  the 
martyrs  which  were  kept  for  the  edification  of 
the  faithful.  The  oldest  extant  refer  to  the 
death  of  St.  Ignatius  of  Antioch,  who  died  .about 
the  year  107.  St.  .\ugustine  (fifth  century) 
speaks  of  these  records  as  being  read  to  the  peo- 
ple on  their  festival  days.  Kusebius,  the  church 
historian  (died  about  340),  collected  the  Acta 
Martyrum  in  his  two  works,  Oc  Martyrihiin  I'aJ- 
a-stiiicc  and  Hi/iKKjocir  Mnrti/nim,  the  latter  of 
which  has  perished,  but  the  former  is  the  appen- 
di.x  to  the  eighth  book  of  his  Church  History. 
See  McGifTerfs  translation  (New  York,  1890). 

ACTA  PILA'TI  (Lat.  Acts  of  Pilate).  An 
account  of  the  trial  and  death  of  Jesus  Christ, 
purporting  to  have  been  written  by  Pontius 
Pilate  or  under  his  direction.  Although  .Justin 
Martyr  (Apol,  i,.  7G-8ti).  Tertullian  (.Vjiol.  v., 
21),  and  Euseliius  I  ii.,  2)  allude  to  some  ac- 
count rendered  by  Pilate  to  the  Emperor  Ti- 
berius, the  Ada  now  extant  in  the  Vatican  li- 
brary, as  well  as  the  so-called  Report  of  Pilate 
to  the  emperor  and  the  alleged  Hpistolir  I'ilati 
describing  the  resurrection,  are  admittedly  spuri- 
ous. Consult:  Lipsius.  Die  I'ilatusfictcii  (Kiel, 
1871).  Various  English  translations  have  been 
published,  e.g..  Acta  I'iluli  I  Shelbyville.  Ind., 
1879),   and  also  one  in  the  Ante-Xicenc  library. 

ACTA   SANCTCRUM,    or   MAR'TYRUM 

(Lat.  Acts  of  tlie  Saints  or  .Martyrs).  The  col- 
lective title  given  to  several  old  writings  respect- 
ing saints  and  martyrs  in  the  Greek  and  Roman 
Catholic  churches,  but  now  ajiplied  especially 
to  one  extensive  collection  begun  by  the  Jesuits 
in  the  .seventeenth  century,  and  intended  to 
serve  as  a  better  arrangement  of  the  materials 
found  in  ancient  works.  This  great  undertak- 
ing, which  was  commenced  by  the  .Jesuit  Heri- 
bert  Rosweydc,  of  Antwerp,  lias  considerable 
iniportance,  not  only  in  ,i  religious  and  ecclesias- 
tical point  of  view,  but  also  with  regard  to  his- 
tory and  arcluvology.  After  Rosweyde's  death 
in  1G29.  .Johannes  Bolland  was  commissioned  by 
the  order  of  the  .Jesuits  to  continue  the  work, 
and  with  the  assistance  of  Godfried  llcnschen  he 
prepared  two  volumes,  which  appeared  in  l(i43. 
After  the  death  of  this  editor  (Kill"))  tlie  work 
was  carried  on  by  a  society  of  learned  .Jesuits, 
who  were  styled  ■"BoUandists."  until  1794,  when 
its  further  progress  was  jirevented  tlirough  the 
invasion  of  Holland  by  tlie  French.  In  recent 
times  the  undertaking  has  l)een  resumed,  and  in 
184.5  the  fifty-fourth  volume  was  published  at 
Brussels.  Several  additional  volumes  have  ap- 
peared since.  The  lives  are  arranged  in  the  or- 
der of  the  calendar.  A  new  edition  of  the  first 
fifty-four  volumes  appeared  in  1863-09.  The  six- 
ty-fifth volume  appeared  in  1892.  For  notices 
of  other  and  similar  collections,  see  Saints; 
Mahtyr  and  MARTVUOi.n(iY. 

ACTIAN   (ak'shnn)  GAMES.     See  AcTiuii. 

AC'TINIA'RIA  (Gk.  <;^7?f,  ahtis.  ray).  A 
group  of  anthozoan  ccplenterates  comprising  the 
sea-anemones.  They  differ  from  all  other  antlio- 
zoans  in  the  complete  absence  of  a  skeleton  and 


ACTINIAEIA. 

in  the  large  sire  of  tlie  iudivichmls,  which  rarely 
form  a  colony.  See  Anthozoa  and  Sea-Anem- 
one. 


no.  1. 


FIG.  2. 


ACTINIARIA. 


1.  Vertical  nspcct  of  an  Actiniariim,  showing  mouth  and 
tentacles.  3.  Sectional  view  :  «,  simple  digestive  sac  ;  6, 
structure  of  the  body-wall,  showing  septa. 

ACTIN'OGRAPH  (Gk.    mt'k:,    aktis,   ray -f 

ypdilieii',  (inipluiii.  to  write).  An  instrument 
for  recording  automatically  the  chemical  efTects 
of  radiations  from  any  source,  especially  the 
sun.  Formerly  the  actinic  or  chemical,  the 
visual  or  optic,  and  the  thermal  or  lieat  rays 
were  spoken  of  as  the  components  of  a  beam  of 
sttnshine  as  though  all  kinds  of  rays  were  bound 
up  therein.  But  we  now  Icnnw  that  the  sun 
radiates  an  immense  .variety  of  so-called  waves 
or  rays  of  different  wave-lengths  and  Ihat  appar- 
ently any  one  of  these  waves  may  produce  chem- 
ical," visual,  or  thermal  effects,  and  perhaps  elec- 
trical, depending  upon  the  molecular  nature  of 
the  object  that  it  strikes.  Thus  the  same  wave 
that  produces  a  special  blue  light  in  the  solar 
spectrum  will  produce  a  little  heat  if  it  fall 
upon  a  delicate  thermometer,  or  a  great  effect 
resulting  in  intense  heat  and  light  if  it  fall  upon 
a  proper  mixture  of  chlorine  and  hydrogen  or 
other  chemicals.  It  is  no  longer  proper  to  speak 
of  the  sun's  actinic  rays,  but  of  actinic  effects 
of  the  solar  radiation.  The  simplest  forms  of 
actinograph  are  those  that  e.\'po.se  standard 
photographic  plates  or  films  ( iodides,  chlorides, 
or  bromides  of  silver)  to  the  stin"s  action  for 
short,  definite  periods  of  time.  Those  that  util- 
ize the  action  of  sunshine  to  cause  the  union  of 
chlorine  and  hydrogen  (Draper's  and  Bunsen's), 
or  the  precipitation  of  sold  from  a  solution  of 
the  chloride  of  gold  and  o.Kalic  acid,  or  the 
evolution  of  oxalic  acid  from  a  solution  of  ferrle- 
oxalate  and  chloride  of  iron  require  complex 
measuring  arrangements  that  do  not  easily  lend 
themselves  to  graphic  self-registration. 

ACTIN'OLITE  (Gk.aKTi^.  a!: lis.  ray -f  7J6oc, 
lithos.  stone).  A  calciimi-magnesitim-iron  am- 
phibole  (q.v. )  that  includes  tlie  varieties  neph- 
rite, asbestos  (q.v.),  smaragdite,  and  uralite, 
Actinolite  varies  in  color  from  a  bright  green 
to  a  grayish  green,  and  usually  occurs  in  the 
form  of  long,  slender  crystals  in  metamorphic 
rocks,  commonly  in  talc. 

ACTINOLITE  -  SCHIST,  or  Gruxerite- 
.scitlsT.  A  rock  with  a  banded  or  foliated  struc- 
ture, which  cont.iins  a  considerable  quantity 
of  actinolite.  Commonly  the  actinolite  lies  in 
single  crystals  or  in  sheaf-like  aggregates  in  a 
fine  grained  ground-mass  of  (juartz  or  of  quartz 
and  feldspar,  and  its  common  associate  is  iron 
oxide,  particularly  in  the  form  of  magnetite, 
although  many  otiier  minerals  may  be  present 
in  smaller  quantities.  The  actinolite-schists  are 
common   alteration   products,   under   deep-seated 


90  ACTINOMOK.PHY. 

conditions,  of  iron  carbonate  or  ferrous  silicate 
rocks,  particularly  in  the  vicinity  of  igneous 
masses.  The  famous  iron-l)earing  formations  of 
the  Lake  Superior  country  were  originally 
mainly  iron  carbonate  or  ferrous  .silicate,  and,  by 
their  alteration,  have  yielded  iron  ore  on  the  one 
hand  and  actinolite-  or  griinerite-schists  on  the 
other.  The  term  "schist"  as  applied  to  these  rocks 
is  frequently  a  misnomer.  Schists  show  a  paral- 
lel dimensional  arrangement  of  their  constitu- 
ents, but  commonly  the  actinolite  crystals  in 
so-called  actinolite-schists  show  but  a  slight  de- 
gree, if  any,  of  parallelism.  The  parallel  struc- 
ture is  really  .a  more  or  less  faint  banding  due 
to  the  segregation  of  different  kinds  of  minerals 
into  layers.     See  ScHis  rcsiTY. 

AC'TINOM'ETEB  (Gk.  nKrir,  altl-i,  ray + 
ii/f'rpoj',H;ffrof(, measure) .  An  instrument  for  meas- 
uring the  effect  of  the  sun's  rays  in  producing 
chemical,  i.e.,  actinic  elFects.  As  originally 
devised  by  Sir  .John  Ilerschel,  this  title  was 
applied  by  him  to  a  thermometer  whose  Inilb 
was  filled  with  a  blue  solution  of  ammonia  and 
sulphate  of  copper;  the  expansion  of  this  solu- 
tion by  absorbing  the  sun's  rays  was  supposed 
to  measure  the  quantity  of  blue  light  or  chemical 
rays  in  the  beam  of  snnshine.  At  the  present 
time  it  is  known  that  actinometers,  properly  so 
called,  measure  only  the  efl'ects  of  the  energy 
transmitted  to  us  in  specific  portions  of  the  solar 
spectriun.  In  some  arrangements  tliis  energy 
is  all  turned  into  heat  and  measured  by  its 
expansion  efl'ect.  In  other  forms  of  apparatus 
it  does  molecular  work  of  a  chemical  nature  and 
is  measured  by  these  effects,  as  when  a  mixture 
of  chlorine  and  hj'drogcn  is  converted  into  hydro- 
chloric acid  and  the  qtiantity  of  acid  tliat  is 
formed  in  years  of  time  is  the  measure  of  the 
intensity.  This  includes  the  basis  of  the  methods 
of  Draper  and  Bunseu  and  Eoscoe.  When  a 
mixture  of  ferric-oxalate  and  chloride  of  iron 
dissolved  in  water  is  exposed  to  sunshine  it 
gives  out  carbonic  acid  gas ;  this  is  the  basis 
of  Marchand's  apparatus.  A  photographic  plate 
exposed  for  a  short  time  receives  an  impression 
whose  intensity  may  be  measured  on  a  scale  of 
tints  or  shades  and  made  the  basis  of  a  deter- 
mination of  the  intensity  of  the  sunshine.  This 
metliod  has  been  worked  out  by  Bigelow  and 
others.  In  general  any  apparatus  for  measuring 
the  chemical  effects  of  radiation  from  any  source 
constitutes  an  aetinometer  properh'  so  called, 
but  the  name  is  often  improperly  applied  to 
apparatus  that  measures  the  total  heating 
effect,  as  was  the  case  in  Herschel's  apparatus' ; 
it  is  even  now  applied  to  the  Arago-Davy  and 
the  Chwolson  apparatus,  all  of  which  are,  prop- 
erly speaking,  forms  of  pyrheliometer,  and  will 
be  fimnd  described  under  that  head. 

AC'TINOM'ETRY.  The  general  subject  of 
tlie  measurement  of  either  tlie  relative  or  the 
absolute  effect  of  sunshine  or  other  radiation 
either  by  visual,  thermal,  or  chemical  methods. 
Tills  term  is  now  being  replaced  by  the  more 
proper  word  radiometry. 

AC'TINOMOR'PHY  (Gk.  riKTi'c,  alfis,  rav 
+  finf}ipt/,  uioiphr.  form,  shape).  In  botany ,_  a 
term  of  synnnetry  used  chiefly  in  connection  witli 
flowers.  In  an  actinomorphic  flower  the  mem- 
bers of  each  set  are  similar  and  arranged  about 
a  common  centre,  as  are  the  parts  of  a  radiate 
animal.  If  there  are  five  petals,  they  are  alike 
and  are  evenly  distributed  about  the  centre  of 


i 


ACTINOMORPHY. 

the  flower,  as  aio  llie  s]H)kes  of  a  wheel  about 
the  Imb.  Technically  defined,  an  actinonioiphic 
liovver  is  said  to  h-ve  a>  many  planes  of  syni- 
nietiy  as  there  are  members  in  a  cycle.  This 
means  that  if  an  imafjinary  plane  be  run  tliroufjli 
eaeh  sepal  or  petal  or  stanien  and  the  common 
centre,  the  two  resulting  halves  of  tlie  llower  will 
be  similar.  More  commonly  ~uch  flowers  are 
spoken  of  as  '"regular.''     See  Fj.owEH. 

AC'TINOMYCO'SIS  (Ok.  o^r-V,  <,l:ll.<i,  ray, 
beam  +  ini:/i(,  iiii/l:rsi,  nuishrooni,  fungus,  ex- 
crescence), l.l  iri'v  .Iaw.  or  Bic  .I.wv.  A  specific, 
infectious  disease  ])roduced  by  a  |)arasitie  micro- 
organism known  as  the  Ray  fungus  {Aclinfiiin/- 
CCS  boris).  Tile  micro-organism  causes  local 
affections  in  the  form  of  tumors  (Acthiomi/co- 
iiiata)  of  the  bone  and  other  tissues.  The  dis- 
ease is  usually  of  sporadi<'  occurrence,  but  some- 
times takes  the  form  of  an  enzoiity.  It  is  most 
frequently  found  in  cattle,  but  atrects  also 
horses,  pigs,  slieep,  deer,  llama,  guanaco,  and 
man.  .Xctinoiiiycotie  tuniors  in  cattle  have  been 
recognized  since  182.5,  although  they  have  fre- 
quently been  mistaken  for  cancerous,  tubercu- 
lous, and  other  kinds  of  tumors.  The  disease 
occurs  in  all  parts  of  Kurope  and  \orth  and 
South  America.  The  Kay  fungus  is  found  in 
all  tumors  and  abscesses  of  this  disease,  wher- 
ever situated,  and  its  presence  may  be  detected 
by  the  form  of  small  yellow  spots  in  the  muscles 
and  soft  tissues  of  alTectod  aninuils.  When 
slightly  magnified  these  spots  are  seen  to  consist 
of  a  radiating  structure,  which  is  characteristic 
of  the  growth  of  the  ray  fungus.  In  cattle  the 
scat  of  the  disease  is  usually  in  the  inferior 
maxillary  bones,  submaxillary  salivary  glands, 
in  the  tongue,  pharynx,  and  a?soi)]iagus.  The 
connnon  names.  Big  .Jaw,  Lumpy  .law,  Big  Head, 
and  Wooden  Tongtu'  are  descri])tive  of  the  most 
freqticnt  forms  of  actinomycosis  in  cattle  and 
horses.  When  the  maxillary  bones  are  affected, 
a  large  bone  tumor  is  formed  which  shows  a 
highly  vacuolated  cancellate  structure.  Statis- 
tics collected  in  Russia  show  that  in  99%  of 
cases  actinomycosis  Avas  located  in  the  head. 
In  a  small  percentage  of  cases  the  lungs  and 
intestines  are  affected.  Maxillary  tumors  in 
cattle  are  almost  invariably  due  to  the  Ray 
fungus,  and  therefore  actinomycosis  may  be 
readily  diagnosed. 

CoiKiderable  difference  of  opinion  prevails 
regarding  the  systematic  position  of  the  Ray 
fungus.  It  has  been  supposed  that  the  organism 
has  a  plant  host  on  which  it  passes  part  of  its 
life  cycle.  The  agency  of  various  grasses  (espe- 
cially such  as  lutve  sharp-pointed  awns)  in 
transmitting  actinomycosis  can  hardly  be  ques- 
tioned. About  .)0(l  cases  of  this  disease  in  man 
have  been  reported  in  the  medical  journals,  the 
greater  nmnbcr  of  cases  having  occurred  as  a 
result  of  eating  raw  meat. 

Actinomycosis  is  jieculiar  in  that  it  yields  to 
a  direct  specific  treatment.  In  188.5  Thomassen 
showed  that  recent  cases  of  the  disease  could  be 
cured  by  the  internal  administration  of  potas- 
siimi  iodide.  In  treating  actinomycosis  in  cattle 
the  ordinary  practice  is  to  give  daily  doses  of 
eight  to  twelve  grams  of  potassium  iodide  for 
weekly  periods,  alternating  with  shorter  periods, 
in  order  that  the  animals  may  recover  from  the 
symptoms  of  iodism.  Actinomycosis  follows  a 
slow  chronic  course  of  development. 

The  relationship  of  the  disease  to  the  public 
health    has    been    much    discussed.     Apparently 


91 


ACTION. 


infection  most  frequently  takes  place  in  man 
and  cattle  through  diseased  teeth  or  abrasions 
of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  mouth.  The 
identity  of  actinomycosis  in  man  and  cattle  is 
admitted  by  nearly  all  investigators,  but  most 
authorities  hold  that  its  direct  transmission 
to  man  through  eating  the  meat  of  atTccted 
animals  is  of  rare  occurrence.  Whether  an  ani- 
mal afl'ected  with  actinomycosis  should  be  used 
for  hunum  food  is  a  question  the  answer  to  which 
depends  upon  a  variety  of  circumstances.  It 
may,  however,  be  safely  asserted  that  animals 
in  which  the  disease  has  become  generalized 
should  be  condemned.  For  details  concerning 
actinomycosis  consult  D.  E.  Salmon,  "Inrestiga- 
tions  Relating  to  the  Treatment  of  Lumpy  .Taw, 
or  Actinomycosis,  in  Cattle,"  C.  S.  Department 
of  Agriciiliiirc,  liurruii  of  Animal  liiiliixlry, 
liulletin  2  (Washington.  189.3)  ;  D.  E.  Salmon 
'  and  others.  "Spcci;il  Keport  on  Diseases  of 
Cattle  and  on  Cattle  Feeding."  Report  of  U.  8. 
Department  of  Ar/rieiillKrc  for  J!<!l.!.  liiireau  of 
Animal  hiduslri/  (Washington.  1892)  ;  ••Tiuneurs 
des  nulchoires  observecs  dans  res])?ce  bovine," 
Journal  de  XKdecine  Yfterinaire   (Paris,  1826). 

AC'TINOZO'A.     Same  as  Axthozoa    (q.v.). 

ACTION  ( Lat.  actio,  a  doing,  performing, 
an  action,  suit,  process).  A  term  which,  in  its 
broadest  sense,  includes  every  lawful  ])roceeding 
in  a  court  of  justice  for  the  enforcement  or 
protection  of  a  right,  the  redress  or  ])rcvcnlii)n 
of  a  wrong,  or  the  piinishment  of  a  public 
offense.  Formerly  the  term  was  confined,  in 
English  law,  to  an  ordinary  proceeding  in  a 
common  law  court,  while  the  word  suit  was 
applied  to  a  proceeding  in  equity.  By  the 
reformed  procedure  in  many  of  our  States,  all 
distinction  between  yctions  at  connnon  law  and 
suits  in  e<iuity.  as  well  as  between  the  different 
forms  of  coiiunon  law  actions,  have  been  abol- 
ished, and  only  a  single  civil  action  is  recog- 
nized. If  the  prosecution  is  not  instituted  and 
carried  on  by  one  party  against  another,  it  is 
denominated  by  some  statutes  a  special  proceed- 
ing (q.v.).  The  earliest  classification  of  com- 
mon law  actions  was:  (1)  real  actions,  or  those 
based  on  the  plaintiff's  right  of  property  in 
specified  lands,  so  called  because  the  res,  or  prop- 
erty itself,  was  sought  to  be  recovered;  (2) 
mixed  acti(uis.  such  as  those  f(U'  i)artitioii  of 
lands,  for  ejectment  or  for  waste:  (.'?)  personal 
actions,  or  those  against  a  particular  person 
for  a  money  judgment.  The  distinction  between 
real  and  personal  actions  is  the  foundation  of 
the  classification  of  property  as  real  and  per- 
sonal. (See  PuoPERTY.)  This  third  class  was 
subdivided  into  actions  ex  contractu,  such  as 
debt  (q.v.)  and  covenant  (q.v.),  and  actions 
ex  delicto,  such  as  trespass  (q.v.)  and  detinue 
(q.v.).  Again,  actions  are.  divided  into  local 
and  transitory,  according  as  they  must  be 
brought  in  a  certain  county  or  slate,  or  as  they 
may  be  brought  wherever  tlie  defendant  is  found. 
An  action  for  trespass  to  land  is  local,  and  it 
must  be  brought  in  the  State  where  the  land  is 
situated:  while  an  action  for  slander  of  title 
(q.v.)  to  that  land  is  transitory.  (See  the  author- 
ities referred  to  under  the  various  titles  above 
named. )  The  action  of  account  at  common  law  was 
used  much  earlier  than,  and  is  distinct  from,  the 
action  upon  an  account  stated,  which  came  into 
the  law  as  a  common  count  (q.v.).  The  action 
of  account  would  lie  at  common  law.  and  by  early 
English  statute  against  one  acting  in  a  fiduciary 


ACTION. 


92 


capacity  otlier  than  a  trustee,  or  against  one 
wliose  duty  it  was  to  render  an  account  to  the 
plaintiff,  to  compel  the  defendant  to  render  an 
account  and  to  pay  the  amount  due  on  such 
accounting. 

ACTION.  In  psychology,  a  term  used 
broadly  to  cover  all  forms  of  muscular  move- 
ment. We  speak,  e.g.,  of  the  action  of  the 
heart,  or  reflex  action,  etc.,  as  well  as  of  impul- 
sive or  voluntary  action.  There  is,  however,  a 
growing  tendency  to  reserve  the  word  action 
for  such  bodily  movements  as  have  conscious 
antecedents  and  concomitants  (movements  for 
which  there  are  conscious  motives,  and  of  which 
we  are  conscious,  as  they  run  their  course  in 
time),  and  to  employ  the  general  term  "move- 
ment'' for  movements  which  are  of  an  uncon- 
scious, purely  physiological,  character.  We 
shall  therefore  speak  in  tliis  article  of  impulsive 
and  voluntary  action,  but  of  reflex  movement. 

The  problem  which  action  sets  to  psychology 
is  twofold.  We  have,  in  the  first  place,  to  trace 
the  genesis  and  development  of  action ;  and  in 
the  second  to  analyze  the  active  consciousness, 
to  determine  the  constituent  processes  in  the 
various  forms  of  motive. 

1.  There  are  two  opposed  theories  of  the  gen- 
esis of  action.  The  first  asserts  that  all  conscious 
actions  have  developed  from  reflex  movements. 
The  reflex  movement  is  the  direct  and  definite 
response  of  the  organism  to  a  particular  stim- 
ulus. A  frog  whose  brain  and  medulla  have 
lieen  removed  will  draw  up  its  leg  if  the  foot 
be  pinched;  the  pupil  of  tlie  human  eye  contracts 
under  the  influence  of  light,  and  expands  again 
as  the  light  is  diminished.  Jlechanical  and 
unconscious  movements  of  this  kind  are,  the 
theory  holds,  older  than  consciousness.  When 
mind  appears,  it  finds  such  movements  ready  to 
its  hand;  it  avails  itself  of  them  for  conscious 
purposes.  So  the  animal's  movements,  at  first 
automatic  and  simple,  grow  more  arid  more  com- 
plex, and  have  more  and  more  of  tlic  element 
of  consciousness  imported  into  them.  The  main 
arguments  for  the  position  are  as  follows,  (a) 
Spontaneous  movements  are  to  be  observed  in 
children  and  young  animals :  movements  that 
are  neither  reflex  movements  nor  voluntary 
actions,  but  random  discharges  of  the  excess  of 
energy  stored  in  tlie  healthy  organism.  These 
movements  furnish  a  varied  supply  of  active 
experience,  certain  items  of  which  must,  by  the 
law  of  chance,  prove  to  be  positively  pleasur- 
able, while  others  will  at  least  be  less  unpleasant 
than  the  experiences  preceding  them.  When- 
ever active  experience  and  pleasure  are  thus  coin- 
cident, attention  is  drawn  to  the  movement, 
which  is  elaborated  into  voluntary  action.  (6) 
I'rom  the  ))hj'siological  point  of  view,  the  move- 
jnents  of  the  lowest  organisms,  as  well  as  the 
movements  carried  out  l>y  means  of  the  lower 
nerve-centres  of  higher  organisms,  are  of  the 
reflex  type.  And  even  the  most  complex  of 
voluntary  actions  can  be  assimilated  to  this  type 
on  the  neural  side;  for  the  physical  correlate 
of  such  action  is  simply  the  reflex  arc.  with  its 
central  portion  made  longer  and  more  circuit- 
ous. 

Neither  of  these  arguments  is.  however,  free 
from  objections.  In  the  first  place,  different 
oliservers  <lin'cr  as  to  tlic  range  and  scojie  of 
the  s])ontaneo\is  movements  of  infancy.  Some 
restrict  them  within  very  narrow  limits,  where 
the  play  of  chance  coincidence. would  be  incon- 


ACTION. 

siderable;   others  assert  that  they  can,  one  and 
all,    be    reduced    to   incipient   voluntary    actions 
and     imperfect     hereditary     reflexes.     Moreover, 
the  theory  presupposes  that  the  sensations   and 
perceptions  aroused  by  moving  appear,  in  point 
of    time,    before    the    pleasure    achieved    by    the 
movement  or   the  voluntary   impulse   toward   it. 
]5ut  this  means  that  mind  is  built  up  iiiecenieal, 
whereas    there    is    reason    to    think    that    con- 
sciousness  is   a   single   tissue,   every   strand   of 
which  is  given  with  every  other.     Again,  it  is 
diflicult  to  understand  the  mechanism  by  which 
pleasurable   movements    are    selected.     Granted 
that    a    movement    chances    to    bring    pleasure, 
how  is  its   repetition  brought   about?     Can  we 
form    any   clear    idea   of    the   way   in    which    a 
motive  is  prefixed  to  the  sensation  series?     As 
for    the    second    argument,    it    is    asserted    as 
evident  that  the  simplest  form  of  sensory-motor 
coordination  need  not  be  the  earliest.     There  is 
a  primitive  simplicity:  but  there  is  also  a  sim- 
plicity of  reduction  and  refinement.     Again,  the 
statement   that    the    movements    of   the    lowest 
organisms  are  reflex  in  character  is  said  to  beg 
the  question :    the  original   theory   assumes   out- 
right tliat  there  is  a  strict  parallel  between  the 
growth  of  the  race  and  the  growth  of  the  indi- 
vidual,   between    phylogeny    and    ontogeny,    and 
does   not   take   into   account  the   fact   that   the 
individual   comes   into  the   world   endowed   with 
a  rich  inheritance  of  neuro-muscular   coordina- 
tions.   And,  lastly,  even  if  the  neural  substrate 
of    voluntary    action    be    in    structure    no    more 
tlian  a  highly  complex  reflex  arc.  still  the  oppo- 
nents of  tlio  theory   point   out   functional   differ- 
ences:  the  reflex  is  unconscious,  while  the  func- 
tioning of  the  central  cells  of  the  voluntary  arc 
is  accompanied  by  consciousness.     So   we  come 
face  to  face  once  more  with  our  original  problem. 
The    alternative   theory,    which    we   may    now 
examine,  affirms  that  the  earliest  organic  move- 
ments    are,     in     principle,     voluntary     actions. 
Jlind,  according  to  this  theory,  is  as  old  as  life, 
and   the   first   movements   of   living  matter   are 
impulsive  actions,   i.e.,   actions   prompted   by   a 
single      determining      motive.     The      arguments 
which  this  position  brings  into  the  field  are  as 
follows,      (a)    All    reflex    and    instinctive    move- 
ments show  signs  of  adaptat  ion ;    they  subserve 
a   particular  end   or   purpose;    they  are   definite 
and    appropriate    responses    to    certain    circum- 
stances  of   the   animal's   environment.     Now,    in 
the   first  place,  primitive  movements  should  be 
vague  and  purposeless :  it  is  not  easy  to  conceive 
of  a  movement  that  should  be  at  once  rudiment- 
ary and  economical.     And,  in  the  second  place, 
our  best  criterion  of  the  presence  of  mind   in  a 
living    creature    is    the    creature's    capacity    of 
adaptation,  of  learning.     The  reflex,  pointing  as 
it  does  to  a  process  of  adaptation   in   tlie  past, 
points  also  to  the  existence  of  a  past  mind.     In 
a  word,   reflex  movements  appear   to  be  degen- 
erate, mechanized  impulsive  actions.      (6)  There 
can    be    no    doubt    that    such    mechanization    is 
possible.     We    are   constantly    in    the    course   of 
our  everyday  life  reducing  voluntary  actions  to 
'"secondary  reflexes":   our  pen  dips  itself  in  the 
accustomed    inkstand,    our    coat    buttons    itself, 
our  bicycle  balances  itself,  without  any  of  the 
conscious  attention  that  wc  gave  them  when  the 
movements    were    new.     Furtlier.    what    we    see 
happening  here  in  the  course  of  a  few  days  or 
weeks  has  happened  also  in  the  life  of  the  race. 
We  wince  when  we  are  ashamed,  and  jump  when 


ACTION. 

we  nre  startled:  and  tlic  jump  and  wince  are 
inexplicable  unless  they  are  the  dcjienerate 
descendants  of  voluntary  actions,  the  last  reflex 
remnants  of  the  coweriuf;  and  shrinking  and 
leaping  aside  of  the   frijjlitened  animal. 

The  only  point  of  fact  which  this  second  point 
of  view  leaves  unexplained  is  the  mode  of  origin 
of  the  first  impulse.  How  and  under  what  condi- 
tions the  ])rimeval  organism  became  conscious 
of  tlie  impulse  to  move,  and  organic  movement 
appeared  in  the  natural  world,  we  cannot  say. 
Hut  neither  is  psychology  called  u|)on  to  say. 
No  science  explains  its  own  data;  it  takes  them 
for  granted.  As,  therefore,  the  physicist  as- 
sumes the  mechanical  universe,  and  the  biolo- 
gist the  phenomena  of  life,  so  may  the  psychol- 
ogist assume  without  cavil  the  existence  of  mind. 
Granted  the  starting-point,  and  the  rest  follows 
easily  enougli.  Tlie  first  organic  movement  is 
an  "action  upon  presentation,''  an  action  whose 
nuitive  (the  impulse)  is  given  with  the  presen- 
tation to  the  aninuil  of  a  i)leasantly  or  unpleas- 
antly toned  stimulus.  Out  of  this  grows  impul- 
sive action  proper,  an  action  whose  motive  is 
blended  of  tliree  ideas:  that  of  the  stimulus, 
tlie  original  motive-idea;  that  of  the  result  of 
movenu'nt.  of  ])leasurable  accomplisliment :  and 
that  of  the  moving  itself,  the  "active  experience" 
of  the  lirst  theory.  The  course  of  development 
beyond  impulsive  action  takes  two  directions. 
I'pward.  toward  greater  mentality,  it  rises  to  the 
more  complex  forms  of  voluntary  action:  to 
selective  action,  in  which  there  is  a  conflict  of 
impulses,  a  period  of  deliberation,  resulting  in 
the  victory  of  some  one  (the  actual)  motive 
over  other  less  strong  (potential)  motives;  and 
to  volitional  action,  in  which  the  conflict  is  not 
between  impulse  and  impulse,  but  between  an 
impulse  to  movement  on  the  one  hand  and  a 
group  of  ideas  ])rompting  to  no-action  on  the 
other.  Downward,  toward  less  mentality,  the 
impulsive  action  degenerates  into  the  reflex 
movement.  Selective  and  volitional  action,  as 
we  have  seen,  ma.v  also  degenerate;  choice  and 
resolve  become  automatic:  the  complex  action 
slijis  back,  first  of  all  into  an  impulsive  act, 
and  finally  into  a  secondary  reflex.  Note  the 
light  which  this  view  of  the  development  of 
action  throws  upon  the  jirolilems  of  animal 
psychologj-  (q.v.).  fiethe  thinks  that  ants  and 
bees  are  automata,  while  popular  psychology 
dowers  them  with  all  sorts  of  conscious  motives 
and  purposes.  Now,  ants  and  bees  prove,  on 
trial,  to  be  unintelligent:  they  cannot  learn  to 
make  new  ada])fations.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
adaptations  wbicli  they  have  already  learned 
are  of  an  extrenu^ly  complicated  character.  It 
has  been  assumed,  therefore,  by  certain  author- 
ities that  these  creatures  represent  the  final 
stage  in  a  retrogressive  development  from  a 
fairly  high  level  of  mentality.  According  to 
this  theory  popular  psychology  is  right,  in  that 
ants  and  bees  once  possessed  a  good  deal  of 
mind:  it  is  wrong  in  interpreting  their  present 
movements  as  voluntary  actions.  If  it  be  object- 
ed that  the  nnicellulur  organisms,  the  most 
primitive  forms  of  life,  should  (on  the  present 
theory)  .show  signs  of  rudimentary  impulsive 
action,  and  that  .lennings's  paramecia  proved,  on 
the  contrary,  to  lie  as  automatic  as  Bethe's  ants, 
the  reply  is  that  these  protozoa,  simple  as  they 
are,  have  as  long  a  line  of  ancestry  as  we  have 
ourselves;  and  that  the  less  mind  there  is  to 
start  with  the  less  will  be  the  fall  from  impulse 


93 


ACTION. 


to  the  redex.  It  is  asserted  strongly  by  the 
supporters  of  this  hypothesis  that  if  a  sound 
view  of  mental  evolution  is  to  be  attained,  the 
investigator  must  accept  the  proposition  that 
all  animals  have  had  mind.  Whether  or  not 
they  have  it  now  depends  upon  the  direction 
which  their  development  has  taken  —  upward, 
toward  i)hysiological  adaptability  and  elabora- 
tion of  mental  process,  or  downward,  toward 
specific  adaptation  and  the  lapse  of  conscious- 
ness. 

i.  We  have  already  said  something  by  way  of 
analysis  of  the  "typical"  motive  to  action,  the 
impulse.  On  its  intellectual  side,  this  motive, 
ill  complete  form,  contains  the  three  ideas  (1) 
of  the  object  wliieh  evokes  the  movement,  (2) 
of  the  movement  itself,  and  (3)  of  the  result 
which  the  movement  accomplishes.  The  afTeet- 
ive  accuuipaniincnt  of  this  group  of  ideas 
ma,y  be  pleasurable  or  unploasurable,  but  must 
always  be  the  one  or  the  other:  we  may  jump 
for  joy  or  from  fright,  but  we  do  not  jump 
when  oui-  mood  is  that  of  indifference.  The 
essential  thing  in  the  active  consciousness,  how- 
ever, is  an  apperception  of  (attention  to)  some 
one  of  the  ideas  contained  in  the  motive.  (See 
•Apperception  :  Atte.ntion.)  («)  In  the  case  of 
primitive  action  (action  upon  presentation)  we 
must  suppose  tlmt  the  idea  of  object  is  the  idea 
that  stands  in  the  focus  of  attention:  the  impul- 
sive action  is  indistinguishable  from  the  move- 
ment tliat  expresses  emotion.  (See  Expression; 
F.xpRESsiVE  ^Movements.)  "The  universal  ani- 
mal im])ulses — the  impulses  of  nutrition,  of  re- 
venge, of  .sex,  of  protection,  ete. — are  indubitably 
the  earliest  forms  of  emotion."  (Wundt. )  The 
hungry  animal  perceives  food:  its  attention  is 
lichl  l)y  fills  )icrce]ition  ;  it  is  pleasurably  moved 
by  tlie  perception;  and  bodily  movement  toward 
the  food-su[ij)l.v  results.  (6)  As  the  organism 
grows  in  experience  of  movement,  the  impulse 
becomes  more  complex,  and  the  focus  of  atten- 
tion shifts  to  the  idea  of  our  own  movement 
(action  upon  representation)  ;  so  that  we  may 
lay  it  down  as  a  law  of  anal.ytical  psychol- 
ogy that  the  condition  of  voluntary  action  is 
an  apperception  of  the  movement-idea.  We 
flunk  of  ourselves  as  moving,  and  find  that  we 
have  moved,  (r)  -Xt  a  still  later  stage,  when 
the  voluntary  action  is  taking  the  downward 
path  toward  the  secondar.y  reflex,  the  idea  of 
movement  fuses  with  the  idea  of  result  into  an 
indissoluble  whole.  It  is  now  the  idea  of  result 
that  holds  the  attention.  We  feel  a  draught, 
and  rise  at  once  to  close  the  window,  thinking 
neither  of  the  object  of  movement,  the  window, 
nor  of  the  muscular  movements  that  take  us 
to  it.  but  simply  of  the  result  of  the  action, 
the  avoidance  of  a  cold.  So  the  emphasis  shifts 
from  term  to  term  of  the  threefold  complex; 
from  idea  of  object  to  idea  of  movement,  and 
from  that  again  to  idea  of  result.  But  the 
motive  remains  in  principle  the  same  thing:  an 
affectively  toned  group  of  sense-material,  given 
in  the  state  of  attention. 

The  conscious  anlecedents  of  the  higher  forms 
of  voluntary  action  are  naturally  more  compli- 
cated. In  place  of  the  triad  of  simple  ideas  we 
have,  in  the  confli.-t  of  impulses  that  precedes 
volitional  and  selective  action,  elaborate  systems 
or  constellations  of  ideas,  representations  of  the 
total  "situation"  in  which  we  find  ourselves.  In 
place  of  the  simple  pleasantness  or  unpleasant- 
ness of  the  impulse,  we  have  equally  elaborate 


ACTION. 


94 


ACT  or  PARLIAMENT. 


affective  formations — emotions  and  sentiments; 
tKe  feelings  of  obscurity,  of  contradiction,  of 
resolve,  of  decision;  the  characteristic  oscillatory 
emotion  of  doubt;  the  emotions  of  relief,  of 
satisfaction  or  dissatisfaction,  of  liope.  of  disap- 
pointment; the  sentiments  of  power,  of  pride,  of 
sEstlietic  fitness,  of  moral  ri<jhtness.  (See  Emo- 
tion.) And  in  place  of  the  passive  attention 
■which  the  single  impulse-motive  ccnmnands,  we 
have  an  active,  effortful  attention  divided  among 
the  various  potential  motives  contained  in  the 
"situation."  It  is  the  business  of  descriptive 
psychology  to  unravel  the  processes  of  these 
motive-consciousnesses,  and  to  trace  the  single 
pattern  (the  impulse  pattern)  that  runs  through 
them  all.  It  is  the  business  of  experimental 
jisychology  to  examine  the  impulse  under  stand- 
ard conditions ;  to  build  it  up  from  the  given 
elements,  and  to  construct  artificial  selective 
and  volitional  actions  from  a  number  of  simple 
impulses.  This  task  it  accomplishes  by  aid  of 
the  reaction  experiment.  Cohsult:  A.  Bain.  The 
Emotions  and  the  Will  (London,  1880)  ;  H._ 
Spencer,  Prinriples  of  Psychology  (New  York, 
1881)  ;  W.  Wundt,  Tm-lesunfien  iiher  (lie  Men- 
schcn-  tind  Tierseele  (.3d  ed..  ib..  1807:  trans,  as 
Human  and  Animal  Pst/eholorii/,  London,  LSOfi)  ; 
id.,  Grund::iiqe  der  phijsiologisehen  Psychologie 
(oth  ed.,  Leipzig,  1902)'. 

AC'TIUM,  ak'shl-ilm,  now  Akbi.    A  town  and 
promontory  on  the  west  coast  of  Greece  at  the 
tntrance  of  the  Ambraeian  Gulf,  now  the  Gulf  of 
Arta.     It  is  memorable  for  the  sea  fight  wliich 
took  place  near  it  September  2d,  31  B.C.  between 
Octavius   (afterward  the  Emperor  Augustus)  and 
Marcus  Antonius.     These  two  had  for  some  time 
ruled  the  Roman  world  jointly,  the  former  in  the 
west,   ihe  latter  in  the  east.  It  now  came  to  a 
struggle  for  the  sole  sovereignty.  The  two  armies 
were  encamped  on  the  opposite  shores  of  the  gulf. 
Octavius   had    80,000   infantry.    12,000    cavalry, 
and  260  ships  of  war;  Antony,  100,000  infantry, 
12,000  cavalry,  and  220  ships.     Antony's  ships 
were   large  and   well   provided  with   engines   for 
throwing   missiles,   but   clumsy    in    their    move- 
ments: Ootavius"s  were  smaller  and  more  agile. 
Antony  was  supported  by  Cleopatra,  Queen   of 
Egypt,    with    sixty    vessels,    who    induced    him, 
against  the  opinion  of  his  most  experienced  gen- 
erals,  to   determine   upon   a   naval   engagement. 
The  battle  continued  for  some  hours  undecided; 
at  last  Agrippa,  who  commanded  Octavius's  fleet, 
succeeded  by  a  skillful  manceuvre  in  compelling 
Antony  to  extend  his  line  of  battle,  the  compact- 
ness of  which  had  hitherto  resisted  all  attempts 
of  the  enemy  to  break  through.  Cleopatra,  whose 
ships   were   stationed   behind   Antony's   line,   ap- 
prehensive of  that  line's   being  broken,   took   to 
flight  with  her  auxiliary  fleet,  and  Antony  reck- 
lessly followed  her  with  a  few  of  his  ships.     The 
deserted    fleet    continued    to    resist    bravely    for 
some  time,  but  was  finally  vanquished;  the  land 
army,  after  waiting  in  vain  seven  days  for  An- 
tony's   return,    surrendered    to   Octavius.      As   a 
memorial  of  the  victory  that  had  given  him  the 
empire  of  the  world,  and  out  of  gratitude  to  the 
gods,   Octavius   enlarged    the   temple   of   Apollo 
at  Actium,  dedicated  the  trophies  he  had  taken, 
and  instituted  games   (Ludi  Actiaci)   to  be  cele- 
brated every  five  years.     He  also  built  on  the 
spot   where   his   army   had   been   encamped    the 
town  of  Nicopolis   (city  of  victory),  near  where 
Prevesa  now  stands.    The  battle  of  Actium  is  de- 
scribed in  Greek  by  Plutarch   (Life  of  Antony) 


and  l)y  Dion  Cassius    (bk.  1.).     See  Antonius, 
Marcls  ;  Augustus  ;  Cleopatba. 

ACT  OF  FAITH.     See  Auto-da-f^. 

ACT  OF  PAHLIAMENT,  par'li-ment.  A  res- 
olution or  law  passed  by  all  tlie  three  branches 
of  the  English  legislature,  the  king  (or  queen), 
lords,  and  commons;  or,  as  it  is  formally  ex- 
pressed, "by  the  King's  Jlajesty,  by  and  with  the 
advice  and  consent  of  the  Lords  Spiritual  and 
Temporal,  and  Commons,  in  Parliament  assem- 
bled, and  by  the  authority  of  the  same."  An 
act  of  parliament  thus  made  is  the  highest  le- 
gal authority  acknowledged  by  the  constitution. 
It  binds  every  subject,  and,  with  a  few  excep- 
tions, every  alien  in  the  land,  and  even  the  sov- 
ereign himself,  if  named  therein.  And  in  England 
it  cannot  be  altered,  amended,  dispensed  with, 
suspended,  or  repealed  but  in  the  same  forms 
and  by  the  same  authority  of  parliament.  In 
Scotland,  however,  a  long  course  of  contrary 
usage  or  of  disuse  may  have  the  effect  of  depriv- 
ing a  statute  of  its  obligation ;  for  by  the  Scotch 
law  a  statute  may  become  obsolete  by  disuse 
and  cease  to  be  legally  binding.  It  was  formerly 
held  in  England  that  the  King  might  in  many 
cases  dispense  -i^ith  statutes,  especially  such  as 
were  of  a  penal  character;  but  by  the  statute 
1  W.  and  M..  st.  2,  c.  2,  it  is  declared  that  the 
suspending  or  dispensing  with  laws  Ijy  royal  aii- 
thority  without  consent  of  parliament  is  illegal. 

An  act  of  parliament  is  eitlier  public  or  private. 
A  public  act  regards  the  whole  enq)ire  or  one  of 
its  main  subdivisions,  in  which  case  it  is  gen- 
eral;  or  a  subordinate  part,  in  which  case  it  is 
local;  but  the  operation  of  a  private  act  is  con- 
fined to  particular  persons  and  private  concerns. 
As  the  law  till  lately  stood,  the  courts  of  law 
were  bound  ex  officio  to  take  judicial  notice,  as 
it  is  called,  of  public  acts — that  is,  to  recognize 
these  acts  as  known  and  published  law,  without 
the  necessity  of  their  being  specially  pleaded  and 
proved;  but  it  was  otherwise  in  regard  to  pri- 
vate acts,  so  that  in  order  to  claim  any  advan- 
tage under  a  private  act  it  was  necessary  to 
plead  it  and  set  it  forth  particularly.  But  now, 
by  the  13  and  14  Vict.  c.  21,  s.  7,  every  act  of 
parliament  is  to  be  taken  to  be  a  public  one,  and 
judicially  noticed  as  such  unless  the  contrary 
be  expressly  declared. 

An  act  of  parliament  begins  to  operate  from 
the  time  when  it  receives  the  royal  assent,  un- 
less some  other  time  be  fixed  for  the  purpose  by 
the  act  itself.  The  rule  on  this  subject  in  Eng- 
land was  formerly  different,  for  at  common  law 
every  act  of  parliament  which  had  no  provision 
to  the  contrary  was  considered  as  soon  as  it 
passed  (i.e.,  received  the  royal  assent)  as  hav- 
ing been  in  force  retrospectively  from  the  first 
day  of  the  session  of  parliament  in  wliicli  it 
passed,  though  in  fact  it  might  not  have  re- 
ceived the  royal  assent,  or  even  been  introduced 
into  parliament,  until  long  after  that  day;  and 
this  strange  principle  was  rigidly  observed  for 
centuries.  The  ancient  acts  of  the  Scotch  par- 
liament were  proclaimed  in  all  the  county  towns, 
burghs,  and  even  in  the  baron  courts.  This 
mode  of  promulgation  was.  however,  gradually 
dropped  as  the  use  of  printing  became  common, 
and  in  1581  an  act  was  passed  declaring  publi- 
cation at  the  Slarket  Cross  of  Edinburgh  to  be 
sufficient.  British  statutes  require  no  formal 
pronmlgation,  and  in  order  to  fix  the  time  from 
which  they  shall  become  binding  it  was  enacted 


ACT  OF  PARLIAMENT. 

liy  .SS  GfO.  111.,  c.  1.!.  that  cvii.v  iift  of  par- 
liiiniont  to  be  piisseil  after  April  8.  17!)3,  slinll 
cniiiineiiee  from  the  ilate  of  tln'  iiiih)rseiiieiit  hy 
the  elerk  of  parliament  statinjj  the  <lay,  month, 
and  year  when  the  act  was  j)asse{l  and  reeeiveil 
the  royal  a'ssent.  unless  the  eommeneenient  shall 
in  the  act  itself  be  otherwise  jiroviileil  for. 

Aets  of  parliament  are  referred  to  by  the  year 
of  the  sovereijin's  reifrn.  and  the  chapter  of  the 
statutes  for  tliat  year.  They  Avere  first  printed 
in  the  rei^rn  of  Richard  III.,  orijiinally  in  Latin, 
but  since  the  fourth  year  of  Henry  VII,  in  Kn^- 
lisli.  The  collective  body  of  such  aets  constitute 
the  Statutes  of  the  Kealm.  See  St-^titic;  Par- 
i.i.VMFNT,  and  the  autlmrities  there  referred  to. 

ACT  OF  SET'TLEMENT.  The  second  chap- 
ter of  Statute  12  and  l.i.  William  111.  of  Great 
Britain  ( 1701  ) ,  which  provided  that  the  crown,  in 
default  of  issue  to  Anne  Stuart.  William's  pre- 
sum|)tive  successor,  should  descend  to  tlie  House 
of  Hanover,  and  which  c.vcludcd  Roman  Catholics 
Ironi  the  throne.  See  Elizabeth  Stuart  (Queen 
of  lioheniia ) . 

ACT  OF  UNIFOK'MITY.  The  Kufrlish  stat- 
ute of  I:;  and  14  Car.  II.,  c.  4,  l(i(i2,  which  pro- 
vides that  the  Hook  of  Connnon  Prayer,  as  then 
recently  revised,  should  be  used  in  every  jjarish 
church  and  other  place  of  public  worship  in  Kng- 
iand.  and  that  every  .school-master  and  person 
instructing  youth  should  subscribe  a  declaration 
of  conformity  to  the  liturgy,  and  also  to  the  ef- 
fect of  the  oath  and  declaration  mentioned  in 
the  act  of  \:i  Car.  II.,  st.  2,  c.  1.  U  further  en- 
acted that  no  person  should  thenceforth  be  cap- 
able of  holding  any  ecclesiastical  promotion  or 
dignity,  or  of  con.secrating  or  administering  the 
sacrament,  till  he  should  be  ordained  priest  ac- 
cording to  Episcopal  ordination,  and  with  respect 
to  all  ministers  who  then  enjoyed  any  ecclesi- 
astical benefice  it  diiected  that  they  should, 
within  a  certain  perifxl.  openly  read  morning 
and  evening  service  according  to  the  Book  of 
Comnion  Prayer,  and  declare  before  the  congre- 
gation their  unfeigned  assent  and  consent  to  the 
use  of  all  things  therein  contained.  u])on  the  pain 
of  being  deprived  of  their  spiritual  promotions. 
Two  thousand  of  the  cleigy  who  refused  to  com- 
ply were  deprived  of  their  ])referments.  Acts  to 
secure  nniformity  were  passed  under  Edward  VI. 
(154".i)   anil  Elizabeth   (li5.")0). 

ACTON,  ak'ton.  A  suburb  of  London,  Eng- 
land. During  the  Civil  Wars  it  was  one  of  the 
strongholds  of  Puritanism,  and  has  been  at  vari- 
ous times  the  place  of  residence  of  many  famous 
personages,  such  as  the  great  jurist  Sir  Matthew 
Hale,  the  novelist  Henry  Fielding,  and  the  ac- 
tress Mrs.  Barry.  Pop.,  1891,  24,200;  1901, 
37,700. 

ACTON,  John  Emericii  KnwAim  Dai.isehq, 
first  barnn  (  IS;U-1!)02) .  An  English  historian, 
born  at  Naples.  He  studied  under  Dr.  (after- 
ward Cardinal)  Wiseman  at  St.  Mary's  Oscott, 
but  received  his  education  chielly  from  Dr.  Diil- 
linger.  whose  "Old  Catholic"  views  he  ado])(ed, 
and  zealously  opposed  the  dogma  of  papal  infal- 
libility. He  was  regarded  as  the  leader  of  the 
'"Liberal  I'vonuin  Catholics"  in  England.  As  Sir 
.Tohn  .\cton.  he  was  a  member  of  Parliament 
for  Carlow  (18.59-0.^).  In  KSf.!)  he  was  raised 
to  the  peerage.  He  edited  and  contributed 
articles  to  magazines,  and  won  a  high  rcptitation 
both  for  learning  and  for  vigor  of  expression. 
He   received   the   degrees   of   LL.D.    and   D.C.L., 


95 


ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES. 


and  in  1S;I.>  he  was  appointed  regius  professor  of 
modern  history  at  Cambridge.  His  inaugural 
aildicss  was  published  under  the  title.  Lecture 
on  the  titudy  of  llislory    (1895). 

ACTON,  Silt  Joiix  Fra\ci.s  Edward  (17.37- 
ISll).  Prime  minister  of  Naples  under  Ferdi- 
nand 1\'.  He  was  born  nt  Bcsancon,  France,  the 
.son  of  an  English  physician.  He  served  in  the 
Tuscan  navy,  eonuuanding  a  frigate  in  the  expe- 
dition again.st  Algiers  in  1775.  Ue  showed  such 
ability  that  he  was  invited  to  reorganize  the 
Neapolitan  navy,  and  soon  became  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  sea  and  land  forces,  then  minister 
of  finance,  and  finally  prime  minister.  His 
iiu'asures  were  intolerant,  and  ultimately  caused 
a  reaction  against  thq  royal  family  of  Naples 
and  in  favor  of  the  French  party  and  the  Car- 
bonari. When  the  French  entered  Naples  in 
ISOli  he  lied  to  Sicily,  where  he  died. 

ACTON,  Thomas  Co.\o.\  (1823-98).  An 
American  financier  and  administrator.  He  was 
born  in  New  Voik  City,  and  served  as  assistant 
deputy  county  elerk  "(18.50-o'i)  and  as  deputy 
register.  He  Avas  a  police  commissioner  of  the 
Niw  York  metropolitan  police  in  IStiO-fiO,  and 
during  the  last  seven  years  was  president  of  the 
board.  His  most  valuable  service  while  in  that 
oDice  was  during  the  draft  riots  in  18f);i,  when 
for  a  week  he  ijcisonally  commanded  the  entire 
police  force  of  the  city. 

ACTS,  Sm mots  or  .Xpocryimial.  See  Apoc- 
RYi'H.v.  sectinn  on  .Acic  Tentamenl. 

ACTS  OF  HOSTILITY.  Aets  which  may  in- 
volve nations  in  war.  The  tremendous  cost  of 
modern  war,  both  in  blood  and  treasure,  is  now 
so  keenly  felt  that  war  is  rarely  resorted  to  e.\- 
cept  as  the  court  of  last  resort.  The  gi-owing 
and  widesju-ead  demand  for  universal  arbitra- 
tion is  also  tending  to  limit  the  causes  which 
may  produce  war,  and  the  strength  of  this  ten- 
dency was  evidenced  by  the  call  of  the  Czar  of 
Riissia  for  an  international  conference,  which 
was  held  in  1899,  and  is  known  in  history  as 
the  Hague  Peace  Conference.  Aets  of  hostility 
may  be  of  a  diplomatic,  commercial,  civil,  or 
military  character.  The  angry  nature  of  the 
French  ambassador's  (Count  lienedetti,  q.v.) 
interview  with  the  King  of  Prussia  at  Ems  in 
1870  is  an  e.vample  of  a  hostile  diplomatic  act. 
The  French  embargo  on  P.ritish  ships  after  the 
peace  of  .Amiens  (q.v.)  is  an  e.vample  of  the  com- 
mercial ])base;  the  firing  at  an  armed  vessel  of  a 
friendly  nation,  or  the  invasion  of  territory,  is 
a  military  example;  and  the  detention  of  iion- 
belligcrents,  citizens  of  a  friendly  nation,  as  in 
the  case  of  France  and  England  (1803),  is  an 
cxanii)le  of  a  civil  act  of  hostility. 

ACTS  OF  PI'LATE.     See  .VrnrRYi'HA. 

ACTS  OF  THE  APOS'TLES  (Gk.  UpiSctc 
Tail  ' ATToarA/iuv,  I'laxch  Wm  ApoxtolOn) .  The 
fifth  book  of  the  New  Testament,  the  composition 
of  which  is  ascribed  by  tradition  and  by  the 
gen(1al  consent  of  critics  to  the  same  author  as 
that  of  the  Third  Gosjiel,  to  which  book  it  forms 
a  sequel.  As  the  Ciospd  was  written  after  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  (70  A.i). ),  the  date  of 
Acts  is  still  later,  being  not  before  75  A.n.,  and 
not  after  95  a.d.,  most  likely  about  80  a.d.  Its 
place  of  composition  is  not  possible  to  determine. 
Its  purpose  is  ajiparent  from  the  ])lan  on  which 
its  material  is  selected  and  arranged,  when  com- 
pared   with    the   declared    purpose    and   evident 


ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES. 


y<3 


ACUPUNCTURE. 


plan  of  its  antecedent  book.  ( See  Luke,  Gospel 
OF.)  It  is  to  place  before  Theophilus,  who  was 
either  a  convert  from  paganism,  or,  if  yet  a 
pagan,  well  on  the  way  toward  an  acceptance  of 
Christianity  (see  Theophilcs)  ,  the  develop- 
ment of  the  religion  of  Jesus  from  its  old  life 
in  .Judaism  to  its  new  lite  in  Gentilism  as  provi- 
dentially directed  and  so  originally  intended  by 
its  divine  founder.  There  may  have  been  a  sec- 
ondary purpose,  to  show,  by  the  favorable  re- 
ception and  treatment  which  this  religion  re- 
ceived from  Koman  officials,  that  there  was  no 
disposition  on  the  part  of  the  Government  to 
consider  Christianity  in  a  hostile  light.  Such 
a  secondary  purpose  would  be  the  more  likely 
if  Theophilus  were  yet  himself  a  pagan  and  the 
book  were  composed  in  the. early  Flavian  regime, 
when  Christianity  was  under  imperial  suspicion. 
(See  Persecutio's  of  the  Christians.) 

The  material  of  the  book  is  derived  partially 
from  outside  sources,  both  oral  and  written,  the 
presence  of  which  is  specially  evident  in  the 
first  twelve  chapters,  which  treat  of  the  experi- 
ence of  the  early  church  in  Jerusalem  and  .Judea, 
and  partially  from  personal  notes  of  the  mission- 
ary experiences  of  Paul  and  his  companions, 
taken,  as  the  critical  facts  in  the  case  would 
seem  to  make  clear,  by  the  author  himself,  who 
thus  becomes  a  companion  of  Paul.  As  to  the 
identity  of  this  companion  there  would  seem  to 
be  no  valid  reason  against  the  tradition  that  he 
w-as  Luke,  mentioned  in  Paul's  Epistles  as  stand- 
ing in  close  relationship  to  the  Apostle.  ( See 
Colossians  iv:14:  II.  Timothy  iv  :  11 ;  Phile- 
mon, verse  24.)  This  is  the  general  opinion  of 
criticism. 

Two  schools  of  criticism  have  attempted  to  dis- 
parage the  credibility  of  Acts,  the  Tubingen 
School  (1845),  which  held  it  to  be  a  tendency 
writing,  so  manipulating  the  narrative  in  the 
interests  of  the  imion  movement  of  the  Church 
in  the  second  century  as  to  destroy  all  accuracy 
of  facts,  and  the  Documentary  School  (1890), 
which  held  it  to  be  a  complex  composite  writing, 
made  up  of  such  variant  documents,  of  such  va- 
ried origins,  and  of  such  differing  degrees  of 
reliability  as  to  hopelessly  obscure  the  actual 
facts  of  the  history.  Neither  of  these  attempts 
has  proved  successful.  At  present  there  is  an 
effort  among  critics  to  subject  it  to  the  same 
process  of  literary  criticism  as  has  been  so 
largely  employed  in  the  Old  Testament.  This 
would  present  it  as  a  writing  which  not  only 
gives  us  a  history  of  the  early  times  of  which  it 
tells,  but  in  the  way  in  which  it  gives  that  his- 
tory so  reflects  the  later  times  in  which  it  was 
written  as  to  give  us  a  picture  of  its  own  age. 
By  these  critics  it  is  held  to  be  a  composite  writ- 
ing of  not  earlier  origin  than  the  reign  of  Do- 
mitian  (81-96  a.d.),  compiled  by  a  Gentile 
Christian,  not  Luke  nor  any  companion  of  Paul, 
and,  outside  of  the  personal  diary  sections  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  book,  which  may  have 
come  from  Luke,  of  no  necessary  historical  ac- 
curacy. 

Professor  Blass  of  Halle  has  suggested  that 
it  was  written  originally  in  two  texts,  a  longer 
and  a  .shorter  one.  the  former  being  the  earlier, 
and  represented  in  the  text  of  the  peculiar 
Code.x  Bez(B  (D),  the  shorter  being  the  later 
and  represented  in  the  canonical  text  of  the 
Testament. 

Bibliography.  Commentaries:  H.  Meyer  (ed- 
ited bv  Wendt,  Gottingen.   1899)  ;   \V.  de   Wette 


(Leipzig,  1860)  :  Ewald,  Die  drei  ersten 
Eiunyelien  unci  die  Apostelgeschichte  (Gottin- 
gen, '187-2)  ;  F.  C.  Cook,  in  Bible  [.S'peafccr's] 
Cotinncntary  (Xew  York,  1881);  F.  Nosgen 
(Leipzig,  1882);  O.  Ziickler,  in  Straek  and 
Zijckler,  Kommcntar  (ilunich,  1894)  ;  H.  .J. 
Holtzmann.  in  Hand-Koinmentar  ^»»i  yeucn  Tes- 
tament (Freiburg,  1892)  ;  R.  Knowling.  in  Ex- 
positor's Greek  Testament  (London,  19()0).  In- 
troductions: Hilgenfeld  (Halle,  1875)  ;  Holtz- 
mann (Freiburg,  1892)  ;  Salmon  (London, 
1894):  Weiss,  English  translation  (Edin- 
burgh, 1888);  A.  Jiilicher  (Leipzig,  1901);  Th.  ■ 
Zahn  (Leipzig,  1900)  :  B.  W.  Bacon,  in  .Ycie  Tes-  '■ 
foment  Handbook  Heries  (Xew  York,  1900)  :  J.  ~ 
ilofl'att,  Tlie  Historical  Yew;  Testament  (Xew 
Y'ork  and  Edinburgh,  1901).  General  u'orks: 
A.  Xeander,  Pluntinij  and  Training  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church,  English  translation  in  Bohn's  Ser- 
ies (London,  1842-46)  :  F.  C.  Baur,  Paul,  Eng- 
lish translation  (London,  1872-75)  ;  A.  Ritschl, 
Die  Entstchung  der  aUkatholischen  Kirche 
(Bonn,  1857)  ;'Th.  Lewin,  Life  and  Epistles-  of 
St.  Paul  (London,  1875)  ;  C.  Weizsaeker,  The 
Apostolic  Age,  English  translation  (Edinburgh, 
1894)  :  \V.  M.  Eamsay,  The  Church  in  the  Roman 
Empire  Before  110  a.d.  (Xew  York,  1893)  ;  St. 
Paul  the  Traveler  and  the  Roman  Citizen  (Xew 
Y'ork,  1895)  :  F.  J.  A.  Hort,  Judaistic  Christian- 
ity (Cambridge,  1894)  ;  J.  Weiss,  Ueber  die 
Absicht  vnd  den  litterarischen  Character  der 
Apostelgeschichte  (Gottingen,  1897). 

AC'TUA'RIAL  SOCI'ETY  OF  AMER'ICA. 
An  organization  for  the  promotion  of  actuarial 
science.  It  was  founded  in  1889  and  in  1900 
had  123  members  and  associates. 

ACTUARY  {Actuarius,  in  ancient  Rome, 
meant  a  clerk  who  recorded  the  acta  (q.v. )  of 
the  senate  and  other  public  bodies,  and  also  an 
accountant).  In  recent  times,  a  terra  applied  to 
the  officers  of  life  insurance  companies  and  cog- 
nate enterprises,  who  supply  the  calculations 
upon  which  their  business  rests.  As  these  calcu- 
lations involve  questions  of  the  probable  duration 
of  human  life,  as  well  as  those  of  interest  and 
costs,  the  function  of  the  actuary'  might  be  briefly 
defined  as  the  application  of  the  doctrine  of 
probabilities  to  the  affairs  of  life.     See  Proba-      _ 

BILITIES.  ■ 

AC'UPRES'SURE  (Lat.  acus,  needle  -f  pres-  ^ 
sura,  pressure).  A  mode  of  arresting  hemor- 
rhage from  bleeding  vessels.  A  needle  is  passed 
through  the  flaps  or  sides  of  the  wound,  or  the 
tissues  at  the  sides  of  the  vessel,  so  as  to  cross 
over  and  compress  the  orifice  of  the  bleeding 
artery,  just  as  in  putting  a  flower  in  the  lapel 
of  one's  coat  one  crosses  over  and  compresses 
the  flower-stalk  with  a  pin  pushed  twice  through 
the  lapel.  Surgeons  now  seldom  use  acupres- 
sure. 

ACUPUNCTURE  (Lat.  acus.  needle  + 
punctura,  a  pricking).  A  very  ancient  remedy, 
and  one  practiced  extensively  in  the  East,  for 
the  relief  of  pain,  swelling,  or  dropsy.  Steel 
needles  are  made  use  of,  abovit  three  inches  long, 
and  set  in  handles.  The  surgeon,  by  a  rotatory 
movement,  passes  one  or  more  to  the  desired 
depth  in  the  tissues,  and  leaves  them  there  from 
a  few  minutes  to  an  hour.  The  relief  to  pain 
afforded  by  this  simple  operation  is  sometimes 
astonishing,  and  the  wounds  are  so  minute  as 
to  be  perfectly  harmless.     The  needles  are  some- 


ACUPUNCTURE. 


97 


ADAM. 


times  used  as  oomluitors  of  Uiv  galvanic  luneiit 
to  (iccp-seated  jiails,  lor  the  di'slrmliou  of  moles, 
birthmarks,  ele.,  and  are  sometimes  made  hollow 
to  allow  ol  a  small  ijuaiitity  of  some  sedative 
solution  being  injected  into  the  tissues  by  which 
pain  may  be  almost   immediately  relieved.     See 

>'KI  UALGIA. 

ADA,  od'o.  A  town  of  the  kingdom  of  Hun- 
gary, situated  on  the  Theiss,  about  liO  miles 
south  of  Szegedin  (Map:  Hungary,  G  4).  The 
inhabitants  are  chielly  engaged  in  the  cultiva- 
tion of  grain  and  cattle  raising.  Pop.,  18it0, 
1 1 ,000. 

ADAGIO,  d-dU'j6  (Ital.,  slowly,  leisurely, 
from  (/'/  "i/io,  at  ease).  In  music,  ])rimarily  a 
slow  tempo  intermediate  between  Iukjo  or  yriivc 
and  andtmlv.  The  term  is  further  applied  to  the 
slow  movement  (usually  the  second)  of  a  musical 
compo-iition,  as,  e.g.  of  a  symphony,  sonata,  con- 
certo, or  overture,  it  serves  as  a  contrast  with 
the  rapid  and  energetic  preceding  (allegro)  and 
following  (scherzo)  movements  of  the  work,  and 
alVords  seoi)e  for  a  flowing  and  cxpiessive  slow 
melody  with  a  gracefully  varied  accompaniment, 
which  breaks  up  the  monotony  of  the  adagio  and 
lieightens  its  effect.  A  clear  and  expressive  exe- 
cution of  an  adagio  is  an  unfailing  test  of  the 
artistic  standing  of  a  i)crformci',  as  it  demands 
a  pure  and  beautiful  intonation,  a  true  reading 
and  phrasing  of  the  cantilena  even  in  its  most 
minute  details,  and  a  careful  attention  to  all 
points  of  efVect.  The  old  masters,  Haydn,  Mo- 
zart, and  Beethoven,  have  left  in  their  works  the 
finest  specimens  of  the  adagio. 

ADAIB,  ii-dar',  .Tames.  An  Hidian  trader 
and  author.  He  lived  for  almost  forty  years 
among  the  southern  Indians,  and  chietly  anion" 
the  Chickasaws,  and  in  1775  published  a  val- 
uable work  entitled  The.  Hislorij  of  the  Indian 
Tribes,  Particularly  Those  Xalions  Adjoining  the 
Mississippi,  East  and  \V<-st  Florida,  Georgia, 
tiouth  and  North  Carolina,  and  Virginia. 
Though  impaired  in  value  by  the  author's  zeal- 
ous advocacy  of  the  Jewish  origin  of  the  Indian 
race,  this  book  gives  one  of  the  best  first-hand 
accounts  ever  written  of  the  habits  and  character 
of  the  native  tribes,  besides  containing  an  incom- 
plete but  valuable  vocabulary  of  various  Indian 
dialects.  .\dair's  theory  of  the  origin  of  the 
Indians  was  adopted  and  elaborated  by  Dr.  Elias 
Boudinot  in  his  Star  of  the  West,  or  An  Attempt 
to  Discover  the  Long-Lost  Tribes  of  Israel 
(1810). 

ADAIR,  Joiix.  (1759-1840).  An  American 
soldier.  He  was  born  in  Chester  County,  S.  C, 
but  removed  to  Kentucky  in  1787.  He  served 
as  major  in  tieneral  St.  Clair's  Indian  expedi- 
tion of  17!)1,  and  was  defeated  by  "Little  Tur- 
tle" in  Novond)er.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Ken- 
tucky Constitutional  Convention  (1792),  and  was 
a  United  States  senator  from  1805  to  180(1.  He 
served  as  volunteer  aid  to  (Jcneral  Sliclhv  in  the 
battle  of  the  Thames  (October  5,  ISKJ),  and. 
as  brigadier-general  of  militia,  commanded  the 
Kentucky  troops  at  New  Orleans  in  1815.  He 
was  governor  of  Kentucky  (1820-24),  and  a 
member  of  Congress   (1831-3.3). 

ADAIR,  Robin.      See  Robin  Adaik. 

ADAL,  a-dal'.  A  narrow  tract  of  land  in  East 

Africa    extending   along   the    Red   Sea    from    the 

Ciulf  of  Tajura  to  Massowah  (Map:  Africa,  .13). 

The  larger  part  is  included  in  the  present  Italian 

VoL.I.-T 


colony  of  Eritrea  (q.N. ),  while  the  -southern  end, 
bordering  on  the  (iulf  of  Tajura,  is  under  the 
protectorate  of  I'"rance.  Its  inhabitants  are  the 
Uanakil. 

AD'ALBERT  (M072).  A  Gernian  prelate. 
He  was  made  Archbishop  of  Hremen  in  1043 
by  Henry  111.,  whom  he  accompanied  to  Rome, 
where  he  declined  the  propo.sed  candidacy  for 
the  papacy,  when  he  might  have  been  elected, 
Leo  IX.  made  him  his  legate  in  the  north.  Dur- 
ing the  minority  of  Henry  I\'.,  Adalbert  and 
Archbishop  Hanno,  of  Cologne,  usuri)ed  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  empire;  but  he  became  ob- 
noxious to  the  princes  and  they  succeeded  in 
separating  him  from  tlie  Emperor.  He  soon  after 
regained  his  inllueuce.  however,  and  kept  it  as 
long  as  he  lived.  His  dream  was  to  imite  Ger- 
many. England,  and  Scandinavia  into  a  patriar- 
chate indi'pi'uilcnt  of  Home. 

ADALBERT  (?-9ll7),  Saint.  A  Bohemian 
prelate  improperly  styled  "the  apostle  of  the 
Prussians,"  whose  original  Bohemian  name 
was  Voitech  (comfort  of  the  host).  He  was 
educated  at  Magdebuig,  and  in  983  was  chosen 
Bishop  of  Prague,  but  soon  wearied  of  the 
per[ietual  strife  with  the  essentially  heathen 
Bohemians  and  retired  to  a  mon;istery  near 
Rome.  He  went  back  to  Prague  in  992,  but  again 
retired  in  discouragement,  and  finally  went  as  a 
missionary  to  the  Poles  and  Prussians,  and  was 
nnirdered  by  a  heatlien  jiricst  April  23,  997.  He 
was  first  buried  at  (inesen,  and  then  transferred 
to  Prague  and  put  in  a  vault,  where  his  bones 
were  discovered  in  1880,  and  deposited  in  the 
cathedral.  For  his  life,  consult  C.  Heger  (Kiin- 
igsherg,  1897),  H.  G.  Voigt   (Berlin,  1898). 

ADALIA,  &-dil'l*-ii  (ancient  Attalia).  The 
chief  seaport  of  the  Turkish  vilayet  of  Konieh, 
situated  on  the  southern  coast  of  Asia  Jlinor,  in 
lat.  3ti''  52'  N.,  long.  30°  45'  E.,  about  200  miles 
southeast  of  Smyrna  (Map:  Turkey  in  Asia,  D 
4).  The  streets  rise  like  the  seats  of  a  theatre 
up  the  slope  of  the  hill.  The  town,  built  on  a 
rocky  hill,  with  its  streets  rising  in  terraces  and 
studded  with  and  surrounded  by  beautiful  gar- 
dens of  orange,  fig,  and  mulberry  trees,  is  very 
picturesque.  It  has  a  considerable  trade  in  tim- 
ber, wheat  and  other  agricultural  products.  Pop., 
about  :!0,000.  including  about  7000  Greeks. 

AD'AM.  The  name  given  in  the  book  of  Gene- 
sis to  the  first  man.  The  word  Adam  is  orig- 
inally a  conunon  no\in  applied  both  to  a  single 
hunuin  being  and  to  mankind  in  general;  hence, 
as  a  designation  for  the  first  nuin  the  Old  Testa- 
ment almost  invariably  attaches  the  article  to 
adani,  which  thus  becomes  lla-adam ;  that  is, 
"the  man."  According  to  the  critical  school 
the  crcati(m  of  Adam  and  Eve  has  come  down 
to  us  in  two  recensions  of  (ienesis.  the  first, 
(icnesis  i  :  20-30.  forming  part  of  the  so-called 
I'.lohistic  rec(U'd  of  creation  (see  Cheation  )  ;  the 
second,  (ienesis  ii  :  5-24,  embodied  in  the  Yahwis- 
tic  version.  According  to  the  f(u-mer,  male  and 
female  are  created  at  the  same  time  (Genesis 
i  :  27 ) .  The  passage  is  somewhat  ambiguous,  so 
that  it  is  not  certain  whether  only  a  single  hu- 
man pair  is  referrcil  to  or  mankind  in  general, 
just  as  according  to  this  version  the  animal  world 
in  general  is  created  at  the  beginning.  In  the 
Vahwistic  version,  however,  a  single  male  indi- 
vidual alone  is  formed  by  God,  who  molds  a 
man  out  of  the  "dust  of  the  ground"  and 
breathes  into  the  mass  the  "breath  of  life"  (Gen- 


ADAM. 


98 


ADAM. 


esis    ii  :  7 ) .       The   word   used   for   "ground"    is 
adamah,  and  in  the  mind  of  the  writer  there  is 
evidently   a  close  connection   between   this   word 
and  Adam.      A  common  meaning  for  the  Hebrew 
stem   adam,   from   whicli   aduiiuih    is   derived,   is 
"red;"   but   while   this   furnislies   a   satisfactory 
explanation  for  the  word  "ground,"   it  does  not 
follow  that   the   implied   biblical   etymology  for 
"adam"  as  man  is  correct.     The  stem  adam  oc- 
curs in  various  of  the  Semitic  languages,  and  ex- 
hibits a  variety  of  meanings,  such  as  "pleasant," 
"to  make,"  "to  attach  one's  self"   (hence,  to  be  so- 
ciable), and  scholarly  opinion  vacillates  between 
assuming  one  or  the  other  of  these  significations 
as     furnishing     the     explanation     of     the     name 
"Adam."     If  any  conclusion  may  be  drawn  from 
ten  or  ihn,  wliich  is  the  common  Semitic  word 
for  son  and  child,  and  which  is  derived  from  a 
stem  signifying  "build,"  the  weight  of  evidence 
would    be    in    favor    of    connecting    adam    with 
"make."     In  Assyrian  we  have  a  word  "admu" 
(the   equivalent   of   the   Hebrew   Adam),   which 
actually  occurs  as  one  of  the  synonyms  of  "child" 
(see  Delitzsch,  Assyrisches  ^y6r^crhllch,  p.   2.5). 
Coming   back    to    the    two    versions    of   creation, 
it  will  be  found  that  they  differ   in  many  re- 
spects; but  it  is  by  the  combination  of  the  two 
that  we  obtain  the  views  held  by  the  Hebrews 
regarding  the  first  man.      In  the  first  version, 
where  the  work  of  creation  is  distributed  among 
six  da3s,  humanity  is  created  on  the  last  day. 
Man  is  made  in  the  image  of  God,   and  given 
dominion  ov^r  all  the  animals,  and,  indeed,  the 
entire  earth.     In  the  seconil  version  it  is  stated 
that   man   was   placed   in   a   garden   situated   in 
Eden   (Genesis  ii  :  8),  known  as  the  "Garden  of 
Eden,"  in  which  all  manner  of  trees  were  planted. 
(See  Eden.)      Man  is  put  there  to  till  the  ground 
and  to  keep  guard  over  it.     He  is  permitted  to 
eat  of  the   fruit  of  all  the  trees  with   the  ex- 
ception of  one,  known  as  the  "tree  of  knowledge 
of  good  and  evil,"  and  which  he  is  not  to  touch 
under   penalty  of  death.     A  woman   is  created 
as  a  helpmate  to  Adam  out  of  one  of  his  ribs, 
who  is  called  Eve,  a  name  subsequently  explained 
as  "the  mother  of  all  living."     The  close  attach- 
ment between  Adam  and  Eve   (see  Eve)    is  em- 
phasized, and,  although  not  distinctly  stated,  the 
narrative   implies   that   she   is   included   in   the 
prohibition  not  to  eat  of  the  one  tree   singled 
out.      Through    the    serpent,    who    assures    the 
woman  that  she  and  Adam  will  not  die,  the  wo- 
man   is    beguiled    into    eating   of    the    fruit    and 
gives  of  it  to  Adam.      The   first  consequence  of 
the  act  was  that  the  pair  recognized  their  naked 
state  and  made  loin  coverings  of  fig  leaves.  Adam 
pleads  in  extenuation  that  the  woman  gave  him 
of   the   fruit,   and   the   woman   pleads   that   the 
serpent   beguiled   her.       All   three   are  punished, 
the  serpent  by  becoming  the  cursed  one  among 
the  animals,  the  woman  by  increase  of  her  trou- 
bles and  pain,  particularly  in  child-bearing,  and 
the   man   by   being  obliged   henceforth   to   seciu'e 
his  sustenance  by  the  sweat  of  his  brow  in  tilling 
the  ground.       God   makes   garments   of   skin   for 
the  pair,  and  in  fear  lest  they  eat  also  of  the 
"tree  of  life"  which  is  in  the  garden,  and  which 
is   to   secure   immortality,   he   drives   Adam   and 
Eve    out    of    their    first    habitation    and    places 
cherubim  with  flaming  swords  to  guard  the  way 
to  the  tree  of  life. 

In  the  continuation  of  the  narrative  (chapter 
iv  :  1-2),  the  birth  of  two  sons,  Cain  and  Abel, 
is  recounted;  but  beyond  that  we  learn  nothing 


further  of  Adam  and  Eve  until  we  reach  a  totally 
different  document,  a  genealogical  list  in  chapter 
V,  in  which,  after  a  re-statement  of  the  creation 
of    liumanity    and    the    assigning    of    the    name 
Adam   (Genesis  v  :  2)  to  mavkind  in  general,  the 
birth  of  Seth,  in  the  ISOth  year  of  Adam's  life, 
is  recounted,  no  mention  being  made  of  Cain  or 
Aliel.     Adam  is  stated  to  have  died  at  the  age 
of   930   years,   after   having  begotten    sons   and 
daughters.      In  the  narrative  about  Adam  thus 
])icccd  together  from  various  documents,  a  further 
distinction  must  be  made  between  the  story  as 
told   in  the  first  three  chapters  of   Genesis   and 
the  notes  in  the  fifth  chapter.     The  genealogical 
list  appears  to  be  in  reality  a  list  of  dynasties, 
drawn  up  on  the  basis  of  a  tradition  which  be- 
longs  to   the    same   category   of   semi-legendary 
lore,  as  the  lists  preserved  by  Eusebius  and  Syn- 
cellus  of  early  Babylonian  rulers  who  lived  be- 
fore the  flood   (see  Ilogers'  History  of  Babylonia 
and  Assyria,  i.,  p.   328)  ;    whereas  the   story  of 
Adam    and   Eve    in    the   first   three   chapters    of 
Genesis    is    a    composite    production    embodying 
various  popular  tales  of  myths,  some  elements  of 
Mhich  revert  to  tradition  held  in  common  at  one 
time   b}'   Hebrews   and   Baljylonians,   but   which, 
having  passed  through   an   independent  develop- 
ment among  the  Hebrews,  have  been  interpreted 
in  the  light  of  the  monotheistic  conception  of  the 
universe,  and  pieserved  as  an  effective  means  of 
illustrating  the  specifically  .Jewish  document  of 
the  creation  of  man  and  of  his  fall  from  divine 
grace,  as  an  explanation  of  the  toil  and  ills  with 
which  human  existence  is  filled.      It  is  this  dis- 
tinctly theological  conception  of  Adam  which  lie- 
eomes  uppermost  as  the  religious  ideas  of  the  Old 
Testament  become   fixed   in   men's   minds.     The 
story  of  Adam  becomes  with  the  gi-owth  of  Chris- 
tian   theology    the    most    important    source    for 
the  doctrine  of  the  origin  of  sin,  and  over  against 
him  is  put  the  second  Adam,  the  first  being  the 
fountain  of  sin,  the  second  the  source  of  salva- 
tion.    This  conception  is  fully  brought  out  in  the 
teachings  of  St.  Paul  (see  especially  Romans  v  : 
12-21;    I.    Corinthians    xv  :  22,   and   45-4'J).      In 
Jewish    theology    proper    the    doctrinal    develop- 
ment in  general  is  arrested  after  the  separation 
from  .Judaism  of  the  new  sect  made  up  of  the  fol- 
lowers    of     Jesus.      The     predominant     position 
henceforth  occupied  in  Judaism  by  obedience  to 
the  minute  ceremonial  prescriptions  brings  about 
a  concentration  of  Jewish  thought  on  theoretical 
discussions  of  the  intricacies  of  biblical  and  Tal- 
uuulical  laws,  while  in  place  of  doctrinal  elabora- 
tion we  have  the  honuletical  interpretation  of 
the  narrative  in  Genesis,  which  leads  to  numer- 
ous additions  to  rabbinical  literature  of  the  bib- 
lical narrative  of  Adam  and  of  the  creation   in 
general,   as  well  as  of  the  stories   of   the  patri- 
archs in  the  Book  of  Genesis.  These  stories  about 
Adam    are    collected    in    the    so-called    Midrash 
Rabba  to  Genesis,  a  German  translation  of  which 
was  published  by  Wunsche  ( Der  Midrasch  Rahba 
zii   Genesis,    1882).      From   the  Jews   the   stories 
made   their   way   to   the   Arabs,   and   snatches   of 
them  are  embodied  in  the  Koran.     Consult  Sale's 
Translation    of    the   Koran    and    notes    (London, 
1877),  especially  tp  Suras  15  and  17. 

ADAM.  In  Shakespeare's  As  You  Like  It 
(q.v.).  an  old  servant  w'ho  follows  the  fortunes 
of  Orlando.  His  age,  he  apologetically  says,  "is 
as  a  lusty  winter,  frosty  but  kindly"  (Act  II., 
Scene  3)."  The  part  is  "one  which  Shakespeare 
himself  is  traditionally  said  to  have  played. 


ADAM, 

ADAM.  T!ic  name  of  a  ilistin^uislicil  family 
of  I!iili-.li  anliitwts  of  the  ei^'hteentli  eenturv. 
Wli-LiAM  .\i)A.M  (?-1748)  was  the  autlior  of  the 
lil)raiy  and  university  of  Glas';o\v  and  of  many 
public  and  inivatc  buildings  at  Dundee  (town 
liiiU)  and  Edinlnirgli.  His  fovir  sons,  especially 
ItoitEKT  (1727-!i2)  and  James  (M794),  were 
prolific  and  successful  architects,  and  under 
Itohert's  leadership  did  a  fjreat  deal  to  remodel 
London.  Kobert's  studies  in  Italy  and  Dalmatia 
preceded  his  settling  in  London,  and  liis  book 
on  Diocletian's  palace  at  Spalato  increased  liis 
reputation,  as  also  did  the  publication  of  en- 
gravings of  the  brothers'  designs.  The  Adclphi 
Terrace  and  buildings  are  by  Robert,  as  are  also 
the  Register  House  at  Edinburgh,  Kedleston 
Hall,  near  Derby,  Lansdownc  House,  and  many 
blocks  of  London  houses,  to  wliose  interior  deco- 
ration and  arrangement  the  brothers  paid  great 
attention. 

ADAM,  a'dlix',  AnoLPiiF.  Cii.\ui.ES  (180.3-5G). 
A  French  composer  of  operas.  He  was  born  and 
died  in  Paris.  Though  originally  intended  for 
a  scientific  career,  he  entered  the  conservatory  in 
1817  and  studied  composition  under  Roieldieu, 
mainly  writing  transcriptions  for  the  piano. 
In  1829  his  one-act  opera,  Pierre  et  Catherine, 
was  produced  with  success,  and  fifty-two  more 
followed,  of  which  Le  chalet  and  Le  postilion  de 
LuiigjtiiiudU  (1836)  are  the  most  famous.  The 
latter,  and  iiis  C(inti<iuc  de  yoil,  and,  besides, 
the  ballets  Faust  and  Lc  Corsoirc,  are  his  best 
known  works  in  the  United  States.  His  chief 
merits  are  the  characteristic  French  daintiness 
and  finish.  He  was  made  professor  of  c<unpo- 
sitiou  at  the  conservatory  in  1849.  His  auto- 
biography and  souvenirs  were  published  (Paris, 
IStiOj.  Consult:  A.  Pouzin,  Adolphe  Adam,  sa 
vie,  etc.  (Paris,  1870). 

ADAM,  Book  of.  See  Apocrypha  and  Apoc- 
alyptic LlTEKATlKE. 

ADAM,  8iR  Frederick  (1784-1853).  An 
English  general.  He  was  educated  at  Woolwich 
Military  ,\cadcmy  and  greatly  distinguished  him- 
self in  the  Peninsular  campaign.  Although  se- 
verely wounded  at  the  battle  of  Alicante,  he 
reentered  the  service  upon  his  recovery.  He 
repelled  the  last  charge  of  the  French  guards  at 
Waterloo. 

ADAM,  nuAEME  :\Ieucer  (1839—).  A  Cana- 
dian autlicir  and  editor.  He  was  born  at  Loan- 
head,  Jlidlothian,  Scotland.  After  some  experi- 
ence with  the  Blackwoods,  he  emigrated  to  To- 
ronto, ^^■hcl■e  he  became  a  partner  in  a  success- 
ful publishing  house.  In  1S7()  he  opened,  in 
conjunction  with  John  Lovcll  of  ilontreal,  a 
branch  house  in  New  York,  which  has  since  de- 
veloped into  the  John  W.  Lovell  Publishing  Com- 
pany. Returning  to  Toronto  in  1878,  he  subse- 
quently edited  the  Canadian  BooUseller ; 
founded,  in  conjunction  with  Goldwin  Smith, 
the  Canadian  Mo}ithli/  (1872);  started  the 
Canadian  Kducational  }ih>iithh)  (1879)  ;  and  was 
for  several  years  connected  with  the  Iii/sl<indcr 
as  assistant  to  Goldwin  Smith,  and  contributed 
extensively  to  other  periodicals.  Coming  again 
to  New  York  (1892).  he  became  identified  with 
several  ])ublishing  houses  as  "reader,"  wrote  re- 
views and  compiled  several  books.  In  18n()  he 
removed  to  Chicago  to  become  editor  of  Sclf-Cul- 
tlire.  Among  .\dam'»  luunerous  separate  publi- 
cations are  The  Canadian  \orth-West  (1895); 
Outline  History  of  Canadian  Literature   (1880)  ; 


99 


ADAM. 


topographical  and  descriptive  books  of  Canada, 
encyclopadias,  and  school  books.  In  collabora- 
tion with  Ethelwyn  Wetherald  he  wrote  a  suc- 
cessful historical  romance  entitled  An  Algonquin 

Maiden    (1S80). 

ADAM,  Jean  (1710-65).  A  Scotch  poet. 
She  was  born  near  Greenock.  In  her  earlier  life 
she  was  a  teacher,  but.  compelled  to  give  up  her 
school,  she  became  a  street  vendor.  She  lived  a 
joj'less  life,  and  died  in  the  Glasgow  poorhouse. 
She  published  a  volume  of  religious  poems  in 
1734.  By  some  she  is  believed  to  be  the  author 
of  There's  nae  Luck  Ahoot  the  llouse,  a  beautiful 
lyric.  (See  IIicki.e,  William  Jitlius.)  Con- 
sult Ward's  English  Poets  (London,  1880). 

ADAM,  a'diiN',  Mme.  Jlliette  (1836—). 
A  Parisian  writer  and  editor.  She  was  born  at 
Verberie  (department  of  Oise),  October  4,  1836. 
Her  first  book,  Le  siege  de  Paris,  journal  d'line 
Parisicnne,  is  an  account  of  her  experiences  in 
1870-71,  when  her  husband  (died  1877)  was  pre- 
fect of  police.  Her  Xouvclle  Iterue,  founded  in 
lS7fl,  and  her  s<ilon,  have  both  been  politically  in- 
fluential. She  has  written  much  for  periodicals 
on  polities,  literature,  c<lucation,  and  the  posi- 
tion of  women.  Her  fiction,  e.g.,  Laide  (1878), 
Crecque  (1879),  Pa'icnne  (1883).  is  militantly 
hedonistic,  a  passionate  protest  against  what  she 
would  call  tlic  anti-natural,  and  others  the  su- 
pernatural, in  Cliristianity.  The  most  note- 
worthy of  her  works  are:  Souvenirs  personnels. 
La  pritrie  hongroise  (1884),  and  Le  general  Hko- 
beleff  (1880).  Many  of  her  books  appeared  un- 
der the  pen  names  of  Juliette  Lamber  and  Comte 
Paul  Vasili. 

ADAM,  Lambeut  Sigisrert  (1700-59).  A 
French  sculptor.  He  was  born  at  Nancy  and 
was  educated  at  the  School  of  the  Aead<?mie, 
Paris,  where  he  received  the  Prix  de  Rome  in 
1723.  During  his  sojourn  at  the  AcadC^mie  de 
France  he  executed  for  Pope  Clement  Xll.  a 
bas-relief  representing  the  apparition  of  the  Vir- 
gin to  St.  Andrew  Corsini,  for  which  he  received 
the  title  Academicicn  de  St.  Luc.  His  subse- 
quent artistic  career  in  Paris  was  very  success- 
ful. Some  of  his  best  known  works  "are:  "La 
Seine  et  la  ^Marne''  (Palace  of  St.  Cloud)  :  "Nep- 
tune et  Aniphitrite"  { \'crsaillcs.  1740);  "VcT-nus 
an  Bain"  (designed  for  the  ChAteau  de  Choisy, 
1742)  :  "La  Chasse  et  La  Peehe"  (Potsdam)  ; 
"Neptune  ealmant  les  Flots"  (Musce  du  Louvre, 
1737).  He  published  Recueil  de  sculptures 
antiques  grecqucs  et  romaines. 

ADAM,  Paul  (18(i2— ).  A  French  author, 
born  in  Paris.  He  participated  in  the  Boulangist 
movement  (1889),  and  was  an  unsuccessful  can- 
didate for  a  seat  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies. 
His  earliest  appearance  in  literature  was  made 
with  Chair  molle  (1885).  Others  of  his  works 
of  fiction,  chielly  in  the  manner  of  the  "symbol- 
ist" school,  are  Huhcs  rouges  (1891),  Le  nii/stere 
des  foulcs  (2  vohunes,  1895),  and  La  bnlaille 
d'Uhde  (1897).  With  .L  Mon'^as  he  wrote  La 
th(-  che::  Miranda  (1S87).  In  addition  to  the 
above,  his  drama.  L'automne  (1893;  witli  G. 
!Mowrey) ,  may  be  mentioned. 

ADAM,  QriHi.v  Franc^oi.s  LrciEN  (1833 — ). 
A  French  magistrate  and  philologist.  He  was 
born  at  Nancy.  Among  his  numerous  works 
on  philology,  some  of  which  deal  with  the 
languages  of  the  native  tribes  of  America,  and 
the  dialects  of  Lorraine,   the   following  are  the 


ADAM. 


100 


ADAMNAN. 


most,  important:  Grammaire  de  la  langue 
mandchoue  (1873);  Es<]uisse  d'line  gninniKiire 
comparee  du  Cr^e  et  du  Chippfiray  (seooiid  edi- 
tion, 1876)  ;  Etudes  stir  six  langues  aiiicricaiiies 
(1878);  Les  patois  lorrains  (1881);  Les 
idiomes  Jiegro-ary&is  et  malco-aryens   (1883). 

AD'AM,  Testament  of.  See  Apocrypha,  Old 
Testament. 

ADAM,  William  (1751-1839).  A  British 
lawyer.  He  "nas  born  in  Scotland  and  in  1774 
entered  Parliament,  wliere  he  attached  himself 
to  the  party  of  Lord  Xorth.  Four  years  after- 
ward he  fought  a  duel  with  Fox  (1778),  in 
which  Fox  was  wounded.  He  took  an  important 
part,  however;  in  effeetinfj  the  coalition  between 
Fox  and  North  and  Shelburne,  and  was  one  of 
the  few  to  maintain  his  allegiance  to  his  former 
adversary  at  tlie  time  of  the  French  Revolution. 
He  was  one  of  the  managers  appointed  by  the 
Commons  to  conduct  the  impeachment  of  Warren 
Hastings  (1788).  He  presided  over  the  Civil 
.Tury  Court  in  Scotland  from  the  time  of  its  es- 
tablishment (1816)  until  his  death.  Consult 
his  Life,  by  G.  L.  Craik^  in  the  Dictionari/  of  the 
Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful  Knoicledge. 

AD'AMANT  (Gk.ii,  a,-pv\\.  -\-  iauuv,  daman, 
to  tame).  The  name  of  any  substance  of  ex- 
traordinary hardness.  The  name  was  attaelied  to 
a  supposed  stone,  or  mineral,  as  to  tlie  properties 
of  which  vague  notions  long  prevailed.  It  was 
identified  with  the  lodestone  or  magnet,  and  often 
used  as  synonymous  with  it  by  early  writers. 
This  confusion  ceased  witli  tlie  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, but  the  word  for  a  long  time  had  currency 
among  scientific  writers  as  a  synonym  with  dia- 
mond. The  use  of  the  term  to  denote  the  lode- 
stone  seems  to  have  been  due  to  tlie  early  Latin 
medical  writers,  who  apparently  derived  the 
word  from  the  Latin  adamarc,  '"to  have  an  attrac- 
tion for." 

AD'AMAN'TINE  SPAR.    See  Corundum. 

ADAMAWA,  ii'da-niii'wa,  or  Fumbina. 
One  of  the  subordinate  States  of  the  Sokoto  Em- 
pire which  constitutes  the  greater  portion  of 
Northern  Nigeria  (Map:  Africa,  F  4).  Its 
boundaries  are  uncertain,  but  its  area  is  esti- 
mated at  about  50,000  square  miles.  The  coun- 
try is  elevated  in  its  southern  part,  where  some 
of"  the  mountains  reach  an  altitude  of  about 
8000  feet.  It  is  traversed  by  the  River  Benue 
and  several  other  streams,  and  its  soil  is  very 
fertile.  The  climate  and  the  flora  and  the 
fauna  are  tropical.  Politically,  Adamawa  is 
more  or  less  autonomous,  and  is  ruled  by  a 
native  sultan.  The  eastern  part  of  Adamawa,  as 
far  as  the  confluence  of  tlie  Faro  with  the  Benue, 
is  included  in  the  German  Kamerun,  while  the 
western  part,  including  the  capital.  Yolo,  forms 
a  part  of  northern  Nigeria.  The  principal  settle- 
ments are  Yolo,  with  a  population  estimated  at 
from  12,000  to  20,000;  Banjo,  the  centre  of  the 
ivory  trade,  and  Nganudere.  The  population 
of  Adamawa  is  estimated  at  over  three  million, 
but  these  figures  are  mere  conjecture.  The  pre- 
dominant part  of  the  population  consists  of 
Fulbe.  (See  Fulahs.)  The  first  European  to 
visit  Adamawa  was  Dr.  Barth  in  1851.  Con- 
sult:  S.  Passarge,  Adamaua   (Berlin,   1805). 

AD' AM  BEDE.  The  title  of  a  novel  by  George 
Eliot  (see  Eliot.  Georoe),  first  published 
in  1859.  The  name  is  that  of  its  principal 
character,  a  young  English  workingman   of   in- 


tellectual tastes  and  a  keen  conscience.  He  is 
the  lover  of  Hetty  Sorrel,  but  in  the  end  marries 
Dinah  Morris. 

AD'AM  CU'PID.  A  name  applied  to  Cupid 
in  Shakespeare's  h'omeo  and  Juliet,  Act  II.. 
Scene  1.  According  to  Upton  there  was  an 
archer  named  Adam,  whose  skill  was  famous  in 
Shakespeare's  time,  so  that  the  significance  of 
the  epithet  is  evident.  Upton  cites  in  confirma- 
tion. Much  Ado  About  Xothing,  Act  I.,  Scene  1: 
"And  he  that  hits  me  let  him  be  clapped  on  tlie 
shoulder  and  called  Adam."  Other  critics  main- 
tain that  the  original  was  "Abram,"  a  corruption 
from  Auhnrn,  since  the  early  folios  and  quartos 
give  ■■Abraham"  in  tlic  passage. 

ADAM  DE  LA  HALLE,  a'diiN'  de  la  AV. 
(1235-1287?).  One  of  the  early  founders  of 
the  French  drama.  His  Play  of  Adam,  or  Le 
jeu  de  la  feuille,  as  it  was  also  called,  written 
Jfor  citizens  of  his  native  Arras  for  popular  per- 
formance, is  the  earliest  French  comedy.  Adam 
de  la  Halle  was  also  a  musician,  and  his  Robin 
et  Marion,  is  the  first  European  comic  opera. 
His  musical  compositions,  chiefly  songs  and  mo- 
tets, form  a  connecting  link  between  the  work  of 
the  French  dechanteurs  and  the  Flemish  contra- 
puntists. His  works  are  edited  by  Cousseniaker 
(Paris,  1872).  Consult:  Ambros,  Geschichte 
der  Musik,  Volume  II.  (Breslau,  1862). 

AD'AMI,  John  George  (1862  — ).  An  Eng- 
lish pathologist.  He  was  born  at  Manchester; 
was  educated  at  Owens  College,  Slanchester,  and 
Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  and  studied  at 
Breslau,  Paris,  and  Manchester.  He  became  house 
physician  to  the  Manchester  Royal  Infirmary,  and 
demonstrator  of  pathology  at  Cambridge  in  1887. 
In  1891  he  was  elected  fellow  of  Jesus  College, 
Cambridge,  and  in  1892  professor  of  pathology- 
at  McGill  University  in  llontreal,  Canada.  He 
has  also  been  at  the  head  of  the  pathological  de- 
partment of  the  Royal  Victoria  Hospital  at  Mon- 
treal since  1894,  and  in  1890  became  Middleton 
Goldsmith  lecturer  to  the  New  York  Pathological 
Society.  He  has  published  numerous  papers  on 
pathological  topics,  and  articles  on  inflammation 
for  AUbutt's  t^ystem  of  Medicine. 

AD'AMITES.  ( 1)  An  obscure  and  probably 
non-existent  sect  mentioned  by  Epiphanius  {Hwr. 
52)  as  extant  in  the  middle  of  the  fourth 
century,  and  so  called  because  they  imitated  Ad- 
amic  simplicity  in  going  without  clothing  while 
at  worship.  They  are  said  to  have  practiced  abso- 
lute continence.  ( 2 )  A  sect  of  fanatics  founded  by 
a  certain  Picard,  who  became  numerous  in  Bo- 
hemia and  Moravia  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth 
centuries,  but  had  no  connection  with  the  Hus- 
sites. Picard  styled  himself  Adam,  the  son  of 
God,  rejected  the  sacrament  of  the  supper  and 
the  priesthood,  and  advocated  the  community  of 
women.  After  his  death  his  followers  increased 
in  Bohemia  under  several  leaders.  They  even 
fortified  themselves  on  an  island  in  a  tributary 
of  the  Moldau  and  committed  various  depreda- 
tions. They  were  detested  as  much  by  the  fol- 
lowers of  Huss  as  by  the  Catholics.  Ziska  made 
war  against  them  and  slew  great  numbers, 
but  they  were  never  entirely  rooted  out.  In 
fact,  it  is  said  that  in  1849  a  similar  sect  ap- 
peared in  Austria. 

AD'AMNAN,  Saint  (625-704).  An  Irish 
iibbnt,  iiroperly  Adam,  of  which  Adamnan  is  a 
iliminiitive.     He  was  born  at  Drumhome,  south- 


ADAMNAN. 


101 


ADAMS. 


west  Donegal,  tlir  cxliciiu'  noitliwost  county, 
about  tlie  yciir  V>-ii.  l)Ut  ontoicd  the  nioiiasti'iy 
of  lona.  His  father,  Koiian,  was  tlie  gieat- 
{rreat-giandson  of  the  uncle  of  St.  Columba, 
ami  also  chiimed  kin  with  many  Irish 
kings.  The  paternal  grandfather  was  Tinne, 
from  whom  came  the  ])atrc>nymic  la  Tinne,  or 
grandson  of  Tinne,  an  ap])ellative  which  is  occa- 
sion.illy  found  coupled  with  Adaninan's  name. 
Ronnat,  the  mother  of  .Vdaninan,  was  descended 
from  Enna,  son  of  Xiall,  wliosc  race,  the  Cincl 
Knna,  possessed  themselves  of  the  tract  lying  be- 
tween the  channels  of  the  Foyle  and  Swilly, 
which  was  called  the  Tir  Knna,  or  Land  of  Knna, 
nnd  answers  to  the  modern  barony  of  Kaphoe. 
In  the  year  C97  he  was  elected  abbot  of  lima. 
His  rule  over  that  comMuinity  was  not,  however, 
destined  to  be  peaceful  and  fortunate.  The  Irish 
Church  then  held  the  Oriental  views  about 
dates  for  observing  Kaster  and  the  form  of 
the  tonsure.  In  his  intercourse  with  the  Saxon 
Church,  Adamnan  had  adopted  the  Roman  or 
orthodox  views,  as  they  are  termed,  and 
endeavored  to  put  them  in  practice  in  his 
own  community.  He  was  thwarted  in  this 
object,  and  it  is  said  that  niortificaf  ion  at 
the  failure  caused  his  death.  lie  died  in  lona, 
September  2:!,  704.  He  left  behind  him  an  ac- 
count of  the  Holy  Land.  <'ontaiMiiig  matters 
which  he  says  were  communicated  by  Arculfus, 
a  French  ecclesiastic  who  had  lived  in  Jerusa- 
lem, which  is  valuable  as  the  earliest  informa- 
tion we  possess  of  Palestine  in  the  early  ages  of 
Christianity.  But  far  more  valuable  is  his  Vita 
Sancti  Coliimhw,  his  life  of  St.  Columba,  the 
converter  of  the  Piets,  and  founder  of  lona. 
Along  with  miracles  and  many  other  stories 
palpalily  incredible,  this  book  reveals  a  great 
deal  of  distinct  and  minute  matter  concerning 
the  remarkable  body  to  which  both  the  author 
and  his  hero  belonged.  The  standard  edition  of 
the  book  is  that  of  William  Reeves.  D.Il..  edited 
in  18.i7  for  the  Bannatyne  Society  of  Edinburgh, 
and  the  Irish  ArchiFological  Society  I  Dublin, 
1S,57).  which,  with  an  Knglish  translation,  forms 
the  sixth  volume  of  //i.s/oji'km.s-  of  Srotlnnd 
(Edinburgh.  LS74).  reissued  with  additional 
notes  by  .1.  T.  Fowler  (Oxford,  LSOo).  Nearly 
all  the  information  to  be  had  about  the  early 
Scoto-Irish  Clnircli  is  comprised  in  that  volume. 
AD'AM  OF  BBEM'EN.  A  German  his- 
torian. He  was  l)c>rn,  ]irobably,  at  Meissen.  Sax- 
ony (the  date  uncertain),  and  came  to  Bremen 
in  10(!7  from  Magdeburg,  and  bccanu'  a  canon 
of  the  cathedral,  and  in  1008  principal  of  the 
cathedral  school.  He  won  jicrpetual  fame  by 
writing  (bct«een  1072  and  1070)  from  all  avail- 
able sources,  including  the  oral  testimony  of 
Svend  Estridson.  King  of  Demnark.  to  see  whom 
he  made  a  special  journey,  a  history  of  the 
Hamburg  Church,  which  is  one  of  the  most  pre- 
cious of  media'val  histories.  The  best  edition 
of  this  great  w-ork.  (leila  Ifammahurqrnxis  F,c- 
clesiw  Poiilifiruiii,  is  by  Lappenbcrg  (Hanover, 
1870).  The  third  edition  of  the  German  trans- 
lation, by  .1.  C.  M.  Laurent,  appeared  in  the  series 
Jlie  (icschirhlschreihcr  (h'r  Dputschcii  ^'or::eit 
(Berlin,  18!).'^).  As  the  appendix  to  the  third 
and  last  book  .\dam  gives  a  general  account  of 
the  lands  belonging  to  the  Danes  and  Swedes,  and 
of  Norway.  In  it  occurs  this  interesting  passage 
referring  to  America:  "Besides  this  he  (Svend 
Kstridson,  King  of  Denmark)  told  of  still  an- 
other  island  that  had  been   found   by   many   in 


that  oce.Tn  (the  Atlantic).  It  is  called  Wine- 
land,  because  vines  spring  up  there  spontane- 
ously, [iroducing  excellent  wine.  I  mention 
thi>  conlidently,  for  I  have  learned  from  no  fab- 
ulous rumor,  but  through  delinitc  information 
from  Danes,  that  crops  also  grow  there  in  ab\ui- 
dance  without  having  been  sown."  (Cap.  247, 
or  §  38).  In  his  book  Adam  quotes  from  preceil- 
ing  chroniclers,  from  Cicero,  from  the  Latin 
poets,  \'ergil,  Horace,  Lucan.  Juvenal,  and  Per- 
sius;  from  the  Latin  Fathers,  .Jeronu>,  Ambrose, 
(iregory  the  Great;  from  Bede,  Cassiodorus,  and 
Paulus  Diaconns.  I!u(  the  style  is  defective 
and  the  Latin  ditlicult  and  faulty,  notwithstand- 
ing that  he  took  Sallust  as  his  master.  Al- 
though the  day  of  his  death,  October  12,  is  known 
from  the  church  record  of  Bremen,  the  year  is 
not,  but  probably  it  was  about   107(i. 

ADAM  OF  ST.  VICTOR  (  ?-c.ll02).  A  mo- 
nastic poet  of  France.  Nothing  is  known  of  him 
except  that  he  died  in  the  abbey  of  St.  Victor 
in  Paris.  Yet  he  was  '"the  most  prominent  and 
prolific  of  the  Latin  hynmists  of  the  Middle 
Ages."  His  works — complete  as  far  as  discov- 
ered, but  doubtless  far  from  being  really  so — 
were  edited  bv  Leon  Gautier  (third  edition, 
Paris,  1804;  English  translation,  London,  1881, 
.3  volumes).  Consult:  .Julian,  Dictioiiary  of 
Uymnoloqti  (1888);  French,  Sacred  Latin  Po- 
elrn   (1874)  ;  ami  Dullield.  Latin  Ili/mns   (1888). 

AD'AMS.  A  town,  including  the  villages  of 
Renfrew,  jMaple  Grove,  and  Zylonite.  in  Berk- 
shire Co.,  ^lass.,  l(i  miles  north  of  Pittsfield,  on 
the  Hoosac  River  and  the  Pittsfield  and  North 
Adams  branch  of  the  Boston  and  Albany  Rail- 
road (Map:  Massachusetts,  A  2).  Within  the 
town  limits  is  Greylock  Jlountuin  (3.535  feet), 
the  highest  point  in  ilassachusetts.  The  town 
has  a  public  library  of  over  7000  volumes,  and 
manufactures  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  paper, 
foundry  ])roducts,  shirts,  etc.  Laid  out  and  set- 
tled as  "Kast  Hoosuck"  in  1749,  Adams  was  in- 
corporated under  its  present  name  (in  honor  of 
Samuel  .\dams)  in  1778.  It  originally  included 
both  North  and  South  .\dams.  The  goveriunent 
is  administered  bv  town  meeting.  Pop.,  1890, 
9213;  1900,  11,134.  Consult:  J.  G.  Holland, 
Iliatnry  of  Western  Massachusetts  (Springfield, 
18,55). 

ADAMS,  Abig.\il  Smith  (1744-1818).  The 
wife  of  .lohn  Adams,  second  President  of  the 
United  States,  and  daughter  of  Rev.  W  illiam 
Smith,  minister  of  the  Congregational  church  at 
Weymouth,  Mass.  She  was  born  at  Weymouth. 
Mass..  and  died  at  Quincy,  Mass.  Through  her 
mother.  Elizabeth  tjuincy,  she  was  descended 
from  the  Puritan  preacher.  Thomas  Shepard  of 
Cambridge,  and  though  of  defective  education, 
delicate  heallh,  and  nervous  temperament,  she 
was  one  of  the  most  inlluential  wonu^i  of  her  d:>y, 
and  one  of  its  most  vigorous  and  elegant  stylists, 
owing  little  to  teaching  but  much  to  inli\u>nce 
and  environment.  During  and  after  the  Revolu- 
tionary War,  she  was  at  times  separated  from  her 
husliand.  who  was  a  delegate  to  Congress  and  who 
afterward  engaged  in  diplomatic  business  in  Eu- 
rope. Joining  him  in  France  in  1784.  she  aeeom- 
|)anied  him  to  London,  where  she  had  unpleasant 
siK-ial  experiences.  From  1789  to  1801  she  lived  at 
Washington,  then  till  her  death  at  Braintree, 
in  what  is  now  Quincy.  The  Familiar  Letters 
itf  John  Adams  and  His  Wife,  published  with 
a   memoir   by   C.   F.   Adams    (187()),   show   her 


ADAMS. 


103 


ADAMS. 


to  have  been  a  woman  of  keenness,  sagacity,  and 
geniality,  and  throw  very  valuable  light  on  the 
history  and  social  life  of  her  time. 

ADAMS,  Alvin  (1804-77).  The  founder  of 
Adams  Express  Company  of  America.  He  was 
born  at  Andover,  Vt.,  and  in  1840  established 
between  New  York  and  Boston  an  express  route 
which,  subsequently  extended,  led  in  1854  to  the 
incorporation  of  the  Adams  Express  Company. 
Consult:  Stimson,  History  of  the  Express  Busi- 
ness  (New  York,  1881). 

ADAMS,  Brooks  (1848  — ).  An  American 
lawyer  and  social  essayist.  He  was  born  at 
Quincy,  Mass.,  a  son  of  Charles  Francis  Adams 
(q.v.).  He  was  educated  in  Quincy,  in  Wash- 
ington, and  in  Europe,  according  to  the  changes 
of  his  father's  residence.  He  graduated  at  Har- 
vard in  1870,  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  prac- 
ticed law  till  1881.  He  has  since  contributed 
much  to  magazines,  and  has  published  The  Gold 
Standard,  The  Emancipation  of  Massachusetts 
(1887),  a  study  in  the  evolution  of  religious 
freedom,  an  historical  essay.  The  Law  of  Civili- 
zation and  Decay,  and  America's  Economic 
Supremacy  (1900).  His  works  are  character- 
ized by  subtlety  and  originality. 

ADAMS,  Charles  Baker  (1S14-,53).  An 
American  naturalist.  He  was  born  at  Dorches- 
ter, !Mass.  He  graduated  at  Amherst:  assisted 
Prof.  Edward  Hitchcock  in  the  geological  survey 
of  New  Y'ork:  became  tutor  at  Amherst,  1836; 
professor  of  chemistry  and  natural  history  in 
Middlebury  College,  Vermont,  1838  to  1S47,  and 
was  professor  of  astronomy  and  zoijlogy  at 
Amherst  from  1847  till  his  death.  From  "l845 
to  1847  he  was  State  geologist  of  Vermont.  He 
went  several  times  to  the  West  Indies  in  the 
interest  of  science;  wrote  on  conehology,  and 
with  the  assistance  of  Prof.  Alonzo  Gray,  of 
Brooklyn,  published  an  elementary  work  on 
geology. 

A 
Dorehes- 
common 
and  was 
In  1872 
the  bal- 
collected 
uss  and 
s(1887). 


ADAMS,     Charles     Follen     (1842 
humorous  dialect  poet.     He  was  born  at 
t'er,   Mass..   and   was   educated    in    the 
schools.     He  served  in  the  Civil  War, 
wounded  and  captured  at  Gettysburg. 
he  began  poetic  production,  cultivating 
lad  in  German  dialect.     His  verses  are 
under    the    titles    Leedle    Yanwoh    Htra 
Other  Poems  (1878),  and  Dialect  Ballad: 

ADAMS,  Charles  Francis  (1807-86).  An 
American  diplomat  and  statesman,  the  son  of 
President  .1.  Q.  Adams.  He  was  born  in  Boston ; 
spent  the  years  1809  to  1817  with  his  father  in 
Europe,  chiefly  in  Russia  and  England;  prepared 
for  college  at  the  Boston  Latin  School,  and  grad- 
uated at  Harvard  in  182,').  He  then  spent  sev- 
eral years  in  Washington,  and  later  studied  law 
in  the  office  of  Daniel  Webster  (at  Boston)  from 
November,  1828,  to  January,  1829,  when  he  was 
admitted  to  the  bar,  though  he  never  practiced. 
During  the  next  ten  years  he  devoted  himself 
chiefly  to  literary  pursuits,  contributing  many 
papers  to  magazines,  writing  an  able  political 
pamphlet  entitled,  An  Appeal  from  the  New  to 
the  Old  Whiffs  (Boston,  183.5),  and  editing  the 
Letters  of  Abigail  and  John  Adams  (1840-41). 
From  1841  to  1840  he  was  a  member  of  the 
State  Legislature,  seiving  three  years  in  the 
House  and  two  in  the  Senate;  and  from  1846 
to  1848  he  was  editor  of  the  Boston  ir/iir/,  and  as 
such  was  the  leader  of  that  wing  of  his  party 


called  the  "Conscience  Whigs."  In  1848  he  pre- 
sided over  the  Free  Soil  Convention  at  Buffalo, 
and  was  unanimously  nominated  for  vice-presi- 
dent, but  after  the  election  retired  to  Quincj', 
Mass.,  and  spent  several  years  in  editing  the 
Works  of  John  Adams  (10  volumes,  1850-56). 
In  1858  he  was  elected  to  Congress  as  a  Republi- 
can, and  served  with  marked  ability  until  May, 
1861,  when  he  was  sent  as  United  States  Minis- 
ter to  England.  Here  he  remained  for  seven 
years,  and  during  the  Civil  War  rendered  inval- 
uable services  to  his  government.  In  face  of 
the  pronounced  sympatliy  for  the  South  mani- 
fested by  the  aristocracy  and  the  upper  social 
classes  generally  and  of  the  favoritism  at  times 
of  the  British  government  itself,  he  preserved 
throughout  a  dignified  demeanor  and  performed 
his  duties  with  such  ability  as  to  earn  for  him- 
self a  place  second  only  to  that  of  Franklin  in 
the  history  of  American  diplomacy.  Indeed, 
many  years  later  Lowell  said :  "None  of  our  gen- 
erals in  the  field,  not  Grant  himself,  did  us  better 
or  more  trying  service  than  lie  in  his  forlorn  out- 
post in  London."  He  returned  to  America  in 
1868,  and  was  elected  to  the  presidency  of  Har- 
vard in  the  following  year,  but  declined  to  serve. 
In  1872  he  barely  failed  of  a  nomination  to  the 
presidency  at  the  hands  of  the  Liberal  Repub- 
licans. He  was  the  arbitrator  for  the  United 
States  at  Geneva  in  1871  and  1872  (see  Alabama 
Claijis),  and  to  him  is  due  in  great  part  the 
credit  for  tlie  successful  settlement  of  all  dilfieul- 
ties  with  Eiujland  growing  out  of  the  controversy 
of  the  Civil  War.  On  his  return  he  was  engaged 
for  several  years  in  editing  the  Diary  of  John 
Quincy  Adams  (12  volumes,  1874-77).  Both  in 
politics  and  diplomacy  Mr.  Adams  was  austere, 
dignified,  eminently  sincere,  and  independent  to  a 
fault.  As  an  autlioritative  biogi'aphy  consult  C. 
F.  Adams,  Jr.,  Life  of  Charles  Francis  Adams 
(Boston,  1900),  in  the  American  Statesmen 
Series. 

ADAMS,  Charles  Francis,  Jr.  (1835 — ). 
An  American  soldier,  financier,  and  wi'iter.  He 
is  a  son  of  Charles  Francis  Adams,  and  was 
born  in  Boston.  Mass.,  May  27,  1835.  He  grad- 
uated at  Harvard  in  1856,  studied  law  in  the 
office  of  Richard  Henry  Dana,  Jr.,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1858.  He  entered  the 
Union  Army  as  first  lieutenant  in  a  Massachu- 
setts cavalry  regiment  in  1861,  became  a  captain 
in  1802,  served  as  chief  of  squadron  at  Gettys- 
burg, and  at  the  close  of  the  war  was  in  com- 
mand, as  colonel,  of  a  regiment  of  colored  cav- 
alry. In  May,  1865,  he  was  brevetted  brigadier- 
general  in  the  regular  army,  and  in  .July  retired 
from  active  service.  From  1884  to  1890  he  was 
president  of  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad  Com- 
pany. From  1893  to  1895  he  was  chairman  of  the 
Massachusetts  Park  Commission,  and  as  such 
took  a  prominent  part  in  planning  the  present 
park  system  of  the  State.  Since  about  1874  he 
has  devoted  much  of  his  time  to  the  study  of 
American  history,  and  in  recognition  of  his  work 
in  this  field  was  chosen  president  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Historical  Society  in  1895,  and  of  the 
American  Historical  Association  in  1901.  His 
writings  and  addresses  both  on  problems  of  rail- 
way management  and  on  historical  subjects  are 
marked  by  a  singular  clarity  of  statement  and 
a  degree  of  intellectual  independence  that  has 
frequently  given  rise  to  widespread  controversy. 
He  has  written:  Jtailroads,  Their  Origin  and 
Problems   (New  York,  1878)  ;  Notes  on  Railway 


ADAMS. 


103 


ADAMS. 


Accidents  (Xow  York.  1S7!))  ;  Richard  TIcury 
Dnna:  .1  Kiofirnjihij  (Boston.  ISOl);  Three  Epi- 
sodes of  Massarhuiietis  History  (Boston,  181I2), 
a  work  which  gives  an  account  of  the  settlement 
of  Boston  Bay,  of  the  Antinoniian  controversy, 
and  of  clnuch  and  town  government  in 
early  Massachusetts;  Massachusetts:  Its  Histo- 
rians and  Its  History  (Boston,  1S!)3),  an  excel- 
lent Life  of  Charles  Francis  Adams  (Boston. 
1000),  in  the  American  Statesmen  Series,  anil 
lyce  at  Aftpomiitto.T,  and  Other  Papers  (IitO'2). 
In  collaboration  with  his  brother,  Henry  .Vdams, 
he  also  publislied  Chapters  of  Erie,  and  Other 
Essays    ( Xcw  York,  1871). 

ADAMS,  CiLutLES  Kexdall,  LL.D.,  J.U.D. 
(18.'i.")-lliO-2) .  An  American  educator  and  histo- 
rian. He  was  born  in  Derby,  Vt. ;  removed  to 
Iowa  in  1S.).5,  and  in  ISlil  graduated  at  the 
University  of  Jlichigan.  where  ITe  was  assistant 
professor  of  Latin  and  history  from  18ti3  to 
1807,  and  full  profe^^sor  of  hislory  from  1S07  to 
ISSo.  llaviiif;  studied  in  Oermany,  France,  and 
Italy  in  lS(i7  and  ISliS,  he  followed  the  rJerman 
method  of  instruction,  and  in  ISO!)  and  1870 
established  an  historical  seminary  which  proved 
I  of  great  value  in  promoting  the  study  of  history 
1  and  political  science.  In  1881  he  was  made 
^  non-resident  professor  of  history  at  Cornell,  and 
;  in  1885  succeeded  Andrew  D.  White  as  president 
t  of  that  university.  This  position  he  resigned 
in  1802,  and  from  then  until  1!I02  was  president 
of  the  University  of  Wisconsin.  In  18!)l)  he  was 
president  of  the  American  Historical  Association. 
He  was  editor-in-chief  of  .lohnson's  Universal 
Cyclopwdia  (now  the  Universal  Cyclopaedia) 
from  18!)2  to  1895.  Among  his  publications 
are  Democracy  and  Monarchy  in  France  (1872)  ; 
a  valuable  Manual  of  Historical  Literature 
(1S82):  liritish  Orations  (1884).  and  Christo- 
pher Columbus,  His  Life  and  H'or/,-   (1802). 

ADAMS,  rii,\RLES  R.  (1848-inOO).  An  Amer- 
ican dramatic  tenor.  He  was  born  at  Charles- 
town.  Mass.  He  stuilicd  in  Vienna,  and  sang 
for  three  years  at  the  Royal  Opera,  Berlin,  and 
for  nine  years  at  the  Imperial  Opera,  Vienna. 
Though  he  was  an  American,  his  reputation, 
especially  as  a  Wagnerian  singer,  was  earned 
chiedy  abroad.  In  187!)  he  look  tip  his  residence 
in  Boston,  where  he  was  highly  esteemed  as  a 
tcaclier. 

ADAMS,  Edwin  (1834-77).  An  American 
actor.  He  was  born  in  Massachusetts,  and  first 
appeared  at  the  Boston  National  Theatre,  .August 
2i).  1833.  as  Stephen  in.  The  Hunchback.  '  He 
played  Hamlet  with  Kate  Bateman  and  .1.  W. 
Wallack  at  the  New  York  Winter  Garden  in 
IStiO,  and  then  starred  in  all  tlie  principal  cities; 
reappeared  in  New  York  in  IHliti.  as  Robert 
Landry  in  The  Dead  Heart:  was  in  the  coiii])any 
when  IJoolh's  Theatre  opened,  February  3,  18(>7, 
and  played  Mereutio,  lago,  and  Enoch  Arden  in 
that  Iiouse.  It  was  in  the  latter  character  that 
he  attracted  the  most  attention.  He  visited  Aus- 
tralia, where  his  health  failed. 

ADAMS,  FREnF.RiOK  W.  (1787-1850).  An 
Ameriiaii  physician  and  violin-maker.  He  was 
born  at  Pawlet.  Vt..  studied  at  Dartmouth  Col- 
lege, and  practiced  with  much  success  as  a 
physician.  He  made  a  number  of  excellent 
violins  of  wood  selected  by  himself  front  the 
forests  of  Vermont  and  Canada.  He  published 
Theological  Criticism   (1843). 


ADAMS,  Han-naii  (1755-1832).  One  of  the 
earliest  American  women  writers.  She  was  the 
author  of  Meirs  of  Religious  Opinions  (1784)  ; 
History  of  Xew  England  (1709);  Evidences  of 
Christianity  (1801)  and  a  History  of  the  Jews 
(1812),  all  of  which  brought  fame,  but  little 
money.     Her  home  was  in  Brookline,  Mass. 

ADAMS,  He.nky  (1838—).  An  American 
hislcirian.  third  son  of  Charles  Francis  Adams 
(q.v. ).  He  was  born  in  Boston  and  graduated  at 
Harvard  in  1858.  He  was  private  secretary  to 
his  father  when  the  latter  was  Minister  to  Eng- 
land, assistant  i)rofessor  of  history  at  Har- 
vard from  1 870  to  1877,  and  editor  of  the 
Xorlh  American  Ucricir  in  1875  and  1870.  One 
of  the  fruits  of  his  original  methods  of  instruc- 
tion was  a  volume  ot  '  Essays  on  Anglo-Saxon 
Laip  (1870),  of  which  he  WTote  the  first,  on 
Anglo-Saxon  Courts  of  Latv.  The  others  were 
by  H.  C.  Lodge.  E.  Y'oung,  and  .1.  L.  McLaugh- 
lin. He  subsequently  made  his  home  in  Wash- 
ington, and  devoted  himself  to  a  study  of  the 
administrations  of  .Tellerson  and  JIadison,  the 
results  of  which  appeared  in  nine  volumes  as  a 
History  of  the  United  Stales  from  1801  to  1817 
(1880-90),  a  work  of  original  research.  He 
previously  edited  the  writings  of  Albert  Gal- 
latin (3  volumes,  1879) ,  and  wrote  a  life  of  .lohn 
Randolph  (1882:  second  edition,  1898)  for  the 
American  Statesmen  Series. 

ADAMS,  Henry  Carter  (1852—).  An 
American  economist.  He  was  born  in  Davenjiort, 
la.,  and  was  educated  at  Iowa  College  and  .Johns 
Hopkins  LIniversity,  He  was  statistician  to  the 
Interstate  Commerce  Commission  and  special 
agent  of  the  eleventh  census,  in  charge  of  the 
department  of  trans]iortation,  and  is  professor 
of  political  economy  and  finance  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Michigan.  His  publications,  besides  re- 
ports, include:  Taxation  in  the  United  States, 
nSO-lSlU  (1884);  Public  Debts  (1887);  Rela- 
tion of  the  States  to  Industrial  Action  (1887)  ; 
Relation  of  American  Municipalities  to  Quasi- 
Public  Works   (1888). 

ADAMS,  Herhekt  B.vxter  (1850-1001).  An 
Anierican  educator  and  historian.  He  was  born 
at  Amherst,  Mass.,  and  educated  at  Amherst 
College.  He  took  his  doctor's  degree  at  Heidel- 
berg and  then  became  connected  with  the  .Johns 
Hopkins  University  at  its  inception  in  1870. 
He    was   made   ass<iciate   professor   of   history    in 

1883  and  professor  in  ISOl.  Owing  to  ili  health. 
he  resigned  in  1001.  He  edited  the  valuable 
Johns  Hopkins  Studies  in  History  and  Po- 
litical Science  from  the  beginning,  and  an  im- 
portant series  of  monographs  on  American  edu- 
cational history  published  by  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Education.  Among  his  many  mono- 
graphs may  he  cited:  The  Germanic  Origin  of 
the  Xciv  England  Towns,  Maryland's  Influence 
Upon  Land  Cessions  to  the  United  States,  and 
Thomas  Jefferson  and  the  University  of  Vir- 
ginia. His  most  important  work  is  The  Life  and 
Writings  of  Jured  Sparks  (2  volumes,  1893). 
Dr.  Adams's  influence  upon  historical  sttidies  in 
America,  e.specially  through  the  numerous  pupils 
whom  he  trained,  was  very  beneficial.  He 
took  great  interest  in  university  extension,  and  in 
the  work  of  the  American  Historical  Association, 
of  which   he  was  si'cretary  from   its  foumlini.'  in 

1884  until  1900,  when  he  resigned  and  was  made 
first  vice-president. 


ADAMS. 


104 


ADAHS. 


ABAMS,  Isaac  (1803-83).  An  American 
inventor.  He  was  born  at  Rochester,  N.  H.  He 
was  at  first  an  operative  in  a  cotton  factory  and 
afterward  a  cabinet  maker,  and  in  1824  began 
work  in  a  Boston  machine  shop.  In  1828  he  in- 
vented the  printing  press  now  kno\\^l  by  his 
name,  and  in  1834  greatly  improved  it.  The 
original  feature  of  the  press  was  the  elevation 
of  a  flat  bed  against  a  stationary  platen.  Mr. 
Adams  was  a  member  of  the  senate  of  Massachu- 
setts in  1840. 

ADAMS,  John  (1735-1826).  The  second 
President  of  the  United  States.  He  was  born 
at  Quiney,  Mass.,  October  30,  1735,  of  a  family 
descended  from  Henry  Adams,  a  Puritan  emi- 
grant wlio  settled  in  Massacliusetts  about  1040. 
He  graduated  from  Harvaid  in  1755,  and,  after 
an  interval  of  teaching,  studied  law,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1758.  In  1764  he  married 
Abigail  Smith,  daughter  of  the  minister  at  Wey- 
mouth, a  woman  who  lierself  became  con- 
spicuous, and  wliose  influence  and  assistance 
were  important  factors  tliroughout  tlie  entire 
career  of  her  husband.  (See  Adam.s,  Abigail.) 
Soon  after  he  went  into  politics,  and,  although 
not  a  resident  of  Boston,  was  selected  to  act  as 
counsel  with  Gridley  and  Otis  in  presenting  to 
the  governor  a  memorial  against  the  Stamp  Act 
(q.v. ).  Adams  then  took  the  bold  stand  that  the 
act  was  void  because  Parliament  had  no  right  to 
tax  the  colonists,  and  that  such  statutes  could 
liave  no  possible  force  over  jiersons  who  liad  not 
consented  to  the  passage  thereof.  In  1708  he 
moved  to  Boston,  and  soon  after  was  offered,  and 
declined,  the  position  of  advocate-general  in  the 
Court  of  Admiralty,  an  oflice  wliich  would  have 
greatly  increased  liis  professional  opportunities, 
though  it  would  have  placed  him  under  embar- 
rassing obligations  to  the  Koyalist  politicians. 
Two  years  afterward  he  was  able,  without  prej- 
udicing himself  among  the  ])atriot  party,  to  ren- 
der the  unique  service  of  defending  Captain 
Preston  in  the  Boston  Massacre  case  and  secur- 
ing his  acquittal.  He  liad  already  written  on 
ta.xation  for  the  Boston  Gazette,  and  he  again 
published  articles  at  the  time  of  the  controversy 
over  the  independence  of  the  Judiciary,  collabo- 
rated in  the  authorship  of  tlie  reply  to  Hutchin- 
son in  1773,  and  later  produced  the  ''Novanglus" 
articles  in  reply  to  the  Tory,  Leonard.  He  was 
closely  associated  with  Samuel  Adams  in  the 
political  leadership  of  Massachusetts,  especially 
in  the  legislative  crisis  of  .June,  1774,  and  then 
was  chosen  by  the  House  of  Representatives  as 
one  of  their  five  delegates  to  the  Continental 
Congress.  In  that  body  his  energy  was  de- 
voted to  the  adoption  of  a  comprehensive  pro- 
gi'amme  having  three  distinct  elements — the  or- 
ganization of  conunonwcalth  governments  on  an 
independent  basis,  the  formation  of  a  national 
confederate  government,  and  the  establishment 
of  diplomatic  relations  with  foreign  powers. 
The  first  victory  was  gained  when  the  Congress 
passed  the  resolutions  of  May  10  and  15,  1776, 
recommending  to  all  colonies  the  formation  of 
State  governments  on  a  basis  such  as  to  serve 
them  if  permanently  independent.  This  made 
natural,  if  not  inevitable,  the  formal  Declaration 
of  Independence  (q.v.),  the  original  motion  for 
whicli  was  seconded  by  Adams,  who  now  was 
placed  on  the  committee  which  drafted  that 
document. 

For  three  years  he  was  a  most  arduous  worker 
in  advancing  the  plans  of  Congress  and  in  per- 


fecting the  details  of  the  new  national  govern- 
ment, serving  on  numberless  committees,  and 
being  placed  at  the  he.ad  of  several  important 
ones  at  a  time  when  the  congressional 
committees  were  the  heads  of  tlie  undeveloped 
executive  departments.  Especially  in  the  War 
Department,  and  to  a  considerable  extent  in  the 
Navy  Department,  was  his  influence  great  and 
his  work  attended  with  quite  permanent  results, 
while  his  membershi])  of  the  committee  on  for- 
eign relations  enabled  him  to  become  equipped 
for  tlie  service  1)V  wliich  later  he  attained  dis- 
tinction. In  1778  he  was  sent  to  France  to  super- 
sede Silas  Deane ;  but  his  stay  was  brief,  the 
treaty  between  that  country  and  the  United 
States  having  been  concluded  just  before  his  de- 
parture from  Boston.  During  his  attendance 
upon  tlie  Continental  Congress  he  continued  to  be 
an  active  counselor  of  the  leaders  in  Massachu- 
setts, although  he  declined  the  oflice  of  chief  jus- 
tice of  the  State.  He  was  an  active  member 
of  the  committee  of  three  whicli  drafted  the  first 
constitution  of  Massachusetts.  To  that  work  he 
came  almost  directly  from  his  first  mission  to 
France,  and  from  it  he  proceeded  at  once  to  un- 
dertake his  further  duties  of  securing  from  Hol- 
land support  for  the  national  finances,  and  of 
negotiating,  \\'ith  the  other  commissioners,  terms 
of  peace  with  England. 

His  success  in  effecting  a  loan  in  Holland  was 
preceded  liy  several  months  of  difficult  diplo- 
macy, the  result  of  which  was  tliiit  in  April, 
1782,  the  Dutch  Government  formally  recognized 
Adams  as  the  minister  of  an  independent  na- 
tion. Stimulated  by  this  notable  accomplisli- 
ment  and  by  the  realization  that  upon  his  ex- 
ertions depended  the  New  Englanders'  rights  in 
the  Newfoundland  fisheries,  Adams  entered  upon 
the  negotiations  at  Paris  with  a  spirit  of  inde- 
pendence and  of  determination  wliicli,  although 
seeming  to  occasion  rather  than  to  allay  em- 
barrassments, contributed  much  to  the  success- 
ful   issue. 

The  post  of  minister  to  Great  Britain  was 
next  occupied  by  Adams,  but  the  relations  be- 
tween the  countries  were  still  such  as  to  make 
the  life  irksome  to  one  of  Adams's  temperament, 
especially  as  his  desire  to  be  recalled  was 
strengthened  by  his  belief  that  the  service  he 
was  rendering  was  bringing  no  particular  bene- 
fit to  Ids  country.  Accordingly,  in  the  spring 
of  1788,  he  returned,  having  already  shown  in 
detail  his  views  on  American  affairs  in  his  elabo- 
rate Defence  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  (3  volumes,  London,  1787).  He  was 
elected  vice-president  at  the  first  election  under 
the  new  constitution  and  served  for  two  terms, 
exercising,  in  tlie  formative  years  of  political 
parties  and  in  the  time  of  nearly  equal  division 
of  the  Senate  between  them,  a  power  seldom 
possessed  by  a  vice-president.  Where  matters 
of  foreign  policy  raised  the  questions  at  issue, 
Adams  sympathized  witli  Enghind,  and  thus  was 
thrown  into  opposition  to  the  friends  of  France, 
led  by  Jefferson.  In  matters  of  internal  policy, 
also,  lie  supported  the  programme  of  Hamilton, 
and  wliere  party  lines  were  finally  drawn  he  was 
recognized  as  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Federal- 
ists." By  them  lie  was  advanced  to  the  presi- 
dency at  the  same  time  that,  under  the  system 
then  prevailing,  the  leader  of  the  opposing  party 
became  vice-president.  .Jefferson's  success  in 
1800,  was  made  ])ossif)lc.  liowever,  largely  by  the 
developments  of  Federalist  policy  and  of  factional 


ADAMS. 


105 


ADAMS. 


controversy   within   the   party.      Upon   Adams's 
accession    to   otlice,    relations    with    Krante   had 
been   complicati'd   by   tlie   DiriH'toiy's   refusal   to 
receive  I'inckiicy,  and  when  finally  tlie  joint  mis- 
sion of  i'iniknc  V.  Marshall,  and  (Jerry  met  with 
highly     (|ucstioMal)le     treatment,     the     prospect 
seemed    dubioiis.       (See    \     ^      Z     C'oKKEsro.M)- 
;       ENCE. )     War  seemed  imminent,  and  indeed  there 
were  liostile  encounters  on  the  water.     Prepara- 
1        tions  for  the  struggle  were  coupled  with  the  ef- 
i       fort  to  repress  the  violent  opposition  to  the  policy 
of  the  ailministration  through   the  harsh  means 
;        of  the  .Mien  and  Sedition  Acts  (q.v.). 
1  War  having  been  averted,  it  was  at  once  recog- 

t  nized'that  the  federalists  in  tliese  statutes  had 
gone  too  far  in  rt'straining  the  rights  of  the  in- 
dividual and  in  encroaching  upon  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  States.  Certain  it  was  tliat  in  his 
thoroughness  Adams  had  given  his  opponents  a 
very  welcome  and  a  very  powerful  means  of  at- 
tack, of  which  they  promptly  and  vigorously  took 
advantage,  and  at  once  began,  by  such  steps  as 
the  Virginia  and  Kentucky  resolutions  (q.v.), 
the  campaign  which  linally  established  the  party 
of  the  opposite  doctrine.  This  estal)lishment 
was  made  easy  also  by  the  internal  weakening 
of  the  Federalist  party  in  the  bitter  fight  for 
leadership  between  Adams  and.  Hamilton.  The 
retirement  of  Adams  thus  occurred  amid  the 
hostility  of  his  enemies  and  the  hatred  of  those 
who  were  his  party  associates.  Nor  was  it  ])os- 
sible  to  e.xpect  any  relief  from  the  painfulness 
of  such  a  situation  when  the  defeated  one  pos- 
sessed a  manner  and  a  temperament  such  as  were 
-Adams's.  Cunseiiuenlly.  aside  from  intermittent 
criticism  and  counter  criticism,  and  aside  from 
service  in  the  .Massachusetts  Constitutional 
Convention  of  1820,  this  retirement  continued 
unbroken.  He  died  July  4,  1820,  on  the  same 
day  as  .Jefferson.  President  John  Quincy  Adams 
was  his  son. 

Consult:  His  Works,  with  a  biography,  edited 
by  C.  F.  Adams.  10  volumes  (Boston.  IS.jO-oO)  ; 
also  his  biograi)liy,  .J.  T.  Morse  (Boston,  1884)  ; 
The  Jjillcra  of  Abigail  and  John  Adams  (Boston, 
1S40-41),  and  Familiar  Letters  of  John  Adams 
and  His  Wife  During  the  Ifcvolution :  With  a 
Memoir  of  Mrs.  Adams,  edited  by  C.  F.  Adams 
(Xcw  York,  1870). 

ADAMS,  .Toii.v  (17001829).  The  assumed 
name  of  .Vlexander  Smith,  one  of  the  mutineers 
of  the  Knglish  shi])  lUmnty.  With  eight  saiirirs 
and  siniie  men  and  women  from  Tahiti  he  huKleci 
on  Pitcairn  Island  ami  formed  a  government,  of 
which  he  was  the  head.  In  1800  he  was  the  onlv 
surviving  Englishman.  He  established  worship 
and  such  a  school  as  was  possible.  In  1808.  Cap- 
tain Folger,  an  American,  landed  iliere  and 
brought  the  world  the  first  news  of  this  strange 
settlement,  .\dams  had  not  heard  a  word  from 
civilized  countries  for  twenty  years.  England 
never  sought  to  punish  him.  and  he  died  in  peace, 
leaving  a  prosperous  and  religious  people.  See 
PiTCAlltN    Tsi.,\.M). 

ADAMS,  .JoirN  (1772-180.'?).  An  American 
teacher.  He  was  born  in  Connecticut,  gradu- 
ated at  Yale,  170.5,  and  after  teaching  for  fifteen 
years  in  secondary  schools  in  New  .lersey  and 
his  native  State,  became  principal  of  Pl'iillips 
Academy,  Andover,  Mass.  That  place  lie  filled 
for  twenty-three  years,  resigning  in  IS;!:!.  Beside' 
having  built  up  one  of  the  historic  schools  of 
New  England.  Dr.  .\daiiis  is  remembered  as  the 
Vol.  l.—'i. 


schoolmaster  of  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes,  and 
the  subject  of  the  lines: 

**  Uneasy  lie  the  tiends  of  all  that  rule — 
His  nio8t  of  all  wliotit'  kingdom  is  u  ectiool.'* 

Consult:  iM.  E.  B.  and  H.  (4.  B.,  The  Story  of 
John  Adams,  a  A'eio  England  Schoolmaster 
(1000). 

ADAMS,  .loii.v  Coucii  (1810-02).  An  Eng- 
lish astronomer.  He  was  born  near  Laiinceston, 
in  Cornwall,  and  early  manifested  an  aptitude 
for  mathematics.  .After  the  usual  amount  of 
school  training  he  was  sent  to  St.  .lohn's  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  attained  the  honor  of  senior 
wrangler,  and  became  a  mathematical  tutor.  In 
1843  he  attempted  to  ascertain  by  mathcmatieal 
calculation  whether  certain  observeil  irregulari- 
ties in  the  motion  of  Uranus  could  be  explained 
on  the  hypothesis  of  perturbation  (q.v.)  exer- 
cised by  an  exterior  planet.  The  problem  at 
issue  was  the  inverse  of  the  usual  perturbation 
problem.  Instead  of  computing  the  effect 
brought  about  by  a  planet  of  known  mass  pur- 
suing a  known  orbit,  it  was  required  to  deter- 
mine the  unknown  cause  of  a  known  effect.  By 
1845  -Adams  had  solved  this  new  problem,  and 
was  able  to  assign  to  the  hypothetical  planet, 
the  now  well  known  Neptune,  a  position  differing 
less  than  two  degrees  from  its  actual  place  in 
the  sky.  But  a  careful  telescopic  search  was  at 
the  time  postponed  or  neglected,  so  that  the  honor 
of  the  great  discovery  completing  Adams's  math- 
ematical researches  by  an  observational  verifi- 
cation was  lost  to  Great  Britain.  Leverrier, 
of  Paris,  had  been  making  an  independent  inves- 
tigation, and  by  -August  31,  1840,  he  too  had 
determined  Neptune's  place  in  the  sky.  He 
wrote  to  Galle  .nt  Berlin,  and  the  latter  found 
the  planet  on  Septeniber  23  of  the  same  year. 
This  mathematical  discovery  of  Neptune  is  justly 
counted  among  the  greatest  triumphs  of  science. 

ADAMS,  .John  Qxincy  (1707-1848).  Tlie 
sixlli  Proident  of  the  United  States  and  son 
of  the  second  President,  .fohn  -Adams.  He  was 
born  in  Quincj',  Mass.,  .lulv  II.  1707.  In  1778 
he  was  taken  abroad  b.v  his  father  when  the 
latter  visited  Paris  on  a  diplomatic  mission,  and 
onl.v  three  years  later,  after  studying  for  brief 
periods  at  Paris.  Leyden,  and  Amsterdam,  the 
.vouth  was  appointed  private  secretary  to  Francis 
Hana,  the  -American  minister  to  Russia.  After 
some  service  at  St.  Petersburg.  Adams  again 
joined  his  father,  then  negotiating  the  final 
peace  at  Pans;  but  when,  after  the  conclusion 
of  that  important  work,  the  elder  -Adams  was 
rewarded  witli  the  Knglisli  mission,  the  younger 
Adams  adopted  the  significant  and  even  remark- 
able course  of  returning  home  and  entering  Har- 
vard (\)llege. 

Upon  his  graduation  there  in  1787  he  began 
the  study  of  law  with  Theophilus  Parsons  (q.v.), 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1700.  He  con- 
tributed to  the  )iolitical  literature  of  the  lime, 
discussing  the  theories  of  Tom  Paine,  and  es- 
pecially the  Genet  iiicidi'ut  (sec  Oknet,  E.  C), 
and  our  relations  with  France.  His  unusual 
opportunities  and  training  were  readily  recog- 
nized, and  in  1704  Washington  sent  'him  as 
minister  to  The  Hague.  Later  he  was  appointed 
to  the  Portuguese  mission,  but  before  he  had 
entered  upon  the  duties  of  that  oflice  his  father 
bad  become  President,  and  the  son.  upon  the 
recommendation  of  Washington  himself,  was 
transferred  to  the  more  responsible  post  of  min- 


ADAMS. 


106 


ADAMS. 


ister  to  Prussia.  His  father  recalled  him  in 
1801,  in  order  that  his  successor  in  the  presidency 
might  be  under  no  embarrassment.  In  the  year 
following  his  return  Adams  wsis  sent  to  the 
State  Senate,  and  in  1803  the  Massachusetts 
legislature  sent  him  to  the  United  States  Senate 
in  preference  to  Timothy  Pickering  (q.v.). 

While  in  the  Senate  he  gave  his  support  to  the 
purchase  of  Louisiana  (q.v.),  although  he  dis- 
agreed with  the  administration  upon  some  of  the 
ensuing  problems,  and  also  approved  the  policy 
of  the  embargo  and  the  non-importation  acts. 
The  result  was  that  the  former  Federalist  and 
the  representative  of  a  strongly  Federalist  State 
became  a  hearty  advocate  of  the  Republican 
administration,  and  in  consequence  the  atti- 
tude of  his  constituents  became  so  critical  that 
in  1808  Adams  resigned  his  seat.  He  was,  how- 
ever, so  identified  with  the  party  in  power  that 
in  1809  President  Madison  appointed  him  Min- 
ister to  Russia.  While  there  he  was  named  as 
one  of  the  commissioners  who  were  to  act  in  con- 
nection with  the  mediation  proposed  by  Russia, 
but  which  was  made  impossible  by  the  declina- 
tion of  England.  He  was  soon  appointed,  how- 
ever, one  of  the  five  negotiators  who  concluded 
the  Treaty  of  Ghent  (q.v.)  at  the  close  of  the 
War  of  1812. 

From  that  work  Adams  proceeded  to  London, 
where  he  served  as  Minister  to  England  until  his 
varied  and  remarkable  diplomatic  career  was 
ended  in  1817  by  his  appointment  by  President 
Monroe  to  the  post  of  Secretary  of  State.  His 
work  as  secretary  was  concerned  with  the  diffi- 
cult negotiations  which  in  1819  ended  in  the  pur- 
chase of  Florida,  the  more  delicate  relations 
with  England  with  reference  to  the  fisheries 
convention  of  1818  and  the  conflicting  claims 
in  the  Columbia  River  basin,  and  the  more  far- 
reaching  steps  taken  to  counteract  the  encroach- 
ments of  the  Holy  Alliance,  in  connection  with 
which  was  announced  the  Monroe  Doctrine  (q.v.), 
so  that  some  credited  the  latter  to  Adams.  As 
a  member  of  the  cabinet,  aside  from  matters  of 
diplomacy,  he  took  a  unique  position  in  uphold- 
ing General  Jackson  for  his  conduct  in  the 
Florida  War,  and  in  rendering  a  highly  valuable 
service  to  his  later  antagonist. 

By  virtue  of  his  position,  the  friends  of  Adams 
expected  that  in  1824  he  would  be  advanced  in 
the  same  manner  as  Madison  and  Monroe,  who 
had  each  in  turn  passed  from  the  state  de- 
partment to  the  presidency.  The  nominations, 
however,  were  still  made  by  the  congressional 
caucus,  which  at  this  time  was  controlled  by 
Crawford.  Moreover,  the  newly  formed  trans- 
Alleghany  States  were  pressing  their  claims 
for  recognition,  so  that  the  revolt  against  the 
old  nominating  system  and  the  crystallizing 
of  the  various  factions  within  the  one  great 
party  alone  remaining  active  led  to  the  candi- 
dacy of  four  Republicans  in  1824.  Of  these, 
Jackson  received  99  electoral  votes,  Adams  84, 
Crawford  41,  and  Clay  37.  When  the  vote, 
according  to  the  Constitution,  was  thus  given  to 
the  House  of  Representatives,  choosing  from 
among  the  three  highest,  the  Clay  interests 
joined  with  those  of  Adams  and  eflfected  the 
defeat  of  Jackson.  Adams,  upon  his  accession, 
made  Clay  his  Secretary  of  State,  and  not  only 
brought  upon  himself  charges  of  corruption,  but 
also  secured  the  vigorous  enmity  of  the  rapidly 
increasing  Jackson  wing  of  the  Republican 
party.     To  offset  this,  Adams  was  not  qualified 


to  exert  the  influence  usually  attaching  to  a 
political  leader,  nor  was  he  able  so  to  make  use 
of  his  offiee  as  to  build  up  an  Adams  faction 
that  could  hope  to  wage  a  successful  warfare 
with  the  embittered  Jacksonians.  It  was  nat- 
ural, therefore,  that  after  four  troublous  and  not 
particularly  profitable  years,  Adams  should  be 
overwhelmed  in  the  election  of  1828.  Instead 
of  going  into  retirement,  he  adopted  the  unpre- 
cedented course  of  returning  to  Washington 
as  a  member  of  the  House  of  Representatives, 
and  in  that  capacity  rendered  still  further 
and  conspicuous  service  to  the  nation  from 
1830  until  his  death.  Being  practically  above 
party  restraints,  he  was  free  to  do  a  work 
which  made  notable  the  later  years  of  "the 
old  man  eloquent."  The  slavery  issue  appeared 
in  Congress  in  two  forms,  involving  the  question 
of  the  right  of  the  government  or  of  its  ollieials  to 
exclude  abolitionist  literature  from  the  mails, 
and  involving  the  question  whether  petitioners 
to  the  House  of  Representatives  might  demand 
that  their  petitions  should  be  read,  even  if  not 
considered.  The  former  problem  provoked  a  long 
and  severe  dispute,  while  the  second  controversy 
was  made  acute  by  the  introduction  of  the  "Gag 
Rules"  (q.v.),  which,  Adams  contended,  substan- 
tially destroyed  tlie  right  of  petition,  and  against 
which  he  labored  vigorously,  and  in  the  end 
successfully.  Late  in  1846  he  was  stricken  with 
paralysis,  and  early  in  1848  he  was  again  strick- 
en, while  in  his  seat  in  the  House,  and  died  two 
days  later,  on  February  23,  1848. 

Adams  followed  the  example  of  his  father  in 
keeping  an  extensive  diary,  which  is  included  in 
his  Memoirs,  edited  by  C.  F.  Adams  ( 12  volumes, 
Philadelphia,  1874-77).  For  his  biography  con- 
sult: W.  H.  Seward,  Life  of  Adams  (Auburn, 
1849),  and  Quincy,  Memoir  (Boston,  18.58)  ;  or, 
for  the  most  recent  work,  Morse,  John  Quincy 
Adams   (Boston,  1882). 

ADAMS,  John  Quincy,  2d  (1833-94).  An 
American  politician.  He  was  born  in  Boston, 
the  grandson  of  President  J.  Q.  Adams  and  son 
of  Charles  Francis  Adams.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard,  1853,  and  became  a  lawyer.  He  served 
three  terms  in  the  Massachusetts  Legislature, 
and  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  governor 
on  the  Democratic  ticket  in  I8(>7  and  1871.  In 
1872  he  was  nominated  for  the  vice-presidency  on 
the  ticket  with  Charles  O'Conor  by  those  Demo- 
crats wlio  would  not  support  Horace  Greeley. 

ADAMS,  Julius  Walker  (1812-99).  An 
American  civil  engineer.  He  was  born  .at  Bos- 
ton, Mass.,  studied  for  two  years  at  the  United 
States  Military  Academy,  and  from  1833  to  1869 
was  connected  as  engineer  with  various  railways 
and  public  works.  From  1809  to  1878  he  was 
cliief  engineer  of  the  Brooklyn  board  of  city 
works,  and  from  1878  to  1889  consulting  engi- 
neer of  the  board  of  public  works  of  New  York 
City.  A  suggestion  of  his  led  to  the  formation 
of  a  company  which  eventually  had  charge  of 
building  the  first  bridge  over  the  East  River  at 
New  York.  During  the  Civil  War  he  for  a  time 
commanded  the  First  Long  Island  Volunteers, 
and  during  the  New  York  draft  riots  of  1863 
commanded  the  troops  at  Printing  House  Square. 

ADAMS,  Maude  Kiskadden  (1872 — ).  A 
po]uilar  American  actress.  She  was  born  at 
Salt  Lake  City,  November  11,  1872,  and  is  the 
daughter  of  an  actress.  She  first  appeared  on 
the  stage  in  the  West,  in  children's  parts,  when 


ADAMS. 


107 


ADAMS. 


very  young.  At  sixteen  she  joined  E.  H. 
Sothern's  company  in  New  York,  and  played  in 
'  TUc  Midnight  Bell,  .\fteiwaid  she  was  a  mem- 
ber of  Charles  Frohman's  stock  company.  With 
John  Drew  in  The  MasLrd  li<ill  (1S1I2)  she  made 
■  an  extraordinary  advance  in  public  favor. 
She  became  a  star  as  Lady  Babbie  in  The 
Little  Minister,  produced  in  New  York 
(1898),  where  in  18911  she  played  .Juliet  to  the 
Romeo  of  William  Faversliam.  In  1900  and 
1901  she  won  another  popular  success  as  the 
Due  de  Keiclistailt  in  Kcistand's  I/Aiglon,  which 
was  also  played  in  New  York  the  same  season  by 
Sarah  lii'inliardt.  The  next  season  she  appeared 
in  a  more  cliaracteristic  [lart,  as  Miss  Phoebe  in 
IJarrie's  new  comedy  of  (Juality  Street.  Consult: 
Clapp  and  Edgett,  /'layers  of  the  Present,  in 
Duidap  SiKiety  Publications  (New  Y'ork,  1899). 
ADAMS,  Nehkmiah  (U'OG-78).  An  Ameri- 
can Coni;re{;ational  clergyman.  He  was  born 
in  Salem,  Mass.,  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1820, 
and  three  years  later  at  Andover  Theological 
Seminary.  He  then  became  pastor  in  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  and  from  18:i4  was  pastor  of  the  Essex 
Street  Church.  Boston.  After  a  winter  spent  in 
Georgia  for  his  health,  he  published  .1  tiuulh  Hide 
\iexr  of  Shtvery  (1854).  His  praise  of  the  effect 
of  slavery  on  the  religious  character  of  the  ne- 
groes provoked  much  hostile  criticism.  He  pub- 
lished several  controversial  works  and  a  Life  of 
John  Eliot. 

ADAMS,  Oscar  Fay.  (1855—).  An  Amer- 
ican editor  and  author.  He  was  born  at  Wor- 
cester, Mass.,  was  educated  in  secondary  schools, 
taught  classes  in  English  literature,  and  since 
ISSO  has  written  much  for  periodicals.  He  has 
eilited  Through  the  Yenr  With  the  Poets  (12 
volumes,  1886),  and  published  The  Story  of  Jane 
.\usten's  Life  (1891;  second  edition,  1896),  The 
.\rchl)ishnp's  Unguarded  .Moment,  and  Other  sto- 
ries (1809),  a  Dictionary  of  American  Authors 
(revised  edition,  1901),  and  several  other  com- 
pilations. 

ADAMS,  Par.son  Abraham.  A  leading  char- 
acter in  Fielding's  novel,  Joseph  Andrews.  He 
is  a  country  curate,  a  very  learned  scholar, 
.skilled  in  dead  and  living  languages  but  excess- 
ively simple-minded  and  unfamiliar  with  the 
ways  of  the  world.  In  spite  of  his  poverty,  his 
generosity  and  native  dignity  command  respect; 
his  oddities,  however,  and  his  ab.senee  of  mind 
bring  him  into  many  quaint  adventures. 

ADAMS,  Samukl  (1722-1803).  One  of  the 
leading  men  in  the  promotion  of  the  American 
Revolution.  He  was  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Sep- 
tember 27,  1722,  of  an  aristocratic  family,  and, 
like  ,)ohn  Adams,  the  second  I'residcnt  of  the 
United  States,  was  descended  from  Henry 
Adams,  a  Puritan  emigrant.  He  fitted  for  col- 
lege at  the  Boston  Latin  School,  and  entered 
Harvard  in  1736.  On  leaving  college  in  1740,  he 
entered  a  law  office;  but  the  law  proving  dis- 
tasteful, he  next  entered  a  counting-house,  and 
soon  became  a  merchant  himself,  but  failed. 
Subsequently  he  became  a  partner  with  his 
father  in  a  brewery,  and  failed  after  the  hitter's 
death.  .\s  a  business  man,  he  seems  throughout 
to  have  been  a  complete  failure;  and  the  burden 
thus  thrown  on  the  other  members  of  the  family 
W.-IS  increased  later  by  the  complete  absorption 
with  which  he  devoted  his  time  and  energy  exclu- 
sively to  political  atrairs  and  public  service. 
When   a   candidate   for   the   degree   of   A.M.   at 


Harvard  College,  he  had  maintained  in  his  thesis 
the  afTirnuitive  of  the  question:  Whether  it  be 
lawful  to  resist  the  supreme  magistrate,  if  the 
conunonwc;ilth  cannot  be  otherwise  preserved. 

He  was  early  engaged  in  the  activities  of  town 
politics  in  Boston;  and  the  overthrow  of  the 
Land  Bank,  with  the  incidental  destruction  of 
his  father's  estate,  brought  him  into  contact 
with  provincial  affairs  and  decisively  influenced 
his  general  attitude  toward  the  home  government. 
His  formal  entry  into  politics  was  in  his  election 
as  a  tax  collector  of  Boston  in  1763,  an  ofTice 
which  he  held  for  two  years.  His  careless,  or  at 
all  events  unsuccessful,  performance  of  the  duties 
of  that  oflice  soon  afforded  his  opponents  the 
basis  for  a  vigorous  though  ineffectual  attack, 
but  both  his  personal  integrity  and  political 
uprightness  remained  above  suspicion.  By  him 
were  drafted  the  important  instructions  given 
by  the  town  of  Boston  to  its  representatives  in 
the  assembly  in  1764,  and  in  these  was  put  forth 
one  of  the  earliest  protests  against  the  minis- 
terial  plan  of  colonial  taxation. 

Likewise  in  1765  Adams  drafted  the  Boston 
instructions  to  representatives,  and  in  the  same 
year  he  himself  was  sent  to  the  Legislature. 
Being  elected  clerk  of  the  House  in  1766,  and 
also  serving  on  many  committees,  it  was  natural 
that  he  should  he  the  author  of  many  of  the  most 
important  State  documents  of  the  pre-revolu- 
tionary  period.  Instructions  to  the  political 
agent  in  London,  addresses  to  the  governor, 
appeals  to  the  ministry,  and  proposals  or  e.xhor- 
tations  addressed  to  fellow  colonists,  in  great 
number  issued  from  the  Mas.sachusetts  House  of 
Representatives,  and  in  many  instances  came 
from  the  pen  of  Adams.  Thus  the  very  influen- 
tial circular  letter  of  February,  1768,  as  well 
as  the  True  Sentiments  of  .imerica,  issued  in 
the  same  year,  and  the  widely  read  Appeal  to 
the  M'orld  of  1769,  have  been  traced  to  the 
authorship  of  Adams.  Later,  in  1772,  he  pre- 
pared for  the  town  of  Boston  the  very  telling 
pamphlet  on'  The  Rights  of  the  Colonists  as  Men, 
as  Christians,  and  as  Subjects.  Very  important 
as  were  all  these  contributions  to  the  movement 
toward  revolution,  the  most  effective  literary 
work  of  .\dams  was,  undoubtedly,  the  great  num- 
ber of  newspaper  articles,  under  various  pseudo- 
nyms, in  the  patriotic  Boston  Gazette.  In  these 
he  made  plain  the  cause  of  the  colonists,  exposed 
tlie  imi)racticability  of  any  reconciliation,  con- 
verted the  hesitating  and  inspired  the  Radicals, 
and  exerted  a  very  far-reaching  influence  in 
preparing  the  popular  mind  for  revolution  and 
in  hastening  the  approach  of  the  crisis.  In 
practical  politics  as  well,  he  was  recognized  as 
a  leader  not  only  in  Massachusetts  but  in  the 
other  colonies.  He  bore  the  burden  of  the  long 
series  of  controversies  with  the  governors  of 
Massachusetts  over  the  presence  of  troops,  the 
salaries  of  judges,  and  the  place  of  meeting  of 
the  legislature;  and  at  the  time  of  the  Boston 
Massacre  of  March,  1770,  headed  the  committee 
which  demanded  from  Hutchinson  the  immediate 
withdrawal  of  the  troops.  He  was  cons])icuous 
in  planning  the  local  "committees  of  correspon- 
dence;" and  when  finally,  in  .lune,  1774,  the 
Massachusetts  legislature  hade  defiance  to  Gage 
and  issued  the  call  fcir  tbe  Continental  Congress, 
it  was  Adams  who  directed  the  movement. 

He  was  naturally  sent  to  the  Continental  Con- 
gress, and  when  that  body  finally  declared  for 
independence,   it  may  be  said  that  the  real  life 


ADAMS. 


108 


ADAMS. 


work  of  Adams  had  been  completed.  He  had  been 
the  ideal  representative  of  the  town-meeting  sys- 
tem, the  extreme  defender  of  the  "natural"  rights 
of  man,  and  the  irrepressible  advocate  of  inde- 
pendence. His  work  during  the  Revolution  was 
less  noteworthy,  and  was  at  times  open  to  crit- 
icism. Thus,  iie  was  one  of  the  strongest  sup- 
porters of  the  committee  system  of  national 
administration,  and  one  of  those  who  delayed 
unnecessarily  and  unfortunately  the  organiza- 
tion of  executive  departments  under  single  heads. 
In  the  politics  of  his  native  State  he  always  took 
an  active  and  eiTective  interest.  He  was  one  of 
the  committee  which  prepared  the  present  con- 
stitution of  the  State,  the  only  constitution  of 
the  revolutionary  period  still  in  force.  He 
served  on  the  executive  council  of  the  State,  was 
for  several  years  lieutenant-governor,  and  three 
times  was  elected  governor.  He  was  considered 
an  opponent  of  the  federal  constitution  in  1788, 
but  on  his  finally  giving  his  voice  in  favor  of 
adoption,  with  the  proposal  of  amendments,  its 
ratification  was  assured.  He  died  in  Boston,  Oc- 
tober 2,  1803.  For  his  biography  consult:  W.  V. 
Wells  (3  volumes,  Boston,  18(i5)  ;  J.  K.  Hosmer 
(Boston,  1885). 

ADAMS,  Sarah  Fuller  Flower  (180.5-48). 
An  English  poetess.  She  was  born  at  Great  Har- 
low, Essex,  and  married  William  Bridges  Adams 
in  1834.  Her  longest  work  is  Vivia  I'erjivtna, 
A  Dramatic  Poem  (1841),  having  as  its  subject 
the  early  life  of  the  Christians.  It  is  a  noble 
lyrical  drama.  Vivia's  monologue  on  forswear- 
ing Jupiter  is  especially  impressive.  Mrs.  Adams 
was  the  author  of  several  beautiful  hymns, 
among  which  are  "jSTearer,  my  God,  to  Thee"  and 
"He  sendeth  sun.  He  sendeth  shower."  She  was  a 
Unitarian. 

ADAMS,  Suzanne  (1873 — ).  An  American 
lyric  soprano.  She  was  born  in  Cambridge,  Mass., 
November  28,  1873.  She  studied  with  Marchesi  in 
Paris,  and  made  her  debut  at  the  Paris  Opera  in 
181)4  as  Juliette  in  Gounod's  liotnco  et  Juliette. 
She  remained  at  the  Opera  three  years,  then 
went  to  Nice.  In  the  summer  of  1898  she  ap- 
peared at  Covent  Garden,  London,  and  during 
the  season  of  1898-99  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera 
House,  New  York.  In  1893  she  was  mar- 
ried to  Leo  Stern,  the  violoncellist.  She  has 
sung  Juliette,  Marguerite,  Gilda,  Queen  in  Les 
Hufiucnats,  Queen  of  the  Night  in  the  Magic 
Flute,  Mimi,  Mieaela,  and  other  soprano  roles. 
Her  voice  is  of  lieautiful  quality  and  great  com- 
pass, but  is  rather  slender. 

ADAMS,  Thomas.  An  English  preacher  in 
the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  called 
by  Southey  "the  prose  Shakespeare,  of  Puritan 
theologians  .  .  .  scarcely  inferior  to  Fuller 
in  wit  or  to  Taylor  in  fancy."  He  was  minister 
at  Willington,  Wingrave,  and  London,  and  "ob- 
servant cluiplain"  to  Sir  Henry  Montague,  the 
lord  cliicf  j\istioe.  Adams  was  a  Puritan  within 
the  Cluncii  of  England,  as  distinguished  from 
the  nonconformist  Puritans  who  left  the  church. 
He  published  a  large  number  of  sermons,  the 
quaint  titles  of  two  of  which  are:  Heaven  and 
Earth  Itcconcilcd,  and  The  Devil's  Banquet.  It 
is  likely  that  John  Bunyan  read  and  was  infiu- 
enced  by  these  writings.  They  have  been  repub- 
lished in  Nichol's  Puritan  Divines  (3  volumes, 
1802). 

ADAMS,  William  (  71.57.5- ?1  620) .  The  first 
Englishman  in  Japan,  whose  romantic  story  is 


closely  connected  with  the  opening  of  that  em- 
pire. He  was  born  in  Kent,  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Thames.  Having  entered  the  service  of  some 
Dutch  merchants,  he  sailed,  in  1598,  for  the 
east,  from  the  Te.xel,  as  the  chief  pilot  of  a  fleet 
of  five  small  ships.  After  a  severe  voyage,  the 
Charity,  in  which  Adams  was  sailing,  anchored 
ofT  the  coast  of  Bungo  (Kiushiu).  lySyasu  had 
recently  come  to  power,  and  Adams,  after  a 
brief  imprisonment,  was  taken  into  bis  favor 
and  employed  in  the  government  service,  to  its 
great  advantage.  He  built  vessels  and  gave  help- 
ful information  in  respect  to  the  intrigues  of 
the  Spanish  and  Portugiiese.  At  a  later  day  he 
received  the  revenues  of  the  village  IIf>mi,  near 
Yokosuka,  the  modern  imperial  dockyard  in 
Yeddo  Bay.  In  1613,  the  Clorr,  an  English  ship, 
brought  other  Englishmen  to  Firando,  and.  with 
.Adams,  they  proceeded  to  establish  a  factory, 
of  which  Richard  Cocks  was  chief.  In  1016 
lyeyasu  died  and  foreigners  soon  fell  into  dis- 
favor. Not  being  allowed  to  return  to  his  wife 
and  children  in  England,  Adams  married  a  Japa- 
nese wife,  and  their  descendants  are  still  living. 
He  died  May  16,  1020,  and  was  buried  on  a  hill 
above  Hemi-Mura,  where  his  tomb  and  that  of 
his  Japanese  w'ife  were  discovered  in  1872  by 
.James  Walter,  an  American.  A  street  in  Yedo 
was  named  after  him,  and  a  celebration  is  still 
held  in  his  honor.  Letters  of  Adams  may  be 
found  in  Purchas  his  Pilgrimes,  and  in  the  pub- 
lications of  the  Hakluvt  Society.  Consult:  The 
Diary  of  Richard  Cocks,  l(U.'>-22  (London,  1SS3)  ; 
Hildreth,  Japan  as  It  Was  and  Is  (Boston, 
1855)  ;  and  Griffis,  The  Mikado's  Empire  (New 
York,   1870). 

ADAMS,  William  (1814-48).  An  English 
allegorist.  He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  at  Mer- 
ton  College,  O.xford,  where  he  became  tutor  anti 
fellow  in  1837.  Appointed  vicar  of  St.  Peter's-in- 
the-East,  Oxford,  in  1840,  he  resigned  because  of 
his  ill  health,  and  passed  the  last  four  years  of 
his  life  at  Bonchurch,  Isle  of  Wight.  Adams 
was  the  author  of  several  popular  religious  alle- 
gories, most  of  which  were  written  during  the 
years  when  he  was  slowly  dying.  Tliev  com- 
prise Silvio,  The  Shadow  of  the  Cross,  Fall  of 
Croesus,  The  Old  Man's  TJomc,  and  the  King's 
Messcnycrs.  They  are  all  of  interest,  and  the 
Old  Man's  Home  is  likely  long  to  survive,  be- 
cause of  its  natural  grace  and  charm.  Adams  is 
also  the  author  of  a  boy's  story  entitled  Cherry 
Stones,  reprints  of  which  are  still  frequent. 

ADAMS,  William  (1807-80).  An  American 
Picshyterian  clergynu\n.  He  was  born  at  Col- 
chester, Conn.,  graduated  at  Yale  in  1827,  and 
at  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1830.  He 
became  pastor  of  the  Congregational  cluirch, 
Brighton,  Mass.,  in  1831,  and  of  the  Broome 
Street  Presljyterian  church  in  New  York  City 
in  1834  (out' of  which  the  Madison  Square  Pres- 
byterian church  was  formed  in  1853),  and  there 
he  ministered  till  in  1873  he  became  president 
of  Union  Theological  Seminary  (New  York)  and 
professor  of  sacred  rhetoric.  He  died  at  Orange 
Mountain,  N.  J.,  August  31,  1880.  He  was  mod- 
erator of  the  New  School  Presbyterian  General 
Assembly  in  1852.  He  published  several  vol- 
umes of  discourses. 

ADAMS,  William  Davenport  (1S51-1904). 
An  English  journalist  and  author,  the  son  ot 
W.  11.  Davenport  Adams.  He  was  educated  at 
Edinburgh     University     and     began     newspaper 


ADAMS. 


109 


ADANA. 


work  in  1870.  Ili-  iMcaiin'  literary  editor  of  the 
I.oikIiiii  (Hutu-  ill  ISS,"),  and  is  also  well  known  as 
a  (liaiiiatic:  critic,  lie  lias  published  many  col- 
lections of  poetry,  several  hooks  about  books,  and 
edited  a  Diclioiiiiry  of  Etiiilish  Lilcriiturc  (1877) 
and  a  Dirliniiaiy  of  the  Drama    (1899). 

ADAMS,  \yii.MAM  Ortt.i.s  (18.30—).  An 
Knf.'li>*h  [iliysieist.  He  was  born  at  Laneast.  Corn- 
wall, and  was  educated  at  f'anihrid^e  University, 
where  he  was  made  a  fellow  of  St.  rTohn's  Col- 
lege. In  I8(!.'{  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
natural  philosophy  and  astronomy  in  King's 
Colleue.  London,  and  has  carried  on  many  in- 
vest ifiations  in  addition  to  giving  instr\iction. 
Professor  .\dams  has  served  as  vice-president 
and  president  of  the  Physical  Society  of  London, 
as  president  of  the  Society  of  Kleclrical  Engi- 
neers, as  president  of  the  mathematical  and 
physical  section  of  the  British  .\ssociation,  and 
is  a  member  of  the  Koyal  Society.  He  devised  a 
new  form  of  p(darisoope  which  could  be  used  to 
measure  the  optical  axes  of  crystals,  .\mong  his 
more  important  investigations  which  have  been 
I)ulilislii'd  are  those  on  Shiiiilliiiiioiiti  M(tt;itclic 
Uislurlxiiucs,  Aclion  of  Liglit  on  Sclciiiiiin,  Allcr- 
tuitc  Current  Machines,  and  the  Testing  of  Dy- 
namo Mavhincs. 

ADAMS,  William  Taylor  (1822-97).  An 
.Vmcrican  educator  and  writer  of  juvenile 
fiction,  pojiularly  known  as  "Oliver  Optic." 
He  was  born  at  Jledway,  IMass.  For  twenty 
years  he  taught  in  Boston  public  schools;  for 
fourteen  years  he  was  a  member  of  the  Dor- 
chester School  Committee,  and  he  was  once 
elected  to  the  Legislature.  His  first  book,  llatchie, 
the  (luardian  )<ture  (IS'iS),  was  followe<I  by 
more  than  a  hundred  volumes  of  juvenile  fic- 
tion, contributed  in  large  part  to  Oliver  Ojilic's 
Maga::inc,  of  wliich  he  was  the  editor.  These 
stories  appeared  in  series,  of  which  the  most 
popular  were:  The  Ik/at  f'ltih.  Young  Aynerica 
Abroad,  The  Ntarry  Flag,  Onirard  and  Upward, 
and  The  Yacht  Club.  He  published  also  two 
novels,  The  llni/  of  the  World,  and  Living  Too 
J'ast. 

ADAM-SALOMON,  il'da.N-'-su'16'moN',  An- 
tony Sami.icl  (1818-81).  A  French  scul|)tor 
of  Jewish  extraction.  He  was  burn  at  La  Kerte- 
sous-.Jouarre  (Seineet-Marne) .  After  a  short 
mercantile  career  he  became  a  modeler,  and  made 
such  progress  that  ho  was  provided  with  a 
scholarship  by  the  authorities  of  his  department 
and  sent  to  I'aris.  His  bust  of  Heranger,  which 
he  eompleteil  in  liis  twentieth  year,  and  which  is 
said  to  have  l)cen  largely  executed  from  memory, 
established  his  reputation.  Among  his  other 
works  were  busts  of  Lamartine,  Kossini,  Halevy, 
LittrC',  (ieorge  Sand.  .Marie  Antoinette,  Dclphine 
(iay,  and  others;  medallions  of  .\niyot.  Coper- 
nicus, and  JIarchand  Knnery;  a  bas-relief  of 
Charlotte  Corday;  and  the  tomb  of  the  Duke  of 
Padua. 

AD'AM'S  APP'LE  (Lat.  Pomum  Adami) . 
The  pill jcct ion  seen  on  the  fnmt  of  the  neck 
nearly  midway  between  the  summit  of  the  breast- 
biiiie  and  the  bone  of  the  chin.  It  is  particularly 
visible  in  males,  but  rarely  noticeable  in  females, 
and  then  only  at  a  late  period  of  life.  Its  name 
originated  from  the  superstition  that  a  portion 
of  the  ap]ile  given  to  our  first  parent  stuck  in 
his  throat,  and  that  the  enlargement  thus  caused 
has   been   transmitted   to   the   race.     It   is   pro- 


duced by  the  convergence  ol  the  two  quadrilateral 
plates  of  the  thyroid  cartilage  of  the  larynx. 

ADAM'S  BRIDGE.  A  chain  of  shoals  ex- 
tending across  till'  (iiilf  of  Manaar,  between 
Ceylon  and  the  peninsula  of  Hindustan  (Map: 
India,  C  7).  It  is  cut  by  several  channels 
through  which  small  boats  can  pass. 

AD'AMSON,  Patrick  (1.5.37-92).  X  famous 
Scotch  [irclate  and  writer,  originally  known  as 
Conston,  Constant,  Consteane.  or  Coiistantinc. 
He  was  born  at  Perth.  He  studied  law  at  the 
University  of  St.  Andrews  and  in  luOO  went  to 
France  as  a  tutor,  where  he  underwent  six 
months'  imprisonment  for  referring  to  the  son  of 
]\larv.  Queen  of  Scots,  as  King  of  France  and 
Kngland,  in  a  Latin  poem  he  wrote  on  the  ocea- 
siim  of  the  iirince's  birth.  He  narrowly  escaped 
death  during  the  Paris  massacre,  and,  obliged 
to  live  in  concealment  for  seven  months,  he  em- 
ployed his  time  in  writing  Latin  [loetical  ver- 
sions of  the  Book  of  .Job  and  of  the  tragedy  of 
Herod.  In  1.57.3  he  returned  to  Scotland,  took 
orders,  and  became  minister  at  Paisley.  In 
l.")7C  he  received  the  appointment  of  Archbishop 
of  St.  -Vndrews  from  his  patron,  the  Karl  of 
Morton,  Regent  of  Scotland,  and  entered  into 
frequent  polemics  with  the  Presbyterians  eon- 
eeriiing  episcopacy.  In  LiSS  he  was  excommu- 
nicated on  various  charges,  and  died  in  gi-eat  pov- 
erty and  affliction  at  St.  Andrews.  February  19, 
1.592.  Consult:  P.  .\danison,  Poemaia  Sacra 
(London.  1{)19)  ;  Baillie,  The  Recantation  of 
PatricK-  Adani.ton  (Glasgow,  1G4C). 

ADAMSON,  RoMKKT  (1852-1902).  An  Eng- 
lish cdiHMliir  and  philosophical  writer.  He  was 
at  one  time  profes.sor  of  logic  and  mental  philos- 
ophy at  Owens  College  (Victoria  University), 
and  in  1895  was  appointed  professor  of  logic 
and  rhetoric  at  the  T'niversity  of  Glasgow.  He 
is  regarded  as  an  important  representative  of  the 
so-called  Xeo-Hegeliaii  movement  in  English  phi- 
losophy. Among  his  writings  may  be  mentioned: 
The  Philosophti  of  Scicnec  in  the  Middle  Ages 
(1870);  On  the  Philosophy  of  Kant  (1879); 
the  article  on  Kant  in  the  Encyclopcedia  liritan- 
nica,  and  Fichte   (1881). 

ADAM'S  PEAK  (native,  Samanhrla).  A 
mountain  in  the  smilh  of  Ceylon,  7420  feet  high, 
terminating  in  a  narrow  platform,  in  the  middle 
of  which  is  a  hollow  five  feet  long,  having  a  rude 
resemblance  to  a  human  footprint  (Map:  India, 
D  7).  ^lolianiniedau  tradition  makes  this  the 
scene  of  .\(lam's  penance,  after  his  expulsion 
from  Paradise;  he  stood  1000  years  on  one  foot, 
and  hence  the  mark.  To  the  Buddhists,  the  im- 
pression is  the  sripada,  or  sacred  footmark,  left 
by  Buddha  on  his  departure  from  Ceylon ;  while 
the  Hindus  claim  it  as  the  footprint  of  their  god 
Siva.  Over  the  sacred  spot  stands  a  w'ooden  can- 
opy, and  multitudes  of  devotees.  Buddhist, 
Hindu,  and  Mohammedan,  frequent  it. 

ADANA,  A-dii'nft.  The  capital  of  the  Turkish 
vilavct  of  Adana  (14.;!50  scpiare  miles;  pop.  403,- 
JOO)  (  Map:  Turkey  in  .\sia.  I'"  4).  It  is  siluated 
in  the  southeast  of  .Asia  Minor  on  the  Seiliun 
(ancient  Sarus)  about  42  miles  northeast  of  the 
seaport  of  Mersina.  with  which  it  is  connected 
by  rail.  Its  position  near  the  passes  of  the 
Taurus  gives  it  strategical  importance.  The 
river  is  very  deep,  and  .\dana  is  the  seat  of  con- 
siderable trade  in  cotton,  wool,  OTain,  and  wood. 
The  town  has  a  large  steam  spmning-iuill.     Its 


ADANA. 


110 


ADDAX. 


population  is  about  45,000,  including  a  large 
number  of  Armenians  and  Greeks.  Adana  was 
an  important  place  in  the  time  of  the  Romans. 
After  a  period  of  decline  its  prosperity  revived 
under  the  caliph  Harun-el-Rashid. 

ADANG,  a-dang'.  A  Malay-Negrito  people 
in  Ilocos  Norte  province,  Luzon.  See  Philip- 
pines. 

ADANSON,  a'dilN'soN',  Michel  (1727-1806). 
A  French  naturalist  and  physicist.  He  was 
born  at  Aix,  in  Provence.  He  studied  the  natu- 
ral and  physical  sciences  under  Reaumur  and 
Jussieu  in  Paris,  and  journeyed  to  Senegal  in 
1749,  where,  during  a  period  of  five  years,  he 
engaged  in  researches  in  botany,  electro-physics, 
and  meteorology,  and  made  collections  of  plants 
and  animals.  He  was  one  of  the  first  to  recog- 
nize the  electrical  nature  of  the  lightning  stroke, 
and  he  demonstrated  also  the  similarity  of  the 
shock  from  the  electric  eel  (Gymnotus  eJectri- 
cus)  to  the  discharge  from  the  Leyden  jar.  He 
was  also  one  of  the  earliest  to  describe  the  mode 
of  transportation  and  deposit  of  beach  sands 
along  oceanic  coasts.  On  his  return  to  Paris  from 
Senegal  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Sciences.  His  most  important  work,  however, 
was  in  botany,  and  he  published  many  important 
monographs  on  various  groups  of  plants  and  de- 
vised several  schemes  of  classification,  none  of 
which  latter  has,  however,  received  any  considera- 
ble amount  of  recognition.  Among  his  more  im- 
portant works  are:  Histoire  naturelle  du  Senegal 
(Paris,  1857;  German  edition,  Leipzig,  1773); 
Families  des  plantes  (2  volumes,  Paris,  1763)  ; 
Histoire  de  la  botanique  et  plan  des  families 
naturelles  des  plantes,  a  posthumous  work 
edited  bv  his  son,  A.  Adanson,  and  by  Payer  (2 
volumes j  Paris,  1864).  For  further  particulars 
concerning  his  life  and  works  consult  Cuvier, 
Eloge  historique  (Paris,  1810). 

AD'ANSCNIA.  A  genus  of  the  natural  or- 
der Malvaceae,  named  by  Linna>us  in  honor  of  the 
botanist  Adanson  (q.v").  The  best  known  spe- 
cies, Adansonia  digitata,  the  Baobab,  also  called 
the  Monkey-bread  tree,  is  a  native  of  the  tropi- 
cal parts  of  western  Africa,  but  now  introduced 
into  the  East  and  West  Indies.  It  is  one  of  the 
largest  kno\vn  trees — not,  indeed,  rising  to  a 
very  great  height,  but  exceeding  most  other  trees 
in  the  thickness  of  its  trunk  (20  to  30  feet). 
Even  its  branches  (60  to  70  feet  long)  are  often 
as  thick  as  the  stems  of  large  trees,  and  they 
form  a  hemispherical  head  of  120  to  150  feet  in 
diameter,  their  outermost  boughs  drooping  to 
the  ground.  The  leaves  are  5-  to  7-parted;  the 
flowers  are  white  and  extremely  large,  on  droop- 
ing peduncles  of  a  yard  in  length.  The  fruit, 
Monkey-bread,  is  of  the  size  of  citron.  The 
bruised  leaves  (Lalo)  are  mixed  with  the  food 
of  the  inhabitants  of  tropical  Africa,  and  Euro- 
peans in  that  country  employ  them  as  a  remedy 
for  diarrhoea,  fevers,  and  diseases  of  the  urinary 
organs.  The  pulp  of  the  fruit,  which  is  slightly 
acid  and  pleasant  to  the  taste,  is  eaten  with  or 
without  sugar;  and  the  expressed  juice  mixed 
with  sugar  is  much  esteemed  as  a  beverage, 
being  very  refreshing,  effectual  in  quenching 
thirst,  and  regarded  as  a  specific  in  putrid  and 
pestilential  fevers.  The  bark  is  said  to  be  power- 
fully febrifugal.  A  second,  Australian,  species, 
Adansonia  Gregorii,  is  recognized  by  some  bota- 
nists  as   distinct   from  Adansonia   digitata.     A 


third    species    is    found    in    Madagascar    and    a 
fourth   in   East  Africa. 

AD'APTA'TION  ( Lat.  ad,  to  -f  apt  are, io  fit) . 
In  plants,  the  adjustment  of  an  organ  or  an 
organism  to  its  environment  or  surroundings, 
as  shown  in  its  structural  form,  e.g.,  a  thick- 
skinned  leaf  is  an  adaptation  to  a  dry  environ- 
ment. The  state  of  a  perfectly  adapted  plant 
is  sometimes  called  "epharmony,"  but  this  con- 
dition is  rarely  found,  and  the  adaptations  of 
most  plants  may  be  regarded  as  more  or  less 
imperfect.  See  Ecology;  Natural  Selection. 
A'DAB.  The  twelfth  .month  of  the  ecclesias- 
tical, and  the  sixth  month  of  the  civil,  Jewish 
year,  coinciding  with  February-March  of  the 
common  year.  The  7th  of  Adar  became  a  fast 
for  the  "death  of  Moses;  the  9th  another  on 
account  of  the  dissension  of  Hillel  and  Shammai; 
but  more  important  is  the  13th,  which  is  called 
the  fast  of  Esther,  in  memory  of  the  fasting  of 
Mordecai,  Esther,  and  the  Jews,  whose  destruc- 
tion was  threatened  by  Haman  (Esther  iv  :  15- 
16).  The  fast  is  followed  by  the  feast  of  Purim, 
celebrated  on  the  14th  and  15th,  in  commemora- 
tion of  the  escape  of  the  Jews  of  Persia  from  the 
fate  designed  for  them  by  Haman,  the  cruel 
counselor  of  Ahasuerus.     See  Esther. 

ADDA,  Jid'da  (Lat.  Adua) .  A  tributary  of 
the  Po  (q.v.),  rising  in  the  Rhivtian  Alps,  on 
the  northern  borders  of  Italy  above  Bormio 
(Map:  Italy,  D  2).  After  traversing  the  Val- 
tellina,  it  flows,  or  rather  expands,  into  the  Lake 
of  Como.  Below  Lecco  it  traverses  the  plain  of 
Lombardy  in  a  direction  south-southeast,  passing 
Lodi  and  Pizzighetone,  and  falls  into  the  Po 
about  8  miles  above  Cremona.  Total  length, 
about  180  miles;  navigable  for  75  miles. 

AD'DAMS,  Jane  (I860—).  A  socia,!  settle- 
ment worker.  She  was  born  at  Cedarville,  111., 
September  6,  1860.  She  graduated  at  Rockford 
Female  Seminary  in  1881,  and,  together  with 
Miss  Ellen  G.  Starr,  established  (in  1889,  at 
Chicago)  the  Hull  House,  the  leading  social  set- 
tlement in  the  United  States,  of  which  she  became 
the  head  worker  and  guiding  spirit.  Miss  Addams 
has  less  sympathy  with  theoretical  studies  of  the 
social  problem  than  with  everyday  experience 
with  all  sorts  and  conditions  of  people.  Her 
practical  common  sense,  great  executive  ability, 
and  fine,  unselfish  spirit  have  made  her  the 
natural  leader  of  the  settlement  movement  in 
this  country.  She  has  been  a  frequent  contribu- 
tor to  current  periodical  literature  on  the  na- 
ture of  the  social  settlements,  tlieir  relation  to 
the  labor  movement,  and  to  philanthropy,  and 
various  other  topics  suggested  by  her  work  in 
this  field.  See  Hull  House;  Social  Settle- 
ments. 

AD'DAX,  or  AD'DAS  (Lat.,  of  African 
origin).  A  hippotragine  antelope  (Addax  naso- 
maeulatus)  of  northeastern  African  deserts,  re- 
lated to  the  oryx.  It  is  about  three  feet  in 
height  at  the  shoulders,  robust  in  form,  nearly 
white  in  color,  tinged  with  reddish  brown  for- 
ward, and  having  a  white  blaze  upon  the  nose, 
and  black  hoofs,  large  and  rounded  for  treading 
upon  the  desert  sands.  It  has  long  ears,  a  long, 
tufted  tail,  shagg^i-  forehead  and  throat,  and  both 
sexes  have  high,  spirally  twisted  horns,  alluded 
to  by  Pliny  when  be  described  the  antelope  under 
the  name  strepsiccros.  Its  habits  are  similar  to 
those  of  the  oryx,  and  it  is  hunted  by  the  Arabs 


ADDAX. 


Ill 


ADDISON. 


with  greyhounds.  Consult:  A.  E.  Poa.se,  Pro- 
ce»;(/iH(/s  Zoological  Society  of  London  (1806, 
piige  810),  who  says  that  it  is  called  hy  the 
French  oif  Algeria  "antilope  du  sud;"  by  the 
Arabs,  "bcgra  el  Oouash"  or  "nieha,"  and  by  the 
Tuaregs,  "tamoeta."  Sec  plate  of  Lakge  Ante- 
lopes, in  Volume  1. 

AD'DER  (an  adder  by  mistake  for  a  nadder, 
A.  8.  middrc,  Goth,  nadro,  Ger.  .Va((er,  a  snake) . 
A  conimon  name  applied  botli  to  certain  poison- 
ous snakes,  mostly  of  the  family  \'iperida',  and 
to  certain  harmless  snakes  of  the  family  Colu- 
brida".  In  tlie  former  ease  it  is  practically  a 
synonym  of  Viper  (q.v.).  Several  venomous  ser- 
pents are  known  as  pull-adilcrs  and  death- 
adders,  under  which  names  they  will  be  found 
described  and  illustrated  elsewhere.  Various 
harmless  snakes  of  the  genus  Tropidonotus  are 
known  as  adders  both  in  Europe  and  America, 
as  well  as  the  American  Copperhead  ( q.v. ) ,  the 
water  "adder"  (see  JIoccasin  Snake),  and  the 
spreading  or  blowing  "adder"  (see  Uoono.se), 
which,  under  provocation,  assumes  somewhat  the 
ai)pearanee  of  a  vi|)er.  Spwifically,  in  English 
literature,  the  word  usually  means  the  common 
viper  ( Vipern  herus)  of  Europe,  the  only  veno- 
mous snake  of  Great  Britain. 

AD'DICKS,  .Tonx  Edward  (1841—).  An 
Ameri<aii  capitalist.  He  was  born  in  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.,  November  21,  1841.  He  acquired 
large  interests  in  the  Hour  trade  of  that  city, 
and  subsequently  became  prominent  in  the  pro- 
motion of  the  manufacture  of  illuminating  gas. 
In  1884  he  organized,  and  was  made  president  of, 
the  Bay  State  Gas  Company  of  Boston,  Mass., 
and  in  1892  obtaincil  the  control  and  the  presi- 
dency tif  the  Brooklyn  ( N.  Y. )  Gas  Company. 
He  was  a  candidate  in  1895  for  the  United  States 
senatorship  for  Delaware,  and,  although  he  him- 
self failed  of  election,  was  able  to  prevent  that 
of  his  rival,  H.  A.  du  Pont.  The  ex-speaker  of 
the  State  House,  having  become  governor 
through  the  death  of  (iovernor  Marvel,  was 
permitted  to  cast  a  ballot  in  the  legislative  con- 
vention, and  opportunity  was  thus  obtained  for 
contesting  the  election  of  Du  Pont,  whom  the 
Democrats  and  Populists  refused  lo  scat.  In  1806 
a  quarrel  arose  in  the  Republican  .State  Conven- 
tion, assembled  to  elect  delegates  to  the  national 
convention  of  that  year,  and  two  sets  of  dele- 
gates, representing  respectively  the  Du  Pont  and 
Addicks  factions,  were  thercu])on  sent  to  St. 
Louis.  Tile  committee  on  credentials  having  de- 
cided in  favor  of  the  Du  Pont  delegates,  the  fac- 
tion represented  by  these  hecamc  known  as  the 
"regular"  Republican  party,  while  the  Addicks 
faction  assumed  the  name  of  Union  Republican. 
When,  in  1809,  a  new  senator  from  Delaware  was 
to  be  elected  upon  the  expiration  of  the  term  of 
George  Gray,  Democrat,  a  deadlock  ensued,  and 
the  senatorship  remained  vacant.  Again,  in 
1900,  two  sets  of  delegates  from  Delaware  were 
sent  to  the  Republican  National  Convention,  and 
on  this  occasion  the  commit  Ice  on  credentials 
ultimately  dwided  in  favor  of  the  Addicks  rep- 
resentatives. Despite  the  fact  that  he  was  thus 
placed  in  charge  of  the  party  organization  in 
that  State,  Addicks  was  in  1001  once  more  de- 
feated in  the  senatorial  election.  But  at  this 
time  there  were  two  senators  to  elect,  so  that 
the  adjournment  of  the  Legislature  in  March 
left  Delaware  totally  unrepresented  in  the  Sen- 
ate of  the  United  States. 


AD'DINGTON,  He.suy,  fir.st  Viscount  Sid- 
MoiTll  (1757-1844).  An  English  Tory  states- 
man. He  was  born  at  Reading.  He  graduated 
at  Brasenose,  O.xford,  in  1778,  studied  law,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1784.  Persuaded  by 
his  college  n-ate  and  friend,  the  younger  Pitt, 
he  entered  Parliament  in  178;!.  Subsequently  he 
filled  the  positions  of  speaker  of  the  House  of 
Commons,  178018()1,  and  premier  and  chancellor 
of  the  exchequer,  1801-4.  Owing  to  the  opposi- 
tion to  his  war  policy,  he  resigned  in  1804,  but 
the  King  raised  him  to  the  peerage  as  first  Vis- 
count Sidmouth,  and  made  him  president  of  the 
(^ouncil  (1805).  He  was  lord  privy  seal  in 
180(i,  and  again  president  of  the  Council  in 
IHOO  and  1807.  He  was  home  secretary  from 
1812  to  1822,  and  member  of  the  cabinet  from 
1.H22  to  1824.  Although  a  man  of  bencvnl.Mit  dis- 
position, he  became  very  unpopular  through  his 
coercive  measures  and  retired  into  private  life 
in  1824.  He  died  at  Richmond  Park,  February 
15.  1844.  Consult  (;.  Pellew,  Life  and  Vorre- 
spoiTdrnvr  of  the  Hifiht  Hon.  H.  Addington,  first 
Viscount  Sidmouth  (London,  1847). 

ADTJIS,  William  E.  (1844 — ).  An  English 
clergjman.  He  was  born  at  Edinburgh  and  was 
educated  at  Merchiston  Castle  School,  Glasgow 
College,  and  Balliol  College,  Oxford.  He  became  a 
Roman  Catholic  in  1866,  and  was  parish  priest  of 
Sydenham.  1878  to  1888.  an  assistant  clerg\-man 
at  -Melbourne,  1888  to  1802,  and  Jlinister  (if  the 
High  Pavement  Chapel  (Unitarian) ,  Nottingham, 
from  180:{  to  1898.  In  1808  he  became  professor 
of  Old  Testament  criticism  in  Manchester  College, 
Oxford.  He  is  the  author  of  the  following  works: 
Catholic  Dictionary,  written  in  conjunction  with 
Thomas  .Vrnold  (fourth  edition,  1884);  Docu- 
ments of  the  Hcxateurh  (2  volumes,  1893-98)  ; 
Chrifitianity  and  the  I'onian  Empire  (1803). 

ADDIS  ABEBA,  iid'dfs  ik-ba'bft.  The  capital 
of  .Abyssinia,  situated  in  the  province  of  Shoa, 
in  about  lat.  9°  N.  and  long.  39°  E.  (Map: 
Africa,  H  4).  It  occupies  an  extensive  area 
and  is  picturesquely  situated  at  an  altitude  of 
over  8000  feet.  In  its  general  appearance 
it  resembles  more  a  camp  than  a  capital  city. 
The  town  is  absolutely  without  any  streets 
and  is  intersected  in  several  parts  by  deep 
ravines.  The  royal  palace  is  situated  on  an  emi- 
nence and  consists  of  a  number  of  buildings  of 
cheap  and  Himsy  architecture  surrounded  by  sev- 
eral walls.  The  permanent  population  is  esti- 
mated at  50,000,  and  the  floating  population  at 
30,000.  Addis  Abeba  was  the  scene  of  the  signing 
of  the  treaty  of  peace  between  Italy  and  Abys- 
sinia on  October  26,  1806,  in  which  Italy  resigned 
her  claim  to  a  protectorate  over  Abyssinia. 

ADTJISON,  .lo.sF.PH  (1672-1719).  An  Eng- 
lish poet  and  essayist.  He  was  the  son  of  Lance- 
lot .Addison,  a  clergyman  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, and  w.is  born  at  Milston,  near  Amesbury, 
in  Wiltshire,  May  I,  1672.  After  attending  the 
Charterhouse  and  other  schools,  he  entered 
(Queen's  College.  Oxford,  in  1687.  Two  years 
later  he  passed  to  .Magdalen  C(dlege.  At  Oxford 
he  was  distinguished  for  the  ease  with  which  he 
wrote  Latin  verse.  By  1607  he  was  receiving 
high  compliments  from  Dryden.  He  won  the 
favor  of  Montagu  (afterward  Lord  Halifax), 
and  Lord  Somers,  through  whom  he  obtained, 
in  1690,  a  pension  of  £300  a  year.  The 
pension  was  probably  intended  to  enable  him  to 
prepare  himself  for  diplomacy  by  foreign  travel. 


ADDISON. 


112 


ADDITION. 


At  any  rate,  he  left  England  toward  the  close  of 
1009  for  a  Continental  tour.  While  in  France  he 
became  familiar  with  the  language  of  the  coun- 
try. On  the  outbreak  of  the  Spanish  War  of  the 
Succession  he  went  to  Italy,  w-liere  he  wrote  the 
most  successful  of  his  poems,  the  Letter,  ad- 
dressed to  Lord  Halifax.  In  the  autumn  of  nO.? 
he  returned  home  by  way  of  Switzerland  and 
Germany;  but  in  his  expectations  of  place  he  was 
disappointed,  for  the  Whigs  were  out  of  office. 
The  battle  of  Blenheim,  however,  which  occurred 
the  next  year,  presented  a  brilliant  opportunity, 
which  he  did  not  fail  to  make  tlie  most  of.  The 
ministry  wished  the  victory  commemorated  in 
verse,  and  Addison  was  appointed  to  do  it.  Lord 
Godolphin,  the  treasurer,  was  so  pleased  with  the 
first  half  of  the  poem  that  before  The  Campaicjn 
was  finished  he  made  Addison  a  commissioner  of 
appeals. 

The  poet  was  now  fairly  involved  in  politics. 
He  became  under-secretary  of  state  in  170G,  ac- 
companied Halifax  to  Hanover  the  next  year,  and 
in  1709  went  to  Ireland  as  secretary  to  the  lord- 
lieutenant,  where  he  also  obtained  the  office  of 
keeper  of  the  records,  worth  £300  a  year.  In  the 
same  year  Sir  Richard  Steele  began  the  Tatler, 
to  which  Addison  soon  became  a  frequent  con- 
tributor. He  also  wrote  a  number  of  political 
articles  in  the  Whiy  Examiner.  On  March  I, 
1711,  appeared  the  first  number  of  the  Hpectator, 
which  continued  as  a  daily  till  December  0,  I7I2. 
In  1714  it  was  revived  as  a  tri-weekly.  In  1713 
appeared  the  Tragedy  of  Cato,  the  popularity  of 
which,  considering  its  total  want  of  dramatic 
power,  is  amazing.  It  was  generally  understood 
to  have  a  political  as  well  as  a  poetical  inspira- 
tion;  but  so  skillfully  had  Addison  expressed 
himself,  that  both  parties,  Whig  and  Tory,  re- 
ceived its  cold  declamations  with  rapture.  It 
was  translated  into  several  European  languages; 
and  even  the  prince  of  French  criticism,  Vol- 
taire, held  Shakespeare  a  barbarian  in  tragedy 
compared  with  Addison.  In  1716  Addison  mar- 
ried the  Dowager  Countess  of  Warwick.  Tlie 
marriage  was  "uncomfortable."  He  reached  his 
highest  political  position  when  he  was  appointed 
Secretary  of  State  in  1717.  For  this  place  he  was 
not  at  ail  suited,  and  he  resigned  the  next  year. 
Addison's  health  had  been  poor  for  some  time, 
and,  after  an  illness  of  a  few  months,  he  died 
at  Holland  House,  Kensington,  on  June  17,  1719, 
three  years  after  what  Thackeray  calls  "his 
splendid  but  dismal  union." 

Thomas  Tickell,  whom  Addison  had  appointed 
his  literary  executor,  published  his  works  two 
years  later  in  four  volumes,  including,  besides 
those  already  mentioned,  papers  Addison  had 
written  for  the  (juardian  and  the  Freeholder,  a 
play  entitled  The  Drummer,  Dialogues  on  Afedals, 
and  several  poems.  The  most  delightful  and 
original  of  Addison's  productions  is  that  series 
of  sketches  in  the  Spectator,  of  which  Sir  Roger 
de  Coverley  is  the  central  figure  and  Sir  Andrew 
Freeport  and  Will  Honeycomb  the  lesser  ones.  Sir 
Roger  himself  is  an  absolute  creation;  the  gentle, 
yet  vivid  imagination,  the  gay  and  cheerful  spirit 
of  humor,  the  keen,  shrewd  observation,  and  fine 
raillery  of  foibles  which  Addison  has  displayed 
in  this  character  make  it  a  work  of  pure  genius. 
In  prose,  Addison  is  always  excellent.  He  gave 
a  delicacy  to  English  sentiment  and  a  modesty 
to  English  wit  which  it  had  never  known  before. 
Elegance,  w^hich  in  his  predecessors  had  been  the 
companion  of  immorality,  now  appeared  as  the 


advocate  of  virtue.  His  style,  too,  is  admirable. 
There  are  many  nobler  and  grander  forms  of 
expression  in  English  literature  than  Addison's, 
but  there  are  none  comparable  to  his  in  propriety 
and  natural  dignity.  "Whoever  wishes,"  says 
Dr.  Johnson,  "to  attain  an  English  style,  fa- 
miliar but  not  coarse,  and  elegant  but  not  os- 
tentatious, must  give  his  days  and  nights  to 
the  volumes  of  Addison."  His  various  writings, 
but  especially  his  essays,  fully  realized  the  pur- 
pose which  he  constantly  had  in  view,  "to  en- 
liven morality  with  wit,  and  to  temper  wit  with 
morality."  He  also  did  more  than  any  other  man 
of  his  time  toward  creating  a  wide  public  for 
literature.  Consult:  Johnson,  Lives  of  the  Pocis 
(many  editions)  ;  Macaulay," Essay  on  Addison," 
Edinburgh  Review  (1843)  :  Aiken,  Life  of  Addi- 
son (London,  1843)  ;  Courthope,  Addison  (New 
York,  1884)  ;  and  Beljame,  Lc  piihVie  et  les  hom- 
mes  des  h'tlres  en  Angleterre  (second  edition, 
Paris,  1897). 

AD'DISON'S  DISEASE.  A  disease  char- 
acteiizcd  pathologically  by  pigmentation  of  the 
skin  and  by  certain  changes  in  the  suprarenal 
glands.  Tlie  pigmentation  of  the  skin  varies 
from  a  light  yellowish  brown  to  a  dark  brown 
or  blackish  color.  Various  changes  have  been 
described  in  the  suprarenals,  the  most  common 
being  tuberculous  inflammation.  Fatty  and  waxy 
degenerations  and  carcinoma  have  also  been 
described.  The  suprarenal  glands,  or  adrenal 
bodies,  were  little  understood  till  18.55,  when  Dr. 
Thomas  Addison,  of  Guy's  Hospital,  London, 
published  his  work  on  their  diseases.  The  most 
important  of  these  is  the  one  called  after  Dr. 
Addison.  Its  leading  symptoms  are  ana-mia, 
general  languor  and  debility,  remarkable  feeble- 
ness of  the  heart's  action,  irritability  of  the 
stomach,  and  the  peculiar  bronzing  (melasma) 
to  which  reference  has  been  made.  It  is  a  rare 
disease,  more  common  among  the  poor,  far  more 
frequent  in  males  than  in  females,  and  generally 
occurs  between  the  ages  of  thirty  and  fifty  years. 
There  may  be  profuse  diarrhtea,  also  rheumatoid 
pains  in  the  loins  and  abdomen,  and  the  tempera- 
ture is  subnormal,  except  in  those  rare  cases  in 
which  delirium,  loss  of  consciousness,  and  con- 
vulsions occur.  The  bronzing  is  more  pro- 
nounced on  the  face,  neck,  and  backs  of  the 
hands,  and  upon  points  of  pressure.  The  dis- 
ease lasts  from  eighteen  months  to  a  few  years. 
No  curative  treafment  is  known.  Tonics,  gen- 
erous diet,  proper  climate,  and  the  internal 
administration  of  suprarenal  extract  are  bene- 
ficial.   See  SupRAREXAL  Capsules. 

ADDISON'S  WALK.  In  the  grounds  of 
Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  a  tree-bordered  walk 
to  which  Joseph  Addison  is  said  to  have  fre- 
quently resorted  when  he  was  a  "demy"  in  that 
college. 

ADDI'TION.  The  process  of  uniting  two  or 
more  number  groups  into  a  single  group.  In 
elementary  arithmetic,  which  deals  with  natural 
numbers,  the  process  of  addition  is  simply  comit- 
ino-  all  the  units  of  two  or  more  collections  into 
a  single  collection.  The  different  groups  added 
are  called  the  addends  and  the  result  is  called  the 
sum.  Since  there  is  one  and  only  one  unit  in 
the  sum  for  every  unit  in  the  addends  taken  to- 
gether, there  is  said  to  be  a  1  to  I  correspondence 
between  the  sum  and  the  addends.  From  this 
it  appears  that  the  sum  is  the  same  in  whatever 
order    the    addends    are    taken    or    in    whatever 


JOSEPH    ADDISON 

AFTER    PAINTING   BY   KRAEMER 


4 


I 


1 


ADDITION. 


113 


ADELPHI  COLLEGE. 


groups  tlii'V  may  be  phueil.  Tlie  former  I'nct 
is  expressed  by  sayinf;  that  aildition  is  ccimnni- 
tiilive.  and  the  latter  by  sayin^r  tliat  addition  is 
assoeiative.  For  a  further  diseussion  see  article 
.iVsSOCIATIVE   I.AW. 

AD'DLED  PAR'LIAMENT,  The.  A  name 
given  lo  the  >-e(uiul  |mi  liaiiiciil  of  .lames  I.  of 
England,  l(il4.  because  it  did  not  produce  a 
single  statute.  It  holds,  nevertheless,  a  note- 
worthy place  in  the  history  of  constitutional 
liberty.  Its  members  were  chosen  at  a  contested 
election,  the  first  which  had  occurred  for  many 
years.  The  principle  at  issue  was  the  right  of 
parliament  to  grant  all  sup])lies.  The  patri- 
otic |)arty  was  victorious.  It  is  significant  that 
three  hundred  members,  or  about  two-thirds  of 
the  enlire  number,  were  then  ele<ted  for  the  first 
time,  .\mong  these  new  men  were  .lohn  Pym 
ami  Sir  Thomas  Wentwortli,  eadi  destined  to 
take  a  leading  part  in  the  coming  struggle. 
After  a  two-niontlis'  session  the  parliament  was 
dissolved  by  the  King, because  it  declined  to  grant 
him  a  supjily  of  money  without  a  proper  settle- 
ment of  the  ipiestion  of  the  imposts. 

ADDRESS',    Forms  of.    See  Fokms  of  Ad- 

DKKSS. 

A'DEE,  Alvev  AroiSTi-s  (1842—).  An 
.American  official.  lie  was  born  at  Astoria.  N.  Y. 
In  1.S70  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  lega- 
tion at  Madrid,  and  in  1S78  chief  of  the  diplo- 
matic bureau  at  Wasliington.  lie  served  from 
1882  to  1880  as  third  assistant  secretary  of 
state,  and  in  tlic  latter  year  was  promoted  to 
be  second  assistant,  lie  was  acting  Secretary 
of  State  during  a  portion  of  the  Chinese  trouble 
in  1000. 

AD'ELAAR  (Norw.  The  Ragle).  An  appel- 
lation of  Curt  Sivertsen  (1022-7.5),  one  of  the 
greatest  naval  eommanders  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  He  was  born  at  Brevig,  in  Korway, 
and  in  his  twentieth  j'ear  was  employed  in  the 
naval  service  of  Venice  against  the  Turks.  On 
one  occasion  he  liroke  through  a  line  of  sixty- 
seven  Turkish  galleys  which  surrounded  his  ship, 
sank  fifteen,  and  burned  several  others.  Fred- 
eric III.  engaged  him  as  admiral  of  the  Danish 
fleet;  and  in  1075,  under  Christian  V..  he  took 
the  command  of  the  whole  of  tlie  Danisli  naval 
force  against  Sweden,  but  died  suddenly  at 
Copenhagen  before  the  expedition  set  out.  Con- 
sult Rrunn,  Curl  Sh-crlsen  Addaar  (Copenhagen, 
1875). 

AD'ELAIDE.,  The  capital  of  South  Aus- 
tralia, on  tlie  Torrens,  7  miles  by  rail  from  its 
harbor.  Tort  .\delaide,  on  the  Oiilf  of  St.  Vin- 
cent, and  .508  miles  northwest  of  ihdbourne 
(Map:  .\ustrnlia,  F  5).  It  has  a  large  trade 
in  agricultural  produce  and  wool ;  lead  and  cop- 
per are  mined  in  the  vicinity,  and  its  industries 
include  iron  foundries,  potteries,  tanneries,  brew- 
eries, woolen,  starch,  and  soap  factories.  The 
Torrens.  artificially  converted  into  a  fine  river, 
spanned  by  several  bridges,  divides  the  town 
into  north  and  south  .\deloide.  The  streets  are 
broad  and  regularly  laid  out.  Tlie  chief  pulilic 
buildings  are  the  government  building-,  parlia- 
ment houses,  town  hall,  post  office,  the  South 
Australian  Institute,  and  governor's  residence. 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  United  States  consular  agent, 
the  see  of  .Anglican  and  Catholic  bishops,  eon- 
tains  nuinerous  churches,  .a  university  with 
three  colleges,  a  meteorological  observatory,  and 
extensive  botanical  gardens,  including  a  museum 


of  economic  botany.  Tlie  town  is  encircled  by 
the  reserveil  park  laiid-s  half  a  mile  wide.  Large 
waterworks  and  reservoirs,  from  six  to  seven 
miles  distant,  which  abundantly  supply  the  city, 
are  the  property  of  the  .South  Australian  gov- 
ernment, which  al.so  owns  the  Adelaide  ceme- 
teries. The  city  owns  abattoirs,  four  markets 
yielding  an  annual  income  of  $100,000,  main- 
tains its  parks,  which  cover  2.{00  acres,  and 
supports  a  fire  brigade.  Founded  in  IS.Sli.  the 
city  was  named  after  .Adelaide,  queen  of  Wil- 
lia'm  IV.  Pop..  1801.  37.800.  including  suburbs, 
l:i:!,000:  inoi.  .■i0.200,  including  suburbs,  102,200. 
Port  Adelaide,  its  port,  protected  by  two  forts, 
has  a  safe  and  coniinodious  harbor,  with  a  dock 
of  five  acres  for  ocean  steamers,  and  a  quayiige 
of  12,903  feet.  It  is  a  port  of  call  for  European 
vessels.  Pop..  5000.  Consult:  «.  T.  Fllery, 
"Greater  .Adelaide,"  in  Mitnicipal  Bxlcimion 
(Adelaide,  1800)  :  '"City  of  Adelaide,"  in  Muni- 
ciiicil  Journal,  IX.,  237    (London,  1000). 

ADELAIDE,  u'dft'la'ed',  ErcfixiE  Lom.sE 
( 1777-1847  ) .  Princess  of  Orleiins,  sister  of  Louis 
Pliilipjie.  Proscribed  in  tlie  devolution  as  an  vmi- 
grcc,  she  sought  refuge  in  the  Netherlands,  Swit- 
zerland, and  Cermany  (1793).  Ten  years  later 
she  met  her  brother  in  Spain,  and  was  with 
him  until  the  Restoration,  using  her  influence 
to  ivduee  him  to  accept  the  crown.  From  1830 
to  1847  slie  ])la}ed  an  intluential  part  in  politics. 

AD'ELARD,  or  .ffiTH'ELHARD,  OF 
BATH.  An  Knglisli  philosophical  writer  who 
lived  about  the  beginning  of  llie  twelfth  century. 
He  is  said  to  have  studied  at  Tours  and  Laon. 
His  works  include  I'erdifjicilcii  QiKrstioiic.i  Xat- 
urates  (printed  toward  the  end  of  the  fifteenth 
century);  De  Eodem  ct  Dircrso  (before  IIIO), 
an  allegory  in  which  worldliness  and  philosophy 
are  represented  as  endeavoring  to  win  the  soul 
of  man;  and  a  Latin  translation  of  Euclid 
(pi'inted  1482),  made  at  a  time  when  that  work 
was  almost  unknown  in  western  Kurope.  He 
also  translated  and  wrote  several  other  treatises 
on  mathematical  and  medical  subjects  which  are 
to  be  seen  in  MSS.  in  the  libraries  of  Corpus 
Cbristi  and  Trinity  Colleges,  Oxford. 

AD'ELBERT     COL'LEGE.       See     Western 

r;i;sKI!VE   I'.MVKR.SITV. 

AD'ELOCHOR'DA,  or  HEM'ICHOR'DA 
(Gk.  (ii!;/>of,  (idrltjs,  unclear,  invisible  +  '/,"'-, 
hCmi-,  half  -f  Lat.  (Iiordd,  a  cord,  a  dorsal  nerv- 
ous cord).  .A  subclass  of  the  Chordata.  includ- 
ing Balanoglossus  and  its  allies.  See  Balano- 
Gi-ossi  s.  and  I'late  of  .Asc'iDiAXS. 

ADEL'PHI,  The  (from  Gk.  afieX<i>ol,  tidel- 
phoi,  brothers).  A  locality  in  London  between 
the  Strand  and  the  Thames  Embankment,  a  little 
distance  east  of  Charing  Cross.  The  name 
came  from  the  fact  that  the  -Adelpbi  Terrace, 
which  lies  in  it,  was  laid  out  in  1708  liy  the 
brothers  .Adam,  whose  names  appear  in  Adam 
Street,  .Tallies  Street,  William  Street,  .lohn 
Street,  :ind  Roliert  Street. 

ADELPHI  COL'LEGE.  An  American  col- 
lege, situated  at  tiO  St.  James  Place,  Brooklyn. 
New  A'ork  Cit.v.  It  was  incorjiorated  1890, 
grants  tlie  degrees  A.B.  and  B.S.,  and  maintains 
subordinate  normal,  art.  and  musical  depart- 
ments, besides  n  jireparafory  ac.idemv.  It  has 
a  library  of  8000  volumes ;'  faculty. 'lOOl.  34; 
students,  lOli  collegiate,  22  norinal.  100  art.  and 
30  music. 


ADELPHI    THEATBE. 


114 


ADENEZ. 


ADELPHI  THE'ATRE.  A  theatre  on  the 
Strand.  London,  more  fully  designated  the  Royal 
Adelphi  Theatre.  It  dates  from  1806,  but  was 
rebuilt  on  a  larger  scale  in  1858.  It  was  known 
chiefly  for  its  melodramas  and  farces. 

ADEXTHOS,  or  ADEL'PHI.  The  latest  of 
the  si.x;  extant  comedies  of  Terence  (q.v.).  It 
was  produced  in  l(iO  B.C.  at  the  funeral  games 
of  L.  ^'Emilius  Paulus,  and  was  derived  chiefly 
from  the  'AiSfXjio/,  Adelphoi  ("Brothers")  of 
Menander,  but  also  in  part  from  the  'Zvranod- 
V7iaKovTc(,  Synapothtitskontes  ("Dying  Togeth- 
er") of  Diphilus.  M_pli&re  is  said  to  have  owed 
to  it  the  idea  of  his  Ecole  dcs  maris. 

ADELSBERG,ii'dels-berK  ( Sloven.  Pa5?o/na) . 
A  small  market  town  of  the  Austrian  crown- 
land  of  Carniola,  about  50  miles  east-northeast 
of  Triest  by  rail.  It  is  famous  for  its  wonder- 
ful stalactite  cavern,  the  largest  in  Europe  and 
one  cf  the  finest  known.  It  may  be  explored  for 
more  than  two  miles,  and  is  penetrated  for  about 
800  yards  by  the  river  Poik.  whicli  then  dis- 
appears in  the  bowels  of  the  earth.  The  cav- 
ern consists  of  several  different  chambers.  The 
largest  is  the  Franz  Josef  and  Elisabeth 
grotto.  223  yards  in  length  by  214  yards  in 
breadth.  The  stalactite  and  .stalagmite  forma- 
tions are  particularly  notable  for  their  beauty 
and  variety. 

ADELTJNG,  ii'de-lung,  Friedrich  von  (1768- 
1843).  A  German  philologist.  He  was  born  at 
Stettin,  studied  philosophy  and  jurisprudence  at 
Leipzig,  went  later  on  to  Russia,  and  was  tutor 
to  the  grand  duke,  later  Czar  Nicholas.  In  1824 
he  was  appointed  director  of  the  Oriental  Insti- 
tute, at  St.  Petersburg,  and  in  1825  president  of 
the  Academy  of  Sciences.  He  is  chiefly  known 
for  his  researches  respecting  foreign  sources  for 
Russian  history,  the  most  important  results  of 
which  are  embodied  in  the  Kritisch-littcrarische 
Uebersicht  der  Reisenden  in  HussUiiid  bis  1700 
{ 1846 ) .  He  also  wrote  on  Sanskrit  language  and 
literature  such  volumes  as  Yersuch  einer  Litter- 
atur  drr  hitinskritsprache    (1830). 

ADELUNG,  .Joii.vNN  Christoph  (1732- 
1806).  A  distinguished  German  linguist  and 
lexicograplier.  He  was  born  at  Spantekow, 
Pomerania:  was  a  journalist  and  autlior  at 
Leipzig  from  1761  to  1787,  and  from  1787  until 
his  death  chief  librarian  of  the  Electoral  library 
at  Dresden.  He  is  principally  known  for  his 
historico-critical  studies  of  the  German  language. 
His  chief  works  are  his  Wiirterbuch  der  hoch- 
dcutscJwn  Miindtirt  (Dictionarv  of  High  Ger- 
man, 1774-1S02).  in  whicli  he  took  Dr.  .Tohnson 
as  his  model,  and  his  Ueber  den  deutschen  S'til 
(17SO-8U). 

ADEMP'TION  (Lat.  adimere,  to  take  away). 
The  destruction  of  a  legacy  either  by  voluntary 
act  of  the  testator,  or  by  loss  or  destruction  of 
the  thing  bequeathed.  The  term  is  properly 
used  only  in  connection  with  legacies,  although 
it  is  sometimes  used  interchangeably  with  ad- 
vancement (q.v.),  and  some  courts"  also  treat 
the  term  as  synonymous  with  satisfaction.  If  a 
testator  in  loco  parentis,  before  his  death,  made 
a  gift  to  his  legatee  of  the  same  kind  as  the 
legacy,  the  presumption  is  that  the  gift  was 
made  as  part  of,  or  in  place  of,  the  legacy;  and 
it  is.  therefore,  adeemed  pro  tanto.  Specific 
legacies  may  be  adeemed  by  the  sale  or  aliena- 
tion of  the  property  bequeathed,  or  by  its  loss  or 


destruction,  and  general  legacies  may  be  adeemed 
by  lack  of  sufficient  assets  to  pay  them.  See 
article  Leg.\cy. 

ADEN,  ii'dcn  or  a'den.  A  peninsula  and  town 
near  the  southwestern  end  of  Arabia,  situated  in 
lat.  12°  N.,  and  long.  45°  5'  E.,  and  connected 
with  the  mainland  by  a  narrow  sand.v  isthmus 
(Map:  Asia,  0  7).  In  a  broader  'sense  the 
name  of  Aden  is  applied  to  the  whole  British 
territory  in  that  part  of  Arabia,  which  includes, 
besides  the  peninsula  and  the  isthmus,  also  ,a 
small  strip  of  territory  on  the  mainland  with  a 
total  area  of  about  75  square  miles.  The  penin- 
sula proper  is  of  volcanic  origin  and  reaches  in 
the  peak  of  Jebel  Shan-shan  an  altitude  of  1775 
feet  above  the  sea.  The  climate  of  the  region 
is  healthful,  but  the  scarcity  of  rain  makes  the 
cultivation  of  the  soil  impossible,  so  that  all  the 
necessaries  of  life  have  to  be  imported.  Water 
is  obtained  partly  from  the  wells  within  the 
crater  in  which  the  town  of  Aden  is  situated,  and 
partly  from  the  hills,  where  it  is  collected  dur- 
ing the  rainfall  and  conducted  into  cisterns.  The 
town  of  Aden  is  strongly  fortified.  The  most 
populous  settlements  are  Steamer  Point  and 
Shaikh  Othman  on  the  mainland.  There  are  two 
harbors,  but  only  one  of  them.  Aden  Back  Bay, 
on  the  western  side  of  the  peninsula,  is  of  any 
commercial  importance.  Owing  to  its  favorable 
location,  Aden  was  of  considerable  Importance 
already  in  Roman  times,  when  it  was  an  entrepot 
for  the  trade  between  the  Roman  Empire  and  the 
east.  In  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century 
it  was  taken  by  the  Portuguese,  who  were  suc- 
ceeded by  the  Turks  in  1535.  From  the  seven- 
teenth century  until  the  British  occupation, 
Aden  was  under  the  rule  of  the  Sultan  of  Sena 
and  some  native  chiefs.  In  1839  it  was  captured 
by  the  British  as  a  punishment  for  the  maltreat- 
ment to  which  the  crew  of  a  shipwrecked  British 
vessel  had  been  subjected  by  the  natives  in  1837. 
Together  with  the  island  of  Perim,  Aden  con- 
stitutes a  dependency  of  the  Bombay  presidency, 
and  is  now  regarded  as  a  very  important  coaling 
station.  The  population  of  Aden,  which  was  at 
one  time  reduced  by  internal  disorder  to  less  than 
1000,  is  now  over  41,000,  and  the  import  trade 
amounted  to  over  $16,000,000  in  1898-99,  while 
the  value  of  the  exports  for  the  same  year  was 
about  $13,000,000.  The  chief  articles  of  export 
are  coffee,  gums,  hides,  skins,  piece  goods,  and 
tobacco.  The  administration  of  the  territory  is 
in  the  hands  of  a  political  Resident,  who  is  also 
the  military  commander.  An  extensive  territory 
in  Arabia,  officially  reckoned  a  British  protector- 
ate, the  Somali  coast,  and  the  island  of  Socotra 
are  administrated  from  Aden.  Consult:  F.  M. 
Hunter,  Aden   (London,  1877). 

ADENEZ,    a'd'  nfi',    or    ADANS    LE    ROI, 

a'diiN'  Ic  rwii',  also  written  Adenks  and  Adenet. 
A  trouv&re  of  the  thirteenth  centurv.  He  is 
first  known  as  a  minstrel  at  the  court  of  Henr.v 
III.,  Duke  of  Brabant,  whose  reign  ended  in  1261. 
Later  he  was  for  a  time  in  the  service  of  Guv  de 
Dampierre,  Count  of  Flanders :  then  he  went  to 
France,  where  he  was  in  high  favor  with  thf 
royal  family.  His  surname  of  le  Roi  is  commonlv 
understood  to  have  come  from  the  authority 
which  he  exercised  as  leader  of  the  minstrels  at 
the  Brahantine  court.  His  greatest  work  is  the 
Ch'omndrs  (of  which  an  edition  was  published 
in  two  volumes,  Brussels.  1863-66),  a  long  poeti- 
cal romance.     Previously  he  had  written,  on  the 


ADENEZ. 


115 


ADHESION. 


basis  of  chansons  dc  grstcs  from  the  epic  cycle 
of  Charlemagne,  Lrs  cnfancrs  Ogicr  (edited 
Brussels,  1H74),  and  licrte  aus  grans  pies 
(edited  i'aris,  ls:i2),  and  also  Budvvs  dc  Com- 
marchi.s    (edited  Urussels.   1874). 

ADENIS-COLOMBEAU,  iVd'nykrt'l.-)N'bA', 
Jl'LES  (1.S2I  — ).  A  Krencli  dramatist.  He  was 
born  at  Paris  and  was  educated  at  the  College 
Bourbon  ( Lyede  Condorcet).  He  has  written  a 
large  numlier  of  comedies  and  vaudevilles,  as 
well  as  libretti  to  comic  operas  and  operettas. 
Among  his  independent  works  are:  I'hilanthropie 
el  rtpciilir  (Paris,  IH.j;'))  ;  U7ie  crise  de  manage 
(Pari.s,  1857)  ;  Lcs  chasseurs  el  la  laiticrc 
(comic  opera  in  one  act,  music  by  Gevacrt,  Opfra 
Comique,  Paris,  ISCJ)  ;  Les  trois  souhaits 
(comic  opera  in  one  act,  music  by  Poise,  OjMMa 
Conii(|ue,  1873).  In  collaboration  with  Plouvier, 
Decourcclle,  Tourte,  (iranvallet,  Rostaing,  and 
others,  .VilenisColomljcau  has  produced  works, 
of  which  tlic  following  are  the  more  important: 
Madame  I'ltgmalion  (  Boulles  Parisiens,  1803)  ; 
La  jflic  fille  de  I'rrth  (opera  in  fo\ir  acts, 
music  by  Bizet,  Theatre  Lyrique,  18ti7);  La 
czarinc  (drama  in  live  acts,  Ambigu,  1808)  ; 
La  fee  dis  Urui/rres  (Brussels,  1877)  ;  Les  tern- 
pliers  (opera  iu  five  acts,  Brussels,  1880). 

ADENITIS,  ad'.'"  ni'tis,  or  LYMPHADE- 
NITIS, liiu'lTui-  (Gk.  a6ijv,  ailCn,  gland:  Lat. 
lympha,  water).  A  term  used  in  medicine  to 
indicate  inllammation  of  the  lymphatic  glands. 
Lymphangitis  is  inflammation  of  the  lymphatic 
vessels  wliicli  lead  into  and  bind  together 
these  ghmds.  In  both  structures  the  inllamma- 
tion may  assume  an  acute  or  <liriinic  form. 
Acute  lymphadenitis  and  lymphangitis  usually 
have  their  origin  from  a  wound  or  from  .some 
form  of  sore  on  the  skin  or  a  mucous  membrane. 
The  inflammatory  process  extends  from  the  in- 
itial lesion  along  the  chain  of  lymphatic  vessels, 
and  its  presence  is  indicated  by  bright  red  lines 
over  the  course  of  the  lymphatic  vessels  leading 
from  the  wound,  and  by  heat,  swelling,  pain,  and 
tenderness  in  the  glands  with  which  these  ves- 
sels communicate.  If  infective  micro-organisms, 
bacteria,  are  present  at  the  time  of  the  injury, 
or  subsequently  find  their  way  into  the  tissues, 
a  suppurative  inllamiiiation  results,  and  pus  is 
formed  in  and  around  the  alTected  glands.  Where 
the  inflainTnation  is  severe,  or  the  infection  in- 
tense, such  general  symptoms  as  fever,  headache, 
vomiting,  and  prostration  are  apt  to  be  present. 
The  diriinic  forms  of  adenitis  arc  usually  due 
either  to  tuberculosis  or  syphilis.  In  addition 
to  the  local  cnlargeuu'iit  of  the  glands,  ;ind  the 
softening  and  suppuration  that  often  follows. 
are  usually  found  the  general  symptoms  of  tin 
two  diseases  Uiimed.  The  treatment  of  the  acud 
form  of  adenitis  consists  iii  putting  the  atfeclcd 
part  at  perfect  rest,  using  such  li;indages  and 
supports  as  may  be  necessary,  the  application  of 
moist  iintiscptic  dressings,  the  use  of  an  un- 
stimulating  diet  ana  of  laxatives.  If  suppura- 
tion ensues,  an  incision  must  be  made  and  the 
pus  allowed  to  escape.  The  chronic  forms  of 
adenitis  are  met  by  tonic  and  constitutional 
treatment,  and  in  some  cases  by  removal  of  the 
alTected  glands. 

ADEEBAIJAN,   ader-bi-jiin',  or   ADERBI- 

JAN.       Sec    A'/KRHAI.IAN. 

ADERNb,  a'der  nil'.  A  city  of  Sicily,  23  miles 
northwest  of  ('atania,  southwest  of  Mount  Etna, 
and  1840  feet  above  the  sea   (Map:   Italy,  J  10). 


The  quadrangular  castle  erected  by  Roger  I.  is 
now  used  as  a  prison  and  the  interior  is  very 
dilapidated.  In  the  chapel  are  remains  of  fres- 
coes showing  his  granddaughter,  Adelasia,  in 
the  act  of  taking  the  veil.  The  convent  of  Santa 
Lucia  was  founded  by  him  in  1157.  The  ancient 
Hadranum  was  celebrated  for  the  temple  of 
Iladranos,  guarded  by  1000  dogs,  and  the  tourist 
can  see  fragments  of  it  outside  the  town  at  Cas- 
tellemi.  In  the  valley  of  the  Simeto,  a  couple  of 
miles  west  of  Aderno.  are  the  remains  of  .a  Roman 
aqueduct.  -Adernii  is  the  nuirket  town  of  a  con- 
siderable agricultural  district.  Pop.,  1901, 
25,859. 

ADEBSBACH  ROCKS,  ii'ders-b-lo.  A  group 
of  sandstone  rocks  near  the  village  of  Aders- 
bach,  in  Bohemia.  They  are  about  four  miles 
long  and  over  one  mile  in  width,  and  rise  in 
some  parts  over  200  feet.  They  are  remarkable 
for  their  fantastic  form,  which  has  been  produced 
by  the  rain,  frost,  and  other  atmospheric 
changes.  During  the  Thirty  Years'  War  the 
miserable  people  of  Bohemia  often  found  refuge 
in  this  locality. 

ADHER'BAL.  Eldest  son  and  one  of  the  heirs 
of  Micipsa.  King  of  N'umiilia,  who  died  118  B.C. 
He  was  killed  by  order  of  .Jugurtha  (q.v.)  six 
years   later. 

ADHE'SION  (Lat.  adhtrsio.  a  sticking  to, 
from  ad,  to  -f-  hwrere,  to  stick).  Tlie  phenome- 
non observed  when  two  bodies  are  brought  into 
close  contact,  viz.  they  become  so  attached  to 
ea<li  other  that  it  requires  force  to  separate  them. 
Adhesion  is  seen  in  the  case  of  two  solid  bodies 
when  their  polished  surfaces  are  pressed  to- 
gether, as  in  the  case  of  the  two  lead  disks 
shown  in  the  figure  at  A  ;  but  it  is  more  evident 
between  solids  and  fluids,  owing  to  their 
intimate  contact  (see  B  and  C).  We  have 
instances    of    this    in    the    film    of    water    ad- 


hering to  a  piece  of  glass  which  is  dipped 
in  water  and  then  removed.  The  adhesion 
of  gases  to  the  surface  of  solids  plays  an  im- 
portant part  in  many  processes.  A  condensed 
atmosphere  of  gases  surrcmnds  every  body,  and 
every  particle  of  a  powdered  or  porous  body 
has  its  own  surface  layer  of  gases.  This  prop- 
erty of  powdered  bodies  to  retain  gaseous  atmos- 
pheres in  a  state  of  great  condensation  is  called 
adsorption. 

ADHESION,   In   Pathology.     The  term  re- 
fers    to     the     closing    of     a     wound.       If     the 


ADHESION. 


116 


ADIRONDACKS. 


granulating  surfaces  (see  Granulation)  be 
kept  in  contact,  the  opposite  granulations 
may  fuse  together  and  tlie  wound  unite  by 
secondary  adhesion.  Serous  membranes,  such 
as  the  pleura,  the  pericardium,  and  the  peri- 
toneum, when  inflamed  often  become  adherent. 
After  operation  involving  any  of  these  mem- 
branes similar  inflammatory  adhesions  may  oc- 
cur. In  inflannnations  of  the  appendix  vermi- 
formis  (see  Vermifobm  Appendix)  and  the  pelvic 
organs  (see  Uterus;  Ovaries;  Fallopian 
Tubes),  more  or  less  extensive  adhesions  are 
apt  to  occur,  interfering  A\ith  the  free  motion  of 
the  organs  or  actually  drawing  them  out  of 
proper  position.  Such  adhesions  are  often  the 
cause  of  chronic  conditions  following  acute  in- 
flammations of  these  parts. 

ADHESION,  In  Plants.  The  term  is  some- 
times applied  to  an  apparent  coalescence  of  adja- 
cent cycles,  e.g.,  stamens  which  seem  to  be  borne 
upon  the  tube  of  the  corolla  are  called  "ad- 
herent."    The  term  is  now  passing  into  disuse. 

AD'IAN'TUM.     See  Maidenhair. 

AD'IAPH'OKISTS  (Gk.  a,  a,  priv.  -f  Sia^- 
opoc,  diaplioros,  diflerent).  The  name  given  to 
Melanchthou  and  those  who  agreed  with  him  in 
submitting,  in  "things  indift'erent,"  to  an  impe- 
rial edict.  When,  in  1548,  Charles  V.  issued  an 
edict  called  the  Augsburg  Interim,  relating  to 
disputed  religious  doctrines,  Melanchthon  drew 
up  the  Leipzig  Interim,  in  which  he  yielded 
several  doctrinal  and  liturgical  points  as  adiaph- 
ora.  "things  indifferent."  This  stirred  up  a 
vigorous  controversy,  which  lasted  till  the  adop- 
tion of  the  Formnia  of  Concord  (1577),  which 
lays  down  the  law  on  the  matter. 

ADI- BUDDHA,  a'de  -  boud'da  (Skr.,  the 
primordial  Buddha).  A  conception  of  the  su- 
preme deity  which  arose  as  late  in  the  history 
of  Buddhism  as  about  the  tenth  century,  and 
prevails  especially  among  the  northern  Bud- 
dhists. He  is  the  original  spiritual  source  out 
of  whom  through  successive  emanations  of  the 
five  Dhyani  Buddhas  (q.v.)  and  their  less  perfect 
Bodhisattvas  (q.v.)  came  all  the  visible  creation. 
The  similarity  of  this  view  of  the  universe  to 
some  of  the  theories  of  the  Gnostics  has  sug- 
gested that  it  may  have  been  indirectly  affected 
by  contact  with  Eastern  Christianity.  See  Bud- 
dhism. 

ADIGE,  ii'dc-ja  (ancient  Athcsis).  A  river 
of  Austria-Hungary  and  Italy,  rising  in  the 
Ttha-tian  Alps  of  Tyrol  (Map:  Italy,  F  2).  It 
is  formed  by  the  union  of  numerous  streamlets 
near  Glarns,  where  it  is  called  Etsch,  a  name 
by  which  the  entire  river  is  known  in  Germany. 
It  flows  in  a  general  southern  direction  past 
Meran  and  Trent,  entering  Italy  midway 
between  Roveredo  and  Verona.  A  few  miles 
above  the  latter  town  it  turns  southeast  and 
enters  the  Adriatic  above  the  Po.  Its  total 
length  is  250  miles,  for  180  of  which  it  is  navi- 
gable, although  not  without  dilliculty.  owing  to 
its  swift  current.  It  is  connected  with  the  Po 
by  a  small  navigable  canal  called  Adigetto.  Its 
most  important  tributaries  are  the  Eisack  and 
the  Avisio.  The  Adige  is  a  transit  river  for  the 
trade  of  Germany  and  Italy. 

ADI-GRANTH,  ii'de-gr-inth  (primal  book). 
The  Bible  of  the  Sikh  religion  (see  SiKiis).  It 
consists  largely  of  poems  and  legends  originating 
with   Nanak    (I4G9-1,'538   A.D.),   the   founder   of 


the  sect,  and  the  "gurus"  ("divine  revealers") 
who  immediately  succeeded  him,  its  materials 
having  been  collected  by  Arinn  (1584-1006),  the 
fifth  of  these  successors.  Many  of  its  passages 
show  a  very  elevated  conception  of  tlie  deity, 
and  deal  with  such  problem.s  as  predestination, 
the  freedom  of  the  will,  etc.  Its  ethical  teach- 
ings are  notably  such  as  combat  the  sins  of  per- 
sonal selfishness  and  attachment  to  the  pleasures 
of  the  world.  A  second  granth  (book),  known 
as  the  "Granth  of  the  Tenth  Reign,"  was  com- 
posed in  1096  under  the  direction  of  Govind 
Singh,  the  last  of  the  ten  gurus.  This  more 
especially  exalted  the  martial  virtues  and  added 
further  legends  of  the  incarnation  of  God.  The 
saci-ed  books  are  treated  with  great  veneration 
in  the  assemblies  of  the  Sikhs. 

A'DIP'IC  ACID,  C4H,(C00H,).  A  dibasic 
acid  similar  to  oxalic  acid.  It  is  often  obtained 
in  the  oxidation  of  fats  by  nitric  acid. 

ADIPOCERE,  i5d'r-p6-ser'  ( Lat.  adcps,  fat  -f 
cera,  wax).  A  peculiar  mixture  of  fatty  acids 
resulting  from  the  decomposition  of  animal 
bodies  buried  in  moist  places.  Human  bodies 
have  been  found,  on  disinterment,  reduced  to 
this  state. 

AD'IPOSE  SUB'STANCES  (Lat.  adeps,  fat, 
grease).     Same  as  fats    (q.v.). 

AD'IPOSE  TIS'STJE.  A  peculiar  kind  of 
animal  membrane  or  tissue  consisting  of  an 
aggregation  of  minute  spherical  vesicles  of 
areolar  tissue  filled  with  fat  or  oil.  The  tissue 
itself  is  organic  and  vital,  the  vesicles  secreting 
the  fatty  matter  from  the  capillary  blood-ves.sels 
with  which  they  are  surrounded;  the  secreted 
product — the  fat — is  unorganized  and  devoid  of 


ADIPOSE   TISSUE   (MAONIFIED). 

vitality.  The  adipose  tissue  differs  from  cellular 
or  filamentous  tissue  in  having  the  vesicles 
closed,  so  that  the  fat  does  not  escape  even  when 
fluid.  A  dropsical  effusion  which  infiltrates  the 
filamentous  tissues  does  not  affect  the  adipose 
tissue.  There  is  a  considerable  layer  of  adipose 
tissue  immediately  under  the  skin ;  also  around 
the  large  vessels  and  nerves,  in  the  omentum 
and  mesentery,  around  the  kidneys,  joints,  etc. 
See  Fats. 

AD'IRON'DACKS.  The  name  of  a  group  of 
mountains  in  northeastern  New  York.  They  lie 
west  of  the  main  axis  of  the  Appalachians,  as 
represented  in  the  Green  Mountains  of  Vermont, 
and  constitute  quite  an  independent  mountain 
system.  The  name  Adiiondack  is  applied  in  a 
wider  sense  to  that  area  embracing  about  12,500 
square  miles  contained  lietwcen  the  valley  of  Lake 
Champlain.  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  the  Mohawk 
rivers.  The  counties  of  Essex,  Clinton,  Frank- 
lin,  St.  Lawrence,  Lewis,   Herkimer,   Hamilton, 


I 


Idirondacks. 


iir 


ADIRONDACKS. 


and  Warren  lie  partly  or  wliolly  within  its  lim- 
its. The  more  mountiiinous  portion  is  on  the 
cast,  and  the  lii^hcr  peaks  are  chiefly  within  Es- 
sex County.  From  northeast  to  soutliwest  the 
individual  mountains  hecome  less  pronounced, 
and  the  surface  grades  into  a  plateau  of  1500  to 
21)00  feet  altitude.  Two  peaks.  Mount  Marey 
and  Mount  Mclntyre.  are  ahove  .'lOOO  feet  in  al- 
tiluile.  while  several  others.  Wliitcfacc,  Di.x, 
fiiant.  Haystack,  8kyli<;ht,  and  the  Gothics, 
closely  ajiproxiniate  this  lieifjht.  The  mountains 
are  jirouped  in  minor  ranges,  which  run  a  little 
east  of  north,  and  which  are  separated  by  deep, 
often  narrow,  valleys,  as  the  dci)ressions  of  Lake 
George,  of  the  ScliroonKoquet  rivers,  of  the 
IJoreas-Ausable,  and  other  riv'ers.  The  ranges 
approach  Lake  Champlain,  en  crhilnn,  and  pro- 
duce on  the  lake  sliore  a  succession  of  bold, 
rocky  headlands,  and  open,  receding  bays  and 
valleys.  As  a  rule,  the  mounta'ins  are  dome-shaped 
in  their  outlines;  but  some  slunp  peaks,  like 
Whiteface,  exist.  Precipitous  escarpments  over 
."iOO  feet  high  are  connnon.  Thus  picturesque 
passes  oceui'  which  are  a  delight  to  travelers. 
The  best  known  are  Wilmington  Notch,  Indian 
Pass,  and  Avalanche  Pass.  Deer's  Leap  and 
Roger's  Rock  on  Lake  George  are  similar. 

1)k.\i.x.vi;l:.  The  mountains  constitute  the 
water-shed  between  the  Hudson  and  the  St.  Law- 
rence drainage  systems,  but  the  actual  divide  is 
a  very  irregular  line  that  is  due  to  the  glacial 
drift.  Thus  Lake  Champlain  and  Lake  George 
rise  far  to  the  south  and  discharge  into  the  St. 
Lawrence ;  small  ridges  of  drift  alone  separ.ate 
them  from  the  Hudson,  which  rises  a  hundred 
miles  to  the  n()rtliwc>.t  of  the  heads  of  their 
basins,  and  flows  around  their  southern  ends. 
In  the  heart  of  the  mountains  rocky  divides  of 
older  date  separate  the  streams.  The  main  tribu- 
taries of  the  Hudson  are  the  Sacondaga,  Schroon, 
Boreas,  and  Indian  Rivers.  The  ^Mohawk  receives 
East  and  West  Canada  creeks.  The  Black  River 
carries  to  Lake  Ontario  the  contributions  of  the 
Moose,  Beaver,  and  several  minor  streams.  The 
Iniiian,  Oswegatchie,  Grass,  Raciiuette,  St.  Regis, 
Salmon,  and  Chateaugay  flow  into  the  St.  Law- 
rence. The  Cliazy,  Saranac,  Ausable,  and  Boquet 
discharge  info  Lake  Cluimplain.  <n  the  eastern 
portion  all  these  streams  follow  the  northeast- 
southwest  structural  lines  until  they  can  break 
across  the  ridges  to  the  great  lines  of  drainage. 

Lakes.  The  region  has  many  lakes.  The 
largest  are  lakes  Champlain  and  George,  but 
hundreds  of  snialler  ones  add  an  indescribable 
eharm  to  the  scenery.  The  greater  ninnber  are 
due  to  barriers  of  glacial  drift  that  Idock  the 
streams.  Often  they  run  in  chains.  ai)parently 
in<licating  former  great  lines  of  drainage.  The 
Kulton  chain,  Racqiu-tte,  Forked,  Long,  and 
Saranae  lakes  are  strung  out  in  a  northeast  and 
southwest  series,  and  are  familiar  summer  re- 
sorts. 

Geoi.ocy.  The  Adirondack  region  is  formed 
almost  entirely  of  ai\cient  Pre-Cambrian  crystal- 
line rocks.  Gneisses  and  coarsely  crystalline 
igneous  varieties  abound,  and  many  smaller 
areas  of  crystalline  limestones  and  quartzites  are 
present.  The  gneisses  and  crystalline  limestones 
are  without  (loul)t  equivalents  of  the  Grenville 
series  of  Canada.  The  mo-it  abundant  igneous 
rocks  are  anorthosites,  or  labradorife  rocks,  and 
syenites.  .\11  the  liiglier  peaks  are  formed  of 
the  labradorite  rocks.  Basaltic  and  trachytie 
dikes,  usually  but  a  few  feet  w'ide,  often  inter- 


sect these  older  rocks.  On  the  borders  of  the  an- 
cient crystallines,  and  on  the  southeast,  as  rare 
exposures  from  2")  to  40  miles  from  their  edges, 
are  the  Paleozoic  sediments,  beginning  with  the 
Potsdam  sandstone  of  the  Cambrian  system  and 
terminating  with  the  Ctica  slate  of  the  Ordo- 
vician.  .Ml  the  Paleozoic  rocks  dip  at  low  angles, 
and  while  small  folds  may  be  sometimes  seen, 
the  strata  usually  appear  in  faulted  blocks.  No 
rocks  are  found  between  the  Utica  slate  and  the 
glacial  deposits  of  the  Pleistocene  period,  so  that 
the  geological  history  of  this  long  space  of  time 
can  only  be  imjierfectly  inferred  from  the  physi- 
ography. The  great  ice  sheet  moved  from  the 
northeast  to  the  southwest,  and  covered  the  high- 
est summits.  It  spread  a  mantle  of  sand  and 
boulders  all  over  the  region.  On  its  melting 
many  temporary  lakes  were  formed,  of  which 
beacjies  and  deltas  are  often  found.  During  the 
Champlain  submergence,  clays  were  deposited 
in  great  quantities  in  the  Champlain  Valley. 

Flok.v.  The  flora  is  of  a  pronounced  northern 
character  as  compared  with  that  of  .southern 
New  York,  but  it  naturally  varies  with  the  alti- 
tude. On  the  higher  summits  many  .small  boreal 
plants  remain  as  relics  of  the  glacial  epoch.  The 
tree  distribution  is  significant.  Chestnuts  pene- 
trate oidy  the  southern  and  lower  and  more 
open  valleys,  whereas  the  spruce  is  found  only 
at  1000  feet  and  more  above  the  sea. 

F.4tiNA.  The  aninuils  are  likewise  those  of 
the  North,  iloose,  though  once  abundant,  are 
now  exterminated.  Black  bears  are  frequent, 
and  deer  are  numerous  because  protected  by 
game  laws.  The  smallei  aninu\ls  are  those 
cliaracteristic  of  the  North.  Of  fish,  black  bass 
and  brook  trout  are  nu)st  .sought,  and  in  the 
larger  lakes,  lake  trout  are  frequent.  Salmon 
are  now  extinct. 

Resources.  The  Adirondacks  contain  vast 
deposits  of  iron  ore,  chiefly  magnetite,  which  is 
extensively  produced  near  Port  Henry,  on  Lake 
Champlain,  at  Lyon  Mountain  on  the  north,  and 
at  the  Benson  mines  on  the  west.  The  region 
was  once  llu»  home  of  the  bloomerj'  process,  but 
almost  all  the  old  forges  are  in  ruins.  At  the 
head  waters  of  the  Hudson  on  Lake  Sanford  there 
are  inuuense  bodies  of  titaniferous  magnetite 
not  as  yet  utilized.  Building  stone  in  the  form 
of  green  granite  has  been  quarried  near  Keese- 
ville.  and  a  highly  prized  and  very  hard  pink 
sandstone  is  jiroihu'ed  near  Potsdam  on  the 
northwest.  Marble  is  found  near  Gouverneur 
on  the  west,  and  to  some  extent  in  the  Cham- 
plain Valley.  Talc  is  extensively  mined  near 
Gouverneur. 

The  products  of  the  forests  form  the  most 
important  industries.  For  lumber,  the  pine  trees 
have  been  practically  exhausted:  spruce  is  the 
chief  wood  sought.  The  paper-pulp  mills,  how- 
ever, consume  much  more  than  do  tlie  saw-mills. 
They  take  either  spruce  or  poplar.  The  former 
is  stripped  from  the  mountains,  where  it  may 
not  grow  again,  but  the  latter  rapidly  renews 
itself  upon  the  sandy  barrens.  After  the  tim- 
ber has  been  cut  ofV,  and  more  especially  in  ear- 
lier years,  when  the  outer  mountains  were  strip- 
ped for  charcoal,  the  owners  often  allowed  the 
taxes  to  remain  unpai<I  until  the  tracts  were  sold 
by  the  State  at  public  auction.  The  State  itself 
has  at  these  times  acquired  extensive  posses- 
sions, to  whicli  it  adds  yearly,  with  a  view  of 
preserving  the  waterways  and  forming  a  great 
public   park    for   the   people.      Enormous   tracts 


ADIKONDACKS. 


118 


ADJUSTMENT?. 


are  also  held  by  private  individuals  and  clubs 
as  recreation  grounds.  Forestry  has  received 
much  attention  from  the  State  authorities. 

Summer  RESonxs.  The  Adirondack  region  is 
one  of  the  most  important  places  for  summer 
recreation  for  the  dwellers  in  cities  of  the  north- 
eastern United  States,  and  many  thousands  turn 
annually  to  it.  Lake  George,  Schroon  Lake, 
Lake  Placid,  the  Saranacs,  the  Fulton  chain. 
Long  Lake,  the  Keene  Valley,  and  dozens  of 
other  localities  attract  their  habitual  visitors. 
The  climate  is  especially  adapted  to  the  treat- 
ment of  inilmonary  compltiints.  Saranac  Lake, 
with  its  well-known  sanitarium,  is  the  chief  re- 
sort. The  establishment  of  State  sanitariums 
has  received  favorable  consideration  from  the 
State  government. 

Bibliography.  For  geology  and  mineral  re- 
sources, see  Reports  of  the  New  York  State  Geol- 
ogist, and  Bulletins  of  the  }few  York  State  Mu- 
seum, especially  those  since  1888,  containing 
papers  by  J.  F.  Kemp,  C.  H.  Smyth,  Jr.,  H.  P. 
Gushing,  and  others.  For  botany,  see  Reports 
of  the  State  Botanist,  and  especially  Bulletin 
28  of  the  State  Museum.  For  forestry,  see  Re- 
ports of  the  State  Forestry  Commission.  All 
these  are  published  at  Albany. 

AD'IT  (Lat.  aditus,  access,  approach).  A 
nearly  horizontal  passage  opened  for  the  pur- 
pose of  draining  a  mine.  Incidentally,  an  adit 
may  also  serve  in  exploring  the  rock  through 
which  it  passes.  Filled  with  water,  adits  are 
often  used  as  canals,  by  which  the  products  of 
mines  may  be  transported.  Water  raised  from 
a  depth  greater  than  that  reached  by  the  adit 
is  discharged  through  it,  saving  the  cost  of 
raising  it  still  farther  to  the  top  of  the  shaft. 
An  adit  in  Cornwall  opens  at  the  level  of  the 
sea,  and  extends  inland  about  30  miles,  draining 
the  district  of  Gwennap.  It  meets  some  shafts 
at  the  depth  of  400  feet.  The  Ernst  August 
adit  in  the  Hartz  Mountains,  completed  in  1864, 
is  13  miles  long.  The  .Joseph  II.  adit  at  Scheni- 
nitz,  in  Hungary,  is  10  feet  high,  5%  feet  wide, 
extends  10  miles  to  the  valley  of  the  Gran,  and 
is  used  as  a  canal  and  railway  passage.  The 
Sutro  Tunnel,  draining  the  Comstock  lode  in 
Nevada,  is  4  miles  long. 

ADIVE'.      Tlie  Tibetan   fox.     See   Fox. 

AD'JECTIVE  (Lat.  adjectii^um,  from  ad.  to 
+  jacere,  to  throw,  add,  literal  translation  of 
the  Qk.\t7riecTiK6v,  epithetikon,  something  added). 
One  of  the  parts  of  speech  in  grammar,  a  word 
joined  to  a  substantive  to  extend  its  meaning 
and  to  limit  its  application.  When  tall  is  joined 
to  man  there  are  more  properties  suggested  to 
the  mind  by  the  compound  tall  man  than  by  the 
simple  name  man  :  but  tall  man  is  not  applicable 
to  so  many  individuals  as  man,  for  all  men  that 
are  not  tall  are  excluded.  Adjectives  are  vari- 
ously classified.  The  following  classification  is 
simple  and  sufficiently  complete:  Descriptive 
adjectives,  or  adjectives  of  quality  and  of  quan- 
tity, and  pronominal  adjectives.  The  articles 
(q.v.)  are  sometimes  included  in  this  class.  Nouns, 
or  names  of  things,  are  often  used  in  English  as 
adjectives;  thus.'we  say  a  silver  chain,  a  stone 
tcall.  In  .such  expressions  as  "income-tax  assess- 
ment bill,"  income  plays  the  part  of  an  adjective 
to  tax,  which  is,  in  the  first  place,  a  noun :  the 
two  together  then  form  a  sort  of  compound  adjec- 
tive to  assessment ;  and  the  three,  taken  together, 
a  still  more  compound  adjective  to  bill,  which, 


syntactically,  is  the  only  noun  in  the  expression. 
Languages  dilTer  much  in  their  way  of  vising 
adjectives.  In  English  the  usual  place  of  the 
adjective,  when  it  is  not  in  the  predicate,  is 
before  the  noun.  This  is  also  the  case  in  Ger- 
man ;  but  in  French  and  Italian  it  may  follow. 
In  these  languages,  again,  the  adjective  is  varied 
for  gender  and  number,  and  in  the  German  for 
case  also.  In  English  it  is  now  invariable,  and 
in  this  simplicity  there  is  a  decided  superiority; 
for  in  modern  languages  these  changes  in  the  ad- 
jective serve  no  purpose.  The  only  modification 
of  which  the  modern  English  adjective  is  capable 
is  for  degrees  of  comparison. 

ADJECTIVE  COL'OKS.  Those  colors  in 
dyeing  which  are  fixed  by  a  base  or  mordant  to 
render  them  permanent,  as  distinguished  from 
substantive  colors,  in  which  the  dye  in  its  nat- 
ural hue  is  fixed  without  the  use  of  a  mordant. 

ADJECTIVE  LAW.  The  term  applied  to 
the  rules  of  law  relating  to  procedure,  as  distin- 
guished from  substantive  law  (see  Sub.stantive 
Law),  which  is  the  term  applied  to  the  common 
law  rules  of  right  which  courts  are  called  upon 
to  enforce.  Thus,  the  rule  that  the  owner  of 
real  estate  is  entitled  to  recover  damages  for 
trespass  upon  it  is  a  rule  of  substantive  law; 
but  the  rules  determining  to  which  court  he 
should  apply  for  relief  and  the  method  he  should 
adopt  to  obtain  it  are  rules  of  adjective  law. 
Adjective  law  thus  comprehends  the  law  of  the 
forum,  including  the  conflict  of  laws,  pleading, 
evidence,  rules  regulating  admission  to  the  bar, 
and  rules  for  the  conduct  of  cases  in  and  out  of 
court.  Consult :  Holland,  The  Elements  of  Juris- 
prudence (ninth  edition,  London,  1900;  first 
American  edition,  New  York.  1896). 

ADJU'DICA'TION  (Lat.  adjudicare,  to 
adjudge).  The  judicial  determination  of  a  ques- 
tion; apolied  most  frequently  in  English  law  to 
the  decision  that  a  person  is"a  bankrirpt.  In  the 
Federal  Bankruptcy  Act  of  1898  it  is  defined  as 
"the  date  of  the  entry  of  a  decree  that  the  de- 
fendant, in  a  bankruptcy  proceeding,  is  a  bank- 
rupt." It  is  often  used  also  in  the  phrase 
"former  adjudication,"  the  rule  being  that  per- 
sons shall  not  relitigate  a  matter  which  lias  been 
the  subject  of  a  former  adjudication  between 
them.  See  JuDGiiENT  and  Res  Judicata,  with 
the  authorities  there  referred  to. 

ADJUST'MENT.  In  the  law  of  insurance, 
the  act  of  ascertaining  the  exact  amount  of  in- 
demnity which  the  party  insured  is  entitled  to 
receive  under  the  policy,  and  of  fi.xing  the  pro- 
portion of  the  loss  to  be  borne  by  each  under- 
writer. The  nature  and  amount  of  damage  being 
ascertained,  an  indorsement  is  made  on  the  back 
of  the  policy,  declaring  the  proportion  of  loss 
falling  on  each  underwriter,  and  on  this  indorse- 
ment being  signed  bj'  the  underwriters  the  loss 
is  said  to  have  been  adjusted.  There  has  been 
some  difl'erence  of  opinion  as  to  the  nature  of 
the  obligation  incurred  by  tlie  underwriter  upon 
agreeing  to  and  subscriliing  to  the  adjustment; 
but  it  is  now  settled  tliat  the  act  is  not  abso- 
lutely conclusive  upon  him,  but  creates  only  a 
contract  obligation,  from  wliich  he  may  free 
himself  upon  proof  of  fraud,  mistake,  misrepre- 
sentation, etc.  For  the  particular  applications 
of  the  doctrine  to  marine  insurance,  where  it  is 
of  most  importance,  see  Average.  Consult 
Arnould  On  Marine  Insurance  (London,  1901). 
See  Marine  Insurance. 


ADJUTANT. 


119 


ADLEB. 


AD'JUTANT  (Lilt.  nd.  to  +  jiitorc,  to  assist, 
help).  A  !-tiiff  otlU'er.  In  tlii>  United  States 
Army,  generally  a  regimental  ollieer  of  captain's 
rank  ajipointecl  by  the  regimental  commanding 
officer  to  assist  liiin  in  the  training,  discipline. 
and  duties  of  his  command,  together  with  the 
general  supervision  of  its  interior  economy. 
Squadron  or  hattulion  adjutants,  appointed  from 
the  lieutenants,  have  similar  duties  in  a  more 
limited  degree  and  s|)here.  Post,  garrison,  or 
brigade  adjutants  have  similar  relationship  to 
their  respective  commanding  oHicers.  The  duties 
of  the  position  are  practically  the  same  through- 
out the  armies  of  all  the  gieat  powers.  In  the 
United  States  the  regimental  adjutant  is  ap- 
pointed for  a  term  of  four  years  and  the  squad- 
ron or  battalion  adjutants  two  years.  Such  of- 
ficers are  not  eligible  for  reappointmeiit.  For 
a  description  of  their  duties,  consult  the  United 
States  AriTiy  Regulations. 

ADJUTANT  (  For  origin  of  name,  see  above) . 
A  large  East  Indian  stork  (Leploptilus  argala) , 
about  5  feet  high  and  14  feet  across  the  wings. 
It  is  chielly  white,  but  the  back  and  wings  are 
slate-colored,  and  the  head  and  ncek  bare  and 
flesh-colored,  marked  with  black.  From  the 
front  of  the  neck  hangs  a  long  i)oueh,  which  is 
connected  with  the  respiratory  system,  and  pos- 
sibly serves  as  an  air-reservoir  under  si)ecial 
conditions.  "Adjutant"  is  really  a  nickname 
given  to  these  birds,  because  of  an  absurd  re- 
semblance at  certain  times  to  a  self-important 
army  oflicer.  The  adjutant  is  very  voracious, 
and  though  it  is  especially  fond  of  fresh  meat, 
its  chief  source  of  food  is  in  carrion  and  offal. 
It  is,  therefore,  an  ellicient  scavenger,  and  since 
it  also  eats  many  of  the  smaller  noxious  animals, 
it  is  protected  by  law  in  India.  Although  so 
large  a  bird,  its  powers  of  tliglit  are  cimsiderable, 
and  it  is  said  to  soar  to  gi-eat  heights,  mingling 
with  viiltures  in  its  search  for  food.  The  ad- 
jutant is  found  in  India  and  southeastern  Asia, 
a  smaller  species  occurring  in  the  Fast  Indies. 
A  closely  allied  species,  the  Marabou  (q.v.), 
inhabits  Africa.  Both  furnish  the  Marabou 
feathers  of  commerce,  their  lengthen<>d  under- 
tail  and  under-wing  coverts  being  of  unusual 
beauty. 

AD'JUTANT-GEN'EBAL.  A  military  staff 
oflicer,  the  chief  assistant  of  a  commanding  gen- 
eral in  the  execution  of  his  military  duties,  as 
in  issuing  and  executing  orders,  receiving  and 
registering  reports,  regulating  details  of  the 
service,  and  so  forth.  In  the  United  States 
Army  all  officers  acting  as  above,  except  the  ad- 
jutant-general, are  designated  as  assistant 
adjutant-generals.  The  adjutant-general  is  an 
important  oflicer  of  the  war  department  (see 
Army  Okcani/ation)  ,  having  the  rank  of 
major-genera  1,  his  duties  including  also  the  man- 
agement of  the  recruiting  service,  the  collection 
of  military  information,  and  the  preparation  of 
annual  returns  of  the  militia.  !Most  of  the  in- 
dividual States  also  have  adjutant-generals, 
performing  similar  duties  with  respect  to  the 
niilitio  of  their  several  States. 

AD'LER  ( Get:  prni,.  iidl^sr) ,  Cynas  (1803—) . 
Founder  of  the  American  .Tewish  Historical 
Society.  He  was  born  September  l.T,  18(!.'i,  at 
Van  Buren,  Ark.,  and  after  graduating  at  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  (ISKIi),  entered  the 
Johns  Hopkins  University,  where  he  became  as- 
sociate (1892)  in  Semitic  languages.    As  special 


commissioner  for  the  World's  Columbian  Expo- 
sition at  Chicago,  he  spent  fifteen  months  in 
Egypt,  Turkey,  Servia,  and  Persia,  in  18!tO-91, 
and  obtained  most  of  the  Oriental  collections  for 
that  exhibit.  He  has  published,  among  other 
works,  'I'lic  iSliofar,  Its  Isv  and  Oiif/iii  (1893), 
and,  with  .VDan  Kamsny.  Told  in  Ihi-  Coffee 
House  (1898),  a  .series  of  folk  tales  collected  in 
Constantinople. 

ADLEB.  Felix  (18.51 — ).  A  German- 
.Viucrican  I'ducator  and  reformer.  He  W'as  born 
August  13,  KS.")!,  at  Alzey,  (Jermany,  and  came 
to  the  United  States  in  18,')7,  where  bis  father 
had  been  called  to  the  ministry  of  Temple  Emanu- 
El  at  New  York.  After  graduating  at  Co- 
lumbia College  in  1870,  he  studied  philosophy 
and  economics  at  the  universities  of  Berlin  and 
HeidellHMg,  receiving  the  degree  of  Ph.D.  in  1873. 
On  his  return  to  Xew  V<uk  lu-  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  Hebrew  an<l  Oriental  literature  at 
Cornell  University,  and  held  this  position  from 
1874  to  IS7fi.  when  he  organized  at  New  York 
the  Society  for  Ethical  Culture  (q.v.),  with 
which  his  name  has  since  been  identified.  Pro- 
f(wsor  Adler  is  widely  known  as  a  lecturer  and 
writer.  His  principal  literary  works  are:  Creed 
and  Deed  (New  York.  1877);  The  Moral  In- 
struction of  Children   (New  York,  1898). 

ADLEB,  FRiF.nRirii  (1827 — ).  A  German 
architect  and  art  historian.  He  was  born  at 
Berlin;  studied  at  the  architectural  academy 
there  and  later  traveled  widely.  He  designed 
.several  church  structures,  including  St.  Thomas's 
at  Berlin  and  St.  Paul's  at  Bromberg.  He  has 
made  extensive  study  of  the  architecture  of  an- 
cient times  and  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  has 
taken  an  active  interest  in  the  excavations  at 
Olympia.  Besides  contributions  to  official  re- 
ports, he  has  published:  Mittelaltcrlichc  liack- 
steinbautcerlce  dfs  prcuxsiselien  Stunts  (18,59- 
09)  ;  Die  liauf/esrhichtc  ron  Uerlin  (IStil)  ;  liau- 
gesrhiehtliche  Forschungen  in  Dcutschland 
(1870-79),  and  other  works. 

ADLEB,  Georg  (1803 — ).  A  German  econ- 
omist and  author,  born  at  Posen.  He  lectured  as 
extraordinary  professor  of  sociologj'  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Basel,  Switzerland,  and  afterward  be- 
came professor  of  political  economy  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Freiburg,  Germany.  His  writings  on 
economic  and  sociological  questions,  in  which  he 
usually  advocates  moderation  as  opposed  to 
revolutionary  agitation,  include:  Karl  ^farx- 
sehe  Kritik  (1880);  Internationaler  Arbeiter- 
sehutz  (18H8);  Soeial-h'efonn  und  Theater 
(1891)  :  Staat  und  Arbcitslosigkeit  (1894)  ;  Die 
(Social- Reform  im  Altertum  (1898);  (lesehichte 
des  Socialismus  und  Communismus   (1900). 

ADLEB,  Georce  J.  (1821-08).  A  German- 
Anu'riciin  philologist.  He  was  horn  in  Germany, 
and  at  tin-  age  of  twelve  came  to  New  York. 
He  graduateil  at  the  University  of  New  York  in 
1844,  and  in  1840  was  appointed  professor  of 
German  in  that  institution,  which  position  he 
held  until  1854.  He  is  the  author  of  the  follow- 
ing works:  derman  English  Itirlionanj  (New 
York,  1848;  frequently  reprinted)  ;  German 
Grammar  (New  York,  1808);  U"i7/if/m  von 
Humboldt's  Linguistic  Studies  (New  York, 
1808).  and  a  translation  of  Fauriel's  History  of 
Provencal  Poetry. 

ADLER,  Hermann  (1839—).  Chief  rabbi 
of  the  United  Hebrew  Congregations  of  the  Brit- 


ABLER. 


120 


ADMINISTRATION. 


ish  Empire.  He  was  born  at  Hanover,  Germany, 
and  was  educated  at  London,  Prague,  and  Leip- 
zig, where  he  received  the  degree  of  Ph.D.  in 
1862.  Soon  after  the  rabbinical  diploma  had 
been  conferred  on  him  at  Prague  he  was  ap- 
pointed principal  of  the  Jews'  College,  London 
(18G3),  where,  notwithstanding  his  appointment 
as  minister  of  the  Bayswater  Synagogue  in  1864, 
he  remained  as  tutor  of  theology  until  1879,  and 
upon  his  unanimous  election  as  chief  rabbi  of 
the  United  Congregations  of  the  British  Empire 
in  1891  he  became  president  of  the  college  with 
which  he  had  so  long  been  associated.  After- 
ward he  became  minister  of  the  Cathedral  Syna- 
gogue in  Duke's  Place.  Dr.  Adler  has  published 
a  large  number  of  essays,  such  as  Ibii  (labirol 
and  /lis  Relations  to  Scholastic  Philosophy  (Uni- 
versity College  Essays.  1864).  and  fan  Jetrs  Be 
Patriots/  (a  replj*  to  Goldwin  Smith,  Nine- 
teenth Century,  1878). 

ABLER,  Nathan  Marcus  (1803-90).  Chief 
rabbi  of  the  United  Hebrew  Congregations  of 
the  British  Empire.  He  was  born  in  Hanover, 
and  educated  at  the  universities  of  Gijttingen, 
Erlangen.  and  Wiirzburg.  He  was  apjiointed 
chief  rabbi  of  Oldenburg  ( 1830'. ,  of  Hanover  and 
the  provinces  a  year  later,  and  in  1845.  chief 
rabbi  of  the  British  Empire.  He  was  one  of 
the  organizers  of  Jewish  schools  in  London  and 
the  provinces;  he  joined  Sir  Stoses  Jlontefiore 
in  his  appeal  for  the  Holy  Land,  by  which 
£20,000  was  raised:  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  "United  Synagogue,"  a  federation  of  the 
principal  synagogues,  and  founder  and  first 
president  of  the  Jews'  College,  London.  He 
published  several  important  Hebrew  works, 
among  them  Nctinah  la-Ger,  a  commentary  on 
the  Targum  of  Onkelos,  besides  several  volumes 
of  sermons,  including  Sermons  on  the  Jeicish 
Faith. 

ADLER,  Samitel  (1809-91).  A  German- 
American  rabbi  and  author,  born  at  Worms,  Ger- 
many. He  studied  at  the  universities  of  Bonn 
and  Giessen,  and  from  1842  to  18ii7  was  rabbi  of 
congregations  in  Alzey  and  vicinity.  From  18.57 
to  1874  he  was  rabbi  of  the  congregation  Emanu- 
El  of  New  York  City.  He  was  a  learned  Tal- 
mudic  scholar  and  an  earnest  progressionist. 
His  works  include  Jciinsh  Conference  Papers 
(1880).  Benedictions  (1882),  and  Kobe^  'at  Yad 
{Collections,   1886). 

ADLERBERG,  ad'ler-berK,  Vladimiu  Fiodo- 
RoviCH.  Count  (1700-1884).  A  Russian  states- 
man, born  in  St.  Petersburg.  Tn  1817  he  was 
adjutant  to  the  Grand  Duke  Nicholas,  and  later, 
for  his  devotion  during  the  Decembrist  revolu- 
tion in  1825,  became  major-general,  accompany- 
ing the  Fmperor  during  the  Turkish  campaign 
in  1828.  ^fade  postmaster-general  in  1841,  he 
distinguished  himself  by  many  reforms  in  the 
service.  He  was  made  general  of  infantry  in 
1843.  count  in  1847,  and  in  18.52  minister  of 
the  imperial  household,  in  constant  attendance 
on  the  emperor,  and  kept  the  position  under 
Alexander  11.,  retiring  in  1872  on  account  of 
old  age. 

ADLERCREUTZ,  adier-kroits,  Karl  .TonAN, 
Count  (1757-1815).  A  Swedish  general  and 
statesman,  born  in  Finland.  He  was  defeated 
in  Finland  by  the  Russians  in  1808  and  his 
estates  were  confiscated.  ^Yi(!l  Georg  Adler- 
aparre  he  brought  about  the  overthrow  of  Gusta- 
vus    IV.,    who    was    succeeded    on    the    Swedish 


throne  by  Charles  Xlll.  Later  the  two  generals 
quarreled,  and  Adlersparre  was  disgraced,  while 
Adlercreutz  remained  in  favor  and  was  made  a 
count  in   1814. 

ADLERSPARRE,  ad'lers-pa'rc.  Geobg, 
Count  (1760-1835).  A  Swedish  general  and 
statesman.  He  was  educated  at  the  University 
of  Upsala.  Entering  the  army,  he  took  part  in 
the  war  against  Russia  in  1788  and  then  in  the 
campaigns  against  Norway.  After  the  death  of 
Gustavus  III.  he  withdrew  from  the  army  and 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  political  econ- 
omy. He  reentered  military  service  in  1808  and 
fought  against  Russia;  and  the  next  j'car  joined 
with  Adlercreutz  in  the  movement  to  elevate 
Charles  XIII,  to  the  Swedish  throne.  In  1810, 
finding  Jiimsclf  succeeded  in  the  new  king's  favor 
by  his  rival  Adlercreutz  (q.v. ),  he  withdrew 
from  court.  In  1831  he  was  fined  for  publish- 
ing secret  State  papers,  including  his  correspon- 
dence with  Charles  XIII. 

AD  LIB'ITUM  (Lat.  at  will,  Ital.  a  piaeere, 
a  piacinicnto) .  In  music,  a  term  indicating 
that  the  part,  accompaniment,  embellisltment, 
or  instrument  may  be  omitted  or  retained  at 
the  discretion  or  taste  of  the  performer.  Thus, 
a  song  written  with  'cello  accompaniment  ad 
libitum  may  be  sung  to  the  piano  accompaniment 
alone  or  with  the  'cello  added.  The  term  also 
denotes     liberty     in     tempo    and     rhythm.     See 

ACCOJIPANIMENT. 

ADMEAS'D'REMENT.  See  Measurement 
OF  Sini's. 

ADMEASUREMENT  OF  DOWER  (Lat. 
ad,  to  +  measurement) .  In  English  law,  an 
ancient  writ  by  which  an  heir  could  obtain 
redress  against  the  widow  of  his  ancestor  in  case 
the  heir  or  his  guardian  had,  during  the  heir's 
minority,  assigned  to  her  more  land  as  her  dower 
than  she  was  entitled  to.  The  writ  has  been 
superseded  by  simpler  forms  of  action :  but  the 
remedy,  often  under  the  same  title,  still  remains 
wherever  the  common  law  principle  of  dower 
(q.v.)  is  recognized.  Consult:  Scribner,  Treat- 
ise on  the  Laio  of  Dower  (Philadelphia,  1883)  ; 
and  Roper,  Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Property 
Arisinij  from  the  Relation  Between  Husband  and 
Wife    (Philadelphia,   1841). 

ADME'TTJS  (Gk.  ■.■\()>,,roc,  Admetos) .  A 
mythical  king  of  Pher:T,  in  Thessaly.  He  was 
in  the  Calydonian  hunt  and  the  Argonautic  expe- 
dition. By  the  aid  of  Apollo,  who  was  his 
herdsman  during  a  year  of  lianishment  from 
Olympus,  he  won  Alcestis,  daughter  of  Pelias. 
Apollo  also  procured  him  a  prolongation  of  life, 
if  another  would  die  in  his  stead.  Alcestis  con- 
sented, but  was  sent  back  from  the  lower  world 
by  Persephone,  or  rescued  by  Hercules  from 
death  at  the  tomb  itself.  The  story  forms  the 
subject  of  a  celebrated  drama  by  Euripides  (q.v.) 
which  is  still  extant.  Compare  Browning,  BaU 
austion''s  Adventure   (London,  1871). 

AD'MI.     Cuvicr's  gazelle.     See  Gazelle. 

ADMIN'ISTRA'TION  (Lat.  ad,  to  +  mini- 
St  rare,  to  attend,  manage).  In  general,  the  man- 
agement or  conduct  of  any  business:  especially, 
in  politics,  executive  government.  In  its  broad- 
est sense,  in  public  affairs,  it  means  the  full  ac- 
tivity of  the  government  engaged  in  the  practical 
exercise  of  its  authority  in  conformity  with  the 
constitution  of  the  nation.  But,  according  to 
a  usage  quite  general,  administration  refers  only 


ADMINISTRATION. 


121 


ADMINISTRATIVE  LAW. 


to  those  functions  of  tlic  j;ov(Mnnicnt  exereispd 
tlirough  tlic  executive  and  judicial  departments. 
It  eonipreliends  all  the  activities  of  the  State 
except  those  relating  to  the  makiufj  of  laws  by 
the  legislature.  The  organization  of  administra- 
tion may  be  divided  into  two  kiiuls,  centralized 
and  localized.  In  small  States  the  administrative 
system  must  necessarily  have  a  municipal  rather 
than  a  Federal  character.  Thus,  in  the  States 
of  ancient  Greece  and  Kome  and  of  media'val 
Italy  we  find  the  system  suited  to  the  w'ants  of  a 
single  town.  Wlien  the  State  expanded  beyond 
these  dinu'nsions,  the  municipality  was  trans- 
formed into  a  centralized  form  of  government. 
Administration  in  American  politics  is  a  gen- 
eral term  given  to  the  Federal  or  a  State  execu- 
tive government.  Our  national  administration  is 
composed  of  the  President  and  his  Cabinet.  The 
term  does  not  always  cover  the  actions  of  the 
majority  in  the  legislative  branches,  as  fre- 
quently this  majority  is  antagonistic  to  the 
administration.  VVe  speak  of  Washington's  ad- 
ministration, meaning  the  Federal  executive  gov- 
ernment during  the  time  in  wliich  he  was  Pres- 
ident: and  of  the  policy,  acts,  omissions,  errors, 
etc.,  of  tile  administration  of  the  nation  or  of 
any  State.  The  supjiortcrs  of  the  oliicials  at 
the  time  in  power  are  called  the  administration 
party.  The  term  is  used  in  England  and  on  the 
continent  in  somewhat  similar  manner,  but  in 
England,  the  administration,  which  is  repre- 
sented by  the  premier  and  his  cabinet,  is  always 
composed  of  members  of  the  party  having  tlie 
legislative  majority. 

AiiMiNisTUATioN,  In  I, WW  A  term  applied 
to  the  management  and  disposal  of  a  de- 
ceased person's  estate.  It  includes  payment  of 
debts,  getting  in  of  credits  and  choses  in  action 
belonging  to  the  deceased  person, and  the  distribu- 
tion of  his  personal  estate  to  his  legatees  or  next 
of  kin.  Anciently,  the  king  as  parenn  patrii 
administered  decedent's  estate  through  his  ofTi- 
cers.  By  the  statute  of  Westminster  II.  this 
duty  was  delegated  to  tlic  ordinary,  and  by 
later  statute  he  was  directed  to  grant  admin- 
istration to  the  husband  or  wife  or  next  of  kin 
of  the  decedent.  To-day  the  jurisdiction  over 
decedents'  estates  is  coniniilted  in  England  to 
the  Court  of  Probate,  and  in  the  United  States 
to  courts  variously  known  as  probate  courts, 
surrogates'  courts,  and  orphans'  courts.  The  of- 
ficer of  administration,  if  appointed  by  will,  is 
called  an  executor;  if  not  nominated  by  will  and 
appointed  by  the  court  having  jurisdiction  over 
decedent's  estates,  he  is  called  an  administrator. 
An  administrator  may  be  temporar;/.  when  he  is 
appointed  pending  litigation  upon  the  cpicstion 
as  to  who  is  entitled  to  administer  upon  the  es- 
tate; or  irith  the  tcill  annexed,  when  the  w'ill 
faileil  to  name  an  executor,  or  the  executor 
named  fails  to  qualify  for  his  office;  or  <le  bonis 
non,  that  is,  to  administer  upon  the  goods  not 
administered  by  a  prior  administrator,  who  no 
longer  retains  liis  ollice  because  of  deatli  or  re- 
moval. Administration  may  also  be  ancillary, 
in  which  ease  the  ollicer  of  the  administration 
is  said  to  be  an  ancillary'  executor  or  adminis- 
trator. The  distin<'tion  is  a  consequence  of  the 
rule  that  the  place  of  administration  is  the  domi- 
cile of  the  decedent,  and  that  the  administrative 
officer  has  no  authority  outside  the  jurisdiction 
where  he  is  appointed  or  confirmed.  Thus,  when 
a  decedent  leaves  property  in  two  jurisdictions, 
his  estate  should  lie  administered  in  the  juris- 
VoL.  i.-iu. 


dii'tion  of  his  domicile,  and  the  administrative 
ollicer,  in  order  to  act  in  the  other  jurisdiction, 
should  obtain  an  appointment  ancillary  to  his 
appointment  in  the  domiciliary  jurisdiction.  It 
is  then  his  duty  to  transmit  the  assets  to  the 
jurisdiction  of  domicile,  to  be  there  administered. 
H.V  the  canon  law,  the  administrator  or  executor 
becomes  vested  with  title  to  the  decedent's  per- 
sonal jiroperty.  This  is  still  the  rule  by  statute 
in  most  jurisdictions..  In  ailditioii  to  the  duties 
already  referred  to,  special  duties  might  be  im- 
posed upon  an  executor  by  the  will.  In  most 
jurisdictions  the  administrator,  and  in  some  the 
executor,  is  required  to  give  a  bond  for  the  faith- 
ful performance  of  his  duties.  He  remains  bound 
on  bis  obligation,  and  subject  to  the  direction 
of  the  court,  until  his  final  accounting  and  dis- 
charge by  order  of  the  court.  See  Schouler, 
Treatise  on  the  Laie  of  Exeeutors  and  Adminis- 
trators, third  edition  ( Boston,  1901 )  ;  Woerner, 
Treatise  on  the  American  Law  of  Administra- 
tion, second  edition  (Boston,  1899)  ;  Williams, 
Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Legal  Hcpresentatives 
(London,  I  SUP). 

ADMINISTRATION,  MttlTABY.  A  form  of 
government  which  lakes  the  place  of  the  civil 
governing  powers  in  regions  placed  under  mar- 
tial law.  The  city  of  Paris,  during  the  war 
with  Germany,  187l)-71,  and  Cape  Cidony,  South 
Africa,  during  the  recent  Boer  War,  are  cases  in 
point.     See  Martial  Law. 

ADMIN'ISTRA'TIVE  LA'W.  That  part  of 
the  law  whicli  regulates  tlic  enforcement  of  the 
will  of  the  State  as  expressed  by  the  authorities 
which  are  permitted  by  the  governmental  sys- 
tem to  express  that  w'ill,  particularly  the  legis- 
lature. Since  it  is  necessary  under  all  govern- 
mental systems  that  authorities  be  formed  for 
the  purpose  of  enforcing  the  law,  administrative 
law  treats,  in  the  first  jilace,  of  the  organization 
of  the  administrative  authorities.  This  portion 
of  the  administrative  law  determines  the  orga- 
nization of  the  administrative  authorities,  both 
those  having  jurisdiction  over  the  entire  State 
( who  arc  known  as  central  administrative 
authorities),  and  those  having  jurisdiction  over 
only  a  iiortion  of  the  State,  who  are  known  as 
local  authorities.  In  the  Lfnited  States,  e.g., 
the  administrative  law  treats:  of  the  Presideni;; 
the  heads  of  the  Federal  executive  departments 
and  their  subordinates  (both  at  Washington  and 
in  the  districts  into  which  the  country  is  divided 
for  ]iiirposes  of  Federal  administration,  such  as 
the  customs  and  internal  revenue  districts)  ; 
the  State  governor  end  State  officers  generall.v; 
or  the  county,  town,  and  city  officers.  Since  no 
iidministrative  oflicer  may  legally  take  any  ac- 
ticui  which  he  is  not  authorized  by  the  law  to 
take,  the  administrative  law  treats,  in  the  second 
]ilace,  of  the  jiowcrs  and  duties  of  administrative 
officers:  in  other  words,  of  administrative  func- 
tions. Finally,  since  there  is  no  use  in  delimit- 
ing by  law  the  powers  and  duties  of  adminis- 
trative officers,  unless  some  means  is  provided  of 
preventing  them  from  exceciling  their  powers  and 
forcing  them  to  perform  thfir  duties,  administra- 
tive law  treats  of  the  remedies  alTorded  in  case 
of  an  excess  of  power  or  violation  of  duty. 
American  administrative  law  thus  embraces  cer- 
tain well  defined  minor  branches  of  the  .Vmeriean 
law.  such  as  the  law  of  otricers,  the  law  of  muni- 
cipal corporations,  the  law  of  taxation,  the  law 
of   public   nuisances    (whether   common   law  or 


ADMINISTRATIVE  LAW. 


122 


ABMIBAX. 


statutory),  the  law  of  extraordinary  legal  reme- 
dies (such  as  mandamus,  prohibition,  certiorari, 
quo  warranto,  and  habeas  corpus),  as  well  as 
the  law  of  equitable  remedies,  so  far  as  they  are 
applicable  to  public  authorities. 

tJiBLiOGRAPHY.  On  the  general  subject,  Good- 
now.  Comparative  Administrative  Laip  (2  vol- 
umes. New  York,  1893)  ;  on  special  parts  of 
the  subject,  Mechem,  Lair  of  Offices  and  Officers 
(New  York,  1890)  :  Dillon,  Lair  of  iliinicipal 
Corporations  (Boston,  1881)  ;  Cooley,  Law  of 
Taxation  (Chicago,  1883)  ;  Prentice,  Police 
Powers  (New  York,  1894)  :  High,  Extraordinary 
Legal  Remedies    (Chicago,  1884). 

AD'MIRABIiE    CEICH'TON,    kri'ton.      See 

CRICHTUX,   .J.iJIES. 

AD'MIRABLE  DOCTOR.  A  translation  of 
the  Latin,  Doctor  Admirabilis,  a  title  given  to 
Friar  Roger  Bacon  (1:214-94)  on  account  of  his 
extensive  knowledge. 

AD'MIRAI.  The  title  of  a  naval  officer  of 
the  liighest  rank.  The  word  is  derived  from  the 
Arabic  amJr,  or  amir  al-  (Jord,  or  chief  of  the), 
forming  the  first  part  of  many  compound  words, 
such  as  amir  al-mu'minin,  "commander  of  the 
faithful;"  amir  al-umard,  "commander  of  the 
forces;"  amir  al-iahr,  "commander  of  the  sea;" 
amir  nl-umara  'asHkir,  "commander  of  the  troops, 
marshal."  The  term  appears  to  have  been  in- 
troduced into  Europe  during  the  Crusades,  and  to 
have  been  first  used  in  a  definite  sense  by  the 
Sicilians  and  afterwards  by  the  Genoese.  In 
French  the  word  is  preserved  without  change, 
as  amiral:  in  Spanish  and  Portuguese  it  has 
developed  into  almirante,  and,  in  Italian,  into 
ammir-aglio.  The  early  English  form  was  doubt- 
less similar  to  that  of  the  French,  as  we  find  it 
spelled  amyrell  and  admyrall.  It  was  Latinized 
in  England  as  admiraliuSf  and  as  early  as  the 
time  of  Edward  III.  was  Anglicized  as  admyrnll. 
The  first  English  "admiral  of  the  seas"  of  whom 
there  is  any  record  was  William  de  Leybourne, 
1297.  His  office,  however,  was  not  that  of  a 
commander  of  sea  forces,  but  embraced  those 
general  and  extensive  powers  afterwards  asso- 
ciated with  the  title  of  lord  high  admiral  of 
England;  that  is,  both  the  administrative  func- 
tions now  vested  in  the  lords  commissioners  of 
the  admiralty  (five  in  number)  and  the  judicial 
authority  belonging  to  the  ])resent  higli  court  of 
admiralty.  The  office  of  lord  high  admiral  was 
last  filled  by  the  Duke  of  Clarence,  afterward 
William  IV.  Upon  his  resignation  in  1828  it 
was  put  in  commission,  reverting  to  a  previous 
practice.  The  duties  of  the  oflice  were  adminis- 
tered by  a  board  of  commissioners  from  1C32  to 
about  1650,  from  168.5  to  1702,  and  from  1708 
to  1827,  while  under  the  commonwealth  they 
were  performed  by  a  committee  of  Parliament. 

In  the  United  States  Na^-y  the  grades  of  ad- 
miral, vice-admiral,  and  rear-admiral  were  es- 
tablished by  act  of  Congress,  primarily  for  the 
purpose  of  conferring  exceptional  distinction 
upon  the  great  naval  commander  Captain  Daviil 
Glasgow  Farragut  (q.v.).  The  lowest  of  these 
grades,  that  of  rear-admiral,  was  established  in 
1862,  as  was  also  that  of  commodore;  though  the 
latter  had  previously  existed  as  a  courtesy  title 
without  authority  of  law.  The  number  of  rear- 
admirals  on  the  active  list  was  limited  to  nine. 
In  1864  the  President  was  authorized  to  appoint 
one  of  the  rear-admirals  a  vice-admiral.  Under 
the  laws,  Captain  Farragut  became  the  first  com- 


modore, first  rear-admiral,  and  first  vice-admiral. 
In  1866  Congiess  provided  for  an  active  list  of 
one  admiral,  one  vice-admiral  and  ten  rear-ad- 
mirals. Farragut  was  juomoted  to  be  admiral, 
and  Rear-Admiral  David  B.  Porter  to  be  vice- 
admiral.  On  the  death  of  Farragut  (1870), 
Porter  became  admiral  and  Rear-Admiral  Steph- 
en Clegg  Rowan  was  promoted  to  be  vice-admiral. 
With  the  death  of  Porter  (1891)  ,and  Rowan 
(1890),  the  grades  of  admiral  and  vice-admiral 
became  extinct.  In  1899  the  grade  of  admiral 
was  reestablished,  and  Rear-Admiral  (ieorge 
Dewey  was  promoted  to  fill  the  vacancy  in 
recognition  of  his  services  in  the  battle  of 
Manila  Bay,  and  of  his  judicious  management 
of  the  difficult  international  situation  follow- 
ing the  defeat  and  destruction  of  the  Span- 
ish fleet.  In  1882  Congiess  reduced  the  number 
of  rear-admii-als  on  the  active  list  to  six  and 
the  number  of  commodores  to  ten;  but  in  1899 
the  number  of  rear-admirals  was  increased  to 
eighteen  and  tlie  grade  of  commodore  on  the 
active  list  abolished.  In  addition,  the  chiefs  of 
the  bureaus  of  the  navy  department  liave  the 
rank  of  rear-admiral  during  their  term  of  office, 
L'nder  the  original  act  of  Congress  ( November 
15,  1776),  looking  to  the  establishment  of  the 
ranks  of  admiral,  vice-admiral,  .and  rear-admiral, 
the  first  named  ranked  with  tlie  general  of  the 
army,  the  second  with  a  lieutenant-general,  and 
the  last  with  a  major-general.  Since  1862  va- 
rious acts  liave  confirmed  these  provisions;  but 
the  act  of  1899,  which  abolished  the  rank  of 
commodore,  provided  that  the  first  nine  rear- 
admirals  should  rank  with  major-generals  and 
tlie  second  nine  with  brigadier-generals.  The 
act  of  1899  fixed  the  pay  of  flag  officers  as  fol- 
lows: Admiral,  $13,500  at  sea  or  on  shore; 
senior  nine  rear-admirals,  $7500  while  at  sea, 
or  on  shore  duty  beyond  seas,  and  $0375  while  on 
shore  duty;  junior  nine  rear-admirals,  $5500 
while  at  sea,  or  on  shore  duty  beyond  seas,  and 
$4675  while  on  shore  duty.  The  pay  of  officers 
on  the  retired  list  is  seventy-five  per  centum  of 
their  active  pay  at  time  of  retirement.  The 
number  in  1902  on  this  list  was  forty-three. 
The  flag  of  the  admiral  is  a  rectangular 
blue  flag  witli  four  white  stars,  and  is  flown  at 
the  main ;  that  of  the  vice-admiral,  flown  at  the 
fore,  is  a  similar  flag,  with  tliree  stars.  The 
flag  of  a  rear-admiral,  flown  at  tlie  mizzen,  is 
similar  in  shape,  has  two  stars,  and  is  usually 
blue  in  color,  but  in  case  two  or  more  rear-ad- 
mirals are  in  company  the  senior  flies  a  blue 
flag,  the  second  in  rank  a  red  flag,  and  the  junior 
a  white  flag.  For  illustration  see  Plate  of  United 
States  Flags  accompanying  Flag. 

In  the  British  Navy  the  admirals  are  dis- 
tinguished iiilo  three  classes:  Admirals,  vice- 
admirals,  and  rear-admirals;  the  ailmiral  carry- 
ing his  colors  at  the  main,  the  vice-admiral  at 
the  fore,  and  the  rear-admiral  at  the  niizzen- 
masthead.  In  former  times  each  grade  was  sub- 
divided into  three  sections,  known  as  admirals 
(or  vice  or  rear  admirals)  of  the  red.  of  the 
white,  and  of  the  blue,  respectivelj-.  The  flag 
hoisted  by  the  admiraf  (thence  called  a  flag  offi- 
cer) agreed  in  color  with  his  section;  and  all 
the  ships  under  his  command  carried  ensign  and 
pennant  of  the  same  hue;  but  the  distinction  was 
otherwise  without  practical  effect  and  is  now 
abolished.  Admiral  of  the  fleet  is  a  higher  rank, 
conferred  at  the  will  of  the  sovereign.  The  rates 
of  full  or  sea  pay  of  flag  officers  are  as  follows: 


ASMIKAL. 


133 


ADMIBALTY  LAW. 


Admiral  of  the  fleet,  per  daj',  £6;  admiral,  £5; 
vici-adiiiinil,  £4;  rear-admiral,  £3.  An  admiral 
c'oiiniiandiii;;-incliicf  rocoives  £.'i  a  day  additional 
at  home  and  £4  10s.  abroad,  as  talde  money.  In 
1901  there  were  seventy-tlirec  (la;;  ollicers  on  the 
active  list  in  the  British  Xavy:  viz.,  five  admirals 
of  the  lleet,  ten  admirals,  twenty-one  viee-ad- 
niirals,  and  thirty-seven  rear-admirals;  and  on 
retired  and  reserved  pay,  two  admirals  of  the 
fleet,  seventy-two  admirals,  and  one  hundred  and 
one  rear-admirals.  The  admiral  of  the  fleet 
takes  rank  with  a  field  marslial,  admirals  with 
generals,  vice-admirals  with  lieutenant-generals, 
and  rear-admirals  with  major-generals. 

ADMIRAL.  1.  In  entomology,  any  of  sev- 
eral iiyni|ilialid  buttcrllies,  ordinarily  the  "red" 
admiral  [  I'l/nimcis  attiUiiitu) .  common  tlirough- 
out  North  America,  Kurope.  northern  Asia,  and 
Afrioa.  It  has  an  expanse  of  about  2',<,  inches, 
and  is  brown,  the  hinder  wings  broadlv  margined 
with  red,  including  a  row  of  four  dark  dots;  the 
same  color  forms  a  curved  diagonal  b.md  across 
the  fore  wings,  beyond  which  the  angle  of  the 
wing  is  spotted  with  white  and  edged  with  pur- 
ple. (See  Plate  of  Amkbic.w  Ui  ttkrflik.s.)  The 
caterpillar  is  IVis  indies  long,  l)rown  and  spinous; 
the  chrysalis  is  brown,  naked,  and  suspended  to 
the  food-plant  upon  which  the  larva  has  fed, 
usually  some  species  of  nettle,  hop,  or  related 
plant.  Butterflies  of  the  related  genus  Basilar- 
chia  are  called  white  admirals. 

2.  In  conchology,  a  cone  {Conus  ammiralis) 
whose  shell   WMs   formerly  rare  and  valuable. 

ADTVURALTY,  The.  In  England,  the  state 
department  which  exercises  the  administrative 
functions  of  the  lord  high  admiral,  and  which, 
accordingly,  has  the  management  of  all  matters 
concerning  the  British  Navy  and  the  royal 
marines.  These  functions  of  the  lord  high  ad- 
miral have  been  transferred  to  and  vested  in  a 
board  of  commissioners.  (See  Admiral.)  The 
constitution  and  functions  of  this  body  will  now 
be  described. 

The  board  of  admiralty,  as  at  present  consti- 
tuted, comprises  five  lords  commissioners  of 
the  admiralty,  who  decide  collectively  on  all 
important  questions.  Besides  this  collective 
or  corporate  action,  each  commissioner  has 
special  duties  assigned  to  him.  There  are  two 
civil  or  political  lords,  and  three  naval  or  sea 
lords.  The  (Irst  lord,  who  is  always  a  cabinet 
minister,  besides  a  general  control,  has  the  man- 
agement of  naval  estimates,  finance,  political 
affairs,  slave-trade  prevention,  appointments, 
and  promotions.  The  first  naval  lord  numages 
the  composition  and  distribution  of  the  fleet, 
naval  discipline,  appointment  of  inferior  officers, 
commissioning  ships,  general  instructions,  sail- 
ing orders,  and  the  naval  reserve.  The  second 
naval  lord  attends  to  armaments,  manning  the 
navy,  the  coast-guard,  the  marines,  marine  artil- 
lerv.  and  naval  apprentices.  The  third  naval 
lord  has  control  over  the  purchase  and  disposal 
of  stores,  victualing  ships,  navy  medical  affairs, 
transports,  convicts,  and  pensioners.  The  junior 
civil  lord  attends  to  accounts,  mail-packets, 
Greenwich  hospital,  naval  cha))lains,  and  schools. 
Naval  architecture,  the  building  and  repairing  of 
ships,  steam  macliinery.  an<l  new  inventions  are 
superintended  by  the  Comptroller  of  the  Xavy, 
who  is  not  a  member  of  the  board,  but  is  dircctlv 
responsible  to  the  first  lord.  I'nder  the  lords 
are    the    first    secretary     (parliamentarv) ,     the 


second  secretary  (permanent),  and  the  naval 
secretary  (professional),  who  manage  the  daily 
office  work.  The  lords  all  resign  wdien  the  prime 
minister  resigns,  and  those  who  have  seats  in 
Parliament  are  replaced  by  others. 

ADMIRALTY  INLET.  The  central  and 
main  passage  of  I'uget  Sound  (q.v. ),  forming 
in  its  southern  part  the  eastern  branch  of  the 
arm  of  the  sea  which  here  penetrates  the  State  of 
Washington.  The  wi<lth  varies  from  one  to  ten 
miles,  and  the  channel  is  obstructed  by  relativel.v 
few  islands.  The  coast  line  is  marked  b.v  a  suc- 
cession of  projecting  points  of  land  and  receding 
minor  inlets,  which  render  the  form  as  a  whole 
exceedingly  irregiilar.  Seattle,  Tacoma,  and 
Port  Townsend  are  the  chief  cities  on  the  Inlet. 
The  channel  has  usually  a  depth  of  several  hun- 
dred feet,  and  thus  offers  valuable  facilities  for 
transportation. 

ADMIRALTY  IS'LAND  (Map:  Alaska.  .7 
4).  .\n  island  abmii  i^n  miles  long,  well  wooded 
and  watered,  incliiilci]  in  Alaska   (q.v.). 

ADMIRALTY  ISLANDS.  A  group  of  about 
40  islands,  constitviting  a  part  of  the  Bismarck 
.\rchipelago  (q.v.),  lying  to  the  northeast  of 
New  Guinea,  between  2°  and  3°  S.  lat.  and 
14G°  18'  and  147°  4(i'  £.  long.  (Map:  East  India 
Islands,  L  5).  The  largest  is  about  .50  miles 
long  from  east  to  west,  and  is  covered  with  rich 
vegetation.  They  abound  in  eocoanut  trees  and 
are  inhabited  by  savages.  They  were  discovered 
by  the  Dutcli  in  Killi  and  became  a  German  pro- 
tectorate in  ISS.'i. 

ADMIRALTY  LAW.  The  system  of  law 
and  procedure  relating  to  maritime  transactions. 
It  owes  its  name  to  the  fact  that  originally  it 
was  administered  in  England  by  the  lord  high 
admiral.  Not  only  its  rules  of  substantive  law 
but  its  proiedure  were  adopted  from  the  civil 
law,  and  from  such  sea  codes  as  those  of  Rliodes 
(q.v.)  and  Oh'ron  (q.v.).  This  fact,  and  its 
adaptability  to  new  causes  of  action,  which  led 
suitors  to  resort  to  the  admiralty  rather  than  to 
the  common  law  courts,  aroused  the  hostility  of 
the  common  law  bench  and  bar.  The  contest 
between  the  partisans  of  the  two  systems  which 
followed  resulted  in  contracting  the  jurisdiction 
of  English  admiraltv  courts  to  very  narrow 
limits,  ilodcrn  statutes  have  extended  it,  and 
have  also  made  the  Court  of  Adniirall,v  a  part 
of  the  Su|ireme  Court  of  Judicature,  forming  it. 
with  the  courts  of  probate  and  divorce,  into  the 
probate,  divorce,  and  admiralty  divisions.  At 
l)rcsent  the  ordinary  jurisdiction  of  English 
admiralt.v  courts  embraces  actions  to  recover 
possession  of  a  ship,  to  recover  damages  for 
injuries  to  shipping,  to  recover  seamen's  wages, 
for  salvage,  for  necessaries  supplied  to  a  sliip, 
for  bottomry,  respondentia  (q.v.).  and  mortgage, 
for  pilotage  and  towage,  for  restoration  of  goods 
taken  by  pirates,  and  for  assaults  or  batteries 
on  the  high  seas. 

By  the  United  States  constitution  (Article 
III.,  §  2),  the  cognizance  of  "all  cases  of  admir- 
alty and  maritime  jurisdiction"  is  granted  to 
the  Federal  judiciary.  The  limits  of  this  grant 
of  judicial  authority  were  in  doubt  for  many 
years.  On  the  one  hand  it  was  insisted  that 
the  admiralty  jurisdiction  of  the  Federal  courts 
was  confined  to  the  cases  cognizable  by  the  Eng- 
lish admiralt.v  when  our  States  separated  from 
the  mother  country.  On  the  other  hand,  it  was 
argued  that  the  broad  language  of  the  constitu- 


ADMIRALTY  LAW. 


124 


ADOLF. 


tion  extended  this  jurisdiction  to  all  eases  of 
maritime  law.  The  latter  view  has  prevailed, 
and  to-day  the  Federal  courts  of  admiralty  have 
cognizance  of  all  maritime  cases  arising,  not 
only  on  the  high  seas  and  great  lakes,  but  on 
almost  all  navigable  rivers  and  canals  within 
the  United  States.  While  the  United  States  have 
no  court  whose  duties  and  jurisdiction  are  con- 
fined to  admiralty  cases,  the  district  courts 
possess  exclusive  original  jurisdiction  over  all 
admiralty  and  maritime  cases.  From  their 
final  decisions  appeals  may  be  taken  to  the 
Circuit  Court  of  Appeals  and  to  the  Supreme 
Court.  The  Federal  courts  sitting  in  ad-..iiralty 
have  criminal  as  well  as  civil  jurisdiction:  but 
their  practice  in  criminal  cases  is  similar  to 
that  of  common  law  courts,  including  trial  by 
jury.  The  State  courts  of  this  country  have  no 
admiralty  jurisdiction.  Consult:  Benedict,  The 
American  Admiralty,  Its  Jurisdiction  and  Prac- 
tice (Albany,  1900)  :  and  Roscoe,  Treatise  on  the 
Jurisdiction  and  Practice  of  the  Admiralty  Divi- 
sion of  the  High  Court  of  Justice  (London, 
1882). 

ADMIRALTY  SOUND.  A  southern  exten- 
sion of  the  Strait  of  Jlagellan  near  its  middle 
part,  penetrating  Tierra  del  Fuego  to  a  distance 
of  nearlv  100  'miles.  Its  mouth  is  partially 
blocked  by  Dawson  Island.  In  the  last  50  miles 
of  its  extent  its  width  varies  from  5  to  10  miles. 
The  coast  land  is  elevated. 

ADMIS'SION.  In  the  law  of  evidence,  a 
confession  or  acknowledgment  of  a  party  to  an 
action,  made  at  any  time,  as  to  the  existence  of 
a  fact.  They  are  admissible  in  evidence  against 
him  at  the  trial  of  the  action,  but  never  in  his 
favor  in  any  case  when  the  existence  of  the  fact 
is  relevant  to  the  issue  at  the  trial.  The  com- 
petency of  this  class  of  evidence  constitutes  a 
well  settled  exception  to  the  so-called  "hearsay 
evidence"  rule,  that  statements  not  made  under 
cath  and  not  subjected  to  the  test  of  cross-exam- 
ination at  the  trial  shall  not  be  permitted  to  be 
given  in  evidence.  While  admissions  admissible 
in  evidence  are  most  frequeiitly  made  by  a  party 
to  the  action,  they  may  be  made  by  one  acting 
by  his  authority  or  by  one  identical  in  interest 
with  him.  Thus,  admissions  made  by  an  agent, 
or  servant,  or  by  the  husband  or  wife  of  a  party, 
will  be  received  in  evidence  against  him  if  actu- 
ally or  impliedly  authorized  by  him.  Admissions 
made  by  one  claiming  under  the  same  title  or 
interest  as  the  party  are  also  admissible  in  evi- 
dence against  him.  For  example,  admissions 
made  by  a  deceased  person  during  his  lifetime 
are  admissible  against  his  executor  or  admin- 
istrator, and  admissions  made  by  the  owner  of 
real  estate  with  reference  to  his  title  are  com- 
petent evidence  against  his  grantee,  when  the 
grantee  is  a  party  to  an  action  in  which  his 
title  is  in  issue.  In  England  the  doctrine  of 
admissions  made  with  reference  to  title  to  real 
property  has  been  extended  to  apply  to  cases 
of  admissions  made  with  reference  to  title  of 
personal  property  and  negotiable  paper  indorsed 
before  due:  but  in  the  United  States  the  ten- 
dency has  been  to  limit  the  application  of  the 
rule  to  admissions  made  with  reference  to  real 
property. 

In  criminal  law  admissions  of  guilt  by  one 
accused  of  a  crime  are  technically  known  as 
confessions.  At  common  law  confessions  were 
held  not  to  be  competent  evidence  against  the 


prisoner  when  obtained  by  threats  or  promise 
of  favor,  and  modern  statutes  have  generally 
still  further  limited  the  admissibility  of  confes- 
sions in  evidence. 

Admission  should  be  distinguished  from  ad- 
mission against  interest,  a  term  which  embraces 
a  distinct  class  of  evidence.  Admissions  against 
interest  are  %\ritten  statements  or  book  entries 
made  by  one  against  his  financial  or  proprietary 
interest,  and  are  admissible  in  evidence  in  any 
action  in  which  the  truth  of  the  matter  stated 
in  the  admissions  is  in  issue,  provided  the  person 
making  the  admission  be  dead  at  the  time  it  is 
offered  in  evidence.  The  person  making  the 
statement  need  not  represent  or  be  in  privity 
with  a  party  to  the  action  or  have  acted  by  his 
authority.  See  the  works  referred  to  under  the 
title  Evidence. 

AD'MONI'TIONISTS.  A  name  applied  to 
the  partisans  of  An  Admonition  to  the  Parlia- 
ment, published  in  1572  by  two  Puritan  clergy- 
men, and  of  the  Second  Admonition  to  the  Par- 
liament, in  which  Thomas  Cartwright  (q.v.), 
the  leader  of  the  sect,  likewise  advocated  the 
Presbyterian  system  of  church  government  and 
the  abolition  of  bishops  and  similar  dignitaries. 

ADOBE,  a-do'ba  (Spanish).  A  Spanish- 
American  name  applied  to  sun-dried  bricks  made 
from  any  suitable  material  which  becomes  hard- 
ened on  exposure  to  the  sun.  Such  bricks,  em- 
ployed largely  in  the  arid  and  semi-arid  districts 
of  North  America,  are  usually  made  in  two  sizes, 
the  approximate  dimensions  of  which  are  18  by  9 
by  4  inches,  and  16  by  12  by  4  inches.  Those  of 
the  latter  size  when  laid  alone  are  used  as 
"headers,"  i.e.,  with  the  greatest  dimension  cross- 
wise to  the  length  of  the  wall,  though  a  much 
stronger  wall  results  from  a  combination  of  the 
larger  size  as  headers,  with  the  smaller  as 
"stretchers,"  or  lengthwise  to  the  direction  of  the 
wall.  The  process  of  baking  consists  in  first  ex- 
posing the  newly  molded  adobes  to  the  direct 
rays  of  the  sun  for  a  day,  then  turning  them 
for  exposure  of  the  under  face  and  continuing 
the  exposure  for  from  seven  to  fourteen  days, 
eventually  stacking  the  finished  product  under 
cover  till  required  for  use.  Because  of  the  lack 
of  coherency  of  such  sun-baked  bricks,  adobes 
can  be  employed  only  in  regions  of  limited  rain- 
fall. Many  of  the  bricks  made  in  ancient  Egypt, 
Assyria,  and  Babylonia  were  made  of  clay  mixed 
with  straw  and  baked  in  the  sun. 

Adobe  Son..  A  term  applied  to  certain  clay 
soils  in  the  southwestern  i)ortions  of  tlie  ITnited 
States,  which,  when  moist,  are  of  exceeding  plas- 
ticity, and  when  dry  are  of  such  coherency  as 
to  prohibit  easy  tillage.  These  soils  may  be 
rendered  tillable  and  very  fertile  by  plowing 
into  the  moist  clay  considerable  quantities  of 
sand  loam.    See  Clay  and  Brick. 

ADOLF,  King  of  Germany.     See  Adolphus. 

ADOLF,  ii'dolf,  I.  (?1220).  Archbishop  of 
Cologne  from  1104  to  1205.  He  aimed  at  the 
aggrandizement  of  feudalism  at  the  expense 
of  tlie  roj'al  prerogative,  and  endeavored  to 
frustrate  the  plan  of  the  Emperor,  Henry  VI.,  to 
make  the  royal  succession  hereditary.  He  was 
one  of  the  foremost  opponents  of  the  Hohen- 
staufen  dynasty,  and  des])ite  his  oath  of  f>alty 
to  Frederick  II.,  and  in  defiance  of  the  will  of 
the  majority,  he  nominated  Otto  IV.  of  Bruns- 
wick, and  cro^^^^ed  him  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  June 


ADOLF. 


•125 


ADONIS. 


9,  1108.  Altliough  lie  ooiiiinriulpd  Otto  to  the 
protection  of  Pope  Imioeent  111.,  he  forestalled 
the  pHpal  iiillueiue  upon  the  iiiipeiial  election, 
and  when  liniiUy  Otto  revealed  his  inaliility  to 
protect  his  adherents  against  I'liilip  i}f  Swahia, 
Adolf  forsook  the  cause  of  his  former  prot^g6 
and  crowned  his  opponent  (1205).  He  was  c.\- 
comniunicated  hy  Pope  Innocent  111.  in  1205, 
and  deposed  the  same  year. 

ADOLF  I.  (!.•?-).•!  !10).  Archhishop  of  Mainz; 
one  of  the  most  turhulent  and  ag<^essive  princes 
of  the  Church.  In  1371  he  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Speyer,  and  two  years  later,  after  the 
death  of  his  rival,  .)ohn,  succeeded  to  the  see  of 
Mainz.  When,  at  the  instigation  of  Charles  IV., 
and  with  the  consent  of  the  Pope,  the  Landgrave 
of  Thuriiigia  sought  to  hring  about  his  deposi- 
tion, Adolf  firmly  maintained  his  ground,  and 
upon  the  outhreak  of  a  schism  in  the  Church 
ohtained  the  papal  sanction  of  both  Clement  VII. 
(Antipope)  and  Vrban  VI.  His  crafty  policy 
eventually  secured  for  him  an  extraordinary  in- 
(luence. 

ADOLF,  WiLHELM  August  Kakl  Friedrich 
(1H17 — ).  Grand  Duke  of  Luxemburg,  previous- 
ly Duke  of  Nassau,  the  eldest  son  of  Duke 
William  of  Nas.sau  by  his  first  wife,  Princess 
Louise  of  Sa.xe-Ilildburghausen.  He  succeeded 
his  father,  as  Duke  of  Nassau,  August  20,  1839. 
His  anti-progressive  policy  led  in  KS48  to  a  revolt 
which,  however,  was  speedily  svippressed.  In 
the  first  Schleswig-Holstein  War  he  commanded 
a  brigade  of  German  troops.  In  the  war  of  1866, 
he  sided  with  Austria,  and  as  a  result  was  de- 
prived of  his  territory.  During  the  illness  of 
King  William  III.  of  the  Netherlands,  Adolf,  as 
next  of  kin,  succee<led  to  the  government  of  the 
Grand  Duchy  of  Luxemburg,  tlie  ruler  of  which 
he  became  upon  the  death  of  William  III. 
(November   23,   1800). 

ADOLPHE,  a'dolf.  An  important  novel  by 
Benjamin  Constant  de  Rebecque,  published  in 
1810.  It  is  an  analytical  romance,  biised  upon 
Constant's  own  intimate  but  finally  unhappy 
relations  with  JIadame  de  Stael,  whom  the  hero- 
ine, Ellfnore.  somewhat  resembled.  In  the  hero, 
Adolphe,  is  found  an  even  more  realistic  pres- 
entation of  the  author's  own  sentimental  ex- 
perience. An  edition  of  the  book  in  18it0  was 
])ublished  by  Anatole  France. 

ADOL'PHUS,     or     ADOLPH,     of     Nassau 

(12.50-!I8).  King  of  Germany.  He  was  the  son 
of  Walram.  Count  of  Nassau.  He  was  elected  to 
succeed  lUuhdph  of  Hapsburg,  and  was  crowned 
King  of  the  Romans  (.luno  24,  1292) .  Adolphus 
agreed  to  assist  Kngland  in  her  war  with  France 
for  a  large  subsidy,  but  failed  to  fulfill  his  part 
of  the  contract.  For  certain  high-handed  acts 
he  was  BUmmoned  before  the  college  of  electoral 
princes,  lie  refused  to  appear,  and  was  foruKilly 
deposed  in  .lone.  1298.  the  crown  being  trans- 
ferred to  Rudolph's  sou.  .\lliert.  Both  took  the 
field  in  person,  and  ,\dolphus  was  killed  in  the 
first  battle.  Consult  Preger,  Albrcchl  roti 
Orsterreich  uiid  Adolf  von  S'assau  (Leipzig, 
1869). 

ADOLPHUS  FREDERICK  (1710-71).  Duke 
of  llolsti'iu-Ciottorp,  and,  later.  King  of  Sweden. 
He  was  elected  successor  to  the  Swedish  throne 
in  1743,  and  became  king  in  H.'il.  but  the  royal 
authority  was  so  circumscribed  by  the  council  of 
the  states  that  he  was  only  a  nominal  king.     In 


1709  he  ofTered  to  resign,  but,  on  some  conces- 
sions by  the  nobles,  was  induced  to  retain  the 
throne  till  his  death,  when  his  son,  Gustavus 
ill.,  succeeded  hini. 

ADOLPHUS,  .Joim  (1768-184.5).  An  Eng- 
lish historian  and  lawyer,  born  in  London.  He 
was  celebrated  in  criminal  practice,  and  gained 
much  credit  in  the  defense  of  Arthur  Thistle- 
wood,  charged  with  treason  in  the  Cato  Street 
conspiracy  in  London,  1820.  His  best  known 
work  is  the  History  of  England  from  the  Acces- 
sion of  (iriirijc  III.   (7  volumes,  1802-45). 

ADONAI,  Sd'fi-nfi'i  or  a-do'ni  (Heb.  lord,  or 
my  lord,  in  the  sense  of  nuister).  A  term 
adopted  in  the  Old  Testament  as  the  conven- 
tional pronunciation  of  the  name  of  God,  which 
is  written  with  four  consonants,  Y  H  W  H, 
and  which  was  probably  read  Yahweh,  See  Jb- 
iiovAir. 

ADO'NAI.     See  .Vdoxis. 

AD'ONA'IS.  The  title  of  an  elegy  written 
by  Shelley  in  1821  u])on  the  death  of  the  poet 
Keats,  who  is  therein  likened  to  Adonis  in  his 
untimely  end. 

AD'ONA'I  SHO'MO,  See  Communistic  So- 
rt eteks. 

ADO'NI  BE'ZEK.    See  AnoNr-ZEDEK. 
ADON'IC   VERSE.      A    dactyl    and   spondee 

( —  -^.^1 ) ,  or    dactyl    and    trochee     ( —  ^- 

~— •  I — -^  I ),  adapted  to  light,  lively  versification, 
as  in  the  famous  hymn : 

■■  riailclitocii'li: 
Kiili-at  a*tlu'r,"etc. 

ADONIJAH,  ad'6-ni'ja  (Heb.  Yahweh  is 
Lord).  A  son  of  David  and  Haggith  (1.  Kings 
ii  :  21),  born  at  Hebron.  After  Absalom's  death 
he  was  the  natural  heir  to  the  throne,  and  was 
supported  by  Joab  and  Abiathar.  He  called  to- 
gether his  sympathizers  at  a  sacred  stone  near 
.Terusalem  ( 1.  Kings  i  :  9) ,  but  Benaiah,  the  cap- 
tain of  the  bodyguard,  Zadok,  the  priest,  and 
Nathan,  the  projihet,  succeeded  by  the  aid  of 
Hathsheba  in  getting  the  king's  consent  to  the 
immediate  enthronement  of  Solomon.  Adonijali 
sought  refuge  at  tlie  horns  of  tlie  altar.  Solomon 
saved  his  life;  but  when  he  afterward  demanded 
Abishag,  David's  concubine,  for  a  wife,  it  was 
considered  a  plot  for  the  throne,  and  Solomon 
ordered  Benaiah  to  kill  him. 

ADO'NIS  (Gk.  •Af'uivr).  A  youthful  hunter, 
beloved  by  .\phrodile,  but  slain  by  a  boar  sent, 
according  to  one  version,  by  the  jealous  Ares. 
Aphrodite  descended  to  the  lower  world  and  won 
from  Pcrse])hone  permission  for  her  favorite  to 
return  to  the  light  for  a  time  every  year. 
Another  and  seemingly  older  myth  makes  .Vjihro- 
dite  and  Persephone  (puirrel  for  the  possession  of 
the  beautiful  infant.  Zeus  finally  decided  that 
he  should  spend  four  months  with  each  of  the 
goddesses  and  four  months  as  he  chose.  The 
legends  about  Adonis  have  sprung  from  the  rites 
of  the  Adonia.  a  festival  celebrated  in  midsum- 
nu'r.  On  one  day  the  loving  uniiui  of  .Aphrodite 
and  .Adonis  was  rejircsented.  and  <in  the  other 
the  sorrow  caused  by  his  death.  .Ml  the  funeral 
rites  were  performed  by  women  about  little 
images  of  Adonis.  .A  special  feature  was  th« 
"gardens  of  Adonis,"  potsherds  filled  with  earth, 
in  which  quick-growing  plants,  such  as  lettuce 
and  fennel,  were  sown.  After  the  burial  these 
were   thrown   into  springs.     The  Adonia  was  a 


ADONIS. 


126 


ADOPTION. 


woman's  festival,  and  seems  to  have  been  cele- 
brated chiefly  by  courtesans  and  others  associ- 
ated in  the  worship  of  Aphrodite.  It  is  obvi- 
ously the  worship  of  a  spirit  of  vegetation,  who 
is  believed  to  have  a  short  life,  die,  and  then  rise 
again  to  renewed  life  for  a  season.  Similar  rites 
were  widely  spread,  and  in  Phoenicia  were  associ- 
ated with  Thammuz.  The  theory  that  the  name 
and  worship  of  Adonis  are  Semitic  is  not  proved, 
though  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  form  of  the 
earlier  Greek  cult  was  powerfully  influenced  by 
the  ecstatic  and  orgiastic  rites  of  the  eastern 
Mediterranean  peoples. 

ADONIS.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Ranunculacese.  The  species  are, all  herba- 
ceous— some  of  them  annual  and  some  perennial. 
Several  are  natives  of  Europe,  but  only  one, 
Adonis  autumnalis,  sometimes  called  Pheasant's 
Eye,  is  a  doubtful  native  of  Great  Britain,  where 
it  occurs  as  a  weed  in  wheat  fields.  It  has 
become  sparingly  naturalized  in  several  places  in 
the  United  States.  Its  bright  scarlet  petals 
have  obtained  for  it  the  name  of  Flos  Adonis, 
their  color  having  been  fancifully  ascribed  to 
their  being  stained  with  the  blood  of  Adonis.  It 
is  a  well-known  ornament  of  our  gardens,  in 
which  also  Adonis  aestivalis  frequently  appears, 
and  Adonis  vernalis,  a  perennial  species  common 
upon  the  lower  hills  of  the  middle  and  south  of 
Germany,  with  early  and  beautiful  flowers. 

ADO'NI-ZE'DEK  ( Heb.,  Zedek  is  lord).  A 
king  of  .Jerusalem  who  opposed  resistance  to  the 
invasion  of  southern  Palestine  by  tribes  after- 
ward forming  a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah 
about  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century  B.C. 
Zedek  was  a  god  worsliiped  in  Syria  and  south- 
ern Arabia.  The  account  in  Judges  i.  is  more 
credible  than  that  in  Joshua  x.  Adoni-bezek  is 
probably  a  scribal  error  for  Adoni-zedek.  No 
place  called  Bezek  has  been  found,  and  "Lord  of 
Bezek"  would  not  be  a  natural  name.  No  god 
by  the  name  of  Bezek  is  known.  On  the  other 
hand,  Adoni-zedek  reminds  one  strongly  of  Mel- 
chizedek,  "Zedek  is  king,"  another  ruler  of 
Jerusalem  (Genesis  xiv) . 

ADOP'TIAN  CON'TROVERSY,  The.  An 
echo  of  the  Arian  controversy.  It  originated 
toward  the  end  of  the  eiglith  century  in  S])ain. 
the  country  in  which  the  doctrine  of  .\rius  had 
longest  held  out.  Elipandus,  Archbishop  of  Tole- 
do, and  Felix,  the  learned  bishop  of  Urgel, 
advanced  the  opinion  that  Christ,  in  respect  of 
his  divine  nature,  was  doubtless  by  nature  and 
generation  the  Son  of  God;  but  that  as  to  his 
human  nature,  he  must  be  considered  as  only 
declared  and  "adopted"  through  the  divine  grace 
to  be  the  first-born  son  of  God  (Romans  viii  : 
29),  just  as  all  holy  men  are  to  be  adopted  as 
.sons  of  God,  although  in  a  less  lofty  sense.  The 
flame  of  controversy  thus  kindled  spread  into 
the  Frankish  Empire,  the  special  domain  of 
"Catholic"  Christianity,  and  gave  occasion  to 
two  synods,  one  held  at  Ratisbon  (702),  and 
another  at  Frankfort  (794),  in  which  Charle- 
magne took  part  in  person,  and  which  con- 
demned Adoptianism  as  heresy.  Tlie  Catholic 
doctrine  of  the  unity  of  the  two  natures  of  Christ 
in  one  divine  person  and  the  consequent  impos- 
sibility of  there  being  a  twofold  Son — an  origi- 
nal and  an  adopted — was  upheld  by  .\lcuin  and 
the  other  learned  men  of  Charlemagne's  court. 
At  the  synod  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (799).  Felix, 
yielding   to   compulsion,    recanted   his   opinions, 


without,  as  it  would  seem,  being  convinced.  Eli- 
pandus adhered  fanatically  to  his  views,  which 
were  in  after  times  defended  by  Folmar  (1100), 
Durandus  (died  1334).  and  the  Protestant  divine 
Calixtus  (died  1656).  Adoptianism  has  been 
erroneously  attributed  to  Duns  Scotus. 

ADOP'TION  (Lat.  udoptio,  a  taking  or  re- 
ceiving of  one  in  place  of  a  child,  from  ad,  to  + 
optarr,  to  choose,  select).  A  legal  institution  of 
much  importance  in  early  society,  because  of  the 
importance  attached  to  the  perpetuation  of 
household  worsliip  (particularly  the  worship  of 
deceased  ancestors)  ;  also  because  before  the  in- 
troduction of  testaments  an  heir  could  be  cre- 
ated only  by  adoption.  In  Roman  law  there  were 
two  forms  of  adoption:  viz.,  adropation  and 
adoption  in  the  strict  sense.  Adrogation  was  the 
earlier  form.  It  was  possible  only  where  the 
person  to  be  adopted  was  an  independent  person 
{sui  juris),  i.e.,  was  not  under  the  authority  ol 
a  father  or  grandfather.  It  took  place  origin- 
ally in  the  patrician  assembly  (comitia  curiattt) 
with  the  cooperation  of  the  pontifices.  Under 
the  emperors  it  was  effected  by  an  imperial  re- 
script. Adoption  in  the  strict  sense  was  the 
transfer  of  a  person  from  the  authority  of  his 
father  or  grandfather  into  the  paternal  author- 
ity of  the  adoptive  father.  It  was  accomplished 
by  formal  acts  in  the  presence  of  a  magistrate. 
It  was  usually  requisite,  alike  in  adrogation  and 
adoption,  that  the  adoptive  father  should  have 
no  children  at  the  time,  and  no  reasonable  pros- 
pect of  having  any.  He  was  also  required  to  be 
eighteen  years  older  than  the  person  adopted. 
Females  could  not  be  adrogated,  nor,  until  the 
third  century,  could  they  adrogate.  They  could 
be  adopted,  but  they  could  not  adopt.  Tlie  elTeet 
of  adrogation  was  to  place  the  adopted  person 
in  the  same  legal  position  for  nearly  all  pur- 
poses as  a  child  born  in  wedlock.  The  same  re- 
sults originally  attached  to  adoption,  but  Jus- 
tinian introduced  important  restrictions.  Adop- 
tion was  unknown  to  the  law  of  the  Teutonic 
nations;  and  though  most  of  the  States  of  the 
Continent  have  borrowed  it,  with  some  modifica- 
tions, from  the  Roman  law,  it  has  never  existed 
as  an  institution  in  England  or  Scotland,  either 
at  common  law  or  by  statute. 

As  English  common  law  made  no  provision 
for  the  adoption  of  children,  the  subject  is  regu- 
lated by  statute  in  many  States  of  the  United 
States.  While  State  legislation  upon  this  topic 
differs  in  detail,  its  characteristic  features  are 
as  follows:  .\ny  inhabitant  of  the  State,  of 
legal  age,  and  competent  to  contract,  may  adopt 
a  child,  provided  that  the  spouse  of  a  married 
adopter,  the  living  parents  of  the  adopted,  and 
the  child,  also,  if  above  a  certain  age  (usually 
twelve  or  fourteen  years),  consent  in  writing 
to  tlie  adoption.  In  some  States  the  transac- 
tion is  consummated  by  an  order  of  court,  in 
others  by  a  deed  duly  acknowledged  and  re- 
corded. As  the  claims  of  an  adopted  child 
are  in  derogation  of  the  common  law  rights 
of  the  heirs  and  next  of  kin  of  the  adopter, 
our  courts  are  disposed  to  put  a  strict  con- 
struction on  these  statutes,  and  to  treat  as 
invalid  an  adoption  which  has  not  been  made 
in  a  manner  which  conforms  to  every  stat- 
utory requirement.  As  a  rule,  the  legal  relation 
between  adopting  parents  and  adopted  children 
is  that  of  natural  parent  and  child,  including  the 
powers  of  parental  control,  the  duties  of  filial 
obedience,    and    reciprocal    property    rights    by 


ADOPTION. 


i2r 


ADRAHMELECH. 


inheritance.  In  a  few  States,  however,  the 
adopting  parent  does  not  inherit  from  the  adopt- 
ed oliild.  Consult:  Slinison,  Amrriran  ^talulc 
Law  (IJoston,  1886);  Sdiouler,  Treatise  on  the 
/.air  of  point  site  Kelalions  (Boston,  1900); 
WoodnilV.  Selection  of  Vaxes  on  Domcxtic  liela- 
tions  and  the  Law  of  Persons  (New  York,  1897)  ; 
and  see  I'Ar.ENr  AND  ClULU. 

AD'ORA'TION.  A  terra  originally  applied 
anion;;  the  Honians  to  an  act  of  homage  or  wor- 
shij)  performed  by  raising  the  hand  to  the  moutli 
( Lat.  ad  os,  whence  the  word),  kissing  it,  and 
then  waving  it  toward  the  object  of  reverence. 
It  was  natural  to  extend  to  great  men  tlie 
formal  adoration  at  first  paid  only  to  deities, 
and  tlie  Konian  emperors  were  saluted  by  bowing 
or  kneeling,  toudiing  the  imperial  robe,  and 
kissing  the  liand  that  did  so.  In  eastern  coun- 
tries the  form  of  adoration  was  to  full  on  the 
knees  at  a  prince's  feet,  strike  the  forehead  on 
the  ground,  and  kiss  the  lloor.  On  the  same  prin- 
ciple it  may  be  said  tliat  tlie  moiiern  practice  of 
kissing  a  sovereign's  hand  is  a  form  of  adora- 
tion :  and  similarly  the  custom  at  Rome  of  kiss- 
ing tlie  cross  embroidered  on  the  Pope's  slipper. 
While  the  term  adoration  is  very  generally  em- 
ployed nowadays  to  express  a  mental  attitude 
toward  God,  it  may  be  well  to  remember  that 
both  it  and  tlie  similar  term  worship  had  a 
much  more  limited  sense:  thus,  in  the  Knglish 
marriage  service  the  bridegroom  says  to  the 
bride:  "With  my  body  I  thee  worship  and  with 
all  my  worldly  goods  I  thee  endow."  Thus,  too, 
as  a.  matter  of  theological  terras,  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  makes  a  distinction  between 
latria.  tlie  worsliip  due  to  God  alone,  and  dulia, 
that  given  to  tlie  angels  and  saints. 

ADORATION  OF  THE  IMMACULATE 
LAMB,  The.  A  celebrated  altar  painting  in 
the  cathedral  of  Ghent,  Belgium,  by  the  Flemish 
artists  Hubert  and  Jan  van  Kyck.  It  represents 
Christ  surrounded  by  the  saints,  and  on  the 
lower  panels  the  sacrifice  of  the  lamb. 

ADORATION  OF  THE  MA'GI.  The  wor- 
ship of  the  infant  Christ  by  the  wise  men,  a 
freijuent  subject  in  religious  art.  Among  the 
well  known  works  with  this  title  are  pictures 
by  the  following  artists: 

Giovanni  Bellini,  in  the  National  Gallery, 
Ijondon. 

Sandro  Botticelli,  a  painting  on  wood  (date 
about  1480)  in  the  Uffixi  Gallery,  Florence.  His 
three  wise  men  have  the  faces  of  Cosimo,  Giuli- 
ano,  and  Giovanni  dc'  Medici. 

Albert  Diirer   (l.')04),  also  in  the  UlTizi. 

Domenico  Ghirlandajo,  in  the  church  of  Santa 
Maria  degli  Innoeenti,  P^lorence  (1488),  and 
another,  on  w<K)d,  in  the  Uflfizi    (1487>. 

Vittore  Pisano,  in  the  Berlin  Gallery. 

Remlirandt  (10.57),  in  Buckingham  Palace, 
London. 

Rubens,  who  produced  a  number  of  paintings 
of  this  subject,  for  various  churches,  the  mag- 
nificence of  costiune  which  it  permitted  in  the 
three  kings  being  well  suited  to  his  taste.  Not- 
able among  them  is  the  one  now  in  the  museum 
at  Brussels.  re|)iesenting  the  child  as  held  erect 
by  his  mother.  Others  are  in  the  Antwerp 
museum  and  in  the  Louvre,  Paris. 

II  Sodoma  (Giovanni  Antonia  Bazzi),  an  altar 
piece  in   the  church  of  San  Agostino,   at   Siena. 

Stcphan  Lochner,  in  his  famous  triptych,  the 
"Dombild,"  in  the  cathedral  of  Cologne. 


Tintoretto,  in  the  .Scuula  di  S:in  Roeco,  Venice, 
a  picture  especially  praised  bj'  Kuskin. 

Paolo  Veronese  (Cagliari),  by  whom  there  are 
paintings  with  this  title  in  the  National  (Jallery, 
London,  in  the  Brera.  Milan,  and  notably  one 
in  llic  gallery  at  Dresden. 

ADOUR,  a'door'.  A  river  in  France,  rising 
near  Tourmalet,  in  the  department  of  Haute.s- 
Pyr<''nees  (Map:  France,  E  8).  It  flows  through 
the  department  of  Gers  and  the  fertile  part  of 
the  department  of  Landes,  and  enters  the  At- 
lantic below  Bayonne,  after  a  course  of  200  miles. 
It  receives  several  tributaries,  and  is  navigable 
to  the  extent  of  80  miles.  Bagn&res-de-Bigorre. 
celebrated  for  its  hot  baths,  is  situated  on  the 
Adour. 

ADO'WA,  ii'dA-a.  or  ADTTA,  a'doo-:!.  The 
capital  of  the  Abyssinian  province  of  Tigrf',  situ- 
ated in  14°  12'  N.  lat.  and  39°  .3'  E.  lon^.  (Map: 
Africa,  H  3).  It  has  an  excellent  climate  on 
account  of  its  elevated  location,  and  was,  prior 
to  the  Italian  campaign  of  1890,  one  of  the  best 
built  cities  of  Abyssinia.  At  present  a  con- 
siderable part  of  it  is  in  ruins,  but  it  will 
probably  be  soon  restored  to  its  former  con- 
dition, as  the  town  is  an  important  commer- 
cial centre  and  is  on  the  route  of  the  proposed 
railway  line  from  Massowah  to  Gondar.  Its  Jiop- 
ulatiim  was  formerly  about  3000,  but  is  probably 
less  now.  Adowa  was  the  scene  of  the  defeat 
of  the  Italian  troops  under  General  Baratieri 
by  the  Abyssinians  on  March  1,  1896.  Consult: 
Setetin,  "La  bataille  d'.Vdoua:  Etude  tactique," 
in  volumes  IX.  and  X.,  Journals  des  Seiences 
Mititaires  (Paris,  1901). 

ADBA,  ii'dra.  A  seaport  town  of  Spain,  in 
the  province  of  Granada,  49  miles  southeast  of 
Granada.  It  is  situated  on  the  shore  of  the 
Mediterranean,  at  the  month  of  the  Adra  (Map: 
Spain.  D  4).  The  ancient  Abdera,  founded  by 
the  Phienicians,  was  on  a  hill,  at  the  base  of 
which  the  modern  town  stands,  in  a  situation 
unhealthful  on  account  of  swamps.  The  port 
is  not  good,  being  much  e.vposed  to  the  west. 
Lead  mines  in  the  neighborhood  give  employ- 
ment to  many  of  the  inhabitants  and  trade  to 
the  port.  Among  other  exports  are  grapes, 
wheat,  and  sugar.     Pop.,   1900,   11,246. 

ADRAIN',  Robert  (177.51843).  An  Irish- 
American  mathematician,  born  at  Carrickfergiis. 
During  the  Irish  rebellion  of  1798  he  was 
wounded  and  escaped  to  America,  where  he 
became  a  teacher  of  mathematics  and  occupied 
chairs  at  Rutgers  (1810-13),  Columbia  (1813- 
25),  and  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  (1827- 
34).  He  was  editor  of  the  .Uathmtaticdl  Diary 
(182:5-29).  and  prepared  an  edition  of  Hutton's 
Mathematics.  His  original  work  includes  papers 
on  the  sluipr  and  size  of  the  earth  and  on  gravity. 

ADRAM^MELECH  l  Hal.yl.  .\darmalik.  Ailar 
is  king).  1.  .\  god  worshiped  liy  (lie  inhabitants 
of  Sepharvaini  after  they  had  been  deported 
to  Samaria  by  Sargon  (11.  Kings  xvii  :  24.  31). 
Sepharvaini  has  been  supposed  to  be  the  Babylo- 
nian Sippar,  and  Adranniclech  a  divinity  Adar- 
iiiiilik.  But  Sepharvaini  is  more  likely  to  be 
the  Shabara'in  of  the  Babylonian  chronicle,  the 
Sibraim  of  Ezekiel  xlvii  :  16.  a  city  near  Damas- 
cus. Shamash.  not  Ninib  or  Adar,  was  the  god 
of  Sippar.  Adar  is  known  to  have  been  wor- 
shipped in  Phoenicia.  The  identification  of 
Adar  with  a  Melech,  or  Milk,  demanding  human 


ADRAMMELECH. 


128 


ADKIAN. 


sacrifices,  also  points  to  Syria  ratlier  than  to 
Babylonia,  wiiere  tiiere  is  no  evidence  tliat  such 
sacrifices  were  offered. 

2.  A  son  of  Sennacherib  who,  together  with 
his  brother  Shar-ezer,  killed  his  father  while 
he  was  worshipping  in  the  temple  of  Nisroch, 
his  god,  and  then  lied  to  Ararat  (II.  Kings  xix  : 
37).  The  Babylonian  chronicle  {Kcilinschrift- 
liche  Bibliothelc.  II.,  2S1)  mentions  only  one  son. 
It  is  possible  that  a  letter  to  "Shar-itir-Ashur, 
king  of  the  world,"  gives  us  the  throne  name  of 
this  son,  abbreviated  in  the  Hebrew  as  Shar- 
ezer.  who  held  the  throne  from  the  20th  Tebet 
to  the  2d  Adar,  <i81,  and  that  Adad-malik,  cor- 
rupted Adar-malik,  was  his  private  name.  The 
murder  undoubtedly  took  place  in  Babylon, 
according  to  a  statement  of  Ashur-banipal,  and 
the  temple  was  then  the  Id-zagila  of  Morduk, 
the  name  of  this  god  having  been  intentionally 
distorted,  as  in  the  case  of  Abd-nego  for  Abd- 
nebo.  Consult  Winekler,  in  Schrader's  Die  Keil- 
inschriften  und  das  Alte  Testament  (Leipzig, 
1902). 

ADRAB,  a-drar'.  A  region  in  the  western 
part  of  Sahara,  east  of  the  Spanish  possession 
of  Rio  de  Oro,  of  which  it  formerly  constituted 
a  part  (Map:  Africa,  C  2).  Its  area  is  esti- 
mated at  about  30,000  square  miles,  and  it  eon- 
tains  a  considerable  portion  of  fertile  land  on 
which  grain  and  dates  are  raised.  Its  position 
on  the  caravan  route  of  Morocco  gives  it  consid- 
erable commercial  importance.  The  inhabitants 
are  mostly  Berbers.  In  accordance  with  the 
agreement  of  1892  it  forms  at  present  a  part  of 
Fiench  Sahara.  Tlie  chief  town  is  Wadan,  with 
a  population  of  about  4000. 

ADRASTE,  a'drast'.  The  hero  of  Moliere's 
comedy  Le  Sicilien.  ou  I'amour  peintre  (q.v.), 
from  whose  disguise  as  an  artist  comes  the  sub- 
title of  the  piece. 

AD'RASTEI'A  (Gk.  'ASpncreia).  In  Grecian 
mythology,  the  Cretan  nymph  by  whom  the 
infant  Zeus  was  cared  for  in  the  cave  on  Mount 
Dicte,  at  his  mother's  request.  The  name  is 
also  applied  to  Rhea  herself  and  to  Nemesis. 

ADRAS'TUS  (Gk."Adpa(770f,Adras(os).  King 
of  Argos,  who  gave  his  daughter  in  marriage  to 
Polyniees,  son  of  CEdipus  (q.v.),  and  led  the 
expedition  of  the  "Seven  against  Thebes"  to 
restore  Polyniees  to  the  throne.  As  was  predict- 
ed by  Amphiaraiis  (q.v.),  Adrastus  alone  escaped 
alive.  A  later  story  makes  him  die  of  grief 
at  the  death  of  his  son  in  the  successful  war  of 
the  Epigoni  against  Tliebes.  Adrastus  was  wor- 
shiped at  Sieyon,  Megara,  Athens,  and  probably 
Argos  and   in  the   Troad.     See  Epigo:ni;    Eteo- 

CLES  AND  POLTNICES. 

ADRETS,  a'dra',  Fraxcois  de  Beaimont, 
Baron  des  (1.513-87).  A  French  Protestant  sol- 
dier, from  1562  prominent  for  persecuting  the 
Catholics  of  Dauphine  and  Provence.  He  was 
born  at  the  Chateau  de  la  Frettc,  Dauphine,  early 
entered  the  army,  and  during  the  wars  of  the 
League  achieved  a  reputation  for  cruelt,v  on  the 
Huguenot  side  corresponding  to  that  of  the  Duke 
of  Guise  or  the  notorious  Monthic  among  the 
Catholics.  His  acts,  however,  appear  to  have  been 
dictated  less  by  religious  fanaticism  than  by 
predilection  for  the  career  of  brigand  and  bravo. 
Having  assumed  the  style  of  lieutenant-general 
of  the  King,  he  organized  pillage  and  murder  on 
a    large    scale,    and,    as    Martin     ( Histoire    de 


France)  testifies,  he  left  among  the  simple  peas- 
antry a  name  repeated  for  centuries  as  synony- 
mous with  destruction.  Many  interesting  tales 
regarding  him  are  still  preserved.  Ultimately  he 
accepted  the  Roman  faith.  For  a  detailed  ac- 
count of  his  doings,  consult  Beza,  Histoire 
ecclesiastique  des  Eglises  Rcformees  (edited  by 
Baum.  Cunitz  and  R.  Reuss,  Paris,  1883-89,  3 
volumes ) . 

ADRIA,  a'dre-a  (ancient  Adria,  Atria, 
Badria,  or  Eatria).  An  episcopal  city  of  Italy, 
province  of  Rovigo,  16  miles  southwest  of  Venice 
(Map:  Italy,  G  2),  It  was  originally  an  island, 
and  in  tlie  time  of  the  Romans  was  a  station  for 
the  fleet  and  a  flourishing  port.  After  the  fall  of 
the  empire  frequent  inundations  of  the  Po  and 
the  Adige,  caused  by  the  bad  state  of  the  dikes, 
brought  do«Ti  alluvial  soil  and  gradually  extend- 
ed the  land  until  Adria  attached  itself  to  the 
continent.  It  is  now  14  miles  from  the  Adriatic. 
The  ruins  of  the  ancient  city  that  was  sacked  and 
burned  by  the  Venetians  in  the  fifteenth  century 
are  south  of  the  present  city  and  several  meters 
below  tlie  surface.  The  chief  trade  is  in  wine, 
cattle,  grain,  silk,  linen,  leather,  and  pottery. 
Pop.,   1000,  15,649. 

A'DRIAN.    Roman  emperor.  See  Hadrian. 

A'DRIAN.  The  county  seat  of  Lenawee  Co., 
Mich.,  on  the  Raisin  River,  at  the  intersection 
of  the  Wabash,  Lake  Shore,  Detroit  and  Detroit 
Southern  railroads,  33  miles  from  Toledo  and  . 
60  miles  from  Detroit.  It  was  settled  in  1825, 
incorporated  as  a  village  1828,  and  as  a  city 
1853.  The  city  has  good  public  schools  and  is 
the  seat  of  Adrian  College,  a  Methodist  Protest- 
ant institution,  and  of  the  State  Industrial  Home 
for  Girls,  Adrian  has  important  industrial  in- 
terests, including  extensive  wire  fence  works, 
electrical  works,  steel  post  works,  piano  and 
organ  works,  manufactures  government  mail 
boxes  and  mail-box  posts,  etc.  It  is  governed  by 
a  charter  adopted  in  1861  and  revised  in  1897, 
which  provides  for  a  mayor,  elected  annually, 
and  a  city  council  of  ten  members.  Adrian  car- 
ries on  its  public  works  bv  city  labor  under  city 
supervision.     Pop.,  1890,  8756;   1900,  9654, 

ADRIAN.  The  name  of  six  popes,  two  of 
them  of  considerable  interest.  Adrian  L,  Pope  M 
772-795,  invited  Charlemagne  to  enter  Italy,  His  H 
letters  are  in  Migne,  Pat.  Lai.,  xcviii. — Adri- 
an II.,  Pope  867-872.  His  letteis  are  in  Jligne, 
Pat.  Lat.,  cxxii.  and  cxxix. — Adrian  III. 
(Agapetus),  Pope  884-885.  He  was  the  first  occu- 
pant of  the  papal  chair  to  change  his  name  on 
election. — Adrian  IV.  (Nicholas  Brakspere) ,  Pope 
1154-59.  He  was  by  birth  an  Englishman,  the  only 
one  of  that  nation  who  ever  sat  in  the  papal 
chair.  His  father  became  a  monk  in  the  Bene- 
dictine monastery  of  St.  Albans,  and  so  Adrian 
was  in  earlv  life  thrown  on  the  world.  He  be- 
came first  a  la.v  brother  or  servant  in  the  mon- 
astery of  St.  Rufus,  about  50  miles  south  of 
Lyons,  France,  then  successively  regular  monk, 
prior,  and  in  1137  was  elected  abliot.  His  zeal 
for  strict  discipline  raised  a  combination  to  de- 
fame his  character,  and  he  had  to  appear  before 
Eugenius  III.  at  Rome.  Here  he  not  only 
cleared  himself  of  all  charges,  but  gained  the 
esteem  of  the  Pope,  who  appointed  him  Cardinal- 
bishop  of  Albano  in  1146.  and,  later,  delegate  to 
Scandinavia.  On  the  death  of  Anastasius  IV. 
in  1154.  he  was  raised  to  the  papal  see.  Adrian 
had  great  trouble  with  the  Roma'ns,  who  disliked 


ADRIAN. 


130 


ADRIFT. 


his  pretensions,  and  ueic  inlluenccd  by  Arnold  of 
llrescia,  wlmni  lie  oausi'd  to  l)e  put  to  death.  He 
was  on  friendly  terms  with  the  Kniperor  Freder- 
ick I.,  until  his  high  notions  of  the  papal  supre- 
maey,  which  he  carried  as  far  as  even  Gregory 
VI 1.,  led  to  the  beginning  of  that  long  contest  of 
the  popes  against  the  house  of  ilohenstaufen, 
which  ended  in  the  destruction  of  the  dynasty. 
lie  was  living  away  from  Koine  ii\  practical  exile, 
and  was  about  to  excomnuinicate  Krederick  when 
he  died  at  .Vnagni,  September  1,  11;")!).  His  most 
remarkable  pontifical  act  was  giving,  in  1154, 
Ireland  to  Henry  II.,  which  he  claimed  he  had 
the  right  to  do  because  all  islands  which  had 
been  Christianized  belonged  to  the  Holy  See. 
Consult:  S.  Malone.  Arliian  IV.  and  Ireland 
(London.  ISil'.l).  His  letters  are  in  Migne,  I'at. 
Lat.,  elxxxviii. — Aoni.\N  V.,  Pope  July  12- 
.Vjigust  IS.  l"27ti  (Otto  buono  de'  I'ieschi),  and  a 
cardinal-deacon  when  elected ;  he  died  before  he 
had  been  consecrated  a  bishop. — .\dri.\n  VT., 
Pope  .January  !),  1522,  to  September  14,  152.3.  His 
family  nanu'  was  (probably)  Dedel,  his  birthplace 
Utrecht  ( 145P) ,  his  first  teachers  the  Brothers  of 
the  Common  Life;  his  professional  studies  were 
made  at  Louvain,  and  there  he  became  professor 
of  theologj-.  He  was  appointed  tutor  to  Charles 
of  Hapsburg  (the  future  Emperor  Charles  V.), 
1507:  was  made  Bishop  of  Tortosa,  Spain,  1516; 
cardinal,  1517.  Charles  made  him  regent  of 
Spain,  1520,  but  the  Spaniards  resented  the  rule 
of  a  foreigner  and  embittered  his  life.  His 
troubles  did  not  cease  when  elected  Pope,  but  he 
inspired  respect  by  his  uprightness.  He  con- 
fessed to  serious  coriuptions  in  the  Church,  but 
died  before  he  could  do  anything  for  its  reform. 
Consult  the  Livrf:  bv  H.  Bauer  (Heidelberg, 
1876)  and  by  A.  Lcpitre  (Paris,  1880). 

A'DRIAN  DE  CASTELrLO,  or  ADRIANO 
DI  CASTELO,  ii'dre-U'n,*)  de  kas-tOl'lA  (c.l4(iO- 
C.1521).  An  Italian  scholar  and  ecclesiastic. 
He  was  born  in  Tuscany  and  went  to  England  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  VII..  who  made  him  his 
agent  at  Rome  and  gave  him  the  bishopric  of 
Hereford  (1502),  whence  he  was  translated  to 
that  of  Bath  and  Wells  (1505).  He  was  made 
cardinal  by  Pope  .Vlexander  VI.  (150:i).  In 
1517,  however,  he  was  implicated  in  the  con- 
spiracy of  Cardinals  Petriieci,  De  Sauli,  and 
Riario  to  poison  Leo  X.  and  was  deprived  of  his 
cardinalate  and  dignities  in  England  (15IH). 
\\'hat  became  of  him  afterward  is  uncertain. 
It  is  thought  that  he  lived  in  retirement  at 
Venice  and  was  murdered  while  on  his  way  to 
Rome  after  the  death  of  Leo  X.  in  1521.  His 
writings  include:  Ycnalio,  a  poem  (1505);  De 
Vera  Philosophia  (1507),  and  De  Sermone 
Latino  ct  Modo  Latine  Loqucndi   (1513). 

A'DRIANO'PLE  (Ok.  ' .Kfpiav6Troliu  fladria- 
n(>j)itlis\  tlic  city  of  Hadrian,  Turk.  Kdirneh) 
(Map:  Turkey  in  Kurope.  F  4).  .\  cily  of  Eu- 
ropean Turkey,  in  ancient  Thrace.  It  is  situated 
on  the  Maritza  (the  ancient  Hcbrus),  where  that 
river  is  joined  by  the  Arda  and  the  Tunja.  about 
140  miles  northwest  of  Constantinople,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  a  state  railway  line.  Its 
position  at  the  confluence  of  three  navigable 
rivers,  and  at  the  meeting  of  several  routes, 
niakes  it  a  place  of  considerable  commercial  im- 
portance. It  was  foriiierly  fortified  by  a  strong 
wall,  of  which  only  a  few  fragments  are  left.  The 
place  is  now  defended  by  an  extensive  circle  of  re- 
doubts.    Since  the  last  Russian-Turkish  war  the 


town  has  been  in  a  state  of  decline,  and  its  com- 
merce has  fallen  ofT  to  a  large  extent.  It  has  two 
tine  bazaars,  a  palace,  numerous  inns,  churches, 
and  schools.  The  population  is  about  80,000,  about 
half  of  whom  are  Turks  and  the  remainder  Bul- 
garians, Armenians,  and  tiews.  It  is  the  seat  of 
several  Euro[)ean  consuls.  A  very  ancient  town 
of  Thrace,  it  was  rebuilt  by  the  Emperor  Hadrian, 
who  gave  it  bis  name.  It  was  the  scene  of  an 
importjint  battle  between  the  Ooths  and  the  Ro- 
mans in  378  A.n.,  in  which  the  former  were  vic- 
torious and  broke  through  the  Roman  frontier, 
etTecting  a  settlement  within  the  limits  of  the 
empire.  The  city  was  conquered  from  the  Byz- 
antines by  Amurath  (Murad)  1.  in  l.'iOl,  and 
was  the  residence  of  the  Turkish  sultans  from 
that  time  down  to  1453.  The  Russian  general 
Diehitsch  occupied  Adrianople  in  1829.  By  the 
treaty  signed  here  on  September  14  of  that  year 
Russia  forced  Turkey  to  rclinriuish  to  her  the 
northeastern  coast  land  of  the  Black  Sea  and 
to  allow  her  to  establish  her  sway  over  the  tribes 
of  the  Caucasus;  to  cede  to  her  the  district  of 
Akhaltsikh ;  to  accord  to  her  a  protectorate  over 
Moldavia  and  Wallachia;  and  to  recognize  the 
independence  of  Greece.  After  the  capture  of  the 
Turkish  army  defending  the  Shi])ka  Pass,  in 
January,  1878,  the  Russians  entered  Adrianople 
unoppo.sed.  The  occupation  of  the  city  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  cessation  of  hostilities  and  the  con- 
clusion of  the  treaty  of  vSan  Stefano.  Adrianople 
is  the  capital  of  the  vilayet  of  the  same  name, 
with  an  area  of  about  15,000  square  miles  and 
a  population  of  about  1,000,000. 

A'DRIAN'S  WALL.     See  Roman  Wall. 

ADRIATIC  SEA,  a'dri-atik  or  ad'rl-  (From 
the  Etruscan  city  Hatria,  modern  Adria,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Padus  or  Po).  A  large  arm 
of  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  separating  Italy  from 
the  Balkan  peninsula,  and  communicating  with 
the  Ionian  Sea  by  the  Strait  of  Otranto.  It  is 
500  miles  long,  and  about  130  miles  in  its  great- 
est width  (Map:  Italy,  J  4).  Its  depth  varies 
from  over  5000  feet  near  Durnzzo  at  its  southern 
end,  to  only  about  500  feet  in  the  north.  Its  west- 
ern coast  is  almost  unbroken,  while  the  eastern  is 
lined  with  numerovis  rocky  islands,  belonging  to 
Istria  and  Ualmati;>.  The  main  gulfs  of  thi>  .\d- 
riatic  Sea  are  Manfredonia  on  the  west,  Venice 
and  Tricst  on  the  north,  and  t^Uiarnero  on  the 
northeast.  The  ouly  considerable  rivers  empty- 
ing into  it  are  the  .\dige  and  the  Po,  and  that 
accounts  for  the  great  salinity  of  its  water.  The 
most  important  commercial  points  are  Triest, 
Venice,  Fiume,  and  Brindisi.  The  navigation  of 
the  .\driatic  is  generally  safe,  although  there  are 
some  dangerous  jHiints  off  the  eastern  coast.  The 
connuercial  importance  of  the  .Adriatic  Sea  was 
grrally  impaired  by  the  opening  of  the  sea  route 
to  India;  but  with  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal 
it  has  regained  some  of  its  former  commerce.  Con- 
sult: C.  E.  Yriarte,  Les  bards  de  I'Adriatifiue 
(Paris,  1878)  :  G.  L.  Faber,  The  Fish  and  Fish- 
rn'f's  of  Ihr  Adriatic    (London,    18S3). 

ADRIENNE  LECOUVREUR,  iVdri-Sn'  le- 
kou'vrer'.  The  title  of  a  five-act  French  drama 
by  Scribe  and  Legouv^,  based  on  the  tragic  his- 
tory of  the  noted  actress.  ( See  LECoimiKiTB,  Ad- 
p.iKXNE. )      It  was  produced  April  14,  1849. 

ADRIFT'.  Floating  at  random.  The  state 
of  a  boat,  vessel,  buoy,  or  other  floating  object 
which  has  parted  or  lost  its  lines  or  moorings 
and  is  driven  about  by  the  tide,  sea,  or  wind; 


ADBIFT. 


130 


ADULTERATION. 


also  the  condition  of  a  sail,  gun,  or  other  object 
which  has  broken  loose  from  its  fastenings. 

ADTJA,  a'doo-a.     See  Adowa. 

AD'TJAT'UCI  or  AD'UAT'ICI.  A  people  of 
Belffic  Gaul,  dwelling  in  Julius  Cfesar's  time 
near  the  River  Sambre.  and  conquered  by  him 
57  B.C.  See  his  Bellum  Oallicum,  Book  11.  They 
were  descended  from  survivors  of  the  Cimbri  and 
Teutones  after  their  defeat  by  C.  Marius,   102- 

101    B.C. 

ADU'LE  {Gk.'ASoMv,  Adoule) .  An  ancient 
Ethiopian  town  on  the  Red  Sea,  near  the  modern 
Zula.  It  was  an  important  trading  post,  espe- 
cially for  fine  ivory.  It  is  noted  chiefly  on  ac- 
count of  an  inscription  of  some  importance  rela- 
tive to  the  ancient  geography  of  those  regions, 
the  Monunientuni  Adulitanum,  really  two  in- 
scriptions, one  celebrating  the  victories  of  Ptol- 
emy Euergetes,  the  other  the  much  later  con- 
quests of  a  native  king.  Both  are  of  value  for 
ancient  geography,  and  were  first  published  in 
the  sixth  century  in  the  Topofjraphia  Christiana 
ol  Cosmos  Indicopleustes. 

ADUL'LAM.  A  city  in  the  lowlands  of 
.Jud.Ta.  which  was  the  abode  of  a  Canaanite 
king  before  the  conquest  of  the  country  by  the 
Israelites  (See  Joshua  xii  :  15),  and  continued 
to  be  an  Inhabited  town  at  least  as  late  as  the 
Maccabees.  Its  locality  has  been  identified  by 
some  scholars  with  that  of  the  modern  Dier  Dub- 
ban,  some  distance  west  of  Bethlehem,  and  by 
others  with  that  of  Aid-el-ma,  a  few  miles  north- 
east of   Hebron. 

ADUL'LAM,  Cave  of.  A  cavern  in  southern 
Judaea,  noted  as  a  retreat  of  David  while  he  was 
in  hiding  with  his  band  of  four  hundred  outlaws 
from  King  Saul  (see  I.  Samuel  xxii),  and  later 
when  as  king  he  was  fighting  the  Philistines 
(I.  Chronicles  xi  :  15).  It  was  perhaps  near 
the  town  of  the  same  name,  some  ten  miles 
northwest  of  Hebron. 

ADULTiAMITES.  A  term  applied  in  Eng- 
lish history  to  those  seceding  Liberals  who  voted 
with  the  Conservative  party  when  Earl  Russell 
and  Mr.  Gladstone  sought  to  extend  the  elective 
franchise  in  1860.  The  designation  of  Adiillnm- 
ites  was  fastened  on  the  new  party  by  Mr. 
Bright,  who.  in  the  course  of  debate,  likened 
them  to  the  political  outlaws  who  took  refuge 
with  David  in  the  cave  of  Adullam  (I.  Samuel 
xxii  :  1.  2).  The  comparison  was  taken  up  by 
Lord  Elcho,  who  humorously  replied  that  the 
band  congregated  in  the  cave  was  hourly  increas- 
ing, and  would  succeed  in  delivering  the  House 
from  the  tyranny  of  Saul  (Mr.  Gladstone)  and 
his  armor-bearer  (Mr.  Bright).  The  group  of 
seceders  was  also  known  as  "The  Cave,"  and 
as  "The  Cave  of  Adullam." 

ADUL'TERA'TION  (Lat.  aduUernre,  to  de- 
file, to  falsify).  The  act  of  intentionally  debas- 
ing articles  offered  for  sale,  by  abstracting  from 
them  some  valuable  constituent,  or  by  adding  to 
them  some  worthless,  more  or  less  deleterious, 
foreign  substance.  Adulteration  has  been  prac- 
ticed throughout  the  civilized  world  since  early 
in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  unfortunately  the  meth- 
ods and  devices  used  by  unscrupulous  men  of 
commerce  in  adulterating  commodities  in  com- 
mon use  have  kept  pace  with  the  proguess  of 
the  useful  arts.  The  immediate  objects  of  adul- 
teration are  briefly  as  follows :  ( I )  To  increase 
the  weight  or  the  bulk  of  a  given  article;    (2) 


to  improve  the  appearance,  especially  the  color, 
of  a  low-giade  article  and  thereby  to  raise  its 
apparent  pecuniary  value;  (3)  to  impart  to  a 
low-grade  article  the  flavor  and  other  properties 
characteristic  of  a  higher  grade,  though  the 
quality  of  the  given  article  may  not  thereby  be 
really  improved;  (4)  to  abstract  from  a  given 
article  of  good  quality  some  valuable  constituent 
without  apparently  lowering  the  value  of  the 
given  article.  Among  the  commodities  often 
sold  in  an  adulterated  state  may  be  mentioned 
milk,  butter,  cheese,  bread  and  flour,  confection- 
ery products,  coffee,  tea,  cocoa  and  chocolate, 
honey,  jellies,  mustard,  pepper,  cinnamon  and 
other  spices,  ale  and  beer,  wine  and  spirits,  oils, 
vinegar,  pickles,  drugs,  tobacco  and  snuff,  textile 
fabrics,  colors  and  dyes,  etc. 

The  sale  of  a  spurious  article  under  the  name 
of  the  genuine  article  for  which  it  is  intended 
to    pass    is    a    common-law    cheat,    and    modern 
legislation  is  extending  the  scope  of  this  crime 
with  a  view  to  the  protection  of  health  and  the 
promotion  of  honest  and  fair  business  dealings. 
By  selling  an  adulterated  article  under  the  ordi- 
nary commercial  name,  the  seller  breaks  his  con- 
tract and  is  bound  to  take  the  article  back  or 
pay   damages,   even   though   he   may   have  been 
ignorant  of  the  adulteration.     The  following  are 
some  of  the  common  forms  of  adulteration  and 
some  of  the  simpler  methods  of  detecting  them. 
Milk  is  adulterated  mainly   in  two  ways:    by 
dilution  with  water  and  by  withdrawal  of  cream. 
The  addition  of  water  may  be  detected  by  the 
use  of  the  lactometer,  a  form  of  hydrometer  used 
to  determine  rapidly  the  specific  gravity  of  milk. 
The  lowest  normal   specific  gravity  is  of  course 
known  from  a  large  number  of  experiments  in 
which  samples  of  undiluted  milk  have  been  exam- 
ined with  the  lactometer.     In  using  the  lactom- 
eter it  must  be  remembered  that  skim  milk  has 
a  specific  gravity  considerably  higher  than  whole 
milk :   and  if  the  lactometer  indicates  a  normal 
specific  gravity,   while   the  milk   has   a   watery 
appearance  and  taste,  the  conclusion  is   pretty 
safe  that  more  or  less  cream  has  been  removed 
from  the  milk.     Skimming  may  also  be  detected 
by  determining  the  opacity  of  milk  with  the  aid 
of  the  apparatus  called  the  lacto.icope.  the  opacity 
being  the  greater  the  more  cream  is  contained  in 
the    milk.     In    using    the    lactoscope,    water    is 
added   to   a   layer   of   milk   of   a   certain   depth 
until   some  object,   or   a  black   line   drawn   on  a 
white  surface,  becomes  visible  through  it.     The 
amoimt    of    water    thus    required    depends,    of 
course,  on  the  opacity  of  the  sample  under  exam- 
ination,  and   hence   shows   how  much    cream  is 
contained    in    the   milk.     The    dilution   of   milk 
with    water    and    the    withdrawal    of   cream   are 
doubtless  among  the  important  factors  of  infant 
mortality   in   large   cities,   and  do    unspeakable 
harm  to' the  community  in  general.     The  nefari- 
ous practice  of  adding  water  is  often  aggravated 
by  the  fact  that  the  water  used  is  dangerously 
bad.     Thus,  in  Paris  milkmen  have  been  caught 
using  stale  water  from  street  fountains,  and  in 
New^York,  water-snakes,  frogs,  and  all   manner 
of  dirt  have  been  found  in  milk  brought  to  the 
market.     It  is  thus  that  milk  may  be  a  source 
of  typhoid  fever  and  of  other  dangerous  diseases. 
On  "the  other   hand,   skimmed   milk   contains  a 
large   amount   of  blood-making   protein   m.atter, 
and  is,  as  a  source  of  such  matter,  very  cheap. 
Its  sale  under  a  proper  label  cannot,  therefore, 
be    objected    to    on    any    ground    whatever.     Of 


ADTJLTERATION. 


131 


ADTJLTERATION. 


course,  it  is  unfit  for  infants  and  often  for 
invalids.  Milk  is  also  sometimes  adulterated 
by  tlie  addition  of  carbonate  of  soda,  common 
salt,  borax,  or  of  coloring  substances  like  arnotto 
(q.v.).  Formaldehyde  is  the  most  dangerous  of 
the  adulterants  used  for  the  preservation  of 
milk  and  other  articles  of  food,  and  its  u.se 
ahoulil  he  strictly  forbidden  by  law.  Chalk, 
calve.s'  l)rains,  and  similar  adulterants  are  not 
known  to  be  used  anywhere  at  present,  and  have 
perhaps  never  been  us<>d  at  all.  The  methods 
of  detecting  adult<'ration  which  are  noted  above 
are  rapid  and  suflieient  for  ordinary  purposes  of 
controlling  the  supply  of  milk.  When,  how- 
ever, it  is  required  to  determine  precisely  the 
nature  and  e.Ment  of  adulteration,  quantitative 
chemical  analysis  alone  can  furnish  the  desired 
information.  The  most  important  steps  in  the 
analysis  are  the  determination  of  total  solids 
and  tlie  determination  of  fat.  To  determine  the 
total  solids,  the  chemist  weighs  out  10  grams 
of  the  milk  in  a  platinum  dish,  adds  30  grams 
of  freshly  ignited  sand,  evaporates  on  a  water- 
bath,  and  dries  the  residue  in  an  oven  kept  at 
about  10.')°  C.  (221"'  F.).  On  cooling,  he  weighs 
the  dry  residue  and  thus  finds  how  much 
water,  and  hence  how  much  solids,  was  contained 
in  the  10  grams  of  milk  employed.  To  determine 
the  lals,  a  known  quantity  of  milk  is  treated  with 
ordinary  ether,  which  is  an  excellent  solvent  for 
fats;  on  evaporating  the  ethereal  solution,  the 
fats  remain  behind  and  may  lie  weighed  directly. 
A  qualitative  examination  for  nitrates  is  useful, 
because  pure  milk  contains  none  of  these  salts, 
while  natural  waters,  especially  if  bad,  contain 
them  in  considerable  quantities,  and  thus  the 
adulteration  of  milk  with  natural  waters  may 
often  l>o  readily  detected.  The  skimming  of 
milk  has  often  been  masked  by  the  addition  of 
foreign  animal  fats,  the  detection  of  which  may 
be  a  matter  of  considerable  diiriculty.  The  nutri- 
tive value  of  some  such  fats  is  much  inferior  to 
that  of  the  natural  fat  of  milk,  and  hence  this 
form  of  fraud  is  no  less  damnable  than  the  other 
forms  referred  to  above. 

Butler  is  adulterated  by  the  mechanical  ad- 
mixture of  a  variety  of  substances,  including 
water,  buttermilk,  foreign  animal  and  vegetable 
fats,  cheese,  flour,  chalk,  common  salt,  gypsum, 
alum,  glucose,  borax,  boracic  and  salicylic  acids, 
coloring  matters  like  aniline  yellow,  butter  yel- 
low, and  certain  natural  dyes.  The  amount  of 
water  in  unadulterated  butter  does  not  exceed 
12%;  the  amount  of  salt  in  salt  butter  should 
not  exiecd  5%.  Adulteration  in  butter  cannot 
usually  be  detecteil  except  by  chemical  analysis, 
the  principal  ste])  of  which  is  the  determination 
of  fats  by  extraction  with  ordinary  ether.  Oleo- 
margarine is  not  a  bad  product,  but  should  be 
truthfully  labeled  when  brought  to  the  market. 
See  also  HurriiK;  Buttek-Colou ;  and  Butter- 
Making. 

CIh'csc  (Swiss  cheese)  is  often  found  adul- 
terated witli  foreign  fats,  potato  Hour,  and  cer- 
tain coloring  substances.  The  fraud  can  be 
detected  by  ii  chemical  examination.     See  Cheese. 

Itreiid  is  often  adulterated,  for  the  purpose  of 
improving  its  color,  with  alum  or  with  sulphate 
of  copper,  'llie  presence  of  these  substances  may 
be  detected  by  digesting  a  sample  of  the  bread 
with  water,  and  leaving  a  strip  of  pure  gelatin 
in  contact  with  this  for  several  hours.  On 
dissolving  the  gelatin  in  wood  alcohol  con- 
taining  logwood   and    ammonium   carbonate,    the 


pre.sence  of  alum  is  shown  by  the  appearance  of 
a  blue  coloration.  The  presence  of  copper  sul- 
phate is  similarly  revealed  by  the  logwood  solu- 
tion turning  green.  The  addition  of  alum  may 
nuisk  the  unwholesome  qualities  of  poor  bread, 
and  may  thus  be  a  source  of  considerable  danger. 
On  the  other  hand,  its  normal  presence  in  bak- 
ing-powders is  considered  by  some  authorities  as 
entirely  free  from  objection  because,  according 
to  them,  the  alum  is  during  the  baking  process 
converted  into  an  insoluble,  and  hence  harmless, 
aluminum  phosphate. 

Flour  is  often  adulterated  by  the  addition  of 
<'heaper  cereals,  and  the  presence  of  these  may 
be  detected  microscopically.  The  addition  of 
gypsum  and  other  mineral  matter  is  practiced 
much  more  extensively  in  the  European  coun- 
tries than  in  the  United  States.  The  presence  of 
such  adulterants  may  be  revealed  by  determin- 
ing the  amount  of  ash  left  on  burning  a  known 
quantity  of  Hour. 

Confectionery  has  been  adulterated  with  a 
variety  of  coloring  substances,  poisonous  as  well 
as  harmless;  with  starch,  sawdust,  artificial 
"fruit  oils,"  crude  benzaldehyde,  and  a  variety 
of  other  substances.  Within  recent  years,  how- 
ever, the  adulteration  of  confectionery  has 
greatly  diminished. 

Coffee,  when  sold  in  the  ground  state,  is  often 
adulterated  with  considerable  amounts  of  chic- 
ory, roasted  beans  or  peas,  tanbark,  sawdust, 
stove-rust,  etc.  The  presence  of  adulterants 
may  be  detected  by  chemical  analysis,  the  prin- 
cipal steps  of  which  consist  in  the  determination 
of  the  percentage  of  matter  soluble  in  water, 
and  the  determination  of  sugars  before  and  after 
treatment  with  hot  mineral  acids.  The  latter 
cause  a  considerable  increase  of  sugar  in  pure 
cofTee,  while  they  have  no  eifect  on  the  amount 
of  sugar  contained  in  chicory. 

Tea  is  often  adulterated  with  the  leaves  of 
linden,  sage,  strawberry,  and  other  plants.  The 
presence  of  these  may  be  detected  microscopi- 
cally, or  else  by  determining  <'hpmically  the 
amount  of  caffeine,  which  is  hardly  ever  less 
than  1%  in  pure  tea.  "Spent  tea"  is  often  sold, 
and  to  make  the  infusion  appear  stronger  than 
it  reallv  is,  iron  salts  are  added  to  the  leaves. 
See  Te.\. 

Cocoa  and  chocolate  are  often  found  to  con- 
tain flour,  potato  meal,  sawdust,  mutton  tallow, 
vegetable  oils,  and  a  variety  of  other  substances. 
The  presence  of  adulterants  is  deleited  by  deter- 
mining the  amounts  of  theobromine,  fat,  dextrin, 
starch,  and  inorganic  matter. 

Kuqar,  that  is,  ordinary  white  cane  sugar,  is 
visually  very  pure.  (Jlucose,  t«rra  alba,  sand, 
and  certain  other  substances  are  sometimes, 
though  rarely,  used  as  adulterants.  On  the 
other  hand,  brown  sugars  often  contain  consid- 
erable amounts  of  glucose  and  other  adulterants. 
Pure  cane  sugar  has  a  dry.  white  a|)pear.ance 
and  a  pure,  sweet  taste:  when  burned  it  leaves 
very  little  ash.  It  has  been  held  that  the  pres- 
ence of  4a  of  sand  in  Manila  sugar  is  almost 
unavoidable.  If,  however,  it  is  possible  to  prove 
that  the  percentage  of  sand  has  been  intention- 
ally raised  by  the  seller  to  that  amount,  the 
latter  is  punishable  criminally  under  modern 
statutes. 

Honey  is  often  largely  adulterated  with  syrup, 
meal,  corn-starch,  cane  axigar,  grape  sugar,  etc. 
The  fraud  can  only  be  detected  by  chemical 
analysis. 


ADULTERATION. 


133 


ADULTERATION. 


Jellies  and  Jams  are  often  adulterated  with 
gelatin,  glue,  and  with  more  or  less  injurious 
coloring  substances  and  artificial  "fruit  oils." 
The  adulteration  can  be  detected  only  by  a  care- 
ful chemical  examination.  Considerable  quan- 
tities of  zinc  oxide  have  been  found  in  preserved 
fi-uits. 

Mustard  is  seldom  sold  unadulterated.  The 
common  adulterant  being  flour  or  some  similar 
farinaceous  product,  the  fraud  can  usually  be 
detected  by  means  of  iodine,  which  reveals  the 
presence  of  starch  by  yielding  an  intense  blue 
coloration.  The  microscope,  too,  is  useful  in 
examining  mustard. 

Pepper,  cinnamon,  and  other  spices  are  adul- 
terated with  a  variety  of  siibstanees,  the  presence 
of  which  can  usually  be  detected  by  the  use  of 
the  microscope.  Substances  passing  for  pepper 
have  sometimes  been  found  to  contain  no  pepper 
at  all,  and  to  be  made  up  entirely  of  mustard- 
husks,  powdered  capsicum,  starch,  gypsum,  sand, 
etc. 

Beer  has  been  found  to  contain  potash,  vitriol, 
alum,  licorice,  linseed,  tartar,  poppy  heads, 
chamomile,  pine  sprouts,  chicory,  henbane,  wild 
cherries,  picric  acid,  salicylic  acid,  etc.,  some 
of  these  substances  being  more  or  less  injurious 
to  health.  The  deleterious  qualities  of  poor  beer 
have  often  been  masked  by  the  addition  of  sali- 
cylic acid.  The  latter  substance  itself  is  com- 
paratively harmless,  though  large  amounts  of 
it  may  be  very  injurious;  its  use  in  Germany 
has  been  prohibited  by  law,  mainly  because  it 
serves  to  conceal  the  properties  by  which  foul 
beer  may  otherwise  be  readily  recognized. 
Arsenic,  too,  has  been  found  in  samples  of  beer, 
and  in  Manchester,  England,  several  deaths  have 
been  reported  due  to  beer  thus  adulterated. 

Wines  are  adulterated  with  a  variety  of  sub- 
stances, most  of  which,  it  must  be  observed,  are 
harmless.  The  addition  of  such  substances  as 
water,  alcohol,  glycerin,  salicylic  acid,  potato 
syrup,  artificial  flavoring  substances,  natural  as 
well  as  artificial  coloring  substances,  cream  of 
tartar,  gypsum,  etc.,  is  extensively  practiced. 
Sugar  is  often  added  to  the  must,  so  as  to 
increase  the  amount  of  alcohol  in  the  resulting 
wine.  The  most  injurious  of  these  adulterants 
are  salicylic  acid  (iif  present  in  large  quantities 
— as  is  often  the  case)  and  gypsum.  Salicylic 
acid  is  added  so  as  to  prevent  the  wine  from 
souring.  Gypsum  is  added  for  the  purpose  of 
precipitating  out  certain  organic  substances,  the 
presence  of  which  may  in  time  cause  the  wine 
to  become  turbid.  The  harm  done  by  the  addi- 
tion of  gypsum  is  due  to  the  transformation 
of  this  substance  into  acid  potassium  sulphate, 
considerable  quantities  of  which  .are  injurious 
to  health.  Natural  coloring  substances  like 
cochineal,  huckleberry  juice,  cherry  juice,  etc., 
are  mostly  harmless.  On  the  other  hand,  arti- 
ficial coal-tar  colors  like  fuchsine  and  magenta, 
which  are  sometimes  detected  in  wine,  may  be 
quite  injurious  to  health.  The  presence  of  such 
colors  may  be  suspected  if  a  piece  of  woolen 
fabric  dipped  in  the  wine  is  dyed  pink,  though 
this  may  also  be  effected  by  the  harmless  cochi- 
neal. Adulteration  of  wines  may  be  detected 
by  chemical  analysis,  the  principal  steps  of 
which  consist  in  determinations  of  alcohol  and 
of  the  total  acidity,  and  in  an  examination  of 
the  residue  left  on  evajJorating  a  known  quantity 
of  wine. 

Spirituous     liquors.     Whisky,     brandy,     and 


rum  are  sometimes  made  by  entirely  artificial 
processes.  Rum,  for  instance,  is  made  by  mix- 
ing dilute  alcohol  with  sugar,  caramel,  and  an 
artificial  "rum-ether;"  brandy  is  made  not  from 
wine,  but  by  mixing  dilute  alcohol  with  caramel 
and  a  little  syrup,  etc.  An  injurious  ingredient 
often  left  by  careless  or  unscrupulous  manufac- 
turers, in  genuine  as  well  as  in  artificial  spirits, 
is  the  well  known  fusel  oil.  whose  presence  may 
be  revealed  by  the  peculiar  odor  observed  on 
evaporating  a  few  drops  of  impure  spirits  on 
the  palm  of  the  hand. 

Oils  and  fats.  The  adulteration  of  butter  has 
already  been  noted  above.  Olive  oil  is  often 
adulterated  with  cottonseed  oil.  sesame  oil, 
ground-nut  oil,  etc.  The  presence  of  these  oils 
nuiy  be  revealed  by  two  methods :  ( 1 )  the  addi- 
tion of  strong  sulphuric  acid  to  a  given  quantity 
of  oil  causes  a  smaller  elevation  of  temperature 
in  the  ease  of  pure  than  of  adulterated  olive  oil; 
(2)  the  addition  of  nitric  acid  to  adulterated 
olive  oil  produces  a  distinct  coloration,  while 
pure  olive  oil  remains  unaffected.  With  some 
experience  on  the  jiart  of  the  operator,  these 
tests  are  quite  reliable. 

Vinegar  is  often  adulterated  by  the  addition 
of  water  and  of  cheap  mineral  acids,  like  sulphu- 
ric or  hydrochloric.  The  fraud  may  be  I'eadily 
detected  chemically. 

Pickles  and  canned  articles  of  food  are  often 
found  to  contain  large  quantities  of  preservatives 
and  of  metallic  salts.  Salts  may  be  derived  from 
the  metals  of  the  can  or  of  the  solder,  in  which 
case  their  presence  may  be  due  to  criminal  care- 
lessness. Sometimes,  however,  metallic  salts  are 
added  by  traders  on  purpose ;  green  copper  salts, 
for  instance,  are  often  found  in  French  peas  and 
in  pickles,  to  which  they  are  added  for  the  pur- 
pose of  improving  their  color.  The  presence  of 
salts  and  of  preservatives  may  be  detected  by 
chemical  analysis.  It  may  also  be  mentioned 
here  that  careless  canning  may  result  in  putre- 
faction and  the  formation  of  highly  poisonous 
organic  substances,  for  the  effects  of  which  the 
manufacturers    must   be   considered    responsible. 

Druffs  are  sometimes  adulterated  by  the  addi- 
tion of  substances  resembling  the  genuine  arti- 
cles in  outward  appearance  but  having  none  of 
their  valuable  physiological  effects.  The  prac- 
tice can  not  be  denounced  too  strongly  or  pun- 
ished too  severely.  The  fraud  can  usually  be 
detected   only  by  careful   chemical   examination. 

Tnbarro  is  often  adulterated  with  artificial 
coloring  substances  and  fruit  oils,  the  presence 
of  which  may  be  detected  by  analysis  and  is  often 
revealed  by  the  aroma.  Snuff  is  often  found  to 
contain  considerable  amounts  of  lime  and  of  lead 
ehromate. 

Colors  and  dyes  are  often  adulterated  with 
cheap  coloring  substances.  The  fraud  can  be 
detected    by   a    careful    expert    examination. 

Textile  fabrics  are  often  found  ndulterated 
with  cheap  fibres,  with  salts,  and  witli  excessive 
amounts  of  coloring  substances.  The  true  value 
of  a  fabric  can  be  revealed  by  chemical  analysis. 
Supposing  a  given  fabric  to  consist  of  silk,  wool, 
and  cotton,  the  following  facts  are  taken  advan- 
tage of  for  the  purpose  of  analysis:  The  coloring 
matter  of  fabrics  is  soluble  in  boiling  dilute 
hydrochloric  acid;  silk  fibre  is  soluble  in  a  boil- 
ing solution  of  basic  chloride  of  zinc;  wool  is 
soluble  in  a  solution  of  caustic  soda;  cotton 
fibre  is  practically  insoluble  in  these  reagents. 
Evidently,  by  treating  the  given  fabric  sueces- 


ADULTERATION. 


133 


ADVANCE    GUABD. 


sivcly  witli  tlie  several  reagents  just  mentioned, 
tlic  relative  amounts  of  its  constituents  may  be 
readily  revealed. 

I'rccious  metals  aiid  coins  have  been  debased 
by  the  admixture  of  cheap  metals,  the  presence 
of  which  may  be  readily  detected  by  a  syste- 
matic chemical  aiuilysis.  Such  adulteration  has 
always  been  regarded  legally  as  a  very  grave 
ofTense. 

Consult:  In  English,  Richards,  Food  Materials 
ami  Ihiir  Adulteratioiifi  (Boston,  1880)  :  Batter- 
ghall.  Fond  Adulteration  and  Its  Detection  (New 
York,  1887):  Wedderburn,  A  Popular  Treatise 
on  the  F.rtcnt  and  Cliaractcr  of  Food  Adultera- 
tions (Washington,  1800)  :  Wedderburn,  Special 
Report  on  the  F.stcnt  and  Character  of  Food 
Adulterations,  Includinci  State  and  Other  Laws 
Kelatinp  to  Foods  and  Bevernycs  (Washington, 
1892)  :  Wiley,  Richardson.  Crampton,  and  Spen- 
cer, Foods  and  Food  Adulterants,  7  parts  (Wash- 
ington, 1SS7-02)  ;  Wedderburn,  Report  on  the 
Eftent  and  Character  of  Food  and  Drufj  Adul- 
teration (Washington,  1804):  Bower,  Simple 
Methods  for  Detectinri  Food  Adulterations  (Lon- 
don. 180.1 ).  In  French,  Bunker.  Traite  des 
falsifications  et  alterations  des  .substances  ali- 
mentaires  et  des  hoissons  (Paris,  1802)  :  Bellen- 
ger,  Manuel  de  I'Inspecteur  des  dcnrfes  alimen- 
taires  (Paris,  1804)  :  Chevallier  et  Baudriniont, 
Dictinnnaire  des  alterations  ct  falsifiealionx  des 
substances  alimentaires,  medicamenteuses  et 
commcrciales,  avcc  Vindication  des  moj/ens  de 
les  reconnaitre  (Paris.  1893-07).  In  German, 
Griessniaycr.  Die  Verfiilschuuf)  dcr  xcichtigsten 
'Sahrunijs-  und  Ocnussmittel  vom  chenii^chen 
Stand/iunltc  in  popularer  Darstcllunq  (Augs- 
burg, 1881  1  ;  Dammer,  Illustrirtes  Le.ril:on  dcr 
Verfdlschun(]en  und  Verunreinigunf/en  dcr  Nahr- 
vngs-  und  Gcnussmittel.  der  Kolonialuyiaren, 
Droguen,  qeuerhlichen  Produktc,  Ookumente, 
etc.  (Leipzig.  1880).  For  further  bibliography, 
see  United  States  Internal  Revenue,  Series  7, 
No.  1:>   (Washington,  1888). 

ADTTL'TERY  (Lat.  adnlferium,  the  violation 
of  another's  bed,  from  ad.  to  -\-  alter,  other). 
''The  voluntary  sexual  intercourse  of  n  married 
person  with  a  person  other  than  the  ofTeuder's 
husband  or  wife."  By  the  canon  law,  llie  hus- 
band and  wife  were  placed  on  the  same  footing; 
and  this  view  has  been  adopted  by  all  the  nations 
of  modern  Furopp.  In  America  it  has  never 
been  doubted  that  the  ofTense  necessary  to  found 
the  sentence  of  divorce  is  committed  liy  unlaw- 
ful sexual  intercourse  equally  whetlier  the  par- 
ticeps  criminis  were  married  or  single.  In  Rome, 
the  .Julian  law,  enacted  in  the  time  of  Augustus 
(17  n.c. ).  revised  the  previous  legislation  on  the 
subject,  and  imposed  special  penalties,  consist- 
ing of  forfeiture  of  goods  and  banishment,  both 
on  the  adulteress  and  the  paramour.  The  hus- 
band, in  certain  eases,  was  permitted  to  kill  the 
latter,  and  the  father  might  sometimes  kill  both. 
A  constitution  of  Constantinc.  the  authenticity 
of  which  has  been  doubled,  made  adultery  a 
capital  offense  on  the  man's  part.  Whatever 
Constant inc's  law  was.  it  was  confirmed  by  .Jus- 
tinian, who  further  condemned  the  wife  to  be 
whipped,  and  imprisoned  in  a  convent  for  the 
rest  of  her  days,  unless  relieved  by  her  husband 
within  two  years  (Korcl.  l.'?4,  "c.  10).  The 
offense  was  visited  in  .'\thens  with  punisliments 
closely  resembling  those  of  the  earlier  Roman 
legislation.  In  many  Continental  <ountries  adul- 
tery is  still  treated  as  a  criminal  offense,  but  in 


none  of  them  ilocs  the  punishment  now  exceed 
ini|irisonmenl  for  a  limited  period,  which  is  fre- 
quently accom])anied  with  a  fine.  Lord  Coke 
says  that  by  the  law  of  England  in  early  times 
adultery  was  punisbeil  by  fine  and  imprisonment. 
During  the  Conunonwealth  it  was  uuide  a  capital 
olTense.  but  this  law  was  not  confirmed  at  the 
Restoration.  In  Scotland  the  records  of  the 
Court  of  .lusticiary  show  that  capital  p\inishment 
was  frequently  inllicted.  At  the  present  day  it 
is  punishable  in  (ireat  Britain  only  by  ecclesi- 
astical censure,  and  even  this  may  be  regarded 
as  in  desuetude.  But  when  committed  by  the 
wife  it  was  regarded  as  a  civil  injury,  and,  till 
the  passing  of  the  stat.  20  and  21  Vict.,  c.  85 
and  .50.  formed  the  ground  of  an  action  of  dam- 
ages for  criminal  conversation  (commonly  known 
as  an  action  of  crim.  con.)  by  the  husband 
against  the  paramour.  No  corresponding  action 
was  competent  to  the  wife,  either  in  England 
or  America,  until  recently,  and  her  only  remedy 
consisted  in  obtaining  a  separation  or  divorce. 
In  some  of  the  Tnited  States  adultery  is  made 
criminal  by  special  law:  in  some  the  act  itself 
is  not  a  crime,  but  open  and  continued  adultery, 
amounting  to  a  public  nuisance,  is.  Some  stat- 
utes define  the  crime,  some  only  state  the  pun- 
ishment ;  and  this  leaves  a  wide  margin  for 
interpretation  by  courts,  giving  rise  to  great 
diversity  of  opinions  and  decisions.  Some  hold 
that  if  only  one  of  the  i)arties  be  married,  the 
other  does  not  commit  criminal  adultery:  some 
that  a  married  nuin  with  a  single  woman  does 
not  commit  criminal  adultery,  because  the  act 
cannot  impose  spurious  issue  on  a  husband  or 
wife.  See  Divorce,  and  the  authorities  there 
referred  to. 

AD  VALO'BEM  (Lat.,  according  to  the 
value).  A  plirase  used  in  customs  legislation 
to  designate  taxes  measured  by  the  value  of  the 
imported  article;  i.e.,  a  certain  percentage  of 
the  value.  Such  duties,  inasmuch  as  they  fall 
with  just  proportion  upon  the  dilferent  grades 
of  goods,  cheap  as  well  as  expensive,  are  in  the- 
ory the  most  satisfactory.  They  involve,  however, 
a  cumbrous  and  often  inefficient  machinery  for 
the  ascertainment  of  values,  and  from  the  stand- 
point of  customs  administration  are  deemed 
inferior  to  specific  <liities,  which  levy  a  definite 
tax  upon  a  given  unit  of  measure  (pound,  bushel, 
gallon,  etc.)  of  the  imported  articles.  The  tar- 
iffs of  the  United  States  embrace  both  kinds  of 
duties,  and  sometimes,  especially  in  the  case  of 
woolen  goods,  combine  them. 

AD"VANCE'  GUARD.  Troops  on  the  march 
are  in  a  fcirniaticin  in  which  they  cannot  fight, 
and  when  they  come  uiion  the  enemy  they  must 
first  deploy.  This  takes  time,  especially  in  large 
ccdumns,  ccmsequcntly  such  columns  require  de- 
t;iclnnents  to  protect  them  against  surprise, 
which  in  an  advance  are  placed  ahead  of  the 
column  and  are  called  advance  gvuirds.  Good 
reconnaissance  by  the  cavalry  screen  in  front  of 
the  army  is  the  best  protection,  but  this  cavalry 
may  at  any  time  be  beaten  by  the  enemy  and 
forced  off  to  one  flank,  or  it  may  have  been 
dra^^^l  off  in  pursuit  of  the  enemy's  cavalry, 
hence  immediate  protection  for  the  beads  of  the 
columns  is  still  a  necessity.  The  strength  of  the 
advance  guard  depends  cm  the  condition  of  the 
screening  cavalry,  but  should  be  the  least  neces- 
sary on  account  of  the  arduous  duty  it  demands, 
at  the  same  time  the  units  should  not  be  broken. 


ADVANCE    GUARD. 


134 


ADVANCEMENT   OF   SCIENCE. 


A  company  or  squadron  requires  only  a  cavalry 
patrol  in  front  of  it  as  advance  guard,  and 
stronger  columns  would  demand  greater  forces, 
depending  on  the  circumstances.  In  the  first 
place,  the  cavalry  division  belongs  to  the  ad- 
vance guard,  but  in  this  case  its  duty  is  more 
security  and  protection  than  reconnaissance; 
consequently  it  remains  nearer  than  in  screen- 
ing, and  fights,  rather  than  avoids,  the  enemy's 
patrol.  In  the  case  of  a  mixed  column  of  all 
arms,  the  ac^vance  guard  must  have  infantry,  but 
how  much  depends  on  circumstances.  An  in- 
fantry division  usually  requires  a  regiment,  but 
a  battalion  is  often  sufficient.  Artillery  is  also 
assigned  to  it,  usually  only  a  battery,  at  most  a 
battalion.  Engineers  are  usually  attached,  with  a 
bridge  train ;  often  also  a  balloon  section.  The 
advance  guard  is  divided  into  the  main  guard 
and  the  vanguard;   the  latter  consisting,  for  a 


CAVALRY  SCREEN 

OUT   IN   FRONT. 


CAVALRY 
POINT. 


about  1000  yards. 
666666666  inkantrt 

66  POINT. 


a 

D 


3  COMPANIES. 
ENGINEERS. 


lOOU  TARD9. 


I     ARTILLERY 

I    BATTALION. 

J 

battalion. 

bridge  train. 
ambulance. 

artillery 
3d  echelon. 


FORMATION    OF   ADVANCE   GUABD. 

(According  to  Meckel.) 

regiment,  of  a  battalion;  for  a  battalion,  of  a 
company  of  infantry,  with  the  engineers  and  a 
part  of  the  cavalry  present;  the  artillery  is  in 
the  main  guard.  Before  the  vanguard  marches 
the  infantry  point,  and  before  the  latter  the  cav- 
alry point,  or  the  cavalry  of  the  vanguard  with 
its  point,  consisting  of  three  or  four  men  under 
a  non-commissioned  officer.  The  infantry  point 
marches  on  the  road  in  closed  or  dispersed  order, 
and  does  not  stop  to  reconnoitre  small  places. 
For  observation  of  the  surrounding  country  the 
cavalry  point  is  designed.  It  looks  up  observa- 
tion points,  moves  rapidly  from  one  to  the  other, 
and  keeps  touch  to  the  rear  by  means  of  sepa- 
rate horsemen.  The  infantry  point  keeps  touch 
to  the  rear  by  means  of  single  infantrymen  or 
cyclists.     If  the  main  column  halts  for  a  con- 


siderable time  the  advance  guard  takes  up  tem- 
porarily the  duties  of  outposts,  but  must  keep 
up  reconnaissance.  Every  column  of  march  must 
also  be  protected  on  the  fianks  by  patrols,  anil 
when  these  small  bodies  are  not  sufficient  a  fiank 
guard  must  be  organized. 

In  a  retreat  a  rear  guard  is  formed,  and 
since  the  latter  cannot,  as  a  rule  (like  the  ad- 
vance or  flank  guard),  count  on  the  immediate 
support  of  the  main  body,  it  must  be  stronger 
than  either  of  the  others,  and  requires  more  ar- 
tillery, and  also  cavalry,  the  latter  playing  the 
part  of  mounted  infantry  in  this  case.  All  Euro- 
pean armies,  except  the  German,  have  a  small 
rear  guard  besides  the  advance  guard  in  an  ad- 
vance. France  and  Russia  have  very  strong 
advance  guards  and  send  them  far  oiit  to  the 
front.  See  Outposts  :  Reconnaissance  ;  Bat- 
tle; and  Tactics,  Military. 

ADVANCETVEENT.  In  law,  a  gift  by  a 
parent  to  a  cliild  of  all  or  a  portion  of  the 
share  of  the  parent's  personal  property  to  which 
the  child  would  be  entitled  upon  the  death  of 
the  advancer  intestate.  An  advancement  has 
the  effect  of  reducing  by  its  amount  the  dis- 
tributive portion  that  would  come  to  the  receiver 
upon  the  death  of  the  parent.  The  doctrine  of 
advancement  is  applicable  only  to  gifts  from 
parent  to  child,  but  has  been  extended  to  gifts  to 
others  by  statute  in  some  States.  An  advance- 
ment is  not  required  to  be  made  in  any  particu- 
lar form.  Any  such  gift  is  presumptively  an 
advancement,  but  the  contrary  may  be  shown. 
The  subject  is  now  generally  regulated  by  stat- 
ute, and  in  many  jurisdictions  real  estate  may 
be  given  by  way  of  advancement  to  the  heir. 
(See  Ademption.)  Consult:  Thornton,  Law 
Relating  to  Gifts  and  Advancements  (Philadel- 
phia, 1893). 

ADVANCEMENT  OF  SCI'ENCE,  Associa- 
tions for  the.  Important  bodies  of  scientific 
men  in  America,  Great  Britain,  France,  and 
other  countries.  The  purpose  of  these  associa- 
tions is  to  emphasize  the  solidarity  and  unity 
of  interests  among  workers  in  all  branches  of 
science,  to  give  a  stronger  impulse  to  scientific 
research,  both  theoretical  and  practical,  and  to 
gain  for  scientific  achievement  a  more  imme- 
diate recognition  and  a  wider  usefulness, 
through  the  means  of  financial  bequests,  the 
publication  of  Reports,  and  the  offering  of  spe- 
cial facilities  for  the  prosecution  of  original  and 
difficult  scientific  work.  The  organization  of  the 
societies  was  one  of  the  numerous  manifesta- 
tions of  the  scientific  spirit  of  the  nineteenth 
century;  and  the  continued  growth  of  this  spirit 
was  shown  at  a  joint  meeting  of  the  British  and 
French  associations  in  September.  1899,  when 
plans  were  formulated  for  an  international  asso- 
ciation for  the  advancement  of  science,  art.  and 
education.  The  first  meeting  of  this  interna- 
tional association  was  held  in  Paris  during  the 
exposition  of  1900.  The  American  .\ssociation 
for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  now  one  of  the 
most  noted  scientific  societies  of  America,  was 
founded  in  1847  as  an  outgrowth  of  the  associa- 
tion of  American  geologists  and  naturalists. 
The  association  is  organized  in  ten  sections,  each 
of  which  holds  its  own  convention  at  the  annual 
meeting  of  the  association  during  the  summer. 
The  sections  embrace  the  following  departments 
of  science:  .-1,  mathematics  and  astrcmomy;  B, 
physics;    C,    chemistry;    D,    mechanical    science 


ADVANCEMENT  OF  SCIENCE. 


135 


ADVENTISTS. 


and  oiit'ini'<ii"^';  /-'.  !,'<*"1'>K.V  "'"'  t,'>'"fc'''i' P'lJ ;  /'. 
zoiilogy;  (i,  botany;  H,  anthrop(ilo}.'y;  /,  social 
and  economic  science;  A',  physiology  and  ex- 
perimental medicine.  The  association  also 
serves  as  a  centre  for  the  meeting  of  a  number 
of  important  special  scientific  societies  which 
have  become  ccmncctcd  with  it.  The  association 
publishes  annually  a  vohimc  of  l'njrcciliii;ix.  and 
in  llKIl  became  alliliatcd  witli  the  joiirnal 
Science,  making  it  the  semioniciul  organ  of  the 
society.  The  membership  of  the  society  is  about 
3000."  Tlie  British  Association  for  the  .\d- 
vancenient  of  Science  was  founded  in  the 
city  of  York  in  18.31,  under  the  leadership  of 
David  Brewster  and  with  the  coiipcration  of 
many  of  the  most  prominent  men  of  tlie  time. 
The  annual  meetings  of  the  association  are  held 
for  a  week  each  summer,  .and  consist  mainly  of 
papers  read  before  the  several  sections  of  the 
society  and  of  conferences  following  them.  The 
society  is  divided  into  ten  sections,  each  having 
its  own  president  and  governing  committee.  The 
society  sets  aside  yearly  a  large  sum  for 
the  prosecution  of  scientific  researches  which 
re<iuire  sjiecial  apparatus  and  the  em])l()y- 
nient  of  assistants.  The  membership  of  the 
association  is  about  5500.  Kcports  have 
been  published  since  1831.  The  French  Associa- 
tion for  the  -Vdvanccment  of  Science  (L'Asso- 
elation  Francciisc  pour  I'Avancement  des  Sci- 
ences) was  formed  in  1805  at  Lille  and  now 
includes  nearly  all  French  scientists  of  jjromi- 
nencc.  The  work  of  the  society  is  carried  on 
through  general  meetings,  publications,  and  the 
bestowal  of  prizes  for  brilliant  scientific  work. 
The  four  sections  into  which  the  society  is  di- 
vided are  those  of  the  mathematical,  the  phys- 
ical and  chemical,  the  natural,  and  the  economic 
sciences.  Records  of  its  proceedings  and  of  the 
scientific  work  accomplished  under  its  guidance 
have  been  published  since  the  a.ssociation's  or- 
ganization. 

AD'VENT  (Lat.  adventus,  the  approach, 
coming),  or  TIME  OF  ADVENT.  A  term  ap- 
plied by  the  Christian  Church  to  certain  weeks 
before  Christmas.  In  the  Greek  Churcli  the  time 
of  Advent  comprises  forty  days ;  but  in  the 
Konian  Church  and  those  Protestant  churches  in 
which  Advent  is  observed,  only  four  weeks.  The 
origin  of  this  festival  as  a  church  ordinance  is 
not  clear.  A  synod  at  Saragossa.  Spain,  in  :!80, 
enjoined  that  every  one  must  attend  church 
from  December  17  to  Epiphany:  but  not  till 
the  sixth  century  was  .\dvent  fully  adopted  as 
a  church  season.  The  four  Sundays  of  .\dvent. 
as  observed  in  the  Roman  Calliolic  Church  and 
the  Church  of  England,  were  probably  intro- 
duced into  the  calendar  by  Gregory  the  Great. 
It  was  common  from  an  early  period  to  speak  of 
the  coming  of  Christ  as  fourfold:  his  "first 
coming  in  the  fiesh:"  his  coming  at  the  hour  of 
death  to  receive  his  faithful  followers  (accord- 
ing to  the  expressions  used  by  St.  .lohn)  ;  his 
coming  at  the  fall  of  .Terusalem  (Matthew  xxiv  : 
30).  and  at  the  day  of  judgment.  According  to 
this  fourfold  view  of  Advent,  the  "gospels"  were 
chosen  for  the  four  Sundays,  as  was  settled  in 
the  western  <'hurch  by  the  Homilarium  of  Charle- 
magne. The  season  of  Advent  is  intended  to 
accord  in  s|>irit  with  the  object  celebrated.  As 
mankind  were  once  called  upon  to  prepare  them- 
selves for  the  personal  coming  of  Christ,  so,  ac- 
cording to  the  idea  that  the  ecclesiastical  year 
should  represent  the  life  of  the  founder  of  the 


Church,  Christians  are  exhorted,  during  this  sea- 
son, to  look  for  a  spiritual  advent  of  Christ. 
The  time  of  the  year  when  the  shortening  days 
are  hastening  toward  the  solstice — which  al- 
most coincides  with  the  festival  of.  the  Nativity 
— is  thought  to  harmonize  with  the  strain  of 
sentiment  proper  during  -\dvent.  In  opposition, 
possibly,  to  hcallicn  festivals,  observed  by  an- 
cient Romans  and  Gernnins,  which  took  place  at 
the  same  season,  the  Catholic  Church  ordained 
that  the  four  weeks  of  .Advent  should  be  kept  as 
a  time  of  ])enitcncc;  according  to  tlic  words  of 
Christ:  "Repent,  for  the  kingdom  of  heaven  is 
at  hand."  During  these  weeks,  therefore,  public 
annisemcnts,  marriage  festivities,  and  dancing 
were  prohibited,  fasts  were  appointed,  and  som- 
bre garments  were  used  in  religious  ceremonies. 
The  Protestant  Cliurch  in  Germany  has  also  ab- 
-stained  from  public  recreations  and  celebrations 
of  nuirriage  during  Advent.  In  the  Greek  Church 
the  season  dates  from  a  period  much  later  than 
in  the  Latin,  perhaps  not  till  the  tenth  century. 
AD'VENTISTS.  A  family  of  religious  de- 
nominations which.  acce])ting  the  inspiration  of 
the  Scriptures,  taking  tlie  Bil)le  as  their  rule  of 
faith,  and  holding  to  the  fundamental  doctrines 
of  the  Cliristian  churches  generally,  expect  the 
near  approach  of  the  end  of  the  world  and  the 
personal  second  coming  of  Christ.  They  arose 
from  the  preaching  of  William  Miller,  who 
taught,  from  1831  on,  as  the  results  of  his 
studies  of  the  prophetic  books  of  the  Bible, 
that  the  end  of  the  world  would  come  in 
1843,  and  be  followed  by  the  coming  of  Christ 
and  the  installation  of  the  millennium.  When 
1843  had  passed  the  date  was  changed  to  Octo- 
ber, 1844.  Jlr.  ililler  was  joined  by  other 
preachers,  and  several  thousand  followers  were 
gathered  from  many  churches.  The  .Vdventists 
now,  as  a  rule,  simply  await  the  second  advent 
without  attempting  to  fix  a  date  for  it.  A 
declaration  adopted  at  Albany,  N.  Y..  in  1845, 
set  forth  a  belief  in  the  visible  personal  coming 
of  Christ  at  an  early  but  indefinite  time;  the 
resurrection  of  the  dead,  both  the  just  and  the 
unjust,  and  the  beginning  of  the  millennium 
after  the  resurrection  of  the  saints:  but  denying 
that  there  is  any  i)romise  of  the  world's  conver- 
sion, and  that  the  saints  enter  upon  their  in- 
heritance at  death  The  Adventists  baptize  by 
immersion;  and,  except  the  Seventh  Day  brancli 
and  the  Church  of  (3od,  are  congregational  in 
polity. 

1 .  The  Evangelical  Adventists.  The  Ameri- 
c:m  Alillennial  Association  was  formed  in  1845 
for  the  publication  and  circulation  of  denomi- 
nation:il  literature.  The  Evangelical  Adventists 
began  to  call  themselves  by  that  name  in  1845. 
They  believe  that  all  the  dead  will  be  raised,  the 
saints  first,  to  the  enjoyment  of  the  millennial 
reign  with  Christ  and  eternal  bliss  after  the 
judgment,  and  the  wicked  last,  to  be  sent  into 
everlasting  punishment,  and  that  the  dead  in 
Hades  are  conscious.  They  have  about  34  min- 
isters, 30  churches,  and  1147  members.  Litera- 
ture: H.  F.  Hill,  'Die  Saints'  Inhnitance  (Bos- 
ton, 1852)  ;  D.  T.  Taylor.  The  Reign  of  Christ 
(Boston,  188!!)  ;  .T.  Litch.  Discussion  on  the  Mil- 
lennium   (Boston,  between   1800  and   1865). 

2.  Advent  Christians.  The  general  associa- 
tion of  this  body  was  formed  in  18til.  The  Ad- 
vent (Christians  believe  lliat  man  was  created  for 
immortality,  but  forfeited  it  through  sin,  and 
can   become   partner   of   the   divine   nature   and 


ADVENTISTS. 


136 


ADVEBB. 


live  forever  only  through  faith  in  Jesus  Christ; 
that  death  is  a  condition  of  unconsciousness  to 
all  till  the  resurrection  at  Christ's  second  com- 
ing, when  tlie  righteous  will  receive  everlasting 
life  and  the  wicked  will  be  punished  with  com- 
plete extinction  of  being;  and  that  salvation  is 
free  to  all  who  in  this  life  will  accept  the  condi- 
tions. They  liave,  in  different  parts  of  the 
United  States,  912  ministers,  010  churches,  and 
26,300  members,  with  a  Bible  institute.  The 
principal  publication  society  is  in  Boston.  The 
missionary  society,  with  a  total  annual  income  of 
about  $14,500.  sustains  foreign  missions  in  Eng- 
land, the  Cape  Verde  Islands,  India,  and  China. 
In  home  missions,  it  is  aided  by  the  Eastern.West- 
ern,  and  Southern  Boards,  and  by  the  woman's 
society  called  "the  Helper's  Union."  It  also  has 
charge  of  a  church  extension  fund.  The  lead- 
ing periodicals  are:  The  M'orld's  Crisis,  and 
Sunday  school  publications  (all  Boston)  :  All  Na- 
tions' Monthhj  (missionary)  (Rockland,  Me.), 
and  other  journals.  Literature:  J.  G.  Wellcome, 
History  of  llw  fiecond  Advent  Message  (Yar- 
mouth, Me.,  1S74)  ;  Charles  L.  Ives,  the  Bible 
Doctrine  of  the  Soul  (Philadelphia,  1877)  ;  E. 
A.  Stockman,  Our  Eope  (Boston,  1884);  Mrs. 
L.  C.  McKinstrey,  The  World's  Great  Empires 
(Haverhill,  Mass.,  1887)  ;  Rev.  H.  Constable, 
Hades,  or  the  Intermediate  State  of  Man  (Bos- 
ton, 1885). 

3.  Seventh  Day  Adventists.  The  doctrine  of 
the  obligation  of  the  seventh  day  as  the  Sabbath 
was  adopted  by  a  body  of  Adventists  at  Wash- 
ington, N.  H.,  in  1845.  A  journal  started  at 
Paris,  Me.,  was  removed  to  Battle  Creek,  Mich., 
and  a  publishing  house  was  established  there  in 
1860.  Tlie  belief  is  general  among  them  that  the 
cleansing  of  the  sanctuary  and  the  beginning  of 
the  investigative  judgment  were  the  events 
marked  in  the  prophecies  for  184.3-44,  which 
came  to  their  fulfillment  then.  The  Seventli 
Day  Adventists  hold  that  the  dead  sleep  until 
the'  judgment  and  the  unsaved  are  destroyed; 
apply  the  vision  of  tlie  two-horned  beast  in 
Revelation  to  tlie  United  States;  believe  that  the. 
gift  of  propliecy  still  abides,  and  that  the  revehi- 
tions  of  Mrs. '  Ellen  G.  White  were  inspired ; 
insist  on  total  abstinence  and  the  care  of  healtli 
as  religious  duties;  are  vegetarians,  and  practice 
tithing.  They  had,  at  the  close  of  1903,  553 
ministers.  ilOo  churches,  and  76,102  mem- 
bers, with  seven  publishing  houses  in  America, 
Europe,  and  Australia,  health  institutes  or  san- 
itariums and  educational  institutions  in  several 
States,  and  a  missionary  society  which  has  ex- 
tended its  work  into  nearly  every  quarter  where 
missionaries  go,  and  has  built  up  church  or- 
ganizations in  several  countries.  The  general 
conference  is  their  chief  and  supreme  court. 
The  district  conferences  are  grouped  into  tliir- 
teen  union  conferences  cooperating  with  the 
general  conference.  Periodicals:  The  Advent 
■Revieio  and  Sahbath  Herald  (weekly)  (Battle 
Creek,  Mich.)  ;  Signs  of  the  Times  (weekly) 
(Oakland,  Cal.)  ;  The  General  Conference  Quar- 
terhi  (B.attle  Creek,  Mich.,  1870)  ;  86  periodicals 
in  12  languages,  14  in  the  United  States.  Con- 
sult: J.  N.  Andrews.  Histori/  of  the  Sahbath  and 
First  Da;/  (Battle  Creek, 'Mich..  1873);  Mrs. 
Ellen  G.  While,  The  Great  Controversy  (Battle 
Creek,  Mich..  1870);  Spirit  of  Prophecy.  Testi- 
monies (1870):  Elder  .James  White.  Sermons: 
Uriah  Smith,  Thoughts  on  Daniel  and  the  Rev- 
elation   (1882). 


4.  The  Chukch  of  God.  This  -was  formed  after 
a  division  among  the  Seventh  Day  Adventists, 
IS64-G5.  concerning  the  acceptance  of  the  revela- 
tions of  Mrs.  E.  G.  White  as  inspired  and  the 
application  of  Revelation  xii  :  11-17  to  the 
United  States.  It  holds  to  the  mortality  of  man 
and  unconsciousness  in  death ;  resurrection  of 
the  righteous  to  everlasting  life  and  of  the 
wicked  to  judgment  and  final  extinction ;  ob- 
serves the  seventh  day  and  practices  tithing. 
The  general  conference  is  the  head  of  its  work 
and  the  State  conferences  are  subordinate  to  it. 
It  has  19  ministers,  26  churches,  and  647  mem- 
bers, with  a  publishing  house  at  Stanberry,  Mo., 
and  a  sanitarium  at  White  Cloud,  Mich.  Peri- 
odicals: The  Bible  Advocate,  The  Sabbath  School 
Missionary  (Stanberry,  Mo.).  Literature:  A. 
P.  Dugger,  Bible  Sabbath  Defended  (Marion,  la., 
1881);  Jacob  Brinkerhoff,  Kingdom  of  Heaven 
Upon  Earth  (1882);  W.  C.  Long,  The  End  of 
the  Ungodly   (1886). 

5.  Life  and  Advent  Union.  Organized  1860. 
The  distinctive  feature  of  its  belief  is  that  those 
who  die  in  sin  have  no  resurrection,  but  are 
doomed  to  sleep  eternally,  while  the  righteous 
lise  to  immortality.  A  general  conference  meets 
every  year,  and  quarterly  conferences  have  been 
instituted  in  some  places.  Four  eamp-nieeting3 
are  held  every  year — in  New  England  and  Vir- 
ginia. The  missionary  work  is  carried  on,  in  the 
home  field  only,  by  two  societies,  one  of  whiqji  is 
organized  among  the  young  people.  The  Union 
has  in  the  United  States  60  ministers,  28 
churches,  and  3800  members.  Periodicals :  The 
Herald  of  Life,  weekly  (Springfield,  Mass.). 
Literature:  0.  S.  Halstead,  The  Theology  of  the 
Bible  (Newark,  N.  ■!.,  1860)  ;  Discussion  Between 
Miles  Grant  and  J.  T.  Curry  (Boston,  1863); 
Pile,  W.  N.,  The  Doctrine  of  Conditional  Immor- 
tality (Springfield,  Mass.):  The  Coming  King- 
dom of  God  ( Springfield,  Mass. )  ;  Brown,  Wm. 
E.,  The  Divine  Key  of  Redemption  (Springfield, 
Mass.)  ;  "A  Disciple,"  Redemption  (Springfield, 
Mass.). 

6.  The  CniTiCnES  op  God  (Age-to-Come  Ad- 
ventists) believe  in  the  final  restitution  of  all 
things ;  the  establishment  of  the  kingdom  of 
God  on  the  earth,  with  Christ  as  king  of  kings 
and  the  immortal  saints  joint  heirs  with  him; 
the  restoration  of  Israel ;  the  final  destruction 
of  the  wicked,  and  eternal  life  only  through 
Christ.  The  journal,  the  Restitution,  was  begun 
in  1851,  and  a  general  conference  representing 
thirteen  States  was  formed  in  1888.  The 
Churches  have  94  ministers,  95  churches,  and 
2872  members  in  the  United  States,  and  churches 
in  Canada.  Periodicals:  The  Restitution  (Ply- 
mouth, Ind.)  ;  The  Rod-,  and  Words  of  Cheer 
(both  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.).  Literature:  J.  P. 
Weethee.   The  Coming  Age    (Chicago,   1884). 

ACVEN'TIVE  (Lat.  ad,  to  -f  venire,  to 
come).  A  plant  which  is  but  incompletely  nat- 
uralized (see  NATtTRAi.iz.\TiON )  is  said  to  he 
adventive.  Most  advent  ive  plants  are  spontane- 
ous for  a  few  years  and  then  disappear,  while  a 
few  species  become  more  and  more  numerous 
and   ultimately   become  naturalized. 

ADVEN'TUEES  OF  AN  AT'OM,  The.  A 
satire  by  Tobias  Smollett,  published  in  1769,  and 
treating,  under  a  .Japanese  disguise,  of  English 
politics  during  the  preceding  fourteen  years. 

AD'VEEB  (Lat.  advcrbium.  from  ad,  to  + 
verbum.   word,   verb,  "the  word"  of  a   sentence 


ADVERB. 


137   ADVERTISEMENTS   OF    ELIZABETH. 


pur  excellence.  A  literal  translation  by  tlip 
Roman  pianiniarians  of  the  Ok.  cirififiTiitn,  cpir- 
rhcma,  trom  f r/,  epi,  at  +  /5'/,"">  rhvma,  word, 
verb).  As  ;ui  adjective  is  joined  to  a  noun,  so 
is  an  adverb  joined,  for  analoijinis  |)iir|)oses,  to 
a  verb,  an  adjeitive,  or  anotlier  adverb.  From 
the  freinieney  \\ith  wliiili  adverbs  are  joined 
to  verbs,  only  the  adverbs  of  dpi;ree  modifying 
other  parts  of  speech,  tliey  get  tlieir  name.  An 
adverb  ca.inot  be  the  subject,  the  copula,  or  the 
predicate  of  a  proposition;  and  is,  therefore,  a 
secondary  part  of  speech,  logically  speaking. 
According  to  their  signification,  adverbs  may 
be  divided  into  ( 1 )  adverbs  of  phice  and  direc- 
tion, as  iclwre,  totranls ;  (2)  of  time,  as  ercr, 
immcdiiitelii ;  (;i)  of  ck'gree,  as  i>cn/,  (W//io.s7  .•  (4) 
of  manner,  as  thus,  wisely;  (.'5)  of  belief  or 
doubt,  as  peril npK,  no,  etc.  It  is  commonly  said 
that  "some  adverbs  admit  of  comparison;"'  as 
if  in  this  respect  they  differed  from  adjectives. 
The  truth  is  that  adveil)s  admit  of  comparison 
under  the  same  limitations,  neither  more  nor 
less,  that  restrict  the  comparison  of  adjectives. 
Thus,  soon  is  compared  as  naturally  as  linnl. 
If  now  or  thus  cannot  be  compared,  neill\er  can 
uoohn  nor  cin-iildr:  and  in  both  cases  for  the 
same  reason — the  sense  forbids  it.  The  laws  of 
euphony  prevent  alike  miserable  and  miserabli/ 
from  being  compared  grammatically,  i.e.,  by  the 
addition  of  er  and  est ;  but  both  admit  of  logical 
comparison  by  the  use  of  more  and  most.  A 
large  class  of  adverbs  in  English  are  formed 
from  adjectives  by  annexing  the  syllable  ///, 
which  is  derived  from  the  word  like,  ifost  lan- 
guages ha\e  some  such  means  of  distinguishing 
the  adverb  from  the  adjective,  but  in  (rerman 
they  are  alike.  Adverbs  in  general  may  be 
looked  upon  as  abbreviations  of  phrases;  thus, 
here ^=  in  this  place,  then  =  at  that  time,  triseli/ 
=  like  a  wise  man.  Combinations  of  words  that 
can  thus  be  represented  by  a  single  adverb,  and 
all  combinations  that  are  analogous,  though 
they  may  have  no  single  word  equivalent  to  them, 
are  called  adverbial  expressions. 

AD'VERSE  POSSES'SION.  The  possession 
of  lands  under  a  claim  of  title  inconsistent  with 
that  of  the  true  owner.  It  originates  in  the 
disseisin  (qv.)  or  ouster  of  the  freehold  tenant, 
and,  if  continued  for  the  statutory  period  of 
limitation,  results  in  the  acquisition  of  a  com- 
jilcte  title  by  the  adverse  possessor  or  disseisor. 
In  order  to  constitute  a  good  adverse  possession 
there  must  be  an  actual  occupancy  (pedis  pos- 
sessio)  of  tlic  premi.ses  claimed,  and  an  exclu- 
sion of  the  rightful  owner  from  the  whole  there- 
of. The  possession  nuist  be  open  and  notorious, 
and  continued  without  interruption  for  the  requi- 
site period.  It  need  not  be  continued  by  one  and 
the  same  person,  however;  a  subsequent  occu- 
pant who  claims  by  descent,  devise,  or  grant  from 
a  former  occu])ant  being  entitled  to  tack  his  pos- 
session to  that  of  his  predecessor  in  order  to  make 
up  the  rccpiisite  period  of  adverse  holding.  In 
some  of  the  I'nited  States  it  is  not  even  necessary 
that  the  subsequent  occupant  shall  show  a  legal 
transfer  of  the  property  to  him  so  as  to  con- 
nect his  possession  with  that  of  the  original 
disseisor  in  order  to  tack  the  two  periods.  The 
claim  of  title  required  of  the  adverse  possessor 
is  not  an  assertion  of  a  legal  right,  but  only  an 
obvious  intention  to  hold  as  owner.  This  may 
be  innocent,  as  under  a  will  or  deed  which 
proves  to  be  void,  or  unintentional,  as  by  the 
accidental  inclusion  of  another's  land  with  that 
Vol,  l.—u. 


of  the  occupant,  or  it  may  be  with  the  dcliberato 
intention  of  gaining  for  one's  self  laud  belonging 
to  another.  The  existence  of  the  requisite  inten- 
tion, or  claim  of  title,  is  a  question  of  fact  to 
be  deterniiiu'd  from  the  circumstances  of  the 
occupancy.  In  some  of  the  I'nited  States  cer- 
tain acts  (as  leiuing,  improvement  of  the  jjrem- 
ises,  or  actual  residence)  have  been  prescribed 
by  statute  as  requisite  to  prove  the  intention. 
In  general  the  claim  of  the  adverse  possessor 
is  limited  to  the  land  actually  occupied;  but 
where  the  claim  is  under  color  of  title  (i.e., 
under  a  deed,  will,  or  other  instrument  describ- 
ing a  definite  parcel  of  land)  the  actual  occupa- 
tion of  a  ])art  may  be  extended  by  construction 
to  the  whole  parcel  so  described.  This  doctrine 
of  "constructive  adverse  possession"  is  a  modern 
aildition  to  the  law  of  disseisin,  and  is  peculiar 
to  the  I'nited  States,  The  period  of  time  re- 
quired to  ripen  an  adverse  possession  into  a 
valid  and  indefeasible  title  varies  greatly,  but 
it  is  usually  fixed  by  statute  at  twenty  years. 
(See  LiMiT.VTiox  of  Acriox.s.)  The  subject  is 
fully  considered  in  all  the  leading  treatises  on 
real  pro])erty.  Stephen  M.  Leake  and  .Tosbua 
Williams  arc  the  modern  English  autnoritie>; 
Emory  Washburn  is  the  leading  American 
writer,  but  his  treatise  should  be  read  with 
caution. 

ADVER'SITY  HUME.  A  nickname  given 
to  the  parliamentarian  .Joseph  Hume  (q.v.), 
who  was  noted  for  his  attention  to  financial 
abuses  in  the  government,  and  whose  predictions 
of  a  crisis  were  justified  in  1825. 

ADVER'TISEMENT.  In  legal  phraseology, 
a  process  resorted  to  whenever  actual  notice  is 
necessary  but  is  legally  or  physically  impossible 
(as  by  reason  of  a  want  of  jurisdiction  of  the 
parties  to  be  notified,  or  ignorance  of  their 
whereabouts).  Publication  nmst  be  made  in  a 
newspaper  ])ublished  at  or  as  near  as  possible 
to  the  place  where  the  persons  to  be  atfected 
when  last  heard  of  resided.  Such  advertisement 
in  law  is  construed  to  have  the  same  effect  as 
actual  service  of  the  notice,  as.  for  example,  in 
proceedings  brought  to  foreclose  a  mortgage  or 
other  lien  on  real  jiropcrty.  An  attempt  to 
notify  personally  all  parties  affected  would  often 
only  result  in  delay,  if  not  miscarriage,  of  jus- 
tice. For  advertisement  in  business,  see  Adver- 
TI.SIXG. 

ADVERTISEMENTS     OF     ELIZ'ABETH. 

A  series  of  enactments  issued  t)y  I'arker  (q.v.). 
Archbishop  of  CaiUerbury,  in  ISIiti,  for  the 
purpose  of  establishing  "due  order  in  the  public 
administration  of  Common  Prayer  and  using 
of  Holy  Sacraments."  Enfoicing  as  it  did  the 
wearing  by  the  clergy  of  the  surplice  and  college 
cap,  and  of  the  cope  in  cathedrals  and  collegiate 
churches,  it  was  in  harmony  with  Elizabeth's 
love  for  decency  and  order  in  pulilic  worship; 
but  after  waiting  more  than  a  year  for  her 
ollicial  sanction,  and  long  correspondence  with 
Cecil.  Parker  was  obliged  to  issue  it  on  his  own 
responsibility.  During  the  latter  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century  there  was  much  controversy 
as  to  the  exact  force  of  the  advertisements,  which 
eame  to  a  head  in  the  Ridsdale  ritual  case  of 
1877.  Lord  Selborne  held  that  they  were 
an  absolute  and  authoritative  prescription  of 
the  vestments  to  be  worn,  contending  that  they 
were  the  "other  order"  mentioned  in  the  Act 
of  Uniformity  as  to   be  taken   later;   while  the 


ADVERTISEMENTS   OF    ELIZABETH.    138 


ADVOCATE. 


High  Church  party,  ably  represented  by  James 
Parker,  considered  them  as  merely  archiepiscopal 
injunctions  intended  to  enforce  n  minimum  of 
ritual.  Consult:  Strype,  Life  and  Acts  of  Mat- 
thew Parker  (Oxford,  1821). 

AD'VEBTIS'ING  ( Lat.  advertere,  to  turn 
[the  mind]  to.  to  notice).  The  method  by  which 
the  producer  of  commodities  disseminates  infor- 
mation regarding  them.  For  the  producer  it 
has  the  value  of  an  automatic  process,  since 
it  makes  it  possible  to  reach  thousands  of  people 
through  printed  words,  where  formerly  the  seller 
was  limited  to  his  vocal  organs.  For  the  con- 
sumer it  has  the  value  of  a  system  of  education, 
since  it  keeps  him  in  touch  with  the  invention 
of  new  commodities,  the  improvement  of  old, 
and  the  constant  advance  in  industry. 

In  tracing  back  the  history  of  advertising, 
signs  and  criers  are  found  in  Palestine,  Greece, 
and  Rome,  where  they  were  used  for  public 
announcements  and  a  few  private  purposes. 
Pompeii  has  furnished  us  with  many  wall  in- 
scriptions in  red  and  black,  as  well  as  the  famil- 
iar Roman  signs,  the  amphora  and  two  slaves 
for  a  wine  shop,  a  goat  for  a  dairy,  or  a  boy 
being  whipped  for  a  school.  Quaint  signs  pre- 
vailed throughout  the  Middle  Ages,  and  the 
public  crier  was  an  important  institution  in 
towns.  It  was,  however,  the  advent  of  printing 
and  later  of  the  newspaper  which  provide<l  an 
adequate  medium  for  advertising,  although  it 
was  not  until  the  industrial  changes  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  had  revolutionized  production, 
creating  innumerable  new  connnodities  and  stim- 
nlating  new  wants,  that  advertising  could  become 
an  important  feature  of  commercial  life.  In 
the  seventeenth  century  small  advertisements 
appear  in  the  newspapers  for  books,  tea,  coffee, 
or  medicine.  The  chief  advertisements  for  a 
hundred  years  or  more  are  curiously  illustrative 
of  the  crude  social  customs.  A  heavy  stamp 
tax  hampered  the  growth  of  newspapers  and 
advertising  in  England  until   18.5.5. 

America  is  par  cxccUciicr  the  country  of  the 
advertiser.  In  the  colonial  papers,  advertise- 
ments furnish  material  for  history.  Brief  no- 
tices tell  of  new  goods  just  imp\nted  from  Eng- 
land, coffee,  slave  sales.  runawa.y  slaves  and  ser- 
vants, or  lost  cattle.  Advertising  has  grown 
with  the  newspapers.  In  1705  there  were  200 
newspapers  in  the  United  States;  in  18.50,  252G ; 
and  in  1895,  20.217.  Newspaper  advertising  on  a 
large  scale  dates  from  the  establishment  of  the 
Xew  York  .S'l/ii  in  1833.  followed  shortly  by  the 
New  York  Herald,  the  Philadelphia  Public 
Ledger,  and  the  New  York  Tribune.  Estimates 
of  the  amount  anually  spent  on  advertising  in 
the  United  States  are  as  high  as  $500.()0(t,000. 
The    mediums    for    advertising    are    as    follows: 

( 1 )  The  newspapers,  magazines,  and  trade 
journals,  which  carry  about  7-5%  of  the  business; 

(2)  occasional  literature,  such  as  catalogues, 
booklets,  circulars,  almanacs,  calendars,  or  hand- 
bills; (3)  street  advertising,  including  bill- 
boards (see  Poster),  stereopticons,  signs,  and 
street-ears ;  ( 4 )  salesmen ;  and  ( 5 )  personal 
advertising.  The  past  twenty  years  have  so 
increased  the  importance  of  advertising  that 
specialization  has  become  imperative.  Agencies 
with  large  capital  provide  the  mediums  and 
suggest  the  methods,  talented  writers  are  in 
demand,  effective  illustration  is  being  devel- 
oped, and  advertising  magazines  discuss  the 
theory  and  practice  of  advertising.    Business  men 


now  begin  to  appreciate  that  advertising  is  no 
mere  incident  of  competition,  but  frequently  the 
most  important  department,  upon  whose  skillful 
management  the  growth  and  success  of  the  busi- 
ness depends. 

Efforts  to  Prevent  Abuses  in  Advertising. 
The  choice  of  farmers'  barns  and  fences,  and 
more  especially  of  rocks  and  prominent  scenic 
effects  for  the  placing  of  advertisements,  has  led 
to  various  efforts  to  stop  such  abuses.  A  num- 
ber of  London  societies  interested  in  preserving 
historical  sites  or  beautiful  places  incidentally 
make  efforts  in  this  direction.  The  Society  for 
Checking  Abuses  in  Public  Advertising  —  now 
generally  known  as  "Sea pa"  (q.v. )  —  is  the 
leader  in  this  work.  It  publishes  circulars  and 
asks  for  parliamentary  action.  Dr.  G.  Alder 
Blumer.  Superintendent  of  the  State  Asylum  at 
Utica.  N.  Y.,  started  a  crusade  in  1898  to  pre- 
serve the  rural  scenery  in  that  vicinity.  He 
obtained  farmers'  addresses  from  the  Good 
Roads  League  and  sent  them  Scapa  circulars. 
The  New  York  Central  Railroad  has  made  an 
effort  to  get  rid  of  unsightly  advertising  along 
its  line.  The  nuisance  of  circulars  has  been 
met  in  some  cities,  as  in  Philadelphia,  by  ordi- 
nances forbidding  their  distribution. 

BiBLlOGR.\pnY.  Quarterly  publications  of 
American  Statistical  Association.  VII.,  New 
Series,  No.  52  (Boston.  1000);  files  of  adver- 
tising journals  (list  given  in  above,  page  30)  ; 
files  of  commercial  journals  (occasional  articles)  ; 
Journal  of  Political  Erononn/,  IX.,  218  (Chi- 
cago) ;  Chauncey  M.  Depew.  One  Hundred  Years 
of  American  Commerce,  Volimie  I.  (New  York, 
1801). 

ADVICE'.     See  Bill  of  Exchange. 

AD'VOCATE  (Lat.  advocatiis,  one  called  to 
aid,  from  ad,  to -f-  rocare,  to  call).  In  the  time 
of  Cicero  the  term  adrocatus  was  not  applied  to 
the  patron  or  orator  who  pleaded  in  public,  but 
rather,  in  strict  accordance  with  the  etymology 
of  the  word,  to  any  one  who  in  any  piece  of  busi- 
ness was  called  in  to  assist  another.  Ulpian  de- 
fined an  advocate  to  be  any  person  who  aids  an- 
other in  the  conduct  of  a  suit  or  action  (Digest 
50,  title  13),  and  in  other  parts  of  the  Digest  it 
is  used  as  equivalent  to  an  orator  (see  also 
Tacit..  Annah,  x.  (i),  so  that  the  word  would 
seem  gradually  to  have  assumed  its  modern 
meaning.  The  office  of  the  advocate  or  barrister 
who  conducted  the  cause  in  public  was,  in  Rome, 
altogether  distinct  from  that  of  the  procurator, 
or  attorney,  or  agent  who  represented  the  per- 
son of  the  client  in  the  litigation,  and  furnished 
the  advocate  with  information  regarding  the 
facts  of  the  case.  The  distinction  between  these 
two  occupations  is  still  observed  in  Great  Brit- 
ain, but  in  many  of  the  states  of  Germany,  in 
Geneva,  in  the  United  States,  and  in  some  of  the 
British  colonies,  as,  for  example,  in  Canada, 
they  are  united  in  the  same  person.  In  England 
and  Ii'cland  advocates  are  called  barristers,  un- 
der which  title  will  be  found  a  statement  of  the 
duties  and  responsibilities  which  the  advocate 
undertakes  to  his  client,  and  of  the  state  of  the 
profession  in  these  countries.  In  Scotland,  as  in 
France,  the  more  ancient  name  has  been  retained. 
In  France  the  aroeat  and  ai^nuc  correspond  very 
nearly  to  the  barrister  and  attorney  in  England. 
The  French  advocate  is  simply  a  free  man  who 
has  graduated  in  law  and  possesses  the  privi- 
lege of  addressing  the  tribunals.  The  advocates 
who  ])ractice  in  each  court  form  a  separate  col- 


ADVOCATE.  139 

lepe,  admi3sion  to  which  tan  be  obtained  only 
with  the  approval  of  those  who  are  already  nieni- 
beis.  The  I'reneli  advocate  possesses  the  same 
juivileges  as  to  irresponsibility  for  his  adviee, 
an<l  for  the  facts  contained  in  his  instructions, 
which  belong  to  members  of  the  corresponding 
branch  of  the  legal  profession  in  (ireal  Britain. 
As  he  has  no  action  for  his  fees,  they  are  re- 
quired to  be  paid  in  advance.  His  functions 
correspond  to  those  of  the  counsel,  as  distin- 
guished from  the  attorney-atlaw,  in  the  L'nili-d 
States.  In  Belgium,  in  Geneva,  and  also  in  those 
of  the  German  States  in  which  the  Code  Napol(^on 
lias  been  adopted,  the  organization  and  discipline 
of  this  branch  of  the  legal  profession  are  similar 
to  those  which  prevail  in  France.  In  the  other 
(icrnian  States,  with  the  exception  of  Saxony, 
the  formation  of  the  advocates  into  a  body  has 
been  perseveringly  resisted  by  the  governments. 
See  .\'rTORNEY. 

ADVOCATE,  Loud.  The  public  p.osecutor  of 
crimes  in  Scotland,  senior  counsel  for  the  crown 
in  civil  causes,  and  a  political  functionary  of 
great  importance  in  the  administration  of  Scot- 
tish affairs.  }Ie  may  issue  warrants  of  arrest 
and  imprisonment  in  any  part  of  Scotland,  is 
entitled  to  plead  within  the  bar,  and  possesses 
many  other  discretionary  and  indefinite  powers. 
He  is  a  member  of  Parliament,  and,  as  first  law- 
ofiicer  of  the  crown  for  Scotland,  is  expected  to 
answer  all  questions  relating  to  the  business  of 
Scotland,  and  to  take  the  superintendence  of 
legislation  for  that  portion  of  the  I'nited  King- 
dom. The  corresponding  ollice  in  the  Knglish 
system,  that  of  the  king's  or  queen's  advocate, 
once  of  equal  dignity  and  importance,  has  lately 
become  obsolete,  and  its  functions  devolve  upon 
the  attorney-general  and  the  solicitor-general 
(q.v.).  In  some  of  the  English  colonies  and 
in  the  Indian  presidencies,  however,  the  title 
advocate  is  retained  to  describe  the  chief  law 
olficer  of  the  crown.  Consult  Bell,  Dictionary 
and  Digest  of  haw  of  ficotland  (Edinburgh, 
IS'.IO). 

AD'VOCATES,  Facilty  or.  An  incorporated 
societ}'  in  Scotland,  composed  of  about  four  hun- 
dred lawyers  who  practice  in  the  highest  courts. 
Applicants  for  admission  are  required  to  pass  an 
examination  following  a  prescribed  course  of 
study.  From  the  membership  vacancies  on  the 
bench  are  supplied. 

AD'VOCA'TUS  DIAB'OLI  (T.at.  the  devil's 
advocate).  In  the  lionuin  Ciilliolic  Chiircli.  when 
it  is  proposed  that  a  sanclilicd  ])ersnn  shall  be 
canonized,  an  examination  of  his  past  life  takes 
place.  In  this  process  one  party  holds  the  ofiice 
of  accuser,  or  adrocatuf!  dinboli.  and  it  is  his  duty 
to  bring  forward  all  possible  objections  against 
V\<-  ]iroposed  canonization:  while,  on  the  other 
side,  the  advocatus  Dei  (God's  advocate)  under- 
takes the  defense.  Hence  the  term  advncatus 
diaboli  has  been  applied  to  designate  any  person 
who  brings  forward  malicious  accusations.  See 
Canomzation. 

ADVO"W'SON  (A.  Fr.  advni'.ion,  0.  F.  avoe- 
soil,  patronage,  from  Lat.  ndroratio,  legal  assist- 
ance). In  English  law,  the  right,  as  patron,  to 
present  or  appoint  a  curate  to  a  church  or 
ecclesiastical  benefice.  Advowsons  are  either 
apiiendant  or  in  gross.  Lords  of  manors  were 
originally  the  only  founders  and  the  only  pa- 
trons of  clnirebes.  and  the  advowsons,  when  cre- 
ated, were  usually  made  an  incident  or  appurte- 


AEBY. 

nance  to  the  manorial  estate,  which  would  pass 
with  it  u|ion  alienation.  So  long  as  the  advow- 
son  continues  annexed  or  appended  to  the  nuiiior, 
it  is  called  an  advowson  appendant.  Such  rights 
are  conveyed  with  the  mantir  as  incident  thereto 
by  a  graiit  of  the  manor  only,  without  adding 
aiiv  other  words.  But  where  the  advowson  is 
created  indcpendi^ntly  of  the  manor,  or  has  been 
once  separated  from' the  property  of  the  manor 
by  legal  conveyance,  it  is  called  an  advowson  in 
■'loss  or  at  laige.  It  is  thus  no  longer  incident 
to  the  pro])erty  of  the  manor,  and  may  be  con- 
veyed and  disposed  of  independently  of  it.  Ad- 
vowsons are  classed  by  Blackstone  as  the  tirst  of 
the  incorporeal  hereditaments,  and  they  still 
constitute  in  England  an  important  class  of 
propertv  interests.  They  <lo  not  exist  in  the 
United  States.  Consult:  Stephen,  .Vcir  Commcn- 
taiidi  on  the  Lnirfi  of  Eiuihind  (thirteenth  edi- 
tion. London.  ISOn),  and  I'liilliiiiore,  Ecclesiax- 
tiral  I.air  of  the  Chiiich  of  EnijUind  (second  edi- 
tion. London,  1805). 

ADYE,  ."I'dl.  Sir  .Tohx  Miller  (1810-1900). 
An  English  soldier.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Royal  Military  Academy,  Woolwich,  entered  the 
roval  artillerv  in  is:?(l."and  was  assistant  adju- 
tant-general oi  the  royal  artillery  in  the  Crimean 
War.  He  also  served  during  the  Indian  mutiny 
in  several  important  actions,  and  in  varioiis 
other  Indian  campaigns.  He  was  director-general 
of  artillerv  from  1S70  to  1S7.'),  and  from  1875 
to  1880  governor  of  the  Royal  Military  Academy 
at  Woolwich.  He  was  promoted  in  1870  to  be 
lieutenant-general,  and  was  governor  of  Gibraltar 
from  188.S  to  1S8(),  when  he  retired  from  active 
service.  He  published  The  Defense  of  Cawnpore 
(1858):  Sitaiia:  a  Mountain  Camiuiifin.  ReeoU 
lections  of  a  Militar;/  Life  (London,  1895),  an4 
Indian  Frontier  Policy   (1897). 

AD'YTUM  (Lat.  from  Gk.  achrov,  adyton.t^e 
innermost  sanctuary,  from  a,  a.  priv.  +  ('iVif, 
dyein.  to  enter).  The  most  sacred  part  of  a  build- 
ing, usually  associated  with  secrecy  and  darkness, 
because  iii  Greek  and  Eg>-l)tian  temples,  with 
which  the  term  originated,  it'designated  a  fur- 
thermost recess  not  "accessible  to  the  people.  See 
Tkmpi.e. 

ADZE.     See  Axe. 

.aiACIDES,  f-;'is'i-dez  (Gk.  A'laKlfji^,  Aiaki- 
des) .  A  patronymic  of  .\chilles,  as  the  descend- 
ant of  .Eacus,  his  giandfaOier. 

.ai'ACtrS  (Gk.  Alamc,  Makos).  The  fabled 
son  of  Zeus  and  .Egina.  and  king  of  .Egina  :  the 
father  of  Telaiiion  and  Peleus.  He  was  so  re- 
nowned for  justice  that  not  only  men  but  the  gods 
sought  for  his  decisions,  .\fter  death,  Pluto 
made  him  one  of  the  judges  in  Hades. 

AEBY,  e'b'-.  CiiKisToi'K  TiiEoiioR  (1835-85). 
.\  Swiss  anatomist  and  anthropologist,  born  near 
Pfalzburg.  Lorraine.  He  studieii  medicine  at 
Basel  and  (iJittingen.  In  ISG.'!  he  was  made  pro- 
fessor <if  anatomy  at  Bern,  and  in  1S84  at  the 
I^niversity  of  Prague.  He  is  best  known  for  his 
contributions  to  anthropology',  which  include  a 
new  and  valuable  eraniometric  method.  He  also 
demonstrated  the  influence  of  atmospheric  pres- 
sure on  the  several  joints  of  the  hum.%n  body. 
His  published  works  include:  I'ntersucliinifien 
iiber  die  Fortpflan^ungsyesehirindiiiheit  drr 
Heizung  in  der  quergestrciften  Sluslelfaser 
(Brunswick,  1802)  :  Einc  ncxie  Mclhode  zur  Be- 
stimmung   dcr   Schiidelform   von    Menschen    und 


AEBY. 


140 


S'dugetieren  (Brunswick,  18G2)  ;  Die  Schadel 
formeii  des  Menschen  und  der  Affen  (Leipzig, 
1867)  ;  Ueber  das  Verhaltnis  der  ilikrokephalie 
zinn  Atai-fsiiiiis   (Stuttgart,  1878). 

iECID'IOMYCE'TES  (a-cidium,  see  below 
+  Gk.  nom.  pi.  fivny/rec,  myketes,  muslirooms, 
fungi).  A  name  formerly  applied  to  certain 
forms  of  the  "rusts."  At  present  the  name  is 
but  little  used.    See  Ubedinales. 

.ffiCIIXITJM  (dimin.  of  Gk.  aiKia,  aikia,  in- 
jury), or  Cluster  Cup.  One  form  of  fruit 
of  the  parasitic  fungi  called  "rusts."     See  Uredi- 

K.^LES. 

.ffiDIC'XJLA  (Lat.,  a  small  building,  dimin. 
of  cedes,  building).  In  Roman  literature,  a  des- 
ignation for  a  small  house  or  for  part  of  a 
house.  It  is  used  especially  for  chapels,  shrines, 
or  free-standing  niches  containing  statues,  and 
for  sepulchral  monuments  in  the  form  of  little 
temples  or  chambers.  In  the  large  temples  this 
name  was  given  to  architectural  apses  or 
niches  surmounting  statues,  and  even  to  little 
portable  models  given  as  votive  oflferings.  Dur- 
ing the  lliddle  Ages  the  founders  of  churches 
were  often  represented  in  sculptures  or  paintings 
holding  the  model  of  the  church;  such  models 
were  termed  sedicula!. 

.ffi'DILES.  In  ancient  Rome,  a  sort  of  com- 
missioners of  public  works,  with  general  super- 
vision over  the  public  buildings  {cedes),  the 
cleansing  and  repair  of  the  streets,  the  public 
games  and  spectacles,  the  inspection  of  weights 
and  measures,  and  the  market  regulations.  At 
first  there  were  only  two  stdiles,  both  plebeians, 
and  their  name  was  derived  from  their  head- 
quarters, the  /Edes  Cereris.  Afterward,  two 
others,  styled  iEdiles  Curules,  were  chosen  from 
the  patricians  (360  B.C.),  and  Julius  Ctesar  ap- 
pointed a  new  order  of  /Ediles  Cereales  to  take 
charge  of  the  public  granaries. 

.ffiD'TJI  or  BCffiD'TJI.  A  people  of  Gaul,  be- 
tween the  Saone  and  the  Loire,  the  first  Gallic 
tribe  that  formed  an  alliance  with  the  Romans, 
who  therefore  called  them  "Brothers  of  the 
Roman  People"  (Cassar,  B.  G..  i.  33).  Their 
chief  town  was  Bibracte  ( Mont-Beuvray ) ,  which 
they  later  abandoned  for  Augiistodunum  ( Autun) . 
iEGA'DIAN"  ISLANDS  (ancient  .Ega'tes). 
A  group  of  three  .small  islands  situated  directly 
off  the  western  coast  of  Sicily  and  forming  a 
part  of  the  Italian  province  of  Trapani  (Map: 
Italy,  G  10).  They  consist  of  the  islands  of 
Favignana,  the  largest  and  best  populated  of  the 
group,  Marittimo,  and  Levanzo.  The  total  area 
is  about  16  square  miles.  The  island  of  Favig- 
nana is  very  fertile  and  has  good  tunny  fisheries. 
The  popida'tion  of  the  grovp  is  about  6000,  of 
whom  nearly  .'iOOO  are  fovnid  on  the  island  of 
Favignana.  In  241  B.C.  the  Romans,  under  Luta- 
tius  Catulus,  achieved  a  great  naval  victory  over 
the  Carthaginians  off  these  islands,  which 
brought  the  first  Punic  War  to  a  close. 

.ffiCffiON,  6-je'6n  (Gk.  Aiyaiuv,  Aigaion) .  In 
Greek  mythology,  the  name  by  which,  according 
to  the  liiod,  i.  403,  Briareus"  (q.v.)  was  known 
among  men. 

.ffiGA'GRUS,  or  /Egagre.     The  paseng.     See 

CiOAT. 

.SIGE'AN  SEA.     See  Archipelago. 
.ffiGE'ON.      In   Shakespeare's   Comedy  of  Er- 
rors (q.v.),  the  merchant  of  Syracuse. 


JEGINA. 

A    family    of    moths.      See 


-ffi'GEBi'iD.a:. 

Clearwikg. 

^'GEUS  (Gk.  Aijfiif,  Aicjeus) .  King  of  Ath- 
ens, son  of  Pandion.  He  was  the  father  of 
Theseus  (q.v.),  and  by  the  latter  was  re- 
stored to  the  throne  of  Athens,  of  which 
he  had  been  deprived  by  his  brother  Pallas. 
When  Theseus  set  out  for  Crete  to  deliver 
his  country  from  the  tribute  it  had  to  pay  ilinos, 
he  agreed  in  case  of  success  to  exchange  the 
black  sail  of  his  ship  for  a  white  one.  On 
approaching  the  coast  of  Attica  he  forgot  his 
promise,  and  ^Egeus,  believing  his  son  lost, 
threw  himself  into  the  sea,  which,  according  to 
tradition,  was  named  ".Egean"  after  him.  .Egeus 
is  supposed  to  have  introduced  the  worship  of 
Aphrodite  into  Athens,  where  he  himself  was 
honored  with  a  heroiin,  or  shrine. 

.ffiGIDA,  e-ge'da.  Ludwig  K.\rl  ( 182.5 — ) .  A 
German  iurist,  politician,  and  author,  born  at 
Tilsit  and  educated  at  the  universities  of  Ko- 
nigsberg.  Berlin,  and  Heidelberg.  He  was  editor 
of  the  Konstitutionelle  Zeitung  until  January, 
1851,  and  extraordinary  professor  at  Erlangen 
from  1857  to  1859.  During  the  Italian  war  he 
published,  while  in  the  service  of  the  Russian 
ministry,  the  famous  anti-Austrian  pamphlet 
entitled,  Prenssen  und  der  Friede  von  ViUa- 
franca  (Berlin,  1859),  which  was  followed  by 
Huum  Cuique:  Denksehrift  iiher  Prenssen  (Leip- 
zig, 1859),  and  Der  deittsche  Kern  der  UaUen- 
ischen  Frage.  He  has  since  been  professor  at  the 
universities  of  Hamburg.  Bonn,  and  Berlin,  and 
has  been  a  member  of  the  Prussian  Chamber  of 
Deputies  (1867-68,  1873-93),  and  councilor  of 
legation  in  the  foreign  office.  He  has  published 
numerous  writings,  among  which  the  following 
is  perhaps  the  most  important:  Das  Staatsar- 
ehiv,  Sammhing  der  offlzieUen  Aktenstiicke  zur 
Gesehichtc  clerGegenicart  (in  collaboration  with 
Klauhold,  Hamburg,  1801-71 ;  afterward  con- 
tinued by  Hans  Derbriick,  and  since  1894  by  G. 
Roloff). 

.ffiGID'ITJS.  See  Giles,  Saint. 
JEGI'NA  (Gk.  Alywa.  Aigina).  Now  EoiNA. 
An  island  forming  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Greece, 
about  32  square  miles  in  extent,  in  the  ancient 
Saronicus  Sinus,  now  the  Gulf  of  .Egina.  It  is 
mountainous,  with  deep  valleys  and  chasms, 
and  the  coast  aflfords  only  one  haven,  on  the 
northwest.  The  modern  town  of  Egina  stands 
on  the  site  of  the  ancient  town,  at  the  north- 
west end  of  the  island.  The  island  contains 
about  7000  inhabitants,  who  are  chiefly  occupied 
in  trade,  navigation,  and  agriculture.  The  soil 
produces  the  best  almonds  in  Greece,  with  wine, 
oil,  corn,  and  various  fruits.  An  ancient  legend 
derived  the  name  of  the  island  from  the  nymph 
.Egina,  who  was  brought  to  it  by  Zeus,  by  whom 
she  became  the  mother  of  .Eacus,  famed  for  his 
piety.  The  ancient  Achsan  population  was 
driven  out  by  Dorians  from  Epidaurus,  who  built 
up  one  of  the  richest  trading  cities  in  Greece. 
The  .Eginetans  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
defeat  of  the  Persians  at  Salamis,  but  with  the 
growth  of  the  Athenian  power  they  were  first 
forced  to  become  tributary,  and  in  431  B.C. 
expelled  from  the  island.  They  were  later 
restored  by  Lysander.  but  the  island  never  recov- 
ered its  old  position. 

^GINA,  or  AIGINA,  Gulf  of  (the  ancient 
Saronic  Gulf).    An  arm  of  the  .Egean  Sea,  be- 


JEGINA. 


141 


^GOSPOTAMOS. 


tween  tlip  Pcloponiuiteus  aiul  Attioa,  and  separ- 
ated from  the  Oiilf  of  Corinth  by  the  Istlimus  of 
Coriiitli  (Map:  Greece,  D  6).  In  the  Gulf  of 
jEgina  arc  the  islands  of  Salaniis  and  vEgina. 

^GINE'TA.  I'AVUS  (Ok.  nci-Pof)  (sev- 
enth century  A.i). ).  A  Greek  pliysieian.  Imrn  in 
the  island  of  .Kjiina.  from  wliich  he  took  his 
name.  Of  the  details  of  liis  life  little  is  known, 
save  that  he  was  a  great  traveler;  his  medical 
works  wore  highly  prized,  though  tliey  were  little 
more  than  comi>ilatioiis  from  earlier  writers. 
The  chief  of  these  is  still  extant,  /)(•  A'c  Mcdica 
Libri  ^Jcptrm,  last  edited  by  Brian  (Paris,  185.5). 
This  work  was  translated  into  Arabic;  there 
is  an  English  version  by  Adams  (London, 
1834).  See  Krumbacher,  Bi/zantiniichc  Littrra- 
turtiiachifhlc,  Jiagcs  (Ul,  lil'd   (.Munich,  1897). 

.fflG'INE'TAN  SCULP'TURES.  The  small 
island  of  .-Egina  holds  an  important  position 
in  the  history  of  early  Grecian  art,  as  the  seat 
of  a  fiimous  school  of  bronze  workers,  whose 
most  celebrated  artist  was  Onatas  (about  400- 
4ti0  B.C.).  Tlip  school  was  especially  noted  for 
its  statues  of  athletes,  and  seems  to  be  connected 
with  the  I'eloponnesian  art.  On  an  eminence  in 
the  northeastern  part  of  the  island  stand  the 
ruins  of  a  temple,  where  in  1811  excavations 
conducted  by  Cockerell,  Haller,  Foster,  and 
Linckh  brought  to  light  fragments  of  sculpture, 
which  were  bought  by  the  Crown  Prince,  Louis 
of  Bavaria,  and  after  restoration  (not  always 
correct  I  by  Thorwaldsen,  set  up  in  the  Glypto- 
thek  at  ^lunich.  The  statues  are  somewhat 
under  life  size,  and  once  decorated  the  pediments 
of  the  temple.  Each  group  re|Hcsented  a  battle 
over  a  fallen  warrior  in  the  presence  of  Athena, 
and  it  is  probable  that  one  represented  the 
Trojan  expedition  of  Hercules,  tlic  other  that  of 
Agamemnon,  as  in  both  of  tlicm  .Eginetan 
heroes.  Telamon  and  Ajax,  were  prominent.  The.se 
arc  among  the  best  works  of  archaic  Greek  art, 
of  whicli  they  were  foi'  a  long  time  almost  the 
only  exami>les.  The  artist  was  evidently  used 
to  working  in  bronze,  and  his  technique  is  more 
appropriate  to  metal  than  stone.  The  anatomj' 
of  the  figures  is  carefully  modeled,  but  the 
treatment  is  somewhat  dry  and  hard,  in  spite 
of  an  evident  effort  to  give  a  realistic  character 
to  the  groups.  The  sculptures  of  the  eastern 
pediment  show  a  decidc<i  superiority  in  this 
respect,  and  in  particular  have  nearly  lost  the 
"archaic  smile"  which  appears  in  the  companion 
group.  In  11)01,  Professor  A.  Furtwiinglcr  began 
new  excavations  on  this  site  in  behalf  of  the 
Prince  Regent  of  Bavaria.  These  excavations 
have  yielded  a  ninnber  of  important  fragments 
of  the  pediment  sculptures,  as  well  as  of  other 
statues  and  some  inscriptions,  of  which  one 
indicates  that  the  temple  was  not  dedicated  to 
Athena,  as  had  been  believed,  but  to  an  /Kgin- 
etan  goddess,  Apluca,  of  whom  little  is  otherwise 
known,  but  who  is  shown  by  the  discoveries  to 
have  been  worshiped  by  women  as  a  special 
helper  in  need  and  as  a  guardian  of  little  chil- 
dren.    Other  biiildings  besides  the  temple  have 


been  found,  including  traces  of  an  earlier  sanc- 
tuary. It  is  clear  that  the  place  was  a  seat  of 
worship  from  the  Jlycenaan  age,  but  was  aban- 
doned in  the  Hellenistic  and  Koman  times.  Con- 
sult for  an  account  of  the  new  excavations:  Cock- 
erell, The  Temples  of  ^ligina  and  Uassw  (London, 
18G0)  ;  Furtwiinglcr,  Kurze  Besehreihuiuj  dcr 
Glyptothclc  (Munich,  1900) ,  and  Sitzunysbcrichte 
der  liniierischcn  AlLtidemie   (1901). 

JEGIB,  a'jir.  A  Nor.se  deity  who  presides 
over  stormy  oceans  and  entertains  the  gods  with 
foaming  ale.  His  wife  is  Han,  who  has  charge 
of  those  lost  at  sea.  They  have  nine  daughters, 
the  waves  of  the  sea,  whose  names  suggest  the 
dillcrcnt  appearances  of  the  ocean. 

.S'GIS  (Gk.  a'iyi(,  aigis,  a  rushing  storm,  from 
diaaeiv,  uixsviii,  to  move  violently,  or  aijic,  aigis, 
a  goat-skin).  Ir  'he  Greek  epic,  the  shield  of 
Zeus,  which  had  been  fashioned  by  Hephiestus. 
Later  writers  explained  it  as  the  skin  of  the 
goat  .Xmalthea,  wliich  had  suckled  Zeus,  and 
with  the  Gorgon's  bead  in  the  centre.  (See  GoR- 
GO.)  In  works  of  art  it  is  sometimes  borne  by 
Zeus,  and  is  a  regular  attribute  of  .\thena. 

.aiGIS'THUS  (Gk.  Aiyia^oc,  Aigisthos).  The 
son  of  Thyestes,  adopted  son  of  Atreus.  During 
the  absence  of  Agamemnon  at  Troy  he  seduced 
Clytemnestra,  wife  of  Aganiemnon.  and  on  the 
return  of  Agamemnon  the  guilty  pair  murdered 
him.  yEgisthus  was  subseqtiently  killed  by 
Agamemnon's  son  Orestes.  The  story  forms  the 
subject  of  the  Orestean  trilogy  of  .-Eschylus. 
See  ATREfs  ;  Ag.\memnon  ;  Okestes. 

,a;'GIUM  (Gk.  Alytov,  Aigion).  A  town  of 
Achaia,  near  the  coast  and  west  of  the  mouth 
of  the  Selinus  River.  According  to  one  legend 
it  was  the  birthplace  of  Zeus,  who  was  the  prin- 
cipal divinitj'  of  the  place.  After  the  destruc- 
tion of  Helice,  yEgium  became  the  chief  cit.v  of 
the  Acha'an  League,  and  the  delegates  of  the 
league  had  their  place  of  meeting  in  a  grove 
near  the  town.  The  modern  town  is  Vostitza, 
officially  called  by  its  ancient  name. 

JE'GLE,  c'gle  (Gk.  \ly^,  Aigle.  Radiance,  a 
Greek  divinity).  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  nat- 
ural order  Rutaccic.  -Egle  nuirmelos,  the  tree 
which  produces  the  hhel  fruit  of  India,  has  ter- 
natc,  peliolate,  oblong-ovate  leaves,  and  the 
flowers  in  panicles.  It  is  found  from  the  south 
of  India  to  the  base  of  the  Himalaya  Mountains. 
The  fruit  is  delicious,  fragrant,  and  nutritious. 
In  an  imperfectly  ripened  state  it  is  an  astrin- 
gent of  great  efTect  in  cases  of  diarrhiea  and 
dysentery,  ;ind  as  such  has  lately  been  introduced 
into  English  medical  practice.  Tlie  root,  bark, 
and  leaves  are  also  used  as  medicinals.  The 
Dutch  in  Ceylon  prepare  :i  perfume  from  the 
rind  of  the  fruit,  and  the  mucus  of  the  seed  is 
em|iloycd  as  ,(  cement  for  many  purposes. 

.ffi'GOSPOT'AMOS  (Gk.  A/yof,  Aigos,  gen.  of 
ali,  aix,  she-goat -|-  norafidc,  potamos,  river). 
A  river  anil  town  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the 
Thracian  Chersonese.  The  Laceda>monians  un- 
der  Lysandcr  here  surprised  and  captured  the 


WESTEKN  PEDIKENT  Or  TUB  TEMFLS  OF  FAIXA9  AT  .£OINA. 


-ffiGOSPOTAMOS. 


143 


^NEAS. 


Athenian  fleet  in  405  B.C.,  and  thus  brought  the 
Peloponnesian  war  to  an  end.  The  name  is  also 
written  yEgospotami.  The  ancient  towTi  was 
near  the  modern  village  of  Jumalikoi. 

.ffiGYP'TTJS  (Gk.  AlyviTToc,  Aigyptos).  In 
Greek  legend,  a  brother  of  Danails  and  King  of 
Arabia,  who  conquered  the  region  to  which  he 
gave  the  name  of  Egypt.  His  fifty  sons  pursued 
their  fifty  cousins,  the  daughters  of  Dana  us,  to 
Argos.  and,  with  the  exception  of  Lynceus.  were 
murdered  by  their  brides.     See  Danaus  ;   EuvPT. 

^LFRIC    (iil'frik)    THE  GBAMMA'RIAN 

(about  950-1021).  The  author  of  some  of  the 
best  Old  English  prose  e.vtant.  The  only  ma- 
terial— and  it  is  slight — for  constructing  the 
life  of  this  scholar  is  contained  in  his  own  works. 
The  place  of  his  birth  is  unknown,  but  the  date 
of  it  must  have  been  somewhere  between  950 
and  955.  After  studying  with  a  poorly  educated 
"mass-priest,"  he  entered  the  Benedictine  school 
at  Winchester  (about  972),  where  he  remained 
"many  years."  In  987,  then  "a  monk  and  mass- 
priest,"  he  was  summoned  to  rule  over  the  abbey 
of  Cernel  in  Dorset.  There  he  was  engaged  in 
preaching  and  in  giving  instruction  to  monks 
and  to  young  men.  Afterward,  probably  in 
1006,  he  was  made  abbot  of  Eynsham,  in  the 
valley  of  the  Thames  above  Oxford.  It  is  con- 
jectured that  he  died  between  1020  and  1025. 
JEAhic  is  best  known  by  his  Homilies,  written  in 
pure  and  vigorous  English.  Among  his  other 
works  are:  A  Treatise  on  the  Old  and  Neiv 
Testaments,  the  Heptateuchus,  an  abridged 
translation  of  the  first  seven  books  of  the  Old 
Testament,  a  Latin  grammar  and  glossary,  writ- 
ten in  English  for  the  boys  of  England,  and  the 
Colloquium,  which  was  designed  to  teach  them  to 
speak  Latin  correctly.  Because  of  these  last 
two  books  he  is  accorded  the  title  of  gramma- 
rian. For  the  best  account  of  J^lfric  and  a  bib- 
liography of  his  works  and  of  critical  editions, 
consult  C.  L.  White,  JElfric,  a  new  study  of  his 
life  and  writings,  in  Yale  Studies  in  English 
(Boston,  1898). 

-ffiLFTHBYTH,  alf'thrith  (Latinized  El- 
frida)  (e.  945-1000).  An  Anglo-Saxon  queen, 
mother  of  iEthelred  II.  Her  first  husband  was 
.lEthelwald,  the  ealdorman  of  the  East  Anglians, 
and  after  his  death  she  married  King  Eadgar,  the 
father  of  ^Ethelred  II.  She  is  said  to  have  in- 
stigated the  murder  of  her  stepson,  Eadward,  at 
Corfe.  in  order  to  secure  the  accession  of  ^thel- 
red  II. 

,ffi'LIA  CAP'ITOLI'NA.  The  name  given  to 
Jerusalem  by  the  Emperor  Hadrian  (Jilius 
Hadrianus),  who  expelled  the  Jews  after  tlie  in- 
surrection of  132-135  A.D.,  and  colonized  the 
city  with  Romans.  The  name  continued  until  the 
time  of  tliH  Clnistian  emperors. 

iE'LIA  GENS.  One  of  the  plebeian  gentes 
(see  Gen.s)  at  Rome,  to  which  belonged  .Elius 
Sejanus,  and  the  emperors  Hadrian  and  the  An- 
tonines.  It  included  also,  among  others,  the  fam- 
ilies of  Gallus,  Lamia,  Pietus,  and  Tubero. 

.ffi'LIA'NTJS,  CLATruius.  A  writer  who  was 
born  at  Pr^rneste  in  Italy  and  flourished  .about 
200  A.D.  He  wrote  exclusively  in  Greek  in  an 
entertaining  fashion,  but  the  information  con- 
tained in  his  writings  was  drawn  most  uncriti- 
cally from  the  works  of  his  predecessors.  His 
extant  writings  are;  On  the  Nature  of  Animals, 
in  seventeen  books,  filled  with  curious  accounts 


of  the  nature  and  ways  of  animals,  and  with 
moral  reflections  on  the  same,  and  liis  Miscel- 
lanies (Laria  Hisforia),  in  fourteen  books.  This 
is  preserved  only  in  an  abbreviated  form,  and  is 
almost  wholly  a  collection  of  anecdotes  and  mar- 
velous tales  relating  to  men.  The  twenty  Fustic 
Iietters  current  under  his  name  are  generally 
reckoned  spurious.  His  works  are  best  edited  by 
Hercher  (1858  and  1SG4)  ;  the  editions  of  the 
Varia  Bistoria,  by  Perizonius  (1701),  and  De 
Animalium  Natura,  by  Jacobs  (1831),  deserve 
mention. 

AEL'LO  ( Gk.  'Ael'Au,  storm-swift,  from  (u??.a, 
ai'lhi.  wliirhvind).  In  Greek  mythology,  the 
name  of  one  of  the  Harpies   (q.v.). 

AELST.     See  Alost. 

AELST,  Silst,  Evert  Van  ( 1602-58) .  A  Dutch 
painter  of  still  life,  which  he  depicted  with  gi'eat 
care  and  close  fidelity  to  nature.  He  was,  how- 
ever, surpassed  by  his  nephew,  William  Van 
Aelst  (1626-83),  who  is  especially  noted  for  his 
skill  in  reproducing  the  lustre  of  gold,  silver, 
crystal,  and  mother-of-pearl. 

.ffi'LUROI'DEA.     See  Carnivora. 

-ffiMIL'IA.     A  division  of  Italy.    See  Emilia. 

.ffiMIL'IA  GENS.  A  famous  patrician  gens 
at  Rome  (see  Gen.s),  to  which  belonged  the 
family  of  Jimilius  Lepidus,  Mamercus,  Paulus, 
Scaurus,  and  other  well  known  names. 

^MIL'IAN  "WAY  (Lat.  ^Emilia  Via).  A 
national  highway  in  ancient  Italy.  It  was  built 
by  the  consul  Marcus  .Emilius  Lepidus,  in  187 
B.C.,  to  ailord  easy  connnunication  with  Trans- 
padane  Gaul,  as  a'  part  of  the  gi-eat  centralizing 
schemes  of  Rome  in  her  imperial  march  north- 
ward. It  began  at  Arirainum  (Rimini)  by  the 
Adriatic  Sea,  where  the  Flaminian  Way  termi- 
nated, and  ran  through  Bononia  (Bologna)  to 
j\Iutina  (Modera)  and  Parma,  crossed  the  Po  at 
Placentia  (Piacenza),  and  ended  at  Mediolanum 
(Milan).  Its  total  length  was  about  185  miles. 
^MIL'IUS  PAU'LirS  (second  century  B.C.). 
A  Roman  general,  son  of  the  consul  -Emilius 
Paulus,  who  fell  in  the  battle  of  Cannie,  216 
B.C.  Young  J^milius  inherited  his  father's 
valor  and  enjoyed  an  unwonted  degree  of  public 
esteem  and  confidence.  In  168  B.C.  he  was  elected 
consul  for  the  second  time,  and  intrusted  with 
the  war  against  Perseus,  King  of  Macedon,  whom 
he  defeated  in  the  battle  of  Pydna,  which  left 
Macedonia  a  Roman  province. 

JENE'AS  (Gk.  Alveia^,  Aineias) .  The  hero 
of  Vergil's  .Eneid.  He  was,  according  to  Homer, 
the  son  of  Anchises  and  Aphrodite  ( Venus ) ,  and 
was  ranked  ne.xt  to  Hector  among  the  "Trojan 
heroes.  The  traditions  of  his  adventures  before 
and  after  the  fall  of  Troy  are  various  and  dis- 
cordant. Vergil  gives  the  following  version: 
^2neas,  though  warned  by  the  ghost  of  Hector  in 
the  night  wlien  the  Greeks  entered  Troy  to  take 
his  household  gods  and  flee  from  the  city,  re- 
mained in  the  contest  until  Priam  fell,  when,  tak- 
ing with  him  his  family,  he  escaped  from  the 
Greeks,  but  in  the  confusion  of  his  hasty  flight 
lost  his  wife,  Creiisa.  Having  collected  a  fleet  of 
twenty  vessels,  he  sailed  to  Thrace,  where  he  be- 
gan building  the  city  of  -Enos,  but  was  terrified 
by  an  unfavorable  omen,  and  abandoned  his  plan 
of  a  settlement  here.  A  mistaken  interpretation 
of  the  oracle  of  Delphi  now  led  him  to  Crete,  but 
from  this  place  he  was  driven  by  a  pestilence. 


JSNEAS. 


143 


-ffiOLIANS. 


Passin<;  tlip  pininontcn  v  of  Actium,  he  came  to 
Epinis,  and  then  continued  his  voyage  to  Italy 
and  round  Sicily  to  the  promontory  of  Dre- 
panum  on  the  west,  where  his  fatlier,  Auehises, 
died.  A  storm  afterward  drove  liim  to  tlie  coast 
of  Africa,  and  landing  near  Carthage.  l\e  was 
hospitably  received  and  entertained  by  Queen 
Dido.  His  niiirriagc  witli  Dido  was  prevented  by 
Jupiter,  who  sent  .Mercury  with  a  eomnuind  that 
.luicas  must  proceed  to  Italy.  Accordingly,  he 
sailed  away,  leaving  the  disappointed  queen,  who 
committed  suicide.  During  his  stay  in  Sicily, 
where  he  celebrated  the  anniversary  of  his 
father's  death  with  games,  the  wives  of  liis  com- 
panions and  seamen,  weary  of  long  voyages  with- 
out certainty  of  finding  a  home,  made  an  attempt 
to  burn  his  fleet.  After  building  the  city  of  Acesta, 
he  sailed  for  Italy.  On  landing  tlierc  he  visited 
the  Siliyl  at  Cunue.  She  conducted  him  into  the 
infernal  regions,  wbere  he  saw  Anchiscs,  and  re- 
ceived intimations  of  his  future  destiny.  Then, 
sailing  along  the  Tiber,  and  landing  on  the  east 
side  of  the  river,  he  found  liimself  in  the  country 
of  Latinus.  king  of  the  Aborigines.  Lavinia,  the 
dauglitcr  of  Latinus,  had  been  destined  to  marry 
a  stranger,  but  her  mother  had  promised  to  give 
her  in  marriage  to  Turniis,  Uing  of  the  Kutuli. 
She  married  .Eneas,  and  war  ensued,  which  ter- 
minated in  the  death  of  Turnus.  .Eneas  Silvius, 
the  son  of  .Eneas  by  Lavinia.  as  the  ancestor  of 
the  kings  of  Alba  Longa,  and  hence  of  Romulus 
and  Itemiis,  was  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the 
Roman  Empire.     See  Rome. 

JEIIE'AS  SIL'VIUS.     See  Pits  IL 

.ffiNEID  (Lat.  .Biieis).  Vergil's  great  epic, 
in  which  the  ancestry  of  Rome  is  traced  to  Troj-. 
See  Veroil. 

.ffi'NESIDEIlITrS  (Gk.  Ahi/ff/^/oc,  Ainesi- 
dfmox)  (  ?80-fi0  B.C.).  A  Greek  philosopher  of 
Alexandria,  a  contemporary  of  Cicero.  He  was 
horn  at  Cnossus.  in  Crete.  He  is  well  known  as 
the  probable  author  of  the  Ten  Tropex,  which  Sex- 
tus  Empiricus  enumerates,  saying  that  they  had 
become  traditional  property  of  the  skeptics 
(q.v. )  of  his  day.  Tropes  (Gk.  Tfidrrni.  tropoi) 
are  methods  of  proving  the  validity  of 
skepticism.  These  arguments  are  based  ( 1 ) 
on  diU'crenccs  in  the  constitiition  of  sentient 
beings,  which  involve  difTerences  in  per- 
ceptions and  ccmccptions  of  the  world;  (2)  on 
ditlerences  of  human  beings;  (.'5)  on  difTerences 
of  sense-organs;  (4)  on  ditlerences  in  circum- 
stances under  which  perception  occurs:  (5)  on 
difTerences  of  location  and  distance  of  objects 
perceived;  (fi)  on  the  confusion  of  one  object 
witli  another;  (7)  on  dill'i'rcnccs  in  a  sensation 
due  to  ditTerent  combinations  in  which  it  ap- 
pears; (8)  on  the  relativity  of  knowledge  in 
general;  (0)  on  dilTerences  in  perception 
due  to  familiarity  or  unfamiliarity  with  the 
object;  (10)  on  difTerences  observed  between  the 
civilizations,  morals,  laws,  superstitions,  and 
philosophical  theories  of  ditTerent  peoples.  See 
Rki.ativity,  Law  ok. 

iE'NIA'NES.  An  Achrean  tribe  of  northern 
(irecce.  In  historic  times  they  lived  in  the  moun- 
tains west  of  ThermopyUe.  They  were  members 
of  the  Delphian  Amphietyony  and  of  the  .Etolian 
League. 

.ffi'NON  (explained  in  the  New  Testament  as 
"many  springs").  A  locality  mentioned  in  John 
iii  ;  23  as  a  place  where  John  the  Baptist  was 


baptizing.  It  is  characterized  as  being  "near 
Salim"  and  as  having  an  abundant  water  sup- 
ply. Two  sites  have  been  proposed  as  coni|>ly- 
ing  with  this  description.  (1)  A  town  calli'd 
Ainun,  in  the  valley  that  leads  up  toward 
Shecliem,  about  seven  miles  from  the  ancient 
town  of  Salem,  where  there  are  extensive  ruins 
and  m.iny  springs.  (  2)  On  the  basis  of  statements 
in  Eusebius  and  Jerome,  a  ])lace  called  Silvia 
(:=8alem?),  about  eight  Roman  miles  south  of 
Scythopolis.  the  old  Rethshean.  The  former 
identification  seems  preferable. 

.ffiOTLIAN  ACCU'MULA'TIONS  ( from 
.•I,"o/«.s,  the  god  of  tlie  winds).  ])u-;t,  fine  par- 
ticles of  soil,  and  even  sand  giains  of  a  diameter 
of  two  millimeters  are  transported  by  the  wind 
and  brought  together  in  sheltered  places,  in 
nuicli  the  same  manner  as  these  particles  are 
transported  and  deposited  by  water.  Such 
aolian  accunuilations  occ\ir  in  both  humid  and 
arid  regions,  tlunigh  tlicy  attain  a  more  pro- 
nounced degree  of  development  in  those  regions 
of  litle  rainfall,  where  the  scant  vegetation  per- 
mits the  usually  powerful  winds  to  exert  a  con- 
siderable erosive  action  upon  the  nuich  weath- 
ered rocks  and  dry  soil.  In  humid  legions  de- 
posits of  this  nature  mav  be  found  along  the 
coasts  of  seas  and  ocean  and  also  u])on  upland 
plains,  where  the  superficial  layers  of  the  earth's 
crust  consist  of  loose  sand  that  may  be  easily 
blown  awaj",  to  be  accuunilated  elsewhere  as 
sand-dunes.  In  arid  regions,  dust  aiul  sand  are 
being  continually  transported  and  deposited  in 
distant  places,  there  to  form  a'olian  deposits 
which  are  often  of  considerable  geological  and 
also  of  economic  importance.  Desert  sands  tra- 
verse wide  areas,  burying  vegetation  that  may  be 
in  the  way,  even  sometimes  destroying  forests. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  fine  calcareous  dust  blown 
over  the  prairies  of  the  west  settles  in  the  grass 
and  adds  to  tlie  fertile  covering  of  soil.  The 
fertility  of  many  regions  of  the  Missouri  Valley 
is  undoubtedly  due  to  these  wind-deposited  soils, 
which  are  known  under  the  name  of  "loess;" 
some  of  the  loess  is,  however,  of  aqueous  origin. 
-•Eolian  accumulations  have  been  recognized  also 
in  ancient  rock  formations  of  various  geological 
systems,  notably  the  Cambrian,  Devonian.  .luras- 
sie,  etc.  For  description  of  the  erosive  and 
transporting  jiower  of  wind,  and  for  the  charac- 
ters and  distribution  of  the  various  kinds  of 
a>oIian  deposits,  see  the  articles  on  Deseut; 
DrxE;  Sano;  Shore;  Wind:  and  Geology,  para- 
graph on  Wiitft  }york-. 

JEOLIAN  HARP.  A  musical  instrument, 
consisting  of  a  numl)cr  (usually  S  or  10)  of 
catgut  strings  of  varying  thickness  tuned  to 
produce  the  same  fiindamcntal  tone,  and 
stretched  over  a  narrow,  oblong  box.  When 
placed  in  a  current  of  air  tlie  .Eolian  harp  pro- 
duces full  chords,  composed  of  the  harmonics  of 
the  common  fundamental.  The  sounds  change 
from  a  breezy,  fairy-like  pianissimo  to  an  im- 
posing forte,  which  again  dies  away  with  the 
passing  of  the  gust.  For  illustration,  see  Musi- 
cal   iNsriU'MENTS. 

.ffiOLIAN  ISLES.     Sec  Lipari  Islands. 

.ffiO'LIANS  (Gk.  Aio?t-ir.  Aiolrin).  The  name 
borne  liy  tlic  Greeks  of  the  island  of  Lesbos  and 
the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  north  of  Cyme.  They 
traced  their  descent  to  a  mythieal  .'Eolus  of 
Thessaly.  Later  writers  extended  the  name  so 
as   to   include   all   races   not   Dorian   or   Ionian. 


^OLIANS. 


U-i 


aSrated  waters. 


HERO  S  ^OLIPILE. 


The  stories  of  the  Ilittd  seem  to  have  originated 
aniono;  the  -Eolians.  At  the  end  of  the  seventh 
century  B.C.,  on  the  ishmd  of  Lesbos,  in  the 
poems  of  Alcaeus  and  Sappho,  the  personal  lyric 
reached  its  highest  development.  The  .Eolians 
shared  the  fate  of  the  other  Grecian  colonies 
in  Asia  Minor.  First  tributary  to  the  Lydian 
kings,  tlien  subjected  to  the  domination  of  the 
Persians,  they  became  a  portion  of  the  great 
empire  founded  by  Alexander,  and  after  passing 
through  a  stage  of  subjection  to  the  dynasty  of 
the  Seleucidse,  were  ultimately  absorbed  in  the 
Koman  Kmpire.     See  Lyuic  Poetry. 

JEOL'IPILE,  or  .ffiOL'IPYLE  (commonly 
explained  as  from  Lat.  ^-Eoli  pila,  the  ball  of 
yl^olus).  An  invention  of 
Hero  of  Alexandria,  often 
described  as  the  first  steam 
engine.  It  consists  of  a 
hollow  metal  sphere  mount- 
ed on  trunnions,  through 
one  of  which  steam  is  in- 
troduced. Short  bent  tubes 
issue  from  this  ball  at  dia- 
metrically opposite  points, 
from  which  steam  escapes 
and  causes  the  globe  to  re- 
volve. A  similar  device 
can  be  used  when  the  globe 
is  filled  with  water  or  alcohol,  as  a  blow-pipe  for 
lamp  flame.  Consult:  Gerland  and  Traumiiller, 
Ocschichte  der  Phi/sihulischen  Expcrimeiiticr- 
kunst  (Leipzig.  1809),  for  a  description  of  this 
and  other  early  apparatus:  also  W.  Schmidt, 
Heron  von  Alnxnndiia  (Leipzig.  1809).  It  is  also 
described  in  E.  H.  Thurston's  Crroicth  of  the 
{itcdiii  Enrjiiw  (New  York,  1878). 

ffi'OLIS  (Gk.  A'io?Jc.  Aiolis).  A  district  on 
the  west  coast  of  Asia  Jlinor,  extending  from  the 
Hellespont  to  the  river  Hermus.  There  were 
about  thirty  Greek  cities  in  this  district,  of 
whicli  twelve  in  the  southern  part  formed  a 
league  in  early  times. 

^'OLUS  (Gk.  A?oAof,  Aiolos).  (1)  A  friend 
of  the  gods  and  controller  of  the  winds.  In  the 
Odifssey  he  rules  a  floating  island.  In  the 
/Eneid  he  keeps  the  winds  confined  in  a  cave 
and  releases  them  as  he  wills.  He  was  also  sup- 
posed to  dwell  in  a  vast  cave  in  the  .Eolian 
Islands,  keeping  the  winds  in  bags,  and  letting 
them  out  as  demanded  by  Poseidon.  (2)  Son  of 
Hellen,  l)rother  of  Dorus,  and  father  of  Sisyphus. 
He  ruled  in  Thessaly.  and  is  said  to  have  been 
the  founder  of  the  -Eolie  branch  of  the  Greek 
race.  Originally  both  (1)  and  (2)  were  prob- 
ably tlie  same. 

JE.'OT>i  (Gk.  ai6v,  aiOii,  an  age,  long  space  of 
time,  eternity).  A  terra  used  by  the  Gnostics, 
in  a  peculiar  sense,  to  designate  powers  that 
had  emanated  from  God  before  the  beginning  of 
time,  and  existed  as  distinct  entities  or  spirits. 
They  were  called  seons  either  as  partaking  of 
the  eternal  existence  of  God  or  because  they 
were  thought  to  preside  over  the  various  ages 
and  transformations  of  the  world.  See  Gnos- 
tics. 

AEPI'NUS,  Fr.^nz  ^1.\kt.\  Ulricii  Theodor 
(1724-1802).  A  German  physicist,  born  at  Ros- 
tock. He  first  studied  medicine,  but  afterward 
devoted  himself  to  physics,  of  which  he  became 
professor  in  St.  Petersburg  in  1757.  He  discov- 
ered the  electric  properties  of  the  mineral  tour- 


maline, improved  the  microscope,  and  performed 
numerous  original  experiments  in  frictional  elec- 
tricity and  magnetism,  devising  the  method  of 
magnetizing  known  as  "double  touch."  He,  in 
common  with  Benjamin  Franklin,  held  the  single 
fluid  theory  of  electricity,  in  opposition  to  many 
men  of  his  time  who  believed  that  there  were 
two  kinds  of  electricity.  He  published  Tentamen 
Theorice  Electricltalis  rt  Miigiietismi.  Cath- 
arine II..  Empress  of  Russia,  made  him  teacher 
to  her  son  Paul  and  inspector-general  of  the 
normal  schools  which  she  proposed  to  establish. 
.ffi'PYOR'NIS  (Gk.  niiri'f,  «i;ii/.s,  high  +  iVKf, 
ornis,  bird).  An  extinct  group  of  ratite  birds 
which  inhabited  Madagascar  within  recent,  but 
undetermined,  geological  time,  and  three  species 
of  which  are  known  from  fossil  remains;  no 
evidence  exists  that  it  survived  to  the  time 
of  man.  although  it  is  frequently  rcfen-ed  to 
as  the  "roc."  It  resembled  an  ostrich  in  gen- 
eral structure  and  appearance,  but  was  perhaps 
taller,  and  had  no  wings  suitable  for  flight, 
resembling  in  this  respect  its  close  still  living 
ally.  Apteryx,  and  the  extinct  Dinornis  and  Meg- 
alapteryx,  of  New  Zealand.  Many  of  its  huge 
eggs  have  been  exhumed  from  the  drifting  sands 
of  southern  Madagascar.  They  measure  about 
nine  by  thirteen  inches,  and  are  very  large  pro- 
portionately, since  they  are  double  the  dimen- 
sions of  ostrich  eggs,  and  much  exceed  those  of 
the  moa.  For  a  circumstantial  account  of  the 
collecting  of  its  bones  and  eggs,  in  Madagascar, 
see  Proceedings  Zoological  Society  of  London 
(1894). 

.ffi'QTTI.  An  ancient  warlike  tribe  of  central 
Italy,  obstinate  enemies  of  the  early  Romans, 
against  whom  they  made  alliances  with  the 
Volsci.  They  were  defeated  by  Camillus.  389 
B.C..  and  in  304  B.C.  were  finally  subdued.  Jloimt 
Algidus  was  one  of  their  strongholds,  whence 
they  raided  on  Rome. 

.ffiRA'BIANS  (Lat.  crrarii.  persons  pertain- 
ing to  the  treasury,  crrarium,  i.e.,  paying  taxes, 
but  having  no  rights).  A  class  in  early  Rome 
having  no  social  position  now  definable  and 
having  no  civil  rights  beyond  the  mere  protection 
of  the  state.  For  bad  conduct  any  citizen  might 
be  degraded  to  this  condition,  but  not  for  life. 
Persons  declared  infamous  became  of  this  class, 
and  it  probably  included  itinerant  retail  mer- 
chants. They  were  taxed,  but  were  not  subject 
to  military  service. 

.ffiRA'RITJM  (Lat.,  from  ws,  bronze,  money )i 
The  public  treasury  of  ancient  Rome,  containing 
the  money  and  accounts  of  tlic  state.  The  tem- 
ple of  Saturn,  at  the  font  of  the  Capitol,  was  the 
place  of  deposit.  Besides  this  common  treasury, 
replenished  by  general  taxes  and  charged  with 
ordinary  exiienditures,  there  was  a  reserve  treas- 
ury, maintained  by  a  tax  of  5%  on  the  value  of 
manumitted  slaves,  which  was  not  to  be  resorted 
to  or  even  entered  except  in  extreme  necessity. 
In  addition  to  tlie  treasuries,  the  Emperor  had  a 
fixciis,  or  se])aratc  oxcliequcr.  Augustus  estab- 
lislied  a  military  treasury  to  contain  all  money 
for  the  maintenance  of  the  army.  Later  em))or- 
ors  liad  sc|)aratc  |irivate  .Trariunis,  containing 
the  moncvs  a]i|iropriatc(l  to  their  private  use. 

A'ERATED  BREAD.     Sec  Bread. 

AERATED  WA'TERS.  Waters  impregnated 
witli  carbon  dioxide  gas.  and  frequently  con- 
taining mineral   salts.     Such   waters  are  exten- 


AERATED  WATERS. 


145 


AERATION. 


sively  WicA  to  qupiuli  tliii<t.  and  are  commonly 
called  soda  waters.  Tlie  <arli(Piiio  acid  used  in 
making  tlie  common  artificial  ai'ratcd  waters  is 
prepared  by  trcatinj:  a  mineral  carbonate,  as 
chalk  or  liine-stonc,  with  dilute  snli)luiric  acid. 
The  gas  thus  obtained  is  forced  into  bottles  or 
siphons  containini;  water.  yicldin<r  a  brisk, 
sparkling  liciuid  with  a  pungent  but  pleasant 
acidulous  taste.  Artificial  waters,  similar  to 
seltzers,  vichy,  and  other  well  known  mineral 
waters,  are  produced  by  dissolving  the  known 
ingredients  of  the  mineral  water  in  distilled 
water  and  then  im])rcgnating  them  with  carbon 
dioxide  gas.  The  carbonic  acid  water  mixed 
with  fruit  syrups  is  the  ordinary  soda  water  of 
the  pharmacy.  Formerly  carbonic  acid  water 
was  made  on  a  small  scale  in  an  apparatus  called 
a    gazogene    or    seltzogene    {see    accompanying 


figure),  in  which  sodium  bicarbonate  was  decom- 
posed by  tartaric  acid  in  the  presence  of  water. 
A  recent  invention  is  the  use  of  capsules  contain- 
ing liquefied  carbon  dioxide.  The  liquid  which 
it  is  desired  to  impregnate  with  the  gas  is  placed 
in  a  specially  constructed  bottle,  the  top  of  which 
is  provided  w-ith  a  receptacle  for  the  capsule 
containing  the  liquefied  gas:  the  covering  of  the 
capsule  is  then  ruptured,  setting  free  the  acid, 
which  is  absorbed  by  the  liquid  in  the  bottle. 
Aerated  waters  may  also  be  said  to  occur  natu- 
rally, for  water  taken  from  a  spring  contains 
gases,  such  as  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  carbon  diox- 
ide, dissolved  in  it.  Similarly,  running  waters, 
such  as  rivers  and  rain  waters,  absorb  gases 
from  the  atmosphere,  which  may  be  expelled 
by  boiling.  See  A  Treatise  on  Bereruf/es,  by  C. 
H.  Sulz,  and  the  articles,  Carboxateu  or  Acid- 
irLOu.s   Wateks,   and   JIineral   Waters. 

A'ERA'TION  (Lat.  aer,  air).  In  botany, 
the  cxcliaiigc  of  gases  between  living  plant  tissue 
and  the  surrounding  medium.  This  exchange  is 
manifested  by  two  processes.  In  one  of  these, 
viz.,  the  manufacture  of  certain  foods  (see 
PliOTOSY.NTiiEsls) ,  carbon  dioxide  is  required  by 
the  plant  and  oxygen  must  be  eliminated.  On 
the  contrary,  in  the  other  process,  viz.,  respira- 
tion (q.v.),  oxygen  is  necessary  and  carbon  diox- 
ide must  be  eliminated.  The  former  process  is 
confined  to  giecn  jplants:  the  latter  is  essential 
to  all  excc]>t  a  few  of  the  lowest  and  simplest 
type  (anaerobic  bacteria).  Among  the  smaller 
plants,  and  those  whose  bodies  are  made  \ip  of 
interwoven  filaments  (Fungi),  the  gaseous  ex- 
changes can  take  place  directly,  since  almost 
every  part  of  the  body  is  in  contact  with  the  air 
or  with  water.  In  the  former  case,  the  outside 
gases  dissolve  in  the  constituent  water  of  the 
cell-wall  and  are  then  free  to  enter;  or,  arising 
Vol.  I.-lO 


within  the  cell,  and  being  already  dissolved, 
they  pass  ofl'  into  the  air.  In  water  plants 
the  free  inward  or  outward  migration  of  dis- 
solved gases  depends  on  the  relative  amounts 
inside  and  outside  the  body.  (See  Absorption.) 
In  the  larger  land  plants  the  greater  number 
of  cells  and  the  more  compact  structure  make 
it  impossible  for  the  cells  more  distant  from  the 
surface  to  conduct  the  necessary  changes  at  an 
adequate  rate.  Such  plants  have  therefore  devel- 
oped an  extensive  aerating  system   (fig.  1),  con- 


Diagraninintic  cross-section  of  a  leaf,  showing  the 
iniercellnlnr  spaces  in  the  interior,  i,  and  in  tlic  epi- 
dermis t=  gtomata),  a. 

sisting  of  irregular  passages,  i,  between  the  inte- 
rior cells,  which  communicate  with  the  outer  air 
through  microscopic  openings,  ,«,  between  the  sur- 
face cells  ( see Stomata ), or  through  larger  breaks 
in  the  coiky  layers  of  tissue  on  the  surface  of  the 
stems.     { See  Lenticels.  )      The  intercellular  pas- 


Pan  of  a  cross-section  of  the  root  of  Jnssia?a.  show- 
ing acrcncliyma,  witll  cllornious  inliTcellLilar  spaces, 
tlie  cells  hi'ing  a  mere  scutToUling  between  the  surface 
(not  shown)  and  the  central  cylinder  (at  the  lower 
margin). 

sages   and    stomata   are   formed   by   the   partial 
separation  of  the  cells  as  they  mature.     In  land 


AERATION. 


146 


AEROLITE. 


plants  they  are  most  abundant,  and  largest  in 
the  gi'een  parts,  because  the  gas  exchanges  in 
food-making,  photosynthesis,  exceed  those  in 
I'espiration.  In  water  plants,  however,  whose 
opportunity  for  securing  gases  from  the  air  is 
more  limited,  the  aerating  system  reaches  its 
highest  development.  (See  Hydrophtte.s.1  The 
tissues  may  ])resent  to  the  eye  a  spongy  appear- 
ance, and  in  some  cases  the  canals  in  stems  and 
leafstalks  may  even  be  large  enough  to  be  easily 
seen  with  the  naked  eye  (fig.  2).  The  internal 
atmos])here  pervading  these  canals  is  voluminous 
enough  to  permit  both  considerable  exchanges 
between  it  and  the  adjacent  tissues  and  the  freer 
diffusion  of  gases  entering  from  the  restricted 
area  of  organs  exposed  to  the  air.  The  compo- 
sition of  the  internal  atmosjjhere  is  always  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  the  outer  and  varies  from 
time  to  time.  During  the  day  the  internal  at- 
mosphere contains  less  carbon  dioxide  and  more 
oxj'gen  than  the  external  atmosphere,  at  night 
the  reverse  being  the  case.  At  all  times  the  in- 
ternal atmosphere  contains  a  larger  amount  of 
■water  vapor,  because  the  wetness  of  the  cell-wall, 
which  is  necessary  for  gaseous  exchanges,  per- 
mits evaporation.     See  Trax.spiratiox. 

A'ERA'TOR  (Literally,  "airer,"  from  Lat. 
aci;  air).  In  dairying,  an  apparatus  for  aerat- 
ing milk  to  remove  the  animal  and  liarn  odors. 
The  milk  is  usually  caused  to  run  or  ripple  in  a 
thin  layer  over  an  exposed  surface,  being,  in 
many  forms  of  apparatus,  cooled  at  the  same 
time.  In  some  forms  of  apparatus  the  cooling 
is  effected  by  the  use  of  ice;  in  others,  ice  water 
or  cool  water  from  wells  or  springs  is  used.  The 
oliject  of  cooling  milk  is  to  remove  the  animal 
heat  from  it  as  soon  as  possible  after  it  is  milked, 
so  that  the  conditions  may  be  less  favorable  to 
the  growth  of  the  micro-organisnis  which  cause 
souring  and  other  changes.  Cream  also  is  often 
cooled  when  it  is  to  be  sold  for  household  pur- 
poses, especially  separator  cream.  Cooling  is, 
further,  a  very  important  step  in  the  process  of 
pasteurizing  milk  or  cream.  The  practice  of 
aerating  and  cooling  is  comparativelj-  new. 

AEBENCHYMA,  a'er-en'ki-nui  (Gk.  i?/p, 
aci;  air  +  iyxofM,  cncht/nia,  infusion,  in  the 
sense  of  a  tissue).  In  plants,  a  loose,  spongy 
tissue,  which  is  especially  connnon  in  water 
plants  (see  Hydrophytes),  and  which  is  sup- 
posed to  facilitate  aeration — whence  the  name. 
Aerenchyma  is  typically  composed  of  more  or  less 
radially  arranged  arms  of  thin-walled  cells  in- 
closing large  air  spaces.  For  illustration,  see 
AiiRATio^',  tig.  2. 

AE'RIAL  FAU'NA.  See  Distribution  of 
Animals. 

AERIAL  PLANTS  AND  ROOTS.  See 
Epiphytes  ;  Roots. 

AERIAL  POI'SONS.     See  Miasma. 

AERIANS,  a-e'ri-anz.  A  Christian  sect 
founded  ill  the  fourth  century  by  Aerius  of  Pon- 
tus.  He  opposed  prayers  for  the  dead  and  the 
keeping  of  Easter  and  all  set  fasts,  and  asserted 
the  eipiality  between  a  bishop  and  a  presbyter. 
John  Glas  (q.v. )  wrote  a  scholarly  monograph 
on  the  so-called  heresy  of  Aerius  (Perth.  1745). 
which  so  strikingly  antedates  Reformation  doc- 
trine. 

A'iEROCLI'NOSCOPE  (Gk.  i//,),  arr,  air  + 
«/ia'f/r,  l.liiiriii.  to  incline  +  ahotiih',  s-kopcin,  to 
■watch,    examine).      An    instrument    invented    liy 


Buys  Ballot  and  used  in  Holland  and  elsewhere 
as  a  storm  signal.  It  consists  of  a  vertical 
axis,  turning  on  a  pivot,  and  carrying  at  the  top 
a  horizontal  arm  whose  inclination  can  be  va- 
ried. One  end  of  this  arm  is  painted  red  and  the 
other  white,  and  when  weather  conditions  are 
normal  it  rests  at  a  horizontal  position.  In  ease 
of  falling  barometer  the  arm  is  rotated  so  that 
the  red  end  points  in  the  direction  of  the  storm, 
the  amount  of  inclination  indicating  the  degree 
of  change  in  the  barometer. 

A'ERODYNAM'ICS  (Gk.  ii/p,  aer,  air  + 
ivvaftig,  dyiiainis,  power).  That  branch  of  sci- 
ence which  treats  of  the  properties  of  air  and 
other  gases  in  motion.  It  is,  therefore,  a  branch 
of  pneumatics. 

A'EROLITE  ( Gk.  ii/p,  aer,  air  +  ?,/'i9o<: ,  lith- 
os,  stone).  Meteoric  Stone,  Fireball,  Urano- 
lith,  or  Shooting-Star.  A  solid  body  reaching 
the  earth  from  unknown  points  beyond  the  earth's 
atmosphere.  When  seen  at  night.  ai?rolites  usually 
consist  of  a  luminous  head  or  fireball,  followed 
by  a  bright  train  of  incandescent  matter.  Some- 
times there  are  visible  explosions,  and  even  loud 
detonations  are  occasionally  heard.  In  the  day- 
time the  light  of  both  fireball  and  train  is  largely 
lost  against  the  sky  background;  it  is  said,  how- 
ever, that  visible  clouds  at  all  times  replace  the 
luminous  train. 

There  are  numerous  records  and  stories  in  all 
ages  and  countries  of  the  fall  of  stones  from 
the  sky,  but  until  comparatively  recent  times 
they  were  treated  by  scientific  men  as  instances 
of  popular  credulity  and  superstition.  It  was 
not  till  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century 
that  the  fact  was  established  beyond  a  doubt. 
According  to  Livy,  a  shower  of  stones  fell  on 
the  Alban  mount,  not  far  from  Rome,  about 
6.'54  B.C.  The  fall  of  a  great  stone  at  .-Egospo- 
tanii,  about  407  B.C.,  is  recorded  in  the  Parian 
Chronicle  (see  Arundel  Marbles),  and  by  Plu- 
tarch and  Pliny.  It  was  still  shown  in  the  days 
of  Plin.y  (died  79  a.d. ),  who  describes  it  as  the 
size  of  a  wagon  and  of  a  burned  color.  In  the 
year  1492  a.d.  a  ponderous  stone  weighing  260 
pounds  fell  from  the  sky  near  the  village  of 
Ensisheim,  in  Alsace;  part  of  it  is  still  to  be 
seen  in  the  vill.age  church.  An  extraordinary 
shower  of  stones  fell  near  LAigle,  in  Normandy, 
on  April  26,  1803.  The  celebrated  French  physi- 
cist. -M.  Biot,  was  deputed  by  the  government 
to  repair  to  the  spot  and  collect  the  authentic 
facts,  and  since  the  date  of  his  report  the  reality 
of  such  occurrences  has  no  longer  been  ques- 
tioned. Nearlj'  all  the  inliabitants  of  a  large 
district  had  seen  the  cloud,  heard  the  noises, 
and  observed  the  stones  fall.  Within  an  ellip- 
tical area  of  seven  miles  by  three,  the  numlier 
of  stones  that  had  fallen  could  not  be  less  than 
two  or  three  thousand ;  the  largest  were  seven- 
teen pounds  in  weight.  These  are  only  a  few 
out  of  hundreds  of  instances  on  record. 

As  is  natural  with  objects  of  such  mysteri- 
ous origin,  meteoric  stones  have  always  been 
regarded  with  religious  veneration.  At  Emesa, 
in  Syria,  the  sun  was  worshipped  under  the 
form  of  a  black  stone,  reported  to  have  fallen 
from  heaven.  The  holy  Kaaba  of  Mecca,  and 
the  great  stone  of  the  pyramid  of  Cholula.  in 
Mexico,  both  have  a  similar  history.  The  exist- 
ence of  such  bodies  once  admitted  led  to  assign- 
ing a  meteoric  character  to  strange  ferruginous 
masses  found  in  different  countries,  and  which 


AEROLITE. 


147 


AEROLITE. 


one    in    Brazil,    estimated    at    14,000 


had  no  histoiy.  or  were  only  adverted  to  in 
vague  tradition.  Of  this  kind  is  the  immense 
mass  seen  hy  Pallas  in  Silieria,  nmv  in  the 
Imperial  ^Museum  in  St.  Petersbvirfr.  The  largest 
known  is 
pounds. 

One  constant  characteristic  of  meteoric  stones 
is  the  fused  black  crust,  like  varnish,  with  which 
the  surface  is  coated.  From  the  circumstance 
of  this  coat  being  very  thin,  and  separated  from 
the  inner  mass  by  a  sliarply  dclincd  line,  it  is 
thought  to  indicate  some  rapid  action  of  heat 
whi:li  iias  not  had  time  to  penetrate  into  the 
substance  of  the  stone.  This  view  is  favored 
by  the  fact  that  the  stones  are  found  in  a  strong- 
ly heated  but  not  incandescent  state  when  they 
fall.  Their  specific  gravity  ranges  from  two  to 
seven  or  eight  times  that  of  water.  Chemically, 
the  meteoric  stones  have  the  same  cimstitution 
as  our  earth,  the  chief  constituent  being  nickel- 
iron,  which  occurs  in  variable  prnjinrtions.  Xo 
new  element  has  been  found  in  them,  and  only 
about  twenty-five  of  those  already  known.  These 
old  elements  are  often  coniliined  in  a  different 
manner  to  form  new  minerals  not  yet  known  in 
the  earth. 

Besides  these  solid  masses  of  considerable 
size,  numerous  instances  are  on  record  of  showers 
of  dust  over  large  tracts  of  land:  and  it  is 
remarkable  that  such  dust  has  generally  been 
found  to  contain  small,  hard,  angular  grains  re- 
sembling augite.  Stories  of  the  fall  of  gelatinous 
masses  from  the  sky  are  ranked  by  Humboldt 
among  the  mythical  fables  of  meteorology.  It 
has  been  supposed  that  such  fal)!es  may  liave 
originated  in  the  very  rapid  growth  of  gelatinous 
alga',  as  Xostoc. 

I'irebdlls  and  Shooting-stars. — From  their 
height  and  apparent  diameter,  the  actual  diam- 
eter of  the  largest  fireballs  was  estimated  bv 
fhmiboldt  to  vary  from  500  to  2800  feet;  other's 
:illo\v  a  diameter  of  about  a  mile.  In  most 
I  asps  of  luminous  meteors,  a  train  of  light  many 
miles  in  length  is  left  behind.  One  or  two  in- 
stances are  on  record  where  the  train  of  the  lire- 
ball  continued  shining  for  half  an  hour  after  th.e 
body  disappeared.  This  remarkable  phenomenon 
is  as  yet  unexplained:  it  cannot  be  attributed 
reasonably  to  incandescence  due  to  heat  alone. 
The  hcirihts  of  shooting-stars  are  found  to  aver- 
age from  74  to  .50  miles  at  the  points  at  which 
they  begin  and  cease  to  be  visible.  Their  feloc- 
i'ics  vary  from  IS  to  30  miles  in  a  second. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  facts  connected 
with  shooting-stars  is,  that  certain  appearances 
of  them  are  periodic.  On  most  occasions  they 
are  sporiidii — that  is,  they  appear  singly,  and 
traverse  the  sky  in  all  directions.  .\t  other 
times  they  appear  in  swarms  of  thousands,  mov- 
ing parallel:  and  these  swanns  are  periodic,  or 
lecur  on  the  same  days  of  the  year.  .Attention 
was  first  directed  to  this  fact  on  occasion  of  the 
jirodigiouB  swarm  which  appeared  in  North 
America  between  November  12  and  13.  1S33,  <le- 
scribed  by  Professor  Olmsted,  of  Xew  Haven.  The 
stars  fell  on  this  occasion  like  flakes  of  snow, 
to  the  number,  as  was  estimated,  of  240,000,  in 
the  space  of  nine  hours,  varying  in  size  from  a 
moving  point  or  phosphorescent  line  to  globes 
of  the  moon's  diameter.  The  most  im])ortant 
observation  made  was  that  they  all  appeared 
to  proceed  from  the  same  quarter  of  the  heavens, 
the  vicinity,  namely,  of  the  star  ),  in  the  con- 
stellation   Leo:    and    although    that    star    had 


b 


changed  greatly  its  liciglit  and  direction  during 
the  tinu>  that  the  phenomenon  lasted,  they  con- 
tinued to  issue  from  the  same  point.  It  was 
afterward  computed  by  Encke  that  this  point 
was  the  very  direction  in  which  the  earth  was 
moving  in  her  orbit  at  the  time.  Attention 
being  directed  to  recorded  appearances  of  the 
same  kind,  it  was  observed  with  surprise  that 
several  of  the  most  remarkable  had  occurred 
on  the  same  day  of  November,  especially  that 
seen  by  Humboldt  at  Cumana  in  1799,  and  by 
other  observers  over  a  great  extent  of  the  earth. 
The  November  stream  was  again  observed  in  the 
United  States  in  1S34,  between  November  13 
and  14,  though  less  intense.  Though  often 
vague,  and  in  some  years  altogether  absent,  this 
phenomenon  has  recurred  with  such  regularity, 
both  in  America  and  Europe,  as  to  establish  its 
periodic  character. 

Another  periodic  swarm  of  considerable  regu- 
larity is  that  appearing  between  August  9  and 
14,  and  noticed  in  ancient  legends  as  the  "fiery 
tears''  of  St.  Lawrence,  whose  festival  is  on  the 
tenth  of  that  month.  There  are  other  periodic 
appearances,  and  the  following  epochs  are  espe- 
cially worthy  of  remark:  April  20,  July  28, 
August  10,  November  14,  November  24,  December 
11. 

It  remains  to  notice  briefly  the  various  opin- 
ions that  have  been  advanced  as  to  the  origin  of 
aerolites  and  the  theory  of  nu'teors  in  general. 
The  hypotheses  that  have  been  formed  in  answer 
to  the  question.  Whence  come  those  solid  masses 
that  fall  upon  the  earth?  are  of  two  kinds:  some 
ascribing  to  them  a  telluric  origin,  and  others 
making  them  alien  to  the  earth.  Of  the  first 
kind  is  the  conjecture  that  they  may  be  stones 
ejected  from  terrestrial  volcanoes,  revolving  for 
a  time  along  with  the  earth,  and  at  last  return- 
ing to  it.  Another  theory,  which  at  one  time 
found  considerable  favor,  supposed  that  the  mat- 
ter of  which  aerolites  are  composed  existed  in 
the  atmosphere  in  the  form  of  vapor,  and  was 
b3-  some  unknown  cause  suddenly  aggregated 
and  precipitated  to  the  earth.  'These  conjec- 
tures are  untenable  in  the  face  of  the  phenom- 
ena stated  above,  and  are  now  completely  given 
up. 

In  seeking  a  source  beyond  the  earth,  the 
moon  readily  presented  itself.  Olbers  was  the 
first  to  investigate  (1795)  tlie  initial  velocity 
necessary  to  bring  to  the  earth  masses  projected 
from  the  moon.  'I'his  "b;illistic  problem,"  as 
Humboldt  calls  it,  occupied  during  ten  or  twelve 
years  the  geometricians  Laplace,  Biot,  Brandes, 
and  Poisson,  It  was  calculated  that,  setting 
aside  the  resistance  of  air,  an  initial  velocity  of 
about  8000  feet  in  a  second,  which  is  about  three 
or  four  times  that  of  a  cannon  ball,  would  sufTice 
to  bring  the  stones  to  the  earth  with  a  velocitv 
of  35,000  feet.  But  Olbers  showed  that  to 
account  for  the  actual  measured  velocity  of  mete- 
oric stones  the  original  velocity  of  projection 
nuist  be  fourteen  times  greater  than  the  above. 

The  discussion  of  hypotheses  as  to  the  genesis 
of  the  recognized  i)l;inets  out  of  portions  of  the 
gradually  contracting  vai)orous  mass  of  the  sun : 
the  continued  discovery  of  hitherto  unobserved 
])lancts  between  the  orbits  of  Mars  and  .Tupiter: 
the  countless  multitudes  of  comets  that  are 
observed  traversing  our  .system  in  all  directions, 
and  undergoing  appreciable  alteration  both  of 
consistency  and  orbit — all  ])repare  us  for  the 
idea  that  matter  may  exist  in  the  interplanetary 


AEROLITE. 


148 


AERONAUTICS. 


spaces  in  every  variety  of  form  and  condition. 
To  account  for  the  phenomena  of  meteors  as 
above  described,  we  must  suppose'  that  there  are 
both  detached  masses,  eacli  revolving  in  an  inde- 
pendent orbit,  and  giving  rise  to  sporadic  mete- 
ors, and  also  connected  systems,  forming  rings 
or  zones  around  the  sun.  The  intersection  of 
the  earth's  orbit  by  such  zones  or  streams  would 
account  for  tlie  periodic  swarms  of  meteors ;  and 
if  we  suppose  the  asteroids  composing  it  to  be 
irregularly  grouped,  we  see  a  reason  why  the 
same  stream  should  not  be  always  of  equal 
intensity.  There  might  even  be  periodicity  in 
this  respect  too. 

What  causes  the  luminous  and  ignited  condi- 
tion of  aerolites?  Terrestrial  magnetism  was 
at  one  time  suggested  as  the  exciting  cause.  It 
is  now  recognized,  however,  that  the  atmosphere 
extends  to  a  very  great  height,  and  the  ignition 
is  believed  to  be  caused  by  friction  between  the 
rapidly  moving  body  and  the  air.  As  to  mete- 
orites that  do  not  fall  on  the  earth,  we  may 
suppose  that  some  are  merely  deflected  from 
their  path  by  the  proximity  of  the  earth,  are 
rendered  luminous  through  a  short  arc,  and 
continue  their  coui'se  with  altered  orbit,  while 
the  greater  part  are  soon  burnt  up  and  fall  to 
the  earth  in  impalpable  dust.     See  JIeteoks. 

A'EROMAN'CY.     See  Supekstition. 

A'ERONAUT'ICS  ( Gk.  ai/p,  acr,  air  +  vavrtjc, 
nnutcs,  sailor).  The  art  of  aerial  navigation. 
It  is  of  comparatively  recent  development,  as 
the  ancients  seem  to  have  been  convinced  that 
the  navigation  of  the  air  was  impossible  to 
human  beings,  and  to  have  nutde  no  attempt  to 
accomplish  it.  Grecian  mythology,  however, 
furnishes  us  the  fable  of  D;edalus,  who  made 
wings  of  feathers  cemented  with  wax  for  himself 
and  his  son  Icarus,  and  endeavored  to  escape  by 
flight  from  King  Jlinos.  The  story  of  how  Icarus, 
by  forgetting  the  injunctions  of  his  father  and 
soaring  so  high  that  the  sun  melted  the  wax 
of  his  wings,  was  precipitated  into  the  sea, 
while  Daedalus  accomplished  his  flight  in  safety, 
is  familiar  to  all  as  a  fanciful  legend  of  ancient 
mythology.  A  more  comprehensible  tale,  but 
yet  one  which  is  based  entirely  on  tradition, 
is  that  told  of  the  wooden  dove  invented  by  the 
Greek  mathematician  Archytas.  According  to 
the  tradition,  this  dove  could  maintain  sus- 
tained flight  and  was  set  in  motion  by  "hidden 
and  inclosed  air."  Passing  to  the  Middle  Ages, 
we  find  the  field  scarcely  more  fruitful  in  facts 
relating  to  ai'rial  navigation.  There  are  record- 
ed a  few  actual  and  usually  ilisastrous  attempts 
at  gliding  lliglit,  which  will  be  noted  further  on, 
but  generally  speaking  the  consideration  of  the 
problem  of  flight  by  human  beings  was  confined 
mostly  to  surmise  and  speculations  which  in 
many  cases  were  nearly  as  fanciful  as  the  earlier 
Grecian  fables.  The  statement  of  these  meagre 
facts  brings  us  to  the  invention  which  for  the 
first  time  placed  the  art  of  aerial  navigation 
upon  a  more  practical  basis  tlum  mere  specula- 
tion, namely,  the  discovery  of  the  balloon. 

Balloons.  The  germ  of  the  in\ention  of  bal- 
loons is  to  be  found  in  the  discovery  by  the  Eng- 
lish chemist  and  physicist.  Henry  Cavendish,  in 
17GG,  of  the  remarkable  lightness  of  hydrogen 
gas,  then  called  inflammable  air.  Professor 
Black,  of  Edinburgh,  seems  to  have  been  the  first 
who  conceived  the  idea  that  a  light  envelope  con- 
taining this  gas  would  rise  of  itself.     He  request- 


ed Dr.  Monro,  the  professor  of  anatomy,  to  give 
him  some  thin  animal  membrane  for  the  experi- 
ment ;  but  for  some  reason  or  other  the  experi- 
ment was  never  made.  The  first  practical  at- 
tempts were  made  by  Cavallo,  who  in  1772  filled 
swine's  bladders  and  paper  bags  with  the  gas, 
but  found  the  former  too  heavy  and  the  latter 
too  porous,  and  only  succeeded  in  raising 
soap-bubbles  inflated  with  the  gas.  The  inven- 
tion of  the  balloon  is  due  to  the  two  brothers 
Etienne  and  Joseph  Montgolfier,  paper-makers 
at  Annonay,  in  France,  whose  names  are  as  dis- 
tinguished in  the  development  of  their  own 
industry  as  in  the  history  of  aeronautics.  It 
occurred  to  these  brothers,  on  reading  Caven- 
dish's Different  Kinds  uf  Air.  that  the  air  could 
be  rendered  navigable  hj  inclosing  a  light  gas 
within  a  covering  of  inconsiderable  weight.  Led 
by  their  vocation,  they  fixed  upon  paper  as  the 
most  fitting  materi.il  for  the  purpose,  and  first 
attempted  to  make  balloons  of  paper  filled  with 
inflammable  air.  Finding  that  these  emptied 
themselves  almost  as  soon  as  they  were  filled, 
instead  of  abandoning  the  paper  as  an  unsuit- 
able covering  for  the  gas.  they  sought  after  an- 
other gas  more  suited  to  the  paper.  They  thought 
that  the  gas  which  resulted  from  the  combus- 
tion of  slightly  moistened  straw  and  wool  would 
answer  the  purpose,  since  it  had,  as  they  imag- 
ined, an  upward  tendency,  not  only  from  its 
being  heated,  but  from  its  electrical  properties, 
which  caused  it  to  be  repelled  from  the  ground. 
It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  this  so-called 
Montgolfier  gas  possessed  no  advantages  for 
raising  balloons  other  than  that  possessed  by 
heated  air  of  any. kind;  in  fact,  the  abundant 
smoI<e  with  which  it  was  mixed,  by  adding  to  its 
weight,  rather  detracted  from  its  merits.  At 
Avignon,  in  Xovenil)er,  1782,  Etienne  Montgol- 
fier first  succeeded  in  causing  a  silk  parallelopi- 


MONTGOLFIER  BAT.LOON. 

ped,  of  about  50  cubic  feet,  to  rise  to  the  ceiling 
of  a  I'oom.  Encouraged  by  this  success,  the 
brothers  made  experiments  on  a  larger  scale  at 
Annonay  with  an  equally  happy  result ;  and 
finally,  in  June,  178.3,  in  the  presence  of  the 
assembly  of  the  estates  of  Vivarais  and  of  an  im- 


AIRSHIPS    AND     FLYING-MACHINES 


i^i--^^ 


1.  DIRIGIBLE    BALLOON    OF    COUNT   ZEPPELIN, 

in   flight,  July  2,   1900. 

2.  LANGLEVS    AERODROME,   In  flight. 


3.  LILIENTHAL'S  APPARATUS  FOR  SOARING  FLIGHT. 
4-5.  CHANUTE'S  APPARATUS  FOR  SOARING  FLIGHT. 
6.  SANTOS-DUMONT'S    AIRSHIP. 


AERONAUTICS. 


149 


AERONAtTTICS. 


mense  multitude,  they  raised  a  balloon  35  feet  in 
(iiaiiu'ler  to  a  height  of  15U0  feet.  This  balloon, 
nearly  spheiieal  in  .shajie.  was  made  of  paekcloth, 
foveied  with  paper,  and  was  heated  by  a  small 
iron  grate  placed  beneath  it,  in  which  ten  pounds 
of  moist  straw  and  wool  were  burned. 

The  news  of  this  extraordinary  experiment 
soon  reached  Paris,  where  it  produced  a  gieat 
sensation.  A  commission  was  appointed  by 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  to  report  >ipon  it. 
Public  curiosity,  however,  could  not  await  the 
tardy  decision  of  this  body,  and  accordingly  a 
subscription  was  raised  to  defray  the  expense 
of  rei)eating  the  \nnonay  experiment.  Such 
was  the  excitement  that  the  subscription  was 
filled  in  a  few  days,  and  the  construction  of  the 
balloon  was  intrusted  to  the  brotiiers  Robert, 
famous  philosophical  instrument  makers  of  the 
day.  and  to  Professor  Charles,  a  young  but 
experienced  physicist.  As  the  detailed  account 
of  the  Annonay  ascent  had  not  reached  Paris, 
and  as  nothing  was  therefore  known  of  the  Mont- 
golfier  gas.  Charles  fixed  upon  hydrogen  as  the 
gas  most  likely  to  insure  success.  It  was.  how- 
ever, a  formidable  undertaking  to  produce  it 
in  sufficient  abundance  for  a  balloon,  as  it  was 
at  that  time  only  prepared  in  small  quantities  in 
the  lecture  room  and  laboratory.  By  ingenuity 
and  perseverance  combined  he  triumphed  over 
this  difficulty,  and  succeeded  in  filling,  in  the 
course  fif  foin  days,  a  silk  globe  \1  feet  in 
diameter.  This  balloon  was  transferred  to  the 
Champs  de  Mars,  the  largest  open  space  in  Paris, 
where,  on  August  27,  1783,  it  ascended  in  the 
presence  of  300,000  spectators,  half  the  popula- 
tion of  the  city.  At  the  instance  of  the  commis- 
siiin  already  referred  to,  Eticnnc  MontgoUier 
constructed  a  fire-balloon  72  feet  high  and  41 
feet  in  diameter.  It  ascended  before  the  commis- 
sion on  September  12,  1783,  but  being  held  cap- 
tive it  was  much  injured  b}'  a  violent  wind  which 
blew  at  the  time,  and  after  it  descended  it  was 
finally  broken  up  by  heavy  rains.  Another  was 
made,  of  nearly  the  same  dimensions,  which  as- 
cended on  the  nineteenth  of  the  same  month  at 
Versailles,  the  king  and  royal  family  witnessing 
the  spectacle.  This  ascent  is  worthy  of  note, 
from  the  fact  that  a  sheep,  a  cock,  and  a  duck 
were  placed  in  an  osier  basket  attached  to  the 
lower  part  of  the  balloon,  and  that  these  first 
aerial  voyagers  reached  the  ground  again  in 
safety. 

The  balloon  was  now  an  accomplished  fact, 
and  it  began  to  be  discussed  whether  it  might 
not  he  serviceable  as  an  airship  for  bearing  men 
aloft  as  passengers.  The  solution  of  this  ques- 
tion was  first  given  by  Pilatrc  dc  Rozicr.  In 
a  montgolfi?re,  as  the  heated  air-balloon  was 
called,  74  feet  high  and  48  feet  in  diameter,  sup- 
porting at  its  base  a  gallery  of  wicker-work,  he, 
in  company  with  the  Marquis  dWrlandes,  made 
the  first  aerial  voyage,  >rovember  21,  1783. 
They  remained  in  the  air  twenty-five  minutes, 
and  sailed  across  the  Seine  and  over  a  consider- 
able part  of  Paris.  The  year  1783,  so  fertile  in 
the  annals  of  aeronautics,  witnessed  an  addi- 
tional, and  even  more  satisfactory,  triumph. 
On  December  1,  Professor  Charles,  along  with 
Roliert,  rose  from  the  Tuileries  gardens  with  a 
hydrogen  balloon — then  called  a  Charlifre — 
made  with  the  proceeds  of  a  public  subscription. 
This  balloon  was  made  of  alternately  red  and 
yellow  gores  of  silk  sewed  together  and  coated 
with  caoutchouc  varnish.     It  was  covered  with  a 


net  which  supported  the  car,  and  was  furnished 
with  a  valve,  a  barometer,  and  sand-ballast,  and 
was,  in  fact,  a  complete  aerial  machine.  In  con- 
sequence of  the  danger  attending  the  use  of  fire- 
balloons,  and  the  engrossing  attention  which 
they  demand  of  the  aeronaut,  they  have  now  en- 
tirely given  way  to  the  hydrogen  or  coal-gas  bal- 
loons for  long  voyages.  Before  they  became 
obsolete  several  remarkable  voyages  were  made 
in  them.  The  same  PilAtre  de  Rozier  made  30 
leagues  in  one  of  them,  the  longest  voyage  ever 
executed  in  a  montgolfi^re.  Among  the  names 
of  the  first  professional  aeronauts,  those  of 
Lunardi,  Blanchard,  and  (Jarnerin  deserve  spe- 
cial note.  Lunardi  was  the  first  who  nuide  an 
ascent  in  Great  Britain:  and  Blanchard,  along 
with  an  American,  Dr.  .TefTries,  crossed  the  Kng- 
lish  Channel  from  Dover  to  Calais  in  circum- 
stances of  almost  unparalleled  danger,  .January 
7,  178.5.  Garnerin  first  descended  from  a  balloon 
by  a  parachute  (q.v. ),  October  22,  1797.  It  is 
much  to  be  regietted  that  the  first  aeronaut, 
Pilatre  de  Rozier,  fell  a  victim  to  a  blind  de- 
votion to  his  art.  In  order  to  outvie  Blanchard, 
he  constructed  a  compound  machine,  consisting 
of  a  hydrogen  balloon  above  and  .a  montgolfiSre 
below,  and  started  from  Boulogne,  accompanied 
by  a  young  physicist  named  Romain,  on  the 
morning  of  June  5,  1785,  He  had  not  ascended 
many  minutes  when,  as  it  afterward  appeared, 
on  attempting  to  open  the  valve  of  the  hydrogen 
balloon  by  the  rope  attached  to  it,  he  caused  a 
rent  of  several  yards  in  it,  so  that  it  emptied 
itself  almost  immediately,  and  fell  on  the  mont- 
golfif're  beneath.  The  fire  in  the  latter  not  being 
kindled,  the  whole  machine  fell  with  a  frightful 
rapidity  to  the  earth,  and  the  ill-fated  aeronauts 
perished  on  the  spot  whence  they  had  arisen. 

As  stated  above,  the  second  balloon  built  by 
Professor  Charles  embodied  all  the  essentials 
of  the  ordinary  balloon  of  the  present  day. 
Briefly  described,  the  balloon,  as  it  is  commonly 
employed,  is  a  large  pear-shaped  bag,  made  of 
any  pliable  cloth,  usually  alpaca  or  cotton 
(though  silk  is  the  best),  covered  with  a  varnish, 
made  by  dissolving  caoutchouc  in  oil  of  turpen- 
tine, to  render  it  air-tight.  The  common  size  of 
this  bag  varies  from  20  to  30  feet  in  equatorial 
diameter,  with  a  proportionate  height.  The 
mouth  or  neck  of  this  bag  is  just  large  enough 
to  enable  a  man  to  get  inside  to  make  any  neces- 
sary repairs,  and  is,  of  course,  turned  downward 
when  the  balloon  is  inflated,  A  network  of 
hempen  or  cotton  twine  is  accurately  fitted  to 
the  balloon,  and  the  ends  of  the  separate  cords, 
of  which  it  is  formed,  are  tied  to  a  circular  hoop 
placed  a  few  feet  below  the  neck.  The  car,  gen- 
erally a  large  wicker-basket,  is  suspended  by 
ropes  from  this  hoop  and  hangs  at  a  consider- 
able distance  below,  so  th.at  the  aeronaut  may 
be  removed  from  the  vicinity  of  the  gas.  The 
net-work  serves  to  distribute  the  weight  of  the 
car  and  its  charge  equally  over  the  whole  upper 
surface  of  the  balloon.  One  of  the  most  impor- 
tant requisites  in  the  construction  is  the  valve, 
which  is  introduced  into  the  top  of  the  balloon. 
It  consists  of  a  wooden  or  metal  clapper,  from 
one  foot  to  three  feet  in  diameter,  opening  in- 
ward, and  kept  closed  by  springs.  A  rope  at- 
tached to  this  valve  descends  through  the  neck 
into  the  car.  where,  to  prevent  accidentsil  open- 
ing, it  is  allowed  to  dangle  freely.  The  equip- 
ment of  the  car  comprises  the  ballast,  or  sand- 
bags, by  emptying  which  the  balloon  may  be  light- 


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150 


AERONAUTICS. 


ened;  the  barometer,  or  oorrespontling  apparatus 
for  telling  the  height  ascended,  or  the  upward  or 
downward  course  of  the  balloon ;  the  map  and 
compass,  for  showing  the  direction  of  the  voyage ; 
and  the  gi-appling-iron.  tied  to  the  end  of  a  long 
rope,  for  anchoring  the  balloon  at  the  descent. 
During  his  flight  the  aeronaut  has  at  his  dis- 
posal the  means  of  guiding  his  airship  only  in 
an  upward  or  downward  direction,  the  motion  of 
translation  being  wholly  dependent  on  the  wind 
by  which  it  is  borne.  If  he  wishes  to  ascend,  he 
throws  some  of  the  ballast  over  the  side  of  the 
car,  and  if  to  descend,  he  pulls  the  valve-rope, 
so  that,  the  gas  rushing  by  virtue  of  its  specific 
lightness  through  the  passage  made  for  it  by 
the  open  valve,  the  buoyant  material  may  be 
lessened.  It  is  evident  that  the  power  of  thus 
directing  his  machine  becomes  more  limited  after 
each  discharge  of  ballast  or  gas,  for,  in  each  case, 
there  is  an  unrepaired  loss  of  the  means  neces- 
sary to  it.  In  ordinary  flights  the  mouth  of  the 
balloon  is  left  open,  so  that  there  is  no  danger 
of  explosion  arising  from  the  expansion  of  the 
gas  in  the  rarer  regions  of  the  atmosphere.  The 
gas  most  commonly  used  for  balloons  is  coal  gas. 
The  diffusion  that  takes  place  through  the  open 
neck  is  inconsiderable  during  the  few  hours  that 
an  aerial  voyage  lasts.  Early  aeronauts,  who 
kept  their  balloons  closed,  frequently  ran  con- 
siderable risk  by  inattention  to  the  valve  when 
the  imprisoned  gas  demanded  vent  for  its  ex- 
pansion. 

Captive  balloons,  as  the  name  signifies,  are 
balloons  which  are  held  captive  to  the  earth  by 
means  of  a  cable.  The  cable  is  usually  arranged 
to  be  let  out  and  hauled  in  by  nieans  of  a  Avind- 
lass  or  drum  operated  by  hand  or  by  mechanical 
power.  Captive  balloons  are  much  used  in  mili- 
tary operations  and  for  annisement  purposes, 
and  to  some  extent  for  scientific  observations. 
One  of  the  largest  captive  balloons  ever  em- 
ployed was  at  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1878, 
where  it  made  ascents  with  passengers  fiom  the 
Tuileries  quadrangle.  This  balloon  had  a  capac- 
ity of  over  25,000  cubic  yards  and  was  made  of 
canvas. 

Dirigible  balloons  are  balloons  arranged  with 
steering  apparatus  or  propelling  machinery  by 
which  the  direction  of  their  flight  can  he  regu- 
lated at  will.  Various  attempts  have  been  made 
to  design  and  operate  dirigible  balloons,  but 
those  which  have  attained  the  greatest  success 
are:  The  experiments  of  !M.  Gaston  Tissandier, 
made  in  1883;  the  French  army  tests,  made  a 
year  or  so  later,  and,  finally,  the  notable  experi- 
ments of  Count  Zeppelin,  made  in  the  summer  of 
1900,  and  of  M.  Santos-Dumont.  made  in  1901. 
The  balloon  with  which  experiments  were  made 
by  M.  Tissandier  was  91  feet  long  and  '29  feet 
in  diameter,  built  in  the  shape  of  a  very  thick 
cigar,  with  both  ends  pointed.  The  envelope  was 
made  of  thin  cloth  covered  with  an  impermeable 
varnish,  and  from  it  was  hung  by  means  of  the 
usual  netting  and  suspenders  a  car  containing 
an  electric  battery  supplying  current  to  an  elec- 
tric motor  which  operated  a  screw  propeller  954 
feet  in  diameter  and  having  two  blades.  A  tri- 
angular silk  rudder  was  fitted  above  the  pro- 
peller in  much  the  same  relative  position  as  the 
rudder  of  a  steamship,  and  arranged  so  as  to  be 
operated  from  the  car.  The  total  weight  of  the 
propelling  machinery,  the  car  and  the  appurte- 
nances, exclusive  of  850  pounds  of  ballast,  was 
1200   pounds,   while   the   balloon   itself  weighed 


(500  pounds.  With  the  propeller  making  180  revo- 
lutions per  minute  this  balloon  was  able  to 
maintain  its  position  against  a  wind  blowing 
6.8  miles  per  hour,  and  when  traveling  with  the 
wind  to  deviate  to  one  side  or  the  other  with 
ease.  The  French  C4overnment  balloon,  whose 
construction  was  suggested  by  Tissandier"s  ex- 
periments, was  designed  by  Jlil.  Renard  and 
Ivrebs  on  similar  lines  to,  but  somewhat  longer 
in  comparison  with  its  diameter  than.  Tissan- 
dier"s.  Seven  ascents  were  made  with  this  bal- 
loon during  1884-85,  with  the  following  prac- 
tical results:  In  five  of  the  ascents  the  voyagers 
•nere  able  to  return  to  their  starting  point,  and 
in  one  instance  a  velocity  of  13  miles  per  hour 
was  attained  independently  of  the  wind.  The 
airship  in  which  Count  Zeppelin  made  his 
notable  voyages  of  1900  consists  of  a  row  of 
seventeen  balloons,  confined  like  lozenges  in  a 
package,  in  a  cylindrical  shell  420  feet  long  and 
39  feet  in  diameter,  with  pointed  ends.  These 
balloons  sei've  to  lift  the  structure  in  the  air, 
where  it  is  driven  forward  or  backward  by 
means  of  large  screw  propellers  operated  by 
benzine  motors.  A  pair  of  rudders,  one  forward 
and  one  aft,  serve  to  steer  the  "airship."  The 
crew  and  passengers  occupy  two  aluminum 
cars  suspended  forward  and  aft.  below  the 
body  of  the  balloon  shell.  From  these  cars, 
which  are  connected  by  a  speaking  tube,  all  the 
machinery  of  the  "airship"  is  operated.  The 
"airship"  is  made  to  run  on  a  horizontal  or  in- 
clined plane  by  means  of  a  weight,  which  can  be 
moved  back  and  forth, .on  a  cable  underneath  the 
balloon  shell.  When  the  weight  is  far  aft.  the 
bow  of  the  ship  points  upward  and  the  move- 
ment is  upward :  and  when  the  weight  is  far 
forwaid.  the  movement  is  downward,  and  when 
the  weight  is  exactly  in  the  centre  of  the  ship, 
the  travel  is  horizontal.  The  aluminum  cars  are 
each  20  feet  long  and  S^i)  feet  high.  The  frame- 
\\ork  of  the  shell  is  aluminum  wire  covered  on 
the  top  with  soft  ramie  fiVu'e  protected  by 
pegamoid,  and  on  the  bottom  with  light  silk. 
The  seventeen  gas  bags,  made  of  a  special  cotton 
material,  are  all  separate  from  one  another,  and 
there  is  a  safety  valve  for  each. although  only  four 
have  outlet  valves.  Tlie  Daimler  benzine  engines, 
one  in  each  car,  are  of  16  horse-power  capacity 
each,  and  weigh  715  pounds  each.  The  screw 
propellers,  two  for  eacli  engine,  have  four  blades 
and  are  3"4  feet  in  diameter.  At  the  first  trial 
of  tne  Zeppelin  airship  on  July  2.  1900.  with  five 
persons  in  the  cars,  it  rose  1300  feet  above  Lake 
Constance  and  traveled  S'^'i  miles  in  17  minutes 
in  the  direction  desired.  An  accident  to  the  slid- 
ing weight  and  to  one  of  the  rudders  caused  a  de- 
scent to  be  made,  which  was  accomplished  with 
perfect  ease.  At  a  succeeding  trial  on  October 
17,  the  airship  attained  a  height  of  nearly  2000 
feet,  and  there  remained  poised  for  45  minutes. 
It  then  made  a  series  of  tacks,  and  described  a 
circle  of  about  6  miles  circumference.  The  wind 
exceeded  a  velocity  of  about  7  miles  per  hour, 
and  the  airship  made  headway  against  this  wind 
for  a  considerable  distance.  After  remaining  in 
the  air  for  about  one  hour,  the  ship  descended 
to  the  lake  with  great  ease,  and  was  towed  to 
its  shed.  In  steering,  stability,  and  equilibrium 
the  test  was  pronounced  very  successful. 

In  1901.  M.  Alberto  Santos-Dumont.  a  Bra- 
zilian gentleman  resident  in  Paris,  excited  wide- 
spread interest  through  his  experiments  with 
a    dirigible    balloon.     This  aeronaut    built    his 


AEKONATJTICS. 


151 


AERONAUTICS. 


first  balloon  in  isiis.  It  \\;is  in  tlip  form  of 
a  cylinder,  tcrniinatt'il  at  cadi  ciul  liy  a  cone, 
and  was  82  feet  lon^  and  nearly  0  feet  in  dia- 
meter, with  a  capacity  of  0400  cubic  feet. 
A  basket  snspended  from  the  balloon  car- 
ried a  1J4  horse -power  "gasoline  motor,  which 
operated  a  scicw  propeller.  To  provide  the  neces- 
sary fore  and  aft  trim  for  ascent  and  descent 
when  under  way,  tlie  inventor  made  u^e  of  bags  of 
ballast  which  could  lie  attached  or  removed  at 
will  from  nipcs  su>pcnded  from  the  forward  and 
after  part  of  the  balloon  and  accessible  from  the 
basket  or  car.  With  this  balloon  M.  Santos- 
Duniont  made  an  ascent  in  the  autumn  of  1898 
■which  ncarh'  resulted  fatally  to  liimself;  the 
failure  of  an  air-p\im])  to  work  resulted  in  a  par- 
tial collapse  of  the  balloon,  which  fell  I.iOO  feet 
to  the  gi'ound.  .Aside  from  the  air-]uiuip  aeei- 
dent,  the  success  of  this  trip  vas  uiui>ual!y  cn- 
couraffing:  tlic  balloon  proved  ])crfcctly  dirifiilde 
in  the  liglit  winds  prevailiiif;  at  tlie  time  of  the 
trip.  .\  second  balloon,  built  exactly  like  the 
first,  but  larger,  was  never  used  by  JI.  Santos- 
Dumont,  owing  to  the  fact  that  in  some  experi- 
ments made  with  his  first  balloon  when  captive 
the  conclusion  had  been  forced  upon  him  that 
the  model  was  incorrect.  A  third  lialloon, 
shorter  and  very  much  thicker,  was  completed  in 
the  summer  of  1899.  This  balloon  was  OG  feet 
long,  lliX  feet  greatest  diameter,  and  17.000 
cubic  feet  capacity,  and  into  the  construction 
was  introduced  the  novelty  of  what  the  inventor 
termed  a  keel.  This  keel  was  nothing  more  or 
less  than  a  bamboo  pole,  30  feet  long,  fixed 
lengthwise  to  suspender  cords  just  beneath  the 
balloon,  which  supported  the  basket  and  other 
apparatus.  The  most  notable  trip  made  with 
this  balloon  is  thus  described  by  the  inventor: 
"On  November  l.'i,  1899,  I  started  from  Lacham- 
bre's  atelier  in  Vaugirard  on  the  most  successful 
trip  I  had  yet  made.  From  Vaugirard  I  went 
directly  to  the  Champs  de  Jlars,  where  I  prac- 
ticed describing  figure  8's.  The  airship  obeyed 
the  rudder  beautifully.  After  circling  around 
the  KifVel  Tower  a  luimber  of  times.  I  made  a 
straight  course  to  the  Pare  des  Princes  at 
Auteuil ;  then,  making  a  hook,  1  navigated  to 
the  mantctivre  grounds  at  Bagatelle,  where  I 
landed."  il.  Santos-Dumont  found  that  this 
balloon  was  too  clumsy  and  the  motor  too  weak, 
and  he  built  a  fourth,  05  feet  long  and  9  feet  in 
diameter,  elliptical  in  shape,  with  a  capacity  of 
14.S0O  cubic  feet.  In  this  balloon  the  keel  was 
a  long  framework  of  bamboo  and  wire,  which  car- 
ried tlirectly — there  being  no  sus])ended  car — 
a  7  horse-power  motor  with  its  ]iropeller  and 
other  mechanism.  The  operator  managed  his 
machine  seated  on  a  bicycle  saddle  attached  to 
the  keel.  With  this  balloon  M.  Santos-Dumont 
made  numerous  short  trips  during  the  Paris 
Kxposition  of  1900.  Balloon  No.  .5  was  made 
by  cutting  balloon  No.  4  in  half  and  inserting 
a  cylindrical  piece  sufhcient  to  increase  its 
length  to  10!)  feet.  A  10  horse-power  motor  was 
adopted.  The  keel  was  a  00  foot  framework  of 
pine  and  piano  wire,  and  into  it.  20  feet  from 
the  stern,  \\as  fi.xed  the  motor,  while  the  operator 
occui)ied  a  basket  2.S  feet  from  the  front  end  or 
stem.  On  August  18.  1901,  M.  Santos-Dumont 
navigated  this  balloon  fremi  St.  Cloud  to  and 
around  the  EifTcl  Tower,  and  was  approaching 
the  starting  point  when  the  balloon  collapsed, 
and  the  whole  structure,  with  its  operator,  was 
precipitated    upon    the    roof    of    the    Trocadero 


Hotel,  where  it  luing,  the  keel  spanning  the 
space  between  the  two  roofs.  The  sixth  balloon 
of  M.  Santos-Dumont  was  like  the  previotis  one, 
except  that  it  was  longer,  thicker,  and  more 
nearly  ellipsoidal  in  shape.  On  October  19.  1901, 
this  balloon  succeeded  in  making  a  trip  from  St. 
Cloud  to  and  around  the  EilVel  Tower,  and  tlien 
back  to  the  starting  point,  in  .30  minutes,  40% 
seconds.  The  first  |)art  of  the  trip  to  tlie  tower 
was  with  the  wiiul.  and  was  made  in  8  minules, 
4.5  seconds,  but  the  return  trip  was  against  the 
wind,  and  required  20  mitiutes,  ;{()  seconds  to 
complete.  The  remaining  I  minute  4O14  .seconds 
were  consumed  in  descending.  The  trip  was  un- 
dertaken as  the  result  of  a  pri:ie  of  100,000 
francs  offereil  to  the  inventor  should  he  succeed 
in  making  the  journey  in  'SO  minutes.  Accord- 
ing to  the  newspaper  accounts,  the  balloon 
pitched  somewhat  when  going  against  the  wind, 
and  Santos-D'imout,  when  he  descended,  said  the 
motor"  suddenly  stopped  while  tlie  balloon  was 
at  a  little  distance  from  the  tower.  He  thought 
he  might  have  to  descend;  but,  Ivickily,  he  suc- 
ceeded in  getting  the  machine  started  again. 
From  that  time  on,  the  motor  worked  satisfac- 
tt)rily. 

In  closing  this  reference  to  dirigible  balloons, 
it  is  important  to  remember  that  the  successful 
trials  so  far  made  have  been  with  very  light 
winds  blowing.  Before  such  balloons  can  be 
considered  to  have  reached  a  jiractical  basis 
they  nuist  be  able  to  travel  at  a  speed  which 
will  overcome  at  least  all  ordinary  win<ls,  and 
also  have  a  steering  power  which  will  ])reserve 
their  position  in  variable  winds,  as  well  as  in 
winds  of  velocities  which  require  the  full  power 
of  the  propelling  machinery  to  overcome.  These 
are  questions  regarding  which  there  is  much 
uncertainty. 

High  ascents  in  balloons  have  been  made  by  a 
number  of  aeronauts.  On  September  5,  1802, 
two  English  aeron.iuts,  Messrs.  Coxwell  ifnd 
Glaisher.  starting  from  \\'olverhampton,  Eng- 
land, ascended  37,000  feet,  or  fully  seven  miles. 
At  a  height  of  5T/<  miles  one  of  the  aeronauts 
became  insensible  and  the  other  very  nearly 
so;  at  the  height  of  4  miles  railway  trains  could 
be  heard,  but  at  a  height  of  G  miles  there  was 
perfect  silence.  On  April  1.5.  \S'n.  M.  Tissan- 
dier,  the  inventor  of  the  dirigible  balloon  pre- 
viously described,  and  two  others  rose  from 
Paris,  France,  a  height  of  5'{!  miles.  M.  Tissan- 
dier  alone  survived  the  trip,  his  companions 
dying  in  mid-air,  and  he  himself  being  rendered 
unconscious.  These  are  the  two  highest  balloon 
ascents  recorded  in  which  living  beings  were  pas- 
sengers. 

Scientific  research  by  means  of  balloons  has 
been  undertaken  in  a  number  of  instances,  the 
most  notable  attempt,  perhaps,  in  recent  years 
being  that  of  the  arctic  explorer  Andr<=e  to  reach 
the  North  Pole  in  the  summer  of  1897.  As  is  well 
known,  the  explorer  and  his  companions  per- 
ished without  accomplishing  anything.  The 
most  fruitful  scientific  results  so  far  obtained 
by  ballooning  have  come  from  the  study  of  the 
magnetism,  humidity,  temperature,  and  chemical 
composition  of  the  air  at  high  altitudes.  The 
first  ascension  of  any  value  for  these  purposes 
was  that  of  Gay  Lussac,  in  1804.  from  Paris.  The 
balloon  rose  to  23,000  feet,  and  the  fall  in  tem- 
perature was  67°  F..  or  1°  in  340  feet.  Speci- 
mens of  air  collected  at  the  highest  point  showed 
precisely  the  same  composition  as  at  the  earth. 


AERONAUTICS. 


152 


AERONAUTICS. 


The  magnetic  force  did  not  experience  any  sen- 
sible variation  at  tlie  different  heiglits.  Tlie 
next  ascent  of  importance  was  that  of  Barral 
and  Bixto  in  July,  18.50.  In  this  ascent,  at 
19,700  feet,  the  aeronauts  observed  a  tempera- 
ture in  a  cloud  of  15°  F.,  and  at  23,000  feet 
above  the  cloud  a  temperature  of  — 38°  F.  The 
ascent  of  James  Glaisher  in  1862  has  already 
been  noted  for  its  extreme  lieifiht,  and  there  liave 
been  several  other  ascents  of  less  height  from 
which  fruitful  scientific  results  have  been  ob- 
tained. On  March  21,  1893,  a  balloon  19.7  feet 
in  diameter,  carrying  a  self-registering  barometer 
and  thermometer,  was  sent  up  from  Paris.  The 
records  made  by  these  instruments  were  exam- 
ined when  the  lialloon  descended,  and  appeared 
to  show  that  the  balloon  rose  to  a  iieight  of 
4.5,920  feet,  Avhen  tlie  ink  fioze  at  a  tem])era- 
ture  of  — 32°  C,  and  the  record  was  discontinued 
until  at  a  height  of  .52,490  feet  the  ink  was 
thawed  by  solar  radiation  and  the  record  was 
resumed.  Tlie  accuracy  of  these  figures  lias  lieen 
seriously  questioned,  but  if  they  are  accurate 
the  balloon  reached  a  height  of  nearly  10  miles. 

At  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1900,  competitive 
long  distance  balloon  trips  were  undertaken  by 
a  number  of  aeronauts  on  September  30  and 
October  9.  In  the  first  trial,  or  race,  as  it  was 
popularly  termed,  there  were  twelve  starters,  of 
which  only  four  succeeded  in  making  records  of 
a  notable  character.  Starting  from  the  Vin- 
cennes  Field.  Paris,  Comte  de  Castillon  de  Saint- 
Victor,  in  the  Orient,  reached  Cordof  in  Schles- 
wig-Holstein.  496  miles,  in  14  houis;  !M.  Faure, 
in  the  Aii-o-Club,  reached  Mamlitz,  in  Posen, 
eastern  Prussia,  733  miles;  JI.  .Jacques  Balsan, 
in  the  »S'oi«f  Louis,  reached  Danzig,  eastern 
Prussia,  757  miles,  in  22  hours,  and  the  Comte 
de  la  Vaulx,  in  the  Centfinre.  reached  Wlocla- 
wek,  in  Russian  Poland,  766  miles,  in  21  hours 
and  30  minutes.  In  the  second  trial  of  October  9, 
there  were  six  starters,  of  whom  only  two  de- 
serve particular  mention,  namely,  the  Comte 
de  la  Vaulx,  in  the  Crntniirc,  and  M.  Jacques 
Balsan,  in  the  l^aint  Louis,  both  competitors  in 
the  first  trial.  Starting  from  Paris,  M.  le 
Comte  de  la  Vaulx  readied  Korostichev,  in  Rus- 
sia, 1193  miles,  in  36  hours  and  45  minutes. 
The  extreme  altitude  attained  was  18,810  feet. 
M.  Jacques  Balsan  reached  Radom,  Poland, 
843  miles  from  Paris,  in  27  hours  and  25  min- 
utes. The  maximum  altitude  reached  was  21,582 
feet.  The  Centaure  of  the  Comte  de  la  Vaulx, 
which  made  the  best  record,  was  a  balloon  of 
1650  cubic  meters  capacity,  and  had  made  sev- 
eral notable  ascents  previous  to  its  recorilbreak- 
ing  voyage  beginning  October  9,  1900.  The  most 
remaikable  of  these  previous  voyages  was  one 
from  Paris  to  Sweden,  824  miles.  In  the  famous 
1193  mile  journey  to  Russia,  the  Centunrc  was 
filled  with  a  mixture  of  hydrogen  and  of  common 
illuminating  gas. 

Military  Ballooning.  The  first  use  of  bal- 
loons for  this  purpose  was  made  under  the  first 
French  Republic  by  the  chemist  Guyton  de  Mor- 
veau,  and  two  companies  of  military  balloonists 
were  organized  under  the  command  of  De  Coutelle 
and  sent  to  the  field.  The  L'Entreprevdnt,  a  bal- 
loon 27  feet  in  diameter,  was  at  ISIaubeuge,  June 
2,  1794,  doing  excellent  service  for  the  French, 
and  again  at  Charleroi,  from  June  21  to  25. 
The  balloons  used  were  of  the  captive  type,  held 
by  ropes.  During  the  battle  of  Fleurus,  the 
L'Entreprenant  remained  ten  hours  in  the  air, 


and  gave  General  Jourdan  all  details  of  the  Aus- 
trian movements.  During  the  Civil  War  in  the 
United  States,  La  i^lontain  reconnoitred  the  Con- 
federate position  from  a  captive  balloon  near 
Washington,  but  finding  his  observations  in- 
sufficient, he  cut  the  cable  which  held  the  balloon 
and  passed  over  tlie  enemy's  arm}'.  Landing  in 
ilaryland.  he  was  able  to  afford  General  JIc- 
Clellan  important  information  concerning  the 
enemy's  movements.  The  balloon  Khodc  Island, 
also  used  in  the  Civil  War,  was  the  first  used 
in  communicating  directly  with  a  military  post, 
by  means  of  a  wire  conductor  attached  to  the 
anchoring  cable,  and  thus  transmitted  observa- 
tions telegraphically  to  the  gi'ound.  Later  in 
the  war.  from  a  balloon  before  Richmond,  at  an 
altitude  of  300  meters  (about  980  feet),  pano- 
ramic photographs  were  taken  of  the  terrain 
and  surrounding  country.  In  1870  the  Germans 
before  Strassburg  made  ineffectual  attempts  to 
utilize  balloons.  In  this  respect  the  French 
were  more  successful,  using  balloons  during  the 
siege  of  Paris  to  communicate  witli  the  outer 
world.  A  school  of  aerostation  was  founded  in 
Germany  in  1884,  under  command  of  Major 
Buehols.  Ascensions  were  made  at  the  manoeu- 
vres near  Cologne  in  1885,  and  these  experiments 
were  renewed  at  Mainz  in  1887.  The  German 
officers  also  made  experiments  with  luminous 
balloons  for  signaling,  using  an  electric  lamp 
in  the  interior  of  the  balloon.  By  means  of  an 
electric  projector  carried  up  by  a  balloon,  they 
were  able  to  throw  light  on  the  terrain  at  a 
great  distance.  Optic  telegraphy  was  the  sub- 
ject of  experiments  and  study  in  Russia  in  1884, 
and  trials  were  made  with  .arc  lights  suspended 
under  the  balloon  and  connected  with  the 
gi'ound  by  conductors.  In  1879  the  English  or- 
ganized a  company  of  military  balloonists,  and 
a  park  of  construction  for  balloons  was  estab- 
lished at  Woolwich.  In  the  Egyptian  campaign 
in  1885  military  ballooning  was  used  to  advan- 
tage. Tlie  balloon  section  was  used  in  South 
Africa,  1899-1901,  with  some  measure  of  suc- 
cess. 

The  balloon  was  used  as  an  actual  means  of 
cft'ense  at  the  siege  of  Verona,  1849,  by  the  Aus- 
trians,  who  transported  in  balloons  missiles  of 
war,  which  they  threw  down  upon  the  enemy. 
Tliis  method  of  warfare,  which  has  often  been 
proposed,  has  not  been  found  successful,  largely 
owing  to  the  difficulty  in  dropping  the  missiles 
accurately,  slight  wind  currents  deflecting  them. 

Mechanical  Fliuht.  Attempts  to  imitate 
the  flight  of  birds  by  mechanical  contrivances 
antedate  the  balloon  by  several  hundred  years. 
Several  very  early  instances  are  on  record  of 
persons  who,  apparently  by  some  parachute-like 
contrivance,  descended  obliquely  from  high  towers 
to  a  considerable  distance;  thus  in  the  thirteenth 
or  fourteenth  century,  Elmerus,  a  monk,  is  said 
to  have  flown  more  than  a  furlong  from  the  top 
of  a  tower  in  Spain,  but  the  distance  is  probably 
much  exaggerated;  and  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, Besnier,  a  locksmith  of  Sable,  in  France, 
after  experiments  from  windows  one  story 
high  '  'as  able  to  leap  safely  from  very  elevated 
positions,  and  to  pass  over  houses  or  over  rivers 
of  considerable  breadth.  The  first  properly 
authenticated  account  of  an  artificial  wing  was 
given  by  Borelli  in  1670,  and  his  investigations 
and  experiments  furnished  the  principal  basis 
for  experiments  until  1867.  In  this  year  Pro- 
fessor J.  B.  Pettigrew,  an  English  scientist,  pub« 


AERONAUTICS. 


153 


AERONAUTICS. 


lished  the  results  of  an  rlalxinife  .and  oarefiil 
seiips  of  studios  made  by  liiui  upon  the  flight  of 
birds,  whicti  urouf;lit  a  revolution  in  the  <on- 
struction  of  llyiu^  machines.  K.histie  aerophuies 
were  advoialed  by  Mr.  lirown,  ehistie  ai-rial 
screws  by  ^Ir.  .-Vrniour,  and  ehistie  aerophmes, 
wings,  and  screws  by  M.  Pcnaud.  The  hitter 
constructed  models  to  fly  by  three  diirerent  meth- 
ods—  (1)  by  mean.s  of  screws  acting  vertically 
upward;  (2)  by  aeroplanes  propelled  liorizon- 
tally  l>y  screws;  and  (15)  by  wings  whicli  are 
flap|)ed  in  an  upward  and  downward  direction. 
These  models  were  so  far  successful  as  to  make 
n  eonsiderahle  degree  of  |)rogress  and  oiler  hints 
for  future  guidance.  Mr.  Heuson  designed  a 
flying  machine  in  1841,  combining  aerial  screws 
with  extensive  supporting  structures.  Mr.  Wen- 
ham,  in  18(i7.  thinking  to  improve  upon  Mr. 
Henson,  invented  what  he  designated  his  aero- 
planes. Mr.  Stringfellow,  who  was  originally 
associated  with  Mr.  Henson,  and  constructed  a 
sueeessfnl  (lying  model  in  1847,  built  a  second 
model  in  1808.  in  which  Mr.  Wenham's  aero- 
planes were  combined  with  ;ii'rial  si'iews.  This 
model  was  on  view  at  the  exhibition  of  the 
Aeronautical  Society  of  Cireat  Britain,  held  at 
the  Crystal  I'alaee,  London,  in  1808.  It  was 
remarkably  compact  and  light,  and  obtained  the 
^.'jOt)  prize  of  the  exhibition  for  its  engine,  which 
was  the  lightest  and  most  powerful  ever  con- 
structed. The  machine  for  which  it  was  made 
was  not  successful.  In  1874  ilr.  .Moy  invented 
an  aerial  steamer,  consisting  of  a  light.  ])Owerful 
skeleton  frame  resting  on  three  wheels;  a  very 
ffTcctive  light  engine  constructed  on  a  new  prin- 
ciple, which  dispensed  with  the  old-fashioned 
cumbrous  boiler,  narrow  horizontal  aeroplanes, 
and  two  very  large  aerial  screws.  In  its  general 
features  Mr.  Moy's  machine  resembled  that  of 
Mr.  Stringfellow. 

Summarizing  the  methods  of  lliglit  so  far 
attempted,  we  have,  therefore,  ( 1  )  ilirigible  bal- 
loons: (2)  those  forms  of  apparatus  which  were 
intended  to  sustain  or  lift  their  weight  by  screw 
propellers  revolving  on  vertical  axes;  (3)  those 
machines  which  were  intended  to  sustain  their 
weight  on  Happing  or  lieating  wings;  and  (4)  the 
aeroplane  or  aerocurve  contrivances  which  have 
been  experimented  with  in  recent  years,  to  the 
practical  exclusion  of  all  other  classes  except 
the  <lirigiblc  balloon.  To  understand  the  reason 
for  this  tendency  toward  the  ai'roplane  or  gliding 
machine,  a  brief  comparative  discussion  of  the 
difTerent  classes  of  Hying  machines  is  necessary, 
.As  already  stated,  the  future  utility  of  the 
dirigible  balloon  is  still  the  subject  of  diflVrences 
of  opinion.  Its  chief  drawbacks  are  great  bulk 
and  extreme  frailty,  which  seem  to  affect  its 
practical  advantages  in  other  respects.  X'crfical 
screw  machines  have  much  to  recommend  them, 
but  they  ])resent  drawbacks  which  more  than 
counterbalance  the  ailvant:iges.  The  ability  to 
rise  directly  into  the  air  from  any  given  spot 
would  be  an  exceedingly  desirable  quality,  and 
hence  a  great  many  attempts  have  been  made  to 
develo])  ii  successful  vertical  screw  jnaehine. 
Perhaps  the  greatest  stumbling  block  to  success 
has  been  that  when  the  surfaces  which  form  the 
blades  of  the  screws  are  revcdvcd  over  one  spot 
they  do  not  give  any  considerable  lifting  effect 
in  proportion  to  the  |)o\vcr  consumed.  It  is 
stated  by  high  authority  that  where  one  might 
from  theory  expect  a  lift  of  possibly  100  pounds 
per  horse-power,  the  best  result  the  inventor 
Vol.  I.— 12. 


can  produce  on  a  practical  scale  is  almost  sure 
to  be  less  than  one-seventh  of  that  figure;  in 
fact,  the  lift  willi  the  lightest  engines  we  can 
build  is  likely  to  be  but  little  if  any  more  than 
the  weight  of  the  machine  itself.  With  engine.s 
weighing  nnich  more  than  four  or  five  pounds  per 
horse-power  it  is  asserted  that  practical  success 
with  this  type  of  apparatus  is  not  possible.  The 
third  class,  or  the  beating  wing  machines,  are 
subject  to  the  same  disadvantages  in  regard  to 
the  enormous  power  reciuired  as  those  of  the 
\eitical  screw  type.  In  addition  to  this,  the 
problem  of  maintaining  :i  stable  equilibrium  in 
windy  weather  still  further  seriously  complicates 
matters  so  much,  that  it  is  considered  that  there 
is  but  small  hope  of  practical  machines  ojierated 
on  this  principle  being  produced.  In  conclusion, 
it  is  hardly  necessary  to  jioint  out  that  any  com- 
bination in  a  single  machine  of  the  salient  fea- 
tures of  two  or  more  of  the  classes  of  machines 
described  tends  to  complicate  rather  than  to 
improve   the   situation. 

After  thorough  investigation  and  experiment, 
the  objections  to  the  three  classes  of  m.a- 
chines  named,  which  have  been  briefly  out- 
lined above,  appear  so  formidable  to  the 
great  majority  of  the  foremost  workers  for 
mechanical  flight  to-day  that  there  now  appears 
to  them  to  be  but  one  principle  left,  and  upon 
this  there  is  based  an  increasing  lio])e  that  flight 
will  be  accomplished.  This  jirinciple  is  the  one 
which  underlies  the  aeroplane  or  aerocurve; 
which  is  that  when  a  thin  surface  is  drawn 
through  the  air  and  is  slightly  inclined  to  its 
path,  the  equivalent  of  a  pressure  is  developed 
on  the  si<le  which  is  exposed  to  the  air  current — 
that  is,  the  under  side — which  is  much  greater 
than  the  driving  force  which  is  necessary  to  pro- 
duce it.  If  a  surface  arched  in  the  line  of  the 
motion  he  substituted  for  the  ])lane,  we  have  an 
ai'rociirve,  whose  chief  advantage  is  that  it  has 
a  higher  efliciency.  Another  advantage  is  that 
it  is  not  necessary  to  incline  an  aerocurve  in 
order  to  develop  a  pressure  on  the  hollow  side 
when  it  is  moved  through  the  air.  The  one 
advantage  which  the  power  machine  of  the  aero- 
curve type  has  over  the  vertical  screw  is  the 
fact  that  it  can  for  the  reasons  just  stated  con- 
vert the  relatively  small  push  of  the  screw  pro- 
])ellers  into  a  imicli  larger  lifling  efTect, 

Itecent  experiments  with  acrocurves  may  be 
divided  info  two  classes:  (I)  Kxperiments  with 
models  and  (2)  experiments  with  large  devices 
capable  of  carrying  a  man.  Perhaps  the  two 
most  notable  experimenters  with  models  have 
been  Sir  Hiram  Maxim  of  Knghmd  and  Professor 
S,  P.  Langley  of  the  United  States.  Maxim's 
experiments  have  been  largely  with  various  forms 
of  aerocurves,  with  the  purpose  of  determining 
the  most  ellicicnf,  and  the  model  coustnu'ted  by 
him  was  employed  in  testing  tlie  dill'erent  sur- 
faces. In  a  paper  written  in  18i)(i,  Sir  Ilirani 
Maxim  sunnmuizes  some  of  the  principal  results 
of  his  experiments,  as   follows: 

"My  experiments  have  certainly  demonstrated 
that  a  steam  engine  and  boiler  may  be  made 
which  will  generate  a  horse-power  for  every  six 
pounds  of  weight,  and  that  the  whole  motor, 
including  the  gas  generator,  the  water  sup])Iy, 
the  condenser,  ;ind  the  ])umps  may  be  all  made  to 
come  inside  of  11  pounds  to  the  horse-power. 
They  also  show  that  well-made  screw  propellers 
working  in  the  air  are  fairly  ellieient,  and  that 
they  obtain  a  sufticicnt  grip  upon  the  air  to  drive 


AEBONAXTTICS. 


154 


AERONAUTICS. 


the  machine  forward  at  a  higli  velocity;  that 
very  large  aeroplanes,  if  well  made  and  placed 
at  a  proper  angle,  will  lift  as  much  as  21/0  pounds 
per  square  foot  at  a  velocity  not  greater  than 
40  miles  an  hour;  also  that  it  is  possible  for  a 
machine  to  be  made  so  light  and  at  the  same 
time  so  powerful  that  it  will  lift  not  only  its 
own  weight  but  a  considerable  amount  besides, 
with  no  otlier  energy  except  that  derived  from  its 
own  engines.  Therefore  there  can  be  no  question 
but  that  a  flying  machine  is  now  possible  with- 
out the  aid  of  a  balloon  in  any  form." 

In  1891,  Professor  Langley  published  his  now 
famous  memoir  entitled  Experiment'!  in  Acrodii- 
namics,  and  in  1803  his  equally  celebrated  book 
on  The  Internal  Work  of  the  ]\  ind.  The  experi- 
ments upon  wliich  many  of  the  statements  in 
these  books  were  based  were  begun  in  1887,  and 
from  1891  to  189G  Professor  Langley  was  more  or 
less  constantly  at  work  perfecting  a  model  flying 
machine,  which  finally  culminated  in  his  aero- 
drome. Tliis  machine  made  a  flight  of  three- 
quarters  of  a  mile  on  November  28,  1890,  and 
is  described  as  follows  in  the  Aeronautical  Annu- 
al,   1897: 

"The  weight,  with  fuel  and  water  sufficient 
for  the  flights  described,  is  about  30  pounds. 
The  weight  of  the  engine  and  boiler  together  is 
about  7  pounds.  The  power  of  the  engine  under 
full  steam  is  rather  more  than  one  horse-power. 
There  are  two  cylinders,  each  having  a  diameter 
of  114  inches.  The  piston  stroke  is  2  inches. 
The  two  screws  are  39  inches  from  tip  to  tip, 
and  are  made  to  revolve  in  opposite  directions; 
the  pitch  is  I14:  they  are  connected  to  the 
engines  by  bevel  gears  most  carefully  made ; 
the  shafts  and  gears  are  so  arranged  that  the 
synchronous  movement  of  the  two  screws  is  se- 
cured. The  boiler  is  a  coil  of  copper  tubing;  the 
diameter  of  the  coil  externally  is  3  inches:  the 
diameter  of  the  tubing  externally  is  %  inch : 
the  pressure  of  steam  when  the  aerodrome  is  in 
flight  varies  from  110  to  150  pounds  to  the 
square  inch.  The  flame  is  produced  by  the  seoli- 
pile,  which  is  a  modification  of  the  naphtha 
"blow-torch"'  used  by  plumbers;  the  heat  of  this 
flame  is  about  2000°  F.  Four  pounds  of  water 
are  carried  at  starting,  and  about  ten  ounces 
of  naphtha.  In  action  the  boiler  evaporates 
about  one  pound  of  ^\'ater  per  minute." 

The  two  most  valuable  sets  of  experiments 
conducted  with  large  aeroeurves  capable  of  car- 
rying one  man  are  those  of  Herr  Otto  Lilienthal 
of  Germany  and  Mr.  Octave  Chanute.  a  well 
known  American  engineer.  Practicall}'  the  same 
methods  of  carrying  out  their  experiments  were 
employed  by  both  of  these  gentlemen,  although 
the  machines  experimented  with  were  quite  dif- 
ferent in  form ;  and  they  are  briefly  described 
by  Mr.  Chanute,  as  follows: 

"The  method  of  carrying  on  these  adventures 
is  for  the  operator  to  place  himself  within  and 
under  the  apparatus,  wliich  should  preferably 
be  light  enough  to  be  easily  carried  on  tlie  shoul- 
ders or  by  the  hands,  and  to  face  the  wind  on 
a  hillside.  The  operator  should  in  no  wise  be 
attached  to  the  machine.  He  may  be  suspended 
by  his  arms,  or  sit  upon  a  seat,  or  stand  on  a 
dependent  running  board,  but  he  must  be  able  to 
disengage  himself  instantly  from  the  nuichine 
should  anytliing  go  wrong,  and  be  able  to  come 
down  upon  his  legs  in   landing. 

"Facing  dead  into  the  wind,  and  keeping  the 
front  edge  of  the  supporting  surfaces  depressed, 


so  that  the  wind  shall  blow  upon  their  backs  and 
press  them  downw'ard,  tlie  operator  first  adjusts 
his  apparatus  and  himself  t-o  the  veering  wind. 
He  has  to  struggle  to  obtain  a  poise,  and  in  a 
moment  of  relative  steadiness  he  runs  forward 
a  few  steps  as  fast  as  he  may,  and  launches 
himself  upon  the  breeze,  by  raising  up  the  front 
edge  of  the  sustaining  surfaces,  so  as  to  receive 
the  wind  from  lieneatli  at  a  very  small  angle 
(2  to  4  degrees)  of  incidence.  If  the  surfaces 
and  wind  be  adequate,  he  finds  himself  thorough- 
ly sustained,  and  then  sails  forward  on  a  de- 
scending or  undulating  course,  under  the  com- 
bined effects  of  gravity  and  of  the  opposing 
wind.  By  shifting  either  his  body  or  iiis  wings, 
or  both,  he  can  direct  his  descent,  eitlier  side- 
ways or  up  or  down,  within  certain  limits;  he 
can  cause  the  apparatus  to  sweep  upward  so 
as  to  clear  an  obstacle,  and  he  is  not  infre- 
quently lifted  up  several  feet  by  a  swelling  of 
the  wind.  The  course  of  the  glide  eventually 
brings  the  apparatus  within  a  few  feet  of  the 
ground  (0  to  10  feet),  when  the  operator,  by 
throwing  his  weight  backward,  or  his  wings  for- 
waril.  if  tliey  be  movable,  causes  the  front  uf 
the  supporting  surfaces  to  tilt  up  to  a  greater 
angle  of  incidence,  thus  increasing  the  wind 
resistance,  slowing  the  forward  motion,  and 
enabling  him,  by  a  slight  oscillation,  to  drop 
to  tlie  ground  as  gently  as  if  he  had  fallen  only 
one   or    two    feet." 

With  the  machine  shown  in  the  illustration 
Herr  Lilienthal,  starting  from  ii  height,  was  able 
to  sail  several  luindrcd  feet — the  flight  in  some 
instances  being  against  a  wind  of  24  miles  per 
hour — and  to  make  turns  to  the  right  or  left 
with  considerable  certainty.  Mr.  Clianute's  ex- 
periments were  conducted  first  with  a  machine 
like  Herr  Lilienthal's  but  with  one  pair  of  wings 
only:  second,  with  a  machine  having  five  pairs 
of  wings,  one  above  the  other,  and  a  sixth  pair 
forming  a  tail ;  third,  with  a  machine  consisting 
of  two  wings,  one  above  the  other,  and  without 
any  break  in  the  middle,  as  shown  in  the  first 
of  the  two  illustrations  of  his  apparatus:  and 
finally  with  a  large  liird-like  structure  of  the 
foim  shown  in  the  illustration.  The  greatest 
success,  perhaps,  must  be  credited  to  the  double- 
winged  machine,  which  made  numerous  fiights, 
some  of  them  against  winds  of  from  10  to  31 
miles  per  hour.  The  longest  flight  made  was 
3.J9  feet,  from  a  starting  point  C2  feet  higher 
than   the  point  of  landing. 

Bibliography.  As  most  of  those  who  have 
carried  on  aeronautical  experiments  and  have 
made  systematic  balloon  ascents  have  been  either 
scientific  or  military  men,  there  is  a  valuable  lit- 
erature. Consult  Hattan  Turnor,  Astra  Castra: 
Experiments  and  Adrcutures  in  the  Atmosphere 
(London,  1865)  :  T.  Glashier,  Voi/af/es  aMens 
(London,  1871);  Tissandier,  Les  ballons  diri- 
gibles (Paris,  1872)  ;  Coxwell,  My  Life  and  Bal- 
loon Experiences  (London,  1888)  ;  Pettigrew, 
Animal  Loeoinotion  (New  York,  1872)  ;  S.  P. 
Langley.  Aerodi/namies  and  Internal  Work  of  the 
iri«(/,  "  Smithsonian  Institution  (Washington, 
1891 )  ;  0.  Chanute,  Progress  in  Fli/inq  Machines; 
Proceedinr/s  of  the  International  Conference  on 
Ai'rial  yaric/ation ;  The  Ai-'ronautieal  Annual 
(London,  1895-97)  :  the  Proceed! nf/s  uf  the  Aiiro- 
nautical  Society  of  Great  Britain;  the  Balloon 
Society  of  Great  Britain;  Academic  d'Airosta- 
tion  of  France  and  the  Clerman  Aeronautical 
Society.     Among  the  periodicals  devoted  to  aero- 


AERONATJTICS. 


155 


^SCHYLUS. 


nautios.  <lio  best  kiunvn  iiic:  Zcilachrift  fiir  Luft- 
schifffahrt  iiiul  I'hi/silc  dvr  AtiiioKphan-dievMn)  ; 
The  Acroiumtirtil  Journal  (London);  L'Ai:ro- 
nauie  (Paris);  L'Acrophile  (Paris);  Revue  de 
I'Aeroitautiqiie   (Paris) . 

A'EROPLANE.     See   AiJROXACTlcs. 

A'EROSTAT'IC  PRESS.  A  machine  used 
for  extrar'tinj;  the  coloring  matter  from  dye- 
woods  and  other  materials.  A  vessel  is  divided 
by  a  horizontal  partition  pierced  with  small 
holes.  Upon  this  the  substance  containing  the 
color  is  laid,  and  a  cover,  also  perforated,  is 
placed  upon  it.  The  extracting  liouid  is  tlien 
poured  on  the  top,  and  the  air  being  drawn  from 
the  under  part  of  the  vessel  by  an  air  juimp,  the 
'  liquid  is  forced  tlirough  the  substance  by  tlie 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere.  Tliis  instrument 
was  used  in  place  of  the  modern  hydraulic  press. 

A'EROSTAT'ICS  ( Gk.  aj?'p,  aer,  air  +  ara-6^, 
statos,  standing).  That  branch  of  science  which 
treats  of  tlie  weight,  pressure,  and  ccjuililiriimi 
of  air  and  other  gases,  and  of  the  equilibrium 
of  solids  inunersed  in  them.  It  is,  therefore,  a 
branch  of  pneumatics. 

A'EROT'ROPISM  (Gk.  af/p,  aer,  air  +  rpoir^, 
tropr,  a  turn,  turning).  The  sensitiveness  of 
certain  plant  organs,  which  enables  them  to 
orient  themselves  with  reference  to  tlie  move- 
ments of  gases — usually  oxj'gen — dissolved  in  the 
medium  in  wliich  they  are  grown.  Aerotropism 
is  a  special  case  of  chemotropism  (q.v.).  Tlie 
pollen  tubes  of  many  plants  arc  negatively 
aerofropic:  when  grown  in  sugar  solution  they 
grow  away  from  the  surface  of  the  medium 
which  is  in  contact  with  air,  and  from  which 
oxj'gen  molecules  are  difi'using.  Roots  of  maize 
are  positively  aerotropic  in  water.  They  curve  so 
as  to  remain  near  the  surface,  often  growing 
horizontally  for  long  distances,  in  spite  of  the 
stimulus  of  gravity  which  tends  to  cause  them 
to  grow  downward.  (See  Geotropism  in  Plants.) 
If  thrust  deeply  into  water  they  will  often  bend 
upward  and  seek  the  surface  where  oxygen  is 
entering. 

.ffiSCHINES,  es'ki-nez  (Gk.  Atax'vi?,  Ais- 
chiiK'n)  (3Sf)-:!14  B.C.).  An  Athenian  orator,  sec- 
ond only  to  his  great  rival,  Demosthenes.  He  was 
born  at  .Athens  in  humble  station,  served  as  a  sol- 
dier, then  became  a  clerk  to  some  of  the  lower 
magistrates,  and  for  a  time  was  an  actor  in  small- 
er parts.  Final!}',  he  became  secretary  to  two  dis- 
tingui.shed  statesmen,  Aristophon  and  Eubulus, 
through  whose  influence  he  twice  obtained  elec- 
tion to  a  government  secretary's  odice.  Then, 
through  his  eloquence,  grace,  and  legal  knowl- 
edge, he  rapidly  became  one  of  the  leading  men 
in  the  State.  Sent  as  a  member  of  the  embassy 
to  Philip  of  Macedon  in  347  B.C.,  he  was  won  over 
to  favor  the  Peace  of  Philoerates  (340),  and  then 
became  the  leader  of  the  peace  party  at  Athens 
as  against  Demosthenes,  who  headed  the  party 
■which  believed  that  Philip  was  to  be  opposed  at 
every  point  and  at  any  cost.  In  345  he  was 
charged  with  treason  by  Demosthenes  and  Timar- 
chus,  but,  with  the  aid  of  powerful  friends, 
defended  himself  successfully.  Again,  in  342, 
Demosthenes  revived  the  charges  in  his  famous 
speech  On  the  False  Embassy.  Again  .'Es- 
chines  answered  successfully  in  a  speech  having 
the  same  title.  He  continued  to  favor  Philip 
actively,  and  no  doubt  contributed  to  the  spread 
of    Macedonian    supremacy.      His    fall    was    due, 


however,  to  his  hatred  of  Demosthenes,  whom 
Ctesiphon  had  proposed  to  reward  with  the  [lub- 
lic  gift  of  a  golden  crown  in  recognition  of  his 
services  to  the  State,  .^ilsehines  thereupon 
charged  Ctesiphon  with  making  an  illegal  jiro- 
posal,  and  in  330  attacked  him  in  his  brilliant 
oration,  Afiainst  Ctesiphon,  really  directed 
against  Dciiiostlienes.  He  was  com])letely  de- 
feated by  Demosthenes'  speech.  On  the  Crown. 
and  so  failed  in  his  suit  against  C'lcsiphon.  suf- 
fered aiiniia,  and  was  condemned  to  pay  1000 
drachmas  fine.  He  went  into  exile  at  Rhodes, 
where,  tradition  says,  he  opened  a  school  of  ora- 
tory. He  died  at  Samos.  .lilschines's  posthu- 
mous fame  is  due  to  his  three  extant  speeches, 
Again.^t  Timarchu.<),  On  the  False  Fmbassi/,  and 
Against  Ctesiphon.  which,  according  to  Photius, 
were  called  in  antiquity,  "The  Three  Graces."  M\ 
anecdote  often  re]ieated  shows  the  esteem  in 
which  the  third  ^^as  held.  On  one  occasion  he 
read  to  his  audience  in  Rhodes  his  oration 
against  Ctesiphon,  and  some  of  his  auditors  ex- 
pressing their  astonishment  that  he  should  have 
been  defeated  in  spite  of  such  a  powerful  display, 
he  replied:  "You  would  cease  to  be  astonished 
if  vou  had  heard  Demosthenes."  The  speeches 
are  edited  by  Schultz  (1HG5)  ;  Weidner  (1872)  ; 
and  in  all  collections  of  the  Attic  Orators.  Con- 
sult especiallv.  Jebb,  .Attic  Orators  (London, 
1870-80),  and  Blass,  Attische  licredsanihrit 
(Leipzig,  1887-08),  The  twelve  letters  wliidi 
bear  his  name  are  spurious. 

iES'CHYLUS  (Gk.  Alaxvlo^.  Aischitlos) 
(.525-?4oG-5  B.C.).  The  first  of  the  three  great 
Athenian  tragic  poets.  He  was  born  in  Eleusis, 
and  was  of  noble  descent,  being  the  son  of 
Euphorion.  He  fought  against  the  Persians  at 
Marathon  (400),  Salamis  (480),  and  Platica 
(470)  ;  his  epitaph  celebrated  his  bravery  on  the 
field.  He  early  turned  to  tragic  composition, 
and,  according  to  tradition,  appeared  first  in 
497  as  a  rival  of  the  older  tragedians,  Pratinas 
and  Choerilus.  His  first  victory,  however,  was 
not  won  until  485.  We  hear  also  that  he  wrote 
in  unsuccessful  competition  with  Siinonides  an 
elegy  over  those  who  fell  at  Marathon.  He  un- 
dertook, apparently,  three  journeys  to  Syracuse; 
one  about  470-475,  when  he  composed  a  iday. 
The  .atncans,  for  King  Hiero,  in  honor  of  the 
new  city,  ^-Etna,  founded  on  the  site  of  ancient 
Catana."  He  was  back  in  Athens  apparently  in 
472,  but  seems  to  have  been  again  in  Sicily 
between  471  and  400,  when  he  had  his  play.  The 
Persians,  repeated  there  at  Hiero's  request. 
Soon  after  45S  he  left  his  native  city  for  Sicily 
for  the  last  time,  and  died  at  Gela  in  450-5.  The 
story  that  he  was  killed  by  the  fall  of  a  tortoise 
from  the  talons  of  an  eagle,  which  had  mistaken 
the  poet's  bald  head  for  a  rock  on  which  it  could 
crack  the  shell  of  its  prey,  is  probably  only  a 
popular  tale  a])plied  to  .I^schylus,  although  it 
may  owe  its  origin  to  a  misinterpretation  of  a 
scene  on  his  monument.  The  citizens  of  Gela 
erected  a  splendid  tomb  to  him ;  by  a  deciee  of 
the  Athenians  a  (chorus  was  granted  for  his  plays 
alone  after  his  death,  and  in  the  fourth  century, 
at  the  proposal  of  the  orator  Lycurgus,  a  bronze 
statue  of  him,  as  of  Sophocles  and  Euripides, 
was  erected  in  the  theatre. 

The  productiveness  of  .'Esehylus  lasted  for  more 
than  forty  years,  during  which  he  is  said  to  have 
written  ninety  plays,  of  which  twenty  were 
satyr  dramas.  'These  tragedies  were  produced 
in  groups  of  three,  "trilogies,"  bound  by  a  con- 


^SCHYL'tTS. 


156 


^SCTTLAPITJS. 


necting  thread  of  motive  or  interest,  and  each 
trilogy  ^^as  followed  by  a  satiric  drama,  of  which 
genre  Euripides'  Ci/clops  is  the  only  extant  repre- 
sentative. We  know  seventy-nine  titles  in  all, 
among  them  thirteen  satiric  plays.  Only  seven 
tragedies  are  extant,  J'he  liuppJiaiits.  The  Per- 
siavs.  The  Seven  Against  Thebes,  Prometheus 
Bound,  and  the  trilogy,  Agamemnon,  Choephori 
and  Eiimenichs.  /E.schylus  won  thirteen  vic- 
tories during  his  lifetime;  that  is,  he  was  suc- 
cessful with  over  half  the  trilogies  he  presented. 

The  Suppliants  is,  in  form,  the  earliest  of  the 
extant  tragedies ;  the  date  of  its  presentation  is 
unknown.  The  chorus  is  still  the  principal  fea- 
ture, the  choral  parts  standing  to  the  dialogue 
in  the  approximate  relation  of  1  :  2.  The  name 
is  taken  from  the  choi"us,  which  is  composed  of 
the  fifty  daughters  of  Danaiis,  who  have  fled 
from  Egypt  to  Argos  in  their  attempt  to  escape 
their  suitors,  the  sons  of  their  uncle  iEgyptus, 
and  there  beg  for  protection  from  the  Argive 
king.  The  odes  set  forth  the  violence  of  the  sons 
of  ^Egyptus,  the  unholy  character  of  the  union 
which  they  wish,  and  the  maidens'  fears.  The 
actors  only  interrupt  these  odes  and  carry  the 
action  forward  but  slightly  in  our  modern  sense. 
Yet  the  play  has  dignity,  adequately  expresses 
noble  sentiments,  and  contains  choral  songs  of 
great  beauty.  It  was  apparently  the  first  play 
of  the  trilogy;  the  other  tragedies  were  The 
Eggptians,  which  had  for  its  theme  the  marriage 
of  the  sons  of  ,Egj-ptus,  and  The  Danaids,  in 
which  the  murder  of  the  bridegrooms  was  ac- 
complished, and  Hypermnestra  was  brought  to 
judgment  for  disobeying  her  father  in  sparing 
her  husband. 

The  Persians  was  presented  in  472,  and  is  also 
very  simple  in  its  structure.  It  has  great  in- 
terest for  >is,  since  it  is  the  earliest  extant  at- 
tempt of  the  Greeks  so  to  treat  contemporary  his- 
tory. The  subject  is  the  battle  of  Salamis,  in 
which  -Eschylus  took  part.  The  scene  is  laid, 
however,  at  the  Persian  court,  where  the  dowager 
queen,  Atossa,  is  awaiting  the  return  of  Xerxes. 
"The  chorus  consists  of  Persian  elders,  who  give 
their  name  to  the  play.  The  story  of  the  Per- 
sians' defeat  is  dramatically  told  by  a  messen- 
ger ;  then,  at  the  advice  of  the  chorus,  Atossa 
summons  the  shade  of  Darius,  in  the  hope  that 
his  wisdom  can  save  the  State;  but  he  can  only 
prophesy  the  defeat  at  Platsea.  The  appearance 
of  the  defeated  Xerxes,  and  an  ode  of  sorrow  for 
him  and  his  svibjects,  close  the  play.  This  was 
the  second  of  the  trilogy:  the  first  was  Phineus, 
the  third  Glauetis,  but  the  plots  of  both  are  un- 
known to  us.     The  trilogy  won  the  first  prize. 

The  Seven  Against  Thebes  handled  a  favorite 
subject  drawn  from  the  cycle  of  Tlieban  myths. 
It  was  the  third  of  the  trilogy,  the  first  two 
being  La'ius  and  CEdipus :  the  satiric  play  was 
'J'he  Sphinx.  This  trilogy  was  presented  in  467, 
and  also  won  the  first  prize.  The  extant  play 
represents  the  conflict  between  Eteocles  and  Poly- 
nices  for  the  throne.  Oedipus,  ill-treated  by  his 
sons  after  he  had  blinded  himself,  prayed  that 
they  might  divide  the  kingdom  with  the  sword. 
To  defeat  the  purpose  of  that  prayer,  the  brothers 
agreed  to  reign  alternate  years ;  but  Eteocles,  the 
elder,  once  upon  the  throne,  refused  to  surrender 
control  at  the  expiration  of  the  first  year.  Poly- 
nices,  having  raised  a  large  army  at  Argos,  where 
he  had  married  the  daughter  of  king  Adrastus, 
came  to  besiege  Thebes,  he  and  si.x  other  chief- 
tains     arraying    themselves     each     before     one 


of  the  seven  gates.  A  messenger  relates  to 
Eteocles  the  preparations  of  the  seven  and  their 
oath  to  die  rather  than  leave  Thebes,  and  then 
describes  the  appearance  of  each  chief;  when 
Polynices  is  reached,  Eteocles  can  no  longer  con- 
trol himself,  and  rushes  forth  to  slay  his  brother 
and  be  slain  himself. 

The  Prometheus  Bound,  produced  about  470 
B.C.,  was  the  first  of  a  trilogy,  of  which  the 
Prometheus  Loosed,  and  probably  Prometheus 
the  Fire-Carrier,  were  the  other  plays.  In  pun- 
ishment for  his  rebellion  in  stealing  fire  from 
heaven  for  mortals'  use,  Prometheus  is  chained  to 
a  crag  on  the  confines  of  the  world,  where  a  vul- 
ture sent  by  Zeus  is  to  feed  continually  on  his 
liver.  He  declines  the  proffered  assistance  of 
Oceanus,  boasts  of  his  services  to  men.  condoles 
with  lo,  who  comes  tc  him  in  her  mad  wander- 
ings, and  prophesies  her  future,  and,  finally, 
when  visited  by  Hermes,  the  messenger  of  Zeus, 
bids  defiance  to  him.  and  amid  whirlwind  and 
eartliquake  disappears  from  view.  In  the  fol- 
lowing play  Hercules  shot  the  vulture  and  re- 
leased Prometheus,  and  in  the  third  probably  the 
story  of  Prometheus  was  brought  into  relation 
with  a  local  Attic  cult  of  the  hero. 

The  remaining  three  plays,  Agamemnon, 
Choephori  and  Eumenides  formed  the  Oresteia 
trilogy.  In  the  first  play  Agamenmon  returns 
from  Troy  to  his  home,  where  his  unfaithful  wife, 
Clytemnestra,  is  living  with  her  paramour,  .Hgis- 
thus,  by  whom  Agamenmon  is  treacherously 
murdered.  This  tragedy  is  not.  only  the  greatest 
of  iEschylus'  extant  works,  but  rivals  even  Soph- 
ocles' King  (Edipus  for  the  first  place  among 
all  Greek  tragedies  in  the  minds  of  critics.  The 
Choephori  {The  Libation  Pourers)  is  named 
from  the  chorus  of  women  who  ofl'er  libations  at 
Agamemnon's  tomb.  In  this  play  Agamemnon's 
son  Orestes  returns  to  Argos  to  avenge  his  fath- 
er's murder,  and  under  a  disguise  obtains  en- 
trance to  the  palace,  where  he  slays  his  mother 
and  .Egisthus.  This  impious  act  of  matricide 
was  punished  by  the  Furies.  In  the  Eumenides, 
Orestes  is  pursued  by  these  avenging  powers 
until  he  is  cleansed  from  his  blood  guilt  and  set 
free  through  the  aid  of  Athene  by  the  ancient 
court  of  the  Areopagus.  This  trilogy  represents 
the  maturest  work  of  .Usehylus,  and  we  may  well 
doubt  whether  a  greater  was  ever  written. 

The  best  critical  edition  of  the  text  is  by 
Wecklein  (1885)  :  edition  with  English  notes  by 
Paley  (fourth  edition,  1870),  and  many  anno- 
tated editions  of  single  plays;  among  these  may 
be  named  Verrall's  Septcni  (1887)  ;  Agamemnon 
(1889)  ;  Choephori  (1893).  For  complete  trans- 
lations consult:  Potter,  Blackie,  and  Plumptre; 
for  separate  plays.  Browning,  Agamemnon  (Lon- 
don, 1887)  :  Fitzgerald.  Agamemnon  (London, 
1876)  ;  E.  B.  Browning,  Prometheus,  fourth  edi- 
tion (London,  ISfiO)  ;  and  Warr,  Oresteia  (1900). 

iES'CTJLA'PIUS  (  Lat.  form  of  the  Gk.  'Aos/;/- 
7r((if,  Asklepios) .  Among  Greeks  and  Romans,  a 
god  of  healing.  No  fully  satisfactory  derivation 
of  the  name' has  teen  presented.  .Iilseulapius' 
worship  seems  to  have  originated  in  the  valley  of 
the  Peneus  in  Thessaly,  and  to  have  had  an  im- 
portant centre  at  Tricca.  From  this  region  it 
was  probably  carried  by  the  inliabitants,  as  they 
were  forced  southward  by  invading  tribes,  and 
thus  appears  in  Phocis,  Bcrotia.  and  Peloponne- 
sus, where  were  celebrated  sanctuaries  at  "Titane, 
Thelpusa,  and  above  all  at  Epidaurus,  \vhence 
the  worship  was  introduced  into  Athens  in  420 


^SCTJLAPITJS. 


151 


B.C.  Colonists  carried  the  cult  of  .ICsoulapiiis 
far  and  wide:  at  Cos,  Cnidos,  and  I'eifianioii 
were  famous  temples.  In  consequence  of  a 
plague,  the  god  was  brought  to  Rome  in  2!);{  li.c, 
and  his  temple  established  on  the  island  in  the 
Tiber.  .Ksculai)ius  had  teni]des  in  nearly  two 
hundred  places,  llis  sanctuaries  were  sought  by 
the  sick,  and  his  priests  undertook  the  cure  of 
disease.  The  patient,  after  certain  religious 
ceremonies,  slept  in  a  hall  near  the  tem|>le.  and 
during  the  night  the  god  was  believed  to  mani- 
fest himself  in  a  vision,  which,  when  interpreted 
by  the  i)riests,  furnished  directions  for  the  treat- 
ment. After  the  cure  tlie  patient  left  an  account 
of  his  case  and  an  oll'ering  for  the  god.  It  seems 
likely  tliat  the  priests  bad  acquired  considerable 
skill  in  treating  the  sick,  and  that  the  sacred 
sleep  was  merely  a  device  to  preserve  the  credit 
of  the  god.     See  Epidaitrus. 

It  should  be  said  that  in  the  Iliad, 
^Esculapius  is  not  spoken  of  as  a  god,  and  his 
sons  Machaon  and  Podalirius  dilTcr  from  the 
other  heroes  only  in  their  superior  skill  in  treat- 
ing wounds.  It  seems  evident. however,  that  be  was 
originally  a  divinity  who  later  became  sidiordi- 
nate  to  the  great  Apollo  cult.  Much  points  to 
yEsculapius  as  a  chthonic  god,  though  many 
regard  him  as  connected  with  the  light.  What- 
ever his  nature,  .^*;scula])iuB  early  became  fixed 
as  a  god  of  healing,  perhaps  losing  his  other 
functions  through  association  with  Apollo. 
His  sons  Machaon  and  Podalirius  play  a  consid- 
erable role  in  heroic  legend,  and  were  claimed 
as  ancestors  by  the  Asclepiada'  (q.v.).  His 
daughters,  Hygeia  (health).  Panacea  (all-heal- 
ing), laso,  Aigle,  and  others,  bear  names  that 
show  them  to  be  merely  personifications  of  ab- 
stract ideas  connected  with  healing. 

The  myths  connected  with  the  life  of  -Escula- 
piua  varied  in  different  localities;  but  the 
one  which  has  become  canonical  appeared 
in  a  lost  Hesiodic  poem  (the  A'ocfr),  and 
is  known  to  us  from  a  poem  by  Pindar  and 
some  scattered  allusions.  Apollo  loved  ('oronis, 
daughter  of  Phlegyas,  but  she  proved  faithless 
and  wedded  the  Lapith,  Ischys.  The  news  was 
brought  to  Apollo  by  the  raven,  who  was  pun- 
ished for  his  message  by  being  changed  from 
white  to  black.  Apollo  slew  Ischys ;  Artemis, 
Coronis;  but  while  her  body  was  on  the  funeral 
pile  .\pollo  rescued  his  yet  unborn  son  and  took 
him  to  the  centaur  Chiron,  who  trained  him  in 
the  healing  art,  in  which  he  became  so  expert 
that  he  even  raised  the  dead.  For  this  presump- 
tion Zeus  slew  him  with  his  tlmnderbcdt.  In 
art,  ,'Eseulapius  is  usually  represented  as  a 
bearded  man,  wearing  a  mantle  which  leaves 
the  right  shoulder  and  breast  bare.  A  beauti- 
ful head  from  Melos  in  the  British  Museum 
is  probably  an  .Esculapius  of  the  Praxi- 
telean  school.  Consult:  Walton.  Tlir  Cull  of 
Anklfpins  (New  York,  1804)  ;  and  Wibunowitz- 
Mollendorf, /si/?/os  von  Epidauro-i  (Berlin,  18.SG). 

.ffiS'CXJLtrS.     See  Horse  Chestmitt. 

.zi:SIR,  a'sir  or  e'sir  (pi.  of  .l.s',  Icel.  ass, 
goil.  demi-god).  The  gods  of  the  Northmen  of 
Scandinavia  and  Iceland.  Tliere  were  eleven 
chief  gods  or  .Esir  besides  Odin  (the  "all- 
father"),  viz.:  Thor,  Balder,  Tv  or  Tyr,  Bragi, 
Heimdal,  Hiid,  Vidar,  Vali,  Ull,  Forseti.  and 
Loki  or  Lopt.  To  these  may  be  added  Njord 
and  his  son  Frey,  who  were  not  originally  ,l'!sir. 
The  naming  of  the  gods  differs  in  different  parts 


of  the  Younrjrr  Etliin  (q.v.).  The  chief  goddesses 
of  .\sgard.  the  Scandinavian  Olympus,  were: 
Frigga.  I'reyja.  Nanna.  Sif.  Saga.  Hel.  Gefjon. 
Eir.  lllin.  I.nfn.  \or.  and  Snotra.  These  names, 
considerid  in  the  jnlmarv  old  Xorse  signification 
of  the  words,  in  most  instances  allude  to  some 
characteristics:  yet  it  is  impossible  to  determine 
whether  they  personify  merely  certain  physical 
powers  of  nature,  or  were  originally  the  names 
of  individuals  in  the  prehistori<-  period.  Prob- 
ably they  have  a  mixed  origin,  and  conilnne  real 
names  with  physical  powers.  Tlie  principal 
source  of  inf<niiiati(in  concerning  these  gods  is 
the  Eddas  (q.v.),  collections  of  the  oldest  songs 
and  tr;iditions  of  the  pccqile  of  Scandinavia. 

Thor,  son  of  Odm  and  Frigga  ("the  vivify- 
ing"), is  the  strongest  of  the  .Esir.  He  seems 
to  have  been  a  god  of  that  Plucnician  form  of 
nature  worship  which  was  superseded  in  Scan- 
dinavia and  northern  Germany  by  the  faith  of 
Odin.  From  Thor's  hammer  Hashed  lightning, 
and  bis  chariot  wheels  made  thunder  a^  he  went 
through  the  air,  cleaving  mountains,  loosening 
frozen  streams  and  pent-up  rivers,  and  slaying 
giants  and  monsters.  He  was  seldom  in  Asgard 
with  the  other  .-Esir,  but  dwelt  in  his  mansion 
Bilskirner,  in  the  densest  gloom  of  the  clouds. 
With  his  hammer  he  consecrated  the  newly  wed- 
ded, and  the  sign  of  the  hammer  was  made  by 
Northmen  when  they  took  an  oath  or  any  serious 
obligation.  The  early  Christian  missionaries  in 
Scandinavia,  finding  the  faith  in  Thor  too  strong 
to  be  suddenly  uprooted,  tried  to  transfer  many 
of  his  characteristics  to  their  zealous  convert, 
St.  Olaf,  who  was  said  to  have  resembled  the  old 
Norse  god  in  his  comeliness  of  person,  his  bright 
red  beard,  hot,  angry  temper,  and  personal 
strength ;  while  some  of  the  monks  of  a  later 
period  tried  to  persuade  the  Northmen  that  in 
Thor  their  forefathers  had  worshipped  Christ, 
and  that  his  mallet  was  a  rude  image  of  the 
cross.  Slaves  and  thralls  killed  in  battle  were 
believed  to  be  under  the  protection  of  Thor,  who, 
as  the  god  of  the  Finns  before  the  spread  of  the 
As  religion,  was  honored  as  their  special  guar- 
dian against  the  tyranny  of  their  old  masters. 

In  Balder  the  Norsemen  honored  the  beautiful, 
the  eloquent,  the  wise,  and  the  good,  and  he  was 
the  spirit  of  activity,  joy.  and  light.  His  name 
signifies  the  "strong  in  mind."  tlis  wife  Nanna 
reflected  these  attributes  in  a  less  degree.  On 
his  life  depended  the  activity  and  happiness  of 
all  the  .'Esir  except  Loki,  the  "eartldy  fire"  or 
incarnation  of  evil;  and  hence  Loki.  from  envy 
of  the  beauty  and  innocence  of  Haider,  accom- 
plished his  death,  and  afterward  hindered  his 
release  from  the  power  of  ITcl,  the  goddess  of 
death.  As  the  death  of  Balder  was  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  the  fall  of  all  the  .Esir,  the  gods  had 
caused  all  things  to  sw'ear  not  to  injure  him. 
But  the  insignificant  mistletoe  was  overlooked 
or  thought  unimportant.  Loki  secured  an  arrow 
of  mistletoe,  and  when  the  gods  were  amusing 
themselves  by  shooting  at  the  inviilnerahle 
Balder,  Loki  gave  this  arrow  to  Hiid.  the  blind 
god,  and  directed  his  aim  so  as  to  hit  Balder, 
who  was  killed.  The  death  of  this  beneficent 
god  signifies  the  fading  of  summer  before  the 
blind  and  fierce  winter,  her  preordained  destroy- 
er. The  myth  continues:  After  Balder's  death, 
the  gods  captured  Loki  and  shut  him  up  in  A 
mountain,  where  he  will  remain  until  the  earth 
and  all  therein  and  the  gods  themselves  shall  be 
destroyed  by  fire  (the  powers  of  evil),  the  com- 


i 


^sm. 


158 


^SOP. 


panion  and  liberator  of  Loki.  Odin  alone  will 
survive,  and  then  a  new  and  purer  world  will 
arise  in  which  Balder  will  again  appear,  and 
Loki,  or  evil,  be  no  more  heard  of. 

At  first  Loki,  under  the  name  of  "Lodhur," 
or  ''flame,"  and  as  the  foster  brother  of  Odin, 
liad  united  with  the  all-father  in  imparting 
blessings  to  the  universe.  Afterward  he  left 
the  council  of  the  gods  and  wandered  into  space, 
desolating  and  consuming  with  flame  all  things 
that  came  in  his  way.  In  the  under-earth,  where 
volcanic  fires  attest  his  presence,  he  consorted 
with  evil  giantesses  and  became  the  father  of 
Hel,  "pallid  death,"  of  Angerboda,  "announcer 
of  sorrow,"  the  wolf  Fenrir,  and  the  Midgard 
serpent,  ^^■ho  ever  threatens  the  destruction  of 
the  world.  Loki  assumes  any  shape  at  will.  As 
sensuality  lie  courses  through  the  veins  of  men, 
and  as  heat  and  fire  pervades  nature  and  causes 
destruction.  .4fter  the  establishment  of  Chris- 
tianity, the  attributes  of  Loki  were  transferred 
to  Satan;  but  in  Iceland  an  ignis  fatuna  is  still 
known  as  "Loki's  burning." 

Njord  and  his  children,  Frey  or  Friceo 
and  Freyja,  appear  to  have  been  honored 
in  the  North  before  the  time  of  Odin. 
Njbrd  is  said  to  have  lived  in  Vanaheim, 
and  to  have  ruled  over  the  Vanir,  or  elves  of 
light,  long  before  he  became  one  of  the  .i^sir. 
He  is  the  god  of  oceans  and  controller  of  winds 
and  waves,  and  to  him  seafarers  and  fishermen 
raise  altars  and  make  pra.vers.  Frey,  his  son, 
is  the  god  of  rain  and  fruitfulness,  and  his 
worship  was  accompanied  with  phallic  rites. 
His  sister  Freyja.  who  holds  a  high  rank  among 
the  ^Esir,  is  the  goddess  of  love,  but  her  influence, 
unlike  her  brother's,  is  not  always  beneficent,  and 
varies  with  the  form  she  assumes  in  operating 
on  the  minds  of  men.  Her  chariot  is  drawn  by 
cats,  who  are  emblems  of  fondness  and  passion; 
and  a  hog,  implying  fructification  or  sensual 
enjoyment,  attends  upon  Frey  and  herself.  The 
Swedes  paid  especial  honor  to  Frey,  while  the 
Norwegians  worshipped  Thor. 

Ty  (Tyr),  the  Mars  of  the  Norsemen,  is  wise 
and" brave,  giving  victory,  fomenting  strife.  His 
name  lives  in  "our  Tuesday  (Ty's  day),  as 
does  the  name  of  Odin  in  Wednesday  (Woden's 
day),  Thor  in  Thursday  (Thor's  day),  and 
Freyja  in  Friday  (Freyja's  day).  Tyr's  name 
signifies  "honor,"  and  his  worship  was  widely 
spread  in  the  north.  Bragi  was  the  god  of  elo- 
quence and  wise  sayings,  the  originator  of  the 
Skaldic  poems;  and  "when  men  drank  Bragi's  cup 
they  vowed  to  perform  some  great  deed  worthy 
of  a  skald's  song.  Bragi's  wife  was  Idun,  who 
guarded  the  casket  of  apples  that  gave  to  those 
who  ate  them  perpetual  youth.  She  was  abduct- 
ed by  the  giant  Thiassi,  and  by  Loki's  craft 
removed  to  the  other  world.  Her  lelease  in 
spring  seems  analogous  to  the  niytli  of  Proser- 
pine. Heimdal,  personified  by  the  rainbow,  is 
the  god  of  watchfulness,  the  doorkeeper  of  the 
,Esir.  Vidar,  the  strongest  of  the  gods  except 
Thor.  is  the  personification  of  silence  and  cau- 
tion. Vali  is  the  brother  of  Balder  and  a  great 
marksman.  Ull  decides  issues  in  single  combat; 
Forseti  settles  all  quarrels;  lovers  find  protec- 
tion in  the  goddesses  Lofn  and  Viir,  of  whom  the 
former  unites  the  faithful  and  the  latter  jninishes 
the  faithless;  Gefjon  keeps  a  watch  over  maidens, 
and  knows  the  decrees  of  fate;  Hlin  guards  those 
wluini  Frigga,  the  queen  and  mother  of  heaven, 
desires  to  free  from  peril.    The  queen  herself. 


as  Odin's  wife  and  mother  of  the  JEsiv,  knows 
but  does  not  reveal  the  destinies  of  men.  Saga 
is  the  goddess  of  narration  and  history;  her 
home  is  in  Sokvabek,  the  abyss,  an  allusion  to 
the  abundant  streams  of  narrative,  from  which 
streams  Odin  and  Saga  daily  drink  and  pledge 
each  other.  Snotra  is  the  goddess  of  sagacity 
and  elegance,  from  whom  men  and  women  seek 
good  sense  and  refined  manners.  The  Norns  and 
the  Valkyrias  are  closely  connected  with  the 
gods.  The  principal  Norns  are  Urd,  past  time; 
Verdandi,  present  time,  and  Sknld,  future  time. 
They  twist  and  spin  the  threads  of  destiny,  and 
make  known  wliat  has  been  decreed  from  tlie 
beginning  of  time.  The  Valkyries,  of  whom 
there  are  over  a  dozen,  are  sent  by  Odin  to  the 
battle-fields  to  choose  the  slain. 

It  remains  to  add  that  in  the  gods  here 
mentioned  the  Northmen  recognized  the  niakera 
and  rulers  of  the  world  that  now  is,  from 
whom  emanated  tlie  tliought  and  the  life  that 
pervade  and  animate  natvire.  With  Odin  and 
the  .-Esir,  the  intellectual  life  of  the  northern 
people  began;  and  althougli  they  ascribed  to 
them  human  forms  and  acts,  these  were  seldom 
without  something  higher  and  nobler  than  per- 
tains to  mortals;  and  while  they  recognized  the 
existence  of  a  state  of  chaos  and  darkness  before 
the  world  began,  they  anticipated  the  advent  of 
another  state,  in  which  the  gods,  like  men, 
would  receive  their  reward  at  the  hands  of  a 
supreme  All-father.  See  the  article  on  ScAN- 
Dix.wiAN  AND  Teuto:<ic  JIythology,  and  the 
separate  articles  on  the  gods,  such  as  Frey; 
LoKi;  Odin,  etc. 

^'SOP  (Gk.  AjffuTTOf,  Aisopos).  The  name  of 
a  famous  Greek  writer  of  fables,  who  is  said 
to  have  been  born  a  slave  in  Samos  late  in  the  sev- 
enth century  B.C.,  but  to  have  gained  his  freedom 
by  his  cleverness.  We  may,  however,  well  doubt 
whether  lie  ever  e.xisted;  we  have  the  most  varied 
accounts  of  him,  many  of  which  on  their  face 
are  pure  inventions ;  and  the  fables  which  passed 
under  his  name  were  certainly  not  written  until 
long  after  the  period  in  which  he  is  supposed 
to  have  lived.  Socrates  in  prison  turned  some 
of  the  current  .Esopic  fables  into  elegiac  verse; 
and  about  320  B.C.,  Demetrius  of  Phalerum  made 
a  prose  collection  of  the  fables  known  to  his  day. 
Whatever  the  facts  as  to  .Esop's  existence,  it 
is  certain  that  his  soon  became  a  generic  name 
attached  to  those  beast-fables  which  are  part  of 
the  common  property  of  the  Indo-European 
peoples.  The  collection  which  now  bears  his  name 
is  for  the  most  part  jn'ose  paraphrases  made  by 
Babrius  (q.v.).  edited  by  Halm  (second  edition, 
1860).  Consult:  Jacobs,  Introduction  to  the 
Fables  of  JEsop  (New  York,  1896)  ;  and  see 
Ph.«;dbus. 

iESOP  (Lat.  .^sopus),  Clodixjs.  A  great 
Roman  tragedian,  contemporary  with  Roseius. 
Cicero  put  himself  under  the  direction  of  these 
two  to  perfect  his  own  acting,  and  .l=]sop  did 
many  friendly  services  to  Cicero  during  the  lat- 
ter's"  banishment.  -Esop  was  noted  for  sinking 
his  own  personality  in  the  character  he  repre- 
sented. He  made  his  last  appearance  in  55  B.C. 
at  the  dedication  of  Pompey's  theatre,  after 
which  his  voice  failed  him.  He  left  a  fortune 
to  a  worthless  son — the  .^sop  who,  according  to 
a  well-known  story,  dissolved  in  vinegar  a  pearl 
valued  at  $40,000,  to  have  the  satisfaction  of 
swallowing  the  most  expensive  drink  ever  kno%vn. 


JESTHESIOMETER. 


159 


AESTHETICS. 


.ffiSTHE'SIOM'ETEB.      bee    I'syciiological 
Api'akatis, 

,  ^STHET'ICS    (Gk.   to  aiadriTim,     ta  aisthet- 
ika,  or  7/   uia-driTiKri,  he  aiathi-tikv,  tlie  science  of 
the  beautiful,  from    a'ln^t^riKo^,  aistlictihos,  per- 
ceptive,   sensitive,      aiui^aifffiSni,       aisthtiiicstliai, 
to  perceive,  apprehend  by  the  senses).    The  name 
now  generally  given  to  the  science  of  the  beau- 
tiful, the  sublime,  and  the  ludicrous.     The  his- 
tory of  this  science  furnishes  us  with  a  striking 
illustration  of  the  truth  that  theory  always  fol- 
lows practice.     It  was  not  till  the  noblest  period 
of    art    in    Greece    had    passed    its    zenith  that 
any    serious    attempt    was    made    to    ascertain 
the   nature   of   the    beauty   which   art   presents. 
The  Sophists  and  Democritus  seem  to  have  made 
some  essays  in  this  direction,  but  we  know  prac- 
tically nothing  of  the  results  they  reached.     It 
is  only  when   we  come  to  Socrates  that  we  are 
on  secure  historical  ground;  and  even  in  his  case 
we    know    only    enough    to    make    it    possible    to 
begin  our  sketch  of  the  history  of  lesthetics  with 
his  name.    He  seems  to  have  taught  that  beauty 
is  one  with   utility;   a  doctrine  which   is  thor- 
oughly  in   keeping  with   his  ethical  utilitarian- 
ism, but  which  gives  no  distinctive  recognition 
to   the  beautiful   as    in   any   way   differentiated 
from  the  good.     Plato,  in  one  respect,  follows  in 
his   master's   steps.      While   we   cannot   say   that 
he     identified     the     iesthetie     and     the     ethical, 
yet  in  his  most  serious  discussions  he  so  com- 
pletely subordinated  the  former  to  the  latter  as 
to  make  it  a  mere  handnuiid  of  morality.     This 
attitude  is  unintelligible  to  any  one  who  does 
not   remember    that    Plato    lived    in    an    age    of 
decadence  in  art  and   in  art  appreciation.     The 
great  poets  in  the  Hellenic  world  ■wore  not  in  his 
time  appreciated   so  much   for   their   beauty  as 
revered  for  their  infallibility  as  guides  in  faith 
and  practice.     A  quotation  from   Homer  would 
definitely  settle  a  question  in  policy  or  morals, 
and  a  "Thus   saith   Simonides"  was  a   ne  phis 
ultra  of  debate.     This  dogmatism  in  the  inter- 
pretation of  poetry  was  responsible  for  the  degra- 
dation of  the  poets  from  their  places  as  artists 
charming  and  inspiring  mankind,  to  the  position 
of  pedantic  pedagogues,  whoso  deliverances  were 
open  to  question  on  the  ground  of  fact  by  any 
one  who   had   the   temerity   to   deny  their   popu- 
larly conceded  inerrancy.    Such  a  one  was  Plato, 
who   proceeded   to   meet   this   dogmatization   of 
poetry     by     a     demand     for     its     moralizaticm. 
Homer,  he  claimed,  must  bo  expurgated  in  the 
interests  of  a  more  worthy  view  of  God  and  num. 
Other  arts  suffered   a  like  fate.     For   instance, 
only  such  nuisic  as  could  directly  fit  a  man  the 
better  for  a  life  of  courage  and  temperance  was 
to  be  tolerated  in  the  ideal  Platonic  State.     But 
this   insistence  upon   the   right   to  judge   art   by 
moral   standards   alone,   though    very   prominent 
on  the  surface  of  Plato's  thought,  does  not  rep- 
resent his  best  philosophy  of  the  beautiful.     Re- 
membering that  music  was  for   Plato  a   general 
term  for  all  the  human  interests  over  which  the 
JIuscs  presided,  and  that  training  in  nuisic  was 
for  him  a  cultivation  of  a   pro])cr  habitual  atti- 
tude toward  the  good,  and  that  a   scientific  edu- 
cation in  moral  values  was  to  t'ullow  the  nuisical 
education  and  so  bring  habitual  attitude  to  in- 
sight, one  might  almost  say  that  with  Plato  the 
beautiful  is  the  form  in  wliich  the  good  appears 
to  a  properly  trained  but  unieflcctive  consciims- 
ness,  a  view  quite  like  that  of  Hegel,  twenty- 
two  hundred  vears  later.   And  as  the  good  is  the 


supreme  principle  of  unity  in  the  universe, 
beauty  is  itself  a  relatively  simple  unity  in 
variety.  This  variety,  however,  must  not  be  too 
complicated.  It  nuist  have  a  very  narrow  range, 
or  it  would  break  over  the  bounds  of  unity. 
Hence  only  those  works  of  art  which  are  severe 
in  their  classical  simplicity  were  considered  as 
true  embodiments  of  the  principle  or  "idea"  of 
beauty.  Such  an  embodiment  was  technically 
called  an  "imitation."  This  term,  without  doubt, 
meant  more  for  Plato  than  it  would  naturally 
mean  for  us.  Imitation  was  symbolization  as 
well  as  copy.  But,  for  the  most  part,  Plato 
^\as  unable  to  free  himself  from  the  concep- 
tion that  second-hand  reproduction  was  char- 
acteristic of  all  art.  Hence  art  is  further 
from  reality  than  nature,  which  is  the  first 
embudiment  of  reality.  But  no  definite  state- 
ment of  Plato's  a-sthetic  views  would  do  jus- 
tice to  the  unsystematic  many-sidedness  of 
his  thought  on  the  subject.  His  dialogues  con- 
tain many  stimulating  suggestions  as  to  the 
nature  of  beauty,  but  no  explicit  aesthetic  theory, 
built  on  the  basis  of  these  suggestions,  could  be 
fairly  attributed  to  Plato. 

Aristotle,  being  himself  less  artistic  than 
Plato,  was  in  a  better  position  to  make  a 
more  scientific  study  of  cesthetics.  His  works 
on  rhetoric  and  poetics,  and,  in  a  more 
desultory  way,  many  of  his  other  writ- 
ings, were  the  first  inductivS  studies  we 
know  of  the  principles  of  art.  He  differentiates 
the  good  from  the  beautiful:  the  good  is  dy- 
namic {evn-pdii:t,en  praxei) ,  the  beautiful  may 
be  static  {ev  aKiv^roi^,  en  akinetois) .  The  good, 
being  thus  always  connected  with  action,  appeals 
to  consciousness  in  the  form  of  desire  for  posses- 
sion. We  are  interestedly  concerned  in  the  good; 
our  concern  in  the  beautiful  is  disinterested. 
For  Aristotle,  as  for  Plato,  a  beautiful  object 
is  a  unity  in  variety,  but  Aristotle  gives  a  wider 
scope  to  the  variety  than  his  predecessor.  Under 
the  proviso  that  a  thing  be  not  too  large  for  easy 
apprehension,  a  considerable  multiplicity  in  its 
organization  v\-as  regarded  as  conducive  to 
beauty,  and,  other  things  being  equal,  the  greater 
the  size  the  greater  the  beauty.  Among  these 
other  things  were  propriety  in  the  arrangement 
of  parts,  sjTiimetry,  and  clearness  of  outline. 
Aristotle  followed  Plato  also  in  making  art  an 
imitation  of  inartificial  beauty,  but  he  refused 
to  follow  Plato  when  the  latter  depreciated  art 
for  this  reason.  W  hile  Plato  put  the  fine  arts 
far  below  the  works  of  the  artisan,  Aristotle  put 
poetry,  in  one  passage,  above  theoretic  philoso- 
phy. This  position,  however,  does  not  accord  with 
the  rank  given  in  his  Ethics  to  the  life  of  jihilo- 
sophic  contemplation.  The  value  Aristotle  attrib- 
uted to  art.  es])ecially  to  the  drama,  was  due  to 
the  fact  that  it  "cfTectg,  by  means  of  pity  and 
fear,  the  purgation  (wi\9npo;f,  katharsis)  of  such 
emotions.''  The  meaning  of  this  has  been  w-armly 
debated.  If  purgation  is  taken  in  a  moral  sense, 
then  Aristotle  has  relapsed  into  the  Socratie  ' 
jiosition' that  art  is  not  difVerentiated  from  mo- 
rality. But  a  more  plausible  interpretation  is 
that  purgation  is  used  in  its  physiological  sig- 
nificance. This  would  make  the  meaning  to  be 
that  drama  gives  free  and  healthy  discharge  to 
the  passions  of  pity  and  fear,  and  thus  prevents 
enmtional  congestion.  Greek  speculation  on 
a'sthetical  theory  comes  to  a  close  in  Plotinus 
(q.v. ),  who  explains  beauty  by  referring  it  to 
the  work  of  an  objective  reason,  which  informs 


ESTHETICS. 


160 


ESTHETICS. 


dead  matter  so  as  to  make  it  become  an  expres- 
sion of  itself.  Tliis  creative  reason  is  the  trans- 
cendentally  beautiful;  matter  transformed  by  it 
is  the  empirically  beautiful.  Artistic  produc- 
tion is  not,  however,  necessarily  limited  to  the 
copying  of  the  natural  products  of  the  supreme 
reason.  The  human  reason,  by  virtue  of  its  par- 
ticij^ation  in  the  divine,  may  so  transform  ob- 
jects that  they  shall  become  more  beautiful  than 
they  are  in  their  naturalness.  Art  is  thus  raised 
from  the  stage  of  imitation  to  that  of  idealiza- 
tion, although  idealization  is  taken  mystically. 
No  important  aesthetic  speculations  come  from 
mediaeval  writers.  Mr.  Bosanquet,  in  his 
History  of  ^Esthetic,  has  satisfactorily  explained 
this  comparative  barrenness  of  the  Middle  Ages 
in  Eesthetie  theory.  It  was  not  due,  as  the  tra- 
ditional view  of  media>valism  would  seem  to 
imply,  to  the  deadness  of  that  period  in  things 
intellectual  and  spiritual,  but  to  the  enormous 
tension  of  the  higher  life,  which  busied  itself  so 
absorbingly  in  practical  creative  activity  as  to 
leave  no  leisure  for  reflection  upon  its  own 
■work.  Media;valism  was  engaged  in  the  problem 
of  building  the  foundations  for  a  new  life,  and, 
therefore,  for  a  new  art.  The  art  of  classical 
antiquity  was  comparatively  simple;  the  per- 
fection of  its  form  was  made  possible  so  early 
by  its  limited  ambition.  In  general,  it  sought 
to  do  justice  merely  to  the  beauty  of  form.  It 
was  a  successful  criticism  of  life,  only  because 
it  criticised  one  aspect  of  life,  leaving  the  rich- 
ness and  variety  of  its  contents  to  the  one  side. 
But  Romanticism  as  a  creative  principle  in  art 
began  to  work  early  in  the  Middle  Ages.  The 
wilder,  more  turbulent  spirit  of  the  Teutonic 
barbarians  would  not  brook  confinement  within 
the  narrow  lines  drawn  by  classic  masters,  and 
for  a  whole  millennium  was  wrestling  with  the 
practical  problem  of  making  art  richer  by  the 
incorporation  within  it  of  all  the  phases  of 
nature  and  of  human  life,  which  classic  art,  with 
true  instinct  for  its  own  essential  limitations, 
had  ignored ;  and  just  as  ancient  esthetic  theory 
was  not  constructed  until  the  returns  from  an- 
cient practice  were  all  in,  so  modern  aesthetic 
theory  could  not  be  supplied  with  its  data  till 
modern  art  had  become  to  a  great  extent  a  com- 
pleted achievement,  challenging  reflection  to 
concern  itself  with  the  discovery  of  the  principles 
involved.  Mr.  Bosanquet  is,  perhaps,  right  in 
representing  Shakespeare  as  being  the  last  of 
the  great  artists  in  the  long  succession  that  be- 
gan with  the  architect  of  St.  Sophia ;  Shake- 
speare succeeded  in  the  great  common  endeavor 
to  render  into  art  life  and  nature  in  all  their 
infinite  comj)lexity,  and  yet  to  make  the  rendi- 
tion as  unitary  in  its  efl'ect  as  were  the  art 
products  of  tlie  golden  age  of  .^ilschylus  and 
Pheidias.  In  him  the  wheel  of  artistic  creation 
had  come  full  circle,  and  after  him,  therefore, 
the  wheel  of  fpsthetic  theory  could  begin  to  turn. 
But  there  was  another  reason  why,  after  the 
time  of  Shakespeare,  aesthetic  theory  should  have 
become  a  great  need.  Not  only  did  all  the  rich- 
ness of  mcdiawal  and  modern  artistic  achieve- 
ment challenge  the  theorist  to  study  it,  but  the 
art  of  classical  times  had  come  to  life  again  in 
the  great  archijeologieal  discoveries  of  the  eight- 
eenth century.  The  literary  renaissance  of  an- 
tiquity in  the  fifteenth  century  was  now  followed 
by  the  resurrection  of  the  plastic  arts  of 
Greece  and  Kome.  The  striking  contrast  between 
the  formal  severity  of  the  antique  and  the  free- 


dom of  the  modern  demanded  that  an  inquiry 
should  be  instituted  which  should  succeed  in 
correlating,  and,  by  correlating,  succeed  in  jus- 
tifying the  two  strikingly  different  tyjies.  This 
demand  that  theory  should  do  justice  to  the  prin- 
ciples of  beauty  incorporated  in  art  was  re- 
enforced  from  the  side  of  philosophical  specula- 
tion. 

The  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries 
were  a  time  of  tremendous  philosophical  energy; 
and  as  the  idealism  of  modern  philosophy  be- 
came more  and  more  concrete,  it  was  inevitable 
that  aesthetic  questions  should  force  themselves 
more  and  more  upon  the  attention  of  philosophy. 
Thus,  a_s  we  find  Lessing  and  Winckelmann  rep- 
resenting predominantly  an  interest  in  art  for 
art's  sake,  so  we  find  Baumgarten  and  Kant 
representing  an  interest  in  art  for  philosophy's 
sake.  These  two  tendencies  united  in  working 
out  a  modern  aesthetic  theory,  which  was 
finally  to  be  based  on  solid  scientific  grounds 
with  the  aid  of  experimental  psychology. 
The  appreciation  of  tlie  aesthetic  significance 
of  all  these  contribvitions  cannot  be  at- 
tempted here.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  Lessing 
made  an  important  addition  to  aesthetic  theory 
by  marking  ofl'  the  boundaries  of  poetry  from 
the  plastic  arts.  The  medium  of  the  former  is 
time,  and  that  of  the  latter  is  space.  The  former 
can  represent  action,  and  is,  therefore,  capable 
of  expressiveness,  whereas  the  plastic  arts  are 
limited  to  the  treatment  of  formal  beauty  and  of 
the  beauty  of  colors.  The  ugly  is  out  of  place 
in  the  plastic  arts,  because,  once  represented  in 
painting  or  statuary,  it  gets  a  permanence  that 
becomes  revolting.  This  thought  might  be  illus- 
trated by  referring  to  a  line  of  Keats's  Ode  on  a 
Grecian  Urn,  "Forever  wilt  thou  love  and  she 
be  fair."  There  is  a  subtle  but  powerful  delight 
ministered  by  this  insistence  upon  the  immor- 
talitj'  of  youth  and  love,  caught  and  made  per- 
petual by  the  ceramic  art.  But  change  the 
motif;  let  it  be:  "Forever  wilt  thou  loathe  and 
she  be  foul,"  how  quickly  the  thought  of  the 
abidingness  of  the  unpleasant  creates  disgust 
with  the  pottery,  however  skillful  may  be  the 
representation  of  this  phase  of  life!  Baum- 
garten's  significance  was  more  that  of  a  pioneer 
and  name-giver  than  that  of  an  important  con- 
tributor. Carrying  out  the  Cartesian  idea  that 
sense  is  confused  thought,  he  added  to  the 
Wolflian  (see  Wouf)  philosophical  encyclo- 
paedia, which  included  ontology,  cosmology, 
ethics,  and  psychology — all  sciences  of  clear 
thought — a  new  discipline  dealing  with  obscure 
thought;  and  he  gave  to  the  work  in  which  he 
treats  this  new  subject  the  title  JEstlietica. 
This  was  the  first  time  that  the  term  was  em- 
ployed to  designate  the  science  which  has  since 
Baumgartcn's  day  quite  constantly  been  called  by 
this  name.  But  great  as  is  the  convenience  of 
having  a  name  to  give  to  a  science,  an  advance 
in  the  way  of  a  satisfactory  handling  of  this 
science  could  hardly  be  expected  from  a  thinker 
who  appreciated  beauty  only  as  an  imperfect 
imaging  of  what  is  intellectual. 

Kant  (q.v.)  has  been  an  important  factor  in 
determining  the  speculations  of  modern  philo- 
sophical aesthetics,  although  what  he  calls  aes- 
thetics in  his  famous  Critique  of  Pure  Reason  \ 
is  something  entirely  dilTerent  from  what  to-day 
passes  under  that  name.  He  strikes,  in  his 
Critique  of  the  Faculty  of  Judgment,  a  dis- 
tinctly modern  note  in  emphasizing  the  affective 


ESTHETICS. 


161 


ESTHETICS. 


side  of  ssthctic  appreciations,  thus  exalting  the 
artistic  oonsiiou>-ni'ss  t'runi  the  position  of  hcing 
an  imperfectly  developed  logic  and  metaphysics. 
Kut  Kant's  views  are  too  completely  determined 
by  the  idiosyncrasies  of  his  philosophy  ever  to 
have  become  generally  acceptable.  His  philo- 
sophy is  dominated  by  the  thought  of  a  great 
breach  between  noumena  and  phenomena.  (See 
Appearance.)  The  datum  of  philosophy  is  this 
apparent  breaih,  but  the  jiroblem  is  in  large 
measure  the  healing  of  it.  Hut  this  Kant  could 
never  succeed  in  eti'ecting.  In  his  first  two 
Critiques — those  of  Pure  Reason  and  of  Prac- 
tical Reason — he  deals  with  iihenomena  and 
noumena  in  their  antithesis  and  separation.  In 
his  Critique  of  the  Facultij  of  Judgment  ( 1790), 
he  attempts  to  bring  about  a  ciuinection  and 
synthesis.  In  his  definition  of  beanty.  he  fol- 
lows his  division  of  categories  into  those  of 
quality,  quantity,  relation,  and  modality.  Quali- 
tatively, the  beautiful  is  the  disinterestedly 
pleasing;  quantitatively,  it  is  the  universally 
pleasing;  relationally.  it  is  that  which  has  the 
form  of  purposiveness  without  the  reality.of  pur- 
pose, and,  modallv,  it  is  the  necessarily  pleasing. 
Thus,  disinterested,  universal,  and  necessary 
pleasure  in  simulated  design  is  for  Kant  the 
essence  of  beauty.  The  sublime  is  that  which 
pleases  because  of  a  reaction,  after  an  inhibition 
of  vitality, — a  reaction  which  gives  rise  to  a 
higher  degree  of  vitality.  The  ridiculous  is 
also  a  reaction  against  tension,  being  "the  sudden 
change  of  a  tense  expectation  into  notliingness." 
As  in  the  case  of  Kant,  so  in  those  of  Schelling 
(q.v.)  and  Hegel  (q.v. ),  the  philosophy  of  the 
beautiful  has  its  part  assigned  to  it  in  accord- 
ance with  a  comprehensive  view  of  t)ie  universe. 
Sehelling's  absolute  was  one  of  utter  indifference 
of  subject  and  object.  Therefore,  in  artistic 
appreciation  it  is  this  ultimate  unity  of  abso- 
lute indifference  which  is  perceived  as  the  beau- 
tiful. In  Hegel  the  absolute  is  not  the  indif- 
ferent, but  the  diflerentiated  unity  of  subject 
and  object,  and  art  is  a  form  of  the  absolute 
consciousness,  i.e.,  it  is  such  an  attitude  of  con- 
sciousness toward  its  objects  as  does  not  eject 
them  into  an  existence  independent  of  itself;  yet 
it  does  not  fail  to  observe  the  distinction  be- 
tween consciousness  and  objects.  Tlierc  are 
three  forms  of  absohite  consciousness,  of  which 
art  is  the  first.  In  the  art-consciousness  the 
unity  of  subject  and  object  is  relatively  simple. 
Although  subject  and  object  are  not  reflectively 
identified,  they  are  not  held  apart,  as  in  scien- 
tific knowledge.  The  beautiful  is  thus  the  abso- 
lute idea  immediately  perceived.  Hegel's  fol- 
lowers Rosenkranz,  Sehasler.  and  Vischer. 
worked  along  these  lines  and  elaborated  a  very 
detailed  a'stheties.  Schiller  (q.v.)  returns  to 
Kant  and  differentiates  the  material  and  the 
formal  impulses,  which,  working  in  conjunction, 
produce  tlie  beautiful. 

In  England,  Shaftesbury  (q.v.)  worked  in  a 
Platonic  spirit,  and  Hutcheson  (q.v.)  makes 
"all  beauty  relative  to  some  mind  perceiving 
it."  The  mind  has  a  faculty,  "an  internal 
sense,"  which  is  capable  of  receiving  ideas  of 
beauty  from  all  objects  in  which  there  is  \ini- 
formity  in  variety.  Reid  (q.v.),  on  the  con- 
trary, gives  an  objective  value  to  beauty,  claim- 
ing that  it  exists  apirt  from  our  perception  of 
it.  Henry  Home  calls  beauty  the  pleasure 
connected  with  sight  and  hearing.  Hogarth 
(q.v.)  makes  a  great  advance  in  paying  attention 


I 


to  details.  He  went  back  to  the  ultimate  sen- 
sitiveness of  the  mind  to  certain  geometrical 
forms  and  colors,  and  in  this  respect  was  the 
forerunner  of  recent  psychological  a-sthetics; 
wliile  ISurke  (q.v.)  goes  further  and  looks  for 
the  explanation  of  beauty  in  certain  pliysio- 
logical  elleets  produced  by  the  beautiful  object. 
The, relaxation  of  nerves  by  appropriate  stimuli 
has  a  soothing  effect,  which  is  the  basis  of  a-s- 
thetic  pleasure.  Hence  the  lieautiful  must  be 
petite.  Alison  (q.v.)  is  distinguislied  by  the 
lliorough-going  way  in  wliich  he  applies  Associa- 
tionism  to  the  explanation  of  pleasing  a"sthctic 
cll'ects.  The  deliglit  wc  take  in  a  beautiful 
object  is  due  to  its  delightful  stiggestions. 
Bain  (q.v.)  elaborates  this  Assoeiationism  and 
dill'erentiates  the  lesthetic  pleasures  from  others 
by  their  disinterestedness,  purity,  and  sympa- 
thetic value,  as  being  sharable  in  a  way  in  which 
others  are  not.  Spencer  (q.v.)  introduces  Evo- 
lutionism into  testhetics,  and  thus  accounts  for 
the  iFsthetic  pleasures  that  in  the  individual 
seem  to  arise  from  congenital  dispositions,  by 
claiming  that  these  dispositions  are  the  survi- 
vals by  heredity  of  associations  formed  in  the 
history  of  the  race.  He  also  makes  much  of  the 
distinction  between  work  and  play.  Play  is  ac- 
tivity prompted  by  i^urplus  of  vigor,  and  the 
play  of  our  higher  faculties  gives  itsthetic 
pleasure.  Consult:  Gayley  and  Scott.  Guide  to 
the  Literature  of  .1<!sthetie>i  (Berkeley.  Cal., 
1S9D)  ;  W.  Knight,  Philosophy  of  the  Beautiful 
(New  York,  I89I);  B.  Bosanquet.  Ilistorii  of 
.T.sthetic  (London,  1802)  ;  Walter,  Cenehichte 
der  Aerithrtil.-  iiii  Altertum    (T.eipzig,  180.3). 

.ESTHETICS,  Experimental.  Experiment 
made  its  way  into  the  field  of  lesthetics  from 
psychology  on  the  one  side  and  from  philosojjhy 
and  mathematics  on  the  other.  About  the  mid- 
dle of  the  last  century,  while  experiment  was 
young  in  psychology,  a  dispute  arose  among 
theoretical  writers  concerning  the  asthetic  val- 
ue of  simple  space-forms.  A.  Zeising.  professor 
of  philosophy  in  Munich,  urged  that  formal 
beauty  demands  a  simple  proportionality :  while 
others  sa%y,  in  both  nature  and  art.  a  prefer- 
ence for  equality,  balance,  or  the  relations  given 
by  the  vibration  ratios  of  consonant  musical 
intervals,  or  the  heptagon,  or  the  .square.  Zeising 
carried  out  his  theory  most  methodically  of  all. 
He  meant  by  proportionality  the  division  of  an 
object  in  such  a  way  that  the  smaller  part,  the 
minor,  stands  to  the  greater,  the  major,  as  the 
greater  to  the  whole.  This  division  is  called 
the  Golden  Secti(Ui.  Zeising  made  the  most 
extravagant  claims  for  the  importance  of  his  law. 
He  maintained  that  it  furnished  the  pattern  for 
the  human  body,  the  structure  of  plants,  the 
forms  of  crystals,  the  arrangement  of  planetary 
systems:  and  that  it  determined  the  proportions 
of   buildings,   sculptures,   and    paintings. 

It  occurred  to  G.  T.  Eechner  (q.v.)  to  test 
the  claims  of  Zeising  and  his  opponents,  in  so 
far  as  a-sthetical  preference  was  concerned,  by 
observing  series  of  divided  lines  and  of  simple 
forms — rectangles,  ellipses,  and  crosses — under 
experimental  conditions.  He  made  use  of  a  large 
number  of  persons,  asking  each  to  state  his  pref- 
erence within  each  series.  Eechner  also  per- 
formed an  important  service  in  discriminating 
between  the  associational  factors  in  the  lesthetie 
judgment  (those  furnished  by  the  use.  purpose, 
rareness  of  objects),  and  the  direct  effect  pro- 
duced upon  the  feelings  by  the  form  or  the  color 


ESTHETICS. 


162 


AESTHETICS. 


•or  the  rhythm  itself.  It  is  to  this  latter  non-as- 
soeiational  element  that  experiment  has  directed 
its  attention.  It  offers  the  advantages  of  simple 
and  constant  conditions  and  of  a  direct  appeal 
to  the  undivided  judgment.  It  has  confined  it- 
self thus  far  to  the  elements  which  are  common 
to  all  individuals.  Within  this  limited  field  it 
may  fairly  be  said  to  have  been  successful. 

Method.?  and  Results.  The  result  of  Fech- 
ner's  work  was  to  modify  the  assertions  of 
Zeising  and  other  theorists.  A  decided  prefer- 
ence for  the  proportion  of  the  Golden  Section 
was  found  with  certain  figures,  particularly  the 
rectangle.  For  the  simple  sectioning  of  a'  line, 
on  the  other  hand,  preference  was"  shown  for 
the  division  into  halves  and  thirds.  Fechner  is 
ju.stly  called  the  founder  of  experimental  ajsthet- 
ics.  He  laid  out  the  field,  distinguished  the 
direct  and  the  associative  factors,  gave  the  meth- 
ods, and  applied  them  successfully.  There  are 
three  chief  methods  now  used  in  experimental 
aesthetics:  (1)  choice,  (2)  construction,  and 
(3)  use.  In  the  method  of  choice,  series  of 
simple  figures,  tones,  or  colors  are  presented  to 
the  observer,  who  selects  the  one  most  pleasing 
in  its  owni  right.  The  objects  may  be  given  in 
pairs  (method  of  paired  comparisons),  or  in 
a  progressive  series  ( serial  method ) ,  or  promis- 
cuously, according  to  the  material  used.  In  the 
method  of  construction  the  individual  is  given 
elements,  e.g.,  two  narrow  strips  of  cardboard, 
and  is  asked  to  make  from  them  tht  most  pleas- 
ing figure  (cross)  that  he  can.  The  method  of 
use  or  application  consists  in  collecting  the 
dimensions  of  simple,  common  objects,  as  visit- 
ing or  playing  cards,  envelopes,  vases,  newspa- 
pers, books,  windows,  facades,  ill  order  to 
discover  the  usual  or  most  common  proportions. 
The  value  of  the  last-named  method  rests  on  the 
supposition  that  the  proportions  most  used  are 
the  most  agreeable.  This  is  true  only  in  part; 
fitness,  cost,  use  to  which  an  object  is  put,  and 
custom  play  a  large  part;  for  these  reasons  the 
method  requires  caution.  The  second  method 
suffers  from  rather  narrow  limitations.  Both 
it  and  the  third,  however,  are  of  value  as  checks 
upon  the  method  of  choice,  which  is  the  most 
trustworthy  and  has  been  most  successfully 
employed. 

The  methods  named  have  been  used  chiefly 
with  spatial  forms :  rectangles,  crosses,  lines, 
angles,  circles,  ellipses,  and  triangles.  They 
have  succeeded  best  with  the  simpler  figures. 
Fechner 's  early  results  have  been,  for  the  most 
part,  confirmed.  We  know  now  that  certain  divis- 
ions and  dimensions  are  aesthetically  pleasing 
for  their  own  sake:  that  is,  with  no  specific  asso- 
ciation attaching  to  them.  The  most  agreeable 
are  expressed  by  the  ratio  1:1  and  (approxi- 
mately) 3:5,  the  last-named  ratio  standing  near 
the  relation  for  the  Golden  Section  given  above. 
For  exam|)le.  the  grand  average  from  twenty- 
three  series  in  which  various  forms  ( lines,  angles, 
crosses,  and  ellipses)  were  used,  with  a  number 
of  observers,  gave  as  the  most  pleasing  ratio 
1:1.635,  with  an  extremely  low  fluctuation  for 
the  different  series.  We  conclude,  then,  that  the 
most  satisfying  combinations  are  those  in  which 
the  parts  are  alike  and  those  in  which  they  are 
moderately  similar.  One  is  tempted  to  point  to 
the  mathematical  relation  of  the  golden  section 
as  an  explanation  of  the  a:sthetic  enjoyment 
found  in  proportion.  But  the  relation  is  in 
itself  no  explanation,  and,  even  if  it  were,  the 


deviations  from  it  which  many  individuals  show 
would  invalidate  it.  A  recent  explanation  of  the 
;¥sthetie  feelings  connected  with  space-forms 
points  out  that  man  involuntarily  invests  spatial 
objects  with  the  activities — strains,  resistings, 
tensions — which  he  himself  feels  in  his  own 
bod}-.  According  as  an  object — a  pillar,  a  statue, 
or  a  block  of  stone — gives  evidence  that  it  is 
capable  or  incapable  of  holding  its  own,  support- 
ing its  load,  and  maintaining  its  own  integrity 
does  it  awaken  a  feeling  of  satisfaction  or  dis- 
satisfaction in  the  observer.  This  tendency 
shows  itself,  it  is  argued,  even  where  the  object 
is  reduced  to  a  mere  outline.  The  argument 
gains  part  of  its  weight  from  the  fact  that  it 
also  gives  a  reason  for  a  host  of  illusions  con- 
nected with  our  perception  of  spatial  relations. 
A  true  mathematical  square  is  not  seen  as  a 
square  at  all,  but  as  a  rectangle  whose  height 
is  greater  than  its  breadth ;  a  bisected  vertical 
line  looks  longer  above  the  point  of  division 
than  lielow.  and  so  on.  The  allowance  made 
for  these  illusions  is  probably  the  most  impor- 
tant advance  in  method  since  the  days  of  Fech- 
ner. It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  explanation, 
which  we  may  call  a  dynamic  one,  brings  in  the 
associational  factor.  Yet  this  is  not  a  fatal 
objection,  for  the  associations  assumed  are 
generic,  so  to  speak,  and  thus  constant,  within 
limits,  for  all  individuals.  The  theory  must, 
however,  share  honors  with  a  psychophysical 
one,  which  accounts  for  the  elementary  aesthetic 
feelings  in  terms  of  the  simplicity  and  com- 
plexit,v  of  psychophysical  processes  underlying 
them.  It  is  probable,  that  is,  that  the  facility 
with  which  certain  proportions  are  cognized 
affects  directly  the  excitability  of  the  nervous 
s,vstem   in   such   a   way  as    to   produce   pleasure. 

The  method  of  choice  may  be  adapted  to  the 
determination  of  the  a>sthetic  value  of  elemen- 
tary musical  combinations.  We  obtain  thus  a 
graded  series  of  pleasantnesses  for  tonal  inter- 
vals both  when  the  constituent  tones  are  given 
simultaneously  (see  Fusion),  and  when  they 
are  given  successivel,y.  Thei-e  is  aft'orded  in  this 
way  an  opportunity  to  compare  directly  the 
result  of  experimentation  and  the  elements  of 
musical  composition  established  by  generations 
of  practice.  It  must  be  added  that  simple  musi- 
cal combinations  offer  a  particularly  good  field 
for  experimental  exploration  of  the  sestlietic  feel- 
ings, because  the  direct,  sensuous  factor  plays 
a  mucli  more  important  r5le  here  than  in  spatial 
form,  and  the  associative  factor  is  correspond- 
ingly less  prominent.  This  is  especially  true  of 
rhythm. 

Finally,  aesthetic  preference  in  the  realm  of 
color,  saturation,  and  brightness  has  been  deter- 
mined bv  the  method  of  paired  comparisons — the 
observer  comparing  in  turn  a  red.  then  a  green, 
then  a  blue,  etc..  with  each  of  the  other  members 
in  a  series  of  colors,  and  also  by  passing  judg- 
ment on  those  visual  sensations  taken  singly. 
The  chief  results  are  these:  (1)  the  most  satu- 
rated colors  are  usually  preferred;  (2)  given 
likeness  of  saturation,  individual  preferences 
vary  from  color-tone  to  color-tone,  and  (3)  willi 
colors  which  are  equally  pleasing,  the  combina- 
tion of  any  two  gives  greater  satisfaction  the 
more  unlike    (contrasting)    the  colors. 

Consult:  G.  T.  Fechner,  Z,ur  cxperimentalen 
Ac.itlictik  (Leipzig.  1871);  ^'ol■scIlnIe  der  Acs- 
thctik  (Leipzig,  1876)  ;  T.  Lipps,  Raumiistheiik 
und  gcometrisch-optische  Tiiuschungen    (Leipzig, 


ESTHETICS. 


163 


iETOLIAN  LEAGTTB. 


1897)  ;  George  Santayana,  The  Sense  of  Beaut ij ; 
Oiitlhies  of  .i:stlutic'Thiorii  (New  York.  ISilti). 

^STIVAL,  e='tl-val  or  es-ti'val,  or  ESTI- 
VAL  I  Lat.  a-stirtis.  of  summer,  from  ocstas, 
sumnicr).  Plants  whose  coiispieuous  functions, 
especially  the  lilonniini;  of  the  llower.  occur  in 
summer,  are  saiil  tn  he  a-stival.  Prairie  plants, 
especially  of  the  composite  family,  are  lar";ely 
jpstival.  and  contrast  strongly  with  the  vernal 
plants  of  the  woods,  such  as  many  menihers  of 
the  lily  family. 

^S'TIVA'TION.  See  Flower;  Hibebxa- 
■iloN  :  and  I'.sTIVATION. 

AETA,  lia'ta.  The  woolly-haired,  dark  col- 
ored, dwarfish  aboriginal  folk  of  Luzon  and 
other  Philippine  islands:  also  called  Xegrito. 
They  live  in  out-of-the-way  jdaces  in  lower  sav- 
agery, and  are  supposed  to  number  20,000.  Ate, 
Eta."  Ita.  Manianua,  etc.,  are  synonyms.  Con- 
sult: A.  B.  .Meyer,  Tlie  Xc(irilos  (Dresden,  1S99). 
See  PiiiLii'PiNE.s. 

^THEL,  :"ith'el.  A  combinini  form  which 
occurs  as  the  first  element  in  many  Anglo-Saxon 
names.  It  is  derived  from  A.  S.  (rfel,  noble, 
and  is  akin  to  Ger.  Adel.  nobility,  e(M,  noble: 
compare  Engl.  ntheVuui  (q.v.l,  an  Anglo-Saxon 
prince  or  nobleman,  and  eUirl,  noble.  The  names 
in  which  tliis  combining  form  occurs  (e.g.,  Ethel- 
bahl.  "Xoble  Bold."  Etiielintlf.  "Xoble  Wolf," 
etc. ) .  when  given  in  the  present  work,  are  gen- 
erally to  l)e  found  under  the  more  modern  spell- 
ing Ethel-,  which  is  that  adopted  in  Leslie  Ste- 
phen's Dirlitiiuirii  of  X(itio)i<il  Uioyidiihi/. 

.^THELBALD,  ath'el-bald.    See  Ethelbald. 

.ffiTHELHABD,   ath'el-iird.     See  Adelard. 

.ffiTHELING,  fitU'el-ing.    See  Athelixg. 

^'THICPIS  (Gk.  AiiJwTT/f).  The  name  of 
a  Greek  epic  in  five  books  by  Arctinus  of  Miletus, 
one  of  the  Cyidic  Poets  (f|.v.).  It  relates  the 
events  of  the  Trojan  War  immediately  succeed- 
ing those  described  in  the  Hind,  the  heroine  of 
the   poem   being  the  Amazon  queen,  Penthesilea. 

JE'THBIOSCOPE  (Gk.  ai-dpia,  ailhria,  clear 
sky  +  OKmrm;  skopcin,  to  observe,  watch ) .  An  in- 
strument to  measure  the  temperature  effects  pro- 
duced by  radiation,  invented  by  Sir  John  Ijcslie 
in  1SI7,  and  described  in  the  Tra>i.sfictio)ts  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh  for  the  following 
year.  It  consisted  of  a  concive  metallic  mirror, 
or  cup.  containing  a  differential  thermometer, 
and  was  so  finely  constructed  as  to  be  intlueneed 
by  a  passing  cloud,  \^'ith  it  Leslie  hoped  to  dis- 
cover the  ell'ect  of  the  clouds  upon  atmospheric 
conditions,  and  to  explain  other  meteorological 
phrnoinciia. 

AETION,  a-e'shi-on  (Gk.  'Aeriuv).  A  Greek 
painter  who  lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the  fourth, 
or  the  first  half  of  the  third,  century  n.c,  and  is, 
perhaps,  to  be  identified  with  the  sculptor 
Eetion.  He  was  highly  praised  for  his  technique, 
and  is  classed  with  such  painters  as  Xicomachus 
and  Apellcs.  His  most  famous  painting  repre- 
sented the  wedding  of  Alexander  and  Roxana. 
Scarcely  anything  is  known  of  his  life. 

AETIUS,  i\-e'shl-fis.  Called  "the  ungodly."  A 
Roman  theologian  wlio  lived  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury. He  w:is  boi  n  in  Antioch.  and  sold  into 
slavery;  when  liberated,  studied  medicine  and 
Iheologj-  at  .Antioch.  became  a  deacon,  and  devel- 
oped the  doctrines  called  the  .\etian  heresy. 
Under  the  Emperor  Constantius  he  was  banished 


(.•^fiO).  but  recalled  in  301  by  .Julian,  and  was 
shortly  after  made  bishop.  He  died  in  Constan- 
tinople. .'>(I7. 

AETIUS.  A  Roman  general,  born  about  390 
A.I).  He  long  defended  Gaul  from  the  bar- 
barians; with  Theodoric  he  coni]iclled  .\ttila  to 
raise  the  siege  of  Orleans:  he  followed  the  Huns 
to  the  plains  of  CliAlons.  and  defeated  them  in  a 
great  battle,  in  which  ;i00,000  men  are  said  to 
have  been  slain.  The  Emperor  Valentinian  111. 
became  jealous  of  .\etius  and  slew  him  with  his 
own  hand.  454  A.D. 

.ffiT'NA.  A  Latin  poem,  in  hexameters,  de- 
scribing Jlount  -Etna  and  one  of  its  eruptions, 
with  a  theory  as  to  their  cause.  The  work  used 
to  be  attributed  to  Vergil,  but  was  probably 
written  by  Seneca's  friend,  Lucilius  .Junior,  who 
was  a  procurator  in  Sicily.  Consult:  JEtna, 
edited  by  H.  A.  J.  Munro   (Cambridge,  18G7). 

JET'KTA,  Mount.     See  Et.xa,  iloLNT. 

.ffiTO'LIA  (Gk.  Wrulia,  Aitolia) .  A  district 
of  ancient  Greece,  lying  on  the  north  coast  of 
the  Gulf  of  Corinth.  The  ancient  .Etolia  was 
divided  from  Acarnania  on  the  west  bj'  the  river 
Aeheloiis,  and  extended  as  far  as  the  river 
Daphnos,  where  it  was  bounded  by  Locris  and 
Doris;  on  the  north  it  bordered  on  Thessaly  and 
Epirus.  In  later  times  these  boundaries  were 
considerably  extended  to  the  north  and  east. 
The  country  has  few  cities,  and  is  generally 
wild  and  barren,  though  the  southwest  portion 
(Old  .J-;tolia)  contains  two  marshy  but  fruitful 
plains,  one  on  the  coast,  the  other  north  of 
jlount  Zygos,  largely  occupied  l)y  the  lakes 
Apokuro  (Trichonis)  and  Zygos  (Hj'ria).  This 
was  the  --Etolia  of  the  Heroic  Age,  in  which  the 
.'Etolians  play  a  conspicuous  part.  It  was  in 
Calydon,  that,  according  to  the  legend,  Meleagcr 
(q.v. )  slew  the  boar.  When  they  next  appear  in 
Greek  history,  at  the  time  of  the  Peloponnesian 
War,  they  are  described  by  Thucydides  as  rude 
and  barbarous.  The  -Etolian  confederacy,  first 
mentioned  in  314  n.c,  but  of  unknown  origin, 
became  important  in  the  time  of  the  .\chnan 
League.  (See  Ach.ka.)  The  suineme  authority 
was  the  general  assembly  of  all  -JOtolians,  which 
met  yearly  after  the  autumnal  eipiinox  at  Tlier- 
mon.  and  elected  the  general  and  other  ollicials. 
During  the  tliird  century  B.C.  the  league  steadily 
increased  its  power,  in  conflict  with  the  Acha-ans 
and  llacedon,  and,  finally,  in  pursuance  of  its 
characteristically  selfish  policy,  entered  into  alli- 
ance with  the  Ronuins.  .As  this  did  not  yield  all 
that  was  expected,  it  afterward  joined  An- 
tioehus  and  Perseus  in  their  wars  against  Rome. 
The  political  inlluence  of  .Etolia  was  destroyed 
in  ISO  n.c.  by  the  Romans,  though  the  league 
existed  nominally  even  to  the  time  of  Sulla. 
With  Acarnania,  .Etolia  now  forms  a  proviiu'e 
of  the  modern  kingdom  of  Greece.  The  chief 
rivers  of  .^i^tolia  are  the  Aspropotamo  (.Aehe- 
loiis), in  the  west,  the  Phidaris  (Euenos),  in 
the  centre,  and  the  Jlarnos  (Daphnos),  in  the 
east.  The  people  in  the  plains  are  employed  in 
agriculture  and  fishing:  while  in  the  mountain 
districts  some  traces  of  the  rude  and  martial 
character  of  ancient  -Etolia  may  still  be  found. 
The  chief  towns  ;irc  Mesolonghi.  Lepanto.  and 
-Vgrinion.  Consult:  W.  .).  Woodhouse,  .Etolia 
(Oxford,  1897). 

.ffiTO'LIAN  LEAGUE.  .\  confederacy  of  the 
tribes  of   .Etolia,   ami   afterward  including  also 


^TOLIAN  LEAGUE. 


164 


AFFECTION. 


parts  of  Acarnania,  Locris,  Thessaly,  etc.  Its 
executive  officers  were  chosen  at  a  yearly  meet- 
ing called  Panfetolieura.  It  was  formed  after 
the  battle  of  Chaeronea  (338  B.C.)  to  resist  the 
encroachments  of  Macedon,  to  which,  after  the 
death  of  Alexander,  it  proved  a  seriovis  antago- 
nist, as  well  as  to  its  rival,  the  Achsean  League. 
(See  Acil.EA.)  Later,  for  a  time,  it  was  in  al- 
liance with  the  Romans,  hut.  having  taken  part 
with  Antiochus  IIL  against  them,  it  lost  its 
power  vipon  his  defeat,  189  B.C. 

AFANASIEFF,  ii'fa-na'syef,  Alexander 
XiKOLAYEVicii  (1826-71).  A  famous  student  of 
Russian  folklore  and  national  poetry.  He  pub- 
lished a  collection  of  popular  tales  {i  volumes, 
1863;  third  edition,  2  volumes,  1897),  and  The 
Poetic  Views  of  Nature  Entertained  by  the  An- 
cient Slavs  (3  volumes,  Moscow,  1866-69),  be- 
sides numerous  contributions  to  various  peri- 
odicals. 

AFAR,  a'far.     See  Danakil. 

A'FER.     See  Arkobius. 

AFEB,  C>'.  DoiiiTius.  A  Roman  orator, 
teacher  of  Quintilian.  He  was  born  in  Gaul, 
15  B.C.  and  died  59  a.d.  He  was  made  a  consul 
by  Caligula. 

AFFECTION,  AFFECTIVE  PROCESSES 

(Lat.  affeclio,  a  state  of  mind  pioduced  by  some 
influence,  from  afficere,  to  do  something  to  one, 
ad,  to  +  facere,  to  do).  For  many  centuries 
psychologists  have  discussed  the  phenomena  of 
the  human  mind  under  the  three  headings  of 
Intellect,  Feeling,  and  Will.  (See  Psychology.) 
One  of  the  chief  aims  of  modern  psychology  is 
to  analyze  these  great  mental  functions  into 
their  simplest  component  processes,  and  so  finally 
to  reach  the  mental  elements,  the  ultimate  and 
irreducible  constituents  of  mind.  The  various 
forms  of  intellectual  experience  (perception, 
idea,  association  of  ideas,  etc.)  reduce,  on  such 
analysis,  to  the  sensation  (q.v. )  ;  the  various 
forms  of  feeling  (emotion,  passion,  mood)  to  the 
affection;  while  the  simplest  will-processes  are 
found  to  contain  both  sensational  and  affective 
elements. 

Affection,  then,  is  the  mental  element  which 
characterizes  all  varieties  of  our  emotional  life. 
It  is  the  last  result  of  the  analysis  of  joy 
and  sorrow,  love  and  hate,  anger  and  fear-,  it 
forms  the  common  basis  of  the  sense-pleasures 
of  eating  and  drinking,  and  of  the  highest  testhet- 
ic  appreciation  of  music  and  painting.  Like 
sensation,  it  is  the  product  of  scientific  abstrac- 
tion; it  is  never  experienced  singly,  but  always 
in  connection  with  other  processes.  And,  like 
sensation,  it  cannot  be  reduced  to  anything  sim- 
pler than  itself.  Slany  attempts  have  been  made, 
in  the  interests  of  scientific  economy,  to  derive 
it  from  sensation,  which  would  then  remain  as 
the  only  mind-stuff,  the  sole  material  of  which 
the  mind  is  built;  but  so  far  all  attempts  have 
failed. 

As  to  the  different  kinds  or  "qualities"  of 
affection,  modern  psychology  is  divided.  Some 
psychologists  maintain  that  the  manifold  forms 
of  affective  experience  are  traceable,  in  the  last 
resort,  to  the  two  typical  processes  of  pleasure 
and  pain,  or.  in  the  better  phraseology — since 
pain  (q.v.)  is  a  sensation,  with  a  definite  organ  in 
muscle  and  skin — to  pleasantness  and  unpleas- 
antness. Relief,  despair,  hope,  satisfaction, 
anxiety,  resentment  would  then  be,  in  pure  feel- 


ing and  at  any  given  moment  of  their  course, 
either  simply  pleasant  or  simply  unpleasant. 
There  are  two  principal  objections  to  this  view: 
(1)  that  it  does  not  do  justice  to  the  immense 
complexity  and  variety  of  the  emotions:  and  (2) 
that  it  confuses  the  lower  and  the  higher,  the 
pleasure  of  a  good  dinner  with  that  of  Beetho- 
ven's Ninth  Si/inijlioiiii.  The  latter  point  is  very 
differently  taken  by  different  psychologists.  One 
says,  e.g.,  that  the  unpleasurableness  of  a  tooth- 
ache, of  an  intellectual  failure,  and  of  a  tragical 
experience  is  so  patently  diverse  that  assertions 
to  the  contrary  require  no  criticism.  Another 
declares  as  positively  that  there  is  no  qualitative 
difference  discoverable  between  the  pleasantness 
of  a  color  and  that  of  a  successfully  concluded 
argument,  when  careful  abstraction  is  made 
from  the  very  wide  differences  in  their  attendant 
circumstances.  And  so  the  matter  rests.  The 
former  objection  has  suggested  a  more  elaborate 
classification   of   the   affective  qualities. 

According  to  this  second  view,  the  number  of 
affective  qualities  is  as  large  as — if  not  larger 
than — the  number  of  sensations.  We  have,  it  is 
true,  no  names  for  the  great  majority  of  them ; 
but  that  is  because  language  has  been  developed, 
not  for  the  sake  of  a  scientific  psychology,  but 
for  purposes  of  practical  intercourse,  and  for  all 
practical  purposes  the  discrimination  of  the 
main  emotional  types  (anger,  fear,  and  the  rest) 
has  been  sufficient.  We  can,  however,  distin- 
guish three  main  trends  or  directions  of  the 
affective  consciousness,  within  each  of  which  a 
long  series  of  ultimate  qualities  is  ranged  be- 
tween opposed  extremes.  These  directions  are 
those  of  (1)  pleasantness  -  unpleasantness:  (2) 
excitement  -  depression  ( tranquilization,  inhibi- 
tion): and  (3)  tension  -  relaxation  (resolution). 
The  first  series  of  qualities  comprises  the  affec- 
tions of  the  present  time :  our  affective  state, 
as  determined  by  the  occurrence  of  any  given 
moment,  is  one  of  pleasure  or  displeasure.  The 
second  series  contains  all  the  shades  and  tints 


AFFECTIVE  PROCESSES. 

Wnndt'8  Scheme  of  the  Affective  Processes.  P.  U.  Pleasant- 
ness, Unpleasantness :  E,  D,  Excitement,  Depression;  S,  R, 
Strain,  Kelaxation.  The  curved  line  represents  the  coarse  in 
consciousness  of  an  actual  feeling. 

of  our  affective  anticipation  of  the  future:  we 
are  aroused  or  subdued  by  what  is  to  come.  And 
the  third  series  represents  the  effects  of  experi- 
ences just  past ;  we  are  kept  on  the  stretch,  or 
relieved  from  our  tension,  by  what  has  just  hap- 
pened. Or — to  put  the  differences  from  another 
point  of  view — we  are  pleased  or  displeased  by 


AFFECTION. 


165 


AFFECTION. 


the  charnctrr  of  our  pxpeiienee:  we  are  excited 
or  tranquilized,  ai'oordinnr  as  it  is  more  or  less 
inleiisiie :  and  we  are  held  on  the  strain  of  ex- 
pectation, or  relieved  from  this  strain,  arcordinji; 
as  it  lasts  a  longer  or  a  shorter  time.  AtTeetions 
of  all  three  tj'pes  are,  as  a  rule,  combined  in  the 
concrete  feeling,  in  "real"  aflective  experience. 
Suppose,  e.g.,  that  one  is  looking  forward  to  a 
pleasant  event.  One  has,  at  first,  a  feeling  of 
tension,  to  which  are  soon  added,  in  succession, 
feelings  of  unpleasantness  and  of  excitement. 
All  three  affections  increase  gradually  in 
strength  until  the  expected  event  occurs.  At 
that  moment  the  unpleasantness  changes  to 
pleasantness,  and  the  strain  to  relaxation,  while 
the  excitement  is  still  continued.  Presentl.v  the 
excitement  dies  awa.v.  Then  the  feeling  of  relax- 
ation or  satisfaction  fades  out;  and  finallv  the 
effect  of  the  event  passes  off  altogether,  with  the 
fading  of  pleasure  to  its  indiffercme-point. 

It  would  seem.  then,  that  expert  opinion  could 
hardly  he  more  sharply  divided.  On  the  one 
hand,  we  have  the  belief  in  two  and  only  two 
affective  qualities,  homogeneous  throughout  the 
affective  life;  on  the  other,  the  suggestion  that 
there  are  man.v  thousand  feelings,  each  of  which 
is  unique  in  qualitv.  though  the  whole  number 
fall  roughly  into  three  great  groups.  It  should, 
however,  be  said  that  these  conflieting  views  are 
held  tentatively,  not  dogmatically.  It  is  gen- 
erally agreed  that  we  do  not  as  yet  possess  the 
data  for  a  scientific  theory  of  affection.  The 
appeal  lies  to  experiment:  and  the  application  of 
experimental  method  in  the  sphere  of  feeling  is 
extraordinaril.v  dilticult.  Nevertheless,  the  prob- 
lem stands  to-day  in  the  forefront  of  psychologi- 
cal inquir.v,  and  much  may  be  expected  from  the 
near  future. 

We  luive,  as  things  are,  two  principal  n\ethods 
for  the  study  of  affertion:  the  method  of  impres- 
sion and  the  method  of  expression.  The  former 
we  owe  to  Fechner  (q.v. );  the  latter  to  the 
Italian  physiologist  A.  Mosso.  (1)  The  method 
of  imi)rcssion  in  its  original  form  is  also  known 
as  the  serial  method  or  the  method  of  selection. 
(See  .Esthetics.  Experimextai.)  A  long  series 
of  graded  stimuli  (colors,  textile  fabrics,  ovals, 
or  crosses)  is  hiid  before  the  observer,  who  notes 
his  preference  for  particular  terms  in  the  series. 
From  these  jjreferences  a  curve  may  be  construct- 
ed, showing  the  relative  feeling-value  of  dull 
and  brilliant  colors,  of  rough  and  smooth  sur- 
faces, etc.  In  its  later  form,  the  method  is 
known  as  that  of  paired  comparisons.  The  stim- 
uli are  here  presented  to  the  observer  two  at  a 
time,  so  that  every  term  in  the  series  is  com- 
pared with  every  other  term.  The  experimenter 
records  the  number  of  preferences  that  each  term 
receives,  and  a  curve  is  platted  from  the  results. 
It  is  found,  e.g.,  in  work  with  colored  ini])ressions 
that  saturated  colors  ( re<l,  blue)  are  as  a  rule 
preferred  to  unsaturated  (pink,  brown,  sky  blue, 
nav.v  blue) ,  but  that  there  is  a  curious  uncertain- 
ty as  regards  yellow — some  observers  ranking 
this  color  very  high,  while  others  as  decidedly 
prefer  orange  iyellowish  red)  and  yellow  green. 
(2)  Hie  method  of  expression,  on  the  other  hand, 
seeks  to  reconstruct  the  affective  consciousness 
fron\  a  stud,y  of  its  bodily  syni|)toms  or  mani- 
festations. It  is  a  matter  of  common  knowledge 
that  men  blush  with  shame  and  tremble  with 
fear.  The  bodily  indications  of  affection  are, 
indeed,  both  widespread  and  easily  observable, 
while  at  the   same   time   they   leflect   the   most 


subtle  and  delicate  phases  of  affective  process. 
Their  cormnon  cause  is  to  be  found  in  changes 
of  nuiscular  innervation;  the  whole  muscular 
system,  voluntary  and  involuntary,  answers  to 
those  changes  of  nervous  excitation  which  cor- 
respond, on  the  physical  side,  to  changes  in  our 
state  of  feeling.  We  find,  e.g.,  that  the  pulse 
becomes  stronger  during  pleasant  stimulation, 
and  weaker  during  unpleasant;  the  sphygmo- 
graphic  record  shows  that  there  is  a  change  in 
the  innervation  of  the  heart.  We  find,  in  the 
same  way.  that  breathing  is  deeper  under  a 
pleasurable,  and  shallower  under  an  unpleasura- 
ble,  stimulus;  the  pneumographie  record  shows 
a  change  in  the  innervation  of  the  respirator.v 
muscles.  We  find  that  the  volume  of  a  limb  or 
member — of  the  finger  or  arm — increases  with 
pleasantness  and  decreases  with  unpleasantness; 
there  is  a  change  of  innervation  of  the  super- 
ficial blood-vessels,  and  therefore  of  the  amount 
of  blood  contained  in  them  ;  the  plcthysmograph- 
ic  curve  rises  and  falls  as  the  stimulus  varies. 
We  find  that  muscular  strength  evinces  a  like 
fluctuation ;  our  squeeze  of  the  dynamometer 
is  stronger  when  we  are  pleased  than  it  is  when 
we  are  displeased.  And  lastl,v,  we  have  the 
same  correlation  of  physical  and  mental  in  the 
case  of  involuntary  movement.  If  the  hand  is 
laid  upon  the  plate  of  a  plan<hette  while  our 
mood  is  one  of  indifference,  the  pencil  will  make 
a  little  ragged  spot  upon  the  paper,  but  will 
take  no  definite  direction.  Let  a  pleasant  stim- 
ulus be  given  (a  fragrant  scent,  a  piece  of  good 
news),  and  the  arm  travels  away  from  the  body, 
as  if  the  organism  were  reaching  out  after  the 
pleasing  object ;  the  pencil  traces  a  steady  line 
outward.  Let  an  unpleasant  stimulus  be  given, 
and  the  arm  comes  in  toward  the  trunk,  as  if 
the  organism  were  withdrawing  into  itself, 
shrinking  from  the  displeasing  object;  the  pencil 
traces  a  steady  line  inward. 

Why  has  not  this  method  of  expression,  if  it 
be  so  delicate  as  is  here  stated,  settled  once  and 
for  all  the  question  of  the  number  of  affective 
qualities?  There  are  three  reasons.  In  the 
first  place,  the  method  is  still  very  young,  and 
the  technical  diiliculties  involved  in  the  giving  of 
stimuli,  etc.,  have  not  yet  been  fully  overcome. 
Secondly,  the  method  presupposes  that  the  subject 
of  the  experiment  is,  at  the  outset,  in  a  normal, 
quiescent,  indifferent  state,  and  the  regulation  of 
this  state  is  exceedingly  dillicult.  And  thirdly, 
knowledge  of  the  physiological  mechanism  of 
the  curve  variations  is  at  present  incompleite: 
we  have  reason  to  believe  that  a  particular  feel- 
ing must  always  be  connected  with  a  particular 
change  of  innervation,  but  we  know  also  that 
such  a  change  may  be  wrought  wholly  within 
the  physiological  (and  outside  of  the  psycho- 
logical) sphere.  Hence,  so  long  as  introspection 
gives  no  decided  verdict,  the  bodily  .symptoms 
nuiy  and  will  he  <liffercntl,y  interpreted.  We 
said  above  that  the  i)ulse  beats  higher  in  pleas- 
antness and  more  feebly  in  unpleasantness.  A 
much  more  elaborate  correlation  has  been  sug- 
gested by  those  who  hold  the  alternative  theory, 
of  a  large  number  of  ultimate  affections.  To  this 
view,  pleasantness  is  indicated  by  strong  and 
slow,  unpleasantness  by  weak  and  rapid,  heart- 
beats: in  excitenuMit  and  depression,  the  pulse  is 
simply  strong  and  weak  respectively;  while 
strain  manifests  itself  by  weak  and  slow,  relax- 
ation by  quick  and  strong,  pulsations.  We  can- 
not say  that  either  side  is  right  or  wrong;  we 


AFFECTION. 


166 


AFFINITY. 


must  suspend  judgment  until  further  evidence  is 
submitted. 

A  third  method,  which  has  recently  been  pro- 
posed, is  (.3)  that  of  suc;<restive  disintegration 
of  the  afl'ective  consciousness.  If  we  assume 
that  the  concrete  feeling  is  made  up  of  three 
elementary  atfeetions,  one  from  each  of  the  three 
main  directions,  it  should  be  possible  (whether 
witli  or  without  recourse  to  the  hypnotic  state) 
to  "suggest  away"  two  of  the  components,  and  so 
allow  the  third  to  cojne  to  its  full  bodily  expres- 
sion. This  method  lias  not  as  yet  received  any 
extended  trial. 

It  remains  to  consider  the  nature  of  the  phys- 
iological processes  that  underlie  the  appearance 
of  an  affection  in  consciousness.  Sensations  are 
conditioned  directly  upon  the  excitation  of  a 
determinate  sense-organ.  Affections,  in  all  prob- 
ability, are  conditioned  by  excitatory  processes 
which  arise  indirectly,  by  way  of  reaction,  from 
these  first  processes.  The  secondary  excitations 
may  be  supposed  to  originate  within  the  cerebral 
cortex,  though  some  psychologists  have  referred 
them  to  theinedulla.  or  even  to  the  sympathetic 
system;  but  whether  they  are  localized  (Wundt) 
or  diffused  (Jleynert),  we  have  no  means  of 
deciding.  The  English  school  liave  found  a  bio- 
logical sanction  for  their  traditional  doctrine  of 
pleasure-pain  in  the  law  that  whatever  is  pleas- 
urable tends  to  further  and  perfect  life,  and 
whatever  is  painful  to  disturb  or  destroy  it. 
The  law  appears  to  be  substantially  true.  Ex- 
pressed in  psychological  terms,  it  would  run 
somewhat  as  follows:  A  pleasant  stimulus  is  a 
stimulus  of  moderate  intensity,  permitting  the 
full  exercise  of  attention,  and  connecting  with 
the  organic  sensations  set  up  by  "anabolic" 
bodily  processes;  an  unpleasant  stimulus  is  one 
the  intensity  of  which  is  adverse  to  maximal 
attention,  and  which  connects  witli  the  organic 
sensations  set  up  by  "eatabolic"  bodily  processes. 
Pleasantness  and  unpleasantness  would  then  be 
conditioned,  in  the  last  resort,  upon  the  iiiteniiitii 
of  stimulus:  a  result  which  accords  well  both 
with  the  results  of  experiment  and  with  the 
notion  of  a  diffused  cortical  reaction  as  sub- 
strate of  the  affective  process.  On  the  otlier 
hand,  as  we  have  seen,  later  theory  connects 
pleasantness  and  its  opposite  with  the  quality, 
excitement  -  depression  with  the  intensity,  and 
tension  -  relaxation  with  the  duration  of  stim- 
ulus. No  one  has  yet  attempted  to  work  out 
these  correlations  upon  the  biological  or  teleolog- 
ical  side.  Here,  as  before,  we  must  look  to  the 
future  for  a  settlement  of  the  questions  at  issue. 

Consult:  for  the  theory  of  the  three  affective 
directions,  W.  Wundt,  Outlines  of  Psychology, 
translated  by  C.  H.  Judd  (Leipzig,  1807)  :  for 
methods,  O.  Kuelpe,  Outlines  of  I'si/ilmlogy 
(London,  1895)  ;  E.  B.  Titchener,  Experimental 
Psychology  (New  York,  I'JOl);  for  tlie  teleo- 
logical  law,  H.  Spencer.  Principles  of  Psychology 
(New  York,  1881),  and  Principles  of  Ethics 
(New  York,  1802). 

AF'FIDA'VIT  (Perf.  of  Low  Lat,  affidure, 
"he  has  made  an  oath,"  from  Lat.  ad,  to  -j-  fides, 
faith).  A  written  declaration,  or  statement  of 
fact,  made  before  a  magistrate  or  other  person 
legally  authorized  to  administer  an  oath,  the 
trutli  of  which  is  confirmed  either  by  an  oath 
sworn  or  a  solemn  affirmation.  The  name  and 
designation  of  the  party  making  the  affidavit 
are  written  at  length,  and  he  usually  signs  it 
at  the  foot.     When  the  paper  is  shown  to  him. 


he  is  required  to  swear  or  affirm  that  its  con- 
tents are  true,  and  that  the  name  and  handwrit- 
ing are  his,  and  it  is  thereupon  attested  by  the 
officer  before  whom  it  is  made.  Affidavits  in  all 
tlie  English  courts  must  be  taken  and  expressed 
in  the  first  person  of  the  deponent.  In  the 
United  States,  all  judges,  justices  of  the  peace, 
notaries,  commissioners,  and  some  special  offi- 
cers, have  authority  of  law  to  take  affidavits. 
All  the  States  appoint  commissioners,  residing 
in  other  States,  to  exercise  tlie  power.  Gener- 
ally the  authority  of  foreign  officials  to  take 
affidavits  must  be  certified  or  verified  in  court. 
Wlien  a  judge  takes  an  affidavit  in  court,  his  sig- 
nature must  be  authenticated.  American  minis- 
ters and  consuls  abroad  liave  power  to  take  affida- 
vits, and  so  have  British  consuls  and  nearly  all 
similar  officers.  No  particular  form  of  afTi- 
davit  is  prescribed.  An  affidavit  of  merits  is  one 
made  by  a  defendant,  which  sets  forth  that  lie 
has  stated  his  case  to  counsel  and  is  by  him 
advised  that  he  has  a  good  defense  to  the  pend- 
ing action  on  its  merits.  Tliis  is  required  by 
statute,  or  a  rule  of  court,  to  protect  plaintiffs 
from  delay  by  frivolous  shows  of  defense,  but 
does  not  always  effect  the  purpose. 

AFFIL'IA'TION  (Low  Lat.  affiliatio,  adop- 
tion as  a  son  or  daughter,  from  Lat.  ad,  to  + 
filius,  son,  filiu,  daughter).  In  the  civil  or  Eo- 
man  law,  the  ascertainment  of  the  parentage 
and  determination  of  tlie  descent  of  a  person, 
either  through  the  mother  or  the  father.  In 
our  law  the  term  is  commmily  used  to  designate 
tlie  proceeding  for  the  judicial  determination  of 
paternity,  especially  of  the  paternity  of  bas- 
tards. ( See  Bastard.  )  In  cases  where  the  per- 
son seeking  to  establish  his  paternity  was  born 
during  coverture  (q.v.),  i.e.,  in  lawful  wedlock, 
tliere  is  a  presumption  of  law  that  the  hu'^band 
was  the  father,  which  cannot  lie  rel)utted  by 
direct  evidence  to  show  that  lie  in  fact  was  not 
the  father,  but  only  by  proof  that,  owing  to 
absence  abroad,  or  in  prison,  or  on  tlie  high  seas, 
no  cohabitation  could  have  taken  place,  or  that 
it  was  physically  impossible.  In  French  law, 
the  term  affiliation  refers  to  a  customary  mode 
of  adoption  prevailing  in  some  parts  of  France. 
See  FiLiATiox. 

AFFIN'ITY  (Lat.  afjinitas).  The  relation- 
ship created  by  marriage  between  the  hnshand 
and  the  blood-relations  of  the  wife,  and  between 
the  wife  and  blood-relations  of  the  husband.  It 
is  to  be  distinguished  from  consanguinity,  which 
signifies  relationship  by  blood.  There  can  be  no 
inheritance  by  legal  succession  from  a  relation 
by  affinity.  The  relations  of  the  wife  stand  to 
the  husband  in  the  same  degree  of  affinity  in 
which  they  stand  to  the  wife  by  blood  or  con- 
sanguinity, or  rice  versa.  But  between  the  re- 
lations of  the  two  parties  by  affinity  there  is  no 
affinity.  Thus,  there  is  no  affinity  between  the 
husband's  brother  and  the  wife's  sister,  and,  by 
our  law,  there  is  no  impediment  to  their  mar- 
riase.  The  question  as  to  whether  those  who  are 
related  by  affinity  stand  in  all  respects  in  the 
same  position  as  recards  marriage  as  those  who 
are  cmmected  by  blood  is  one  on  which  some 
difference  of  opinion  at  present  prevails,  ilar- 
riage  between  a  man  and  the  sister  of  his  de- 
ceased wife  is  at  present  forbidden  in  England 
by  statute,  but  not  generally  in  the  United 
States  or  the  British  colonies.  '  See  Consanguin- 
ity; Marriage,  and  the  authorities  there  re- 
ferred to. 


AFFINITY. 


I(i7 


AFFINITY,  Ciii;mical.  The  force  that 
hnhls  ill  loniliiiiiitioii  the  constituent  elements 
of  chcniical  conipounds  and  causes  the  reactions 
tnkiiij;  phice  between  material  siil)slanoes.  The 
nature  of  chemical  allinity  is  as  little  understood 
as  the  nature  of  j^ravitation,  and  the  hypotheses 
on  the  subject,  which  have  been  advanced  since 
the  earliest  times,  are  still  confined  within  the 
domain  of  pvirc  speculation.  Horclli  and  I.em- 
ery  imagined  that  the  ultimate  (larticles  of 
matter  were  sujiplied  with  minute  licioks,  the 
shape  of  which  determined  the  capacity  of  a 
particle  for  combininj;  with  certain  other  par- 
ticles. Bergman,  licrthollet,  and  others,  thou;;ht 
that  chemical  allinity  might  be  identical  with 
the  enerfrj'  of  gravitation.  Berzelius  sought 
to  explain  all  clicmical  plienomcna  on  the  liy- 
pothesis  that  chcmi<Ml  combination  was  caused 
by  the  nnitual  attraction  of  electrically  ditferent 
substances.  All  tlicse  hypotheses,  however,  go 
no  further  in  explaining  the  transformations  of 
matter  than  did  the  ancient  idea,  according  to 
which  those  transformations  \vere  due  to  the 
nnitual  love  or  hatred  of  the  difTerent  kinds  of 
atoms.  Such  ideas  are  incapable  of  either  theo- 
retical development  or  practical  application,  and 
science  must,  at  least  for  the  present,  discard 
them  as  useless  hy])otheses  and  contine  itself 
solely  to  the  experimental  study  of  tlie  mode  of 
action  of  the  chemical  forces,  witlunit  reference 
to  their  ultimate  nature.  In  this  direction  the 
science  of  chemistry  has,  in  recent  years,  made 
considerable  progress.  The  principles  of  thermo- 
dynamics have  been  successfully  applied  to  many 
transformations,  and  certain  general  laws  have 
been  established,  according  to  which  all  chemical 
reactions  seem  to  take  place.  The  second  prin- 
ciple of  thermodynamics  proves  that  when  a 
transformation  takes  place  in  a  material  system 
while  no  energy  is  being  supplied  to  it  from 
without,  the  system  is  capable  of  doing  a  certain 
amount  of  external  work.  The  maximum  ex- 
ternal work  which  may  be  obtained  through  a 
transformation  taking  place  under  ideal  condi- 
tions (that  is  to  say,  through  a  reversible  iso- 
thermal process),  may  be  taken  as  a  measure  of 
the  tendency  according  to  whicii  the  transforma- 
tion takes  place.  In  the  case  of  a  chemical  trans- 
formation, that  tendency  is  obviously  the  "affin- 
ity of  the  reaction."  This  maximum  external 
work,  done  during  a  chemical  reaction,  or,  as  it 
is  usually  expressed,  the  change  of  free  energy 
involved  in  a  reaction,  is  ascertained  either  by 
studying  reacting  mi.xtures  after  they  have 
reached  the  state  of  equilibrium,  or,  in  the  ease 
of  galvanic  combinations,  by  determining  the 
electromotive  force.  See  articles  Reaction, 
Chemical,  and  Acius. 

BiBLioGKAfiiY.  T.  Bergmann,  TraM  dcs 
aflinilcs  clii/tiiiiiiies  on  uttrdctions  electircs 
(Paris,  1788)  ;  C.  L.  Berthollet,  Researches  Into 
the  Laws  of  Chemical  Affinity  (translated  bv 
M.  Farrell,  Baltimore.  ISO!))  ;  C.  M.  Guldber'g 
and  P.  Waage.  Stmlini  iibcr  die  eheinischr  Af- 
fiiiitiit  (original  edition,  Christiania,  1804; 
French  translation,  Christiania,  1S07;  Oerman 
translatiim,  Leipzig,  187!)).  See  also  bibliogra- 
phy of  theoretical  chemistry  under  CuEMlSTItY. 

AFFOREST A'TION  (Lat.  ad,  to -f  Low 
Lat.  fuieula,  a  wood,  forest).  The  converting  of 
open  or  partially  wooded  ground  into  forest  or 
woodland.     See  Fore.sthy. 

AFFRAY'  ( Fr.  effroi,  fright,  terror,  compare 


AFGHAN. 

Engl,  afraid).  Tlie  fighting  of  two  or  more  per- 
sons in  a  j)ul)lic  place  in  such  a  manner  as  will 
natiirallv  cause  terror  to  other  people.  It  diflers 
from  assault  (q.v.)  in  that  it  must  occur  in  a 
public  place,  and  from  a  riot  (q.v.)  in  that  only 
two  persons  are  necessary  for  the  commission  of 
the  offense.  Two  persons  engaged,  although  in 
a  ]niblic  place,  must  each  be  guilty  of  unlawfully 
lighting  the  other  or  there  is  no  alTray.  Xo 
matter  how  publicly,  or  in  how  terror-breeding 
a  manner,  A  may  attack  B,  if  the  latter  does 
not  go  beyond  the  limits  of  self-defense  in  repel- 
ling the  attack,  the  occurrence  is  not  an  affray, 
but  an  assault.  An  affray  which  did  not  de- 
velop into  a  higher  crime,  such  as  homicide  or 
an  attack  upon  a  public  officer,  was  punishable 
at  common  law  by  fine  and  imprisonment.  In 
some  of  our  States  it  is  not  recognized  as  a 
separate  offense  from  assault  and  battery  (q.v.). 
Consult:  Wharton,  Criminal  Law  (Philadelphia,. 
IS!)!',). 

AFFRE,  afr',  Denis  Auguste  (1793-1848). 
An  arcliliishop  of  Paris.  At  the  time  of  the 
Restoration  he  was  professor  of  theologj'  at 
the  seminary  of  St.  Sulpice,  and  on  account 
of  his  |)rudent  and  tcm|icrate  character  was 
made  Archbishop  of  Paris  by  the  government 
of  Louis  Philippe  in  1840.  Though  not  yield- 
ing a  blind  submission  to  all  measures  of 
the  Government,  he  abstained  from  all  of- 
fensive opposition.  During  the  insurrection 
in  Paris  in  .Tune.  1848,  he  climbed  upon  a  barri- 
cade in  the  Place  de  la  Bastille,  carrying  a  green 
bough  in  his  hand  as  a  messenger  of  peace,  and 
sought  to  persuade  the  insurgents  to  lay  down 
their  arms.  He  had  scarcely  uttered  a  few  words 
when  the  insurgents  and  the  troops  commenced 
firing  again,  and  he  fell,  tnortally  wounded  by  a 
musket-ball.  He  was  removed  to  his  palace, 
where  he  died,  .Tune  27.  He  was  the  author  of 
several  theological  writings  and  of  a  work  on 
F.gyptian  hierogh'phics.  Consult :  Castan,  His- 
toire  (Ic  hi  ric  ct  dc  la  mort  dc  Monsignor  Affre 
(Paris,  1,S55). 

AFFREIGHT'MENT  (Lat.  ad,  to  +  Engl. 
frriijhl).  The  contract  of  a  shipowner  for  the 
carriage  of  goods  in  his  ship  for  compensation, 
or  freight.  The  shipper  is  technically  known  as 
the  freighter.  Where  the  freighter  ships  his 
goods  in  the  ordinary  way,  without  acquiring 
any  control  over  the  ship,  the  contract  is  a  bill 
of  lading  (q.v.),  and  the  rights  of  the  parties 
are  mainly  determined  by  the  laws  relating  to 
common  carriers.  (See  Carriek.  Common.) 
Where  the  freighter  charters  the  ship,  the  con- 
tract is  known  as  a  charter-party  (q.v.),  and 
has  certain  features,  and  is  subject  to  certain 
rules,  peculiar  to  the  law  of  shipping.  A  com- 
plete treatment  of  the  subject  will  be  found  in 
Scrutton,  The  Contract  of  .Ifjreightmcnt.  (t.s  Ex- 
pressed in  Charter  Parties  and  liills  of  Lading 
(London.   1S!)!1). 

AFFRONTE,  .affrun-td'  (Fr.  p.p.  "face  to 
face."  from  Lat.  ad  frontvm,  to  the  face).  In 
heraldry,  a  term  applied  to  animals  represented 
as  facing  the  spectator  directly,  as  the  lion  in 
the  royal  crest  of  Scotland. 

AFFU'SION,  or  Pourino,  Baptism  ry.  See 
Baptism. 

AFGHAN',  or  Pukiittt  (North  Afghan), 
or  Pu.SHTU  (South  Afghan).  A  modern  Iranian 
dialect  which  is  spoken  by  about  three  million 


AFGHAN. 


1G8 


AFGHANISTAN. 


people.  The  Afghan  language  is  divided  into 
two  great  dialects,  the  southern  and  the 
northern.  Tlie  differences  between  these  two  dia- 
lects are  ma  inly  phonological;  thus,  Noi'th  Afghan 
k)i.  j,  and  initial  c^  South  Afghan  sh,  zh,  k. 
The  Afghan  is  undoubtedly  an  Iranian  language, 
altliongli  it  has  suffered  many  corruptions,  es- 
pppially  in  its  vowel  system.  The  dialect  has 
many  foreign  loan-words,  chiefly  from  the  Per- 
sian, and  through  this  from  the  Arabic,  and 
from  the  Indian,  particularly  Sindhi.  The 
Afghan  literature  is  scanty  and  dates  only  from 
the  sixteenth  century.  The  ])oetry  is  copied 
closely  after  Persian  models,  although  there  ex- 
ists a  gieat  mass  of  popular  Afghan  songs  of  true 
Oriental  beauty.  Tlie  Frencir  scholar  J.  Dar- 
mcsteter  (1849-94)  made  a  collection  of  these. 
Reference  may  be  made  to  Geiger,  tiprache  der 
Afghancn.  in  Geiger  and  Kuhn's  (Iriiiidriss  der 
mtnischen  Philologie,  V.  1,  pt.  2,  201-230  (Strass- 
burg,  1898),  and  the  works  there  cited.  Con- 
sult: J.  Darmesteter,  Chants  poiniliiiies  des  Af- 
ghans (Paris,  1888-90),  the  most  convenient  book 
in  general,  which  contains  an  historical  sketcli,  a 
grammar,   texts,   and    translation. 

AFGHANISTAN,  af-gfin'is-tan'.  A  country 
in  Central  Asia.  Iietween  British  India  and  Per- 
sia. It  is  situated  between  lat.  29°  and  38°  30' 
N.,  and  long.  61°  and  75°  E.  (Map:  Afghanis- 
tan, J  4:  Asia,  F  5).  It  is  bounded  by  Russia. 
Bokhara,  and  the  Pamir  on  the  north,  Britisli 
India  on  the  east,  Baluchistan  on  tlie  south,  and 
Persia  on  the  west.  Its  total  area  is  estimated 
at  225,000  square  miles.  It  is  generally  divided 
into  five  parts:  (1)  The  nortlieastern  part,  com- 
prising Badakhshan,  Kafiristan,  and  a  portion  of 
the  Pamir:  (2)  Afghan  Turkestan,  in  the  nortli : 
(3)  Kabulistan,  or  the  region  of  Kabul,  in  the 
east;  (4)  Southern  Afghanistan,  which  com- 
prises Kandahar  and  the  country  south,  down  to 
the  Baluchistan  boundary  line;  (5)  the  province 
of  Herat,  in  the  west.  The  political  divisions  of 
Afghanistan,  however,  are  far  from  coinciding 
with  its  ethnographical  or  geographical  divisions, 
as  there  are  still  numerous  independent  khanates 
and  tribes  which  do  not  fully  recognize  tlie  au- 
thority of  the  Ameer. 

Physical  Features.  The  .surface  of  Afghan- 
istan is  exceedingly  mountainous,  a  great  part 
of  it  being  covered  with  the  mighty  chain  of 
Hindu-Kush  and  its  offshoots.  The  Hindu-Kush 
extends  in  a  northeast  and  southwest  direction 
for  about  400  miles  to  the  Irak  and  Shibar  passes, 
where  it  assumes  the  name  of  Koh-i-Baba.  Its 
highest  peaks  are  over  20,000  feet  al)ove  the  sea, 
and  the  passes  of  Irak  and  Shibar  on  the  route 
from  Afghan  Turkestan  to  Kabul  are  12.000  feet 
and  8000  feet  high  respectively.  The  Koh-i-Baba 
chain  brandies  off  into  two  ranges,  the  Safed- 
Koh  and  Siah-Koh.  Another  branch  is  sent  off 
by  the  Hindu-Kush  above  the  Sirak  Pass,  which 
is  called  the  Paghman  Mountains.  They  run  in 
a  soutliwestern  direction,  and  eventually  unite 
with  the  Suleiman  Mountains,  which  traverse 
the  eastern  part  of  Afglianistan.  Besides  the 
above  mentioned  principal  chains,  there  are  many 
secondary  ranges  and  single  mountains  too  nu- 
merous to  describe. 

The  principal  rivers  of  Afghanistan  are  the 
Heri-Rud,  which  flows  through  the  Herat  Valley; 
the  Helniand,  the  largest  river  of  Afghanistan, 
which  rises  near  the  Bamian  Valley  and  flows 
in  a  general  southwestern  direction,  entering  the 
Lake  of  Hamun;  the  Kabul,  a  tributary  of  the 


Indus,  and  the  Amu-Daria  (Oxus),  which  forma 
the  northern  boundary  of  Afghanistan. 

The  climate  is  generally  healthful  and  dry,  al- 
though there  are  great  variations  of  temperature, 
which  rises  as  high  as  100  degrees  in  tlie  summer 
and  falls  as  low  as  10  degrees  in  the  winter. 
The  rainfall  is  very  scanty,  even  during  the 
lainy  season,  and  for  agricultural  purposes  a 
system  of  irrigation,  called  karez,  is  maintained. 
It  consists  of  subterranean  channels  connecting 
the  springs  with  one  another,  by  which  the  water 
is  brought   to   the   surface. 

Tlie  mineral  deposits  of  Afghanistan  are  sup- 
posed to  be  very  rich,  but  so  far  the  expectations 
have  not  been  realized.  Iron,  lead,  and  sulphur 
are  worked  on  a  small  scale,  and  gold  is  found 
in  small  quantities  in  some  of  the  hills  and 
rivers,  wliile  precious  stones  are  known  to  exist 
in  Badakhshan. 

The  flora  is  very  rich  in  the  valleys,  while  the 
mountains  are  all  barren,  except  those  in  the 
north,  which  are  covered  with  forests  to  an  ele- 
vation of  10,000  feet.  The  main  products  are 
wheat,  corn,  rice,  grapes,  sugar,  tobacco,  and 
cotton.  The  country  is  especially  famous  for  its 
fruits,  which  include  ajiples,  pomegranates,  and 
peaches  of  an  excellent  quality.  Vegetables  are 
also  grown  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  a  very 
important  product  is  the  asafoetida.  a  resinous 
gum  exported  in  large  quantities  to  India. 

Tlie  fauna  includes  the  leopard,  wolf.  bear, 
cheeta,  hyena,  jackal,  various  gazelles,  and 
wild  asses."  Among  the  domestic  animals  may 
be  mentioned  the  liorse.  tlie  dromedary,  ass,  cow, 
two  kinds  of  sheep,  and  the  goat. 

Agriculture  ano  Traoe.  The  soil  of  Afghan- 
istan, where  it  is  fit  for  agriculture,  is  generally 
very  fertile  and  in  most  cases  yields  two  crops 
a  year.  Wheat,  barley,  peas,  and  beans  are  sown 
late  in  the  fall  and  ripen  in  the  summer,  while 
rice,  millet,  and  corn  are  sown  in  the  spring 
and  harvested  in  autumn.  The  breeding  of 
domestic  animals  is  carried  on  extensively, 
and  wool  forms  one  of  the  chief  exports  to  India. 
Owing  to  the  practical  absence  of  any  manufac- 
turing industries,  the  exports  of  Afghanistan 
are  confined  largely  to  raw  products,  such  as 
wool,  cattle,  silk,  and  dried  fruit.  Some  rugs, 
felts,  and  silk  articles  are  produced  on  a  small 
scale.  The  trade  is  chiefly  with  India  and  Bok- 
hai-a.  Tlie  mountainous  character  of  the  coun- 
try makes  the  use  of  wheeled  vehicles  in  most 
cases  impossible,  and  merchandise  is  usually  car- 
ried on  camelsor  ponies. 

Ethn'OGRAPIIY.  The  Afghans,  or  Pathans, 
speaking  a  language  called  Piikhtu,  or  Pushtu, 
form  three-fifths  of  the  population  of  Afghanis- 
tan. Tliey  are  of  mixed  ancestry,  althougli  the 
Indie  aflinities  of  their  language  indicate  a 
preponderance  of  Aryan  blood  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean stock.  They'  are  not  Semites,  as  some 
authorities  have  believed,  their  national  claim 
to  an  Israelitish  descent  being  an  afterthought 
based  upon  the  occasional  appearance  among 
them  of  .Jewish  traits.  Besides  a  dash  of  Sem- 
itic blood,  tliey  have  in  all  probability  inherited 
some  of  a  different  sort  from  the  earlier  inhabi- 
tants of  the  country,  who  may  have  been  akin  to 
the  Dravidians  of  India.  Among  the  principal 
tribes  are  the  Duranis  of  the  west  and  south, 
Ghilzais  in  the  east.and  theYusufzais  and  Afridis 
on  the  Indian  frontier.  Less  important  Afghan 
tribes  are  the  Swatis,  Waziris,  Kakars,  Khostis, 
etc.     Some  other  peoples  of  Afghanistan,  such  aa 


WPtftUiMT,    l»««i   B»   OODD,   >"*"  *   COMPWir. 


/"^ 


AFGHANISTAN. 


169 


AFGHANISTAN. 


flic  Tajiks.  Iliiiilkis,  Jats,  Aiiiiaks,  and  Hazaias 

I  Moii;;oliaiis» .  arc  not  Afjjliaiw.  wliilc  the  Kizil- 

'  I -Ill's     are     largely     Persianizeil     Turks.      The 

L'hans   were   already   well    estahlished    in    their 

■  sent  hahitat  when  the  Greeks  reached  India 
111  the  fourth  eentuiy  B.C.  Most  of  the  .Afghan 
:iiid    allied    peoples    are    ajrriciilturists.    but    the 

riinant  tribes  compel  the  inferior  ones  to  do 

■  work.   Physically  the  .Afghans  are  well   de- 
luped.  and   are  of  a   very   warlike  disposition. 

irly   all    the   tribes    scattered    alonjr   the   east 
.Vfjlhanistan    and    the    northwest    frontier    of 
India  are  within  the  sphere  of  British  influence. 
1  he  population,  according  to  the  statistics  avail- 
able, is  about  live  millions. 

GovERXMK.N'T.     The   government   of   .Afghanis- 
tan   is    a    semi-feudal    monarchy.     The    ruler    is 
known   as  the  .Ameer.     The  country   has  but  a 
liinse  governmental   organiz:itioii,  and  inlluenced 
liy  their  fanatical  devotion  to  Islam  of  the  .Sunni 
■1(1,  many  of  the  tribes   still   preserve  a   more 
less  turbulent  and  independent  existence.    The 
|rredntions  of  the  border  tribes  on   Indian  ter- 
iJlory  have  afforded  the   British   Indian  govern- 
liiiiit   excuse   and   opportunity   for   pushing    for- 
ward the  military  frontier.     The  warlike  .Afridis 
,iiid    a    considerable    proportion    of    the    I'athan 
I  lilies  are  now  under  British  control.     Frequent 
Kinllicts   occur   between    the    British    troops    sta- 
lled   on    the    northwest    frontier,    particularly 
~e   of   the    Pasliawar   district    in    the   Punjab, 
1  the  Pathan  and  .Afridi  tribes  of  .Afghanistan. 

■  latter   are   of   gieater   political   consequence 
ause  of  their  location,  the  importance  of  the 

Kliyber  Pass  to  India,  and  the  necessity  of  main- 
t  lining  a  clear  road  from  India  to  Kabul. 

I'lie  .Ameer  is  an  hereditary  prince,  and  his 
lower  is  absolute.  Tbe  whole  country  is  divided 
t"r  administrative  purposes  into  the  four  prov- 
inces of  Kabul.  Turkestan.  Herat,  and  Kandahar 
■  •■!  the  district  of  Badakhshan  and  its  dcpend- 

ies,   administered  by  governors.     The   native 

Ic  of  laws  is  more  or  less  equitable,  but  is  not 

si  1  ictly    enforced.     The    revenue    is    exacted    in 

kind,   and   varies   according   to   the   condition   of 

crops.     The   .Ameer  receives  an  annual  sub- 

>  of  1.800,000  rupees  from  the  Indian  govern- 
luiiil.  Afghanistan  has  a  regular  army  modeled 
after  European  fashion.  Its  slrenglh  is  not  ac- 
' mately   known,   but   it    is   estimated   at   44.000, 

iudiug  7000  cavalry.  There  is  an  arsenal,  and 
.immunition  factory  at  Kabul  is  equipped 
\iiih  English  machinery.  The  medium  of  ex- 
rlKinge  is  the  rupee.  There  is  a  mint  at  Kabul 
under  the  supervision  of  an  Englishman,  but  its 
operation  is  very  limited.  Instruction  is  sup- 
plied by  the  Mohammedan  schools.  The  chief 
cities  of  Afghanistan  are  Kabul.  Kandahar,  and 
Herat.  Among  the  towns  of  Afghan  Turkestan 
are  Baikh,  Kunduz,  Maimene,  Andkhui,  Tash- 
kiusran,  Aktcha,  and  Mezar-i-Sherif. 

History.  The  country  now  known  as  .Afghan- 
i-i:in  was  embraced  in  the  ancient  .Aria.  It  was 
a  part  of  the  conquests  of  .Alexander  the  Great, 
who  founded  Alexandria  .Arion.  the  modern  Her- 
at, and  also,  it  is  supposed,  the  modern  Kanda- 
har and  a  settlement  near  Kabul.  Its  niastera 
changed  many  times  in  the  waves  of  conquest 
that  rolled  over  .Asia.  On  the  decline  of  the 
Bagdad  caliphate  it  was  included  in  the  domains 
of  the  Samanidcs,  one  of  the  many  indc|iendeiit 
dynasties  that  then  arose  in  the  Mohammedan 
world.  The  Samanide  princes  were  overthrown 
by  a  Turkish  tribe,  who  founded  the  Ghaznevide 
Vol.  I.— 13. 


dynastj-,  and  Afghanistan  was  a  part  of  their 
realm  until  the  fall  of  the  (ihaznevidcs  in  11H.3. 
It  was  overrun  by  the  conquering  Mongols  of 
(ienghis  Khan  in  the  first  ijuartcr  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  and  in  the  last  quarter  of  the 
fourteenth  it  was  subjugated  by  the  great  Tar- 
tar conqueror  Timur.  In  1504  Baber,  a  de- 
scendant of  Tiniur  and  founder  of  the  Mogul 
empire,  made  Kabul  his  first  capital,  and -Afghan- 
istan remained  a  part  of  that  empire  until  its 
decline.  In  1722  Mahmud,  an  .Afghan  chief- 
tain, invaded  Persia,  captured  Ispahan,  and 
dealt  a  permanent  blow  to  the  prosperity  of  that 
famous  capital:  but  a  few  years  later  the 
Afghans  were  defeated  and  driven  out  by  Nadir 
Kuli,  a  Persian  soldier  of  fortune,  who  became 
by  his  great  ability  Shah  of  Persia,  and  the  last 
of  the  conquerors  of  Afghanistan.  -After  the 
assassination  of  Nadir  Shah  (1747),  one  of  his 
ollicers,  Ahmed  (see  -Ahmed  Siiah),  founded 
the  Durani  dynasty  in  .Afghanistan,  and  that 
country  has  since  maintained  an  independent 
existence.  Ahmed  made  considerable  conquests 
in  India,  and  maintained  a  mastery  over  the 
Sikhs  and  Mahrattas,  but  established  no  per- 
manent sovereignty.  The  Durani  djTiasty  fell 
in  1809,  and  Shah  Sujah,  the  grandson  of  Ahmed, 
became  an  exile. 

I'pon  the  fall  of  Shah  Sujah  anarchy  ensued, 
a  condition  not  unfamiliar  to  the  warlike  and 
restless  Afghan  tribes.  In  l<S2(i  the  statesman- 
like Dost  Mohammed  succeeded  in  establisliing 
his  authority  as  Ameer  over  the  turbulent  peo- 
ple. Shah  Sujah  from  his  asylum  in  India  car- 
ried on  intrigues  for  the  restoration  of  his  sov- 
ereignty, and  succeeded  in  making  an  alliance 
with  Kunjeet  Singh,  the  Sikh  ruler.  A  small 
subsidy  was  also  obtained  from  the  .\nglo-Indian 
government,  and  Afghanistan  was  invaded.  The 
only  result  was  to  involve  the  -Afghans  and  the 
Sikhs  in  unprofitable  warfare,  while  .Sujah  soon 
returned  to  India.  When  Lord  -Auckland  became 
Governor-General  of  India,  he  declared  a  policy 
of  non-interference  in  ([Uestions  concerning  the 
native  .states:  but  in  direct  contradiction  of  this 
declaration,  in  1838  his  government  actually 
undertook  to  restore  Sujah,  alleging  that  Dost 
Mohammed  had  attacked  Great  Britain's  ally, 
Huniect  Singh:  an  allaik.  it  may  be  noted,  for 
which  there  had  certainly  been  reason  enough. 
It  was  further  alleged  that  the  military  opera- 
tions of  the  .\fghans  had  betrayed  a  hostile  pur- 
pose toward  India;  and  that  Shah  Sujah,  as  the 
rightful  heir  to  the  Afghan  throne,  had  placed 
himself  under  British  protection.  The  British 
forces  advanced  through  the  Bolan  Pass  to  Kan- 
dahar, where  Shah  Sujah  formally  claimed  pos- 
session of  the  country.  On  .July  21.  1839,  the 
army  encamped  before  Ghazni.  and  ;ifter  some 
hard  fighting  that  fortress  was  taken.  On  Au- 
gust 7,  Shah  Sujah,  with  the  British  forces,  en- 
tered Kabul,  and  the  conquest  was  regarded  as 
complete. 

In  this,  however,  as  in  all  their  dealings  with 
the  Afghans,  the  British  showed  an  entire  mis- 
understanding of  the  nature  of  the  country  and 
the  character  of  the  people.  The  land  had  been 
invaded,  hut  was  by  no  means  conquered.  Dost 
Mohammed  had  surrendered  to  the  ICnglish  ;  but 
his  son.  .Akbar  Khan,  was  actively  engaged  in  a 
conspiracy,  of  which  the  British  envoy.  Sir  Wil- 
liam Alacnaghten.  and  his  successor.  Sir  -Alexan- 
der Burnes,  were  not  aware  until  it  was  too  late. 
Early   in   the  winter   of   1841,   when   help   from 


AFGHANISTAN. 


170 


AFGHANISTAN. 


India  was  impossible,  the  outbreak  took  place 
at  Kabul.  Burnes,  Maenaghten,  and  several 
British  officers  were  slain.  It  was  then  agreed 
that  the  invaders  should  leave  the  country ; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  Akbar  Khan  and  his 
confederates  stipulated  to  provide  an  escort  and 
make  other  necessary  arrangements  for  the  re- 
treat. Depending  on  these  promises,  the  British 
army  left  Kabul  on  January  6,  1842,  in  order 
to  return  by  the  Khyber  Pass  into  India ;  but 
neither  escort  nor  provisions  were  supplied  by 
the  Afghan  leaders,  and  the  severity  of  the  sea- 
son increased  the  misery  of  the  retreat.  Tiie 
fanatical  tribes  of  the  districts  harassed  the 
flanks  and  rear  of  the  army.  To  escape  total 
destruction,  the  women  and  children,  together 
with  the  married  men,  surrendered  to  Akbar 
Khan,  and  out  of  the  Ki.OOO  souls  that  had  set 
out  from  Kabul,  only  one  man  (Dr.  Brydon)  es- 
caped to  carry  the  dismal  tidings  to  General  Sale, 
who  still  lield  his  position  at  Jelalabad.  Almost 
against  liis  own  will,  the  new  Governor-General, 
Lord  Ellenborough,  sent  other  forces  into 
Afghanistan.  General  Nott  held  out  at  Kanda- 
har, while  General  Pollock,  at  the  head  of  the 
invading  army,  forced  the  Khyber  Pass,  relieved 
General  Sale,  and  eflfected  a  victorious  march  to 
Kabul,  which  he  entered  in  .September.  The 
English  officers  and  the  women  wlio  had 
surrendered  as  prisoners  to  Akbar  Khan  were 
restored  to  liberty,  and  soon  afterward  the  troops 
marched  back  to  India.  It  was  believed  that 
the  Afghans  were  deprived  of  all  power  to  con- 
federate against  the  government  of  India ;  but 
this  conclusion  was  too  hastv.  for  in  1846  they 
formed  an  alliance  with  the  Sikhs  against  the 
British,  Dost  Moliammed  being  released  and 
permitted  to  reoccupy  his  throne.  After  the 
decisive  battle  of  Gujerat  (February  21,  1849), 
the  Sikhs  were  forsaken  bv  the  Afghans,  and  Dost 
Mohammed,  with  about  10,000  men,  fled  over  the 
Indus.  After  this  period.  Dost  Mohammed  devot- 
ed his  attention  almost  exclusively  to  the  consoli- 
dation of  his  dominions,  governing  well,  and  al- 
ways seeking  to  maintain  friendly  relations  with 
the  Anglo-Indian  government.  He  died  in  1863, 
appointing  Shere  Ali,  one  of  his  younger  sons, 
as  his  heir.  At  first  the  choice  was  acquiesced 
in  by  the  sixteen  sons  of  Dost  Mohammed,  a 
large  number  of  whom  were  governors  of  prov- 
inces; but  disputes  followed,  which  for  many 
years  kept  Afghanistan  in  a  state  of  anarchy. 
(See  K.\Bi'L.)  The  British  government  of  India 
had  recognized  Shere  Ali  at  his  accession,  and  it 
was  the  policy  of  Lord  Lawrence's  administration 
in  India  to  abstain  from  any  interference  with 
Afghan  affairs.  Lord  Ma.yo  assumed  a  like 
attitude.  The  claims  of  Shere  All's  son  Yakub 
to  share  in  the  government  were  ignored,  and 
in  1870  he  headed  a  rebellion  against  his  father: 
but  in  the  following  year  a  reconciliation  was 
effected  through  the  intervention  of  England. 
In  1860  it  was  settled  between  England  and  Rus- 
sia that  all  the  territory  between  the  Amu- 
Daria  and  the  Hindu-Kush  should  be  treated 
as  part  of  Afghanistan.  The  British  conserva- 
tive governnu'nt  whicli  came  into  power  in 
1874  was  totally  opposed  to  the  policy  of  non- 
interference, and  the  Indian  government  was 
ordered  to  insist  upon  the  reception  of  a  British 
resident  at  Kabul.  This  demand  was  made  im- 
peratively in  1878,  when  a  Russian  mission  had 
been  received.  The  Afghans,  remembering 
Burnes  and  Maenaghten  and  their  double  deal- 


ing, were  bitterly  opposed  to  any  more  British 
residents,  and  the  refusal  of  the  Ameer  to  receive 
the  mission  led  to  tlie  second  Afghan  war,  which 
in  many  ways  was  a  repetition  of  the  first, 
althougli  the  disasters  were  somewhat  mitigated. 
The  British  invading  columns  forced  the  Khvber 
Pass  and  were  victorious  at  tlie  Peiwar  Pass, 
and  occupied  Jelalabad  before  the  end  of  1878. 
In  Jaunar.y.  1879,  they  entered  Kandahar.  A 
few  weeks  later  Shere  Ali  died,  and  his  rebel- 
lious son.  Yakub.  whose  cause  had  been  taken  up 
by  the  British,  was  proclaimed  Ameer  and  con- 
cluded theTreaty  of  Gandamak  with  them  in  May, 
It  was  provided  that  tliere  should  be  a  British 
resident  at  Kabul,  and  that  Great  Britain  should 
defend  Afghanistan  against  foreign  aggression, 
the  .\meer  receiving  a  subsidy.  The  Kurani, 
Pishin.  and  Sibi  valleys  became  British  terri- 
torv,  and  the  Kli.vber  Pass  came  under  British 
control. 

The  peace  did  not  last.  In  September  of  the 
same  year  there  was  a  revolt  in  the  capital,  the 
Britisli  resident.  Sir  Louis  Cavagnari,  and  his 
suite  were  murdered,  and  the  British  troops, 
which  were  on  the  point  of  withdrawing  from  the 
country,  were  compelled  to  renew  the  campaign. 
The  Kabul  army  under  General  Roberts  was  the 
strongest  column  and  held  the  key  to  the  situa- 
tion. General  Burrows  was  defeated  by  the 
Afghans  in  July,  1880,  and  compelled  to  retreat 
to  Kandahar,  which  seemed  likely  to  be  captured. 
It  was  saved  by  the  brilliant  march  of  General 
Roberts  with  a  strong  force  from  the  main  army, 
a  march  which  won  for  him  a  peerage  with  the 
title  Lord  Roberts  of  Kandahar.  Abd-ur-Rah- 
man  (q.v. )  having  been  accepted  as  Ameer  by 
the  Afghan  chiefs,  was  recognized  by  Great  Brit- 
ain. He  soon  established  his  government  firmly, 
and  maintained,  until  his  death  in  1901,  a  good 
understanding  with  Great  Britain,  while  not 
antagonizing  Russia.  His  son  Habib  Ullah  suc- 
ceeded him.  A  treaty  with  Great  Britain  in 
1893  gave  Kafiristan  to  Afghanistan,  which 
.renounced  its  claims  to  Waziristan.  Afghan- 
istan is  politically  important  in  the  present  con- 
dition of  Asia  as  a  buffer  State  between  the  two 
great  rivals,  Russia  and  Great  Britain,  and  as 
one  of  the  barriers  between  Russian  Central  Asia 
and  the  southern  sea. 

There  is  a  voluminous  literature  of  descrip- 
tion, travels,  and  political  discussion  relating  to 
Afglianistan,  and  several  personal  narratives 
of  the  British  campaigns  have  been  published. 
For  ethnology,  see  Bellew,  Races  of  Afghanistan 
(London,  1880),  and  Oliver,  Pathan  and  Bilork 
(London.  1890).  Among  the  more  useful  works 
on  the  history  of  the  country  maj'  be  noted: 
Malleson,  History  of  Afghanistan  (London, 
1879)  :  Mir  Bukhari  Abd  a'l  Karim,  Histoirc  rlc 
I'Asie  ccntrale:  Afghanistan,  Bnukhura,  Khira, 
Kliofjuand,  17-iO-lSlS,  translated  bv  Schefcr 
(Paris.  1876);  Wheeler,  A  Short  Historr/  of 
India  and  of  the  Frontier  States  of  Afghanistan 
(London.  1880)  ;  Grant,  CasseU's  Illustrated  His- 
tnrii  of  India  (Volumes  I.  and  II.,  London.  1877)  : 
Lord  Roberts,  Fnrti/-nine  Years  in  IndiaCLondou. 
1897)  ;  Forbes,  The AfqhanWars  (London. \fii^2)  : 
Hanna.  The  Second  '  Afghan.  War,  1S78-18S0, 
Volume  I.  (London,  1899)  ;  Bellew,  Afghanistan 
and  the  Afghans  (London.  1879),  and  Walker, 
Afghanistan  (London,  1885),  a  somewliat  preju- 
diced Englisli  view.  On  .\fghanistan  as  a  buffer 
State  between  Russia  and  Great  Britain  in  Asia : 
ISIarvin.    The   Russians    at    the   Gates    of   Herat 


AFGHANISTAN. 


171 


AFRICA. 


(New  York,  ISS.")):  1;oi1i'm1hiiil;Ii.  lfgha)iisl(iH 
and  llie  Ani/lo-Uussiaii  Diximlc  ( Xew  York, 
1885),  which  coiituiiis  a  list  of  autlioiities ;  t'ur- 
zon,  Russia  in  Central  Asia  (London,  18!)!) |, 
which  contains  a  bibliography ;  ('oU|uhoun,  Rus- 
sia Againxl  India  (New  York,  1!)0()).  Consult 
also:  MacMrthon,  The  Southern  Borderlands  of 
Afghanistan  (London,  1S!)7):  Gray,  At  the 
Court  of  the  Amrcr  (London.  180.5)  :  and  Gore, 
Lighta  and  Hhndcs  of  Hill  Life  in  the  Afghan 
and  Hindu  Highlands  of  the  Punjab  (London, 
1  SOI) ) . 

AFINGER,  •i'fin';-er.  11i:umiai:i)  (1813-82). 
A  Gcrnuiii  sculptor,  born  at  Xuicuibcrg.  Bavaria. 
He  studied  the  works  of  old  (icruuui  sculpture 
thcMe.  was  for  a  time  a  silversmith,  and  in  1840 
began  instr\icti(m  under  Ranch  at  Berlin.  In 
pcntrait  medallions  and  works  of  a  religious 
character  he  was  particularly  successful.  There 
i-  an  -Arndt  memorial  by  him  at  Bonn,  a  univer- 
-ily  memorial  at  Oreifswald,  and  a  statue  of 
.\i  wton  in  the  National  Museum,  Pesth. 

AFITJN  -  KARA  -  HISSAR.  a'ff-uTTn'ka-rJl'- 
liis-siir'  (Turk.,  Opium  Black  Castle).  A  city  of 
Anatolia.  Asiatic  Turkey,  170  miles  northeast 
of  Smyrna  (Map:  Turkey  in  Asia,  D  3).  It  is 
surrounded  by  rocky  hills,  on  one  of  which  are 
found  the  ruins  of  a  castle.  The  town  contains 
several  mosq\ies  and  Armenian  churehes.  Tt 
numufactures  woolen  carpets  and  opium,  the 
latter  being  one  of  the  chief  articles  of  connnerce, 
from  which  the  town  derives  its  name.  The 
trade  is  considerable.  The  town  is  connected 
by  rail  with  Smyrna,  Constantinople,  and  Ko- 
nieh.     Pop.,   about  20,000. 

AFRAGOLA,  ii'fra-go'lii.  A  city  in  south 
Italy,  live  miles  northeast  of  Naples,  noted  for 
the  manufacture  of  straw  goods.  Pop.,  1881, 
10.000. 

AFRA'NIUS,  Lucirs.  A  Pvonian  poet  and 
I)lnywrij;lit.  who  lived  about  100  B.C.  He  was 
praised  by  Cicero  and  Quintilian  for  the  excel- 
lence of  his  plays,  only  tlie  titles  and  a  few 
fragments  of  which  survive.  They  are  collected 
by  Rihbeck,  Comicorum  Itomanurum  Fraginvntu 
(Leipzig,   1S98). 

AF'RICA  (Lat.  Africa,  from  .l/tr,  inhaljitant 
of  Africa:  of  uncertain  derivation,  possibly  of 
Phoenician  origin.  It  seems  to  have  been  origin- 
ally the  designation  of  Carthage,  as  the  colony 
ot  Tyre,  and  later  extended  to  the  whole  con- 
tinent. It  is  certain  thai  the  name  Africa  was 
first  applied  to  the  neighborho(jd  of  Carthage — 
the  part  lir^t  known  to  tli(!  Romans — and 
Afrggali,  or  Afrikii/ali,  is  still  applied  by  the 
Arabs  to  the  land  of  Tunis).  A  continent  of 
the  enst(-rn  hemisphere,  an<l  in  point  of  size  the 
second  of  the  great  land  divisions  of  the  globe, 
with  an  area  of  about  ll,2o0.000  square  miles,  ex- 
clusive of  island-;.  The  contiiUMit  ranks  third  in 
size  only  by  virtue  of  an  unwarranted  composite 
naming  of  tlie  American  continents,  .\frica  is  an 
in<lcppndent  continent  in  even  less  desree  than  is 
either  of  the  two  .Vmericas.  for  it  forms  the  south- 
westerly exlensidu  of  (he  Old  World  land-mass, 
and  it  lies  in  close  proximity  to  .\sia  and  Europe, 
with  both  of  which  continents  it  has.  during  long 
periods  of  past  geological  time,  been  intimately 
united  by  broad  isthmuses.  In  form  Africa  con- 
sists of  two  parts,  a  northern  ellipsoid,  with  an 
east  and  west  longitudinal  axis,  comprising  the 


Sahara-Sudan  region,  and  a  southern  triangular 
limb  attached  to  tlie  southern  side  of  the  ea-terii 
half  of  the  northern  portion,  anil  consisting  of 
the  Congo  region  and  the  South  African  high- 
lands. Somewhat  north  of  the  middle  point  of  the 
eastern  side  of  the  continent,  a  massive  triangu- 
lar projection,  the  Somali  Peninsula,  extends  al- 
most 1000  miles  toward  the  Indian  Peninsula  of 
Asia.  The  extreme  length  of  .\frica  from  Cape 
Blanco  in  Tunis  (lat.  37°  20'  N. ),  its  most  north- 
erlv  ])oint,  to  its  southern  termination.  Ca])e 
.\gulhas  (lat.  34°  .51'  S.),  is  about  5000  miles  in 
an  almost  north  and  south  direction;  and  its 
greatest  width  from  its  western  outpost.  Cape 
Verde  (long.  17°  30'  ^Y.),  to  its  eastern  apex, 
Ras  Hafun,  on  Cape  Guardafui  (long.  51°  2S' 
E.),  is  about  4500  miles  in  an  almost  west  and 
east  direction.  The  northern  and  southern  points 
of  the  continent  are  almost  equidistant  from 
the  equator:  so  that  -Xfrica.  compared  with 
South  America,  has  a  greater  proportion  of  its 
area  situated  in  the  torrid  zone. 

At  its  northeast  corner,  by  the  Isthmus  of  ^ 
Suez,  Africa  has  a  geographic  unicui  ninety  miles 
wide  with  Asia.  Until  a  comparatively  recent  pe- 
riod it  had  a  much  closer  union,  for  the  Red  Sea 
and  the  Gulf  of  Aden  now  occupy  the  deep,  narrow 
basin  of  a  rift  valley  that  has  l)een  formed  since 
Pliocene  time.  On  the  north,  th(>  Mediterranean 
Sea  separates  Africa  from  Europe  by  a  wide  and 
deep  basin  that  is  restricted  at  its  western  end, 
so  that  the  shores  of  Sjiain  and  Morocco  ap- 
proach to  within  about  nine  miles  of  each  other. 
This  northern  Jlediterranean  coast  is  broken 
only  by  the  broad  and  shallow  embaynient  that 
holds  the  gulfs  of  Cabes  and  vSidra.  The  west- 
ern extension,  from  Gibraltar  to  Cape  Palmas, 
projects  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean  with  a  regular- 
ly rounded  coast  line  that  is  almost  unbroken  by 
bays  or  peninsulas,  capes  Blanco  and  Ycrde  being 
inconspicuous  projections.  From  Cape  Palmas 
the  coa.st  runs  eastward  along  the  north  shore 
of  the  Gulf  of  Guinea  for  about  1200  miles  to 
Kamerun  and  thence  in  an  undulating  line, slight- 
ly east  of  south,  for  nearly  .'iOOO  miles  to  Cape 
Agulhas  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  conti- 
nent, where  the  Atlantic  and  Indian  oceans  meet. 
The  eastern  coast  of  the  soutliern  limb,  washed 
liy  the  Indian  Ocean,  exicnrls  from  Cape  Agulhas 
with  gentle  curves  for  3000  miles  to  Cape  Guar- 
dafui at  the  apex  of  the  Somali  Peninsula. 

The  coast  line  of  Africa  is  peculiar  in  that 
it  presents  a  remarkably  even  front,  almost  un- 
broken by  bays  and  peninsulas,  contrasting 
strongly  in  this  respect  with  the  coast  lines  of 
Europe,  Asia,  and  North  .\merica,  but  resembling 
that  of  South  .\nierica.  The  length  of  the  coast 
line  of  Africa,  18,400  miles,  bears  a  smaller 
proportion  to  the  shortest  possible  periphery  of 
a  regular  figure  of  its  own  area  (the  proportion 
is  1.8  to  1 )  than  does  that  of  any  other  continent. 
The  only  irregular  portion  of  the  coast  line  is 
on  the  northern  edge,  where  the  Atlas  Mountains 
send  spurs  into  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  This 
regularity  of  the  shore  line  is  undoubtedly  due 
to  the  plateau  character  and  the  stability  of  the 
larger  part  of  the  continent,  which  during  great 
periods  of  geidogieal  time  has  stood  emergi'd 
at  a|)proxiniately  the  same  level  above  the  ocean. 

I.si.ANDs.  In  connectimi  with  the  regularity 
of  the  coast  line,  it  is  of  interest  to  note  the 
small  number  of  islands  adjacent  to  this  conti- 
nent, and  also  the  small  ])ro])ortion  of  these  (liat 
have  any  physical  relations  with  the  mainland. 


APB.ICA. 


172 


AFRICA. 


Madagascar,  off  the  eastern  coast,  is  the  only 
large  island  near  the  continent ;  it  was  at  a  dis- 
tant period  of  geological  time  an  integral  part 
of  the  mainland,  but  it  is  now  separated  from  it 
by  the  Jlozamhique  Channel,  which  appears  to 
be  a  rift  valley  analogous  to  that  of  the  Red 
Sea.  The  Seychelles,  the  islands  in  the  vicinity 
of  Zanzibar  (Mafia,  Zanzibar,  and  Pemba),  and 
Socotra,  off  the  apex  of  the  Somali  Peninsula, 
may  be  considered  as  fragments  of  the  conti- 
nental mass,  while  many  of  the  small  islands 
along  the  east  coast,  including  those  in  the  Red 
Sea,  arc  of  volcanic  and  coral  reef  origin,  and 
rise  apparently  from  submerged  portions  of  the 
continental  plateau.  On  the  Mediterranean 
coast  the  islands  of  Djei'ba  and  Kerkinah  in  the 
Gulf  of  Cabes  were  formerly  united  to  the  main- 
land, and  in  past  geological  times  even  the  island 
of  Sicily  was  part  of  a  chain  of  folded  movm- 
tains  that  extended  from  the  Tunisian  highlands 
northeastwardly  across  the  ilediterranean  Sea. 
Off  the  western  extension,  tlie  Madeira,  Canary, 
and  Cape  Verde  archipelagoes  are  of  volcanic 
origin,  and  appear  to  lie  on  the  outer  submerged 
slope  of  the  continent,  perhaps  marking  lines 
of  folding  and  fracture  that  are  extended  under 
the  ocean  level.  The  Bissagos  group,  thirty  in 
number,  lying  a  short  distance  south  of  Cape 
Verde,  are  small  fragments  of  the  mainland. 
From  the  Bissagos  group,  the  coast  is  free  from 
islands  as  far  as  the  head  of  the  Bight  of  Biafra, 
where  four  volcanic  islands.  Fernando  Po,  Prince, 
St.  Thomas,  and  Annobon.  extend  in  a  southwest- 
ward  direction  from  ilount  Karaerun  on  the 
coast.  Southward  from  this  point  the  coast  has 
but  few  islands,  and  tliefe  of  small  size,  all  the 
way  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope ;  and  this  same 
condition,  in  even  more  marked  degree,  is  con- 
tinued along  the  eastern  coast  for  2500  miles  to 
the  island  of  ilafia.  The  small  extent  of  Africa's 
island  territory  is  expressed  by  its  proportion  to 
the  mainland  area,  which  is  as  1  to  48. 

TopoGKAPHT.  The  typical  expression  of  Afri- 
can topography  is  that  of  a  plateau  that  rises 
here  and  there  by  successive  terraces  to  increas- 
ing elevations  up  to  and  beyond  4000  feet,  which 
altitude  is  the  general  level  of  the  highland  re- 
gion that  covers  a  large  part  of  the  southern  and 
eastei'n  portion  of  the  continent.  The  edges 
of  the  continental  mass  are  as  a  rule  somewhat 
more  elevated  than  is  the  interior,  and  the  pla- 
teau rims  approach  close  to  the  sea.  Only  along 
the  eastern  part  of  the  Mediterranean  shore  and 
along  that  part  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard  between 
Cape  Jjiby,  near  the  Canaries,  and  FrectowTi, 
can  there  be  said  to  exist  a  coastal  plain  that 
extends  for  any  considerable  distance  toward 
the  interior.  Swampy  districts  of  limited  extent 
are  found  along  the  upper  Guinea  shore  and  on 
the  east  coast  a))Out  the  mouths  of  the  Zambezi 
River,  and  a  lowland  borders  the  soiith  side  of 
the  Somali  Peninsula.  The  mean  elevation  of 
Africa,  obtained  by  a  reduction  of  all  irregulari- 
ties of  the  surface,  has  been  estimated  to  be  about 
2100  feet,  which  is  about  equal  to  that  of  South 
America  and  somewhat  less  than  that  of  North 
America,  while  it  is  greatly  exceeded  by  the  mean 
elevation  of  the  Eurasiatic  continent. 

The  topography  of  the  interior  presents  over 
large  areas  a  marked  uniformity  of  expression, 
though  different  regions  exliibit  distinctive  fea- 
tures. The  genei-al  plateau  character  of  the 
surface  is  broken  in  the  interior  of  the  continent 
by  four  areas  of  depression  which  in  the  south 


and  north  are  occupied  by  basins  of  internal 
drainage.  In  the  southern  highland  is  the  Ka- 
lahari-Ngami  Desert  (altitude  22:iO-.3000  feet): 
the  central  plateau  falls  toward  its  middle  to 
form  the  Congo  Basin  (altitude  000-1000  feet)  : 
in  the  central  Sudan  the  Lake  Chad  ( altitude 
900  feet)  and  Bodele  (altitude  .500  feet)  depres- 
sions receive  the  drainage  of  a  great  interior 
region  that  has  no  outlet  to  the  sea :  and  in  the 
northwestern  Sahara  several  inclosed  basins  He 
at  altitudes  of  from  400  to  000  feet  above  the 
ocean. 

Africa  is  divided  topographically  into  the  fol- 
lowing regions:  (1)  the  elevated  Southeastern 
Highlands.  (2)  the  Sahara  and  Sudan  plateau  of 
lower  level  that  covers  the  entire  central  and 
most  of  the  northern  part  of  the  continent,  and 
(3)  the  narrow,  comparatively  small  area  of  the 
Atlas  Mountains  on  the  extreme  northwest  coast. 
On  the  whole,  the  general  slope  of  the  surface 
is  from  the  southeast  to  the  northwest. 

The  highest  portions  of  the  continent,  called 
the  Southeastern  Highlands,  lie  near  tlie  eastern 
coast  and  in  the  lower  end  of  the  southern  limb. 
Tliey  are  limited  on  the  north  by  an  irregular 
line  that  may  be  drawn  from  Loanda  on  the  west 
coast,  at  the  mouth  of  the  River  Kuanza,  east- 
ward to  Ankoro  on  the  Upper  Congo,  thence 
northward  to  Baruma,  and  through  Lado  and 
Kassala  to  Suakin  on  the  Red  Sea.  Northward 
from  Suakin  the  eastern  highland  is  continued 
as  a  narrow  ridge  of  lower  elevation  along  the 
western  shore  of  the  Reil  Sea  almost  to  Cairo. 
Tliis  great  liighland  region  may  be  topographical- 
ly considered  to  form  the  backbone  of  the  conti- 
nent, though  it  is  scarcely  that  in  a  geologic 
sense,  for  the  rocks  of  which  it  is  composed  lie 
generally  horizontal,  and  the  differences  of  topog- 
raphy are  the  result  of  long  continued  erosion 
and  denudation  rather  than  of  mountain-making 
forces.  This  highland  has  an  elevation  of  over 
4000  feet,  and  above  this  heiglit  rise  numerous 
isolated  and  grouped  peaks  to  altitudes  of  10,000 
feet  and  over.  The  niajoritj'  of  these  high  peaks 
are  remnants  of  a  dissected  plateau  of  still  high- 
er level,  while  others  are  volcanic  mountains 
that  rest  upon  the  table-land  and  rise  above  it  to 
still  greater  heights  of  from  12.000  to  20,000 
feet.  The  central  depression  of  the  Kalahari 
Desert  and  Ngaini  Basin  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  highland,  and  the  deep  valleys  cut  by  the 
rivers  that  drain  this  interior  basin,  serve  to 
divide  this  southern  region  into  four  well-marked 
isolated  plateaus.  The  most  southerly  plateau 
occupies  the  Cape,  Natal,  Orange  River,  and 
Transvaal  colonies,  and  their  seaward  edges, 
known  as  the  Roggeveld,  Schnee,  Zwarte,  and 
Drakenberg  mountains,  rise  in  single  peaks  of 
9000  to  11,000  feet.  North  of  the  Transvaal, 
between  the  Limpopo  and  the  Zambezi  valleys, 
is  the  less  extensive  ])Iateau  of  Matabcleland. 
with  an  average  level  of  4-500  feet  and  a  single 
peak  (Mashona  Mountain.  7300  feet),  near  its 
eastern  edge.  On  the  western  side  of  the  conti- 
nent, between  the  Kalahari-Ngami  Basin  and  the 
Atlantic  coast  is  the  plateau  of  German  West 
Africa,  covering  Damara  and  Great  Namaqua- 
land.  This  plateau  rises  to  somewhat  lesser  sin- 
gle heights  than  does  the  plateau  of  British 
South  Africa:  Kara  (0500  feet).  A  was  (G530 
feet),  and  Omatoka  (8700  feet).  Northward  of 
all  these,  and  extending  from  west  to  east 
through  Angola  and  British  Central  Africa  to 
the   vieinitv   of   lakes    Nyassa   and   Tanganyika, 


HighlaaJs,  above  i.ooo  Feet  elevation,  are  shown  in  Buff. 


AFRICA. 


173 


AFBICA. 


where  it  joins  the  srent  eastern  liifrhland,  is  a 
broad  platenii  750  miles  wide  from  north  to 
south  and  ir>no  miles  from  west  to  east,  with  a 
general  elevation  of  3000  to  (iOOO  feet.  This 
forms  the  divide  l>etwecn  the  Xganii  and  Zambezi 
basins  on  the  south  and  the  t'onfio  waters  on  the 
iiurth,  and  has  its  highest  points  on  the  west 
end  in  ihe  plateau  of  Bihe  (Lovili  Jlountains, 
7S00  feet),  and  at  the  eastern  end  in  the  plateau 
mountain  of  Chitane  (O.jOO  feet)  near  Nyassa 
Lake.  Toward  the  south  it  slopes  gradually  to 
the  Ngami  and  Zambezi  basins,  and  toward  the 
north  it  falls  more  abruptly  to  the  Congo  region. 
Ivear  the  eastern  end  are  two  lakes,  Moero  or 
Sleni  (30011  feet),  and  Bangweolo  (3700  feet), 
that  drain  into  the  Upper  Congo  River. 

Stretiliing  northward  from  the  Zambezi  River 
to  the  Red  Sea  is  that  great  eastern  highland 
which  attains  its  most  extensive  development 
just  south  of  the  equator  in  the  region  about  the 
Vietoria  Nyanza.  Through  a  large  part  of  its 
extent  this  liighlaiid  maintains  an  elevation  of 
over  .lOOO  feet,  which  in  Abyssinia  rises  over 
consideralile  areas  to  heights  of  six.  eight,  and 
ten  thousand  feet.  The  main  highland  extends 
northward  nearly  to  Suakin.  and  a  narrow, 
intorru])ted  spur  reaches  eastward  from  lakes 
Abba  and  Zuway  to  the  apox  of  the  Somali  Pen- 
insula, with  peaks  declining  in  height  from 
Mount  >rulata  (08-10  feet)  to  Godobb  ( 4875  feet) 
at  Cape  (iuardafiii.  Tlie  surface  of  this  eastern 
highland  is  traversed  longitudinally  by  a  great 
system  of  so-called  rift-valle.vs  that  constitute 
the  most  important  feature  of  Kast. African  topog- 
raph.v.  'ind  with  which  is  associated  a  system 
of  great  lakes.  These  rift-valleys  mark  the 
course  of  parallel  cracks  in  the  earth's  crust,  be- 
tween which  the  surface  has  sunk  for  thousands 
of  feet,  forming  narrow,  elongated  depressions,  or 
broad  canons,  with  precipitous  walls  that  rise 
to  the  broken  edges  of  tlie  high-level  plateau. 
In  these  rift-valle.ys  lie  the  ma.iority  of  the  great 
African  lakes,  most  of  which,  consequently,  are 
of  elongated  form.  The  longest  of  these  rifts  has 
its  northern  end  in  Palestine,  in  the  .Jordan 
and  Dead  Sea  valle.ys :  it  forms  the  Red  Sea 
Basin  southward  to  the  Straits  of  Bab-el- Man- 
deb,  where  it  is  joined  by  a  broader  rift  that 
comes  fnmi  the  east,  forms  the  (iulf  of  .Aden, 
and  continues  southwestward  through  French 
Romaliland  and  the  Oalla  country  into  British 
East  Africa  to  lakes  Stephanie  and  Rudolf.  At 
this  point  the  rift-valley  divi<les.  One  branch 
continues  southward  to  beyond  Lake  Man- 
yara.  and  another  trends  westward  from  Lake 
Rudolf  to  Lake  Albert,  and  then  southward  to 
Lake  Shirwa  at  the  southern  end  of  the  eastern 
hiirhland.  In  addition  to  these  great  rifl -valleys 
there  are  many  smaller  fracture  lines  throughout 
the  entire  highlands  that  exercise  considerable 
control  over  the  smaller  drainage  features. 

In  the  vicinity  of  the  rifts  are  found  the  high- 
est mountains,  and  in  general  the  courses  of  the 
great  rifts  mark  the  location  of  volcanic  peaks. 
The  massive,  snow-topped  Rnwcnzori  Range, 
with  its  central  peak  rising  to  Ki.OOO  feet,  is 
among  the  most  important  of  African  mountain 
ranges,  and  it  a))[)ears  to  be  largely  of  volcanic 
or  la<eolitic  origin.  South  of  Lake  Albert  Kd- 
waril.  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  western  rift- 
valley,  is  a  group  of  volcanic  mountains,  some 
of  which  are  active,  cidminating  in  Mount  Ki- 
runga  (4350  feet).  The  most  extensive  volcanic 
district,    however,    lies   along    the    eastern    rift- 


vallev  and  on  the  Abyssinian  highland.  Kili- 
manjaro (11I.720  feet)  and  Kenia  (17,200  feet), 
two  isolated,  snow-clad,  volcanic  peaks,  rise 
from  the  eastern  margin  of  this  rift-valley  near 
its  southern  termination.  About  the  sovithern 
half  of  Lake  Rudolf  is  a  series  of  volcanic  peaks, 
where  several  active  cones  rise  2000  feet  above 
the  plains,  the  best  known  of  which  is  Teleki. 
Several  very  high  mountains  lie  between  Lake 
Rudolf  and  the  Victoria  Xvanza,  the  highest  of 
which  is  .Mount  Elgon  (14.030  feet).  The  Abys- 
sinian highland  is  topped  by  massive  fields  of 
ancient  lava,  from  which  rise  extinct  volcanic 
peaks  to  heights  of  almut  15.000  feet  (Mounts 
Dashan,  Abba-Yared,  etc.).  A  few  active  vol- 
canoes occur  on  the  northeastern  slopes  of  Abys- 
sinia, near  the  shore  of  the  Red  Sea,  where  a 
chain  of  mountains  presents  summits  of  9000  to 
10.000  feet. 

The  great  topographical  feature  of  West  Cen- 
tral .Africa  is  the  Congo  Basin,  equaling  in  area 
the  basin  of  the  Mississippi,  and  stretching 
from  lat.  12°  S.  to  lat.  C,°  N.,  and  from  long. 
33°  to  about  16°  E.,  where  it  narrows  into  the 
restricted  valley  by  which  the  river  makes  its 
way  through  the  coastal  mountains  to  the  At- 
lantic Ocean.  The  whole  of  this  area  is  an  ele- 
vated plain,  sloping  gradually  from  all  sides 
toward  the  middle  west,  where  the  vast  outlet 
debouches,  in  lat.  ('<"  S.  It  presents  no  elevated 
regions  worthy  of  uiention.  except  about  the 
borders.  The  southeast  watershed  is  not  I'ig'i, 
nor  is  that  on  the  south,  which  separates  tlie 
Congo  waters  from  those  flowing  into  Lake  Ngami 
or  collected  by  the  Zambezi.  North  of  Lake  Tau- 
gan.vika  the  high  mountains  form  a  loft.v  water- 
shed between  the  northeastern  sources  of  the 
C'ongo  and  the  sources  of  the  Nile,  and  a  line 
of  hills  sweeps  around  to  the  westward  in  the 
southern  Sudan,  and  are  continued  to  the  lofty 
•lebel-el-ilarra.  in  Darfur,  whose  slopes  contri- 
bute the  remotest  northern  waters  of  the  Congo. 
The  high  ranges  of  Adamawa  and  the  coast 
mountains  separate  its  more  westerly  northern 
tributaries  from  the  Ogowe  and  other  coastal 
rivers.  The  mountains  which  separate  the  Con- 
go Basin  from  the  coast  are  rather  the  broken 
eroded  margin  of  the  continental  plateau  than 
true  mountains,  and  few  if  any  peaks  exceed 
5000  feet  in  height. 

The  topographical  division  of  Sudan  covers 
the  equatorial  area  betw'een  the  watershed  of 
the  Congo  and  the  Sahara  Desert,  from  the  head- 
waters of  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal,  a  tributary  of  the 
Nile,  to  the  mountains  of  the  coast — that  is, 
the  drainage  basins  of  Lake  Chad  and  of  the 
Niger.  The  basin  of  Lake  Chad  is  an  inclosed 
area  almost  in  the  centre  of  the  continent,  its 
southern  margin  being  removed  but  a  few  hun- 
dred miles  from  the  head  of  the  (iulf  of  Ouinea. 
The  lake  itself  has  no  outlet,  and  lies  about  000 
feet  above  the  sea.  The  eastern  border  of  this 
basin  is  separated  from  the  Nile  waters  by  a  line 
of  highlands  which  continue  northward  across 
the  dcsei  t,  and  which  culminate  in  Darfur  in  the 
Marra  Mountains,  rising  some  7000  feet  above 
the  plain,  and  forming  a  watershed  for  eastern 
Sudan.  The  western  border  of  the  Chad  Basin  is 
formed  by  rocky  plateaus,  which  constitute  a  di- 
vide between  this  and  the  Niger  Basin ;  and  a  uni- 
form plain,  diversified  b.y  rocky  hills,  stretches 
westward  to  the  coast  mountains.  Large  por- 
tions of  the  Chad  Basin  are  dry  and  open,  while 
other  extensive  areas  are  forested  or   swampy. 


AFRICA. 


174 


AFRICA. 


passing  northward  into  desert.  At  the  head  of 
the  Gulf  of  Guinea  are  the  Kamerun  Mountains, 
more  than  13,000  feet  higli.  Further  westward 
along  the  coast  of  tapper  Guinea  there  are  moun- 
tains, but  of  no  great  height,  the  supposed  "Kong 
Range"  of  old  geographies  having  been  proved 
non-existent.  Tlie  Inghest  peaks  of  the  hinter- 
land of  Sierra  Leone  and  tlie  Mandingo  Moun- 
tains do  not  exceed  3,500  feet,  except  in  the  Peak 
of  Komono  ( 4000  feet ) .  The  coast  of  Senegal 
is  flat ;  that  more  southerly,  except  in  Liberia, 
swampy;  all  the  rivers,  and  especially  the  Niger, 
form  extensive  deltas. 

The  regipn  of  arid  waste  lands  called  the 
Sahara  lies  between  the  Sudan  on  the  south  and 
the  Atlas  Mountains  and  the  Egyptian  coast  on 
the  north.  It  is  a  part  of  an  arid  belt  extending 
eastward  to  Balucliistan,  the  entire  area  meas- 
uring about  4,000,000  square  miles.  Of  this  area 
at  least  two-thirds  lies  west  of  Suez,  and  is 
known  in  general  as  the  Sahara.  It  is  all  an 
elevated  plain,  into  which  many  valleys  have 
been  eroded  by  the  ancient  drainage  systems 
which  are  now  the  only  marked  topographical 
features  of  the  region.  The  whole  area  may, 
therefore,  be  divided  into  certain  regions,  limited 
by  natural  features.  First,  the  so-called  Ara- 
bian or  Nubian  Desert :  the  area  between  the 
Nile,  the  only  living  river,  that  crosses  tlie  arid 
zone,  and  the  Red  Sea.  This  is  marked  in  its 
southern  portion  by  the  continuation  of  the  vol- 
canic uplands  of  Abyssinia,  which  lessen  in 
height  toward  the  north,  but  border  the  Red  Sea 
in  a  line  of  jagged  mountains,  many  of  which 
exceed  4000  feet,  and  one,  Soturba.  reaches  0000 
feet.  In  the  south  is  the  great  rift  of  the  Wady 
Mahall,  probably  ,an  ancient  Nile  channel :  and  in 
Lower  Egypt  are  the  rifts  occupied  by  the  Khar- 
geh,  Dakhel,  and  others,  forming  a  line  of  notable 
oases.  West  of  the  Nile  rises  the  desolate  pla- 
teau of  the  Libyan  Desert,  which  covers  the 
whole  region  from  central  Darfur  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean (long.  18°  to  30°  Vi.) ,  excepting  the  few 
oases  above  mentioned.  Its  general  altitude 
varies  from  about  1.500  feet  in  the  south  to  500 
on  the  Mediterranean,  where  it  breaks  down  in 
hills.  A  line  of  elevations  extending  northwest- 
ward from  the  Marra  Mountains  in  Darfur  to 
the  Algerian  Atlas  forms  a  sort  of  boundary  to 
the  Libyan  Desert,  and  makes  possible  the  thinly 
inliabited  oasis  regions  of  Tibesti  and  ilurzuk. 
Further  west  there  are  wadies,  or  dried-up  river 
valleys,  of  which  one,  with  numerous  brandies, 
is  traceable  from  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  north  to 
the  "shotts"  or  swampy  lakes  which  occupy  the 
large,  low  plain  (in  places  below  sea-level)  west 
of  the  Gulf  of  Cabes.  It  is  believed  that  within 
2.500  years  this  valley  was  occupied  by  a  flowing 
river,  but  now  only  a  few  pools  and  springs  exist 
through  the  dry  season.  West  of  this  more 
broken  region  between  Algeria  and  Lake  Chad 
there  stretches  an  enormous  space  of  w.aterless 
waste  land,  with  shifting  sand  dunes,  broken  by 
lines  of  rugged  and  nalved  elevations  having  a 
general  northeast  and  southwest  direction.  This 
waste  extends  to  the  Atlantic  coast  all  the  way 
from  about  lat.  18°  to  28°  N.,  that  is,  from  the 
hills  of  Senegal  to  the  western  extremity  of  the 
Atlas.  The  elevation  of  the  Sahara  throughout 
the  greater  part  of  its  extent  exceeds  1000  feet, 
diminishing  gradually  from  the  south  toward 
the  north  in  the  Libyan  Desert,  and  from  its  cen- 
tre in  the  western  half  of  the  desert  toward  the 
Lake  Chad  Basin  and  the  Niger,  and  toward  the 


coast  of  Tunis  and  Tripoli.  Only  very  small 
and  irregular  areas  along  the  northern  border 
are  below  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean. 

The  elevated  district  called  the  Atlas  Region, 
with  its  littoral  margin  along  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
and  Mediterranean  Sea,  is  a  part  of  the  great 
Alpine  system  of  Europe,  to  which  it  is  linked 
by  tlie  mountains  of  Spain  and  the  Pyrenees. 
Unlike  oilier  African  mountains,  the  Atlas  have 
a  folded  structure  and  an  Alpine  character,  and 
present  many  parallel  zones.  These  ranges  ex- 
tend in  a  nearly  straight  line  from  Cape  Nun, 
on  the  Atlantic,  northeast  to  the  headlands  of 
Tunis,  where  they  are  broken  througli  by  the 
narrows  of  the  Mediterranean.  Along  the  Medi- 
terranean coast  the  elevations  are  volcanic,  and 
descend  very  abruptly.  Toward  the  interior, 
irregular  ranges  form  a  long  line  of  lieights  of 
Paleozoic  rocks,  which  is  sometimes  called  the 
Tell  Atlas:  but  this  is  more  prominent  in  Algeria 
than  in  Morocco,  where  the  seaward  side  is  a 
rough  plateau.  The  Atlas  stretches  over  a  dis- 
tance of  about  1400  miles,  and  attains  its  great- 
est elevation  in  the  western  portion,  where  it 
rises  to  a  height  of  nearly  1;),000  feet. 

Geology.  The  geological  structure  of  Africa 
has  been  studied  only  in  bare  outline,  but  its 
broad  features  may  be  said  to  exhibit  great 
simplicity  and  uniformity.  The  entire  fower 
limb,  with  the  Sudan  and  the  western  portion 
of  the  Sahara  Desert,  has  a  basal  complex  of 
crystalline  rocks  supporting  sediments  of  Paleo- 
zoic and  Jlesozoic  age.  Strata  of  more  recent 
deposition,  with  but  one  exception  (Lower 
Egypt),  occur  only  along  the  sea  coast  and  the 
rivers.  The  greater  part  of  tlie  land  sur- 
face, therefore,  was  formed  in  early  geological 
times,  and  has  remained  above  sea-level  during 
succeeding  periods.  Owing  to  this  uniformity, 
Africa  cannot  be  divided  upon  a  strictly  geologi- 
cal basis  into  more  or  less  distinct  units; 
such  a  division,  however,  has  been,  made  from 
a  combined  geological  and  geographical  stand- 
point, separating  the  entire  area  into  three  prov- 
inces. The  first  of  these  comprises  South  Africa, 
Madagascar,  and  a  huge  portion  of  Central  Af- 
rica, -which  at  one  time  was  united  with  lower 
India  by  an  easterly  land  extension  through  tlie 
area  now  occupied  by  the  Indian  Ocean ;  the 
second  includes  the  Sahara  Desert  and  Egypt, 
and  is  a  continuatiim  of  Arabia  and  Syria; 
the  third  comprises  the  Atlas  Mountains,  and  is 
really  a  part  of  the  Eurasian  continent  and  of 
the  great  system  of  upheaval  that  is  represented 
in  Europe  by  the  Alps  and  the  Apennines. 

The  most  ancient  rocks  found  in  South  Africa 
are  granites,  gneisses,  and  schists,  which  lie  be- 
low all  fossil-bearing  rocks,  and  may,  therefore, 
be  classed  as  Archaean.  Above  these  are  tilted  and 
eroded  beds  of  sandstones  and  slates,  which  form 
the  rampart  along  the  southern  extremities  of 
Cape  Colony,  and  extend  around  to  the  west  and 
north,  spreading  out  over  large  areas  in  Nama- 
qualand,  Griqualaiul,  Rhodesia,  and  regions  to 
the  north,  and  which  have  special  economical 
importance,  as  they  include  within  their  limits 
the  rich  gold  deposits  of  the  Transvaal.  These 
rocks  are  mostly  of  Paleozoic  age.  Higher  up 
in  the  series  are  the  Kimberley  shales  and  the 
Karoo  formation  of  sandstones  and  slates,  wliich 
attain  great  development  in  British  South  Africa. 
No  remains  of  a  sea  fauna  have  been  found  in 
the  Karoo  beds,  but  they  are  rich  in  ampliihian 
and  reptilian  fossils  that  bear  a  striking  simi- 


AFBICA. 


175 


AFKICA. 


larity  to  tlip  Triassic  fOoiulwana)  lifo-form-s  of 
India,  ami  also  tii  tliosc  of  Aiislralia.  Tlioy 
WPi'O  probably  flopositeil  (luring;  tlu>  I'oiinian  ami 
Triassic  ppiinds.  triHlprlyiiif;  tliciii  imcoiifovm- 
ably  in  places  are  tlip  iKvyka  conf;l()iiU'rate,  a 
peculiar  rock  that  often  has  the  appearance  of 
a  volcanic  breccia,  and  the  Ecca  mudstones  and 
sandstones,  cousitutinjr  a  j;roui)  some  4000  feet 
in  thickness.  Volcanic  rocks  are  represented  by 
diabase  and  basalt,  which  are  spread  mit  over  the 
surface  in  larce  sheets,  being  especially  prom- 
inent aloiifr  the  eastern  edge  of  the  Drakenberg 
;>fountains  in  the  Transvaal.  The  diamond 
mines  of  South  Africa  are  located  in  the  vents  of 
old  volcanoes  through  which  a  basic  rock  (peri- 
dotite)  was  erupted.  On  the  other  edge  of  the 
plateau,  along  the  sea  coast,  are  snuill  detached 
areas  of  sediments,  more  recent  in  origin  than 
the  foregoing. 

Tlie  region  of  central  Africa  from  the  Sudan 
as  far  south  as  the  Zambezi  River  includes  large 
areas  of  which  little  or  nothing  is  known.  Liv- 
ingstone mentioned  the  i)rcscnce  of  sand- 
stones and  coal  seams  along  the  Zambezi  Kivcr 
(lat.  1(>°  40'  to  15°  50'  S.),  and  somewhat  fur- 
ther south  crystiUine  rocks  of  .-Vrch-can  type 
appear,  as  also  along  the  shores  of  Lake  Xyassa. 
Tiie  Kovuma  River  Hows  for  a  considerable  dis- 
tance (about  lat.  11°  S.)  over  sandstone  beds, 
that  rest  upon  granite.  The  sandstones  aie 
found  as  high  as  ■2.">00  feet  above  sea-level,  and 
extend  from  near  the  coast  to  long.  30°  E. 
North  of  the  Rovuma  River  sandstone  strata, 
possibly  of  Cai'boniferous  age,  are  developed  on 
a  large  scale  along  two  general  lines,  one  ex- 
tending northwest  beyond  the  shores  of  Lake 
Tanganyika,  and  the  other  extending  north  to 
near  the  equator.  15etween  the  diverging  areas  of 
sandstone,  crystalline  rocks  ])rcdominate,  inclos- 
ing Lake  Victoria  Xyanza  and  reaching  north- 
ward nearly  to  Lado  on  the  Nile.  They  have  been 
broken  through  and  are  overlaid  by  volcanic 
rocks,  especially  around  Lake  Rudolf,  where  vol- 
canoes are  still  in  eruption,  and  in  the  region  east 
of  Victoria  Xyanza.  where  there  are  many  inact- 
ive cones.  Volcanic  action  has  been  accompanied 
here  by  great  vertical  displacements,  to  which 
allusion  has  already  been  made,  'See  also 
article  on  Ore.\t  UiFT-V.\i,i.Ey. )  The  west  side 
of  Central  Africa,  from  the  Kuncne  River  to  tlie 
Gulf  of  Ouinea,  has  been  only  partly  explored. 
Such  information  as  is  available  would  indicate 
that  its  structure  is  similar  to  that  of  the  east- 
ern coast.  On  the  shore  of  .\ngola  there  is  a 
narrow  fringe  of  Cretaceous  sandstones,  and  in 
the  interior  crystalline  rocks,  mostly  granite  and 
gneiss,  and  fossilifcrous  sandstones  of  undeter- 
mined age  predominate.  It  seems  probable  that 
these  formations  extend  into  the  interior  toward 
the  Congo  Basin,  and  they  may  reach  also  north- 
ward into  the  Sudan.  In  the  Congo  Hasin  there 
comes  into  prominence  a  peculiar  superficial  de- 
posit called  "laterite."  which  also  covers  wide 
areas  in  Sudan  and  the  Sahara  Desert.  It  is  a 
porous,  yellow  or  reddish  rock,  formed  by  the 
disintegration  and  weathering  of  the  underlying 
strata. 

The  plateau  of  Abyssinia  has  been  found  to 
consist  of  gneisses  and  granites  as  a  basal  forma- 
tion, with  overlying  sandstone  strata  in  nearly 
horizontal  position.  This  region  is  especially 
characterized  by  the  enortnous  development  of 
volcanic  rocks,  which  at  difVerent  times  have 
spread  out  over  the  surface.     Westward,  between 


Khartum  and  Fashoda  on  the  Nile,  there  is  a 
large  area  of  I'aleozoic  sediments,  extending  on 
the  eastern  Nile  baid<  as  far  south  as  Lado, 
where  it  sweeps  around  to  the  west.  In  central 
Sudan,  crystalline  rocks  have  been  found  along 
the  Renue  River  and  in  the  region  between  this 
river  and  the  Xigcr.  In  the  extreme  western 
Sudan,  sedimentary  strata  with  Devonian  and 
Carboniferous  fossils  prevail;  they  are  also  de- 
vclope<l  to  a  lesser  extent  on  the  Cold  Coast, 
where  they  overlie  gneisses  and  schists.  The 
interior  of  Lil)eria  and  Sierra  Leone  is  supposed 
to  be  composed  largely  of  crystalline  rocks.  The 
Sahara  Desert  presents  a  monotonous  stretch  of 
horizontal  eroded  beds  of  Paleozoic  age  resting 
upon  eruptives  and  gneisses.  After  the  Carboni- 
ferous times,-  the  whole  Sahara  region  appears 
to  have  been  elevated  above  sea-level  and  to  have 
maintained  this  position  tintil  the  beginning 
of  the  Cretaceous,  when  there  was  a  subsidence, 
and  the  eastern  part  of  the  Sahara,  including 
Egypt,  was  formed.  Volcanic  rocks  are  found 
in  certain  parts  of  the  interior,  but  they  are 
relatively  unimportant.  In  Lower  Egypt,  the 
ridge  that  forms  the  western  border  of  the  great 
rift  or  fault  of  the  Red  Sea  is  made  up  of 
gneisses,  granites,  and  basic  igneous  rocks,  with 
a  sedimentary  cap  called  the  "Xubian"  sand- 
stone. Tlie  last-named  constitutes  the  banks  of 
the  Xile  at  Assuan,  and  also  extends  for  a  con- 
siderable distance  into  the  desert  region.  To  the 
north,  the  Xiibian  sandstone  is  succeeded  by 
Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  limestones. 

The  Atlas  region  of  Morocco,  Algeria,  and 
Tunis  ofl'ers  a  striking  contrast  to  the  remainder 
of  .\frica,  in  that  it  is  the  only  present  rep- 
resentative of  a  mountain  system  formed  by 
erustal  folding.  It  is  composed  of  eruptives, 
including  trachyte  and  basalt,  along  the  northern 
edge,  with  inlci  foliated  gneisses,  schists,  granite, 
limestone,  and  sediments  of  Carboniferous.  Jur- 
assic, and  Triassic  age.  Suess  divides  the  region 
into  parallel  zones;  the  first  is  composed  of  vol- 
canic rocks  on  the  coast;  the  second  consists  of 
granite,  gneiss,  and  schist;  the  third  is  a  belt 
of  sandstone  and  limestone,  reaching  southward 
into  the  Sahara  Desert. 

The  continental  islands,  including  the  Canary, 
Madeira,  and  Cape  Verde  groups,  and  many 
isolated  islands,  are  mostly  of  volcanic  ori- 
gin. Madagascar,  however,  is  an  exception,  and 
represents  the  remnant  of  a  larger  area  that 
once  extended  from  southern  Africa  to  lower 
India.  The  central  part  of  Madagascar  is  made 
up  of  granites  and  gneisses  similar  in  character 
to  those  found  on  the  mainland,  while  the  west- 
ern shore  is  formed  by  Juiassic  and  Tertiary 
sediments.  See  also  articles  on  countries  of 
Africa. 

Hyduockapiiy.  The  great  river  systems  of 
Africa,  excepting  the  Xiger,  have  their  sources 
in  the  mountains  of  the  south  and  southeastern 
parts.  At  the  Gulf  of  Suez  a  line  of  highlands 
crosses  to  Africa  from  Syria,  which  follows  the 
coast  line  of  the  Red  Sea  to  its  southern  ex- 
tremity, then  bends  to  the  south,  ])asses  the 
equator,  and  joins  the  broad  plateaus  that  extend 
over  South  .\frica.  .-\s  there  is  no  prominent 
interior  mountain  range,  this  long  line  of  coastal 
highlands  forms  the  most  important  water-part- 
ing of  the  continent.  Within  its  bounds  arc 
the  upper  courses  of  the  Xile,  Congo,  and  Zam- 
bezi, as  well  as  of  the  Orange  and  of  most  of 
the  smaller  streams.    The  Nile,  Niger  and  Congo 


AFRICA. 


17G 


AFRICA. 


rivers  have  their  origin  on  the  interior  slopes 
of  the  highlands,  and  therefore  discharge  into 
the  Atlantic  Ocean,  while  the;  Zambezi  drainage 
basin,  lying  largely  on  the  outer  slopes,  falls 
oft'  toward  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  longest 
river  system  is  that  of  the  Xile,  which  rises  in 
the  lake  region  of  Equatorial  Africa  and  flows 
northward  through  the  niountainoiis  divide  to 
the  plateau  region  of  eastern  Sudan,  where  it 
receives  an  important  affluent  from  the  west  in 
the  Bahr-el-Ghazal.  and  is  joined  further  north 
by  the  Bahr-el--\zrek  (Blue  Nile  I  and  by  the 
Atbara,  both  from  the  plateau  of  Abyssinia.  In 
the  middle  portion  of  its  course  the  Nile  practi- 
cally completes  its  vertical  descent  by  numerous 
cataracts,  after  wliioli  it  flows  through  a  valley 
that  is  but  little  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
The  drainage  basin  of  the  Nile  includes  an  area 
of  about  1..500.000  square  miles.  Next  to  the 
Nile  in  length  and  superior  to  it  and  to  all  other 
rivers  of  the  world  excepting  the  Amazon  in 
volume  is  the  Congo,  which  rises  in  the  equato- 
rial lake  region  and  drains  an  area  probably  ex- 
ceeding that  of  the  Nile.  The  Congo  flpws  north- 
west, then  describes  a  great  arc.  with  its  chord 
formed  by  the  equator,  and  finally  turns  south- 
west, and  pierces  the  coastal  barrier  of  lower 
Guinea  to  enter  the  Atlantic.  The  tributaries 
of  the  Congo  include  many  great  rivers,  such 
as  the  Ubangi.  Kassai,  and  Kuango.  South  of 
the  Congo  are  the  drainage  basins  of  the  Zambezi 
and  Orange  rivers, which  extend  nearly  across  the 
lower  limb  of  the  continent,  and  have  an  east- 
ward and  westward  slope  respectively.  Tlie  great 
land-mass  composing  the  western  limb  of  the 
continent  is  poorly  watered,  the  Niger  being  the 
only  river  of  first  importance  lying  wholly  within 
the  area.  This  river  drains  the  northern  slopes  of 
the  coastal  highlands  of  Guinea,  through  which 
it  breaks  after  being  joined  by  an  important 
tributary  from  the  east,  the  Benue.  and  enters 
the  Gulf  of  Guinea.  Of  lesser  rivers  may  be 
mentioned  the  Limpopo,  Rovxnija.  Sabi.  Tana, 
and  .Tub.  which  enter  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  the 
Knnene,  Kuanza,  Ogowe,  Volta,  Gambia,  Senegal, 
and  Draa  on  the  western  coast.  Owing  to  the 
inountainous  barrier  through  which  they  must 
pierce  to  reach  the  sea,  the  smaller  rivers  of 
Africa  generally  are  unnavigable  in  their  lower 
courses. 

Between  the  drainage  basins  of  the  Nile,  Niger, 
and  Congo,  and  west  of  the  north  and  south 
range  of  highlands  of  Sudan,  is  the  interior 
basin  of  Lake  Cliad.  This  lake  is  fed  chiefly 
by  the  Shari  and  Waube,  and  is  subject  to  great 
variations  of  level.  It  is  at  the  present  time  a 
shallow  body  of  fresh  water,  with  an  area  that 
is  said  to  range  at  various  times  from  10.000 
to  20,000  squai-e  miles.  This  phenomencm  of 
sudden  variations  in  level  and  consequently  in 
area  is  peculiar  to  all  the  rivers  and  lakes  of 
Africa  within  the  equatorial  regions,  and  is  due 
to  the  seasonal  distribution  of  rainfall.  Between 
Abyssinia  and  the  Zambezi  River  and  within  the 
bounds  of  the  north  and  south  higliiand  region 
there  is  another  inland  drainage  basin  with  sev- 
eral large  lakes,  which  together  constitute  one 
of  the  most  striking  physiographiial  features 
of  Africa.  .Apparently  the  lakes  lie  along  a  line 
of  rifts  or  fissures  which  have  been  formed  by 
sudden  displacements  of  the  earth's  crust.  Some 
of  the  hikes  are,  Margherita,  .\baya.  Stephanie. 
Rudolf,  Manyara,  Natron,  Baringo,  Kyassi,  and 
Leopold    (Uikwa),   all   but   Rudolf   being   small 


bodies  of  water.  The  largest  lakes  (Victoria, 
Albert,  .\lbert  Edward,  Kivu,  Tanganyika,  and 
Nyassa)  drain  into  the  Nile,  the  Congo,  or  the 
Zambezi,  and  are  fresh  water  bodies.  Victoria, 
Tanganyika,  and  Nyassa  rival  in  extent  the  great 
lakes  of  North  America.  For  further  details,  see 
articles  on  Congo,  Victoria  Ny.\xza,  etc. 

Climate.  Of  all  the  great  land  divisions  ot 
tlie  globe.  Africa  is  characterized  by  the  greatest 
uniformity  of  climate.  It  stretches  into  both 
the  north  temperate  and  south  temperate  zones, 
but  the  greater  part  of  its  area  is  included 
within  the  tropics;  there  is  consequently  a  suc- 
cessive decrease  of  average  annual  heat  north- 
ward and  southward  of  the  equatorial  belt,  but 
the  legularity  of  the  decrease  is  modified  by  cer- 
tain other  factors,  so  that  the  region  of  greatest 
average  heat  for  the  year  is  located  not  at  the 
equator  but  considerably  north  of  it.  between  the 
parallels  of  10°  and  20".  These  modifying  factors 
are  mainly  the  direction  of  the  winds  and  the 
distribution  of  the  mountains.  It  is,  of  course, 
cooler  here  in  certain  seasons  than  in  others:  but 
the  average  temperature  of  any  given  season 
shows  little  fluctuation.  In  summer  the  iso- 
therm of  80°  F.  incloses  the  whole  of  the  Sahara 
Desert,  and  over  a  considerable  portion  of  this 
area  the  average  summer  temperature  is  97'  or 
more.  This  region  of  extreme  heat,  which  is 
the  largest  in  the  world,  may  be  delimited  by 
a  line  drawn  from  Khartum  west  to  Timbuktu, 
thence  north  to  El-Golea  in  the  Algerian  Sahara, 
thence  southeast  to  JIurzuk  and  thence  to  Berl)er 
on  the  Nile.  The  mountain  regions  of  Algeria 
and  Morocco,  and  i>arts  of  British  South  Africa 
and  of  German  South-West  Africa  have  a  sub- 
tropical or  temperate  climate.  Throughout  a 
large  portion  of  Africa,  especially  in  the  moun- 
tains of  the  east,  and  in  the  Sahara  and  Kalahari 
deserts,  the  temperature  varies  widely  between 
sununer  and  winter  and  between  dav  and  night, 
as  is  characteristic  of  all  desert  regions.  I  See 
Desert.)  In  the  Kalahari  Desert  the  extreme 
seascmal  fluctuation  reaches  113°,  and  in  the 
Sahara  Desert  the  temperature  during  the  night 
often  approaches  the  freezing  point.  In  gen- 
eral, the  western  coast  of  Africa  is  cooler  than 
the  eastern  coast,  owing  to  the  conditions  here- 
tofore stated,  and  to  the  influence  of  the 
drift  northward  along  that  coast  (south  of 
the  equator)  of  the  cool  water  from  the  Ant- 
arctic Ocean.  (See  article  on  Climate.) 
Winds. — Trade  winds  are  characteristic  of  near- 
ly the  whole  continent.  The  Sahara  Desert  is 
a  region  of  high  barometric  pressure  dnriiiL' 
the  winter  months,  thus  causing  outward  blow- 
ing winds,  while  in  the  summer  season  tin- 
pressure  is  lowered,  and  there  is  an  indrau.ght 
from  the  surrounding  territory.  In  the  western 
part  of  the  Sahara  Desert  and  Sudan,  north  and 
northeast  winds  prevail  during  the  greater  part 
of  the  .vear,  alternating  with  northwest  and  west 
winds  for  a  few  months  in  winter.  The  eastern 
Sahara  region  and  Egypt  have  prevailing  north 
and  northeast  winds.  .\  devastating  wind  called 
the  "khamsin"  blows  from  the  southeast  across 
this  region  at  times,  carrying  dust  and  sand 
and  causing  sudden  rises  of  temperature.  -\ 
similar  dust  wind,  but  usually  cooler,  blows  from 
the  interior  of  the  Sahara  over  Senegambia  and 
ITpper  Guinea,  and  is  called  the  '"harmattan." 
During  the  summer,  in  the  lower  liml)  of  Africa, 
an  area  of  low  pressure  occurs  in  the  interior, 
and  the  prevailing  winds  are  from  the  cast  and 


AFRICA. 


1^  »v 
i  i 


AFRICA. 


southeast,  on  the  castoni  border,  and  south  and 
southwest  on  tlie  western.  In  winter  tlierc  is 
a  shorter  period  in  which  the  winds  hlow  out- 
warilly.  (See  article  on  Wi.nd. )  Rainfall. — 
The  principal  factors  ^overninfr  rainfall  arc 
evaporation,  direction  of  winds,  and  distribution 
of  niount^iins.  A  combination  of  these  factors 
most  favorable  to  a  lar<;c  rainfall  is  found  on 
the  west  coast  of  .Vfrica  near  the  equator.  Here 
the  humid  atniospliere  from  the  Atlantic  is  car- 
ried huulward  by  the  winds  and,  becomini,'  cooler, 
deposits  the  greater  \y,\\i  of  its  moisture  before 
passing?  the  liijjhland  region.  The  maximum 
limit  of  preei])ifation  is  probably  attained  in 
Kamerun,  where  the  total  rainfall  in  the  year 
may  exceed  350  inches,  while  the  Niger  Delta 
and  the  coasts  of  Sierra  Leone  and  Liberia  also 
are  excessively  humid.  On  the  east  equatorial 
coast  the  winds  from  the  Indian  Ocean  deliver 
considerable  moisture,  but  not  in  such  abun- 
dance as  on  (he  west  coast.  -\s  they  pass  into 
the  interi(U',  the  winds  from  both  the  Atlantic 
and  Indian  oceans  are  deprived  of  their  humid- 
ity, especially  in  the  mountains,  which  act  as 
precipitating  agents.  Equatorial  Africa,  as  a 
whole,  is  thus  characterized  by  a  heavy  rainfall. 
North  and  soutli  of  this  region,  however,  the 
conditions  exliil)it  a  striking  contrast.  In  the 
north  is  the  Sahara  Desert,  the  largest  arid 
region  in  the  world,  where  the  prevailing  winds 
are  from  the  i\ortheast  and  are  hot  and  dry, 
while  the  liuniidity  of  the  southerly  winds  that 
may  penetrate  into  the  interior  is  diminished 
by  the  heat,  and  seldom  falls  as  rain.  A  second 
arid  region,  the  Kalahari  Desert,  is  found  in  the 
southern  limb  of  the  continent,  between  the  Zam- 
bezi and  Orange  rivers  and  the  eastern  and 
western  coastal  highlands.  It  has  a  small  spas- 
modic rainfall,  which  is  usually  insullicient  to 
support  a  constant  growth  of  vegetation.  The 
Jfediterranean  coast  region  and  the  extreme 
southeiii  extension  have  a  dry  climate  that  is 
tempered  b3'  rains  during  certain  seasons.  Be- 
sides the  continental  distribution  of  rainfall, 
there  is  a  seasonal  \iiriation  in  the  amount  re- 
ceived in  diderent  latitudes.  In  the  regions 
near  the  equator  rain  may  fall  during  every 
month  of  the  year,  but  the  periods  of  greatest 
precipitation  occur  when  the  sun  is  nearly  verti- 
cal, in  s|)ring  and  fall.  Away  from  the  equator 
there  is  generally  but  one  wet  season.  See  arti- 
cles on  countries  of  Africa. 

Flora.  The  vegetation  of  Africa  is  very  di- 
versified on  a<«'ount  of  the  well  marked  topo- 
giaphie  districts  and  the  varieil  climatic  condi- 
ti(ms.  The  three  zones  of  tropical,  north  tem- 
perate, and  south  temperate  climate  liave  their 
peculiar  t,vpes  of  vegetation,  the  distribution  of 
which  in  each  zone  is  determined  by  the  imme- 
diate physiographic  featui-es.  Forest,  steppe, 
savanna,  and  desert  fhuas  are  found  in  each 
zone.  The  llora  of  the  ileditcrranean  slope  of 
the  northern  temperate  zone  has  a  general  re- 
semblance to  that  of  southern  Europe,  with  for- 
ests of  oak  and  of  smaller  trees,  as  olives  and 
figs,  with  also  the  vine  and  the  same  cereal 
grains.  The  desert  regions  (typified  by  the 
Sahara  in  the  north  temperate  zone  and  the 
Kalahari  Desert  in  Hcchuanaland  of  the  south 
temperate  zone)  support  a  scant  xerophytic 
vegetation,  which,  contrasted  with  the  llora  of 
the  North  American  deserts,  has  for  its  most 
prominent  types  quite  leafless,  thorny  and  lleshy 
euphorbias  and  acacias  instead  of  cactuses.     In 


the  .Sahara  Desert  the  date  palm  grows  often  in 
exteii>ive  groves  in  the  oases,  and  its  wide  dis- 
triiiution  is  probably  due  in  large  part  to  the 
dispersion  of  its  seeds  by  the  nonuuiic  tribes,  for 
whom  its  fruit  serves  as  an  imporUint  article  of 
food.  Bordering  the  Sahara  and  the  Kalahari 
deserts  are  extensive  semi-arid  stepj)e  or  prairie 
regi{>ns,  where  the  slight  rainfall  permits  of  the 
existence  of  a  somewhat  more  varied  llora,  which 
combines  certain  of  the  desert  and  forest  types. 
The  stepi)e  region  of  the  .southern  temperate 
zone  has,  by  reason  of  its  isolation,  develo])ed  a 
flora  ])eculiarly  its  own,  which  is  charac'terized 
both  by  the  abundant  presence  of  many  members 
of  the  heath  family  (which  often  grow  to  a  height 
exceeding  10  feet  i ,  and  also  by  the  general  bril- 
liancy of  color  of  the  llowering  plants. 

Those  jKutions  of  Africa  which  have  a  inoist 
climate  are  divisible  into  the  savanna  and  forest 
regions.  The  forests  arc  found  mostly  in  the 
equatorial  districts,  where  they  are  of  enor- 
mous extent.  Here  the  trees  grow  to  great 
heights  (often  200  feet),  and,  being  close  to- 
gether, support  numbers  of  parasitic  vines,  form- 
ing over  vast  areas  a  dense,  tangled  covering  of 
foliage,  tlirough  which  the  direct  rays  of  the 
sun  seldom  ])enetrate.  The  savanna  districts  are 
uniform  plains  of  both  high  and  low  land.  On 
the  damp  low  lands,  reeds,  espe<;ially  the  papyrus, 
abound  (as,  for  example,  in  the  marshy  regions 
of  the  Nile  and  Congo  valleys)  ;  on  the  drier 
high  grounds  good  pasture  grass  Avith  euphorbias 
forms  the  dominant  vegetation,  together  with 
forest  growths  in  the  river  valleys.  The  more  im- 
portant trees  are  the  baobab  i Adaitaonia)  and  the 
wine  and  oil  palms  {Raphia  and  Elwis) .  In 
conclusion,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  llora  of 
Africa  is  characterized  by  the  extensive  develo])- 
ment  of  acacias  and  eupluirbias  ovi-r  the  entire 
continent,  with  the  date  [)alin  in  the  northern 
(particularly  in  the  arid)  regions,  and  the  papy- 
rus in  the  marshes.  See  DisxiiiurTio.N  of  Plaxts. 

Fauna.  The  fauna  of  Africa  is  remarkable 
for  its  homogeneity,  for  the  continental  range  of 
a  great  numl)er  of  its  groups  and  siu'cies,  due 
to  the  absence  of  extensive  mountain  barriers, 
and  for  its  remarkal)le  alliance  with  the  fauna? 
of  the  other  divisions  of  the  southern  hemi- 
sphere. Africa  —  apart  from  the  northwestern 
corner  (the  .\tlas  .Mountains,  in  which  live  the 
aoudad  ami  certain  other  European  forms) — is 
now  regarded  as  forming,  together  with  .\rabia 
and  Palestine,  a  single  zoiigeographical  prime 
division  called  Ethiopian.  Surveying  its  prin- 
(•ipal  groups  of  animals,  it  is  seen  to  be  char- 
acterized in  respect  to  the  mammals  by 
the  prei>onderanre  of  h(X)fcd  animals  and  the 
great  size  of  many,  such  as  the  elephant,  hippo- 
potanuis,  and  rhinoceros,  by  the  originally 
vast  numbers  of  gregarious  grazers,  and  by  their 
distinctive  forms.  Thus,  there  are  no  true  oxen, 
but  a  bullalo  is  abundant:  no  camels  nor  llamas; 
no  sheep  nor  goats;  no  deer  (except  the  aberrant 
chevrotain)  nor  true  swine.  Bui,  it  has  exclu- 
sively several  species  of  the  horse  family,  the 
zebra,  quagga.  and  wild  ass:  a  giraffe!  once 
ranging  all  the  southern  plains,  and  the  okapi 
(q.v. )  ;  the  tribe  of  hyraxes,  and  almost  a  hun- 
dred kinds  of  antelopes  and  gazelles,  few  of 
which  range  outside  of  Africa  and  .\rabia.  Of 
apes,  the  chimpanzee  and  gorilla  belong  to  the 
equatorial  forests  alone:  but  more  widely  dis- 
tributed, though  exclusively  .\frican,  are  the 
baboons,  various  kinds  of  monkeys,  and  nearly 


AFRICA. 


178 


AFRICA. 


all  tlie  lemuroids.  Among  the  carnivora,  bears, 
wolves,  and  foxes  are  wholly  absent,  and  sev- 
eral feline,  viverrine,  and  canine  forms  are  pecu- 
liar, although  the  characteristic  lion  and  leopard 
are  not  restricted  to  Africa.  The  lesser  mam- 
mals are  mainly  the  same  as  or  allied  to  south- 
ern Asiatic  and  Oriental  forms.  Resident  birds 
display  similar  unlikeness  to  Europe  ami  Asia, 
and  suggestive  resemblances  to  those  of  the 
Australian  and  Neotropical  regions.  Thus,  the 
ostrich,  so  widespread  and  characteristic  of 
Africa,  is  unknown  elsewhere,  but  its  allies  are 
the  extinct  and  modern  ratite  birds  of  the  Aus- 
tralasian archipelago  and  the  rheas  of  Argentina. 
Africa  is  rich  in  reptiles,  but  few  are  peculiar, 
chiefly  terrestrial  venomous  snakes  iind  tlie 
chiEmasaurid  lizards;  and  the  affinities  of  this 
group,  as  of  the  fishes,  are  Oriental,  though 
some  of  the  fishes  are  remarkably  related  to 
ancient  American  families.  Similar  remarks 
apply  to  the  invertebrates,  where  many  genera 
even  are  the  same  as  those  of  either  Australia, 
the  ^lalayan  region,  or  America.  For  particu- 
lars as  to  the  various  faunal  sub-regions,  Mada- 
gascaran.  West-coast,  etc..  see  Distribution  of 
Animals. 

Population.  Recent  authorities  roughly  esti- 
mate the  population  of  Africa  at  about  173,000,- 
000,  or  fifteen  to  the  square  mile,  a  density  slight 
when  compared  with  that  of  Europe,  but  much 
greater  than  that  of  the  American  continent. 
According  to  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  of  the 
climate,  the  population  is  distributed  very  un- 
evenly over  the  surface,  being  very  dense  in  the 
Nile  delta  and  massed  somewhat  densely  in  the 
up[)er  Nile  valley,  and  generally  tluoughnut  the 
Sudan,  less  thickly  over  the  southern  plateau, 
and  very  thinly  in  the  outlying  regions  of  Moroc- 
co and  Tripoli ;  while  large  tracts,  especially  in 
the  western  Sahara  and  in  the  Libyan  and  Kala- 
hari wastes,  are  absolutely  uninhabited.  Of  the 
inhabitants  of  Africa,  only  a  small  portion  are 
recent  immigrants  from  Europe,  settled  chiclly 
in  the  extreme  north  (Algeria)  and  in  the  ex- 
treme south  (Cape  Colony,  Natal,  and  the  Boer 
territories) . 

Ethnology.  The  yellow,  the  brown,  and  the 
red  varieties  of  the  human  genus  have  no  repre- 
sentatives in  Africa,  with  the  exception  of  some 
of  the  Polynesian  tribes  in  Madagascar  and  the 
intrusions  of  eastern  Asi.atics  in  recent  times. 
The  I'-T ,000.000  inhabitants  of  the  continent  rep- 
resent the  white  and  the  black  varieties  of  man, 
or  mixtures  of  these.  Northern  and  northeast- 
ern .\frica  have  been  occupied  in  historic  times 
by  white  races,  while  equatorial  and  southern 
Africa  were  the  home  of  black  races;  but  the 
white  Africans  have  from  remote  antiquity 
forced  themselves  into  the  black  man's  territory, 
and  negro  blood  has  mixed  with  that  of  TIamite 
and  Semite  across  the  Sahara ;  hence,  especially 
on  the  border  line,  the  ethnic  stocks  are  inter- 
mingled. 

Various  schemes  of  classification  have  been 
proposed  for  the  people  of  Africa,  the  latest 
of  which  are  by  Deniker  and  Keane. 

Deniker's  scheme  (liaces  of  Man;  an  Outline 
of  Anthropology  and  Ethnology,  London.  1900) 
is  as  follows: 

I.  Arabo-Bcrbcrs,  or  Semito-Hamites — (!) 
Jjcrba  sid)race;  (2)  Elles  type;  (8)  Dolicho- 
cephalic Berber  subrace;    (4)  .Jerid  or  Oasis  type. 

II.  Ethiopians,  or  Kushito-Hamitcs,  sometimes 
called  Nuba,  or  Nubians. 


Ill,  Fulah-Zandeh  group.  Mixture  of  Ethi- 
opians and  Nigritians  or  Sudanese  Negroes. 

iV.  Nigritians,  ( 1 )  eastern  Sudan,  or  Nilotic 
Negroes;  (2)  Nigritians  of  central  Sudan;  (3) 
Nigritians  of  western  Sudan  and  Senegal — 
Haussas,  Maudes  or  Mandingans,  Toucouleurs  or 
Torodos,  Yolofs  of  Senegal;  (4)  Littoral  Nigri- 
tians or  Guineans — Krus,  Agnis,  Tshis,  Ewes; 
(5)    Yorubas. 

V.  Negrillos. 

VT.  Bantus.  In  Central  and  Southern  Africa; 
divided  into  Western,  Eastern,  and  Southern 
Bantus. 

VII.  Bushmen-Hottentots. 

VIII.  Hovas,  Malagasies,  and  Sakalavas  of 
Madagascar. 

Keane's  analysis  of  African  peoples  is  given 
in  liis  /•Jthnolofi'i  and  in  Stanford's  Africa  (see 
bibliography  at  end  of  article).  In  the  latter 
the  classification  is  by  regions,  as  follows: 

I.  Atlas  Region.  Stone  Age  men;  peoples  akin 
to  Iberians  and  Silurians,  artificers  of  the  mon- 
olithic monuments;  Berber  Hamites;  Phcpnician 
Semites;  Romans;  Teutonic  Vandals;  Semitic 
Arabs ;  Negroes ;  Jews  and  moflern  intrusions ; 
and  Pygmies  in  the  Atlas  Jlountains, 

II.  Tripolituna.  Berbers  or  Libyans  in  many 
communities;  Arabs;  Negroes,  chiefly  slaves. 
The  Phivnicians  of  Herodotus  are  replaced  by 
Turks.  Jews.  Maltese.  Italians,  etc. 

III.  Sahara.  Arabs,  pure  and  mixed  in  many 
tribes  and  eonf»deracies;  Tuaregs,  pure  and 
mixed;  Tibus:  Negroes  from  the  south. 

IV.  Sudan.  Arabs;  Hamites  (Tibus,  Tua- 
regs, and  Fulahs)  ;  Negroes,  beginning  at  tlie 
west  coast:  (1)  Senegal  to  Sierra  Leone — Wolofs, 
Sereres,  Toucouleurs,  Mandingans,  Felups,  etc; 
(2)  Sierra  Leone — Tenmis,  Colonials,  etc.;  (:i) 
Liberia;  (4)  Ivory  Coast;  (5)  Gold  Coast — 
Tshis,  Ga;  (6)  Slave  Coast — Ewes,  Yorubas; 
(7)  Upper  and  Middle  Niger — Bambaras,  Song- 
havs,  Haussas,  etc. ;  (8)  Benue  Basin  ;  (9)  Lower 
Niger;  (10)  Niger  Bend;  (11)  Chad  Basin; 
(12)  Wadai;  (13)  Darfur  and  Kordofan— Nu- 
bas  and  Nubian  family  of  languages  ;  (14)  Upper 
Nile  basin — Madis,  Dinkas,  Shilluks,  Mundus, 
Bongas,  etc.;  (15)  Welle  basin — Mombuttus, 
Niam-Niams,  Akka  dwarfs,  etc. 

V.  Italian  and  Northeast  Africa.  Somali  Ham- 
ites; Galla  Hamites;  Afar  (Danakil)  Hamites; 
Abyssinian  ( Agau )  Hamites ;  Semitized  Hamites ; 
Himyaritic  (Abyssinian)  Semites;  Tigre,  Amha- 
ras,  Shoas;  Arab  (Nomad)  Semites;  Negroes 
and  Bantus, 

VI.  Nubia  and  Egypt.  (1)  Nuba  group — Nu- 
has  proper;  Nilotic  Nubas  (Nubians,  Barabra)  ; 
( 2 )  Beja  group ;  ( 3 )  Egyptian  group — Fella- 
liin,  Copts;  (4)  Arab  group — (a)  Settled;  (b) 
Nomad    and    Semi-Nomad. 

VII.  The  Kameruns.  Bantu  tribes,  indige- 
nous and  intruders. 

VIII.  French  Equatorial  Africa.  Bantu  tribes, 
Mpongwe  and  others. 

IX.  Congo  Free  State.  Bantu,  chiefly.  Names 
commencing  with  A-,  Ba-,  Ma-,  Wa-,  etc. 

X.  Portuaucse  West  Africa.  Angolan  tribes 
chiefly.  (1)  Ba-Congo  group;  (2)  A-Bundo 
group;     (3)    Aboriginal   group. 

XL  Gerntan  Southtrest  Africa.  (1)  Ovanipo 
grou])s ;  (2)  Ova-Herero  groups  (Damara  low- 
lands) ;  (3)  Nania  groups  (Namaqualand)  :  full- 
blood  Hottentots,  Orlams  (Hottentots  from  Cape 
Colony),  Bastaards  (Dutch  Hottentot  half-breeds 
from  the  Cape). 


DARK    RACES   OF  AFRICA 


GUINEA     TYPt 

COPVniOHT.  1002,  BT  OODD.  MCAO  ft  COMPANV 


ZANZIBAR     TfPL      LA-:T      aFR:wA 

juiiua  itiCM  A  CO  I 


AFRICA. 


179 


AFRICA. 


XII.  Cape  Colony.  (1)  San  (Bushmen);  (2) 
Hottt-ntots;    (3)   Uasuto.s;   (4)    Kallirs. 

XIII.  Suiithiiist  Africti.  r>i(luuinas;  many 
trilii'S,  whose  names  begin  witli  iia-. 

Xl\'.  Zaiiibeziu.  sdiitli  (iixl  iwrlli.  (1)  Beehuana 
natives;  (2)  in  North  Zambezia  the  greatest 
confusion  of  natives. 

-W.  I'orliii/iicsr  East  Africa.  (1)  Zulus;  (2) 
Toii;ia  tribes;  (:{)  mixed  tribes;  (4)  Banyans 
or  Hindu  traders  in  seaports. 

X\'I.  (IcriiKiii  r.iist  Afrini.  Bantus.  pressed  on 
by  Aralis,  Zulus.  Xilntie  Negroes.  Many  tribes 
whoso  names  begin  with  Ma-  or  \Va-. 

XV'Il.  Briti.ih  IJast  Africa.  Ethnie  diversity, 
every  race  in  .\frica  except  Bushmen-llottentots. 
(1)  Bantus;  (2)  Marai;  (3)  Scmiali;  (4)  Gal- 
las;  (.5)  Bantu  Gallas  (Wa-lluma);  (6)  Ne- 
groes;   (7)    Negritos. 

XVIII.  Uudiiiiaxcitr.  Malayo  - -\friean  mixed 
peoples,  all  speaking  a  Malayo-Polynesian  lan- 
guage. (1)  Hovas,  in  the  centre;  (2)  Betsimi- 
sarakas.  on  the  east ;   (.3)   Saknlavas.  on  the  west. 

Tlie  Xortbern  .\fricans  are  Hamitic.  and  were 
preceded  (1)  by  Stone  Age  peoples;  (2)  by  the 
kindred  of  Iberians,  Silurians,  and  other  tribes 
of  Southern  and  Western  Europe.  The  monolith 
buihlers  apparently  merged  into  the  Berber  Ham- 
ite  intruders,  wlio,  in  turn,  were  encroached  upon 
by  Plid'uician  Semites;  then  followed  Romans 
and  Teutonic  Vandals,  though  the  chief  ethnic 
element  cuntinued  Berber  until  the  coming  of  the 
Arabs  (100-2(10  A.n. )  and  the  irru])tion  of  the 
Moslems  (from  (130  a.d. ).  The  Arabs  are  now 
in  the  ascendency,  but  Hamitic  tribes  continue 
in  the  uplands  (Keane.  ISO.i). 

There  are  among  the  African  peoples  examples 
of  the  lightest  and  the  darkest  races.  There  are 
also  examples  of  the  smallest  and  the  largest 
of  maidvind,  as  the  measurements  in  metric 
standard  from  Denikcr  will  show:  .\kka.  1.378 
meters;  Bushmen  of  Kalahari,  1.520;  IMzabite 
Berber.  1.020:  liatckes  of  the  Congo.  1.041;  Alge- 
rian Arabs.  l.(i.")0;  Berbers  of  Tunis,  1.003; 
-Vbyssinians,  l.(iOII;  Danakils,  1.070:  Kabyles, 
l.o'77;  Bechuanas.  1.084:  .Mandingo,  1.700;  Kaf- 
lir-.  1.71.5;  Somali.  1.723;  Wulof,  1.730  (many 
:nc  over  six  feet)  :  Kulah,  1.741.  Compare  with 
these  the  .Eta  of  tlie  Philippines,  1.40.5;  Eskimo, 
1..57o:  Lapps,  1..52n:  Chevennes,  1.74.5;  Sikhs, 
1.70!l;  and  Marquesas  Islanders,  1.743.  The 
range  of  cranial  index  is  quite  as  wide.  .Vmong 
the  Congo  tribes  tlie  index  is  72°. .5;  the  Fijian 
Negroes  have  an  index  of  ()7°.2;  the  Sara  of  the 
Chad  Basin  have  an  inde.x  of  82''.4;  but  many 
peoj)les  in  Oceanica,  America.  Asia,  and  Europe 
range  between  tliis  ratio  and  88°.7. 

Kki.khoxs.  Eifty-eiglit  per  cent,  of  the  popu- 
lation, according  to  the  estimate  of  H.  P.  Be.ach, 
are  devotees  of  the  native  religions,  which  are 
characterized  by  tliese  features:  (1)  Belief  in 
some  sort  of  a  supreme  God,  who,  in  a  vaguely 
conceived  way,  creates  and  rules  all.  (2)  Wor- 
ship of  ancestors.  It  is  not  so  elaborately 
worked  out  as  in  China,  but  still  it  underlies  the 
West  African  scenes  of  dreadful  slaughter  of  the 
slaves  and  wives  of  his  predecessor,  ordered 
when  a  chief  succeeds  to  odice,  for  by  such  blood- 
shed he  pays  respect  to  the  deceased.  (3) 
Fetishism,  with  the  accompaniment  of  a  priest  or 
sorcerer,  (4)  Suiierstition  of  the  gi-ossest  and 
most  degrading  kind.  The  heathen  .\frican  is  the 
slave  of  this  low  type  of  religion,  and,  in  conse- 
quence, his  life  is  full  of  terrors,  as  it  is  to  the 
interest    of    the    fetish    doctors    to    work    upon 


these  fears.  Idolatry  is  not  found  in  central 
Africa  at  all.  and  nowhere  is  it  so  elaborated  as 
in  India.  Imintrivd  Itclujions. —  (1)  Moliauune- 
danism.  Of  ihe  religions  im|)orted  into  the  con- 
tinent, by  far  the  most  important  is  .Mohamme- 
danism, the  faith  of  30  per  cent,  of  the  popula- 
tion. It  came  thither  in  the  seventh  century 
and  overran  all  north  .Africa  in  a  hundred 
years,  so  completely  overturning  the  Christian 
churches  which  had  been  planted  there  that 
they  have  never  been  revived.  Mohammedan- 
ism retains  its  conquests  in  Egypt,  Barca, 
Tripoli,  -Mgeria,  and  Morocco,  and  it  is  to-day 
one  of  the  greatest  missionary  religions.  It 
])resents  a  one-sentence  creed:  "There  is  but 
one  God  and  Mohammed  is  his  prophet,"  and  has 
the  simplest  methods.  The  missionary  is  un- 
paid and  usually  a  native.  There  are  no  mis- 
sion boards,  or  expenses  for  salaries  and  print- 
ing. There  is  usually  no  special  training,  al- 
though in  Cairo  there  is  a  Jlohammedan  univer- 
sity, attended  by  thousands  of  studi-nts.  and  from 
this  many  of  the  missionaries  go  forth.  They 
have  been  remarkably  successful  in  spreading 
their  faith  among  heathen  populations  in  Cen- 
tral -Africa.  In  this  way  Jlohannnedanism  has 
exerted  an  influence  which  counteracts  the  na- 
tive religions,  and  so  improves  the  condition  of 
the  peoples  it  reaches.  (2)  Christianity:  (a) 
Copts,  the  descendants  of  those  original  Chris- 
tians who,  in  the  fifth  century,  adopted  tlie 
theory  that  in  Jesus  the  human  and  divine  make 
one  composite  nature  ( monophysitism) ,  and  so 
are  reckoned  among  Christian  heretics.  They 
are  found  in  Egypt  and  number  about  three- 
quarters  of  a  million.  (h)  Abyssinian  Chris- 
tians, who  trace  their  faith  back  to  the  Coptic 
missionaries  of  the  fourth  century,  but  present 
a  curious  mixture  of  Christianity  and  .Juda- 
ism, (c)  Boman  Catholics;  The  first  mission- 
aries of  this  faith  to  penetrate  the  Dark  Conti- 
nent were  .lesuits.  and  they  began  work  in  the 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Indeed,  St. Fran- 
cis Xavier  came  to  Mozambique  as  early  as  1.541, 
but  he  did  not  stay  more  than  six  months.  The 
result  of  the  work,  carried  on  continuously  ever 
since,  has  been  that  now  one  and  two-fifths  jier 
cent,  of  the  population  are  Roman  Catholics,  liv- 
ing in  all  (larts  of  the  continent.  Livingstone  bore 
testimony  to  the  value  of  the  work  of  these  mis- 
sionaries, (d)  Protestants:  The  first  who  came 
to  Africa  were  Moravians.  This  was  in  1702. 
Since  then  all  branches  of  Protestantism  have 
labored  there,  and  their  converts  now  number 
one  and  nine-tenths  per  cent,  of  the  popuhition, 
and  they  are  found  in  every  part.  Ronnin  C:itho- 
lics  and  Protestants,  especially  the  latter,  carry 
on  missionary  work  among  the  Coptic  and  Abys- 
sinian Christians.  South  Africa  is  to  a  consid- 
er:ible  extent  a  Christian  country  of  the  niodprn 
civilized  type.  (3)  Judaism:  About  three-tenths 
of  one  per  cent,  of  the  population  of  Africa  are 
Jews. 

SnciAi,  CoNniTiONS.  Slavery  is  still  "the  open 
sore  of  .-Africa,"  as  liivingstone  said,  and  nowhere 
is  it  more  cruel,  bloodthirsty,  and  destructive. 
The  ivory  trade  is  a  constant  source  of  trouble, 
setting  tribe  against  tribe  in  war.  Polygamy  is 
widespread.  The  tribal  government,  the  absence 
of  central  authority,  tlie  usmil  conditions  of 
savage  life,  in  bondage  of  superstition  and  ter- 
lors  of  every  kind,  these  disturb  life,  over  great 
stretches  of  territory.  Yet  it  is  the  testimony  of 
travelers  that  peace  and  a  certain  kind  of  pros- 


AFRICA. 


180 


AFRICA. 


perity  are  found  in  many  villages  in  the  very 
heart  of  the  land.  Considt:  F.  P.  Noble.  The 
Redemption  of  Africa  (New  York,  1899,  2  vol- 
umes) ;  A.  P.  Atterbury,  Islam  in  Africa  (New 
York,  189!))  ;  H.  P.  Bea'ch,  Geography  of  Protes- 
tant Missions  (New  York,  1901). 

HISTORY. 

Early  History  and  Exploratiot*.  In  the 
earliest  historic  times,  when  civilization  centred 
around  the  ilediterranean,  Libya,  as  Africa  was 
known  to  the  ancients,  was  one  of  the  three  great 
divisions  of  the  earth,  of  which  Europe  and  Asia 
were  the  other  two.  The  details  of  its  history 
are  to  be  found  in  the  history  of  Egypt,  still 
the  earliest  recorded  civilization,  and  of  the 
other  states  of  northern  Africa,  as  well  as  of 
the  Roman  Empire,  which  absorbed  them  all. 
The  brown-hued  Berbers  seem  to  have  been  the 
fundamental  race  stock  throughout  northern 
Africa,  with  perhaps  Aryan  and  Semitic  infu- 
sions, due  to  the  contact  of  Egj-pt  with  Asia  and 
Europe.  Whether  the  Haniitic  peoples  of  Africa 
were  or  were  not  autochthonous  is  a  problem  for 
the  settlement  of  which  no  sufficient  data  exists. 
The  knowledge  possessed  by  the  ancients  of  the 
continent  as  a  whole,  so  far  as  we  have  accounts 
of  it,  can  be  briefly  stated.  The  rulers  of  Egypt, 
as  subsequently  those  of  Carthage,  attempted  to 
extend  their  influence  toward  the  south  and  west ; 
but  the  physical  and  climatic  conditions  and  the 
savage  tribes  encountered  presented  an  efl'ective 
bar  to  extended  progress  at  that  time.  An  in- 
scription assigned  to  the  period  of  the  Eleventh 
(Theban)  Dvnasty  tells  of  a,  voyage  made  by 
command  of  one  of  the  rulers  of  lliat  dynasty 
to  the  land  of  Punt,  probably  Somaliland.  Re- 
cent discoveiies  also  seem  to  increase  the  credi- 
bilit.y  of  traditions  which  assigned  the  biblical 
lands  of  Ophir  to  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa. 
About  thirty  centuries  ago  the  enterpiising 
Phoenicians  planted  Utica  (c.llOO  B.C.) ,  Carthage 
( S2()  n.c. ) ,  and  other  lesser  colonies  along  the 
Mediterranean  coast,  and  Greek  colonies  were 
founded  in  Egypt,  in  Cyrenaica.  and  just  east  of 
Carthage,  during  the  period  of  Cireek  coloniza- 
tion, which  began  in  the  eighth  centurv  B.C. 

The  known  explorations  of  the  Dark  Continent 
may  be  said  to  begin  with  the  famous  voyage 
made  by  Phoenicians  about  COO  B.C.,  an  account 
of  which  is  preserved  by  Herodotus  (iv.  42). 
There  are  no  sufficient  reasons  for  doubting  the 
general  accuracy  of  the  account,  which  describes 
the  voyage  as  made  by  command  of  Nccho,  King 
of  Eg\'pt,  who  had  just  completed  a  canal  from 
the  Nile  to  the  Red  Sea.  The  expedition 
sailed  down  the  Red  Sea  and  along  the  coast  of 
Africa,  until  the  sun  for  many  weeks  "rose  on 
their  right  hand."  After  a  long  absence  the 
explorers  returned  to  Egypt  through  the  Pillars 
of  Hercules,  so  that  they  must  have  circumnavi- 
gated the  continent.  A  hundred  years  later,  also 
according  to  Herodotus  (iv.  43),  a  Persian  of 
noble  birth,  Sataspes,  started,  with  a  Cartha- 
ginian crew,  down  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  but 
was  compelled  to  turn  back.  It  is  doubtful  if 
he  went  far  bevond  the  Phoenician  settlements, 
which,  beginning  at  Gades,  just  without  the  Pil- 
lars of  Hercules,  already  extended  well  down  the 
coast  of  Morocco,  along  which  Hanno,  about  4oO 
B.C.,  planted  a  series  of  colonics.  The  "  Islands 
of  the  Blessed"  also  (the  Madeira  and  Canary 
islands)  were  probably  within  the  scope  of  the 
sea-going  trade  of  the  Phtenicians  and  Cartha- 


ginians. Carthaginian  traders  trafficked  by  sea 
Vi'xih  the  Gold  Coast,  and  by  land  along  the  cara- 
van routes  which  communicated  with  the  flour- 
ishing regions  of  Upper  Egypt  and  the  Niger.  It 
is  probable  that  almost  contemporaneously  with 
the  Phoenician  settlements  in  Northern  Africa, 
Arabs  entered  the  country  south  of  the  Zambezi, 
and,  going  inland,  found  and  worked  the  gold 
mines  which  have  beeii  recently  rediscovered. 
The  Greeks  began  to  colonize  Northern  Africa  in 
the  seventh  century  B.C.  After  the  conquest  and 
destruction  of  Carthage  by  Rome  (146  B.C.),  all 
Northern  Africa  was  gradually  drawn  into  the 
gi'owing  empire;  but  Rome's  interest  lay  in  tb. 
known  and  organized  regions,  upon  which  she 
strengthened  tlie  hold  of  civilization,  ignoring 
all  that  lay  beyond  her  well-defined  boundaries, 
a  policy  which  was  accentuated  as  the  empire 
tended  toward  decay. 

Christianity  was  introduced  into  Africa  in  the 
earliest  days,  and  the  North  African  Church  was 
a  recognized  division  of  the  Christian  Church  in 
the  second  century,  and  when  a  synod  of  this 
Church  was  held  in  258  it  was  attended  by  87 
bishops.  Its  chief  cit.y  was  Carthage.  Three 
names  in  this  Church  are  promiiient:  Tertullian 
(third  centur.y).  the  first  to  emplo.v  the  Latin 
language  in  the  service  of  Christianity;  Cyprian 
(third  century).  Bishop  of  Carthage,  and  one  of 
the  great  ecclesiastics  of  the  early  Church;  and 
Augustine  (fifth  century).  Bishop  of  Hippo, 
the  greatest  of  the  Latin  fathers.  The 
earliest  translation  of  the  Bible  into  Latin  was 
made  in  North  Africa,  and  it  was  the  battle 
ground  of  the  famous  fights  with  heretics  and 
schismatics,  such  as  Donatists,  Pelagians,  and 
Montanists.  But  the  Church  was  destined  to 
have  a  short  life.  LTndermined  by  formalism  and 
apathy,  it  fell  beneath  the  Mohammedan  on- 
slaught in  the  seventh  century.  During  the 
Germanic  invasions  the  Vandals  grasped  the 
African  provinces,  and  in  the  early  medite- 
val  period  much  that  had  been  known  to 
Ptolemy  and  the  geographers  who  preceded 
him  was  forgotten.  The  maps  of  Ptolemy, 
representing  the  knowledge  of  the  second  Chris- 
tian centui-y,  indicate  the  course  and  source* 
of  the  Nile  and  the  mountains  of  West  Cen- 
tral .\frira  more  accurately  than  they  were 
again  shown  on  maps  before  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  What  Europe  was  forget- 
ting, the  Arabs,  in  the  advance  of  the  Moham- 
medan power,  rediscovered.  From  .Vrabia  the 
new  faith  spread  ra])idly  westward  along  the 
southern  shores  of  the  Jlediterranean  and  inland 
across  the  desert.  It  took  such  deep  root  in 
Northern  Africa  that  the  Christian  religion, 
which  in  many  places  was  then  well  established. 
has  never  been  able  to  regain  a  real  foothold 
among  the  native  races. 

Northern  Africa  became  a  battle  gi-ound  dur- 
ing the  later  Cnisades  and  all  the  succeeding 
struggles  on  the  Mediterranean  between  Cross 
and  Crescent,  and  was  the  scene  of  changes  and 
strife  among  rival  Mohammedan  dynasties;  but 
ignorance  of  the  rest  of  the  continent  only  deep- 
ened with  the  centuries,  except  among  the  .\ral)s. 
who  occasionally  pushed  their  expeditions  south- 
ward. If  traditions  may  be  believed.  Norman 
vessels  from  Dieppe  visited  the  Gold  Coast 
as  earlv  as  1364.  and  in  1413  the  Normans 
built  a  fort  at  Elmina.  There  is  j^cither 
inherent  improbability  in  this  story  nor  sat- 
isfactory    evidence     to     prove     it,     but     it     is 


t-> 


1  Lonj.ludc  20'  Wt 


COP<RIG"T|  IIKJ^i  i^ 


0,ME>D  *  COHPANV. 


o 


AFRICA. 


181 


AFRICA. 


probable  that,  Norman  voyagers  found  their 
■way  to  the  West  African  coast  at  a  very  early 
period.  In  1J02  Jean  de  liethencourt  sailed  from 
La  Eoclielle  and  established  a  settlement  on  Lan- 
zarote,  one  of  the  Canary  Islands.  During  the 
next  three  years  he  extended  his  sway  over  the 
natives  of  "the  neighboring  islands.  Although 
his  expedition  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  the  be- 
ginning of  modern  African  discovery,  the  ac- 
counts of  it  show  conclusively  that  the  islands 
were  already  com])aratively  a\c11  known.  Indeed, 
Bethencourt  seems  to  have  started  with  some 
sort  of  a  grant  from  the  King  of  Castile.  Long 
before,  in  l.'J44,  the  Pope  had  granted  the  islands 
to  a  scion  of  the  royal  house  of  Castile,  Don 
Luis  de  'a  Cerda,  who  had  taken  the  title  of 
Prince  of  Fortune,  i.e.,  of  the  Fortunate  Islands. 
This  same  year,  1344,  is  given  as  the  date  for  the 
discovery  of  Madeira.  In  that  year,  so  the  talc 
goes,  a  young  Englishman,  Robert  Jfachin.  eloped 
with  Anne  d'Arfet,  or  Dorset,  a  woman  of  noble 
birth,  and  sailed  away  with  her  for  France,  but 
contrary  \\'inds  carried  them  to  the  island  of 
Madeira.  There  the  lovers  died;  but  one  of  the 
company  returned  to  Portugal,  and  the  report  of 
his  adventures  served  to  guide  the  captains  of 
Prince  Henrj",  who  rediscovered  the  island  in 
14in. 

The  real  opening  of  Africa  to  the  knowledge  of 
the  modern  world  began  with  Prince  Henry  of 
Portugal  (c|.v. ).  called  the  Navigator.  In  141.5 
he  participated  in  the  victorious  campaign  of  Por- 
tugal against  the  Moorish  citadel  of  Ceuta  and 
his  interest  was  awakened  by  the  enigma  of  the 
unknown  continent.  On  his  return  he  devoted 
himself  to  the  task  of  sending  expedition  after 
expedition  down  the  African  coast  to  determine 
the  extent  of  the  continent,  and  to  find,  if  pos- 
sible, a  way  to  the  east  around  it.  These  expe- 
ditions oept  further  and  further  southward.  In 
144.5  an  exploring  party  started  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Eio  d'Ouro  and  spent  seven  months  in  the 
interior.  Gil  Eannes  passed  beyond  Cape  Bo- 
jador,  the  "bulging  cape,"  oflf  which  the  Atlantic 
currents  ran  so  strong  as  to  bar  all  previous  at- 
tempts at  progress,  fti  1441  a  vessel  brought 
back  some  Moorish  captives ;  a  year  later  two 
of  these  ca])tives  were  exchanged  for  ten  negro 
slaves  and  some  gold  dust — and  the  demoralizing 
trade  which  was  to  characterize  West  Africa  for 
nearly  four  centuries  was  fairly  begun.  The  Bay 
of  Ai'guin  was  reached  in  1443,  and  the  next  year 
a  syndicate,  or  company,  the  first  of  the  many 
that  have  exploited  the  Slave  Coast,  was  organ- 
ized at  Lagos.  In  144.5  Diniz  Dias  passed  the 
mouth  of  the  Senegal,  discovered  Cape  Verde, 
and  returned  to  Portugal  \\ith  four  negroes  taken 
from  tlieir  own  coxiutrj',  previous  importations 
having  been  secured  by  exchange  with  the  Moors. 
The  next  year  Nuuo  Tristao  reached  the  Gambia, 
\\herc  he  was  killed,  with  most  of  his  followers, 
by  the  natives.  Ten  years  later,  14.55  and  145fi, 
Cada  Mosto  (q.v.)  explored  the  river  and  dis- 
covered the  Cape  Verde  Islands.  The  imjmlse 
given  to  exploration  by  Prince  Henry  continued 
after  his  death,  which  occurred  in  1460.  Pedro 
de  Cintra,  in  1462,  added  the  coast  as  far  as 
Sierra  Leone  and  Cape  Mesurado  to  the  Portu- 
guese claims.  In  1471  Santarem  and  Escobar 
carried  the  Portuguese  flag  across  the  equator. 
Commerce,  meanwhile,  was  familiarizing  pilots 
and  the  makers  of  sailing  charts  with  the  details 
of  the  coast.  The  search  for  new  centres  of 
profitable    trade   went   on,    and    in    1484    Diego 


Cam  passed  the  Congo  and  heard  from  the  na- 
tives tales  which  seemed  to  confirm  the  old  .story 
of  Prester  John  (q.v.),  a  Christian  king  ruling 
somewhere  beyond  the  wall  of  Mohammedanism 
with  which  Europe  was  surrounded.  It  has  been 
supposed  by  some  that  the  King  of  Abyssinia  was 
the  subject  of  this  legend.  The  Portuguese  king 
determined  to  comnumicate  with  this  unknown 
Christian  brother,  and  in  July,  1487,  sent  Bar- 
tholomeu  Dias  (q.v.)  with  two  ships  of  some 
fifty  tons  and  a  smaller  tender  to  carry  his  mes- 
sage. From  the  Congo.  Dias  beat  down  to  Cape 
Voltas,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Orange  River. 
Thence  he  was  driven  by  storm  southward  for 
thirteen  days,  after  which  he  steered  north  and 
east  in  the  hope  of  regaining  land.  He  sighted  the 
southern  coast  of  Africa,  near  the  Gouritz  River, 
at  Vleeseh  Bay.  Keeping  on  toward  the  east, 
he  landed  on  an  island  in  Algoa  Bay,  still  known 
as  Santa  Cruz,  or  St.  Croix,  from  the  cross 
which  he  set  up  there.  When  he  reached  the 
mouth  of  tlie  Great  Fish  River,  long  the  boun- 
dary of  Cape  Colon}',  the  patience  of  his  crews 
gave  out  and  they  forced  him  to  put  about  for 
home.  On  the  return  journey  he  sighted,  first  of 
modern  sailors,  the  great  landmark  which  has 
appropriated  the  generic  name  of  Tlie  Cape.  Dias 
christened  it  the  Stormy  Cape  (Cabo  Tormen- 
toso),  but  on  his  return  in  December,  148R.  the 
King  (or,  according  to  Christopher  Columbus, 
Dias  himself)  gave  it  the  more  cheering  name  of 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

While  Dias  was  rounding  the  Cape,  the  King, 
fearing  lest  his  vessels  might  fail  to  reach 
Prester  John,  sent  another  message  to  that 
potentate,  overland,  by  Pedro  de  Covilhiio  and 
Alfonso  de  Pay\'a.  From  Aden,  in  Arabia, 
Pa>wa  made  his  way  to  Abyssinia,  Avhere  he  was 
killed,  while  Covilhiio  went  eastward  to  India. 
From  Goa  Covilhao  sailed  to  Sofala,  in  Eastern 
Africa,  where  he  gathered  news  of  Madagascar, 
and  satisfied  himself  that  it  would  be  possible 
to  go  around  to  the  western  side  of  Africa  by 
water.  His  report  reached  Portugal  in  145)0.  but 
it  was  seven  years  before  Vasco  da  Gama  (q.v.) 
proved  its  correctness,  in  November,  1497.  Start- 
ing from  Lisbon,  he  doubled  the  Cape,  and  after 
encountering  storm  and  tempest  and  the  southern 
sweep  of  the  Mozambique  current,  sighted,  on 
Christmas  Day,  1497,  the  land  which  still  bears 
the  name  he  gave  it  in  honor  of  the  day — Natal. 
After  touching  at  Mozambique  and  ifombasa, 
he  arrived  on  Easter  at  Melinda,  where  he 
found  a  pilot  who  took  him  across  to  India.  The 
land  was  sighted  on  ;May  17,  1498,  and  three  days 
later  Da  Gama  anchored  oflf  Calicut. 

MoDERiv  ExPLORATIo^^  Thus  far  the  Portu- 
guese had  been  almost  alone  in  the  exploration 
of  Africa,  but  in  the  second  half  of  the  eight- 
eenth century  a  new  era  of  discovery  began — an 
era  in  which  men  of  several  nationalities  have 
had  a  share,  and  by  the  results  of  which  several 
nations  have  sought  to  profit.  The  new  line  of 
explorers  is  headed  by  James  Bruce  (q.v.),  a 
Scotchman  who  had  been  British  consul  at 
Algiers  from  1703  to  1765.  ^A^lile  in  Egypt  in 
1768  he  conceived  the  plan  of  seeking  for  the 
sources  of  the  Nile.  After  crossing  the  Red  Sea 
to  Jiddah,  he  entered  Abyssinia  by  the  way  of 
Massowah,  and  proceeded  to  Gondar,  where  he 
won  the  favor  of  the  Negus.  After  some  delay 
he  succeeded  in  reaching  the  headwaters  of  the 
Blue  Nile,  and  believed  that  he  had  found  the 
true  source  of  the  main  river.     He  arrived  in 


AFRICA. 


183 


AFRICA. 


Cairo  in  1773.  His  account  of  his  joiirnej'  and 
the  increasing  interest  in  the  slave  traffic  led  to 
the  organization,  in  1788,  of  the  African  Associa- 
tion, expressly  intended  to  promote  the  explora- 
tion of  the  unknown  parts  of  the  continent.  In 
17fl5  the  association  dispatched  Mungo  Park 
(q.v.),  a  young  Scotchman,  to  the  montli  of  the 
Gambia,  to  explore  the  interior  and  to  find  the 
Niger,  on  wliich  was  supposed  to  be  the  negro 
city  of  Timbuktu.  Passing  up  the  Gambia,  Park, 
after  man}'  adventures,  reached  the  Niger,  which 
he  traced  for  a  considerable  distance  along  its 
middle  course.  He  returned  to  England,  but 
again  set  forth  in  1S05,  intending  to  travel  over- 
land to  the  Niger,  and  ))y  sailing  down  that 
stream  prove  his  theory  tliat  it  was  identical 
with  the  river  whicli  was  known  at  tlie  mouth  as 
the  Congo.  He  was  drowned  at  Bussa,  with 
one  of  his  companions,  and  all  the  other  members 
of  the  party  succumbed  to  fever. 

Meanwhile,  the  Portuguese  Brazilian  F.  J.  de 
Lacerda  in  1707  started  from  tlie  Zambezi  to 
cross  the  continent  from  east  to  west,  but  died 
near  Lake  Moero.  Other  Portuguese  explorers 
traversed  this  region  from  both  sides  during  the 
next  thirty-five  years.  The  stories  tliat  Park 
had  heard  and  published  about  the  mysterious 
city  of  Timliulitu  aroused  great  curiosity.  The 
city  was  readied  in  1811  by  a  British  seaman 
named  Adams,  who  had  been  wrecked  on  the 
Moorish  coast  and  carried  inland  as  a  slave,  but 
was  ransomed  by  the  British  consul  at  Mogador. 
In  1822  Major  Denhani  and  Lieutenant  Clap- 
perton  (q.v.)  attempted  the  trans-Saharan  route 
to  Timbuktu.  From  Murzuk,  the  capital  of 
Fezzan,  they  made  their  way  to  Lake  Ch.id  and 
thence  to  Bornu,  adding,  in  a  .second  trip  by  Clap- 
perton  from  Benin  to  the  Niger,  some  two  thou- 
sand miles  of  route  to  the  known  geograjihy  of 
West  Africa.  In  1826  Timbuktu  was  reached  by 
Major  Laing  (q.v.),  who  was  murdered  there. 
In  '  1828  Ren6  Cailli^  reached  the  far-famed 
metropolis,  and  his  report  aroused  widespread  in- 
terest, one  sign  of  whicli  was  the  prize  poem 
■with  which  Tennyson  began  his  public  career. 
The  doubtful  geographical  problem  of  the  eo\irse 
and  mouth  of  the  Niger  was  finally  solved,  1830- 
34,  by  the  Lander  brothers.  At  this  time  the 
exploration  of  the  Nile  was  carried  on  under  the 
auspices  of  Mehemet  Ali,  its  course  being  traced 
almost  to  the  equator.  In  1847  the  German  mis- 
sionaries Krapf  and  Rebmann  discovered  the 
peaks  of  Kilimanjaro  and  Kenia. 

The  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  marked 
the  introduction  of  the  distinctly  scientific  spirit 
into  African  exploration.  Heretofore  the  thirst 
for  adventure,  the  desire  to  develop  a  profitable 
trade,  and  a  somewhat  sentimental  humani- 
tarianism  had  been  the  chief  motives  of  the  ex- 
peditions. The  era  of  systematic  scientific  ex- 
ploration was  ushered  in  by  Dr.  Heinrich  Barth 
(q.v.),  a  German  in  the  English  service.  The 
primary  object  of  his  activity  was  the  opening 
of  trade  with  Central  Africa.  He  left  Tripoli 
early  in  18.50  witli  James  Richardson,  Avho  died 
soon  after  leaving  Bornu,  where  the  party  had 
separated.  Overweg,  another  of  the  leaders,  was 
the  first  European  to  sail  on  Lake  Chad,  and 
died  in  18.'52.  Barth,  for  four  years,  conducted 
extensive  explorations  in  the  heart  of  Africa. 
From  Lake  Chad  he  crossed  Ilaussaland  to  the 
Niger,  thence  across  country  to  Timbuktu, 
thence  back  to  Say  on  the  Niger,  to  Sokoto,  to 
Kukawa  in  Bornu,  and  across  the  desert  to 
Tripoli,   whence   he   returned   to   England   with 


the  most  valuable  contribution  yet  made  to  the 
geographical  knowledge  of  interior  Africa.  His 
voluminous  works  are  of  the  highest  value.  Be- 
fore Barth  started  from  the  north,  another  of 
the  greatest  of  African  explorers,  David  Living- 
stone (q.v.),  had  unostentatiously  begun  his  re- 
markable career.  He  liad  settled  in  1841  in  Bechu- 
analand,  and.  gradually  pushing  northward,  dis- 
covered Lake  Nganii  in  1849.  In  1851  he  arrived 
at  the  Zambezi.  He  prepared  himself  thorough- 
ly for  more  extended  work,  and  went  to  the  Zam- 
bezi again  in  18.52,  followed  up  the  river  almost  to 
its  source,  crossed  to  Angola,  and  then  returned 
and  followed  the  Zambezi  to  its  moutli.  He 
went  to  London  in  1856.  Burton  (q.v.)  and 
Speke  (q.v.)  explored  Somaliland  in  1854,  and 
in  1856  led  an  expedition  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Royal  Geogi-aphical  Society,  wliicli  discov- 
ered Tanganyika  and  the  southern  shore  of 
Victoria  Nyanza,  which  Speke  and  Grant  ex- 
plored from  1860  to  1864.  Numerous  Austrian, 
Italian,  German,  and  English  explorers  had  been 
working  in  the  Nile  region.  Sir  Samuel  Baker 
explored  the  Abyssinian  branches  of  the  Nile, 
met  Speke  and  Grant  in  1804,  and  discovered 
the  Albert  Nyanza  and  its  connection  with  the 
Nile.  Livingstone,  between  1858  and  1864,  ex- 
plored the  River  Shire  and  discovered  Lake 
Nyassa.  He  renewed  his  work  in  1866,  going 
from  the  Ruvuma  River  to  Nyassa,  Tanganyika, 
Moero,  the  Luapula  River,  and  Bangweolo, 
where  he  arrived  in  1868.  Thence  he  went  to 
Tanganyika  and  Nyangwe  on  the  Upper  Congo, 
which  he  called  the  Lualaba.  At  Ujiji  a  relief 
expedition  sent  by  the  New  York  Tlcrald  under 
H.  M.  Stanley  (q.v.)  met  him  in  1871.  Living- 
stone soon  returned  to  Lake  Bangweolo,  where 
he  died  in  1873.  Another  relief  expedition  sent 
out  by  the  Ro3-al  Geographical  Society  in  1873 
under  Lieutenant  Cameron,  starting  at  Zanzibar, 
learned  of  Livingstone's  death,  but  went  on, 
mapped  Lake  Tanganyika,  found  that  the  Lua- 
laba was.  really  the  Congo,  and  reached  Benguela 
in  1875,  having  crossed  the  continent. 

While  the  solution  of  the  problem  of  the 
sources  of  the  Nile  was  being  achieved,  import- 
ant accessions  were  made  to  the  knowledge  of 
the  geography  of  Western  Africa.  Du  Chaillu 
explored  the  country  back  of  the  Gabun  and  the 
region  of  the  Ogowe,  and  Burton  in  1861  scaled 
the  Peak  of  Kanierun. 

Dr.  Gerhard  Rohlfs  (q.v.),  a  German  serving 
in  the  foreign  legion  in  Algeria,  began  to  make 
explorations  in  Algeria  and  Morocco  about  1860, 
and  in  1866  succeeded  in  making  the  journey 
across  the  desert  to  the  Gulf  of  Guinea.  An- 
other German,  Dr.  Nachtigal  (q.v.),  intrusted  by 
the  Prussian  Government  with  a  mission  to  the 
Sultan  of  Bornu,  started  from  Tripoli  in  186S, 
explored  the  mountains  in  the  central  Sahara, 
and  tlie  whole  of  the  eastern  Sahara  and  Sudan. 
In  1875  Stanley  circumnavigated  the  two  great 
lakes,  Victoria  Nyanza  and  Tanganyika,  crossed 
to  the  Congo,  embarked  upon  that  river  at  Nyan- 
gwe, in  1876,  and  followed  its  course  to  tlie 
Atlantic,  which  he  reached  in  August,  1877. 
Schweinfurth  (q.v.),  a  native  of  Riga,  ascended 
the  White  Nile  in  1868,  discovered  the  Welle 
River,  an<l  returned  to  Egypt  in  1 S72,  having 
accumulated  a  large  amount  of  information. 
Leopold  II.,  King  of  the  Belgians,  took  an 
active  interest  in  the  work  going  on  in  Africa, 
and  in  1876  organized  the  International  African 
Association,  in  which  most  of  the  European  coun- 
tries were  associated.     Several  geographical  and 


AFRICA. 


183 


AFRICA. 


Bcientifif  expeditions  wcie  tlie  produet  of  this 
organization,  aiul  stations  \v<Me  opened  from 
Zanziliar  to  Tan^'anyika.  In  IHTil  Stanley  was 
sent  into  the  Congo  country,  supported  by  funds 
furnished  cliietly  hy  Leopold,  and  worked  for 
five  years  in  that  region  in  the  luiine  of  the  asso- 
ciation. Several  thousand  treaties  were  made 
with  native  chiefs,  hy  which  territorial  rights 
of  more  or  less  value  were  acquired,  and  perma- 
nent posts,  with  regular  routes  of  trade  and 
travel,  were  established  along  the  course  of  the 
river.  The  purpose  was  to  found  a  State  which 
should  be  a  civilizing  centre,  in  the  heart  of 
Africa.  For  a  time  there  was  some  international 
interest  in  the  project;  but  for  several  years 
those  European  jjowers  which  had  l)een  active 
in  African  exploration  had  been  looking  for- 
ward to  i)ossilile  ]iolitical  results,  anil  the 
institution  of  such  a  State,  with  a  territory 
comprising  about  one-eleventh  of  the  whole 
continent,  seems  to  have  been  the  signal  for 
the  rise  of  territorial  claims  on  all  sides. 
Interest  in  the  international  enterprise  died 
out,  and  the  King  of  the  Belgians  was  left 
free  to  develop  the  Congo  Stale  into  a  Bel- 
gian dependency.  The  English  hoped  to  make 
it  an  English  possession,  and  the  attempt  of 
threat  Uritaiu  to  come  to  an  agreement  with 
Portngal.  whose  territory  in  tlie  southwest 
touched  that  of  the  Congo  State,  led  to  the  as- 
sembling in  1SS4  of  the  Berlin  Conference,  called 
to  bring  about  an  international  agreement  in 
African  alTairs.  The  results  of  this  conference 
are  described  in  a  subsequent  paragraph. 

Of  the  long  list  of  African  explorers  u])  to  this 
time  only  those  have  lieen  mentioned  whose  work 
marked  a  distinct  advance  in  the  knowleilgc?  of 
the  continent.  There  may  1)?  added  to  the  num- 
ber, prior  to  18S5,  the  Portuguese  Serpa  Pinto 
( I8"7-7!t) .  and  Capcllo  and  Ivens  ( 1884-85) ,  who 
made  valuable  explorations  in  South  Africa; 
.lunker  (1880-83),  a  traveler,  whose  examina- 
tion of  the  western  watershed  of  the  Nile  was  of 
great  value;  Joseph  Thomson  (1883-84),  who 
made  thorough  studies  of  the  mountainous  coun- 
try between  Mombasa  and  the  lakes,  and  likewise 
in  West  Africa  and  the  Atlas  Mountains:  Wiss- 
mann  (1881-82 1,  who  crossed  the  continent  and 
returned  through  the  southern  side  of  the  Congo 
basin;  Oscar  Lenz,  who,  in  1871)-S7,  went  from 
Morocco  to  Senegambia  by  the  way  of  Timbuktu, 
ascended  the  Congo,  and  traveled  to  the  Zambezi 
by  the  way  of  Tanganyika;  Brazza,  who  explored 
the  country  between  the  Ogowe  and  Congo ;  and 
Fniil  Ilolub,  who  added  greatly  to  the  knowledge 
of  the  natural  history  of  South  Africa. 

Much  has  been  done  in  the  way  of  explcu-ation 
since  1885,  the  object  generally  being  to  jjcrfect 
geogrii|)hicaI  and  scientific  knowledge  of  the  dif- 
ferent regions.  Of  such  expeditions,  the  best 
known  and  one  of  the  most  noteworthy  was  Stan- 
ley's mission,  undertaken  in  1887,  in  search  of 
Gordon's  lieutenant,  the  (icrman  Schnitzer,  bet- 
ter known  as  Eniin  Pasha,  who  had  retreated  into 
the  interior  after  the  fall  of  Khartum.  Stanley 
went  up  the  Congo  and  crossed  to  Zanzibar.  On 
the  journey  he  traversed  the  dense  and  vast  forest 
inluiliitiyl  liy  diminutive  savages,  and  thus  eon- 
firmed  ancient  accoiints  of  African  Pygmies.  Tlie 
predominance  of  the  British  in  Eg>pt  and  in 
South  .Africa,  and  the  fact  that  the  territory 
under  British  inlhu^ice  stretclu-s  with  but  one 
break  (Cerman  East  Africa)  from  the  month  of 
the  Nile  to  Cape  Town,  has  given  rise  to  the 
project  of  a  trunk  line  railway  "from  the  Cape 


to  Cairo,"  a  project  whiili  is  likely  to  be  carried 
out  at  no  distant  day,  with  far-reaching  conse- 
quences in  the  development  of  the  continent. 
This  plan  led  to  the  crossing  of  the  continent 
from  south  to  north  by  Ewart  S.  Grogan  and 
Arthur  Sharp  in  18i)9.  Their  journej'  was  an 
adventurous  and  dangerous  one,  but  the  change 
in  African  conditions  at  the  end  of  the  nineteenth 
century  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  there  was  a 
choice  of  routes  in  luiying  lirst-class  railway 
tickets  from  the  Cape  to  Karonga  at  the  head  of 
Lake  Nyassa,  and  the  journey  from  Sobat,  a 
considerable  distance  south  of  Kashoda,  is  de- 
scribed as  "a  fortnight  of  wild  hospitality''  at 
the  hands  of  English  friends.  This  journey  was 
productive  of  much  valuable  inform.ation  regard- 
ing the  country  which  the  transcontinental  line 
is  expected  to  traverse  in  the  volcanic  region 
around  Eake  Kivu  ami  on  the  eastern  shores  of 
Lake  .\lbert  Edward  and  the  ITpper  Nile.  A  host 
of  scientific  investigators  and  explorers  have  in 
the  last  twenty  years  done  useful  work  in  various 
African  fields.  Anuing  such,  special  reference 
should  be  made  to  Donaldson  Smith  in  connec- 
tion with  explorations  in  Somaliland.  Tlie  two 
most  notable  expeditions  of  receutyears  have  been 
those  of  Marchand  (the  "Marchand  Mission  to 
Fashoda")  and  Foureau,  tlie  latter,  in  his  trans- 
Saharan  journey  to  the  Congo,  making  an  epoch 
in  African  exploration.  One  of  the  most  extra- 
ordinary among  African  explorers  for  his  siic- 
•eess  as  traveler,  organizer,  administrator,  and 
historian  of  Africa  is  Sir  Harry  H.  .Tohnston. 

The  Partition  of  Africa.  The  Berlin  Con- 
ference is  important  in  the  history  of  Africa  as 
marking  the  transition  from  a  period  of  explo- 
rations undertaken  in  a  spirit  of  scientific  curi- 
osity or  gain  to  a  period  in  which  the  play  of 
international  politics  is  the  most  prominent 
feature.  The  crucial  question  before  the  con- 
ference was  that  of  the  Congo  Free  State  (q.v. ) 
and  its  relations  with  neighboring  territories, 
intimately  it  was  recognized  as  an  independent, 
neutral  State,  under  the  personal  sovereignty  of 
the  King  of  Belgium.  The  title  of  France  to  the 
territory  of  the  French  Congo  and  the  Upper 
Ubanghi  was  acknowledged,  with  a  right  of  pre- 
cm]ition  in  case  of  the  transfer  of  the  Congo 
State  from  Belgium  to  another  power.  The  con- 
ference also  determined  the  spheres  of  the  sev- 
eral interested  powers  in  Africa,  so  that  the 
numerous  boundary  treaties  and  agreements  that 
have  been  arranged  since  1885  have  virtually 
been  executory  provisions  added  to  the  Berlin 
convention.  Three  such  treaties  were  concluded 
by  Great  Britain  in  181)0.  The  Anglo-German 
agreement,  signed  at  Berlin  July  1,  gave  Ger- 
many the  island  of  Heligoland  in  the  North  Sea 
in  return  for  certain  eo'icessions  which  harmo- 
nized the  relations  of  the  two  powers  in  Eastern 
Africa;  the  Anglo-French  agreement,  signed  at 
London,  August  5.  recognized  an  English  protec- 
torate over  Zanzibar  and  Pemba  and  a  French 
protectorate  over  Madagascar,  and  determined 
the  French  sphere  of  influence  as  extending  from 
Algeria  southward  to  a  line  from  Say  on  the  Niger 
to  Lake  Chad:  the  Anglo-Portuguese  agree- 
ment, August  20  and  November  14,  established 
the  respective  territorial  rights  of  Portugal  and 
the  British  South  Africa  Company.  Subsequent 
agreements  between  England,  France,  and  Ger- 
many (189!))  defined  their  respective  territories 
and  protectorates  in  West  Africa.  The  question 
of  the  control  of  the  Nile  region  and  of  South 
.\friea     gave     rise    to    numerous     attempts     to 


AFBICA. 


184 


AFRICA. 


secure  adjustments  in  that  quarter,  and  agree- 
ments to  wliieh  Abyssinia,  Egypt,  Franco,  Ger- 
many, Great  Britain,  and  Italv  were  parties  were 
made  in  18!tl.  1803,  18!)4,  1895.  180(1,  1807.  and 
1800.  Jn  1900  the  demj.rkalion  of  British  and 
German  boundaries  in  West  Africa  was  complet- 
ed. By  lliis  process  of  absorption  by  agreement, 
the  whole  African  continent  has  come  into  actual 
possession  or  political  control  of  European  States, 
with  the  exception  of  Morocco,  Abyssinia,  and 
Liberia.  The  Orange  Free  State  and  the  Trans- 
vaal lost  their  independent  existence  in  the  war 
with  Groat  Britain   (1800-1902). 

The  partition  of  the  African  continent  may  be 
siunmarizod  ns  follows:  In  the  northeast,  Egypt, 
nominally  under  Turkish  suzerainty,  is  really 
under  British  control,  while  Egypt  and  Great 
Britain  exercise  a.  condominium  over  the  eastern 
Sudan.  Barca  and  Tripoli  remain  subject  to 
the  Porte.  Tunis  and  .\Igeria  pertain  to  France, 
whose  influence  reaches  down  across  the  Sahara 
and  Sudan  to  the  northern  slope  of  the  Congo 
basin.  On  the  west  coast  below  Jlorocco  is  the 
small  Rio  d'Ouro  possession  of  Spain.  Then 
come  the  French  Senegal,  British  Gambia,  Por- 
tuguese Guinea,  French  Guinea,  the  British 
Sierra  Leone,  Liberia,  another  block  of  French 
territory,  the  British  Ashanti,  German  Togoland, 
French  Dahomey,  the  extensive  British  Niger 
territories,  and  German  Kamerun.  Off  the  coast 
of  Kamerun  lies  the  Spanish  island  of  Fernando 
Po,  to  which  are  attached  some  other  small 
islands  and  a  small  district  on  the  mainland 
cut  out  of  the  French  Congo  territory.  Below 
the  latter  lies  the  Congo  Free  State,  with  but  a 
small  coast  line,  the  wedge  of  the  small  Portu- 
guese territory  of  Kabinda  pushed  in  between  it 
and  the  French  Cou^i.  South  of  the  Congo  lies 
the  large  Portuguese  territory  of  Angola,  then 
German  South  Africa,  and  then  Cape  Colony,  one 
of  the  British  self-governing  possessions.  North 
of  the  latter  on  the  east  coast  is  the  British 
colony  of  Natal,  and  north  of  that  Portuguese 
East  Africa.  Between  the  two  latter  and  Ger- 
man West  Africa  and  Angola,  the  territories  of 
British  South  Africa  and  British  Central  .Vfrica 
in  the  interior  extend  northward  to  the  Congo 
State  and  to  German  East  Africa,  which  occupies 
the  east  coast  north  of  Lake  Nyassa  and  the 
Kuvuma  River.  The  Orange  River  and  Vaal 
River  colonies  adjoin  Natal  and  British  South 
Africa.  North  of  German  East  Africa  lies  Brit- 
ish East  Africa,  which  touches  on  the  north  the 
British  sphere  of  influence  in  the  Sudan.  Abys- 
sinia, and  on  the  coast,  Italian  Somaliland.  West 
of  the  latter  on  the  Gulf  of  Aden  is  the  British 
Somali  coast  protectorate,  then  French  Somali- 
land,  and  then  the  Italian  Eritrea,  the  four  ter- 
ritories last  named  shutting  Abyssinia  off  from 
the  coast.  The  area  and  population  of  the  Afri- 
can territories  possessed  or  controlled  by  the 
European  powers  are  approximately  as  follows: 

Country.           Square  miles.  Population. 

France  "                     4.000,000*  32.(Wr>.010* 

Great  Britain         2,700.000t  41,773.3fiO 

Germany                    1,000,000  14.200.000 

Portugal                        800.000  8.197.700 

Italy                               200.000  4.")0.000 


■<pain 


80.000 
400.000 


]3i;.ooo 

1 ,300,000 


Turkey 

For  fuller  accounts  of  the  important  phases  of 

*  Tnrlmlinc  Mjulncascjir  (q.v.V 

t  Inclusive  i)f  Kgyrt  •'"I'l  ""'  Sudan. 


exploration  and  political  division,  see  biographi- 
cal articles  relating  to  the  leading  explorers, 
and  the  historical  sections  of  articles  on  Abys- 
sinia: C.\PE  OF  Good  Hope;  Congo  Free  State; 
Egypt:  ilAD.^OAscwB ;  Orange  Rta-eb  Colony,  and 
Tban.sva.4^1,. 

Bim.ioGRApnY.  For  general  works,  con.sult : 
Keane,  "Africa."  in  Stanford's  Compendium  of 
Geogra)ihii  nid  Trarel  (London.  1895),  a  general 
treatise  on  the  geography,  ethno!og^^  etc.,  of 
the  African  continent ;  Sievers-IIahn.  Afrika.  rine 
allgemeine  Lnndeskiinde  (Leipzig,  1901);  Reelus, 
Physical  (leorirnphn.  translated  by  Keane  and 
Ravenstein  ( London,  1890-95)  ;  Lanier,  L'Afiique 
(Paris,  1S95);  Chavanne,  Afiika  im  Lichte 
nnscrer  I'dt/e  (Vienna.  1881);.  id.,  Afiil;as 
Strome  und  Fliisse  (Vienna,  1883)  ;  Fischer, 
Melir  Licht  im  diinkcln  Weltteil  (Hamburg, 
1885)  ;  Hartmanu  and  others,  Der  ^Yc!tteil 
Afrika  in  EinzeldarstcUungcn  i\ueipzigASS3-8a]  ; 
Johnston.  Afrira  (London,  1884)  :  Ratzel.  T'67/>-- 
rrkundr.  Volume  I.  (Leipzig,  1885);  Junker, 
"Wissenschaftliche  Ergebnisse  von  Reisen  in 
Zentral  Afrika,"  in  Pctermann's  Mitteihuificn, 
Ergunziingsheft.  Volume .  XX.  (Gotha,  18S'S)  ; 
White.  The  Dri^eJopmetit  of  Africa  (London, 
1892)  ;  Greswell.  Geography  of  Africa  Sotitli  of 
the  Zambesi  (Oxford,  1802),  with  notes  on  the 
industries,  wealth,  and  social  progress  of  the 
states  and  people. 

For  history  and  colonization,  consult:  Neu- 
mann, Xord  Afriha  nach  llerodoi  (Leipzig.  1892)  ; 
Schiilten,  Das  romischc  Afrika  (Leipzig,  1899)  ; 
Graham.  Roman  Africa  (London,  1902)  ;  Kunst- 
mann.  Afrika  vor  dcr  Ankiinft  dcr  Portiuiiescn 
(Munich,  1853)  ;  Brown,  The  Story  of  Africa 
and  Its  F.-rpJorers  (London.  1892-95)  ;  Roskosch- 
ny.  Europas  Kolonicn,  Volumes  I.-IV.  (Leipzitr. 
1885-80)  ;  Keltic,  The  Partition  of  Africa  (Lon- 
don, 1895)  ;  Deville,  Portage  de  VAfrique  (Paris, 
1898)  ;  Johnston,  History  of  the  Colonization  of 
Africa  by  Alien  Races  (Cambridge,  1899)  :  Peter-. 
Dns  dcntsrh-ostafrikanische  Schiitzgcbiet  (Jlii 
nich.  1895)  ;  "British  Africa."  in  Uritish  Emjiirc 
Series  (London.  1899),  a  collection  of  (lapcrs  by 
different  authors  compiled  to  afford  trustworthy 
information  concerning  the  British  colonies  in 
Africa. 

Ethnology  and  archreology;  Keane,  Ethnoh 
gy  (Cambridge.  1896)  :  Deniker,  Races  of  ilu, 
(London.  1900)  ;  Edwards,  A  Thousand  Miles  np 
the  Kile  (London,  1891)  ;  Hartmann,  Die  Yiilker 
Afrikas  (Lp\]i7.\s.  1879)  :  Xatires  of  South  Afri- 
ca, Their  Economic  and  Social  Condition,  edited 
bv  South  African  NatiA-e  Races  Committee  (Lon- 
don,  1901). 

On  the  flora  of  Africa,  consult :  Engler,  TJebrr 
die  TIorhr/ebirgs-Flora  des  tropischen  Afrik" 
(Berlin,  1892)  :  Sim.  The  Ferns  of  South  Afrii- 
(Cape  Town,  1892)  :  Catalogue  of  African  Plant 
Collected  bv  Friedrieh  Wehriisch  in  ISoS-i: 
(London,  1896-1901):  Steiner.  "Flechten  au- 
British  Ost-Afrika."  in  Kais.  Akad.  d.  Wis^en- 
sehaflcii.  Silzungshcricht  dcr  ntatheniatisch- 
naturu-issenschaftliehen  Klasse,Yo\\unc  CVI.,  pt. 
1  (Vienna,  1897)  :  Oschatz.  Annrdnung  der 
Vegetation  in  Afrika  (Erlangen,  1900).  On  the 
fauna,  consult:  Smith,  Illustrations  of  the 
Zoology  of  South  Africa.  5  volumes  (London. 
1849).  which  includes  mammals,  birds,  rep- 
tiles, fishes,  and  invertebrates:  Drununond, 
jAirge  Came  and  Xatiirril  Hiftory  of  South  and 
East  Africa  (Edinburgh,  1875)  ;  Kolbc,  Hcilrag 
zur  Zoogeographie  West  Afrikas   (Halle,  1887)  : 


AFRICA. 


185 


AFRICAN  LANGUAGES. 


Trinien.  Soulli  Afriiftii  H  utter  flies,  .3  volumes 
(Londdii.  1887-811)  ;  Di-itsint.  .4  yaturalist  in  the 
Transiuul  (Loinlon,  1H!)2»  :  Kinj'slpy,  Travels  in 
West  Africa  (London.  1897 ),  wliii-h  (ontains 
Dr.  Ciuutlier's  report  on  reptiles  and  lislies  and 
Kirbv's  report  on  tlie  Orthoptera.  llynienopleni, 
and  ileniiptera  eolleeted  by  Jliss  Kinf;s|ry:  f^lur- 
nay,  "Kataiof;  der  liislicr  bekannt  fjewordeuen 
siid-afrikaniselien  Lund-  und  Sussvviisser-Mollu.sk- 
en,"  in  Kais.  Ahml.  ilrr  \\  issiiinchuflt  ii.  ilullte- 
malisch-iHiliiniissoisclitiftlichc  IJi  uLsehriflen, 
Volume  1..\V1I.  (Vienna.  18!)!)).  Valuable  works 
on  tlie  African  climate  are:  Hann,  Handbiich  tier 
Kliiiiatuloijic  (Stuttfjart,  18!;)7):  id.,  "Atlas  der 
Aleteorolo^rie."  in  Berj;haus,  I'lii/silcdlisrlur  Atlas 
((Jotha.  1888)  ;  Kaven.stein.  -The  Climatology  of 
Africa."  in  Ueports  of  the  lirilish  Assoruitioii  for 
the  Ailrdiiermcnt  of  Scienee  for  1SU7  and  IS!)!) 
(London.  18!)8,  l!)()0)  :  Bartholomew.  I'hysicul 
4 (/«.•(,  volume  on  ■•.Meteorolo};y"  (London,  1901). 
The  volumes  of  the  Zeitsrhrift  der  oeslerreiehi- 
$chen  (Icvellsfhaft  fiir  Meleoroloyie  (Vienna, 
1800-8,5)  and  of  the  Mcteoroloyisrhe  Zeitschrift 
(Berlin.  1,884  et  seq.)  contain  nuiiiy  reports  of 
iiieteoioloj.'i<al  observations  made  at  places  in  all 
parts  of  .\friea. 

On  freolofiy.  consult:  Neumayr,  Erdyeschichtc 
(Leipzig'.  188S-87)  :  Suess,  Das  Antlitz  der  Erdc 
(Leipzig.  1888-1001):  Chavanne,  Afrika  im 
hirhle  uiiserer  Tar/e:  Bodengcstnlt  iind  r/eolo- 
gischer  Hon  (Vienna,  1881);  Thcnnson,  "Notes 
on  the  Geology  of  East  Central  Africa,"  in  To 
the  Central  Afriean  Lakes  (London.  1881)  ; 
Lenz,  '"Geologische  Karte  von  West  Afrika,"  in 
J'etermanii's  Millciliini/ci:,  Tafel  1.  (Gotha, 
1882)  ;  Monlle,  ileinuire  sur  la  (leolofiic  rjenerale 
et  sur  les  mines  dc  dianiaii.ts  de  I'Afrique  du  iS'«<i 
(Paris,  188.T)  :  Sehenek,  "Geologisehe  Skizze  von 
Slid  Afrika,"  in  Peteriiiann's  ilitleiliinqcn.  Ta- 
fol  13  (Gotha.  1888)  :  Blanckenliorn,  "Die  geog- 
nostisehen  Verhiiltnisse  von  Afrika,"  in  Peter- 
inaini's  Milli'Hunqcn,  Erqunziinqshefl.  Vol- 
Time  XX.  (Gotha,  1888)  :  Hiiiinel,  Rosiwal,  Toula, 
and  Suess,  Jicitriic/c  jio-  ijciiUxiisehen  Kcnntius 
des  ostliehcn  Afrika  (Vienna,  1S!)1)  ;  Scott  and 
Gregory.  "The  Geology  of  IMount  Uuwenzori  and 
Some  Adjoining  Regions  of  Equatorial  Africa," 
in  Quurterhf  •loitrnal  of  the  Oeolof/irnl  Soeieti/, 
Volume  LI.  (London,  180."));  MoolengrafT,  "Die 
Reihenfolge  und  Correlation  der  geologisehen 
Format ionen  in  Siid  .Vfrika,"  in  Xeiics  Jahrbuch 
fiir  Mineraloqie  (Stuttgart,  1900);  (leologieal 
Hap  of  \orth   Africa    (Ziirich,   18!)(i), 

Among  the  numerous  books  dealing  with  -Afri- 
ean travel  and  exploration,  inay  be  mentioned: 
Burton,  First  Footsteps  in  Kast  Afrira  {  London, 
18:)0)  ;  Livingstone,  Missionary  Trarels  and  Re- 
searches in  South  Africa  (New  Vork,  18.58)  ; 
id.,  \arratire  of  an  Expedition  to  the  Zambesi 
and  its  Tributaries,  and  the  Discovery  of  the 
Lakes  tihirua  and  'Xyassa,  IS-'/fi-li'i  (London, 
1805)  ;  id..  The  Jjost  ,Iournals  of  Da  rid  Liriny- 
stone  in  Central  Africa,  edited  by  Waller  (Lon- 
don, 1874)  ;  Kahlfs.  Qucr  durch  Afrika  (Leipzig, 
1874-7.5).  a  journey  from  the  Mediterranean  .Sea 
to  Lake  Chad  and  to  the  Gulf  of  (ruinea;  Cam- 
eron. Across  Africa  (New  York,  1877),  :i  journal 
of  a  journey  from  Zanzibar  to  Benguela,  and  a 
valuable  record  of  the  habits  of  the  natives; 
Stanley,  Throuyh  the  Dark  Continent  (New 
York,  1878)  ;  Ilolub.  l^even  Years  in  l^outh  Afri- 
ca, translated  by  Frewer  (London.  1S81  )  :  Pinto, 
Hon-  I  Crossed  Africa,  translated  by  Elwes( Phil- 
adelphia, 1881);  Drunimond,  Tropical  Africa 
Vol.  1.— u. 


(New  Y'ork,  1888)  ;  Junker,  Ueisen  in  .ifrika 
(Vienna,  1889-91  ), translated  f)y  Keane  (London, 
1890-92)  ;  Stanley.  In  Darkest  Africa  (  New  York, 
1890),  an  account  of  the  quest,  rescue  and  re- 
treat of  Emin  Pa.-iha  ;  Casati,  Ten  Years  in  Equa- 
toria,  translated  by  Clay  and  Landor  (London, 
1891 )  ;  Peters,  Keii-  Liaht  on  Dark  Africa,  trans- 
lated by  Duhhen  (London.  1891).  the  narrative 
of  the  Gernuin  Kmin  Pash;i  expedition  ;  .Johnston, 
/..iringstone  and  the  Exploration  of  Central 
Africa  (London,  1891);  Bryce,  Impressions  of 
Nonth  .ifrica  (New  Y'ork,  1897)  ;  Loyd,  In  Dwarf 
Ldiitl  und  Cannibal  Country   (London,  1899). 

AFKICAINE,  L',  la'fn'-'kftn'  (Fr.,  The  Afri- 
can). A  French  opera  by  CJiacomo  Jleyerbeer 
(q.v. ) .  The  words  are  by  Scribe,  and  it  was  pro- 
duced in  Paris,  April  28,  1805,  a  year  after  the 
composer's   death. 

AF'RICAN'DER.     See   Afiiikanokk. 

AF'RICAN  HAIR.      See  CiiAM.Eitof.s. 

AFRICAN  IN'TERNA'TIONAL  ASSO'CI- 
A'TION.  In  lS7(i  the  King  of  Belgium  called 
a  conference  at  Brussels  of  geographers  and  ex- 
plorers to  consider  means  for  the  opening  up  of 
Africa  to  civilization,  and  there  the  African 
International  Association  was  formed,  witli  the 
object  of  establishing  stations  for  scientific  pur- 
poses in  Eastern  Africa.  When  H.  M.  Stanley 
in  1877  revealed  the  magnitude  and  importance 
of  the  fertile  Congo  basin,  a  second  conference 
was  assembled  at  Brussels,  at  which  the  .Vfiican 
Internatiomil  Association  made  plans  which  ex- 
tended its  held  of  operation  over  the  newly 
explored  territory.  But  the  greed  of  the  dilTer- 
ent  nations,  awakened  by  the  dazzling  territo- 
rial and  conunercial  prospects  the  Congo  basin 
afTorded.  brought  about  endless  disputes,  until 
at  length  it  was  decided,  by  the  mutual  consent 
of  all  the  great  powers,  including  the  I'nited 
States,  to  leave  the  final  adjustment  of  the  dif- 
ficulties to  an  international  conference  in  Berlin. 
The  conference  opened  at  Berlin,  November  17, 
1884.  with  Prince  Bismarck  in  the  chair,  and 
ended  its  labors  February  20,  188,5.  Fifteen 
States  were  represented.  As  a  result  of  mutual 
compromises,  it  was  declared  that  the  immense 
regions  forming  the  basin  of  the  Congo  River 
and  its  tributaries  shall  be  neutral  territory, 
that  perfectly  free  trade  shall  exist  there,  that 
citizens  of  any  country  nuiy  undertake  every 
species  of  transportation  within  its  limits,  that 
the  i)Owers  exercising  sovereign  rights  over  neigh- 
boring territory  are  forbidden  to  exercise  monop- 
olies or  favors  of  any  kind  in  regard  to  trade, 
and  that  they  shall  bind  themselves  to  suppress 
slavery.  The  King  of  Belgium  was  made  sov- 
ereign of  the  new  State.  See  Africa  ;  Congo 
FiiEE  St.vte;  Stanley,  H.  JL 

AFRICAN  LAN'GUAGES.  Of  the  numer- 
ous classifications  of  African  languages,  that 
which  best  represents  our  present  knowledge  is 
the  following: 

1.  Semitu  :  .\rabic;  the  Abyssinian  lan- 
giKiges  derived  from  Geez  (the  so-called  Ethi- 
oi)ic),  i.e.,  Tigr^,  Tigiina,  Anduiric,  Harari,  (Ju- 
rague.  The  languages  comprised  in  this  division 
were  brought  into  Africa  by  Semitic  immigrants 
or  invaders. 

2.  Hamitic:  Libyan  dialects;  ancient  Egyp- 
tian (whence  Coptic,  now  extinct),  Bishari 
( Beja,  Bedauye).  Saho,  .■Vfar,  various  Agaii 
dialects  of  Abyssinia  (Cliamir,  Quara,  etc.),  and 


AFBICAN  LANGUAGES. 


186 


AFRICAN  LANGUAGES. 


of  the  highlands  south  of  it  (Kaffa,  Kullo,  etc.), 
Galla.  and  Somali,  Haussa  in  the  west  of  the 
Sudan. 

3.  HoTTENTOT-Bu.sHMAN.  Possibly  this  branch 
represents  two  different  divisions.  This  is  the 
tlieory  of  F.  Miiller.  But  the  Bushman  dialects 
have  not  j'et  been  sufficiently  investigated.  Lep- 
sius'  attempt  to  connect  Hottentot  and  Hamitie 
words  is  not  convincing.  None  of  the  dwarf 
tribes  north  of  8°  south  latitude  have  preserved 
their  original  languages. 

4.  The  Bantu  Kamily;  which  embraces, rough- 
ly speaking,  all  Africa  south  of  the  equator.  Its 
most  perfect  type  is  represented  by  the  language 
of  the  Zulu  Kaffirs  and  their  nearest  relatives. 
To  what  extent  corrupt  Bantu  dialects  are  spok- 
en on  the  western  coast  has  not  yet  been  deter- 
mined. 

5.  The  Neuro  F.\mily;  so  called  because  the 
languages  included  in  it  are  spoken  by  the  purest 
representatives  of  the  black  race.  The  idioms 
of  that  part  of  Africa  (between  the  equator  and 
the  Sahara)  show  such  a  perplexing  variety  of 
formation  that  their  classification  in  a  single 
group  must  be  considered  as  merely  provisional. 
Perhaps  half  a  dozen  different  branches  could 
be  made  of  the  Negro  tongues.  It  is  quite  pos- 
sible that  the  line  of  demarkation  from  the  Bantu 
or  half  Bantu  languages  could  be  shifted  further 
north  (see  above)  ;  but  the  theory  of  Lepsius, 
which  considers  the  whole  group  as  degenerate 
Bantu  languages,  can  hardly  be  proved:  the 
degree  of  affinity  would  be  (en  times  more  remote 
than,  for  example,  that  existing  between  Semitic 
and  Hamitie.  But  whether  it  be  regarded  as  a 
subdivision  of  Bantu  or  as  an  independent 
branch,  the  Negro  family  clearly  forms  a  distinct 
group,  possessing  marked  characteristics  of  its 
own. 

The  nature  of  the  following  groups  is  in  dis- 
pute : 

6.  The  Nilotic  Branch.  It  begins  with  the 
Nuba,  south  of  Egypt,  comprises  the  isolated 
remnants  of  the  Barea  and  Kunama  languages 
at  the  northern  frontier  of  Abyssinia,  and  runs 
west  of  Abyssinia  and  of  the  Galla  country  down 
to  the  Albert  Lake,  wliere  the  Madi  and  Sliuli 
form  its  last  representatives.  It  is  quite  dis- 
tinct from  the  Bantu  (beginning  in  Unyoro). 
The  Masai  or  Oigob  are  an  isolated  advance 
guard  in  the  southwest.  The  principal  repre- 
sentatives in  the  Nile  Valley  are  the  Dinka,  Sliil- 
luk,  and  Bari.  The  line  of  demarkation  west  of 
the  Nile  is  difficult  to  trace;  with  the  Bongo 
and  Bagrimma,  the  Nilotic  passes  over  into  the 
perplexing  mass  of  the  fourth  group.  F.  Miiller 
called  the  sixth  the  Nuba-Fulah  branch,  but  the 
very  peculiar  Ful  language  is  best  treated  as  a 
perfectly  isolated  phenomenon.  It  seems  to  have 
some  points  of  similarity  with  the  Hamitie  (on 
which  points  Schleicher  and  Krause  have  laid 
exaggerated  stress ) ,  and  may  be  one  of  those 
odd  blendings  of  different  languages,  defying  all 
rules  of  linguistics,  of  which  Africa  furnishes 
various  examples  (e.g.,  the  Musgu  or  Muzuk). 
Its  position  among  the  Nilotic  languages  is  far 
from  being  certain.  Anthropologically,  the  tribes 
speaking  the  languages  embraced  in  this  class 
are  for  the  must  jiart  jiun'  Negroes,  though  some 
of  them  may  have  an  admixture  of  Hamitie 
blood. 

7.  The  Equatorial  Family.  Later  (l.SSO), 
F.  Miiller  attempted  to  make  of  a  group  of  lan- 
guages, which  he  had  at  first  classed  with  the 


fifth  family,  a  special  branch,  which  he  called 
the  Equatorial  family.  The  languages  compos- 
ing this  branch  are  spoken  by  tribes  south  of 
iJarfur ;  among  tliem  the  Niam-Niam  (or 
A-sande)  and  Monbuttu  (or  JIangbattu)  are 
tlie  most  important.  As  was  said  above,  the  great 
fifth  group  contains  a  number  of  families  in 
regard  to  which  it  is  hard  to  determine  wliether 
they  are  independent  branches  or  merely  sub- 
divisions of  the  general  group.  Most  of  the 
equatorial  tribes  belong  ratlier  to  a  light  Negro 
type. 

The  Malagasy  language.  s])oken  on  the  island 
of  Madagascar,  belongs  to  the  Malay  family  of 
speech.  By  reason  of  its  geographical  position 
it  need  not  be  considered  here. 

Writing.  The  use  of  writing  and  the  neces- 
sity for  it  imply  a  degree  of  civilization  to  which 
the  majority  of  the  inhabitants  of  Africa  have 
never  risen.  It  is,  therefore,  almost  exclusively 
the  white  race,  represented  by  the  Hamites  and 
the  Semitic  immigrants,  which  c<ynes  into  con- 
sideration here. 

Semitic,  In  the  Semitic  family  we  have  the 
Pha-nician  alphabet,  used  by  the  Carthaginians 
along  the  northern  coast.  The  Punic  and  later 
Neo-Punic  chflracters  were  modifications  of  the 
Phoenician,  and  are  distinguished  by  special 
characteristics.  The  Arabic  character  is  now 
used  wherever  Islam  has  become  the  prevailing 
religion:  but  it  is  mainly  employed  for  writing 
the  Arabic  language,  which  forms  the  general 
medium  of  religion,  commerce,  and  social  inter- 
course. The  use  of  the  Arabic  character  for 
African  languages  is  not  very  frequent  (e.g., 
among  the  Berbers,  the  Suahelis).  The  Malay- 
an immigrants,  however,  and  the  Mohammedan 
Kafliirs  use  it  as  far  south  as  Cape  Colony; 
and  the  Mohammedans  of  Shoa  as  well  as  the 
inhabitants  —  also  Mohammedans  —  of  Harrar 
sometimes  write  their  respective  languages, 
Amharic  and  the  closely  related  Ilarari,  in  Arabic 
letters.  On  the  other  hand,  in  and  around  Abys- 
sinia a  number  of  languages  are  regularly  writ- 
ten in  the  Amharic  modification,  or  rather  amiili- 
fication,  of  the  old  Ethiopic  or  Geez  alphaliet. 
Unlike  most  of  the  other  Semitic  languages, 
Ethiopic  and  its  modern  descendants  are  written 
from  left  to  right.  Tlie  vowels  are  expressed 
graphically  by  modifications  of  or  slight  addi- 
tions to  the  consonants,  thus  forming  a  kind  of 
syllabary.  We  can  trace  this  peculiar  system 
of  writing  as  far  back  as  the  fourth  century 
A.D.,  through  some  ancient  monuments  in  the  old 
capital  of  Axum  (consult  D.  H.  JlUller,  Epi- 
iiraphische  Denfcmiiler  aits  Abessynien,  1S!I4). 
The  development  of  those  peculiarities  took  phuc 
on  African  soil,  though  tlie  consonantal  charac- 
ters are  derived  from  the  old  South  Arabian  writ- 
ing (wrongly  called  Himyaritic).  See  Ethiopic 
Writing. 

Ancient  Egyptian.  From  the  Egyptian  hiero- 
glyphic writing  was  developed  a  cursive  form, 
the  Hieratic,  and  this  in  turn  gave  rise  to  the 
still  more  cursive  Demotic.  All  these  have  long 
since  passed  out  of  use.  though  Coptic,  which 
survives  only  as  the  ritual  language  of  the  native 
Egyptian  church,  retains  in  its  alphabet  a  few 
characters   derived   from   flie   Demotic. 

Ethiopi.-vn.  The  ancient  Ethiopians  of  Napa- 
ta  and  Meroe  had,  beside  the  Egyptian  sysfems 
of  writing,  which  they  used  almost  exclusively- 
for  the  Egyptian  language,  a  cursive  system  of 
their    own    for   the   native   idiom.     As   the    few 


AFBICAN  LANGUAGES. 


isr 


AFTER-IMAGES. 


inscriptions  in  tliis  diaraotcr  \vlii(.l\  liuve  been 
preserved  liave  nut  yet  been  (le<i]ihereil,  it  is  not 
possible  to  say  anytliin^'  positive  about  it.  It 
is  even  doubtful  wbat  languafje  tliese  inserip- 
tions  represent,  althousb  it  is  perhaps  nearer  to 
the  (negroid)  Xuba  than  to  the  llaniitic  Beja 
or  Bishari.  Tlie  alph\bet  was  evidently  bor- 
rowed trom  outside  sources,  though  whether 
Krryptian  or  .South-Arabie  elements  underlie  it, 
eaiinot  at  present  be  determined. 

LiBY.v.N'  or  NiMiDi.\-N.  The  old  Libyan  or 
Nuniidian  writing,  a  very  imperfect  system,  goes 
buck  to  the  ancient  alphabet  of  south  .\rabia 
(as  Kuting  has  clearly  shown) .  and  not  to  Punic. 
]t  is  represented  by  many  inscriptions  in  Algeria 
and  Tunis.  The  first  decipherment,  on  the  basis 
of  the  famous  bilingual  inscription  of  Tukka, 
is  due  to  Blau  (see  also  Halevy,  Essai  d'cpi- 
graphie  Ijibi/riue,  1S75,  a  collection  !)y  Faidherbe, 
1870,  etc.).  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  ancient 
funeral  inscriptions  in  this  cluuacter  read  from 
below  upward.  This  system  is  similar  to  the 
ti/iiiaghcn  or  alphabet  of  the  modern  Sahara 
tribes  (or  Tuaregs).  Oudney  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  who  observed  and  called  attention 
to  their  peculiar  system  of  writing  (1822).  The 
best  description  of  the  alphabet  is  to  be  found 
ill  Hanoteau,  Grammaire  de  la  laitgue  Tamachek 
(18U0). 

Negro.  Only  one  Xegro  language  has  devel- 
oped a  writing  of  its  own.  the  Vei.  on  the  west 
coast  near  Cape  Mount.  Doalu  Bukere,  a  native 
who  knew  something  of  the  Roman  character, 
invented  it  about  the  year  1834.  The  writing 
was  afterward  used  for  Mohammedan  missionary 
work.  It  is  a  clumsy  syllabary  with  compli- 
cated forms  sometimes  suggestive  of  hieroglyph- 
ics, and  quite  distinct  from  European  or  .-Vrabio 
writing.  A  number  of  books  have  been  written 
in  it,  but  the  Christian  missionaries  have  de- 
clined to  use  it,  and  it  is  dying  out.  It  has 
received  considerable  attention  from  linguists, 
as  the  only  case  known  in  which  the  actual  inven- 
tion of  a  system  of  writing,  in  popular  use,  can 
be  clearly  shown.  The  idea,  however,  was  cer- 
tainly borrowed  from  the  Europeans.  Consult: 
Steinthal.  Die  Mandc-Xeger-Sprachen  (Berlin, 
18(i7). 

BiBLiOGR.\PHy.  For  the  classification  of  lan- 
guages, consult:  F.  Miiller.  Grundriss  der 
Simichirissenschaft  (Vienna,  187fi-88),  also  his 
F.thiiographie,  second  edition  (Vienna,  1870)  ; 
also  Cust,  A  Hketch  of  the  Modern  Languages 
of  Africa  (London,  1883).  which  is  based  on 
these  works.  Lepsius,  Nubische  Grammatik 
(Berlin,  18S0),  presents  somewhat  different 
views.  Consult  also:  Lepsius.  Standard  Aljiha- 
bet  (London.  18(13).  As  preparatory  works  may 
be  mentioned:  Koelle,  Poh/glotta  Africana  (Lon- 
don, 18,)4)  :  Bleek.  (■otnjxiratire  (Ininimar  of 
fidiith  African  Lanauarics  (London.  18(i2-fin); 
The  I.ihrarti  of  Sir  II.  (I'rci/   (London,  1S.-)H-(13). 

AFRICAN  METH'ODIST  EPIS'COPAL 
CHURCH.     See  Metiiooi.sm. 

AFRICAN  METH'ODIST  EPIS'COPAL 
ZI'ON  CHURCH.     Ske  :Metiiouis.\i. 

AFRICAN   MIL'LET.      See  Sougium,  Non- 

SA('(11.\1!INK. 

AFRICAN  OAK.     See  Teak. 

AFRICA'NUS,  Sexti-.s  .TuLU'.s.  A  Christian 
writer.  lie  was  born  in  Libya,  and  made  his 
home  in  Emmaiis,  near  Jerusalem,  from  195  on 


till  after  240.  l)\it  (raviled  extensively  through 
Asia  Minor.  He  is  rememl)ered  for  his  chromd- 
ogy  from  the  creation  to  221,  of  which  frag- 
ments are  preserved.  These  and  portions  of 
other  writings  are  printed  in  Migne.  I'utrologia 
Orwca,  X.  51-108,  XL  41-48;  English  transla- 
tion, .4»i/e- .VifCHc  Fathers  (N.  V.  edition),  VI. 
123-140. 

AF'RICAN  WAR,  TiiK.  In  Roman  history, 
the  war  lietwccn  .Tulius  Ca'sar  and  the  members 
of  the  Pomiici;in  party  who.  after  the  battle  of 
Pharsalia.  renewed  tiu>  conlliet  in  Africa  and 
were  defeated  at  T'ha[isus.  4(1  li.c.  The  account 
known  as  the  liclluin  Africanum  attached  to  the 
works  of  Ctesar  is  of  uncertain  authorship. 

AFRIDIS,  a-fre'dez.  One  of  the  .\fghan  or 
Pathan  peoples  of  the  Indo- Afghan  border  who 
have  of  recent  years  come  into  hostile  contact 
with  the  British  authorities.  In  their  somewhat 
savage  yet  intelligent  semi-independence  they 
represent,  perhaps,  ancient  Aryan  society  of  an 
early  type.  A  Ijrief  account  of  them  by  Iloldich 
appeared  in  the  Journal  of  the  Anthropological 
Institute  (London)   for  ISOO. 

AF'RIKAN'DER.  The  Dutch  form  for  '-Af- 
rican." used  of  white  persons  born  in  South 
Africa,  opccially  the  Boers. 

AFRIKANDER  BUND,  liunt,  or  BOND. 
An  association  in  Soutli  Afric:i  designed  to  con- 
solidate the  inlluence  of  the  Afrikanders,  and 
looking  to  the  final  formation  of  an  inde])endent 
union  of  the  South  African  States.  With  its 
present  name  it  dates  from  1880,  though  it  was 
started  the  year  before.  As  a  political  party  in 
Cape  Colony  it  for  a  time  supported  the  policy 
of  Cecil  Rhodes  (q.v.),  but  after  the  .Jaineson 
raid  (1895)  it  separated  itself  from  him.  In 
1898  it  secured  a  majority  in  the  colonial  legis- 
lature. While  it  urged  I'resident  Kruger  to  a 
more  liberal  policy,  its  sympathies  on  the  out- 
break of  the  war  between  the  Transvaal  and 
Great  Britain  were  with  the  Boers.  On  Decem- 
ber, 6,  1900,  an  Afrikander  congress  was  held 
at  Worcester,  Cape  Colony,  which  demanded  the 
recognition  of  the  independence  of  the  Boer  re- 
publics and  condenmed  the  war  and  the  policy 
of  the  High   Commissioner  of  the  colony. 

AFRITE,  af'ret.     A  powerful  spirit,  or  jinn 
(Lat.  genius),  figuring  in  the  stories  of  A  Thou- 
sand and  IJne  Sights. 
AFT.     See  Bearing. 

AF'TER-IMAGES.  Retinal  images  which  ap- 
pear after  tlic  eye  lias  been  removed  from  some 
illuminated  object.  When  we  light  our  lamp  in 
the  evening  we  are  distinctly  conscious  that  the 
illumination  has  a  reddish-yellow  tinge.  As  time 
goes  on,  however,  we  lose  the  color;  the  pa|)er  on 
which  we  write  seems  to  be  as  white  as  the  same 
I)aper  seen  in  ditTusc  daylight:  our  eyes  have 
liccome  adapted,  or  have  grown  used,  to  their 
surroundings  (general  adaptation) .  The  law  of 
adiiptation  is  that  all  brightiu'sses  tend  toward  a 
uiiildle  gray,  and  all  colors  toward  neutrality. 
-Vdaptation  leaves  an  after-elTect,  which  is  termed 
disposition.  A  yellow-adapted  eye  is  disposed  to 
the  complementary  c(dor.  or  liluc-sighted:  all  the 
yellows  that  it  sees  tend  toward  gray,  and  all 
other  colors  take  on  a  tinge  of  the  complementary 
blue.    See  CoxTBAST:  Visial  Sensation. 

.Vdaptation  may  be  local,  as  well  as  general. 
.'suppose,  e.g..  that  1  fixate  steadily  a  green  disk 
seen   upon   an   e.xtendeil   white   background.      The 


AFTER-IMAGES. 


188 


AFZELIUS. 


part  of  the  retina  upon  which  the  green  falls 
will  become  gieen-adapted,  and  tlierefore  red-dis- 
posed or  red-sighted.  Hence,  if  I  presently  re- 
move the  green  disk  I  shall  see  a  subjective  red 
disk  in  its  place.  This  red,  the  after-effect  of 
local  adaptation,  is  termed  (1)  the  negative 
after-image.  The  color  and  brightness  of  the 
after-image  are  always  complementary  to  the 
color  and  brightness  of  the  preceding  stimulus ; 
a  dark-blue  stimulus  gives  a  briglit  yellow  after- 
image, and  a  bright  yellow  stimulus  a  dark-blue 
after-image.  If  one  stares  for  half  a  minute  at 
a  window  that  gives  upon  a  bright  gi'ay  sky  or 
a  snowy  landscape,  and  then  turns  one's  eyes 
upon  a  gray  screen  or  wall,  one  sees  an  after- 
image window  with  white  bars  and  black  panes. 
In  general,  the  vividness  and  duration  of  the  neg- 
ative after-image  depend  upon  tlie  intensity  and 
duration  of  the  stimulus  which  evokes  it,  and  on 
the  brightness  of  the  surface  upon  which  the 
after-image  is  projected  for  observation.  It  is 
probable,  although  the  point  is  still  disputed, 
that-  the  course  of  the  after-image  is  intermit- 
tent, not  continuous.  Theoreticalh'  important 
is  the  fact  that  a  contrast-color  (see  Contrast) 
set  up  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  stimulus  is 
efTcctive  in  the  after-image;  thus,  a  disk  of  red 
paper  seen  on  a  gray  background,  and  giving 
a  narrow  green  ring  of  marginal  contrast,  ap- 
pears in  the  after-image  as  a  green  disk  sur- 
rounded by  a  distinct  reddish  halo.  (2)  If 
the  original  stimulvis  be  very  strong  and 
of  brief  duration,  it  may  give  rise  to  what  has 
been  called  the  positive  after-image,  a  subjective 
phenomenon  in  which  the  stimulus-sensation  is 
reproduced,  only  with  diminished  brightness  and 
saturation.  (See  Visual  Sexs.ition.)  Thus,  a 
flash  of  brilliant  red  light  would  be  followed,  first, 
by  a  brief,  but  noticeable,  blank  interval ;  then 
by  the  positive  after-image,  a  duller  and  pinker 
red;  then  by  a  second  inteiwal,  somewhat  longer 
than  the  first;  and,  finally,  by  the  dark-green 
negative  image.  The  usual  explanation  of  this 
positive  image  is  that  the  physiological  effect  of 
stimulation  persists  for  some  time  after  the 
physical  stimulus  itself  has  ceased  to  operate; 
the  sensation,  therefore,  outlasts  the  stimulus, 
remaining  the  same  in  kind  throughout  its 
course.  This  accovmt  is,  however,  as  inadequate 
as  is  the  theory  which  would  account  for  the 
negative  after-image  on  the  score  of  retinal  fa- 
tigue. It  is  disproved  by  the  single  fact  that 
the  short  interval  which  elapses  between  stimu- 
lus and  positive  image  (the  first  interval  de- 
scribed above  as  "blank")  may,  under  certain 
circumstances,  be  filled  by  a  positive  and  comple- 
mentary image.  Thus,  if  a  glowing  red  point 
be  moved  slowly  to  and  fro  in  the  dark,  one  sees 
first  a  trail  of  red  light  (due  to  the  stimulus 
and  its  direct  after-effect),  and  then  a  bright 
(positive)  green  streak.  Then  should  follow,  if 
the  series  is  complete,  the  positive  image  proper, 
a  dull  red,  the  second  blank  interval,  and  the 
negative  green  image.  The  dull  red  is,  evidently, 
not  a  direct  continuation  of  the  red  of  the  stim- 
ulus. No  satisfactory  theory  is  as  yet  forth- 
coming. 

Especial  interest  attaches  to  the  colored  im- 
ages obtained  from  intensive  stimulation  with 
white  light.  Close  your  eyes  and  keep  them 
closed  until  there  is  no  trace  of  previous  stim- 
ulation (no  colored  after-image)  on  the  dark 
field.  Then  fixate  for  some  twenty  seconds  the 
middle  bar  of  a  window  which  looks  out  upon  a 


brilliantly  white  sky.  Close  your  eyes  again, 
and  note  the  development  of  the  after-image  on 
the  dark  field.  You  see  a  color  sequence,  which 
is  knoW'U  technically  as  the  flight  of  eolors.  The 
current  explanation  of  the  phenomenon  is  that 
the  white  light  of  the  sky  is  broken  up  into  its 
physical  components,  in  somewhat  the  same  way 
as  a  ray  of  light  passing  through  a  prism  is 
broken  up  into  the  series  of  spectral  colors;  and 
that  the  retinal  excitations  corresponding  to  the 
red,  gieen,  and  violet  stimuli  (the  part-stimuli 
contained  in  the  w-hite  light)  are  not  exactly  co- 
incident, but  overlap  in  time,  so  that  now  the 
one  and  now  the  other  shows  itself  in  the  after- 
image. It  is,  however,  noteworthy  that  the 
flight  of  eolors,  under  conditions  of  exact  ob- 
servation, shows  unmistakable  evidence  of  two 
overlapping  complementary  series.  The  sequence 
is:  a  momentary  positive  image;  then,  after 
fluctuations,  a  blue,  a  green,  a  yellow,  a  red  (at 
this  stage  the  image  becomes  negative),  a  blue, 
and  a  green  image.  We  have,  that  is,  the  series 
blue-yellow-blue  and  the  series  green-red-green 
laid  over  one  another ;  there  is  clear  indication 
of  antagonism  or  complementarism,  but  none  of 
a  general  breaking  up  of  the  white  light  into  its 
spectral  components.  We  must  remember,  also, 
that  "white"  light  is  never  quite  colorless;  there 
is  always  some  tinge  of  color  in  diffuse  daylight. 
The  facts  point  to  the  validity  of  an  "antag- 
onistic" theory  of  visual  sensation  (q.v.). 
(3)  We  may  note,  finally,  the  existence  of  a 
binocular  or  transferred  after-image.  If  one  eye 
be  stimulated,  under  suitable  conditions,  a  faint, 
positive  image  appears  in  the  field  of  the  other 
unstimulated  eye.  Lay  a  bright  red-orange  disk 
upon  a  sheet  of  white  paper  and  flxate  it  monoe- 
ularly  for  five  or  ten  seconds.  Then  lilow  away 
the  disk,  close  the  stimulated  eye,  open  the  un- 
stimulated one  and  fi.xate  tlie  white  ground.  You 
see  at  first  a  pLile-yellowish  image.  Then  the 
field  darkens  and  a  blue  negative  image  makes  its 
appearance.  Presently  the  ground  clears  and 
the  yellowish  j^atch  comes  once  more.  Then  the 
white  darkens  again  and  the  blue  image  recurs. 
The  darkening  is  due  to  retinal  rivahy:  the 
dark  field  of  the  closed  (stimulated)  eye  is 
superposed  upon  the  bright  field  of  the  open 
(unstimulated)  eye.  The  blue  image  is  the  nega- 
tive after-image  belonging  to  the  dark  field, 
i.e.,  to  the  originally  stimulated  eye;  its  ap- 
pearance requires  no  explanation.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  faint  yellowish  image  belongs  to  the 
unstinuilated  eye.  is  an  after-effect  of  the  or- 
ange stimulation,  but  an  after-effect  that  differs 
entirely  from  the  after-effect  in  the  stimulated 
eye,  and  that  has  been  transferred  to  the  eye 
which  was  not  exposed  to  the  stimulus.  Its 
existence  points  to  a  close  functional  inter-rela- 
tion between  the  two  halves  of  the  vismil  appa- 
ratus. Consult:  H.  von  Helmholtz.  Phiisioh'- 
gische  Optilc  (Hamburg,  1806)  ;  E.  Hering,  Zur 
Lehre  vom  Lichtsinne  (Vienna,  187S)  ;  0. 
Kuelpe,  Outlines  of  Psychology  (London,  1805)  ; 
E.  B.  Titchener,  Experimental  Psychology  (New 
York,   1901). 

AFZE'LItrS,  Sw.  pron.  Af-tsa'li-oos,  Adam 
(1700-1837).  A  Swedish  naturalist,  u  puiiil  of 
Linna'us,  whose  autobiography  he  afterward 
edited.  He  was  professor  in  the  t'nivcrsity  "f 
Upsala.  He  studied  the  flora  of  West  Africa 
from  1702  to  1704,  and  wrote  many  botanical 
papers   for  the  Danish  Royal  Academy  and  the 


AFZELItrS. 


189 


AGAPiE. 


Linn«>an  Sncipty  of  London.  Several  speeies  of 
plants  woii'  n;iineil  after  liini. 

AFZELIXJS.  Akvii)  ArniST  (178o-lS71 ) .  A 
Swcilisli  poet  and  antiquary.  He  translated  the 
F.liltr  Kildii  (see  Kdda),  and.  with  Geiier,  edited 
n  noteworthy  eolleetion  of  old  S\vedisl\  popular 
son^'S  (1S14-17).  He  is  esteemed  for  his  poetieal 
R(iiiiiincr\  and  for  his  studies  in  Xorse  history 
nnd  literature.  He  was  pastor  at  Enkiiping. 
1821-lSTl. 

A6ADES,  a'pa-das.  .An  .Afriean  eity.  the 
capital  of  the  oasis  kinfidom  of  Air  (q.v.),  situ- 
ated in  lat.  l(i°  .W  N.  and  lonj;.  S"  E.  (Map: 
Africa,  E  3).  It  was  formerly  an  important 
city  and  had  a  impulation  estimated  at  ofl.OOO. 
Althoujjh  still  on  the  earavan  route  between  So- 
kot"  and  till'  r.arliary  States,  its  eommereial  im- 
portance lias  disappeared,  and  its  population  has 
d\vinill>Ml  to  aliout  7000. 

AGADIB,  ;i'f];ader'.  A  seaport  of  Moroe- 
co,  Xortli  Afriea,  situated  in  lat.  30°  27'  N.  and 
lonp.  '.>"  3<i'  W.  (Map:  Africa.  D  1).  It  was 
founded  in  the  befjinning  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury br  the  Portuj;ruese,  but  was  soon  taken  by 
Morocco,  and  for  a  eon-iderable  period  was 
an  important  shipping  centre.  It  is  at  present 
closed  to  commerce,  and  is  used  as  a  customs 
station  on  the  caravan  route  conneetinj;  the 
northern  and  southern  parts  of  Morocco.  Its 
population   is  about  700. 

A'GAG  (Heb.,  Gk.  '.Ayrij-,  in  the  Septuagint). 
(1 )  The  name,  or  possibly  title,  of  a  king  of  the 
Anialekites  conquered  by  Saul,  and  preserved 
alive  contrary  to  the  command  of  .Tehovah.  He 
was  afterward  hewn  in  pieces  by  Samuel.  See 
I.  Samuel  xv.  (2)  In  Dryden's  Ahsnlnm  and 
Achilophel,  a  character  standing  for  Sir  Edmund 
Berry  Godfrey,  the  justice  of  the  peace  who  was 
assassinated  shortly  after  disclosing  the  revela- 
tions m;ide  fo  him  by  Titus  Oates. 

A'GAGITE.  .\  name  applied  to  Hanian  (Es- 
ther iii.  1,  10;  viii.  .S).  It  is  a  term  of  con- 
tempt, designating  him  as  a  worthy  <lescendant 
of  -igag,  the  Anialekite  whom  Samuel  hewed  to 
pieces  as  a  sacrilicc  to  Vahweh  at  Gilgal  (1.  Sam- 
uel XV.  33j .  This  "Amalekite"  is  opposed  to 
Mordeeai,  a  descendant  of  Kish,  the  father  of 
Saul  (Esther  ii.  5).  The  Greek  translator  un- 
derstood that  this  was  a  mere  Iktion  setting 
forth  the  struggle  between  Jew  and  Gentile, 
when  be  renilered  the  term  "Macedonian." 

AGALACTIA,  ng'a-lak'ti-a  (Gk..  want  of 
milk,  from  a,  a,  priv.  -\-  •ja'/n,  gala,  milk). 
A  lack  of  the  proper  secretion  of  milk  after  de- 
livery. It  may  ilepcnd  citlier  on  organic  im^jer- 
feetion  of  the  mainmarv  gland  or  upon  constitu- 
tional causes.  In  the  latter  ease  the  secretion 
may  often  be  excited  by  warmth  and  moisture, 
by  the  stinmhis  of  the  act  of  sucking,  and  if  this 
fails,  by  drinking  plenty  of  fluids  rich  in  fats 
and  by  drugs  prescribed  by  a  physician.  (See 
Milk.)  It  is  a  contagious  disease  in  sheep  and 
goats,  characterized  by  inflammatory  foci  in  the 
mammary  slund,  eyes,  and  articulations.  The 
disease  has  been  known  since  1810,  and  is  es- 
pecially freipient  in  Italy,  France,  and  Spain. 
In  the  acute  form  there  is  high  fever  accompa- 
nied by  complete,  or  almost  complete,  iailure  of 
milk.  Death  takes  place  after  twenty  days  in 
about  l.T  per  cent,  of  cases. 

AG'ALMAT'OLITE.  A  hydrated  aluminum 
and  potassium  silicate  that  occurs  massive,  and 


in  color  is  gray,  to  green  and  yellow,  brown  and 
red.  It  is  regarded  as  an  alteration  product  of 
iolite.  and  is  found  in  Transylvania,  in  Sax<my, 
and  especially  in  China,  where,  owing  to  its 
softness,  it  is  carved  into  images  and  various  or- 
namental designs,  in  which  advantage  is  taken 
of  the  different  shades  to  bring  out  special  por- 
tions in  (lilVerent  colors. 

AG'AMA  (Caribbean  name).  A  genus  of  in- 
sectivorous ground-lizards  allied  to  the  iguanas, 
and  confined  to  the  warm  climates  of  Africa.  Aus- 
tralia. Asia,  and  southern  Russia.  The  handsome 
armed  agama.  or  to(pie  (Aijania  armala  )  of  South 
Afriea  is  strikingly  adorned  and  reaches  twenty 
inches  in  length.  Another  very  brilliant  species 
is  the  spiny  Agama  colononim  of  the  Gold  Coast. 
One  of  those  of  southeastern  Europe  best  known 
is  the  stcllio  (Agnmn  .tiellio).  which  is  com- 
monly tamed  and  kept  in  captivity  by  Arabic 
jjigglers  in  Egj-pt.  who  call  it  hardun. 

AG'AME'DES.     See  TKopiiomus. 

ACAMEMTTON  (Gk.  •Ayafci/ivuv).  Son 
of  Atreus,  and  brother  of  Menclaus.  ^Vgamem- 
non  is  a  prominent  figure  in  Greek  heroic  legend, 
and  the  details  of  his  story  differ.  He  ruled  at 
JlyeeniB  and  exercised  k>rdship  ovei'  much  of 
the  Peloponnesus.  Therefore,  when  Paris  car- 
ried off  Helen,  the  wife  of  ilenelaus,  Agamem- 
non was  the  natural  leader  of  the  expedition 
against  Troy.  His  quarrel  with  Achilles  is  the 
starting-point  of  the  Iliad.  Later  writers  told  of 
the  sacrifice  of  his  daughter  Iphigenia  (q.v.)  at 
Aulis  to  secure  favorable  winds  for  the  voyage 
to  Asia.  In  his  share  of  the  booty  of  Troy  he 
received  the  prophetess  Cassandra  (q.v.),  daugh- 
ter of  Priam.  On  his  return  he  was  murdered 
by  his  wife  C'lyteninestra  (q.v.)  and  her  para- 
mour, .Egisthus  (q.v.).  His  son,  Orestes  (q.v.), 
aided  by  his  daughter  Electra,  subsequently 
avenged  his  father.  This  tragedy  of  the  house 
of  Atreus  was  a  favorite  subject  of  the  Greek 
dramatists.  Consult:  The  Orestcia,  especially 
the  first  play,  the  trilogy  of  .Esehylus  called  the 
Agamemnon. 

AG'AMEN'TICtrS.  Moi'NT.  A  hill  in  York 
Co..  Elaine.  4  miles  from  the  sea.  073  feet  hish. 
It  lies  in  lat.  43°  13'  25"  N.  and  long.  70°  41'  33" 
W.  (Map:  Maine,  BO),  and  is  a  noted  landmark 
for   sailors. 

AG'AMOGEN'ESIS.  See  P.vrthexogejtesis, 
section    Metagenesis. 

AGANA,  agli'nya,  or  San  Igxacio  de 
Agana,  siiu  eg-na'tlit-6  dS  a-gii'nyA.  The  cap- 
ital of  Guam  (q.v.),  one  of  the  Ladroues,  belong- 
ing to  the  United  States  (Map:  Guam,  U.  S. 
and  Dep.  Ter.,  15  3).  It  is  situated  on  the  west- 
ern coast  of  the  island  on  Agaiia  Bay.  It  has 
wide,  clean  streets,  and  is  traversed  by  a  shal- 
low stieam  crossed  by  two  stone  bridges.  The 
bay  is  unsafe  and  the  landing  is  obstructed  by 
reefs.  The  town  contains  an  arsenal,  barracks, 
and  a  college.  During  the  Spanish  regime  in  the 
Philippines  it  was  the  seatt  of  government  for 
the  I.adroncs.     Pop.,  about  0400. 

AGANIP'PE  (Gk.  'A/awVn-?,  Aganippe).  A 
fountain  in  Ba'otia,  near  Mount  Helicon,  which 
flows  to  the  River  Permessus.  The  water  was 
s;urcd  to  the  Muses,  and  gave  poetic  inspiration. 

AGAO,  a-gii'd.     See  AuAU. 

AG'APiE  (Gk.  noui.  pi.  of  lijcin-;/,  agapS, 
love  feast).      Love-feasts,   or   feasts    of   charity. 


AGAP^. 


190 


AGAPETUS. 


usually  celebrated  by  the  earliest  Christians  in 
connection  with  the  Lord's  Supper.  The  ricli 
Christians  presented  their  poorer  brethren  in 
the  faith  with  gifts,  and  all  ate  together,  in  token 
of  their  equality  before  God  and  their  brotherly 
liarmony.  The  meetings  were  ojjened  and  closed 
with  prayer,  and  dining  the  feast  spiritual  songs 
\^•ere  sung.  At  first,  a  bishop  or  ])resbyter  pre- 
sided, who  read  a  portion  of  the  Scripture,  pro- 
po.sed  questions  upon  it.  and  received  the 
various  answers  of  the  brethren.  Afterward, 
■whatever  information  had  been  obtained  regard- 
ing the  other  churches  was  read — such  as  tlie 
clhcial  letters  of  overseers,  or  private  communi- 
cations from  eminent  members;  and  thus  a  spirit 
of  practical  sympathy  was  engendered.  Before 
the  conclusion  of  the  proceedings  money  was  col- 
lected for  widows,  orplians.  the  poor,  prisoners, 
and  those  who  had  suffered  shipwreck.  Then  the 
members  gave  one  another  the  holy  kiss  and  the 
feast  was  ended  with  a  "philanthropic  prayer." 
Generally  the  feast  of  the  agape  preceded  the 
celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  but  during  the 
period  of  the  persecutions,  when  the  Christians 
had  often  to  hold  divine  .service  before  dawn, 
the  agapiB  were,  for  tlie  most  part,  delayed  till 
the  evening.  Later,  a  formal  separation  was 
made  between  the  two  rites.  In  the  third  and 
fourth  centuries  the  agape  had  degenerated  into 
a  common  banquet,  where  the  deaths  of  relatives 
and  the  anniversaries  of  the  niart\Ts  were  com- 
memorated, and  where  the  clergA'  and  the  poor 
were  guests ;  but  with  the  increase  of  wealth  and 
the  decay  of  religious  earnestness  and  purity  in 
the  Christian  Church,  these  agapa>  became  occa- 
sions of  great  riotousness  and  debauchery. 
Councils  declared  against  them,  forbade  tlie 
clergy  to  take  any  share  in  their  celebration, 
and  finally  banished  them  from  the  Church.  At 
the  same  time,  it  must  be  admitted  that  the 
heathens  ignorantly  calumniated  the  practices 
of  the  Christians  in  these  agap;c.  and  that  the 
defense  made  by  Tertullian.  Slinueius  Felix. 
Origen,  etc.,  is  eminently  convincing.  The  Mora- 
vians have  attempted  to  revive  these  agapse, 
and  hold  solemn  festivals  with  prayer  and 
praise,  where  tea  is  drunk  and  wheaten  bread, 
called  love-bread,  is  used.  Somewhat  similar  are 
the  agapse  of  the  Church  foinided  by  Wesley. 
See  Love-Feasts. 

AG'APEM'ON^  (modern  compound  from  Gk. 
aya-T),  iiiiiijir.  li>ve.  +  /Jov'/,  monc,  a  staying, 
stopping-place).  A  conventual  establishment  of 
a  singular  kind,  consisting  of  persons  of  both 
sexes,  founded  at  Charlynch,  near  Bridgewater. 
England,  by  Mr.  Henry  .Tames  Prince,  formerly  a 
clergyman  of  the  Church  of  England.  The  in- 
mates belong  to  a  new  religious  sect  orig- 
inating with  j\Ir.  Prince  and  a  Mr.  Starkey. 
also  a  clergj'nian,  and  are  sometimes  called 
Lampeter  Brethren,  from  the  place  where  Prince 
was  educated,  and  where,  while  a  student,  he 
formed  a  revival  society  also.  Community  of  goods 
being  insisted  upon,  the  leaders  acquired  consid- 
erable property,  and  fitted  uj)  in  luxurio\is  style 
a  dwelling  near  Charlynch.  Prince,  who  was 
styled  "The  Lord,"  affirmed  ill  his  publications 
that  he  was  sinless  and  was  sent  to  redeem  the 
Iiody,  "to  conclude  the  day  of  grace,  and  to  in- 
troduce the  day  of  judgment."  See  Hepworth 
Dixon,  fipi ri t lui I  ^Virrf:  (London.  18C8),  and  the 
article  by  Jliss  Edith  Sellers  in  The  Xrirhcrii 
House  Magazine   (London,  November,  1891),  re- 


printed   in    Maga-iiic    of    Cliristiaii    Literature 
( Kew  York,  December,  1S91). 

It  would  appear  that  a  society  similar  in  its 
aims  and  character,  though  not  conventual  in  its 
form,  existed  in  England  in  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenth  centuries.  It  was  called  "The  Fam- 
ily of  Love."  Its  founder  is  geneially  supposed 
to  have  been  Heinrich  Nikolaus,  who  was  born  at 
iliinster,  in  Westphalia,  .January  !l  or  10,  1501 
or  1502,  but  who  lived  a  considerable  time  in 
Holland.  He  held  himself  to  be  greater  than 
Moses  or  Christ,  for  the  former  onlj'  taught  men 
to  7io/)r,  and  the  latter  to  helieve,  while  he  first 
announced  the  doctrine  of  love.  He  founded  his 
sect,  "The  House,"  or  "Family  of  Love,"  i^  Em- 
den,  East  Friesland,  about  1540,  and  died  in 
1570.  In  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  the  sect  ap- 
peared in  England.  By  1578,  they  had  appar- 
ently increased  in  numbers  considerably,  for  in 
that  year  one  John  Rogers  published  a  work 
against  them,  entitled  The  Displaying  of  an 
Horrible  Secle  of  Grosse  and  Wicked  Heretigues, 
naming  themselves  the  Familie  of  Love,  with 
the  Lives  of  their  Atithours,  and  ivhat  Doctrine 
the;/  teach  in  Corners  (second  edition.  1579).  In 
1580,  Queen  Elizabeth  issued  a  proclamation  for 
the  hunting  out  and  punishing  of  the  "damnable 
sect."  The  family  of  love,  "or  lust,  rather."  as 
old  Fuller  has  it,  tried  to  insinuate  themselves 
into  the  good  graces  of  King  James  by  present- 
ing a  petition  casting  aspersions  on  the  Puri- 
tans. It  had  a  brief  pros]ierity,  and  was  revived 
in  the  seventeenth  century,  when  it  was  con- 
founded with  the  Friends,  but  quickly  died.  Its 
name  in  New  England  in  the  seventeenth  century 
Avas  a])plied  to  some  dissenters,  but  tliere  is  no 
evidence  that  there  were  any  Familists  there. 
Their  doctrines  seem  to  have  been  a  species  of 
pseudo-spiritual  sentimentalism  resulting  in 
gross  impurity.  Consult  Thomas,  The  Faniili/  of 
Love,  "Haverford  College  Studies,"  No.  12  (Bos- 
ton. 1893).     See  MrcKERS. 

AG'APE'TiE  (fem.  form  of  Agapeti).  Early 
Christian  virgins  who  lived,  generally  in  all 
purity,  in  the  same  house  with  men  bound  to 
strict  celibacy.     See  Agap.e. 

AG'APE'TI  (  nom.  pi,  of  Gk.  aya-nriTnQ,  agapetos, 
beloved).  Early  Christian  men  who  lived  in  the 
same  iiouse  with  deaconesses,  both  being  celi- 
bates. The  growth  of  ascetic  notions  in  the 
Church  led  to  the  supposition  tliat  all  contact 
between  the  sexes,  except  in  marriage,  must  lead 
to  immoral  conduct,  and  so  in  the  fifth  and  sixth 
centuries  the  practice  was  condemned  bj'  the 
Cluiich  and  liy  the  civil  power. 

AG'APE'TTJS.  The  name  of  two  popes.  Ag.i- 
PETUS  I.  Pope  of  Pome  from  535  to  536.  The 
fear  of  an  invasion  of  Italy  by  Justinian  led 
Thcodatus.  the  King  of  the  Goths  in  Italy,  to 
send  Agapetus  to  Constantinople  in  536  to  sue 
for  peace  from  the  Emperor.  Though  unsuc- 
cessful in  this  mission,  Agapetus  persuaded  Jus- 
tinian to  depose  Anthimus  fiom  the  patriarchal 
see  of  Constantinople.  He  died  at  Constantino- 
ple. His  festival  is  celeliratcd  on  the  twentieth 
of  September  by  the  Roman  Catholic  Cliurch. 
Agapetus  II.  Pope  of  Rome  fi'om  940  to  955;  a 
Roman  by  birth.  His  first  act  was  to  establish 
his  political  rule  over  the  churches  of  the  em- 
pire. Against  Berenger  II.,  King  of  Italy,  who 
was  a  troublesome  neighbor  to  the  little  pontifi- 
cal state,  he  invoked  the  aid  of  Otto  I. 


AGAPIDA. 


191 


AGASSIZ. 


AGAPIDA,  ii'KapGMa,  FitAT  Antonio.  The 
)niii;,'iii<iry  luuiikisli  (•hronicli'r  from  wlioso  papers 
Wasliingtun  Irving  professed  in  liis  first  intro- 
duction to  tlu'  work  to  liave  rompiled  his  Coii- 
qui>:t  of  Graiittthi.  lie  was  intended,  Irvinj;  later 
explained,  as  a  tjpe  of  the  piously  prejudiced 
relij.'ious  zealots  of  the  time. 

AGAB,  a'giir'.  The  stage  name  of  Florence 
I^onide  Charvin  (1830-91).  A  French  actress. 
Slie  was  born  at  .Sedan,  and  went  to  Paris  in 
1S5S,  where  slie  made  her  diMiut  as  a  singer  in 
caf^s-concerts.  Following  the  example  of  Rachel, 
she  adopted  the  biblical  name  of  Agar  (English, 
Hagar).  In  1870  she  W'as  engaged  at  tlie  Come- 
die  Frangaise,  where,  during  a  representation 
of  the  play  Lr  Lion  Ainoiircii.r,  she  sang  the  ilar- 
seillaisi!  in  tlie  key  of  A,  as  Rachel  liad  done  in 
1,S4S.  She  appeared  from  1872  to  187(i  in  many 
French  classic  dramas,  chielly  tragedies.  She 
was  remarkable  for  her  beaiity,  her  mobile  and 
expressive  countenance,  eloquence  of  gesture,  and 
perfect  diction. 

AGARDH,  ii'giird,  Jakob  Geoug  (ISlS-inOll. 
A  Swedish  botanist,  son  of  Karl  Adolf  Agardh. 
He  was  professor  of  botany  at  Limd  during  1854- 
79.  He  increased  his  father's  large  collection, 
and  wrote  several  works  on  alga>.  He  also  pub- 
lished Theoria  Systematis  I'lantarum  (Lund, 
1858). 

AGARDH,  Kari,  Adolf  (1785-1859).  A 
Swedish  bo'.anist.  He  was  educated  at  Lund, 
and  devoted  liimself  chielly  to  the  study  of  algae. 
In  1S07  he  became  lecturer  on  matlu'matics  at 
Lund,  and  in  1812  was  appointed  professor  of 
botany  and  rural  economy,  lecturing  at  the  same 
time  on  general  economy.  He  became  a  priest 
in  1810;  went  into  politics  in  1817,  and  was 
elected  to  the  Diet,  where  he  exercised  consider- 
able influence,  became  a  leading  liberal,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  improving  and  raising  the  standard  of 
education  in  Sweden.  His  work,  tiystema  Alga- 
rum  (l>und,  1824),  was  an  important  contribu- 
tion to  the  science  of  botany.  He  also  wrote 
Essai  de  reditire  la  phijsioloyie  vcgitiile  <t  des 
principes  fondanicnloux  (Lund,  1828).  In  1834 
he  was  made  Bishop  of  Karlsta<l.  Agardh  was 
autlior  of  several  books  and  papers,  chiefly  on 
algie,  and  a  memoir  on  Linmeus. 

AG'ARIC,  AGAR'ICUS.     See  Mushroom. 

AGAR'ICIN  (from  C.k.  iiyapwdv,  ai/arikon, 
a  sort  of  tree-fungus).  A  substance  known  also 
as  agaric,  agaricic,  agaricinic,  or  laricic  acid, 
and  obtained  from  the  I'oliiponis  o/Jiriiialis,  com- 
monly called  white  agarii',  t(nichwooil,  or  ]nnik. 
It  is  a  while  powder,  slightly  soluble  in  water. 
Its  formula  is  C„,H„A,  +  ll/>.  It  is  used  as  an 
anhiilrotic   (i|.v.)    in  the  night  sweats  of  ]ihthisis. 

AGA'SIAS  (Ok.  'Ayaalac).  The  name  of 
two  Hphesian  sculptors,  perhaps  cousins,  who 
lived  at  the  beginning  of  the  first  century  B.C. 
Agasias.  son  of  Jtenophilns.  made  several  stat- 
ues of  Romans  on  the  island  of  Delos.  Agasias, 
son  of  Dositheus.  was  the  sculptor  of  the  "Bor- 
ghese  Gladiator"  found  at  Antium,  and  now  in  the 
Louvre.  It  pr(]bablv  re|)resents  a  warrior  on 
foot  raising  his  shield,  as  if  to  guard  against  a 
7nounled  adversary.  The  figure  seems  derived 
from  a  group.  Tt  shows  the  characteristics  of 
Asiatic  art  of  the  period. 

AGASSIZ,  ag'a-se,  or  a-gas'Tz;  Frriwh  pron. 
ft'ga's^.  Alexaxdkr  (1835—).  An  American 
naturalist,    capitalist,    and    philanthropist.     He 


was  born  at  NeucliAtcd,  Switzerland,  December 
17,  1835,  the  only  son  of  Louis  Agassiz.  He 
joined  his  father  in  Roston  in  1849,  and  gradu- 
ated at  llarvanl  Colleg<'  in  1855.  He  was  made 
a  bachelor  of  science  by  the  Lawrence  Scientific 
School  in  1857;  became  assistant  in  the  United 
States  Coast  Suivey  in  California  in  1859,  and 
was  assistant  in  the  Museum  of  Comparative 
Zoology  at  Harvard  College  from  1800  to  1805. 
At  this  time  he  became  interested  in  coal  and 
later  in  copper  mining,  and  assisted  in  the  de- 
vcIo))ment  of  the  Calumet  and  Ilecla  mines  of 
native  cop])er  on  the  south  shores  of  Lake  Su- 
perior. These  mines  were  then  in  an  unpro- 
ductive condition,  Inil  Agassiz,  as  .superintend- 
ent, applied  !iis  extensive  knowle<lge  of  geology, 
chemistry,  and  engineering,  and  so  developed 
them  that  they  have  since  yielded  to  him  and  his 
associates  great  w  'alth,  which  he  has  used  to 
advance  zoological  research.  After  visiting  dif- 
ferent nui.seums  in  Europe  (1800-70).  he  was  ap- 
pointed curator  (1874)  of  the  !Museuni  of  Com- 
parative Zoc'dogy,  wliich  his  father  had  founded. 
He  retaineil  this  position  nominally  until  lsi)7, 
and  was  for  some  tiim^  a  fellow  of  Ilarvard  Uni- 
versity. His  chief  interest  has  been  in  marine 
zoology,  where  his  studies  of  invertebrate  life, 
and  especially  of  the  development  of  polyps, 
jellyfishes,  and  echinoderms  have  placed  him  in 
the  first  rank  of  investigators.  He  explored  Lake 
Titicaca  and  the  coast  of  Chile  during  1874-75, 
and  founded  in  1875  a  |)rivate  laboratory  and  salt 
water  aipiarium  near  his  residence  overlooking 
Narragansett  Ray,  at  Newport,  E.  I.  lie  su- 
perintended deejj-sea  dredging  among  the  \\'est 
Indies,  in  the  Ignited  States  steamer  Blake, 
from  1877  to  1880,  and  in  successive  winters  he 
has  exphued  all  the  oceans,  adding  greatly  to 
the  knowledge  of  the  fauna  of  the  deep  sea.  His 
more  important  works  are:  North  American 
Acalcplis  (1805)  ;  Jtcvision  of  the  Echini 
(1872);  Xorlh  American  Starfinhcs  (1877); 
Itcport  on  the  Echini  of  the  Challenger  Expedi- 
tion (1881)  :  Three  Vrnises  of  the  lilakc  (1888)  ; 
The  Islands  and  Coral  Reefs  of  Fiji  (1899). 
The  latter  includes  a  iihilosojdiieal  discussion  of 
the  whole  subject  of  coral  formations.  He  con- 
tinued this  line  of  work  in  1901-02  by  a  private 
cx])edition  to  the  Maldive  Islands.  Sir.  .Agassiz 
has  given  a  million  or  more  dollars  toward 
furthering  the  study  of  zoidogy  at  Harvard  L'ni- 
versity  and  elsewhere,  always  in  an  unostenta- 
tious way,  and  bis  abilities  have  been  recognize<l 
by  many  iniiversities  and  scientific  societies 
in  both  F.urope  and  the  United  States,  where 
he  is  president  of  the  National  .\eademy  of 
Science  and  of  the  Anu'rican  .Uademy  of  Arts 
and  Sciences. 

AGASSIZ,  EiizAHETii  Cabot  (Gary).  An 
Anu'rican  teacher  and  writer.  She  was  born  in 
Roston,  ami  in  1850  was  married  to  Professor 
Louis  Agassiz.  whom  she  accompanied  to  Brazil 
( 1805-00), and  on  the  //rj.v.sVcr  expedition  in  1871- 
72.  Her  publications  include:  A  First  Lesson  in 
^'a1ural  Histori/  (1859):  Life  of  Lonis  Agassiz 
(2  volumes,  1885).  and  fienside  fit  tidies  in 
Xalnral  History  (I8G5),  in  which  she  was  as- 
sisted by  her  son,  Alexander  Agassiz.  Mrs. 
Agassiz's  home  is  at  Cambridge,  Mass.  She  is 
president  of  the  Board  of  Control  of  Radclill'e 
College,  and  has  taken  an  active  ])art  in  promot- 
ing   the    interests   of    that    institution. 

AGASSIZ,  Lake.    See  Lake  Agassiz. 


AGASSIZ. 


193 


AGASSIZ  ASSOCIATION. 


AGASSIZ,   Louis    (1807-73).     An  American 
naturalist,  born  at  Motier.  in  the  fanton  of  Fri- 
bourg.  Switzerland.     His  father  was  a  cleraynian 
and  iiis  mother  a  woman  of  education  and  taste. 
Following    a    decided    bent    toward    zoology,    de- 
veloped from  childliood  and  fostered  by  li is  "school 
preparation  at  Lausanne. he  studied  medicine  and 
natura>lJiistory  at  Zurich  and  Heidelberg,  where 
he   formed  a   lifelong  and   influential   friendship 
with  the  botanist  Alexander  Braun.     He  studied 
also    at    Erlangen    and    at    ilunich,    where    he 
became  acquainted  with  Jlartius  and  Spix,  and 
when    Spi.-i:    died     ( 1S2G ) ,    Agassiz    prepared    a 
description    of    his    Brazilian    fishes    which    at- 
tracted   Cuvier's    notice.      After   gi-aduating    in 
medicine    and    taking    a    de,gi-ee    in    philosophy 
(18,'!0),  Agassiz  studied  in  Paris  under  Cuvier, 
whose  ardent  disciple  he  henceforth  was.      From 
18.32    to    1846    Agassiz    was    professor    of    natu- 
ral history  at  Neuch.-itel,  and  there  completed  his 
first    great    work:    Recherchefs    s>ur    les    poissons 
fossiles    (5  volumes,  311    plates,    1833-42).      Sev- 
eral  visits    to    England,    beginning    in    1834,    en- 
larged his  acquaintance  and  reputation,  and  gave 
material   for   his   Fossil   Fishes   of   the    Old   lied 
Himdstone  of  the  British  Isles.     Xext  he  turned 
to  echinoderms,  which  he  studied  in  both  living 
and  fossil  forms.     Another  product  of  his  labors 
at   this   period   was   the   XomeiicUiioris   Zoijlogici 
Index    (Soloduri.   1842-46).  of  which  a   practical 
revision,  bringing  the  lists  of  genera  up  to  1882, 
was    made    by    Seudder    and    published    as    Bul- 
letin  Xo.    19,   L'nited   .States   National   Museum 
(Washington,      1882).      From      1836     to      184.5 
Agassiz    spent    his    summers    in    examining   the 
glaciers    of    the    Alps,    often    in    company    with 
A.      Guyot,      and      illuminated      and      confirmed 
previous  generalizations   in   respect   to   a   former 
glacial    epoch.      In     1846    Agassiz    was    invited 
to    the    United     States    to    give    a    series    of 
lectures   in  the  Lowell   Institute  course  at   Bos- 
ton.     These   at   once   established   his   reputation 
as  a  lecturer,   and   led  to   his   appointment,   in 
1848,  as  professor  of  natural  history  in  the  Law- 
rence   Scientific    School    of   Harvard    University, 
which  chair  he  held,  except  a  brief   interval  at 
Charleston,   S.   C,   until   his   death,   although   he 
relinquished    teaching    long    before    that    event. 
Agassiz  came  to  America  untrammeled,  and  un- 
dertook the   mission   of  teaching  and   advancing 
the  cause  of  science  in  the  United  States  with 
the  utmost  enthusiasm.     His  wife  had  died,  but 
he  presently  remarried  (see  Ag.^s.siz,  E.  C.)  ,  and 
Mrs.  Agassiz  established  in  their  house  in  Cam- 
bridge a  school   for  girls,  with  which  Professor 
Agassiz  was  identified.     He  traveled  widely  and 
lectured  in  various  cities,  and  in  1848  visited  the 
Lake  Superior  region  with  a  class  of  scientific 
students.     This  exploration  was  described   in   a 
narrative  by  Cabot,  to  which  Agassiz  contributed 
chapters  on  fishes.     Similarly.'he  undertook,  in 
1850-51,  a  study  of  the  Florida  coral  reefs,  the 
results  of  which   were  set  forth   in  lectures  and 
in  articles  contributed  to  the  Atlantic  Monthhi. 
and    subsequently    gathered     into    two    popular 
books.    Methods    of    l^tiidi/    in    yafunil    IJistorti, 
and    Geological    Sketches.      He    was    everywhere 
and  foremost  a   teacher,   interpreting  his   facts 
and   theories  with   such    enthusiastic   force   and 
persuasive  eloquence  that  he  was  in  constant  de- 
mand.    A  series  of  lectures  which  he  delivered  in 
Brooklyn    in    1862    were    epoch-making    in    this 
direction.     They  were  republished  in  book  form 
as   The  Structure  of  Animal  Life    (New  York, 


1874).  ilanj-  of  his  views  were  in  advance  of 
popular  knowledge  and  opinion  and  contravened 
some  established  religious  tenets;  3-et  he  rarely 
excited  serious  opposition,  and  no  educational  in- 
fluence of  his  time  was  so  great  as  tliat  exerted  by 
him.  He  may  be  said  to  have  realized  at  this 
period  the  ambition  which  he  expressed  in  a 
letter  to  his  father  in  1829:  "1  wish  it  may  be 
said  of  Louis  Agassiz  that  he  was  the  first  natu- 
ralist of  his  time,  a  good  citizen  and  ....  be- 
loved of  those  who  knew  him." 

In  1858,  the  plans  were  laid  for  the  gi-eat 
Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology  at  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  now  one  of  the  most  extensive  and  scien- 
tifically useful  in  the  world ;  and  for  many  years 
his  main  efforts  were  directed  to  building  it  up. 
lie  secured  public  appropriations  and  "private 
gifts  for  it  by  his  personal  influence,  and  kept 
himself  poor  by  his  unselfish  labors  and  liberality 
toward  it.  He  gathered  about  him  there  and 
trained  a  bodj'  of  men  who  liave  made  for  Amer- 
ica a  creditable  record  in  biology — .\lexander 
Agassiz,  his  son:  J.  A.  Allen.  H."  .J.  Clark,  S. 
Carman,  Alpheus  Hvatt,  D.  S.  Jordan,  E.  S 
Morse,  A.  S.  Packard,  F.  W.  Putnam,  N.  S. 
Shaler,  A.  E.  Verrill,  and  others. 

In  1865  he  visited  Brazil  with  his  wife  and  a 
body  of  assistants.  The  results  of  these  re- 
searches he  published  in  his  book,  A  Journey  in 
Bru::il  (Boston,  1868).  In  1872  he  made  a  trip 
to  California.  In  the  summer  of  1873  he  held 
the  first  session  of  a  summer  school  at  the  island 
of  Penikese  in  Buzzard's  Bay.  This  set  an  ex- 
ample that  has  led  to  the  many  summer  schools 
and  seaside  laboratories  since  established  in  all 
parts  of  the  country.  During  all  these  years  he 
was  prosecuting  a  continuous  work  on  a  gi-eat 
scale,  entitled  Contributions  to  the  Xatural  His- 
tory of  the  United  States,  of  which  four  magni- 
ficent quarto  volumes  were  published,  the  first. 
An  Essay  on  Cliissifiention,  in  1857.  the  others 
(monographs  of  American  turtles  and  acalephs) 
soon  after.  The  doctrine  taught  in  tliese  was  a 
liberal  advance  upon  the  "s]iec1al  creation"  views 
previously  in  vogue;  yet  when  the  Darwinian 
school  of  evolutionists  arose  they  found  in 
Agassiz  a  most  earnest  opponent,  and  it  was  a 
gieat  grief  to  him  to  see  that  his  scientific  dis- 
ciples were  almost,  without  exception,  becoming 
adherents  to  the  new  ideas.  To  stem  this  tide 
of  scientific  heresy.  Professor  Agassiz  prepared 
and  delivered  in  Cambridge,  in  the  spring  of 
1873,  a  coarse  of  six  lectures,  which  attracted 
very  wide  attention.  This  was  his  final  public 
work,  for  late  in  1873  he  was  attacked  by  brain 
disease,  and  died  <m  December  14.  He  was 
buried  with  extraordinary  honors  in  !Mount 
Auburn  Cemetery.  His  monument  is  a  boulder 
brought  from  the  glacier  of  the  Aar.  where  he 
had  made  his  most  enlightening  studies  of  gla- 
cial phenomena.  Consult:  Agassiz,  Life  and 
Correspondence  of  Agassiz  (Boston.  1886)  ;  Mar- 
cou.  Life.  Letters,  and  Worlcs  of  Agassiz  (New 
York.  1896)  :  Ouyot.  Memoir  of  L.  Agassiz 
(Princeton.  N.  J..  1883),  and  Oilman  and  other 
eulogists,  Proceedings  California  Academy  of 
Sciences,  Volume  IV.,  1873-74  (San  Francisco. 
1874). 

AGASSIZ,  Mount.  An  extinct  volcano  in 
Arizona.  70  miles  northeast  of  Prescott,  and 
10.000  feet  above  the  sea  level.  Another  peak 
of  this  name  in  I'tah  is  13.000  feet  high. 

AGASSIZ  ASSOCIATION.     An  organization 


AGASSIZ  ASSOCIATION. 


lQ-6 


AGATHON. 


to  promote  tlip  study,  collection,  and  preserva- 
tion of  n.ituial  objects  by  yoiin^:  people.  It  was 
formed  in  ItiTo  by  Harlan  II.  I'.allard  and  has 
since  then  };ro\vn  rapidly,  ineUidinj;  in  UM)()  a 
total  nieniliership  of  over  10,000.  Tlie  society 
has  allied  niori-  than  20,000  students  in  stiidyini; 
natural  history,  and  has  established  over  1200 
local  scicntilic  societies  as  association  chapters 
in  America,  Canada,  Kngland,  Ireland,  Scotland, 
France,  Chile,  and  Japan.  The  lieadipiarters  of 
the  association  is  at  I'iitslield.  Jlass.  The  badyje 
is  a  Swiss  cross,  and  the  ofificial  organ  is  The 
Amcriani  Lioij.  .\  handbook,  The  Three  King- 
duiiis,  is  also  published. 

AGNATE  (hnt.  (ichiites,Gk.  axd-n/c,  achates, so 
named,  acconlinf;  to  Pliny  (  Hist.  Nat., ."?",  10,  55), 
from  tlie  Sicilian  river  Achates,  where  it  was 
first  found).  .\  mineral  composed  of  layers  of 
quartz,  •.'cnerally  of  ditrerent  cidors,  but  inti- 
mately joined  to};ether  and  found  chielly  of  thiee 
varieties,  in  which  the  colors  are,  respectively, 
banded,  or  in  clouds,  or  are  produced  by  visible 
iminirities.  the  last  named  irivini;  rise  to  moss- 
ai.'iite.  in  which  the  black  niarUinsis  are  due  to 
manfinnese  oxide,  .\jrates  are  found  universally, 
and  arc  much  used,  when  cut  and  polished,  fen' 
ornaments  and  je«elry.  The  principal  supply 
comes  from  liruEtuay  and  Brazil,  in  South 
America,  whence  they  are  sent  to  Oberstcin,  in 
Germany,  where  their  polishing  is  an  important 
industry. 

AGATE  SHELL,  or  AGATE  SNAIL.  Any 
land-snail  of  the  jienns  .\cluitina  (family  Heli- 
pida'),  of  which  many  species  arc  to  be  found 
throughout  tropical  Africa.  They  are  carniv- 
orous, tall-spired,  usually  tinted  and  banded  in 
bright  colors,  and  include  the  largest  land-shells 
known,  some  being  ten  inches  long,  producing 
eggs  an  inch  in  length,  with  a  calcareous  shell. 
See  Plati'  of  -\balone,  etc. 

AG'ATHA,  Saixt.  According  to  the  legend, 
a  noble  Sicilian  virgin  of  great  beauty  and 
wealth,  who  rejected  the  love  of  the  consul  Quin- 
tianus.  and  snfl'ered  a  cruel  martyrdom  in  the 
persecution  of  Sicilian  Christians.  She  holds  a 
high  rank  among  the  saints  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church.  Her  day  falls  on  PVliruary  5.  She 
is  the  patroness  of  the  island  of  Malta,  and  there 
are  churches  erected  in  her  honor.  It  is  uncertain 
whether  she  ever  lived,  and  if  so,  whether  she 
died  in  the  Decian  persecution  (2.t1).  or  the 
Diocletian,  fifty  years  later.  Legend  says  that 
several  times  the  mere  carrying  in  procession  of 
her  veil,  taken  from  her  tomb  in  Catana,  has 
averted  eruptions  from  Mount  Etna  from  the 
walls  of  that  city,  and  that  her  intercession  saved 
ilalta  from  Turkish  conquest  in  l.)51.  Consult: 
A.  Butler,  Lircs  of  the  Haiiitx.  under  February 
5   (London,  1847). 

AG'ATHAR'CHUS  (Ok.  •.\ym'i„pxnc,A(iafhar- 
ch'j.si  (t.SO?  i;.c.).  A  Greek  painter:  said  to 
have  been  the  first  scene-painter,  and  therefore 
of  importance  as  rendering  perspective,  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  school  of  Polygnotus.  Tie  is  said 
to  have  left  a  treatise  on  this  sidiject. 

AGA'THIAS  (Gk.  'Aj "«/«,■)  (.-,,'?0?-.iSO?).  A 
Greek  poet  anil  historian,  snrnanied  .\sianus. 
He  was  educated  at  Alexandria  and  Constanti- 
nople; studied  Roman  law  and  practiced  with 
success.  He  wrote  love  verses  and  made  an  an- 
thology of  earlier  poets:  but  his  most  valuable 
work  is  a  history  of  the  years  552  to  558.  in 


which  he  tells  of  the  overthrow  of  the  Ostro- 
gothic  power  in  Italy  by  the  Byz;intincs,  of  the 
earthquakes  of  5.)4  and  5.")7,  the  beginning  of 
the  (Jrcek  and  Persi;in  war,  the  rebuilding  of 
St.  Sophia,  etc.  This  work  was  edited  by  I.. 
Dindorf  in  llistorici  (Iraci  ilinoren  (Leipzig, 
1871).  Cimsult :  Krund)aeher,  Gcfschichtc  dcr 
hi):(inti)iiK<hiii  Littcratur  (Munich,  1807). 

AG'ATHO,  Saint.  Pojie  from  078  to  085. 
He  was  a  native  of  Palermo,  .Sicily,  ami  is 
remembered  chiefly  for  his  efforts  in  bringing 
about  the  Sixth  Kcumenical  Council,  which 
assembled  at  Constantino|)lc  in  (580,  and  con- 
demned the  Monotlu'Iite  heresy.  His  festival  is 
celebrated  on  I'"ebruarv  20  by  the  (ireck  Church, 
ami  on  .Tannary  10  by  the  Roman  Church. 

AGATH'OCLES  (Gk.  '  A  j  ntf.)K>  « )  (3fiI-289 
B.C.).  .V  Sicilian  despot,  ruler  of  Syracuse.  He 
was  born  at  Thcrma'.  in  Sicily:  rose  from  luimbic 
circumstances  through  the  patronage  of  Damas. 
a  noble  citizen  of  Syracuse,  and  received  a  com- 
u'and  in  the  expedition  against  .Vgiigentum. 
Afterward  he  married  the  widow  of  Damas.  and 
became  one  of  the  most  wealthy  men  in  Syra- 
cuse. Lender  the  rule  of  Sosistratus  he  was 
obliged  to  Mee  into  lower  Italy,  where  he  col- 
lected a  band  of  partisans.  Returning  to  Syra- 
cuse after  the  death  of  Sosistratus,  he  secured 
the  supreme  power  in  H17  li.c,  strengthened  his 
position  by  a  massacre  of  several  thousand 
respectable  citizens,  and  took  possession  of 
the  greater  part  of  Sicily.  To  establish  his  pow- 
er and  keep  his  army  employed,  he  now  attempt- 
ed to  expel  the  Carthaginians  from  Sicily:  but 
in  this  undertaking  he  was  defeated.  His  next 
plan  was  to  pass  over  to  .\frica  with  a  jiart  of 
his  army  and  there  to  attack  the  Carthaginians. 
This  war  he  carried  on  with  success  for  more 
than  thi-ee  years,  or  until  307  B.C.,  when  disturb- 
ances in  Sicily  compelled  him  to  leave  the  army 
for  a  time.  On  his  return  to  Africa  he  found 
his  troops  in  a  state  of  mutiny  against  his  son, 
whom  he  had  left  in  command,  but  pacified 
them  by  promises  of  large  booty.  Soon  after- 
ward he  sufTered  a  serious  defeat,  and  with 
deliberate  treachery  left  his  own  sou  expo.sed 
to  the  vengeance  of  the  disappointed  soldiers. 
The  son  was  put  to  death,  and  the  troops 
surrendered  themselves  to  the  enemy,  while 
Agathocles  escaped  safely  into  Sicily,  where,  by 
fraud  and  ci'uclty.  he  soon  recovered  his  former 
power,  and  was  afterward  engaged  in  predatory 
inroad.s  into  Italy.  It  was  his  intention  to 
leave  the  throne  to  his  youngest  son.  Agathocles; 
but  his  grandson.  Archagathus,  made  an  insur- 
rection, slew  the  royal  heir,  and  persuaded 
Mienon,  one  of  the  favorites  of  the  aged  tyrant, 
to  destroy  him  by  means  of  a  jjoisoned  tooth- 
pick. This  took  place  in  280  B.C.,  when  Agatho- 
cles was  seventy-two  years  old  and  had  reigned 
twenty-cii;hl   years. 

AG'ATHON  (Gk.  •\yaOuv)  (447?-401  ?  n.c.) . 
An  Athenian  tragic  poet.  He  gained  his  first 
victory  at  the  Lempan  festival,  in  41(i  B.C.  and 
this  victory  is  celebrated  in  Plato's  Stpnposliim. 
He  was  well-to-do  and  had  many  friends,  among 
whom  were  Euripides  and  Plato.  His  style  was 
How(>ry  and  ornate  r;i11icr  tli:in  strong  en-  sublime, 
and  his  works  were  full  of  the  rhetorical  figures 
which  marked  the  style  of  Gcu-gins.  Still,  after 
.Escbylus,  Sophocles,  and  Euripides,  he  was  the 
most  important  tragic  poet  of  Greece.  Accord- 
ing to  Aristotle,  he  began  the  practice  of  making 


AGATHON. 


194 


AGE. 


the  chorus  songs  mere  interludes,  disconnected 
in  theme  from  the  dialogue.  He  is  ridiculed  in 
Aristophanes'  Thesnioplwriazusw.  About  thirty 
short  fragments  of  Agatlion  are  preserved. 

AGATHON.  The  title  of  a  philosophical 
novel  by  Wieland  (q.v.),  published  in  ITOfi.  Its 
hero  (Agathon)  is  a  Platonist.  and  the  theme  of 
the  book  is  the  proper  mean  in  human  life  be- 
tween asceticism  and  sensuality. 

AG'ATIZED  WOOD.  See  Chalcedony;  and 
Fossil  Forests. 

AGAXJ,  a-gou'.  An  Hamitic  people  of  Abys- 
sinia, supposed  to  represent  the  aboriginal  in- 
habitants of  the  highlands  of  that  country.  The 
Agau  tribes  are  scattered  in  various  parts  of 
the  kingdom,  one  district,  in  Amhara,  southwest 
of  Lake  Tsana.  bearing  the  name  of  Agaumeder. 
The  Agau  language  is  widely  diffused  among  the 
common  people  of  Abyssinia. 

AGAVE,  a-ga've  (Gk.  fem.  of  ayavoc,  ugauos, 
noble,  high-born),  Cex'tury  Plaxt.  A  genus 
of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Amaryllidacea>.  and  having  a  tubular  perianth 
with  a  six-partite  limb,  and  a  coriaceous,  many- 
seeded  capsule.  They  are  herbaceous  plants, 
of  remarkable  and  beautiful  appearance.  There 
iire  a  number  of  species,  all  natives  of  the  warmer 
parts  of  America.  By  unscientific  persons  they 
are  often  confounded  with  Aloes  (q.v.)  ;  and 
Agave  Americana  is  generally  known  by  the  name 
of'^  American  Aloe.  The  agaves  have  either  no 
proper  stem,  or  a  very  short  one,  bearing  at  its 
summit  a  crowded  head  of  large,  fleshy  leaves, 
which  are  often  spiny  at  the  margin.  From  the 
midst  of  these  shoots  up  the  straight,  upright 
scape,  sometimes  20  feet  high,  and  at  the  base 
several  inches  in  diameter,  along  which  are  small, 
appressed.  lanceolate  bracte;v,  with  a  terminal 
7)anicle,  often  bearing  as  many  as  4000  flowers. 
Tn  South  America  these  plants  often  flower  in 
their  eighth  year,  but  in  hot-houses  not  until 
they  have  reached  a  very  advanced  age ;  whence 
arises  the  gardeners'  fable  of  their  flowering 
only  once  in  a  hundred  years.  After  flowering, 
in  some  species,  the  plant  dies  down  to  the 
ground,  but  the  root,  continuing  to  live,  sends  up 
new  shoots.  The  best  known  species  is  Agave 
Americana,  of  which  there  are  several  varieties 
with  striped  or  margined  leaves,  which  was  first 
brought  from  South  America  to  Europe  in  1561, 
and  being  easily  propagated  by  suckers,  is  era- 
pkiyed  for  fences  in  Italian  Switzerland,  and  has 
become  naturalized  in  Nai)les,  Sicily,  and  the 
north  of  Africa.  By  maceration  of  the  leaves, 
which  are  .5  to  7  feet  long,  are  obtained  coarse 
fibres,  which  are  used  in  America,  under  the 
name  of  maijuey,  for  the  manufacture  of  thread, 
twine,  rope«,  hammocks,  etc.  This  fibre  is  also 
known  as  Pita  flax.  It  is  now  produced  to  some 
extent  in  the  south  of  Europe.  It  is  not  very 
stiong  or  durable,  and  if  exposed  to  moisture 
it  soon  decays.  The  ancient  Mexicans  employed 
it  for  the  preparation  of  a  coarse  kind  of  paper, 
and  the  Iralians  use  it  for  oakinn.  The  leaves, 
cut  into  slices,  are  used  for  feeding  cattle.  An- 
other species,  Agave  Mexicana.  is  particularly 
described  by  Humboldt  on  account  of  its  utility. 
M'lien  the  innermo.st  leaves  have  been  torn  out, 
a  jnicc  ((intinues  to  flow  for  a  considerable  time, 
A\liich,  liy  iiispissation,  yields  sugar,  and  wliich 
wlicn  diluted  with  water  and  sulijcctc'cl  to  four 
or  live  ilays'  fermentation  becojncs  an  agreeable 
but    intoxicating   drink,   called   piil/j»e.     Pulque 


is  also  produced  from  a  number  of  other  species, 
especially  from  Agave  atrovirens.  and  a  distilled 
liquor,  mescal,  is  a  product  of  species  of  this 
plant.  Agave  rigida  sisalana,  a  native  of  Yuca- 
tan, yields  an  important  fibre  which,  under  the 
name  of  Sisal  hemp,  is  extensively  used  for  cord- 
age. A  few  species  of  the  genus  Agave  are  known 
from  Tertiary  rocks  of  Europe.  Consult:  George 
Englemann.  Botanical  M'orks  (Cambridge,  Mass., 
1887);  A.  Isabel  Mulford,  Tlic  Agaves  of  the 
Vnited  States  (St.  Louis,  1890)  ;  Academy  of 
Science,  St.  Louis,  Transactions  ( St.  Louis 
187.5). 

AGA'VE.  The  mother  of  the  Theban  King 
Pentheus  (q.v.),  whom,  according  to  the  Greek 
legend,  she  and  other  frenzied  Bacchantes  tore  in 
pieces  for  his  opposition  to  the  new  orgies  of 
Dionysus.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Cadmus 
and  the  wife  of  Echion. 

AGDE,  agd.  An  ancient  French  town  in  the 
department  of  TOrault,  on  the  river  Herault, 
two  and  a  half  miles  from  the  Jlcditerranean 
Sea  (Map:  France,  K  8).  To  the  north,  under 
the  walls  of  the  town,  flows  the  Languedoc  Canal. 
The  Herault  is  navigable,  and  admits  vessels 
of  400  tons  burden.  Agde  has  trade  communica- 
tion with  Italy,  Spain,  and  Africa,  but  its  chief 
activity  is  in  its  coasting  trade.  It  carries  on 
a  large  and  prosperous  traffic  in  coal,  wine,  oil, 
gi'ain,  silk,  etc.,  and  manufactures  soap  and 
verdigris.  The  general  aspect  of  the  place  is 
sombre,  on  account  of  the  black  volcanic  rock 
of  ^^•hich  the  houses  are  built  and  with  which 
the  streets  are  paved.  It  possesses  a  naval  aca- 
demy and  a  college.  Its  most  conspicuous  build- 
ing is  the  Cathedral  of  St.  ^fitienne,  for  Agde  lias 
been  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  since  the  beginning 
of  the  Middle  Ages.  The  town  was  founded 
by  the  Greeks  of  Massilia.  and  its  first  name 
was  Agathe.     Pop.,   1890,   7007;    1901,  7920. 

AGE.  A  term  employed  to  designate  suc- 
cessive epochs  in  the  history  of  the  human  race. 
In  the  Greek  mind,  the  life  of  the  race  was 
likened  to  that  of  the  individual — hence  the  in- 
fancy of  the  former  might  easily  be  imagined 
to  be,  like  that  of  the  latter,  the  most  beautiful 
and  serene  of  all.  Hesiod  mentions  five  ages — 
the  Golden,  simple  and  patriarchal;  the  Silver, 
voluptuous  and  godless;  the  Brazen,  warlikr, 
wild,  and  violent:  the  Heroic,  an  aspiration  to- 
ward the  better:  the  Iron,  in  which  justice,  piety, 
and  faithfulness  had  vanished  from  the  earth, 
the  time  in  which  Hesiod  fancied  tliat  he  himself 
lived.  Ovid  closely  imitates  the  old  Greek,  except 
in  one  particular — he  omits  the  Heroic  Age.  This 
idea,  at  first  perhaps  a  mere  poetic  comparison, 
gradually  worked  its  way  into  prose,  and  finally 
became  an  element  of  scientific  philosophy.  These 
ages  were  regarded  as  the  divisions  of  the  great 
world-year,  Mhich  would  be  com])leted  when  the 
stars  and  planets  had  performed  a  revolution 
round  tlie  heavens,  after  which  destiny  wonlil 
repeat  itself  in  the  same  series  of  events.  Thus 
niythidogy  was  broiight  into  connection  with  as- 
tronomy. The  Golden  Age  was  said  to  be  gov- 
erned by  Saturn :  the  Silver,  by  .lupiter ;  the 
Brazen,  by  Neptune,  and  the  Iron,  by  Pluto. 
Alany  curious  calculations  were  entered  into  l)y 
ancient  writers  to  ascertain  the  length  of  tlie 
heavenly  year  and  its  various  divisions.  Tlie 
greatest  discrepancy  prevailed,  as  might  natu- 
rally be  expected;  some  maintaining  that  it  was 
3000,  and  others  as  many  as  18,000,  solar  years. 


AGE. 


195 


AGENOR. 


The  Sil>yllinp  Books  <•(  mi  pared  it  to  the  seasons 
of  the  sular  your,  calling'  the  (loldcii  Age  the 
sprin;;,  itf. ;  aiul,  on  the  lomiiletioii  of  the  cycle, 
the  old  Older  was  renewed.  The  idea  of  a  suc- 
cession of  ages  is  so  natural  that  it  has  in- 
vrought  itself  into  the  religious  convictions  of 
almost  all  nations.  It  is  sanctioned  by  Scrip- 
ture, for  it  is  synibolieally  adopted  in  the  Apoc- 
alypse to  a  certain  e.v:tent :  it  also  manifests 
itself  in  the  sacred  books  of  the  Hindus.  Mod- 
ern i)liilosophy,  at  least  in  (iernjany  and  France, 
has  also  attempted  to  divide  liunian  liislory  into 
definite  ages  or  period^.  Fichte  numbers  five, 
of  wliich  he  conceives  that  we  are  in  the  third; 
Hegel  and  Auguste  Comte  reckon  three,  placing 
us  in  the  last.  Modern  anthropology  divides  the 
prehistoric  period  of  man  into  the  older  and 
newer  Stone  Ages  (Paleolithic  and  Neolithic  I 
and  the  Bronze  Age.  Stone  and  bronze  are  here 
not  lignrati\e.  as  in  lli'siod's  classification,  but 
are  indications  of  the  state  of  man's  civiliza- 
tion. In  reference  to  this  and  other  ages,  as  de- 
fined in  science,  see  Geology,  etc. 

AGE.  In  law,  that  period  of  life  at  which 
persons  emerging  from  infancy  become  capable 
of  e.Kcrcising  the  rights  or  become  subject  to  the 
obligations  and  penalties  of  normal  persons.  As 
these  rights  and  obligations  vary  greatly,  the  age 
of  capacity  may  vary  according  to  the  riglit  or 
obligation  in  (|uestion.  Full  age  is  the  period  at 
which  a  person  acquires  full  legal  capacity,  and, 
in  England  and  the  United  States,  is  usiially 
fixed  by  law  at  twenty-one  years,  for  men  and 
Momen  alike.  This  is  considered  to  be  attained  on 
the  day  preceding  the  twenty-first  anniversary  of 
birth.  In  a  few  States,  however,  a  woman  comes 
of  age  at  eighteen.  Political  capacity  is  usually 
coincident  with  the  attainment  of  legal  capacity, 
though  greater  maturity  is  usually  required  in 
this  country  of  the  holders  of  certain  imiiortant 
otlices  of  State.  Thus,  while  one  may  become  a 
member  of  the  British  Parliament  at  twenty- 
one,  no  one  can  be  a  representative  in  Congress 
until  he  is  twenty-five,  or  a  senator  of  the  T'nited 
States  until  he  is  thirty,  nor  become  President 
before  attaining  the  age  of  thirty-five. 

Short  of  full  age,  a  male  minor  may  become 
capable  of  military  service  at  eighteen  (military 
age),  and  l)ecome  capable  of  consenting  to  mar- 
riage and  tbe  choice  of  a  guardian  at  fourteen 
lagc  of  discrrlion) .  At  common  law  the  age  of 
discretion  for  female  infants  was  twelve,  and 
the  age  of  consent  to  unlawful  carnal  intercourse 
was  ten,  but  recent  legislation  in  the  United 
States  has  raised  the  age  of  consent  to  fourteen, 
fifteen,  sixteen,  and,  in  several  States,  including 
New  York,  to  eighteen  years.  (See  Consent; 
E.\PE. )  The  term  'age  of  discretion'  is  also  more 
eonunonly  emi)loyed  to  designate  the  period 
(usually  the  age  of  fourteen)  at  which  jiersons 
become  subject  to  criminal  liability,  an  infant  un- 
der seven  years  of  age  being  deemed  inca]iable  of 
crime,  and  one  between  seven  and  fourteen  being 
presumed  to  lack  the  discretion  which  such  lia- 
bility assumes;  but  this  presumption  is  capable 
of  being  rebutted  by  proof.  (See  Infant;  Con- 
tract; Cki.me;  Militia.)  For  the  modern  law 
of  infancy  consult  Sehotiler.  Trcaliae  on  the 
Domrstic  ftrhilions   (Boston,   1870). 

AGE,  Canonical.  The  age  which,  according 
to  tlie  canons,  a  man  must  have  reached  for 
ordination.  This,  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
is  22  for  the  sub-diacouate,  2,3  for  the  diaconate. 


25  for  the  priesthood,  and  .id  lor  the  episcopate. 
Dispensations  may.  however,  be  granted  from  this 
rule.  In  the  tireek  Church  the  age  is  2.')  for  a 
deacon,  :i()  for  a  priest  or  bishop;  in  the  .Vnglican 
Conununion  2.'!  for  a  deacim  and  24  for  a  priest. 

AG'ELA'DAS  (Ok.  'AytXdtSac)  (520-»460 
li.C).  An  early  Greek  sculptor,  born  at  Argos. 
He  is  now  chieHy  noted  for  having  been  the 
teacher  of  the  famous  artists,  Myron,  Phidias, 
and  Polyclitus  (q.v.).  By  him,  however,  were 
modeled  the  statues  of  Zeus  and  Hercules,  as 
well  as  of  various  victors  in  the  Olympian  games, 
and  Pausanias  mentions  numerous  works  of  his. 
None  of  them,  so  far  as  known,  has  come  down 
to  us. 

AGEN,  :i'z!iiix'.  The  capital  of  the  depart- 
ment of  Lot-et-Garonne,  France.  It  is  situated 
in  a  fertile  region  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Garonne,  37  miles  from  Bordeaux  (Map;  France, 
G  7).  The  town  is  very  ancient,  and  was  found- 
ed during  tbe  Roman  occupation,  when  it  was 
known  as  Aginnum.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric, 
and  the  cathedral  dates  from  the  days  of  C'lovis. 
There  is  a  fine  stone  bridge  over  the  Garonne, 
and  a  still  more  beautiful  structure  is  the  aque- 
duct bridge  of  the  Canal  Lat(''ral.  Among  monu- 
ments of  note  is  a  statue  of  the  poet  Jasmin. 
Its  public  institutions  include  a  seminary  for 
the  training  of  the  clergy  and  a  library  of 
20,000  volumes.  Standing  between  Bordeaux 
and  Toulou.se,  Agen  interchanges  trade  with  both 
these  places,  and  has.  besides,  several  inqiortant 
home  industries.  The  prunes  of  Agen  are  <'ele- 
brated,  and  it  also  prodtices  cotton,  woolen,  and 
linen  fabrics  of  the  first  quality.  Agen  is  the 
birthplace  of  Joseph  Scaliger,  Lac^pede.  and 
Bory  de  St.  Vincent.     Pop._,  1!)01,  22,482. 

AGENCE  HAVAS,  a'zhiiN'  sa'va'.  .See  Havas 
Agency. 

AGEN'DA  (Lat.,  things  to  be  done,  from 
orjcrc.  to  do).  A  term  applied  by  theologians 
to  practical  duties  as  distinguished  from  the 
credenda,  things  to  be  believed,  or  doctrines  that 
must  be  accejited  as  articles  of  faith.  Among 
writers  of  the  iincient  Church  the  term  signified 
both  divine  service  in  general  and  the  mass  in 
particular.  We  meet  with  (uiciida  matiitiiia  and 
icfipfrtind,  morning  and  evening  prayers;  (iijcnda 
diri,  the  olliee  of  the  day:  (itiniiln  Diorliioruiii, 
tbe  service  of  the  dead.  It  is  also  applied  to 
Church  books  compiled  by  public  authority,  pre- 
scribing the  order  to  l)e  observed  by  the  ministers 
and  people  in  the  ceremonies  and  observances  of 
the  Church.  In  this  sense  agenda  occurs  for  the 
first  time  in  a  work  of  .lohannes  de  Janna  about 
12S7.  The  name  was  especially  used  to  designate 
a  book  containing  tbe  formula'  of  prayer  and 
ceremonies  to  l)e  observed  by  the  priests  in  their 
several  ecclesiastical  functions.  It  was  gener- 
ally adopted  by  the  Lutheran  Church  of  (^.er- 
many,  in  which  it  is  still  in  use.  while  in  the 
Roman  Church  it  has  been,  since  tlie  sixteenth 
century,  supjilanted  by  the  term  ritual    (q.v.). 

AGENOR,  !i-je'n,-„.  (Qk.  'Ayf/vui,).  Original- 
ly a  mytliic;il  personage  in  the  Argive  legends, 
and  later  said  to  have  been  a  king  in  Phfenicia  or 
Eg>-pt.  son  of  Poseidon,  and  father  of  Kuropa, 
Cadmus.  Phrenix.  and  Cilix.  When  Europa  was 
carried  oil'  by  Zeus,  .\genor  sent  his  sons  in  search, 
with  orders  not  to  return  without  their  sister.  As 
she  was  not  found,  Cadmus  founded  Thebes,  and 


AGENOB. 


196 


AGENT. 


the   other   sons   settled    in   the   countries   which 
bore  their  names.     See  Cadmus. 

A'GENT  (Lat.  agens,  acting,  pres.  part,  of 
agere,  to  act) .  A  modern  term  in  English  law. 
As  a  generic  term,  it  includes  every  one  author- 
ized to  act  for  and  represent  another ;  but  it  is 
often  used  in  a  specific  sense  to  denote  one 
authorized  to  act  for  another  in  making  con- 
tracts between  that  other,  called  the  principal, 
and  third  persons.  BlacUstone  does  not  employ 
it,  and  it  rarely  occurs  in  law  dictionaries,  di- 
gests, or  decisions  before  the  nineteenth  centurj'. 
For  a  time  after  its  appearance  it  is  used  inter- 
changeably with  the  word  servant.  During  the 
last  century,  however,  the  tendency  of  judges  and 
law  writers  has  been  toward  a  complete  dif- 
ferentiation of  the  terms  "agent"  and  "servant." 
A  fair  illustration  of  the  result  is  afforded  by  the 
following  provisions  of  the  California  Civil  Code: 
"An  agent  is  one  who  represents  another,  called 
the  principal,  in  dealings  with  third  persons." 
"A  servant  is  pne  who  is  employed  to  render 
personal  service  to  his  employer,  otherwise  than 
in  the  pursuit  of  an  independent  calling,  and 
who  in  sueli  service  remains  entirely  under  the 
control  and  direction  of  the  latter,  who  is  called 
his  master."  Vsing  "agent,"  then,  to  denote 
a  person  authorized  to  act  for  and  represent  an- 
other in  business  transactions  with  third  per- 
sons, and  reserving  the  rules  relating  to  master 
and  servant  (q.v.)  for  a  separate  article,  let 
us  consider,  ( 1 )  how  agency  is  constituted,  ( 2 ) 
the   liability   of    the   principal   to   third   parties, 

(3)  the  liability  of  the  agent  to   third  parties, 

(4)  the  liabilities  of  principal  and  agent  to  each 
other,   (5)   the  termination  of  agency. 

(1.)  Ordinarily,  the  relation  of  principal  and 
agent  originates  in  a  contract  (q.v.)  between  the 
parties,  but  it  may  exist  without  a  contract,  as 
Avhere  A  gratuitously  undertakes  to  do  .an  act 
for  B.  The  relationship  may  rest  upon  ratifica- 
tion, instead  of  a  precedent  agreement.  For  ex- 
ample: A  does  an  act  avowedly  as  B's  agent,, 
without  authority  from  B.  The  act  does  not 
bind  B,  unless  he  accepts  it  .as  done  on  his  be- 
half. If  he  does  so  accept  it,  his  ratification  is 
equivalent  in  law  to  a  ])recedent  appointment 
of  A  as  agent.  Even  without  appointing  A  or 
ratifying  his  acts,  B  may  become  liable  for  those 
acts,  because  his  conduct  induces  third  parties 
to  liolieve  that  A  is  B's  agent.  In  such  a  case 
there  is  agency  by  estoppel  (q.v.).  Still  another 
form  of  agency  is  that  which  is  created  by 
the  law.  as  where  the  law  authorizes  a  wife  to 
pledge  her  husljand's  credit  for  necessaries.  In 
the  language  of  a  learned  judce.  "the  law  cre- 
ates a  compulsory  agency,  and  her  reqiiest  is  his 
request." 

(2.)  A  principal  who  has  authorized  an  agent 
to  do  an  act  for  him,  or  has  ratified  the  act,  is 
liable  to  third  per.sons  preciselv  as  if  the  act 
had  lieen  done  by  him.  As  a  rule,  the  principal 
is  disclosed  to  the  third  party,  and  the  latter  un- 
derstands that  the  transaction  is  between  them, 
the  agent  being  a  mere  conduit  for  the  transmis- 
sion of  the  iirincipal's  consent.  But  even  though 
the  principal  is  not  disclosed,  nay,  even  though 
the  third  party  may  refuse  to  enter  into  a  trans- 
action with  the  principal  and  maj'  insist  upon 
contracting  with  the  agent  as  a  principal,  yet 
upon  discovering  that  the  transaction  was  for 
the  principal's  benefit  and  authorized  by  him, 
the  third  party  may  hold  the  principal  liable. 
To  this  extraordinary  liability  of  an  undisclosed 


principal  there  are  sundry  limitations.  If  the 
third  party  has  taken  a  written  contract  under 
seal  or  negotiable  paper,  duly  executed  by  the 
.agent  in  his  own  name,  he  cannot  sue  the  "prin- 
cipal on  that  instrument,  because  technical  law 
permits  only  tlie  parties  to  such  a  writing  to  be 
sued  on  it.  Again,  the  third  party  may  lose  his 
right  of  action  against  an  undisclosed  principal 
by  a  final  choice  or  election  (q.v.)  to  hold  the 
agent  only;  or  by  imdue  delay  in  proceeding 
against  the  principal.  The  principal  may  be 
liable  to  third  parties  for  his  agent's  acts  which 
he  has  never  authorized,  or  which  he  has  even 
forbidden.  His  liability  in  such  cases  depends 
upon  whether  the  acts  were  done  within  the 
scope  of  the  agent's  apparent  autlioritj';  for  the 
principal  will  not  be  allowed  to  show  that  he 
secretly  forbade  what  he  appears  to  have  author- 
ized. What  is  the  scope  of  an  agent's  authority 
depends  upon  the  facts  of  the  particular  ease, 
including  ordinary  business  usages  relating 
thereto.  As  the  agent  is,  in  law,  a  mere  con- 
duit of  the  principal's  will,  and  thus  identified 
with  the  principal,  knowledge  acquired  by,  or 
notice  given  to,  tlie  former  during  his  agency,  at 
least,  is  imputed  to  the  latter.  An  exception  to 
this  rule  exists  where  the  agent  acquires  tlie 
knowledge  or  receives  the  notice  in  a  transac- 
tion conducted  by  him  in  fraud  of  the  principal. 
In  such  a  case  the  agent  cannot  be  exjjected  to 
disclose  his  knowledge  to  the  principal,  and  the 
legal  fiction  that  the  principal  and  agent  are 
but  one  person  will  not  be  pressed  so  far  as  to 
work  palpable  injustice.  It  should  be  noted  in 
this  connection  that  when  an  undisclosed  prin- 
cipal is  liable  to  be  sued  by  the  third  party,  he 
is  entitled,  as  a  rule,  to  sue.  This  correlative 
right,  however,  he  will  not  be  allowed  to  enforce 
to  the  third  party's  injury.  For  example:  any 
defense  which  the  third  party  could  have  set  up, 
liad  he  been  sued  by  the  agent,  he  can  interpose 
to  an  action  by  the  principal. 

(3.)  An  agent  who  discloses  his  principal  in- 
curs no  liability  to  third  parties  if  his  acts  are 
authorized  or  ratified  and  are  lawful.  From  lia- 
bility for  unlawful  acts  he  cannot  screen  himself 
by  proving  an  express  command  of  his  princi- 
pal, although  such  command  renders  the  latter 
liable  also.  Ever}'  wrong-doer  is  personally  re- 
sponsible for  his  misfeasance.  An  agent  will 
render  himself  liable  on  a  written  contract  undrr 
seal,  or  on  a  negotiable  instrument,  if  he  exc 
cutes  it  in  his  own  name,  although  he  intends  to 
bind  his  principal  thereby.  In  order  to  bind  the 
principal,  such  an  instrument  nmst  be  in  his 
name,  and  purport  to  be  his  deed,  or  note,  or 
bill.  In  the  case  of  other  written  contracts,  the 
agent  who  discloses  his  principal  will  not  be 
bound,  unless  the  intention  of  the  parties  that 
he  should  be  bound  is  apparent  from  the  writing 
and  attendant  circumstances.  The  agent  may 
render  himself  liable  to  the  third  party  by  as- 
suming to  act  for  a  principal  witlioul   authority. 

(4.)  In  the  absence  of  express  stipulations  in 
the  contract  to  the  contrary,  the  principal  is  un- 
der obligation  to  compensate  the  agent  for  his 
services;  to  reimburse  him  for  all  proper  e.x- 
penditures  on  the  principal's  behalf,  and  to 
indemnify  him  against  the  consequences  of 
authorized  acts  which  he  did  not  know,  or  which 
he  was  not  bound  to  know,  were  unlawful.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  agent  is  under  obligation 
to  act  with  the  iitmost  good  faith  toward  the 
principal,  obeying  his  instructions,  advancing  his 


AGENT. 


lor 


AGGREGATION. 


interests,  and  rendering  full  and  true  aecounts 
of  all  transaetiims.  .An  agent  eannot  delegate 
his  authority  to  another,  so  as  to  eseape  respon- 
sibility to  the  principal  for  that  other's  acts, 
without  the  express  or  implied  assent  of  the 
principal.  Xor,  ordinarily,  will  a  principal  be 
bound  by  the  acts  of  a  sub-agent  whose  em- 
ployment he  has  not  autliorized  or  ratified. 

(.1.)  Agency  may  be  ti^rminated  by  the  agree- 
ment of  tile  parties,  or  by  the  princijial's  revo- 
cation of  the  appointment,  or  by  operation  of 
law.  If  terminated  in  either  of  the  tirst  two 
ways,  notice  uuist  be  given  to  those  who  have 
been  accustomed  to  deal  with  the  agent,  or  the 
latter  will  still  be  able  to  subject  the  principal 
to  liability  to  such  persons;  for,  until  notice  of 
revocation,  these  have  a  right  to  suppose  that 
the  relation  of  principal  and  agent  continues. 
The  death  of  either  ])rincipal  or  agent,  and  the 
bankruptcy  of  the  ])rincii)al,  furnish  the  most 
common  examples  of  termination  of  agency  by 
operation  of  law,  and  such  termination  is 
etl'ective  without  notice.  An  agency  which  is 
"coupled  with  an  interest"  (i.e.,  a  vested  prop- 
erty right)  in  the  subject-matter  of  the  agency 
is  revocable  only  by  the  mutual  assent  of  both 
part  ies. 

Doctrines  peculiar  to  special  classes  of  agents 
are  dealt  with  under  the  apjiropriate  headings, 
e.g.,  ATTonNEY ;  AtCTiON :  IShokkk  :  Part.nek- 
siiii*;  Factor:  Crime.  Consult:  I'arsons,  Lajo 
of  Contracts  (New  York,  1895)  :  Wharton,  Crim- 
inal Lair  (Philadelphia,  IHtlO)  ;  Cooley,  Treatise 
on  the  Lair  of  Torts  (Chicago,  1888)  ;  Pollock, 
Lair  iif  Torts    I  London,   1!I01). 

AGE  OF  IN'NOCENCE.  A  celebrated  paint- 
ing by  Sir  .losliua  Kcynolds  in  the  National 
Callery.  London.  It  depicts  a  little  girl  sitting 
on  ihc  ground  before  a  group  of  trees. 

AGE  OF  REA'SON.  The  name  given  to  a 
certain  phase  and  period  of  the  French  Revolu- 
tion when  Christianity  was  decried,  Reas(m  pro- 
claimed -as  the  only  true  deity,  and  bishops 
exchanged  their  mitres  for  liberty  caps.  This 
movement  was  fomented  by  lltf^'bert  (q.v.)  and 
his  followers,  professed  atheists,  who  succeeded 
in  iiersuading  many  Christians  to  renounce  their 
■faith.  The  woiship  of  Reason  centred  around  the 
ceremonies  held  in  her  honor  at  Xotre  Dame, 
No^•endler  10.  179.S.  The  Goddess  of  Reason,  typi- 
fied by  a  painted  harlot,  was  phu'cd  on  the  altar 
and  received  the  homage  of  her  adorers.  A 
schism  in  the  party  of  the  Montagnards,  to  which 
the  :itheists  belonged,  led  to  their  execution. 
March  24,  ITiM.  However,  it  was  not  till  .Tune 
8,  1704,  that  France,  in  the  Feast  of  the  Supreme 
Being,  officially  received  again  religion,  at  the 
hands  of  ^Maximilian  Robespierre. 

AG'ESAN'DEE  (fik.  '  Ayhi^avfipnr,  Apcsati- 
dros).  A  Creek  artist  of  the  .school  of  Rhodes. 
In  ecmjunction  with  Athenodorus  and  Polydorus 
he  executed  the  celebrated  gi'oup  of  Laocoiin, 
which  was  discovered  near  the  baths  of  Titus  in 
the  sixteenth  century.  The  time  of  Agesander 
is  unknown,  but  there  is  reason  to  believe  that 
he  w:is  a  contemporary  of  Ves|)asian. 

AGES'IXAN  OF  COL'CHOS.  The  title  and 
hero  of  one  of  the  ronnuices  in  Amadis  of  Gaul 
(q.v.).  Hooks   XI.  and  XII. 

AGESTLATIS  (Ok.  'AyvaPMoc,  At/fsilaos) 
(e.444-.3U0  a.c.\.  King  of  Sparta  about  401- 
360   B.C.     He   was   the   son    of   .Vrchidamus    II. 


and  succeeded  Agis  II.,  Leotycliides,  the  son  of 
Agis,  being  set  aside  through  the  inlliience  of 
Lysander,  on  the  giound  of  illegitimate  birth. 
In  307  B.C.  he  was  sent  to  Asia  Minor  as  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  Spartan  forces  in  the  war 
with  Persia.  He  eairied  on  the  war  with  suc- 
cess, and  was  jirepaiing  to  advance  into  the  in- 
terior of  the  country,  when  in  :i04  B.C.  he  was 
called  back  to  fireeie  to  make  head  against  the 
coalition  which  had  been  formed  by  Thebes, 
.Athens,  and  other  Ciecian  States  against  the 
power  of  Sparta.  Proceeding  by  land,  he  ar- 
rived in  (?reece  about  a  month  later,  and  in  the 
same  year  defeated  the  allies  at  Coronea.  In  the 
years  that  followed,  Agesilaiis  took  an  important 
part  in  his  country's  polities  and  campaigns.  In 
:Uil  B.C.  he  undertook  an  expedition  to  Egypt, 
but  while  on  his  way  home  died,  in  the  winter  of 
3(!l-.3(iO,  in  his  eighty-fourth  year  and  the  forty- 
first  year  of  his  reign.  Agesilaiis  was  small 
of  stature  and  lame.  He  was  simple  in  dress  and 
in  his  way  of  living;  blameless  in  public  and 
private  life  alike;  a  patriot,  though  a  party 
man:  a  conservative  in  politics;  a  successful, 
though  not  a  great,  general. 

AGGLU'TINATE  LAN'GUAGES  (Lat.  ad, 
to  -(-  fjlutoi.  glue,  paste).  The  name  given  to 
the  Turanian  tongues.  The  grammatical  rela- 
tions, more  than  in  any  other  class  of  languages, 
are  expressed  by  postpositional  elements  or  suf- 
fixes, pronouns  being  attached  (glued)  to  sub- 
stantives (to  indicate  possession),  as  well  as  to 
verbs,  and  all  kinds  id  ])rep()sitions  being  siillixcd 
to  substantives.  In  the  Magyar  (Hungarian)  lan- 
guage, for  example:  Anya,  mother,  anydm,  my 
mother;  Ices,  knife,  kcscl,  with  a  knife;  szoba, 
room,  szobdhaii,  in  the  room.  See  Piiilolouy; 
Turanian  Laxcuages. 

AG'GBEGA'TION,  States  of  (Lat.  ad,  to 
+  t/rrnarc.  to  collect  into  a  flock).  The  three 
states,  (/useous,  liquid,  and  solid,  in  which  matter 
occurs.  Many  substances  are  capable,  under 
eertain  conditions  of  temperature  and  pressure, 
of  existing  in  any  of  the  three  states.  Water,  for 
instance,  may  be  gaseous  (steam,  or  water 
vapor),  liquid  (as  ordinarily),  or  solid  (ice). 
Other  substances,  on  the  contrary.  co\ild.  by  the 
means  at  our  disposal,  be  obtained  in  only  one 
of  the  states  of  aggregation;  thus,  the  element 
carbon  remains  solid  even  at  the  highest  tem- 
peratures that  can  be  produced  at  present,  and 
many  of  its  compounds  undergo  chemical  decom- 
position before  reaching  the  point  at  which  they 
might  melt. 

i'nder  certain  conditions  matter  has  been 
assuuuHl  to  be  capable  of  existing  in  other  states 
besides  the  above  three.  Thus,  Boutigny  thought 
that  liquids,  when  thrown  upon  glowing  hot  sur- 
faces, pass  into  what  he  called  the  spheroidal 
state.  Crookes  thought  that,  at  the  instant  of 
the  electric  discharge,  the  gases  inclosed  within 
a  Crookes  tube  pass  into  a  radiant  state,  which 
is  characterized  by  certain  properties  not  found 
in  the  other  states  of  aggregation.  When  under 
the  critical  pressure  and  temperature  (see  CuiT- 
iCAt.  Poixr) ,  substances  are  sometimes  said  to  be 
in  the  I'ritiral  state.  In  this  article,  however, 
only  the  three  states  of  aggregation  that  are 
generally  recognized  may  be  brielly  character- 
ized. 

1.  A  gas  (or  vapor)  occupies  the  volume  and 
assumes  the  shape  of  the  vessel  within  which  it  is 
inclosed,  and  its  resistance  to  a  change  of  shape 


AGGREGATION. 


198 


AGISTMENT. 


is  very  small.  The  amount  of  work  which  must 
ordinarilj'  be  expended  in  diminishing  the  volume 
of  a  gas  is  also  insignificant  compared  to  that 
required  in  the  case  of  liquids  or  solids.  An- 
other characteristic  property  of  gases  is  their 
capacity  of  mixing  with  one  another  in  all  pro- 
portions. Gases  may  be  said  to  be  matter  in  a 
highly  rarefied  state,  their  specific  gravity  being 
ordinarily  very  small  compared  to  tliat  of  liquids 
or  of  solids.  According  to  the  molecular  theory, 
the  distances  between  their  particles  are  very 
great,  and  therefore  the  particles  exert  very  little 
action  upon  one  another.  See  Molecules — Mo- 
lecular Weights. 

2.  The  volume  of  a  liquid  varies  but  little  with 
the  external  conditions:  very  great  pressures,  for 
instance,  will  cause  but  a  slight  diminution  of 
the  volume  of  a  liquid.  Like  gases,  however, 
liquids  have  no  shape  of  their  own,  and  they 
readily  assume  the  shape  of  the  vessel  contain- 
ing them.  Certain  pairs  of  liquids  (for  instance, 
alcohol  and  water)  are  capable,  like  gases,  of 
mixing  in  all  proportions:  others  (for  instance, 
carbolic  acid  and  water)  dissolve  in  each  other 
to  a  limited  extent :  still  others  ( for  instance, 
carbon  di-sulphide  and  water)  are  practically 
insoluble  in  each  other.  The  molecules  of  a 
body  in  th.e  liquid  state  are  much  nearer  to  one 
another  than  those  of  a  gas,  and  consequently 
are  capable  of  exerting  upon  one  another  con- 
siderable attraction. 

3.  In  the  case  of  solids,  not  only  the  volume, 
but  also  the  shape,  cannot  be  easily  changed. 
Very  little  is  as  yet  known  of  the  molecular  con- 
stitution of  solids.  Concerning  the  mutual  solu- 
bility of  solids,  see  Solutions  and  Isomorphism. 
Consult:  J.  D.  van  der  Waals,  La  continuitc 
lies  ctats  ga^eux  et  liqtiides  (in  French,  Paris, 
1S94;  in  German,  Leipzig,  1899-1900). 

A'GIAS  (Gk.  'Ayia^).  An  ancient  Greek 
cyclic  poet  of  Troezen,  who  lived  about  740  B.C. 
His  chief  work  was  Nooroi,  Nostoi,  or  the  Historij 
of  Ihc  Retuiii  of  the  Achwan  Errors  from  Troy. 
Only  fragments  of  the  poem  have  been  preserved. 

AGIB,  a'gib.  The  name  of  two  characters  in 
the  Arahiun  Xights.  (1)  In  the  Historii  of  the 
Three  Calrndnrs,  the  third  calendar,  whose  mar- 
velous adventures  began  with  his  shipwreck  on 
the  lode-stone  mountain.  (2)  In  The  Story  of 
'SourediUn  All  and  Bedreddin  Hassan,  the  son  of 
the  latter. 

AGINCOTJKT.  a'zhfiN'koor',  or  AZIN- 
COTJRT.  A  village  in  the  department  of  Pas- 
de-Calais,  France,  celebrated  for  the  splendid 
victory  over  the  French  gained  by  Henry  V.  of 
England  on  St.  Crispin's  Day,  October  2.5,  1415. 
Reviving  the  ancient  claim  of  tlie  Plantagenets 
to  the  French  throne,  Henry  had  invaded  France 
and  taken  Harfleur:  but  disease  and  privations 
in  his  small  army  determined  him  to  return  to 
England  for  reinforcements.  Setting  out  for 
Calais,  he  forded  the  Somme  with  great  diffi- 
culty, only  to  find  a  French  army  of  ."50,000  men 
blocking  his  way.  Henry  offered  advantageous 
terms,  to  save  his  14.000  men  from  destruction ; 
but  the  French  were  so  confident  of  annihilating 
the  weakened  English  troops  that  they  would 
hear  of  nothing  but  absolute  surrender.  Be- 
tween two  woods,  near  the  villages  of  Agin- 
court  and  Tramecourt.  the  English  placed  them- 
selves, in  sullen  desperation.  The  French,  main- 
ly Armagnac  soldiery  and  men-at-arms,  were 
drawn  up  in  two  lines,  cavalry  in  front,  infantry 


behind.  As  the  English  marclied  forward,  the 
enemy's  cavalry,  peers  and  knights  of  France, 
charged  to  meet  them.  But  the  loamy  ground 
held  their  horses'  feet,  and  the  rain  of  English 
cloth-yard  arrows  poured  upon  rider  and  horse, 
broke  the  front  rank,  which  in  confusion  retreat- 
ed on  the  second  line,  breaking  that  too.  The 
English  archers,  with  billhook  and  hatchet, 
dashed  in  among  the  heavily  encumbered  men- 
at-arms  and  slaughtered  them  in  great  numbers, 
turning  the  fighting  into  a  butchery.  Those  of 
the  enemy  who  coi'.ld,  ran ;  the  rest  perished. 
The  French  nobility  was  almost  annihilated  in 
this  battle;  among"  the  10,000  dead  being  the 
C^onstable  d'Albret,  the  commander  of  the  French 
force,  six  dukes  and  princes,  and  numberless 
lords  and  knights  of  lesser  degree.  The  English 
lost  1000  men,  among  them  the  Duke  of  York. 
Consult  Nicolas,  History  of  the  Battle  of  Agin- 
court   (London,  1833). 

AGIO,  uj'i-6  or  a'ji-o.  An  Italian  word,  sig- 
nifying "accommodation,"  first  used  in  Italy  to 
denote  the  premium  taken  by  money-changers 
in  giving  gold  for  silver,  on  account  of  the  great- 
er convenience  of  gold  for  transport.  The  same 
word  is  now  used  in  particular  to  denote  the 
difference  in  the  value  of  a  metallic  currency 
and  the  paper  money  representing  it ;  also  the 
variations  from  fixed  pars  or  rates  of  exchange. 
It  corresponds  very  nearly  to  the  English  word 
■•premium." 

AGIRA,  a-je'ra,  formerly  Sajst  Filipo  d'Ar- 
gir6.  a  city  in  Sicily,  2130  feet  above  the  sea, 
4.5  miles  northwest  of  Catania  (Map:  Italy,  J 
10).  It  has  the  ruins  of  a  Norman  castle,  sul- 
phur mines,  and  marble  quarries.  The  histo- 
rian Diodorus  ( q.v. ) ,  who  was  born  here,  credits 
it  with  having  been  honored  by  a  visit  from 
Hercules,  but  now  St.  Philip  has  succeeded  the 
heathen  god  as  the  tutelary  genius  of  the  city. 
Four  miles  to  the  north  is  Gagliano,  where  300 
French  knights  were  ambushed  in  1300.  Pop., 
14,000. 

A'GIS  (Gk.  "A)(c).  The  name  of  several  kings 
of  Sparta.  (1)  Son  of  Eurysthenes  and  founder 
of  the  family  of  the  Agida".  According  to  one 
account,  he  conquered  Helos  and  established  the 
order  of  the  Kelots.  (2)  Son  of  Archidamus  II., 
and  king  from  427  or  42(;  to  400  or  309  B.C.  He 
was  one  of  the  best  kings  of  Sparta  and  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  men  of  his  time.  He 
took  an  active  part  in  the  Peloponnesian  War, 
several  times  invaded  Attica,  and  defeated  the 
Athenians  and  their  allies  at  the  battle  of  Man- 
tinea,  in  418  B.C.  It  was  said  that  Alcibiades 
seduced  Tima?a,  the  wife  of  Agis,  and  in  conse- 
quence of  this  report,  Leotychides,  Tim.Ta's  son, 
was  excluded  from  the  throne  in  favor  of  Agesila- 
iis.  (3)  Son  of  Archidamus  III.. and  king  from  338 
to  331  B.C.  He  tried  to  overthrow  the  Macedo- 
nian power  in  Europe  while  Alexander  the  Great 
was  in  .\sia,  but  was  defeated  and  killed  in  battle 
by  Antipater  in  331  B.C.  (4)  Son  of  Eudamidus 
II.,  and  king  from  244  to  240  B.C.  He  tried  to 
reestablish  the  institutions  of  Lycurgus  and  re- 
form the  Spartan  State,  but,  being  opposed  by  the 
wealthy  classes,  was  thrown  into  prison  and  put 
to  death.  Consult  Plutarch,  Life  of  Agis 
and  Barran.   Hixtoirc  d'Agis  IV.    (Paris,  1817). 

AGIST'MENT  (0.  F.  agister,  Lat.  ad^  to + 
0.  F.  gister.  to  assign  a  lodging,  from  giste,  Fr. 
gite,  an  abode,  resting-place).  The  common 
contract   of   bailment    (q.v.),   whereliy   a   per.son 


AGISTMENT. 


199 


AGNESI. 


(called  tlio  (iiii.ittr)  |iastiiics  the  liorsps  or  cat- 
tle of  anollier.  The  a<;ister  is  not  suljjcct  to  the 
cxtriioriliiiary   liability    of   the   eoininon    carrier 

(q.v.)  and  the  inn-keeper  (q.v.)  for  the  loss  of 
the  property  intrusted  to  his  care,  but  is,  never- 
theless, bonnd.  as  an  ordinary  bailee  for  hire,  to 
(like  reasdiiable  care  of  the  animals.  On  the 
other  hanil,  he  is  not,  like  the  inn-keeper,  the 
comnifiM  carrier,  the  horse-trainer,  etc.,  entitled 
to  a  lien  Iq.v.)  on  the  animals  for  his  charges. 
Consult :  Sir  William  .Jones,  iv'.s.tni/  on  thr  Law  of 
Hnitntent.t  (New  York,  1828);  .Story,  Commrn- 
tnrirs  </n  the  Law  of  liailmcnts  (Hoston,  1878). 
AGLA'IA  (Gk.  '\yluia,  splendor,  beauty). 
According  to  Hesiod,  the  youngest  of  the  three 
(iraces,  the  wife  of  Tleplurstus. 

AGLA'OPHON  ((ik.  ' \y'Aao(j,Cv).  A  Greek 
painter  who  lived  about  500  B.C.  He  was  the 
father  of  I'olyfjnotns  and  .\ristophon,  also  paint- 
ers and  his  pupils.  (,hiintilian  ])raiscs  Agla- 
ophon's  pictures  for  simplicity  of  coloring. 

AGLAU'RA.  A  play  by  Sir  John  Suckling 
(q.v.  I,  produced  in  I(i.'i7-3S.  and  first  published 
in  lli.SS,  in  folio,  and  again  in  1()4(!.  U  is  said 
that  the  King  was  present  when  the  I'lay  was 
acted  and  Mas  so  distressed  by  its  .sad  ending 
that  the  author  wrote  a  new  conclusion,  making 
the  pici'c  a  "tragi-comedy." 

AGLIARDI,  a-ly.nr'd.',  Antonio  (1832—). 
Archbishop  of  Fcrrara,  and  cardinal.  He  was 
born  at  Cologno  and  studied  law  and  theologj' 
at  Home.  In  1SS4  I'ope  Leo  XIII.  a]>pointed 
him  Archbishop  of  Gesarea  in  Palestine,  and 
shortly  thereafter  he  was  sent  as  the  a|)nstolieal 
delegate  to  India  to  settle  the  Goa  controversy 
with  Portugal.  In  ISS'J  he  was  the  Pajial  nuncio 
in  Munich,  and  four  years  later  filled  tlie  same 
position  in  \'icnna.  His  personal  interference 
with  the  ecclesiastical  alTairs  of  Hungary,  in 
ISn.T,  resulted  in  his  receiving  a  pulilic  repri- 
mand from  the  Hunijarian  government,  in  conse- 
quence of  whicli  a  dispute  arose  between  Uantfy, 
the  president  of  the  Hungarian  ministry,  and 
Kalnoky,  the  .Xiistro-Hungaiian  niinislcr  of  for- 
eign all'airs,  which  culminated  in  the  downfall 
of  the  latter.  He  was  appointed  Archbishop  of 
Fcrrara    and   cardinal    in    1890. 

AGLOS'SA  (Gk.  a,  a,  priv. -|- ; ;i<ja<Ta,  ylo.isa, 
tongue).  .V  group  of  anurous  amphibia,  the 
frogs,  without  a  tongue  and  with  one  pharyngeal 
opening  of  the  Eustachian  tuljcs.  It  contains 
certain  fossil  forms,  l]nt  only  two  recent  fami- 
lies, Pipida>  (Soutli  .\merican)  and  Xeno])i(hc 
(.\frican  ) .     See  PiPA. 

AGNANO,  a-nyii'nA.  Formerly  a  small  lake 
near  Naples.  Italy,  situated  in  the  crater  of  a  vol- 
cano, now  drained  on  account  of  its  malarial  in- 
fluence. At  the  right  of  Lake  Agnano  lies  the 
Grotto  d(d  Cane,  whose  floor  is  covered  with  a 
stratum  of  carbonic  acid  gas  of  sullicient  strength 
and  de|)th  to  kill  small  animals  that  are  put  into 
the  gi'otto.  (In  the  left  are  situated  the  vajior 
baths  of  .San  (!ermano,  used  by  people  altlicted 
with  rheumatism  and  gout.  The  voh'anoes  sur- 
rounding the  lake  have  been  extinct  since  1108 
A.D.  Further  on  the  left  from  Agnano  lies  the 
lake  of  Astroni,  which  occni)ies  the  crater  of  an 
extinct  volcano  and  is  surrounded  by  beautiful 
woodlands. 

AG'NATE  (Lat.  aiinahif:,  born  in  addition  to, 
from  ud,  to  +  "a'"s,  born).  Agnates,  in  the  law 
of  both  England  and  Scotland,  are  persons  related 


through  the  father,  as  cognates  are  persons  related 
through  their  mother.  My  the  English  law  of  suc- 
cession, agnates  inherit  unless  the  inheritance 
was  received  by  the  deceased  person  o  parte 
malrrna,  that  is,  from  the  mother,  or  a  cognate, 
in  which  case  it  would  descend,  if  he  left  no 
issue,  to  her  cognates.  In  the  Itoman  law,  both 
of  these  terms  had  a  somewhat  ditlercnt  signi- 
fication. Agnates,  by  tluit  system,  were  persons 
related  through  males  only,  whilst  cognates  were 
all  those  in  whose  connection,  though  on  the 
father's  side,  one  or  more  fennile  links  inter- 
vened. Thus,  a  brothel's  son  was  his  unele'a 
agnate,  because  the  pro|)inquity  was  wholly  by 
males;  a  sister's  son  was  his  cognate,  because  a 
female  was  interposed  in  that  relationship.  The 
reason  for  having  thus  changed  the  meaning  of 
terms  manifestly  borrowed  from  the  Unman  law 
seems  to  be  tliat  in  Kome  the  distinction  between 
agnates  and  cognates  was  founded  on  an  insti- 
tution which  has  not  been  adopted  in  the  Roman 
sense  by  any  modern  nation — that,  namely,  of  the 
pntria  potcs-tan  (q.v.).  Konian  agnati  are  de- 
fined by  Hugo  to  be  all  those  who  either  actually 
were  under  the  same  pdtirfdmilias,  or  would 
have  been  so  had  he  been  alive;  and  thiis  it  was 
that,  as  no  (Uie  could  belong  to  two  ditTerent 
families  at  the  same  time,  the  agnation  to  the 
original  family  was  destroyed  and  a  new  agna- 
tion created,  not  only  by  marriage,  but  by  adop- 
tion   (q.v.). 

.lustinian  abolished  entirely  the  <listinction  be- 
tween agnates  and  cognates,  and  admitted  both 
to  legal  succession.  As  to  the  legal  effects  of  the 
distinction  in  the  modern  sense,  see  Succession'  ; 
(ii  AiiDiAN.  See  the  works  referred  to  under 
Civil  Law. 

AGNES  (Fr.  pron.  a'nyAs').  (1)  In  Moli- 
ere's  Jj'I'.mh-  rfcs  fciiiiiics,  a  character  who  has 
become  proverbial  as  u  type  of  inf/cnue.  She  is 
a  young  girl  brought  uj)  in  igncnanee  of  many 
of  the  social  relations,  who  innocently  makes 
the  most  suggestive  rennirks  and  without  inten- 
tion cruell}'  wounds  other  people's  feelings.  In 
English,  Wvcherley's  l/r.s.  I'incliiiifc  is  in  some 
respects  ])atterned  after  her.  (2)  A  character 
in  Lillo's  tragedy.  Fatal  Curiosity.  (3)  Agnes 
Wickfiehl,  in  Dickens's  Darid  Copperfield.  See 
W'icKFiisii),  Agnes. 

AG'NES,  Countess  of  Orlamunde.  See 
Ag.nks  of  .Meran. 

AGNES,  Saint.  A  Christian  virgin,  martyred 
in  Uomc  liy  order  of  Diocletian  when  about  thir- 
teen years  old.  The  legend  is  that  her  beauty  ex- 
cited the  desires  of  wealthy  suitors,  who,  vaiidy 
seeking  her  in  honorable  marriage,  accused  her  to 
the  governor  as  a  Christian.  Unmoved,  she  heard 
threats  of  torture,  and  was  sent  to  the  public 
brothel,  where  only  one,  however,  ventured  to 
touch  her,  and  he  was  stricken  with  miraeuhnis 
blindness  until  his  sight  was  restored  in  answer 
to  her  prayers.  She  was  a  little  later  beheaded. 
Her  day  is  .Tanuary  21,  and  her  symbol  is  u 
lamb.  Her  legend  resembles  that  of  St.  .Vgatha's 
(q.v.).  Consult:  A.  Uutler,  Lives-  of  the  Saints, 
under  .January  21    (London,  IS47). 

AGNES  GREY.  A  novel  by  Anne  Bronte. 
|iutili-ihed  1847,  under  her  pseudonvm  of  Acton 
l!cll. 

AGNESI,  a-nya'z*,  Maria  Gaetana  (1718- 
!(!»).  An  Italian  mathenuitician,  born  at  Milan. 
Her  family  was  prominent  at  Milan,  and  she  had 


AGNESI. 


300 


AGNOET^. 


all  the  educational  advanta<;es  that  wealtli  ( ould 
procure.  Her  linguistic  and  philosophic  powers 
suggested  the  title  of  "oracle  in  seven  lan- 
guages." She  also  gave  nuich  attention  to  the 
seiences,  particularly  to  mathematics.  "Algebra 
and  geometry,"  she  said,  "are  the  only  provinces 
of  thought  where  peace  reigns."  In  174.S  she  was 
nurde  a  niemlier  of  the  Academy  of  Bologna,  and 
in  the  same  year  appeared  her  Istitnzioni  analit- 
irhe  ad  jj.s'o  dclla  giorciitt'i  itnliava,  2  volumes 
(Milan, 174S:  Paris.1775;  London. 1801 ) .  In  1750 
she  was  appointed  by  I'ope  Benedict  XIV.  lectur- 
er on  niatlicinatics  at  tlie  University  of  Bologna. 
Early  devoted  to  religious  observances,  after  the 
death  of  her  father  (17.")2).  slie  renouni'ed  her 
scientific  work  and  took  the  veil.  Her  name  is 
connected  with  an  interesting  cubic  curve.  Con- 
sult: .T.  Boycr,  "La  niatheniaticienne  Agnesi,' 
in  the  Revue  Catlioliquc  dcs  revues  fra)i(:(iises 
ct  eirtniricres  (Paris,  1807)  :  and  Antonio  Fran- 
cesco Frisi.  Eloqio  (Milan,  1799;  translated  by 
Boulavd,   Paris.' 1S07). 

AG'NES  or  AUS'TKIA  (1281-1304).  A 
daughter  of  Albreeht  I.,  Kmperor  of  Germany. 
She  was  the  wife  of  Andreas  III.,  King  of  Hun- 
gary, and  after  the  murder  of  her  father  (1308) 
lived  at  the  monastery  of  Konigsfelden,  which 
her  mother  had  erected  upon  the  site  of  the  assas- 
sination of  tlie  Kmperor.  She  took  an  active 
part  in  the  political  events  of  the  period,  and 
frequently  acted  as  mediator  between  Austria 
and  the  Swiss  Confederacy. 

AGNES  OF  MEBAN,  mn-riin'  (?-1201).  A 
queen  of  France,  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Meran 
(Tyrol)  and  Margrave  of  Istria.  She  w-as  mar- 
ried in  119()  to  Pliilip  Augustus  (q.v.),  who  had 
obtained  (through  the  French  bishops)  a  divorce 
from  Ingel)org  of  Denmark.  Tlie  Pope  refused  to 
allow  the  divorce,  but  the  King  braved  the  Papal 
wrath.  In  119S  France  was  jjlaced  under  an 
interdict ;  but  in  1200,  the  King,  by  a  feigned 
compliance,  secvired  tlie  raising  of  the  inierdict. 
Agnes  died  in  1201,  hut  it  was  not  until  1213 
that  Philip  was  reconciled  to  Ingeborg.  Then 
the  Pope  legitimatized  the  two  children  of  Agnes. 

AGNES  or  POITIERS,  pwa'tyfl'  (102.^)?- 
1077).  A  queen  of  Germany,  daughter  of  Wil- 
liam v.,  Duke  of  Aquitainc,  and  second  wife  of 
Henry  III.  of  Germany,  to  whom  she  was  mar- 
ried in  1043.  She  was  much  influenced  by  the 
ideas  of  Cluny,  After  the  death  of  Henry 
(10,5fi),  Agnes  became  Regent  of  the  Empire  as 
juardiaii  of  her  son,  Henry  IV.  In  10(i2  rebel- 
lious nobles  secured  possession  of  the  young 
Henry,  and  Agnes  went  to  Italy.  She  liccame 
closely  associated  with  Gregory  VII.  in  his  con- 
test against  Henry. 

AGNES'  EVE,  S.\int.  The  night  of  Janu- 
ary 20.  In  popular  superstition  it  is  regarded 
as  an  occasion  when  young  women  can  bj'  various 
magic  arts  behold  the  faces  of  their  destined 
husbands. 

AGNES  SOREL'  ( 1421-50) .  The  mistress  of 
Charles  \'II.  of  France,  and  lady  of  honor  to  his 
queen,  tlie  virtuous  Jlarie  of  Anjou,  wliose  full 
confidenee  she  long  enjoyed.  She  had  great  inllu- 
ence  over  Charles,  and  at  a  period  of  the  greatest 
degradation  for  France  (sec  .To.\N  of  -Aur).  in- 
spired him  to  action  against  the  English  invad- 
ers, which  resulted  in  their  expulsion  ^rom  the 
country.  Her  death  was  sudden,  and  it  is  sup- 
posed  that   she  was   poisoned   by   the  Dauphin, 


afterward  Louis  XI.  She  had  three  children 
by  the  king.  Consult:  Capefigue,  Arines  Horel 
(Paris,  IS(iO). 

AG'NEW,  Cornelius  Rea  (1830-88).  An 
American  jihysician.  He  was  born  in  New  York 
City,  graduated  from  Columbia  College  in  1849, 
and  from  the  College  of  Physicians'  and  Sur- 
geons in  1852.  In  1858  he  \vas  appointed  sur- 
geon-general of  New  York  State,  and  during  the 
Civil  War  was  medical  director  of  tlie  New  York 
Volunteer  Hospital.  He  was  prominent  in  the 
United  States  Sanitary  Commission.  He  assist- 
ed in  founding  the  Columbia  School  of  Jlines  in 
1884,  founded  the  Brooklyn  Eye  and  Ear  Hos- 
pital in  18ti8,  and  the  Manhattan  Eye  and  Ear 
Hospital.  He  became  president  of  the  State 
Medical  Society  in  1872.  one  of  the  trustees 
of  Colnmbia  College  in  1874,  and  was  a  professor 
in  the  Colh'ge  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons.  He 
was  a  member  of  many  medical  anil  scientific 
societies,  and  contributed  much  to  the  literature 
of  the  diseases  of  the  eye  a,nd  ear. 

AGNEW,  Daniei,  Hatos  (1818-92).  Pro- 
fessor of  surgery  at  tlie  laiiversity  of  Pennsylva- 
nia, and  very  widely  known  by  his  surgical 
inventions  and  by  his  writings,  among  wliieh 
may  he  mentioned:  The  PrineipJcs  and  J'riietice 
of    .Sf»r(/c)7/,    3    volumes     (1878-83). 

AG'NI  (Skr.  Afjui-s) .  Tlie  fire  god  of  the 
Hindus,  corresponding  in  name  to  the  Latin 
ignis,  Lithuanian  uijiils,  and  Old  Slavic  offiii, 
fire.  Next  to  Indra  (q.v.)  he  is  the  most  prom- 
inent of  the  gods  in  the  Veda  (q.v.).  No  less 
than  two  hundred  hymns  celebrate  his  praise  un- 
der his  three-fold  form,  as  the  fire  on  earth,  es])e- 
cially  the  altar-fire,  the  lightning  in  the  sky.  and 
the  sun  in  heaven.  His  birth  is  of  divine  origin, 
as  the  lightning  of  the  clouds,  or  he  is  (hiily  pro- 
duced by  a  miracle,  the  rubbing  together  of  two 
sticks  which  are  regarded  as  his  parents,  and  he 
devours  them  as  soon  as  he  is  born.  Kindled  each 
morning  at  the  sacrifice,  his  worship  forms  one 
of  tlie  most  important  parts  of  the  ritual.  He 
is  especially  the  messenger  between  the  gods  and 
men,  and  lie  rides  upon  a  chariot  drawn  by  two 
or  mcn'c  steeds.  Allliough  an  immortal,  he  has 
taken  up  his  abode  among  men,  and  he  is  regard- 
ed as  the  most  honored  guest.  In  the  later  lit- 
erature less  is  made,  perhaps,  of  Agni  than  in 
the  early  hymns;  but  as  one  of  the  most  promi- 
nent gods  several  legends  are  preserved  regard- 
ing him  in  the  Hindu  epics  Mahfiblnlrata  and 
R;"imayana  (q.v.).  The  Harivania  (q.v.)  de- 
scribes him  as  clad  in  black,  with  a  banner  of 
smoke  and  a  javelin  of  tiame.  In  ]>ictures  he  is 
variously  porti'ayed,  but  his  color  is  red  and  he 
is  represented  as  having  two  faces,  which  typify 
his  destructive  as  well  as  his  beneficent  charac- 
ter, and  he  has  three  legs  and  seven  arms.  Some- 
times he  is  represented  as  riding  upon  a  ram 
or  as  accompanied  by  that  animal.  Consult ; 
Maedoncll,  Vedic  ili/thologi/  (Strassbiirg,  1897)  ; 
Hojikins,  Itcligions  of  India  (Boston,  1895)  ; 
Wilkins,  Hindu  Mi/fhology   (London,  1900). 

AG'NOE'TJE  (Gk.n)-i'of7f,  agnocin,  to  be  igno- 
rant). .\  Alonophysite  sect  in  the  sixth  century, 
which  gave  prouiineiice  to  the  statement  that, 
in  his  human  nature.  Christ  was  ignorant  of 
many  things,  especially  of  the  time  of  the  day 
of  judgment.  An  Arian  sect  of  the  same  name 
in  the  fourth  century  denied  the  omniscience  of 
God. 


AGNOLO. 


2U1 


AGOSTA. 


AGNOLO.  a'ny6-lo,  Uaccio  d'.     See  Baolio.vi. 

AGNO'MEN  ( Lat.  ad,  to.  in  addition,  + 
nomeii,  nanio).  A  term  used  by  the  anoicnt 
Bonian  gnimniaiians  to  denote  an  additional 
personal  name  derived  from  some  aet,  quality, 
or  event;  as  Cunctator,  given  to  Q.  Fabius  ^lax- 
inius,  the  Dvlayir;  I'liny  Ihv  Yaitiiqir:  Seipio 
Africanus.  But  the  Romans  themselves  regard- 
ed sueli  a  term  merely  as  an  additional  cogno- 
men.    See  Cognomen. 

AGNONE,  A-nyr.'n'i.  A  city  of  soutliern 
Italy.  --  miles  nortlnvest  of  C;uni>()l>assi)  (Map: 
Italy.  ■'  ti).  It  stands  on  a  hill  said  to  be  the 
site  of  the  Samnite  Aquilunia.  It  has  elolh, 
steel,  and  copper  works.     Pop.,  1901,  i)"!):!. 

AGNOS'TICISM  (Ok.  ajTuurof,  aynostos,  un- 
known. unkno«al)le,  ignorant).  A  word  coined 
by  Professor  Hu.vley  to  express  the  doctrine  that 
man  from  his  very  nature  is  incapable  of  form- 
inf  trustworthy  conclusions  concerning  ultimate 
reality.  The  doctrine  is  by  no  means  new.  It 
is  essentially  one  with  the  view  of  Protagoras 
(q.v.I.  tbat'the  individual  man  is  the  measure 
of  the  universe,  and  with  tlie  view  of  the  Cireek 
skeptics  from  Pyrrho  onward.  (See  .-l-^NE- 
SIDEMUS.)  Among  English-speaking  philoso- 
phers H.  Speneer  (q.v. )  is  the  best  known  agnos- 
tic. The  tenability  of  the  agnostic  position  de- 
pends on  the  justifiability  of  the  dualistic 
assumption  that  reality  is  independent  of  mind. 
It  argues  that  knowledge  is  the  result  of  a  men- 
tal process  which  claims  to  represent  an  external 
reality;  that  to  know  this  claim  to  be  valid  is 
possible  only  after  a  comparison  of  the  repre- 
sentation with  the  original ;  but  that  the  original 
is,  ex  hyp.,  not  an  object  of  knowledge;  hence, 
that  no  comparison  is  possible  for  the  knower. 
Knowledge  of  re.ality  is  thus  a  huge  undemon- 
strable  assumption.  For  a  criticism  of  agnos- 
ticism see  Knowj.f.dge.  Tiieouy  of;  Absolute; 
Dlali.sm,  and  .Vppearance. 

AGNOS'TUS  ((4k.  uyvuamr,  n.f/»if;s(o.s,  un- 
known I.  A  characteristic  Cambrian  genus  of 
blind  trilobilcs  distinguished  by  their  small  size, 
the  elliptical  form  of  the  dorsal  shield  or  cara- 
pace, the  close  resemblance  of  the  head-shield 
(cephalon)  and  tail-shield  (pygidium),  and  the 
presence  of  only  two  segments  in  the  thorax. 
This  genus,  com|)rising  over  1.50  species,  is  abun- 
dantly rcpre>enlid  in  the  Cambrian  formations 
of  Scandinavia,  Bohemia.  Creat  Britain.  Spain, 
and  North  America:  indeed,  certain  kinds  of 
Cambrian  shales  arc  filled  with  the  detached  frag- 
ments of  tile  discarded  moults  of  these  crusta- 
ceans. A  few  species  are,  in  northern  Europe, 
known  from  the  lowermost  Ordo\ician  beds.  ,\n 
allied  genus,  also  characteristic  of  the  C:unbrian 
formations,  is  Microdiseus,  with  four  thoracic 
segments,  which  seems  to  be  a  somewhat  earlier 
form  than  Agnostus.  and  may  perhaps  bi>  in  a 
certain  sense  the  ancestral  form  from  which 
Agnostus  was  evolved.  For  illustration,  see  Tril- 
ouiTA.      See   also   articles   on   TitiLoiiiTA ;    Cam- 

IIKIAN   SYSTESf. 

AG'NTIS,  Felix  (1830—).  An  American 
soldii'r  and  editor.  He  was  born  in  Lyons, 
France,  and  fought  in  the  war  waged  by  Napo- 
leon III.  against  Aiistria,  and  after  the  battle  of 
Montebello  was  detailed  to  the  celebrated  flying 
corps  under  Garibaldi.  He  came  to  .\meriea 
in  1860,  and  enlisted  in  the  Duryea  Z(maves 
(New  'S'ork  Volunteers) ,  upon  the  outbreak  of  the 

Vol.,   I.— L"). 


Civil  War,  and  at  the  battle  of  Big  Bethel  saved 
the  life  of  (Jeneral  Kilpatriek.  He  served  as 
lieutenanl-eolonid  under  Sheridan  in  the  latter's 
famous  cami)aign  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley 
(18t)4),  and  toward  the  close  of  the  war.  as  in- 
spector-general in  the  Southern  Department,  he 
was  commissioned  to  dismantle  the  Confederate 
forts  in  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Florida. 
At  the  clo.se  of  the  war  be  was  brevetted  briga- 
dier-general of  volunteers  (March  l;!,  18().0),  and 
soon  afterward  was  retired  from  the  service. 
He  then  became  business  manager  of  the  Balti- 
more .t/lKlicUH. 

AG'NUS  DEI  (Lat..  Lamb  of  God).  One  of 
the  titles  of  Christ  (John  i.  2!t)  ;  also  the  name 
given  to  a  certain  prayer  used  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  service  of  mass.  The  litanies  generally 
conclude  with  the  same  prayer:  "O  Lamb 
of  God.  that  takest  away  the  sins  of  the  world, 
have  mercy  upon  us."  The  figure  of  a  lamb 
bearing  a  cross,  stamped  U]>on  an  oval  of  wax, 
silver,  or  gold,  is  also  styled  an  .\gnus  Dei.  Such 
medals  have  been  consecrated  by  the  popes 
since  the  fourteenth  century,  and  are  generally 
<listributed  among  the  faithful  on  the  first  Sun- 
day after  Easter.  In  the  ancient  Church  candi- 
dates for  baptism  received  similar  medals  of 
wax  and  wore  them  as  objects  of  devotion. 
In  the  Greek  Church  the  cloth  which  covers  the 
cup  in  the  communion  service  bears  the  image  of 
a  lamb,  and  is  styled  the  Agnus  Dei. 

AGONIC  LINES  ("lines  without  angles," 
from  (ik.  It,  </,  priv.  +  yuviu,  gijnia,  angle).  Im- 
aginary lines  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  such 
that  at  each  point  through  which  one  passes  the 
magnetic  declination  is  zero;  that  is,  at  such  a 
point  a  magnetic  compass  needle  lies  in  the  geo- 
graphical meridian,  and  hence  points  in  a  "true" 
north  and  south  direction.  There  are  two  agonic 
lines  at  the  present  time  ( 1IK)2  ) .  One  is  a  closed 
curve  passing  across  Hudson's  Bay,  into  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  east  of  Florida,  across  Brazil, 
through  the  Antarctic  Ocean,  near  the  south  pole 
of  the  earth,  northward  through  Australia, 
the  Indian  Ocean.  Russia,  near  the  north  pole 
of  the  earth,  and  back  again.  The  other  is  a 
nmeh  smaller  closed  curve,  called  the  "Siberian 
Oval."  because  it  is  contained  in  Eastern  Siberia 
and  China.     See  ilAciNETiSM.  Teiusestkhl. 

AG'ONY  COL'TTMN.  In  England,  a  term 
applied  to  that  ]);ut  of  a  newspaper,  generally 
the  second  column  of  the  advertisement  sheet, 
headed  by  notices  of  losses  and  disappearances, 
mysterious  communications  and  correspondence, 
corresponding  to  the  .Vmerican  personal  column. 

AGOO,  a-go'i'i.  A  town  of  Luzon,  Philip- 
pines, in  the  province  of  La  Union.  It  is  situ- 
ated on  the  western  coast,  about  10  miles  south 
of  San  Fernando,  and  has  a  population  of  10.000. 

AG'ORAC'RITXrS  (Gk.  'AynpuKpivnc,  Agorak- 
ritn.i).  .\  Gr<<k  scul])tor  of  the  fifth  century 
B.C.  He  was  born  on  the  island  of  Paros.  and 
was  the  favorite  pupil  of  Phidias.  His  works 
are  said  to  have  been  so  perfect  that  the  ancients 
were  fre(iuently  uncertain  lo  which  of  the  two 
sculptors  they  should  be  ascribed.  His  chief 
creation  was  the  colossal  figure  of  Nemesis  at 
lihamnus,  which  he  is  supposed  to  have  devel- 
oped from  his  unsuccessful  Aphrodite,  prepared 
for  the  contest  with  Alcanienes.  Fragments  of 
the  work  were  recently  dis'ri\-eiecl  at  Rhamnus. 

AGOSTA,  a-gO'sta,  or  AUGUS'TA.    A  walled 


AGOSTA.  o( 

city  of  Sicily,  in  tlie  province  of  Syracuse,  12 
miles  north  of  that  city.  It  stands  on  a  peninsula, 
jutting  into  the  Meditenanean,  and  is  said  to 
occupy  the  site  of  the  Megara  Hybloea  of  the  an- 
cients. Agosta,  founded  by  the  Emperor  Fred- 
erick II.  in  1229,  played  an  important  part  in 
the  war  of  the  Sicilian  Vespers,  withstanding 
Charles  of  Anjou  until  betrayed  into  the  hands 
of  William  L'Estendard,  one  of  his  barons 
(1280).  The  city  was  then  sacked  and  the  in- 
habitants ruthlessly  butchered,  and  many  years 
passed  before  Agosta  was  repeopled  or  began  to 
prosper.  In  1551,  Agosta  was  taken  and  burned 
by  the  Turks.  Earthquakes  destroyed  the  city 
in  1693,  when  one-third  of  the  inhabitants  per- 
ished, and  in  1848.  In  1670,  a  great  naval  bat- 
tle was  fought  here  between  the  Dutch  under 
De  Ruj'ter  and  the  French.  De  Ruyter  himself 
was  killed.  The  port  is  spacious,  but  rather  diffi- 
cult of  access.  While  salt  is  the  chief  article 
of  export,  oil,  wine,  cheese,  fruit,  honey,  and 
sai'dincs  are  also  exported.    Pop.,  about  12,000. 

AGOSTINO,  ii'go-ste'no,  and  AGNOLO,  ii'- 
nyo-lo.  Architects  and  sculptors  of  Siena  early 
in  the  fourteenth  century.  They  have  been  erro- 
neously called  brothers,  because  they  worked  to- 
gether; but  Agostino  was  the  son  of  Giovanni, 
and  Agnolo  the  son  of  Ventura.  They  are  sup- 
posed to  have  been  pupils  of  Giovanni  Pisano. 
Their  sculptural  masterpiece  is  the  monument 
of  Bishop  Tarlati  at  Arezzo  (1.330).  They  erect- 
ed several  public  buildings  in  Siena.  They  built 
in  1325  the  great  tower  of  the  Palazzo  Comunale 
at  Siena,  rivaling  that  of  the  Palazzo  Vecchio 
at  Florence,  and  in  1337  Agnolo  erected  the 
fortress  of  Massa. 

AGOSTINO  DI  DUCCIO,  de  doo'cho  (1418- 
81).  A  Florentine  sculptor  and  architectural 
decorator,  one  of  the  foremost  artists  of  the  mid- 
dle early  Renaissance.  He  executed  at  twenty- 
three  a  series  of  reliefs  for  the  cathedral  of  Mode- 
na  (1442).  He  fled  to  Florence  in  1440.  and  was 
secured  by  Alberti  (q.v. )  for  the  sculptural  dec- 
oration of  the  interior  of  San  Francesco  at  Rim- 
ini, some  parts  of  which,  such  as  the  tomb  of 
Sigismundo  Malatesta.  are  masterly.  But  his 
full  capacity  was  shown  in  his  next  work,  the  fa- 
cade of  San  Bernardino  at  Perugia,  one  of  the 
finest  pieces  of  Renaissance  sculpture  composi- 
tion. His  style  was  sometimes  mannered  and 
often  incorrect.  His  forte  was  very  low  relief 
with  evanescent  effects,  poetic  female  figures,  and 
decorative  composition.  He  returned  to  Flor- 
ence after  1403,  and  his  latest  works  show  con- 
tinued progress,  such  as  the  "Madonna"  in  the 
Opera  del  Diiomo. 

AGOTJLT,  a'goo',  JIarie  Catherine  Sophie 
DE  Flaviu.w,  Comtes.se  d'  (1805-70).  A  French 
author,  whose  pseudonym  was  Daniel  Stern. 
She  was  born  at  Frankfort-on-theMain.  but  was 
educated  at  Paris,  where,  in  1827.  she  married 
Count  d'Agoult.  Afterward  she  lived  with  Franz 
Liszt,  and  of  her  two  daughters  by  him  the 
youngest  was  married  to  Richard  Wagner.  After 
a  scries  of  novels,  including  llcirc  (1841),  and 
Ni'lida  (1845).  .she  published  several  political 
works,  of  which  the  best  known  are  Lcttrcs  r6- 
publicaincs  (1848),  criticising  the  government 
of  Louis  Philippe,  and  the  ni.itoire  de  la  Revo- 
lution de  IS.'iH  (3  volumes,  1851-53).  Her  best 
work  is  Esi/uisses  morales  et  politiqucs  (1849), 
a  volume  of  political  and  nioral  aphorisms  in 
the    style    of    the    Maximes    of    Kochefoucauld. 


'3  AGRA. 

Though  her  moral  la.xily  made  her  tlie  subject 
of  much  unpleasant  notoriety,  the  Comtesse 
d'Agoult's  salon  was,  for  many  years,  the  rcndez- 
voiis  of  many  leading  statesmen,  poets,  critics, 
painters,  and  musicians.  There  Alfred  de  Vigny 
and  Sainte-Beuve  were  frequently  seen;  there 
Ponsard  read  his  tragedy  of  Lucrece  for  the 
first  time;  and  there  Prince  Liehnowski  ap- 
peared between  his  adventures  in  the  Carlist 
War  and  his  nuirder  by  the  rabble  at  Frank- 
fort. During  the  period  from  1838-48  her  salon 
had  merely  a  social  character.  When,  however, 
the  fall  of  Louis  Philippe  in  the  revolution  of 
1848  led  her  to  join  the  ultra-democratic  party 
and  to  begin  her  crusade  against  "property  and 
capital,  orthodoxy  and  tamily,"  society  was 
closed  against  her,  and  it  was  then  that  such 
men  as  Rodrigiies,  Enfantin,  Lamartine,  and 
Louis   Blanc  sought  her  company. 

AGOUTA,  I'l-goiT'ta  (native  name).  An  in- 
sectivorous mammal  (t^olenodon  paradoxus)  of 
Haiti  resembling  a  very  large  rat,  nocturnal  in 
its  habits,  uttering  a  piercing  cry,  and  destruc- 
tive to  poultry.  This  and  a  Cuban  species,  the 
Almiqui  [Holcnodon  cubanus),  represent  the 
peculiar  family  Solenodontida'. 

AGOUTI,  a-goo'te  (Fr.  through  Sp.,  from  the 
native  name).  Any  of  several  small  rodents  of 
South  America  and  the  \\'est  Indies,  of  the  genus 
Dasyprocta,  and  family  Dasyproctidir.  They  are 
18  or  20  inches  long,  have  somewhat  squirrel- 
like forms,  with  slender  legs  and  hoof-like  claws, 
and  are  luownisli  above  and  yellowish  below. 
They  inhabit  woodlands,  where  they  are  gregar- 
ious and  dwell  in  holes,  and  whence  they  ramble 
abroad,  mainly  at  night,  with  grunting  cries,  to 
feed  on  vegetables,  often  doing  great  damage  to 
sugar-cane.  Several  species  are  known  as  :  the 
"pampas  hare,"  jjursued  as  game  in  southern 
Brazil  and  southward;  .Azara's,  the  acouchy  (or 
acuchi)  of  Guiana  and  the  West  Indies;  the 
black  and  the  vellow-rumped,  which  are  West 
Indian  and  best 'known.  Also  spelled  agoutj'  and 
aguti ;  it  is  to  be  noted  that  Darwin  (A  Natural- 
ist's Voyage)  applies  the  name  to  the  Patagonian 
ca\y.     See  Plate  of  Cavie.s  accompanying  Cavy. 

AGRA,  ii'gra.  A  district  and  a  division  in 
the  North-West  Provinces  (q.v.)  of  British 
India  (Map:  India,  C  3).  Population  of  dis- 
trict, 1891,  1,003,800;  1901,  l,06O,i500;  of  di- 
vision,  1891,  4,708.000;    1901,  5,248,100. 

AGRA  (evidently  from  Achhcrahad.  city  of 
Akbar).  A  city  in  the  North-West  Provinces  of 
British  India,  situated  in  tlie  district  of  the  same 
name  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Jumna,  110  miles 
southeast  of  Delhi  and  841  miles  bj'  rail  north- 
west of  Calcutta  (Map:  India,  C  3).  As  the  rail- 
way and  administrative  centre  of  its  district  and 
of  the  large  "division"  to  which  it  gives  its  name, 
Agra  is  a  place  of  great  importance.  It  has  an 
extensive  trade  in  cotton,  tobacco,  indigo,  salt, 
sugar,  and  grain,  and  manufactures  of  iid;iid 
mosaic  work,  for  which  it  is  famous,  gold  lace, 
and  shoes.  It  also  has  a  considerable  trans- 
port trade  by  the  .lumna  and  Agra  Canal. 
Agra  is  fortified  and  has  a  garrison;  there  is  a 
military  station  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  city. 
The  climate  during  the  hot  and  rainy  seasons 
(April  to  Sei)tember)  is  injurious  to  Eurnpciins, 
Init,  on  the  whole,  the  average  health  of  the  city 
is  equal  to  that  of  any  other  station  in  the 
North-West  Provinces.  The  mean  annual  temper- 
ature is  79°  F.;  January,  60°,  June,  95°.     The 


AGRA. 


203 


AGRARIAN  LAW. 


anciont  walls  of  the  tity  en\l)racp  an  area  of 
alHiut  11  square  miles,  of  whioli  about  one-half 
is  at  present  ueeupicd.  The  houses  are.  for  the 
most  part,  built  of  the  red  standstone  of  the 
neighboring  hills.  The  prineipal  street,  running 
northwest  from  the  fort,  is  very  spaeious.  but 
the  rest  are  generally  narrow  and  irregular, 
though  clean.  The  Strand,  a  thoroughfare  on 
the  river  banks,  is  two  miles  long  and  eighty 
feet  wide. 

iSome  of  the  public  buildings,  monuments  of 
the  House  of  Timur,  are  of  striking  magnihcenee. 
Among  these  are  the  line  fortress  built  by  Ak- 
bar,  within  the  walls  of  which  are  the  palace 
and  audience-hall  of  Shah  Jehan.  and  the  Jloti 
Jlasjid  or  I'earl  .Mosipie,  .so  called  from  its  sur- 
passing architectural  beauty.  Still  more  cele- 
brated is  the  Taj  Mahal,  situated  without  the 
city,  about  a  mile  to  the  east  of  the  fort.  This 
extraordinary  and  beautiful  mausoleum  was 
built  by  the  Kmperor  .Shah  .lehan  for  himself 
and  his  favorite  wife,  Arjimand  lianoo  (sur- 
named  Mumtaz  Mahal).  Twenty  thousand  men, 
says  Tavernier,  who  saw  the  work  in  progress, 
were  employed  incessantly  on  it  for  twenty-two 
years.  The  [)rincipal  parts  of  the  building  are 
constructed  or  overlaid  outside  and  in  with  white 
marble:  and  the  mosaic  work  of  the  sepulchral 
apartment  and  dome  is  dcscril)ed  by  various 
travelers  in  terms  of  glowing  admiration.  It  is 
composed  of  twelve  kin<ls  of  stones,  of  which 
lapis-lazuli  is  the  most  frequent,  as  well  as  the 
most  valuable.  Of  Hritisli  and  otlier  European 
ediliees  in  and  near  the  city,  tlie  principal  are 
the  buildings  of  a  Catholic  mission  and  episco- 
pal see  founded  in  the  sixteenth  century,  the 
government  house,  the  college  for  the  education 
of  natives,  the  Metcalfe  testimonial,  the  Eng- 
lish church,  and  the  barracks.  A  committee  ap- 
pointed by  the  government  administers  munic- 
ipal afTairs,  derives  revenue  from  real  estate  and 
octroi,  and  operates  the  water  works.  This 
city  is  held  in  great  veneration  by  the  Hindus 
as  the  scene  of  the  incarnation  of  Vishnu  under 
the  name  of  Parasu  Rama.  It  first  rose  to  im- 
portance in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, and  from  1.520  to  1058  it  was  the  capital 
of  "the  Mngiil  sovereigns.  In  the  latter  year 
Aurungzebp  removed  to  Delhi :  henceforth  Agra 
declined.  It  was  taken  in  1784  by  Scindia,  and 
surrendered  in  180.3  to  Lord  Lake  after  a  bom- 
bardment of  a  few  hours.  During  the  Sepoy 
mutiny  of  18.57  .Agra  was  one  of  the  places  in 
whichthe  Europeans  were  shut  up.  They  were 
obliged  to  abandon  the  city  in  .Tune  and  retire 
to  the  fort  or  residency,  to  which  fugitives  also 
flocked  from  all  parts  of  the  country.  Most  of 
the  European  buildings  in  the  city  were  burned 
down  by  the  Sepoys.  Heroic  sallies  were  fre- 
quently made  from  the  fort,  until  the  place  was 
finally' relieved  in  October  by  the  rapid  and  bril- 
liant" march  of  Colonel  Greathed.  Pop.,  1891, 
108,002;  mOl,  188, .300.  Cons\ilt  H.  G.  Keene, 
The  Afira  'luirlc  (Agra,  1872). 

AGRAM,  ii'grain  (Hungarian  Zatirab,  Croa- 
tian /.(ifirch).  The  capital  of  the  Hungarian 
Crownland  of  Croatia-Slavonia.  beautifully  sit- 
uated at  the  foot  of  the  .-\gram  .Mountains,  about 
2  miles  from  the  Save,  and  141  miles  east-north- 
east of  Fiume  by  rail  (Map:  Hungary, 
D  4).  It  consists  of  the  upper,  lower,  and  episco- 
pal towns.  The  chief  pul)lic  buildings  are  the  ca- 
thedral, a  late  Gothic  edifice  dating  from  the  fif- 
teenth   century;     the    palace    of    the    ban,    or 


governor;  the  National  Theatre;  the  Gothic 
church  of  St.  JIark;  the  archiepiscopal  palaci'; 
the  .Academy  of  Sciences,  with  fine  collections  of 
pictures  and  antiquities,  and  the  palace  of  jus- 
tice. Agram  is  the  scat  of  government  of  the 
highest  courts  of  the  province  and  of  the  arch- 
bishop. The  city  is  a  great  centre  of  South- 
Slavic  national  life.  Its  educational  institutions 
include  the  Eranz  Josef  I'nivcrsity,  fotinded  in 
1874,  a  gymnasium,  a  high  school,  industrial 
school,  nornuil  training  schools,  and  several  libra- 
ries. Its  manuf;ic(ures  include  leather,  linen,  p  ir- 
eelain,  silk,  and  tobacio,  and  it  has  a  considera- 
ble trade  in  grain  and  wine.  Pop.,  18!I0,  38.000, 
mostly  Croats;  1900,  57,930.  Probably  Roman 
in  origin,  Agram  became  an  episcopal  see  in 
1093,  !Uid  was  destroyed  by  tlie  Tartars  in  1242. 
Rebuilt  and  made  a  free  royal  city,  it  devel- 
oped rapidly.  In  1880  it  was  partially  destroyed 
by  an  earthquake. 

AGRAMONTE,  a'gra-mrm'ta,  Igx.\cio  (1841- 
187.'i).  A  Cuban  rcMilutionist.  He  was  born 
at  Puerto  Principe,  Cuba,  studied  law  at  the 
University  of  Havana,  and  was  admitteil  to  the 
bar  in  1807.  He  took  a  conspicuous  part  in  the 
insurrection  which  broke  out  against  Spain  in 
1808,  and  became  secretary  of  the  jn-ovisional 
government  in  1809.  He  commanded  the  Cuban 
forces  in  the  Camagiiey  district,  and  for  some 
time — on  the  retirement  of  Quesada.  Jordan,  and 
Cavada — acted  as  commander-in-chief.  He  was 
killed  in  the  battle  of  Jimaguayu. 

AG'RAPHA  (Gk..  unwritten,  from  <1,  «,  priv. 
-)-  -}fmiptii\  i/rdijlicin,  to  write).  Alleged  sayings 
of  Jesus  wiiich,  though  not  found  in  the  canoni- 
cal gospels,  were  current  either  in  oral  tradition 
or  in  literature  and  are  worthy  of  being  consid- 
ered genuine  words  of  Christ.  A  very  complete 
collection  of  extra-canonical  sayings  was  made  by 
Cotelerius.  Ecclesiw  Qrwrai  ilonumcnta  (1077- 
1088),  who  was  followed  by  J.  E.  Cirabe.  Spirde- 
pium  ( 1098  and  1700) ,  and  J.  B.  Fabricius,  Codes 
Apocri/phtis  Xori  Tcstameiili,  second  edition 
(1719).  Briefer  collections,  based  on  the  above, 
have  been  published  from  time  to  time.  The 
latest  and  most  complete  work  on  the  subject  is 
that  of  .\lfred  Resell,  Ac/rapha,  in  Gebhardt  and 
Harnack"s  Texte  und  Vniersuchunfjcn  (Leipzig, 
1889).  Out  of  a  much  larger  number  Resch  has 
judged  seventy-four  sayings  worthy  of  the  desig- 
nation "agrapha."  Resch's  conclusions  have  been 
criticised  by  Professor  .J.  H.  Ropes.  Die  Spriirhe 
.Jcsu  (Leipzig,  1890).  who  reduces  the  number  of 
probably  genuine  sayings  to  thirteen.  In  1897 
Messrs.  Grenfell  and  Hunt  published  ( Henry 
Frowde,  London)  a  papyrus  fragment  from 
Egj'pt  containing  seven  sayings,  each  one  except 
the  first  prefaced  by  the  words,  "Jesus  saith." 
Three  of  these  "logia"  are  quite  similar  to  say- 
ings in  the  gospels.  The  remaining  four  are  new, 
and  may  possibly  be  genuine  words  of  our  Lord. 

AGRAPH'IA.  .\  disease  of  the  nervous  sys- 
tem.      Sit    unilcr    .VlMlASlA. 

AGRA'RIAN  LAW  (Lat.  Irgef!  ariraria-). 
Laws  regulating  the  division  or  holding  of  the 
public  lands  (a^rr  piiblirua)  of  the  Roman  do- 
main. With  the  nanu>  of  agrarian  laws  was  for- 
merly associated  the  idea  of  the  abolition  of 
property  in  land,  or  at  least  of  a  new  distril)Ution 
of  it.  This  notion  of  the  agrarian  laws  of  the 
Romans  was  not  only  the  popular  one.  but  was 
also  received  by  most  scholars.  The  French  Con- 
vention, in   1793,  passed  a  lav^  punishing  with 


AGRARIAN  LAW. 


204 


AGRARIAN  LAW. 


death  any  one  who  should  propose  an  agrarian 
law.  understanding  by  the  term  an  equal  division 
of  the  soil  among  all  citizens.  Now.  it  would 
have  been  strange  if  the  Romans,  with  whom 
private  property  was  so  sacred,  could  ever  liave 
been  brought  to  sanction  any  measure  of  the 
kind.  It  was  the  German  scholars.  Heyne.  Sa- 
vigny.  and  especially  Niebuhr,  who  first  explained 
the  true  nature  and  character  of  the  Roman  agra- 
rian laws.  There  are  still  some  disputed  points 
in  this  matter;  but  one  thing  seems  settled — 
that  those  laws  had  no  reference  to  private  lands 
held  in  absolute  property,  but  to  public  or  State 
lands. 

As  the  dominion  of  Rome  extended,  a  portion 
more  or  less  of  each  conquered  territory  was 
coniiscated  to  tlie  State,  and  became  public  do- 
main. All  laws  respecting  the  disposition  of 
these  lands  were  called  agrarian  laws,  which 
are  therefore  of  various  kinds.  What  caused 
these  laws  to  be  so  long  mistaken  for  an  interfer- 
ence with  private  rights,  and  excited  such  oppo- 
sition to  them  at  the  time,  was  the  use  which 
was  made  of  the  public  domains  while  unappro- 
priated. "It  was  the  practice  at  Rome."  says 
Dr.  Arnold,  "and  doubtless  in  other  States  of 
Italy,  to  allow  the  individuals  to  occupy  such 
lands,  and  to  enjoy  all  the  benefits  of  them,  on 
condition  of  paying  to  the  State  the  tithe  of  the 
produce,  as  an  acknowledgment  that  the  State 
was  the  proprietor  of  the  land,  and  the  individ- 
luil  merely  the  occupier.  Now,  although  the 
land  was  undoubtedl,y  the  property  of  the  State, 
and  although  the  occupiers  of  it  were  in  relation 
to  the  State  mere  tenants-at-will,  yet  it  is  in 
human  nature  that  a  long  undisturbed  possession 
should  give  a  feeling  of  ownership ;  the  more  so 
as,  while  the  State's  claim  lay  dormant,  the  pos- 
sessor was,  in  fact,  proprietor,  and  the  land 
would  thus  be  repeatedly  i)assing  by  regular  sale 
from  one  occupier   to  another." 

The  State,  however,  was  often  obliged  to  inter- 
fere with  these  occupiers  of  the  public  lands 
and  to  resume  its  rights.  Tlie  very  idea  of 
a  citizen,  in  ancient  times,  involved  that  of  a 
landholder,  and  when  new  citizens  were  to  be 
admitted,  each  one  had  to  receive  his  portion 
out  of  the  unallotted  public  domain;  which  was 
attended,  of  course,  with  the  ejection  of  the  ten- 
ants-at-will. It  appears,  also,  that  the  right  to 
enjoy  the  public  lands  in  this  temporary  way  was 
confined  to  the  old  burghers  or  patricians.  This, 
taken  in  conjunction  with  the  tendency,  strong  at 
all  times,  of  larger  possessions  to  swallow  up 
smaller,  kept  up  an  ever-increasing  number  of 
landless  commons,  whose  destitution  and  degrada- 
tion came  from  time  to  time  to  such  a  pitch  that 
alleviation  was  necessary  to  prevent  the  very  dis- 
solution of  the  State.  It  is  easy,  however,  to  see 
what  motive  the  patricians,  as  a  body,  had  to 
oppose  all  such  measures,  since  it  was  their  inter- 
est, though  not  their  right,  to  keep  the  lands 
unallotted. 

The  enactment  of  agrarian  laws  occasioned 
some  of  the  most  remarkable  struggles  in  the 
internal  history  of  Rome.  Jlost  of  the  kings  of 
Rome  are  said  to  have  carried  an  agrarian  law; 
that  is,  to  have  divided  a  portion  of  the  public 
land  among  those  whom  they  admitted  to  the 
rights  of  citizenship.  About  twenty-four  years 
after  the  expulsion  of  the  Tarquins.  the  distress 
of  the  commons  called  aloud  for  remedy,  and  the 
consul  Spurius  Cassius  ])roposed  an  agrarian 
law  for  a  division  of  a  certain  proportion  of  the 


public  land,  and  for  enforcing  the  regular  pav- 
ment  of  the  rent  or  tithe  from  the  occupiers  of 
the  remainder.  The  aristocrac\-,  however,  con- 
trived to  defeat  the  proposal,  and  when  the  year 
of  his  consulship  was  out,  Cassius  was  accused 
of  trying  to  make  himself  king,  was  condemned, 
scourged,  and  beheaded,  and  his  house  razed  to 
the   ground. 

The  first  important  agrarian  law  of  a  perma- 
nent natin-e  actually  passed  was  that  proposed 
by  the  tribune  Licinius  Stolo,  and  carried,  after 
a  struggle  of  five  years,  in  the  year  3(i7  B.C. 
The  provisions  of  Licinius's  bill,  or  roffation, 
were  as  follows:  "Every  Roman  citizen  shall  be 
entitled  to  occupy  any  portion  of  the  unallotted 
State  land  not  exceeding  500  jugcra  (see  Acre), 
and  to  feed  on  the  public  pasture  land  any  num- 
ber of  cattle  not  exceeding  100  head  of  large,  or 
500  head  of  small,  paying  in  both  cases  the  usual 
rates  to  the  public  treasury.  Whatever  portions 
of  the  public  land  beyond  500  jufiera  are  at  pres- 
ent occupied  by  individuals  shall  be  taken  from 
them,  and  distributed  among  the  poorer  citizens 
as  absolute  property,  at  the  rate  of  seven  jiigera 
apiece.  Occupiers  of  public  land  shall  also  be 
bound  to  employ  a  certain  number  of  freemen  as 
laborers." 

This  law  produced  for  a  time  very  salutary  ! 
eflfects.  But  before  the  year  133  B.C.,  "when  Tibe- 
rius Gracchus  was  elected  tribune,  the  Licinian 
law  had  been  sufi'ered  to  fall  into  abeyance:  and 
although  vast  tracts  had  been  acquired  by 
the  Italian,  the  Punic,  and  the  Greek  wars, 
no  regular  distribution  of  land  among  the  desti- 
tute citizens  had  taken  place  for  upward  of  a 
century.  Numerous  military  colonies  had  in- 
deed been  founded  in  the  conquered  districts, 
and  in  this  way  many  of  the  poorer  Romans  or 
their  allies  had  been  provided  for :  but  there 
still  remained  large  territories,  the  property  of 
the  State,  which,  instead  of  being  divided  among 
the  poorer  members  of  the  State,  were  entered 
upon  and  brought  into  cultivation  by  the  rich 
capitalists,  many  of  whom  thus  came  to  hold 
thousands  of  jur/era.  instead  of  the  five  hundred 
allowed  by  the  Licinian  law.  To  a  Roman 
statesman,  therefore,  looking  on  the  one  hand 
at  the  wretched  pauper  population  of  the  meaner 
streets  of  Rome,  and  on  the  other  at  the  enor- 
mous tracts  of  the  public  land  throughout  Italy 
which  the  wealthy  citizens  held  in  addition  to 
their  own  private  property,  the  question  which 
would  naturally  present  itself  was:  Why  should 
not  the  St;ite.  as  landlord,  resume  from  these 
wealthy  capitalists,  who  are  her  tenants,  as  much 
of  the  public  land  as  may  be  necessary  to  provide 
little  farms  for  these  pauper  citizens,  and  so 
convert  them  into  respectable  and  independent 
agriculturists?  This  question  must  have  pre- 
sented itself  to  many;  but  there  were  immense 
difficulties  in  the  way.  Not  only  had  long  pos- 
session of  the  State  lands,  and  the  expenditure 
of  large  sums  in  bringing  them  into  cultivation, 
given  the  v.-ealthy  tenants  a  sort  of  proprietary 
claim  upon  them,  but  in  the  course  of  genera- 
tions, during  which  estates  had  been  bought, 
sold,  and  inherited,  the  State  lands  had  become 
so  contused  with  private  propertii-  that  in  many 
cases  it  was  impossible  to  distinguish  between 
the  two.  Notwithstanding  these  difliculties.  Ti- 
berius Gracchus  had  the  boldness  to  propose  an 
agrarian  law.  to  the  effect  that  every  father  of 
a  family  might  occupy  500  juyera  of  the  State 
land  for  himself  and  250  jugcra  additional  for 


AGRARIAN  LAW. 


205 


AGREEMENT  OF  THE  PEOPLE. 


each  of  his  sons;  l)iit  tluit,  in  every  case  where 
this  amount  was  exceeded,  tlie  State  should  re- 
sume the  surplus,  payin<;  the  tenant  a  price  for 
the  buildings,  etc.,  which  he  liad  been  at  the 
expense  of  erecting  on  the  lands  thus  lost  to  him. 
The  recovered  lands  were  then  to  be  distributed 
among  the  poor  citizens;  a  clause  being  inserted 
in  tlie  bill  to  prevent  these  citizens  from  selling 
the  lands  thus  allotted  to  them,  as  many  of  them 
would  liave  been  apt  to  do. 

According  to  the  laws  and  constitution  of 
Rome,  there  was  nothing  essentially  unjust  in 
this  proposal,  which  was,  in  private,  at  least, 
approved  of  by  some  of  the  most  distinguished 
men  of  the  time.  The  energy  of  Tiberius  tirae- 
chus  carried  the  measure,  in  spite  of  the  oppo- 
sition of  the  aristocratic  i)arty,  to  whose  enmity 
he  fell  a  victim.  His  work  was  taken  up  a 
decade  later  by  his  brother  tiaius,  who  also  met 
a  violent  death.  (See  (!k.\cciil'S.)  The  at- 
tempts to  carry  out  the  "Sempronian  law,'  as  it 
was  called  (fiom  the  name  of  the  (701.9  to  which 
the  Gracchi  belonged),  were  attended  with  great 
difliculties,  and  although  not  formally  repealed, 
it  continued  to  be  evaded  and  rendered  inopera- 
tive. \'arious  agrarian  laws  were  subsequently 
passed,  sonic  by  the  victorious  aristocratic  party, 
in  a  spirit  directly  opposed  to  the  Licinian  and 
Seminoiiian  laws. 

Kesiiles  agrarian  laws  having  for  their  object 
the  division  among  the  commons  of  public  lands 
usurped  by  the  nobles,  there  were  others  of  a 
more  jiartial  and  local  nature,  for  the  establish- 
ment of  colonies  in  particular  conquered  dis- 
tricts; these  naturally  met  with  less  o])position. 
Still  more  ditl'erent  were  those  violent  apjiropria- 
tions  of  territory  made  by  the  victorious  military 
leaders  in  the  later  tin\es  of  the  Republic,  in 
order  to  reward  their  soldiers  and  to  establish 
exclusively  military  colonies.  Tn  these  the  pri- 
vate rights  of  the  previous  occupants  were  often 
disregarded. 

AGRARIAN  MOVETilENT  (Lat.  a(jrariiiK, 
pertaining  to  land,  field,  ager).  A  movement 
among  farmers  to  promote  their  interests  and 
those  of  large  landed  proprietors.  It  comprises 
efforts  at  trade  organization,  often  with  political 
con.sequences.  Such  movements  took  place  in 
England  lor.g  ago.  and  were  particularly  active 
in  the  period  (  f  the  anti-corn-law  agitation.  Dur- 
ing the  last  thirty  j'ears,  owing  to  the  effect  of 
falling  prices  on  agriculture,  there  has  been  an 
influential  agrarian  movement  in  all  western 
countries.  It  has  been  strongest  politically 
in  Germany,  wlicre  the  first  congress  of  north 
German  farmers  met  at  Berlin  in  lS(i8.  This  and 
subsequent  congresses  until  187.5  were  conserva- 
tive bodies  made  up  of  many  large  land  owners 
and  inciiibers  of  the  aristocracy.  They  discussed 
technical  questions  in  agriculture  and  its  social 
and  economic  interests.  Tn  1S7.5  they  began  to 
agitate  for  tax  and  land  reform  legislation,  and 
soon  developed  a  party  demanding  protective  tar- 
iffs. Tn  1S!)3  the  I'nion  of  Farmers  iliiind  der 
Landnirte)  was  formed,  and  only  two  years  lat- 
er had  a  membership  of  200.(100.  Tts  objects 
were  to  oppnsc  piilitical  treaties  which  lower 
taritT  duties  on  grain,  to  eiU'ourage  legislation 
for  meat  inspeition,  to  ,igitate  for  bimetallism, 
reduction  of  land  taxes,  government  elevators, 
cheap  personal  credit,  extension  of  railroads,  and 
larger  governinent  appropriations  for  agricul- 
ture. Similar  movements  exist  in  France,  Den- 
mark,  the   Netherlands,   England,    Sweden,   and 


Italy.  In  the  Iniled  .Slates  Ic-s  has  been  done 
in  a  direct  political  waj',  although  farmers"  or- 
ganizations have  been  even  more  successful  in 
other  ways.  Su('h  organizations  as  the  Grange 
(q.v.)  and  the  Farmers'  Alliance  (q.v.)  were 
chiedy  established  for  cihicational  and  mutual 
advantages,  and  especially  to  resist  encroach- 
ments of  the  railroads  in  discriminating  rates. 
References:  H.  Thiel,  25  ■fnhrr  hinibrirtsrhiift- 
lichi'rliilercsxcniertntiin;!  (18!)4)  ;  Tlilir-Giessen, 
Die  Afirarbeirrfiung  in  den  letzten  .io  ■fahren  :  C. 
S.  Walker.  "The  Farmers'  Movement,"  Annalu  of 
the  American  Acndemii  of  Polilical  nnd  Social 
SciVHCf".  Volume  TV.   (Philadelphia.  180.3-94). 

AGRARIAN  PAR'TY.  Sec  Political  P.\r- 
TIES,   paragiapli   on   < Irrnitiiiii. 

AGTIAVAINE,  Sir.  A  knight  of  the  legen- 
dary I\i>und  Table  (q.v.),  surnamed  "The 
Haughty"  {L'Oryucilkux) .  He  was  the  son  of 
Lot,  King  of  Orkney,  and  a  nephew  of  I^ing  Ar- 
thur, and  was  slain  by  Sir  Launcelot  for  spying 
upon  him  and  the  queen. 

AGREDA,  ii-gra'Da,  Maria  (Coko.nel)  de 
Il(i02-(U|.  The  superior  of  the  convent  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception,  whose  monastic  name 
was  Maria  of  Jesus.  She  was  born  at  Agreda, 
Spain.  She  reported  that  she  had  had  revela- 
tions from  heaven,  and  tliat  God  iiad  commanded 
her  to  write  an  inspired  life  of  Mary,  the  mother 
of  Jesus.  The  book  is  entitled  Mjixtica  Ciiidnd 
de  Dios,  etc.,  3  parts  (Madrid,  1(>70;  Frencn 
transl.ation.  La  cite  miistii/ue  de  Dieii,  etc..  6 
volumes,  Marseilles.  100,5.  Paris,  lS.i7;  German 
translation.  Die  r/eintlichc  >^tadt  Gottcs,  etc.,  sec- 
ond edition,  Regensburg.  1893).  Pope  Innocent 
XT.  prohibited  its  universal  circulation,  but.  at 
the  recpicst  of  the  King  of  Spain,  excepted  the 
Spanish  countries.  An  English  translation  has 
recently  been  made. 

AGREE'MENT.     See  Contract. 

AGREEMENT,  Method  of.     See  Inductio:j. 

AGREEMENT  OF  THE  PEOTPLE,  The.    A 

remarkal)lc  diH-umcnr  set  fortli  by  tlie  Council  of 
the  Army,  .Taiiuary  lo,  l()40,  fifteen  days  before 
the  execution  of  King  (^harlcs  I.  of  England. 
It  is  based  upon  "The  Heads  of  the  Proposals 
Offered  by  the  .\rniy,"  Au.gust  1.  U)47,  except 
that  no  reference  is  made  to  royalty;  and  it  is 
an  outline  of  a  written  constitution  for  a  repub- 
lic. According  to  its  provisions,  the  existing 
Itailiament  is  to  be  dissolved  on  or  before  the 
last  day  of  April,  lfi40  ;  and  thereafter  an  assem- 
bly called  the  "Representative,"  composed  of  not 
more  than  four  hundred  members,  is  to  be  elect- 
ed by  the  jieople  every  two  years  on  the  first 
Thursday  in  ^la.v.  Tlie  members  or  "represent- 
ers"  are  fairly  distributed  among  the  counties 
of  England  and  Wales,  thus  remedying  the 
defects  in  the  existing  apportionment.  The  fran- 
chise is  conferred  upon  such  natives  or  denizens 
"as  are  assessed  ordinarily  toward  the  relief  of 
the  poor,"  provided  they  be  men  twenty-one  years 
of  age  or  housekeepers  "dwelling  within  the 
division  for  which  the  election"'  is  held.  Ser- 
vants "receiving  wages  from  anv  particular  per- 
son" are  excluded :  and  those  who  have  aided  the 
king  are  temporarily  denied  the  right  of  voting 
or  of  being  chosen  members  of  the  assembly.  OfTi- 
cials  are  not  eligible,  and  lawyers  are  incapable 
of  practicing  their  profession  while  serving  as 
representcrs.  There  is  to  be  a  "Council  of  State 
for  the  managing  of  public  affairs."     The  Chris- 


AGREEMENT  OF  THE  PEOPLE. 


206 


AGBICOLA. 


tian  religion  "is  held  forth  and  recommended 
as  the  public  confession:"  but  it  is  to  be  "re- 
formed to  the  greatest  purity  in  doctrine,  wor- 
ship, and  discipline."  Popery  and  prelacy  are 
not  tolerated,  and  the  'teachers"  or  ministers 
are  to  be  paid  from  the  public  treasurj'.  To  the 
assembly  is  given  the  "supreme  trust  in  order 
to  the  preservation  and  government  of  the 
whole:"  but  six  important  points  are  absolutely 
"reserved"  from  legislative  action.  In  this  re- 
gard the  agreement  differs  from  the  constitutions 
of  the  American  States,  which  are  subject  to 
unlimited  amendment  or  entire  change.  With 
the  exception  of  those  of  the  Connecticut  and 
New  Haven  colonies,  the  agreement  is  the  earliest 
example  of  a  written  instrument  designed  for 
the  government  of  a  commonwealth.  For  the 
text  of  the  agreement,  consult:  Gardiner.  Con- 
stitutional Documents,  pages  270-282  (Oxford, 
1889)  :  for  a  full  discussion,  his  History  of  the 
Civil  War,  new  edition  (London  and  New  York, 
ISfM-OT  ) . 

AGRIC'OLA,  Chbistoph  LrDwiG(  1007-1719) . 
A  Bavarian  landscape  painter.  He  was  born  and 
died  at  Regensburg.  He  was  a  wide  traveler, 
but  lived  for  long  periods  at  Naples.  His  pic- 
tures are  of  the  cabinet  order.  His  atl'ection  for 
nature  was  strong,  and  he  was  especially  happy 
in  reproducing  eUects  of  climate.  In  composi- 
tion he  followed  somewhat  closely  Gaspard  Pous- 
sin  ( q.v. ) ,  though  he  shows  the  influence  of 
Claude  Gel^  (qv. )  in  his  management  of 
color  and  light.  His  pictures  are  to  be  found 
in  many  towns  of  Germany  and  Italy,  notably 
at  Dresden,  Vienna,  Florence,  and  Naples. 
Though  primarily  a  landscape  painter,  he  exe- 
cuted numerous  portraits. 

AGRICOLA  ( Latin  version  of  his  original 
German  name  Baier),  Georg  (1490-1555). 
A  German  mining  engineer,  founder  of  the 
sciences  of  mining  and  mineralogy.  He  was 
born  at  Glauchau.  studied  medicine  at  Leipzig 
and  in  Italy,  and  later,  while  practicing  as  phy- 
sician in  the  Saxon  Erzgebirge,  became  much 
interested  in  mineralogy  and  in  the  methods  of 
mining.  In  recognition  of  his  endeavors  to  im- 
prove mining  methods  he  received  a  pension 
from  Maurice.  Duke  of  Saxony,  and  in  1531  set- 
tled in  Chemnitz,  where  he  devoted  himself  to 
the  study  of  mineralogy  and  mining  engineering, 
and  served  also  as  city  physician  and  as  burgo- 
master. His  efforts  resulted  in  the  establish- 
ment of  mining  engineering  upon  a  rational, 
scientific  basis,  in  that  his  theories  regarding  ore 
deposits  were  founded  on  sound  principles,  which 
he  applied  to  the  practical  working  of  the  mines. 
He  also  made  one  of  the  earliest  classifications 
of  minerals,  based  upon  their  external  charac- 
teristics of  form,  color,  and  hardness.  Agiicola 
yvrote  several  works,  all  of  which  are  classics  in 
the  literature  of  the  two  sciences  to  the  founda- 
tions of  which  he  contributed  in  so  large  degiee. 
Among  the  more  important  are:  De  Ortu  et 
Causis  Subterraneorum  (Basel.  1540-58)  :  Dc  Re 
Uctallica  (Basel,  15.30-58),  which  was  for  a  long 
period  used  as  a  manual  of  mining  methods  in 
Germany.  A  collection  of  his  writings  on  miner- 
alogy', De  Xatura  Fossilium,  was  published  at 
Basel  (1657;  German  translation,  Freiburg, 
180G-1.3).  Consult:  Jacobi,  Der  ilinrralog  Georg 
Agricoln  vnd  sein  Vcrhaltniss  zur  Wissenschaft 
seiner  Zcit   (Werdau,  1889). 

AGRICOLA,     G.x.srs    Jlxius     (37-92).     A 


Roman  of  the  imperial  times,  distinguished  not 
less  by  his  great  abilities  as  o  statesman  and  a 
soldier  than  by  the  beauty  of  his  private  charac- 
ter. He  was  born  at  Forum  .Julii  (now  Frejus, 
in  Provence).  Having  served  with  distinction 
in  Britain,  Asia,  and  Aquitania,  and  gone 
through  the  round  of  civil  offices,  he  was,  in  77 
.\.D.,  elected  consul,  and  in  the  folloyving  year 
proceeded  as  governor  to  Britain — the  scene  of 
his  military-  and  civil  administration  during  the 
ne.xt  seven  years.  He  yvas  the  first  Roman  gen- 
eral who  ed'ectually  subdued  the  island,  and  the 
only  one  who  displayed  as  much  genius  and  suc- 
cess in  training  the  inhabitants  to  the  amenities 
of  civilization  as  in  breaking  their  rude  force  in 
yvar.  In  his  seventh  and  last  campaign  (S4 
A.D. ) ,  his  decisive  victory  over  the  Caledonians 
under  Calgacus,at  a  place  called  Mons  Grampius, 
establislied  the  Roman  dominion  in  Britain  to 
some  distance  north  of  the  Forth.  After  this 
campaign  his  fleet  circumnavigated  the  coast  for 
the  first  time,  proving  Britain  to  be  an  island. 
Among  the  yvorks  executed  by  Agricola  during 
his  administration  yvcre  a  chain  of  forts  between 
the  Solway  Firth  and  the  Tyne.  and  another 
betyveen  the  firths  of  Clyde  and  Forth.  Numer- 
ous traces  of  his  operations  are  still  to  be  found 
in  Anglesey  and  North  Wales,  and  in  Galloway, 
Fife,  Perthshire,  and  Forfarshire.  The  news  of 
Agricola's  successes  inflamed  the  jealousy  of  the 
Emperor  Doniitian.  and  he  yvas  speedily  recalled. 
Thenceforth  he  lived  in  retirement,  and  yvhen 
the  vacant  proconsulsliips  of  Asia  and  Africa 
lay  yvithin  his  choice,  he  prudently  declined  pro- 
motion. The  jealou.sy  of  the  Emperor,  hoyvever, 
is  supposed  to  have  hastened  his  death,  yvhieh 
took  place  at  the  early  age  of  fifty-five.  His 
Life,  by  his  son-in-layv,  Tacitus,  has  ahvays  been 
regarded  as  one  of  the  choicest  specimens  of  bi- 
ography in  literature.     See  Tacitl'S. 

AGRICOLA,  .JoHAXX  Friedrich  (1720-74). 
A  German  musical  composer  yvho  studied  under 
Bach.  He  yvas  a  superior  organist,  and  held  the 
office  of  kapellmeister  under  Frederick  the  Great. 
He  yvrote  several  operas,  together  yvith  cantatas 
and  cliorals. 

AGRICOLA,  JoH.\xx  (1492-1500),  also  called 
Magister  Islebius  (i.e.,  of  Eisleben),  but  seldom 
by  his  patronymic,  Schnitter.  A  zealous  disciple 
of  Luther,  yvhom  he  served,  as  teacher  and 
preacher,  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  Eisleben, 
and  Wittenberg.  He  became  involved  in  the  An- 
tinomian  controversy  (see  Antixomiaxism), 
and  yvithdreyv  to  Berlin  in  1540,  yvhere,  under 
stress  of  poverty,  he  made  a  recantation,  iin-f 
fectual,  and  probably  not  sincere.  Joachim  II., 
Elector  of  Brandenburg,  became  his  protector, 
and  made  him  court  preacher  and  general  super- 
intendent, in  yvhieh  oflice  he  labored  zealously 
for  the  spread  of  Protestantism  until  his  death 
at  Berlin,  September  22,  1506.  His  share  in 
drayving  up  the  Augsburg  Interim  (1548)  made 
him  unpopular  for  a  time,  but  did  not  perma- 
nently check  the  groyvth  of  his  influence  in  Bran- 
denburg, yvhieh  became  very  great.  He  yvrote 
several  theological  treatises,  noyv  forgotten,  but 
he  yvill  always  be  remembered  for  his  collection 
of  German  proverbs.  Die  gemcinen  devtschen 
Hpriichwortrr  mit  Hirer  Auslegung  (1592),  a 
yvork  of  native  humor,  morality,  and  patriotism 
that  has  endeared  him  to  the  heart  of  scholarly 
Germany. 

AGRICOLA,  Martin  (c.  1480-1550).     A  Ger- 


AGRICOLA. 


207 


AGRICTILTURAL  ASSOCIATION. 


man  composer  and  uritir  on  musical  subjects, 
born  at  Soiau.  Silesia.  Kiom  1524  until  his 
death  he  was  cantor  and  musical  director  in  the 
first  Protestant  school  established  at  .Maf,'deburg. 
His  hooks  are  marked  by  a  forceful  style  and  ex- 
tensive knowledfje,  and  in  his  own  day  passed 
tliroujih  numerous  editions.  He  has  been  inac- 
curately credited  with  bavin-;  been  the  first  com- 
po.ser  to  reject  tlic  ancient  "lal)lature,"  or  system 
of  musical  notation.  His  writiufjs  include: 
Municd  Iiintninirnlalis  (1")2!)),  Mjtsica  Figuralis 
Dcudxch  (ir>:)'2),  Ruilimcnta  Musicci  (1539), 
Qiicstinnes  VHlijnriorcs  in  Musicam  (1543),  and 
other  similar  works. 

AGRICOLA,  RoDOLPiiL'S  (properly  Roelof 
Hi  is.\l.x..N')  (1443-85).  An  eminent  Hutch  hu- 
manist, born  at  Hallo.  He  studied  at  the  univer- 
sities of  l.uuvain  and  Paris  and  afterward  in 
Italy,  and  by  his  Latin  stjle  and  his  skill  in  dis- 
putation attained  high  scholastic  distinction. 
For  .some  time  he  lectured  on  philology  and  phi- 
losophy at  Heidelberg.  The  most  important  of 
his  works  is  the  Uc  Invoilioiic  Dinlrrtica,  in 
three  books:  but  he  is  noteworthy  less  for  his 
writings  than  for  his  personal  inlluence.  He  did 
much  to  sul)stitute  classical  Latinity  for  medi- 
tcval  barbarisms,  to  difl'use  in  (Jermany  the 
knowledge  of  Greek;  in  short,  to  transmit  be- 
yond the  Alps  the  spirit  of  the  Halian  renais- 
sance of  letters.  Of  theology,  painting,  and 
iimsic  he  seems  also  to  have  known  considerable. 
His  writings  were  collected  by  Alardus  (Cologne, 
2  vnlumes.  153!)).  Consult:  Trcsling,  Vita  ct 
Merita  Rddolpiti  Ayri'^ola;  (Groningen,  1830), 
and  Ihm,  Oir  Humanist  Itudolf  Aijricola,  scin 
l.vbvn   and  xrinr  Schriflrn    (  Paderborn,   1893). 

AGRICUL'TURAL  ANT.  A  species  of 
ant  living  on  the  semi-arid  plains  of  Texas  that 
cultivates  areas  of  grass  about  its  dwelling.  On 
this  cultivated  space,  which  may  have  a  diameter 
of  10  to  15  feet,  only  luic  kind  of  grass  is  allowed 
to  grow,  and  it  is  said  that  the  seeds  of  this  grass 
arc  even  planted  by  the  ants.  Roads  are  laid 
out  radiating  from  the  ant  hill  across  the  plain, 
and  all  shoots  of  undesirable  plants  are  ])romptly 
nibbled  off  as  rapidly  as  they  appear  among  the 
crops.  When  the  harvest  of  the  protected  gi-ass 
is  ripe,  the  ants  collect  the  seeds  and  convey  them 
along  the  r:idiatiug  highways  to  the  chambers  in 
the  hill.  Interesting  ;uid  wimderful  as  is  the 
economy  of  these  aiils,  the  insects  may.  when  the 
colonies  are  large  and  numerous  enough,  do  con- 
siderable damage  to  the  "rain  fields  in  which  the 
moimds  are  reared  and  tlie  clearings  made.  See 
AxTS;  Insects:  and  consult  ^IcCook,  Agricul- 
tural Ant  (,f  Ti.ms   (Phila(l<0|iliia.   ISTO). 

AGRICULTURAL  ASSOCIA'TION.  A  vol- 
untary association  of  farmers  and  other  persons 
interested  in  agriculture,  formed  for  the  purpose 
of  promoting  a  knowledge  of  agriculture. 

Great  P.uit.mx.  The  movement  began  with 
the  organization  of  the  Society  of  Improvers  in 
the  Knowledge  of  Agriculture  in  Scotland,  in 
1723.  by  a  company  of  landholders.  This  society 
existed  for  more  than  twenty  years  and  did  mucii 
valuable  work.  Its  Hclrrt  Trnnaartionx.  collected 
by  Mr.  Maxwell,  were  published  in  1743.  The 
Bath  and  West  of  England  Society  was  estab- 
lished in  1777,  and  the  Highbind  Society  in  1784. 
The  latter  society  aftcrwiird  included  in  its 
operations  the  whole  of  Scotland,  and  under  the 
namo  of  the  Highland  and  Agi-ieult>iral  Society 


of  Scotland  has  ever  since  continued  its  work 
with  increasing  success  and  usefulness.  Kor 
many  years  its  Prize  Essays  aiul  Transactions 
were  published  in  connection  with  the  Quarterly 
Journal  of  Agriculture.  In  1842  an  Agiieultural 
Chemistry  Association  was  formed  at  Swanstonc, 
near  Edinburgh,  which  for  several  years  con- 
ducted investigations  independently,  but  finally 
merged  in  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  So- 
ciety. The  Highland  Society  now  has  a  numer- 
ous membership.  Its  large  income  is  expended 
in  studying  manures,  feeding  stulTs,  seeds,  jilants, 
etc.;  further,  in  holding  annual  shows  of  live 
stock,  implements,  etc,  at  which  largo  prizes  are 
ollered,  and,  finally,  in  publishing  an  annual 
volume  of  'J'ransactions. 

The  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England, 
founded  in  1838,  has  been  an  imjjortant  factor  in 
the  development  of  British  agriculture,  and,  in- 
deed, has  undertaken  many  duties  which  in  other 
countries  are  performed  by  the  Government.  This 
society  has  at  present  more  than  10,000  mem- 
bers, holds  an  annual  show  of  live  stock,  imple- 
ments, and  machinery,  dairy  and  other  jiroducts, 
at  which  some  £5000  (.$25,000)  are  distributed 
in  prizes.  It  issues  a  quarterly  journal,  con- 
taining information  on  a  great  variety  of  agri- 
cultural topics,  retains  the  services  of  chemical, 
botanical,  zoiilogical,  and  veterinary  experts  for 
advice  to  members,  as  well  as  for  experiments 
and  research,  maintains  an  experimental  f:irm 
at  Woburn  and  a  veterinary  college  at  Camden 
Town.  London,  and  conducts  in  cooperation  with 
the  Highland  and  -\gricultural  Society  of  .Scot- 
land an  annual  e.xiiiiiination  for  a  natiomil  diplo- 
ma in  the  science  and  juactice  of  agriculture. 

Ikei.a.no.  In  Ireland  the  interests  of  .agriculture 
:u'e  juomoted  liy  a  department  of  the  Royal  Dub- 
lin Society,  chartered  in  1749,  and  other  agricul- 
tural organizations.  Agricultural  societies  are 
maintained  also  in  (^inada,  Australia,  and  other 
parts  of  the  British  Empire. 

Cniteo  States.  In  the  LTnited  States  the 
first  society  for  promoting  agi'ieulture  was  es- 
tablished at  l'hiladelpbi:i  in  1785.  In  the  same 
year  a  similar  society  was  formed  in  South 
C;irolina,  to  which  the  present  State  Agricul- 
tural Society  of  South  Carolina  traces  its 
origin.  The  New  York  Society  for  the  Pro- 
motion of  Agiiculture,  Arts,  and  Manufac- 
tures was  organized  in  1791  and  published 
its  first  volume  of  Transactions  in  1792.  The 
Massachusetts  Society  for  Promoting  Agri- 
culture was  incorporated  in  1792  and  began  the 
publication  of  pamphlets  on  agi'icultural  topics 
in  1797.  Several  other  societies  were  organiz<'d 
prior  to  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
This  movement  continued,  until  in  1S()9  we  have 
the  germ  of  a  national  organization  in  the 
Columbian  Agricultural  Society,  formed  in  the 
District  of  Columbia.  The  holding  of  agricul- 
tural shows,  or  "fairs,"  was  beg\in  in  the  city  of 
Washington  in  1804,  and  was  made  a  popular 
movement  largely  through  the  efforts  of  Elkanah 
Watson  of  Massachusetts,  who,  beginning  with 
an  exhibition  of  two  imported  nu'rino  sheep  on 
(he  public  square  at  Pittsfield.  Mass..  in  1807. 
soon  developed  the  more  elalxuatc  and  ])i(tur- 
esquc  "cattle  shows."  which  for  many  years 
have  been  popular  rural  festivals,  especially 
in  New  England.  Shows  of  various  sorts 
are  now  held  in  different  parts  of  the  country 
by  numerous  State,  county,  and  other  local  and 
interstate  associations.     Societies  for  promoting 


AGKICULTUBAL  ASSOCIATION. 


208 


AGRICULTURAL   EDUCATION. 


different  agricultural  interests  have  been  organ- 
ized under  many  different  forms,  and  many  of 
these  are  now  in  a  flourishing  condition.  ]\Iany 
of  the  States  have  important  agricultural  socie- 
ties, the  published  reports  of  which  contain 
much  valuable  information.  There  are  also  na- 
tional, State,  and  local  associations  for  the  live 
stock  interests  (including  the  breeding  of  cattle, 
horses,  sheep,  swine,  and  poultry),  dairying, 
horticulture,  forestry,  irrigation,  good  roads, 
bee-keeping,  etc.  Lists  of  the  more  important 
agi'icultural  organizations  in  the  United  States 
are  given  in  the  year  Book  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture. 

Among  the  general  associations  which  have 
exerted  the  most  widespread  influence  in  the 
United  States  are  the  Farmers'  Alliance  and  the 
Patrons  of  Husbandry  (otherwise  known  as  the 
Grange).  See  the  separate  articles  on  F.4.rmers' 
Alliance,  and  Grange. 

Germ.\ny.  The  first  agricultural  society  in 
Germany  is  said  to  have  been  established  in 
1764.  Now  there  are  several  thousand  societies 
in  the  German  Empire.  The  most  important  of 
these  is  the  German  Agricultural  Society,  with 
headquarters  at  Berlin,  which  has  a  membership 
of  some  10,000.  It  holds  a  great  annual  meeting 
and  fair,  at  which  numerous  prizes  are  given, 
a  winter  meeting,  and  meetings  of  sections  on 
fertilizers,  plant  culture,  seeds,  implements,  and 
agricultural  technology'  and  engineering;  gives 
prizes  for  essays  based  on  scientific  investiga- 
tions, tests  agricultural  materials,  carries  on  a 
large  amount  of  experimental  inquiry  through 
cooperation  with  agricultural  experiment  sta- 
tions, publishes  a  year-book,  and  a  journal  ap- 
pearing two  or  three  times  a  month,  and  main- 
tains a  bureau  of  information.  It  also  aids  its 
members  in  the  cooperative  purchase  of  ferti- 
lizers, seeds,  and  feeding  stuffs. 

France.  The  Society  of  Agriculturists  of 
France  has  more  than  11.000  members,  maintains 
a  library  and  chemical  laboratory,  holds  meetings, 
at  which  lectures  are  given  by  eminent  agricul- 
tural experts,  gives  annual  prizes,  and  patronizes 
the  agricultural  shows  given  under  the  ministry 
of  agriculture  in  different  parts  of  France.  The 
National  Society  of  Agriculture  of  France  and 
tlie  National  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Agri- 
culture are  also  very  ini])i:irtant  French  societies. 

The  Royal  Danish  Agricultural  Society,  the 
Central  Society  of  Agriculture  of  Belgium,  the 
Society  of  Italian  Agiiculture,  the  Imperial  Ag- 
ricultural Society  at  Vienna,  the  Agi'icultural 
Association  of  Hungary,  and  the  Imperial  Eco- 
nomic Association  at  St.  Petersburg  are  among 
the  most  active  and  influential  agricultural  or- 
ganizations in  Europe. 

Agricultural  Syndicates.  In  recent  years 
cooperative  unions  (see  Cooperation)  have  been 
formed  in  large  numbers  in  most  of  the  countries 
of  Europe,  and  have  exerted  an  increasing  influ- 
ence in  the  promotion  of  agricultural  advance- 
ment. These  have  reached  their  most  complete 
development,  as  directly  related  to  agriculture,  in 
France,  where  they  are  known  as  agricultural 
syndicates.  The  syndicates  are  national,  re- 
gional, or  local  in  their  organization  and  opera- 
tions. Their  number  has  reached  about  2.500 
and  their  membership  about  800.000.  including 
all  classes  interested  in  agriculture.  They  do  an 
extensive  business  in  the  purchase  of  fertilizers, 
feeding  stuffs,  seeds,  plants,  implements,  and 
live  stock  (especially  animals  for  common  use  in 


breeding),  and  in  the  sale  of  agricultural  prod- 
ucts. They  have  also  established  cooperative 
dairies,  and  factories  for  fruit  pulp,  olive  oil, 
etc.,  and  have  developed  numerous  forms  of  co- 
operative insurance.  They  have  also  dissemi- 
nated nmch  information  through  meetings  and 
the  agiicultural  press,  and  have  exerted  impor- 
tant political  influence  on  legislation  affecting 
agricultural  interests.  Some  syndicates  have  re- 
ceived financial  aid  from  the  Government,  and 
others  have  been  aided  by  private  endowments. 
Otherwise  they  are  supported  by  fees  and  broker- 
age. The  organization  and  spread  of  the  syndi- 
cates have  been  greatly  promoted  by  the  assist- 
ance of  the  tigricultural  societies  throughout 
France. 

AGRICULTURAL     CHEM'ISTRY.       S  e  e 

CiiEMisTRi',  Agricultural. 

AGRICULTURAL      ED'UCA'TION.       The 

modern  system  of  agricultural  education  in  its 
most  complete  form  includes  ( 1 )  university 
courses  of  instruction  and  research  (experiment 
stations)  ;  (2)  general  college  courses;  (3)  col- 
lege courses  or  schools  in  special  subjects,  e.g., 
dairying,  animal  husbandry,  aviculture,  or  vet- 
erinary science ;  ( 4 1  secondary  courses  or  schools 
(agricultural  high  schools)  ;  (5)  elementary  in- 
struction in  common  schools;  (0)  university 
extension,  through  farmers'  institutes,  corre- 
spondence courses,  etc.  The  term  agriculture, 
as  related  to  education,  may  be  used  broadly 
with  reference  to  an  institution  or  course  of 
instruction  in  wliich  agricultural  subjects  are 
taught  along  with  other  branches  of  knowledge. 
It  is  in  this  sense,  for  example,  that  we  speak 
of  a  college  of  agriculture  or  a  college  course 
in  agriculture.  Or  the  term  may  be  restricted 
to  that  portion  of  a  course  of  instruction  in 
which  agricultural  subjects  only  are  taught,  as 
when  we  say:  "Agriculture  is  taught  in  that 
college."  Committees  of  the  .Vssociation  of 
American  Agricultural  Colleges  and  Experiment 
Stations  have  recently  recommended  that  the  fol- 
lowing subjects  be  included  in  a  four-year  col- 
lege course  in  agriculture:  Algebra,  geometry, 
trigonometry,  drawing,  English,  other  modern 
languages,  psychology,  ethics  or  logic,  political 
economy,  general  history,  constitutional  law, 
physics,  chemistry  (general  and  agricultural), 
meteorology,  geology,  botany  (including,  vegeta- 
ble physiology  and  pathology),  zoology  (includ- 
ing entomology),  physiologj',  veterinary  science, 
horticulture,  forestry,  and  agriculture  (in  the 
narrow,  technical  sense).  The  conunittee  on 
methods  of  teaching  agriculture  of  the  same  asso- 
ciation has  divided  technical  agriculture  into 
(1)  agronomy  (plant  production)  ;  (2)  zodtech- 
ny  (animal  industry)  ;  (3)  agrotechny  (agri- 
cultural technology)  ;  (4)  rural  engineering 
(farm  mechanics)  :  and  (5)  rural  economics 
( farm  management ) . 

In  the  syllabus  for  the  course  in  agriculture 
formulated  by  this  committee,  agronomy  is  de- 
fined as  ''the  theory  and  practice  of  the  produc- 
tion of  farm  crops,"  and  is  made  to  include 
what  is  to  be  taught  regarding  the  structure, 
composition,  and  physiology  of  farm  crops  and 
their  environment,  i.e.,  climate,  soil,  fertilizers, 
etc.,  and  regai'ding  the  culture,  Iiarvesting,  pres- 
ervation, and  uses  of  individual  kinds  of  crops, 
as  well  as  the  obstructions  to  their  growth  from, 
weeds,  fungi,  bacteria,  insects,  birds,  and  other 
animals.     Zoijtechny  is  "the  theory  and  practice 


AGRICULTURAL   EDUCATION. 

ol  the  production  of  animals  useful  to  man," 
and  includes  especially  types,  breeding;,  feeding, 
liyjriene,  and  systems  of  management  of  difTerent 
kinds  of  farm  animals.  Agroteohny  is  "the 
theoiy  and  piaetiee  of  the  conversion  of  raw 
materials  produced  by  agriculture  into  manu- 
factured artiilcs  for  use  in  commerce  and  the 
arts."  In  its  broadest  sense,  agrotechiiy  includes 
such  things  as  the  making  of  butter,  cheese, 
sugar,  vinegar,  concentrated  foods,  canned  goods, 
lii]Uors,  textiles.  leather,  etc.:  but  in  the  agri- 
cultural colleges  generally,  only  dairying  is  usu- 
ally tauglit  under  this  head.  Rural  engineering 
is  "the  science  and  art  of  laying  out  farms, 
designing  and  constructing  farm  buildings  and 
works  (i.e.,  water  systems,  irrigation  works, 
drains,  sewage  systems,  and  roads],  and  making 
and  using  farm  implements  and  machinery." 
Hural  economics  "treat  of  agriculture  as  a  means 
for  the  production,  preservation,  and  distribu- 
tion of  wealth  by  the  use  of  land  for  the  growing 
of  plants  and  animals." 

Unitki)  Statks.  Agitation  on  behalf  of  agri- 
cultural education  began  very  soon  after  the 
organization  of  the  first  agricultural  societies 
,see  Acuicii-TrRAi,  AssortATio.x) .  near  the 
end  of  the  eighteenth  centurj'.  In  lT!t2,  under 
the  influence  of  the  Xew  York  Agricultural  Soci- 
ety, the  trustees  of  Columbia  College  in  New 
York  City  established  "a  professorship  for  natu- 
ral history,  chemistry,  and  agriculture,"  and 
elected  Samuel  L.  Mitchill.  il.D.,  LL.D.,  an 
active  member  of  the  Society,  to  till  the  chair.  In 
1794  the  I'liilailclphia  Society  received  an  elabo- 
rate report  from  one  of  its  conuiiitlees,  in  which 
the  claims  of  education  in  agriculture  through 
the  establishment  of  college  professorships,  as 
well  a!  of  courses  of  instruction  in  the  common 
schools,  are  urged  upon  the  attention  of  the 
State  legislature.  In  1801  the  Massachusetts 
society  staited  a  subscription,  which  resulted 
in  the  establisliment  of  a  professorship  of  natural 
history  in  Harvard  College  in  1804.  and  later 
in  the  establishment  of  a  botanic  garden.  Books 
on  agriculture  began  to  be  published  frequently 
in  this  country,  among  which  was  The  Fanners' 
Assistant,  by  John  Nicholson  (Albany,  N.  Y., 
1814),  "embracing  every  article  relating  to  agri- 
culture, arranged  in  alphabetical  order."  The 
American  Farmer,  the  first  distinctively  agri- 
cultural periodical  in  this  country,  was  started 
in  Baltimore,  Md.,  in  ISIO.  The  Gardiner  Ly- 
ceum, begiiii  in  1823.  in  ilaine,  with  the  aid  of 
a  grant  of  money  trom  the  State,  especially  for 
the  education  of  mechanics  and  fainiers,  had  a 
professor  of  agriculture,  a  practical  farm,  and 
special  short  winter  courses,  and  was  success- 
fully maintained  for  many  years.  An  agricul- 
tural school  established  at  Derby,  Conn.,  in  1820, 
proved  innuediately  successful.  A  number  of 
other  schools  in  which  agriculture  was  taught 
were  estalilislied  in  Connecticut  and  New  Y'ork 
between  182;)  and  1850. 

In  1840,  .John  P.  Norton  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  agricultural  chemistry  and  vegetable 
and  animal  physiology  at  Y'alc  College.  His 
pupil  and  successor  was  Samuel  W.  Johnson, 
the  well-known  author  of  flou'  Crops  Grow,  who 
for  many  years  has  been  a  leader  in  the  move- 
nu'nt  for  agricultural  education.  .\ssociated 
with  him.  as  professor  of  agriculture,  has  been 
William  H.  Brewer,  who  was  also  a  student  un- 
der Professor  Norton,  and  was  identified  with 
agricultural    schools    established    in   New   York 


■iO'J 


AGRICULTURAL    EDUCATION. 


prior  to  18(10.  The  New  Y'ork  Legislature 
passed  acts  in  1853  establishing  a  State  agri- 
cultural college  and  an  industrial  school, 
to  be  known  as  "The  People's  College."  These 
institutions,  however,  did  not  become  firmly 
established,  though  Amos  Brown,  the  president 
of  the  latter,  was  largely  instrumental  in  secur- 
ing national  legislation  favoring  industrial  edu- 
cation. Agricultural  colleges  which  have  grown 
to  bo  permanent  and  strong  institutions  were 
opened  in  Michigan  in  1857  and  in  Pennsylvania 
and  Jlaryland  in  1859. 

La.nd-gkant  Acts.  Meanwhile,  other  forces 
were  at  work  which  created  a  widespread  demand 
for  a  new  class  of  institutions  which  should 
be  devoted  to  scientific  and  technical  education. 
A  national  leader  for  this  movement  was  found 
in  Justin  S.  .Morrill  of  \'crmnnt.  On  December 
14,  1857,  Mr.  Alorrill  introduced  into  the  House 
of  Representatives  a  bill  "donating  public  lands 
to  the  several  States  and  Territories  which  may 
provide  colleges  for  the  benefit  of  agriculture 
and  mechanic  arts."  Though  reported  at  first 
adversely,  and  after  passage  vetoed  by  President 
Buchanan,  tliis  bill,  with  important  amendments, 
was  finally  passed  by  Congress,  and  was  approved 
by  President  Lincoln,  July  2,  1802.  In  its  final 
form,  this  land-grant  :kt  was  a  comprehensive 
measure  providing  for  "the  endowment,  support, 
and  maintenance  of  at  least  one  college  [in  each 
State]  where  the  leading  object  shall  be,  without 
excluding  other  scientific  and  classical  studies, 
and  including  military  tactics,  to  teach  such 
branches  of  learning  as  are  related  to  agri- 
culture and  nieehanie  arts  *  *  *  in  order  to 
promote  the  liberal  and  practical  education 
of  the  industrial  classes  in  the  several  pursuits 
and  professions  in  life."  For  these  purposes 
there  were  gianted  to  the  se\eral  Stales  .30,000 
acres  of  land  for  each  member  of  Congress,  the 
entire  proceeds  of  the  sale  of  which  was  to  con- 
stitute a  perpetual  fund  yielding  not  less  than 
5%  interest.  The  total  fund  received  by  the  col- 
leges established  under  this  act  is  over  $10,000,- 
000,  and  in  1899  1,240,000  acres  still  remained 
to  be  sold. 

Amid  many  discouragements  w^ithin  and  with- 
out, the  courses  in  agriculture  in  the  colleges 
established  under  this  act  gradually  nnidc  their 
way.  In  1887,  a  new  impetus  was  given  to  their 
development  by  the  act  of  Congress  (Hatch  Act) 
giving  each  State  $15,000  for  an  agricultural 
experiment  station  (see  Acr.icuLTUR.vi,  IC.XPERI- 
siKNT  Statio.x),  which  must  ordinarily  be  a 
department  of  the  land-grant  college.  And  in 
1890,  these  colleges  received  a  further  national 
endowment,  under  a  second  Morrill  Act,  provid- 
ing an  immediate  appropriation  of  .$15,000  to 
each  State  and  Territory,  an  increase  of  $1000 
each  year  for  ten  years."  and  thereafter  $25,000 
annually,  "to  be  applied  only  to  instruction  in 
agriculture,  the  meclianic  arts,  the  English  lan- 
guage, and  the  various  branches  of  mathematical, 
physical,  natural,  and  economic  science."  Pro- 
vision is  made  for  separate  institutions  for  white 
and  colored  students  in  States  which  may  desire 
to  make  such  an  arrangement.  Foiirteen  States 
have  taken  advantage  of  this  provision.  These 
sup]>lementary  acts  liave  been  of  great  advantage 
to  agricultural  education  in  this  country. 

Sixty-five  colleges  are  in  operation  under  the 
acts  of  18112  and  1890,  of  which  about  sixty  main- 
tain courses  in  agriculture.  The.se  institutions 
are   brought   together   to  constitute   a   national 


AGRICULTURAL   EDUCATION. 


210 


AGRICULTURAL   EDUCATION. 


•system  of  higlier  education  in  the  sciences  and 
industries  by  the  Association  of  American  Agri- 
cultural Colleges  and  Experiment  Stations,  the 
Office  of  Experiment  Stations  of  the  Department 
of  Agi'iculture,  and  the  Buieau  of  Education  of 
the  Department  of  the  Interior.  The  colleges 
of  agriculture  may  be  divided  into  three  classes, 
according  to  the  general  differences  in  their 
organization:  (1)  Colleges  having  only  courses 
in  agriculture ;  ( 2 )  agricultural  and  mechanical 
colleges:  and  (3)  colleges  (or  schools  or  depart- 
ments) of  agriculture  in  universities.  The  Mas- 
sachusetts Agricultural  College  is  the  only  purely 
agricultural  college  in  this  country.  Twenty- 
seven  States  and  Territories  have  agricultural 
and  mechanical  colleges,  and  in  twenty  the 
courses  in  agriculture  are  connected  with  the 
State  universities.  Harvard  t'niversity  also  offers 
courses  in  agriculture  through  the  Bussey  Insti- 
tution. The  college  course  in  agriculture  in 
most  of  these  institutions  extends  through  four 
years  and  leads  to  a  bachelor's  degree.  It  varies 
consideralily  in  different  institutions,  as  regards 
the  requirements  both  for  admission  and  for 
graduation.  In  some  cases  students  are  admitted 
directly  from  the  common  schools,  while  in  others 
the  entrance  requirements  are  on  a  level  with 
those  of  higher  grade  colleges.  In  1901  there 
were  nearly  7000  students  in  the  agricultural 
courses  in  these  colleges.  Short  courses  of  a  more 
elementary  and  practical  nature  also  are  given  in 
many  of  these  colleges.  Special  schools  have  been 
organized  in  a  few  institutions,  notably  a  dairy 
school  in  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  and  a  sug- 
ar-makers" school  at  Xew  Orleans,  in  connection 
with  the  Louisiana  State  University.  Various 
forms  of  university  extension  w'ork  in  agriculture 
are  largely  engaged  in  by  these  colleges,  through 
the  farmers'  institutes  (see  Farmers'  Insti- 
tute) and  home  reading  courses,  and,  broadly 
speaking,  through  the  publications  of  the  experi- 
ment stations. 

Thus  far.  comparatively  little  has  been  done 
in  the  United  States  toward  the  establishment 
of  schools  of  agriculture  of  secondary  or  high- 
school  grade.  The  most  successful  school  of 
this  kind  is  that  maintained  at  the  University 
of  Minnesota.  A  similar  school  has  been  estab- 
lished at  the  University  of  Nebraska.  The  agri- 
cultural courses  maintained  in  a  number  of  the 
institutions  for  colored  students  in  the  South 
are  of  this  grade,  notably  at  Hampton,  Va..  and 
Tuskegee,  Ala.  A  few  private  schools  of  agri- 
culture have  recently  been  established.  There 
is  some  agitation  in  favor  of  the  introduction  of 
agriculture  in  the  public  high  schools. 

Nature  study  is  being  rajjidly  introduced  into 
the  common  schools,  and  more  or  less  successful 
attempts  are  being  made  in  a  number  of  the 
States,  especially  New  York,  Indiana,  and  Penn- 
sylvania, to  adapt  teaching  in  this  subject  to 
the  requirements  of  the  rural  schools. 

British  Empire.  A  chair  of  agriculture  in 
the  University  of  Edinburgh  was  founded  and 
endowed  as  early  as  1790,  and  a  professorship 
of  rural  economy  was  established  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Oxford  in  1796.  A  professorship  of  agri- 
culture has  recently  (1899)  been  founded  in  tlie 
University  of  Cambridge.  The  Albert  Institu- 
tion at  Olasnevin.  near  Dublin,  has  existed  since 
1838,  and  the  Royal  Agricultural  College,  Ciren- 
cester, since  184.5.  Other  important  centres  of 
agricultural  education  in  Great  Britain  are  the 
College  of  Agriculture,  Downton,  near  Salisbury; 


the  Glasgow  and  West  of  Scotland  Technical  Col- 
lege, Glasgow;  the  University  College  of  North 
Wales,  Bangor;  the  University  College  of 
Wales,  .\berystwith  ;  the  Durham 'College  of  Sci- 
ence, Newcastle-on-Tyne:  the  Oxford  Extension 
College,  Reading;  the  University  of  Aberdeen; 
and  Yorkshire  College,  Leeds. 

Grants  of  money  in  aid  of  education  in  agri- 
culture are  nuide  through  the  board  of  agricul- 
ture. Instruction  in  agriculture  is  given  in  a 
number  of  the  rural  schools.  Special  attention 
is  being  given  to  practical  training  in  dairying, 
and  schools  and  classes  in  this  subject  are  main- 
tained in  a  number  of  places.  Traveling  schools, 
equipped  with  modern  dairy  apparatus,  have 
attracted  much  attention  in  recent  years. 

In  Canada,  the  agricultural  college  at  Guelph, 
Ontario,  is  a  very  successful  institution.  There 
are  a  number  of  secondary  schools  of  agi'iculture 
in  Quebec  and  Nova  Scotia,  and  there  is  a  dairy 
school  in  New  Brunswick.  Provision  has  recent- 
ly been  made  for  instruction  in  agriculture  in 
normal  and  public  schools  in  different  parts  of 
the  Dominion. 

In  Australia,  there  are  agricultural  colleges 
at  Gatton,  Queensland;  Richmond.  New  South 
Wales:  Roseworthy,  South  Australia;  and  Dook- 
ie  and  Longerenong,  Victoria.  Agricultural  in- 
struction is  also  given  by  traveling  experts  at- 
tached to  the  colonial  departments  of  agriculture. 
In  New  Zealand  is  the  Canterbury  Agricultural 
College  at  Lincoln,  and  in  Cape  Colony  there  is  i 
a   school   of  agriculture  at   Elsenburg. 

France.  An  elaborate  system  of  agricultural 
education  is  maintained  under  the  auspices  of 
the  national  government.  At  the  head  of  this 
system  stands  tile  Institut  yational  Agronomique 
at  Paris,  in  which  instruction  of  university 
grade  is  given  in  agricultural  science,  supple- 
mented by  laboratory  and  field  practice.  Next 
in  order  are  the  national  schools  of  agriculture, 
in  which  theoretical  and  practical  instruction 
are  combined.  These  are  located  at  Grignon, 
Rennes,  and  Montpellier.  A  third  class  includes 
tlie  secondary  agricultural  schools  for  tlie  chil- 
dren of  farmers,  who  receive  theoretical  and 
practical  instruction  under  competent  agricul- 
turists, and  at  the  same  time  perform  all  tlie 
work  necessary  to  carrj'  on  the  scliool  farm.  In 
many  of  these  schools  general  agriculture  is 
tauglit,  but  some  are  devoted  to  special  lines, 
such  as  viticidture.  dairying,  or  irrigation.  An- 
other and  older  kind  of  agricultural  schools 
comprises  those  in  which  a  system  of  apprentice- 
ship is  employed.  On  the  completion  of  his  term, 
tlie  student  receives  a  small  sum  of  money  as 
compensation  for  his  labor.  These  schools  are 
no  longer  popular,  and  have  materially  decreased 
in  number. 

Since  1S79,  instruction  in  the  elements  of  agri- 
culture, horticulture,  and  natural  liistory  lias 
been  obligatory  in  the  normal  and  primary 
schools  of  France.  In  each  department  of  the 
country  a  professor  of  agriculture  is  appointed 
to  prepare  a  course  of  instruction  in  agriculture 
for  the  normal  school,  to  hold  farmers'  meetings 
for  the  dissemination  of  information  regarding 
improved  agricultural  methods,  and  to  main- 
tain model  fields  of  demonstration.  Besides, 
chairs  of  agriculture  have  been  established  in 
many  lyceums  and  colleges  throughout  France. 
Important  special  schools  are  the  dairy  school 
at  Mamirolle.  the  school  of  agricultural  indus- 
tries at  Douai,  the  school  of  horticulture  at  Ver- 


AGRICULTURAL    EDUCATION. 


211 


AGRICULTURAL   STATION. 


sailles.  iiiiil  I  111'  siluHil  of  liorse  breeding  at  Le 
PiTi. 

Hi:i.tiir.M.  liol^imii  has  a  system  somewhat 
similar  to  that  of  Krance.  but  in  some  par- 
ticuhirs  more  tborouj;hly  orfjaiiized.  At  the 
head  of  tliis  system  nvo  the  .Vijrioulliiral  Insti- 
tute of  (;cml)loux  and  the  University  of  Louvain. 
General  and  s])eeial  af;ricuUuial  seliiiols  of  see- 
ondary  ijrade  have  been  established  for  young 
men  and  yiiung  women,  iUid  eourses  of  instruetion 
in  agrieiiltnre  are  given  in  )niblie  and  private 
schools  of  seeondary  grade.  Courses  in  agricul- 
ture are  given  in  the  normal  and  primary  schools 
also:  numerous  courses  of  lectures  are  provided 
for  adult  farmers  in  various  parts  of  tlie  coun- 
try, and  a  corps  of  goveriiment  agriculturists  is 
charged  with  disseminating  information,  and  in 
various  ways  pronioling  tile  instruetion  of  farm- 
ers in  improved  methods  of  agrii-ult ure. 

OTUivit  KfiiOi'iOAN  States.  (Jerm.iny  has  no  uni- 
form system  of  agricultural  education.  Higher 
cour.ses  are  maintained  in  agricultural  insti- 
tutes, and  professorsliips  are  connected  with 
many  of  the  universities,  e.g.,  those  at  Kiinigs- 
berg,  Breslau.  Ilallc.  (Jiittingen.  Leipzig,  Rostock, 
and  .lena.  The  .Vgrieultural  High  Seliool  at  Ber- 
lin, the  .\grieultural  .\eademy  at  I'oppclsdorf.the 
Technical  High  8elmol  at  Munich,  and  tlie  For- 
estry Academy  at  Tliarandt  are  important  insti- 
tutions. Tlierc  arc  also  numerous  general  and 
special  courses  in  agricultural  subjects  in  schools 
of  lower  grade. 

Agricultural  education  is  being  actively  fos- 
tered by  the  government  of  .\ustria-Hungary, 
where  more  than  l.iO  institutions  of  dilTerent 
grades  devoted  to  general  and  special  instruction 
in  agriculture  have  been  established.  The  sub- 
ject is  taui^ht  in  the  rural  elementary  schools 
and  also  Ijv  a  corps  of  traveling  instructors  main- 
tained by  the  government. 

Italy  has  agricultural  colleges  at  Milan  and 
Portici,  about  thirty  general  and  special  schools 
of  secondary  grade,  and  a  recently  organized 
system  of  elementary  education  under  direction 
of  the  ministry  of  public  instruction. 

Denmark  is  giving  much  attention  to  the  gen- 
eral and  teelmieal  education  of  the  agricultural 
population.  Tliere  is  an  agricultural  college  at 
Copenhagen,  and  there  are  a  number  of  agricul- 
tural schools  which  receive  financial  aid  from 
the  government.  The  Royal  Agricultural  Soci- 
ety of  Denmark  promotes  agricultural  education 
through  meetings,  puldications.  and  tlie  services 
of  dairy  and  veterinary  experts,  payment  of  ex- 
penses for  agricultural  journeys,  and  the  placing 
of  apprentices  on   farms, 

Sweden  has  agricultvtral  colleges  at  LHtuna 
and  Alnarp,  2(1  seeondary  schools,  several  dairy 
schools,  instruction  in  normal  and  primary 
schools,  and  a  corps  of  traveling  instructors. 
There  is  a  similar  system  in  Norway,  the  college 
being  at  Aas. 

The  Russian  system  of  agricultural  education 
is  organized  for  the  most  part  under  the  minis- 
try of  agricultural  and  imperial  domains,  and  in- 
cludes agricultural  institutes  at  the  universities 
of  Kazan,  Kiev,  and  JIoscow,  similar  institutions 
at  Novoya  .Alexandria.  Riga,  St,  Petersburg,  and 
Mustiala  (Finland),  seeondary  schools,  and  ele- 
mentary courses  in  the  ])ublic  schools. 

AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STA'- 
TION.  .\ii  institution,  or  department  of  an  in- 
stitution, devoted  to  scientific  and  practical 
investigations  for  the  benefit  of  agriculture,  the 


inspection  of  materials,  animals,  and  plants  used 
in  or  injurious  to  agriculture,  and  the  dissem- 
ination of  information  on  the  theory  and  practice 
of  agriculture.  They  grew  out  of  the  chemicil 
studies  of  such  men  as  Liebig  in  Germany,  Bous- 
singault  in  France,  and  Lawes  and  Gilbert  in 
Kngland  during  the  (irst  half  of.  the  nineteenth 
century.  Systematic  investigations  in  agricul- 
ture were  begun  by  Lawes  and  tJilbert  at  Roth- 
amsted,  England,  in  lS4:i.  The  first  experiment 
station  organized  as  a  public  institution  was  es- 
tablished in  1S.')1  at  -Miickern,  near  the  city  of 
Leipzig,  Germany,  and  under  the  influence  of 
Leipzig  I'niversity.  In  the  United  States  the 
first  stations  were  established  at  Weslcyan  Uni- 
versity, Middlctown,  t'onn.,  by  the  State  of  Con- 
necticut, in  1875.  under  direction  of  W.  O. 
Atwater,  and  about  the  same  time  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  California,  Berkeley,  Cal.,  by  the  uni- 
versity, under  direction  of  K.  \V.  Hilgard. 
Previous  to  this,  agricultural  investigations  had 
been  carried  on  at  Vale  University  under  profes- 
sors S,  \V.  .Johnson  and  William  H.  Brewer,  and 
at  agricultural  colleges  in  several  States,  Agri- 
cultural ex]ierinicnt  stations  arc  now  maintaim-d 
in  nearly  all  the  countries  of  the  world,  and  are 
usually  under  the  patronage  of  general  or  local 
governments.  They  are  most  completely  organ- 
ized in  the  United  States,  France,  Germany,  Bel- 
gium, Holland,  Austria- Hungary,  Denmark, 
Japan,  Sweden  and  Norway,  Switzerland,  and 
Russia.  They  are  conducted  on  varicms  plans 
in  all  parts  of  the  British  Empire. 

Onc.AMZATio.x.  In  the  United  States  there  were 
in  l!)01  fifty-seven  stations,  receiving  annually 
.$720,000  from  the  National  Government  under 
the  Hatch  Act  of  1S.S7,  and  more  than  $.500,000 
from  State  governments  and  other  sources. 
They  employed  over  700  persons  in  ad- 
ministration and  inquiry,  and  issued  that 
year  44.5  annual  reports  and  bulletins, 
which  are  sent  through  tlie  mails  under  frank 
to  more  than  half  a  million  addresses.  With  few 
exceptions,  they  are  departments  of  the  agri- 
cultural colleges  established  under  the  land- 
grant  act  (Morrill  Act)  of  1802,  and  are  inde- 
pendent of  each  other  as  regards  the  planning 
and  conduct  of  their  operations.  They  are  united 
in  a  national  svstem  through  the  Association 
of  -American  Agricultural  Colleges  and  Ex- 
periment Stations  and  the  Office  of  Ex])erimenl 
Stations  in  the  United  States  Department  of  Ag- 
riculture. This  ollice  exercises  supervision  of  their 
expenditures  from  the  national  fund,  and  gives 
them  advice  anil  assistance  in  many  ways.  It 
summarizes  tlie  accounts  of  the  work  of  the  sta- 
tions and  kindred  institutions  throughout  the 
world  in  the  periodical  known  as  the  Expfiinicnl 
Station  h'ccord,  and  gives  jxipular  resumes  of 
their  investigations  in  the  Fiirmcm'  liullclhis 
series  of  the  department,  under  the  general  title 
of  Kxperimciit  Station  B'or/v.  It  also  di- 
rectly manages  the  stations  in  .-\laska,  Hawaii, 
and  Porto  Rico,  for  which  the  National  Govern- 
ment approiuiated  .$3().000  ($12,000  for  each  sta- 
tion)  for  the  fiscnl  year  ended  .Tune  30,  1002. 

Fl'N't'Tlo.x.  The  operations  of  the  stations 
cover  a  wide  range  of  scientific  and  practical 
work  relating  to  every  branch  of  agriculture 
and  horticulture,  and  including  original  investi- 
gations, verification,  and  dem<mstration  experi- 
ments, studies  of  natural  agricultural  con- 
ditions and  resources,  inspection  and  control 
service,  and  dissemination  ol  information.     Prac- 


AGRICULTURAL   STATION. 


tically  all  the  stations  are  keeping  meteorolog- 
ical records,  and  ten  are  making  special  studies 
of  problems  relating  to  meteorological  phenom- 
ena and  climatic  conditions.  Thirty-six  stations 
are  investigating  soils,  their  geology,  physics, 
and  chemistry,  or  conducting  soil-tests  with  fer- 
tilizers or  in  other  wa^'s.  Twenty-one  stations 
are  studying  questions  relating  to  drainage  and 
seepage,  or  to  irrigation  in  tlie  field  or  green- 
house, and  also  irrigation  of  orchard,  garden,  or 
farm  crops.  Thirty-three  stations  are  making 
analyses  of  commercial  and  home-made  fertiliz- 
ers, or  are  conducting  field  experiments  with  fer- 
tilizers. At  least  fifteen  stations  either  exer- 
cise a  fertilizer  control  in  their  respective  States 
or  make  analyses  on  which  the  control  is  based. 
All  the  stations  are  studying  the  more  important 
crops,  either  with  regard  to  their  composition, 
nutritive  value,  methods  of  manuring  and  cul- 
tivation, and  the  best  varieties  adapted  to  indi- 
vidual localities,  or  with  reference  to  systems  of 
rotation. 

Forty-seven  stations  are  investigating  the 
composition  of  feeding-stiiffs,  making  diges- 
tion experiments,  conducting  feeding  e-\])eriments 
for  milk,  bcci,  mutton,  or  pork,  or  studying  dif- 
ferent methods  of  feeding.  Twenty-nine  stations 
are  investigating  subjects  relating  to  dairying, 
including  the  chemistry  and  bacteriology  of  milk, 
creaming,  butter-making,  or  the  construction 
and  management  of  creameries.  Studies  on  the 
food  and  nutrition  of  man.  including  the  com- 
position and  digestibility  of  foods  and  metabo- 
lism, are  being  conducted  at  fourteen  stations. 
Fifty-two  stations  are  doing  chemical  work,  and 
often  are  studying  methods  of  analysis.  Botan- 
ical studies  occupy  more  or  less  of  the  atten- 
tion of  torty-seven  stations,  including  investi- 
gations in  systematic  and  physiological  botany, 
with  special  reference  to  the  diseases  of  plants, 
testing  of  seeds  with  reference  to  their  vitality 
and  purity,  classification  of  weeds,  and  methods 
for  their  eradication.  Fifty-three  stations  work 
to  a  gi-eater  or  less  extent  in  horticulture,  test- 
ing varieties  of  vegetables  and  large  and  small 
fruits,  and  making  studies  in  varietal  improve- 
ment and  synonymy. 

Several  stations  have  undertaken  operations 
in  forestry.  Thirty-six  stations  investigate  in- 
jurious insects  with  reference  to  their  restricti(m 
or  destruction.  Twenty-four  stations  study  ani- 
mal diseases  and  the  methods  for  their  pre- 
vention or  cure.  At  least  five  stations  are  en- 
gaged in  liee  culture,  and  eight  in  experiments 
with  poultry.  One  or  more  stations  have  made 
investigations  on  miscellaneous  sul)jects.  such  as 
the  following:  Technology  of  wine,  olive  oil, 
cider,  and  vinegar ;  preservation  of  fruits  and 
vegetables;  the  draught  of  farm  implements; 
road-making;  the  manufacture  of  beet,  cane, 
sorghum,  and  maple  sugar;  oyster  culture, 
etc.  For  the  history  and  present  status  of  the 
stations  in  the  United  States  see  Office  of  Ex- 
periment Stations,  Bulletin  80,  p.  630. 

British  Empire.  In  England,  the  most  im- 
portant station  is  that  established  in  1843  by 
Sir  John  B.  Lawes,  at  Rothamsted.  with  his  own 
funds,  and  continued  with  a  trust  fund  of  £100,- 
000.  This  station  has  done  very  valuable  work  on 
fertilizers  and  the  nutrition  of  plants  and  ani- 
mals. Agricultural  researches  are  also  carried 
on  at  the  agricultural  colleges  at  .\spatria,  Ciren- 
cester, Downton  (  Salisbury) ,  Uckfield,  and  Wye, 
Yorkshire   College    (Leeds),   University   College 


212  AGRICULTURE. 

(Nottingham),  University  Extension  College 
(Reading) , Durham  College  of  Science  (Newcas- 
tle-upon-Tyne),  University  Botanic  Garden  (Cam- 
bridge), Royal  Botanic  Gardens  (Kew),  and  un- 
der the  auspices  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  the 
Royal  Agiicultural  Society  of  England,  the  Bath 
and  West  and  Southern  Counties  Society,  and  a 
number  of  county  education  committees  and 
councils. 

In  Scotland,  similar  work  is  done  by  the  Royal 
Highland  and  Agricultural  Society  of  Scotland, 
the  Agricultural  Research  Association  of  the 
North  Eastern  Counties,  the  Royal  Botanic  Gar- 
den at  Edinburgh,  Mareschal  College  of  Aberdeen 
University-,  and  the  Glasgow  and  West  of  Scot- 
land Technical  College;  in  Ireland,  by  the  Royal 
Dublin  Society,  Glasnevin  Agricultural  College, 
and  Trinity  College  Botanic  Gardens  (Glas- 
nevin) ;  in  Wales,  by  the  University  Colleges  of 
Wales  and  North  Wales.  In  Canada,  the  prin- 
cipal stations  are  the  Central  Experimental 
Farm  at  Ottawa,  with  branches  in  British  Co- 
lumbia, Northwest  Territory,  Manitoba,  and 
Nova  Scotia,  and  the  station  at  the  Agi-icultural 
College  of  Guelph.  Ontario.  In  the  British  West 
Indies,  stations  for  the  improvement  of  sugar- 
cane are  maintained  on  Barbadoes,  Antigua,  and 
Trinidad,  and  botanical  stations  on  these  islands 
and  on  Dominica,  Grenada,  Montserrat,  St, 
Lucia,  St.  Vincent,  and  Tobago,  under  the  Im- 
perial Department  of  Agriculture  for  the  West 
Indies,  and  at  .lamaica  by  the  Department  of 
Public  Gardens  and  Plantations.  In  Cape  Col- 
ony, there  is  a  government  laboratory  and  herba- 
rium at  Cape  Town,  and  a  station  at  the  agri- 
cultural schools  at  Elsenburg.  In  India,  there 
are  more  than  forty  stations — farms  and  botanic 
gardens;  in  Australia,  over  thirty;  and  in  New 
Zealand,   eleven. 

Europe.  Germany  has  more  than  one  hun- 
dred stations,  many  of  which  are  connected  with 
universities.  A  considerable  number  of  sta- 
tions maintain  inspection  and  control  of  ferti- 
lizers, feeding-stuffs,  and  seeds:  others  are  for 
investigations  in  special  subjects,  such  as 
brewing  and  distilling,  milling,  animal  chem- 
istry or  physiology,  veterinary  science,  dairy- 
ing, plant  diseases,  and  plant  physiology.  Among 
the  most  important  German  stations  are  those 
at  Berlin.  Halle,  Bonn,  Breslau,  Darmstadt, 
Munich,  Gottingen,  Bernburg,  Jlockern,  Poppels- 
dorf,  and  Tharandt.  France  has  about  70  sta- 
tions and  laboratories,  of  which  the  best  known 
are  those  at  Grignon,  Juvisy,  Montpellier,  Paris, 
and  Versailles.  Austria  has  41  stations:  Bel- 
gium, 15;  Denmark,  10;  Holland,  18;  Hungary, 
16;  Italy,  22:  Switzerland,  13;  Norway  and  "Swe- 
den, about  4.5;  Russia,  more  than  100;  and 
Japan,  16.  In  all  there  are  about  780  experi- 
ment stations  in  the  world. 

An  address  list  of  the  agricultural  experiment 
stations  of  the  world  is  published  annually  by 
the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations.  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  (Washington,  D.  C). 

AGRICULTURAL  LA'BORERS.  See  L.A.- 
BOB  Problem;   G.vxg.s,  Agricultur-^x, 

AG'RICUL'TURE   ( tilling  of  land,  Lat.  agri, 

gen.  of  (ifjcr.  field,  -|-  ctiltura.  tilling,  cultiva- 
tion) .  In  a  broad  sense  of  the  word,  the  science 
and  art  of  the  production  of  all  plants  and  ani- 
mals useful  to  man.  More  or  less  intimately 
connected  with  agriculture  itself  has  been  the 
preparation  of  its  products  for  man's  use.  Again, 


AGBICUXTURE. 


213 


AGRICULTURE. 


the  spinninj;  of  (ilncs  and  tlic  weaving  of  cloth, 
the  tiiiiniiig  of  leather,  tlie  making  of  l)utter, 
cheese,  wines,  cijer.  vinegar,  etc.,  have  been 
largely  lione  by  farmers.  (Gradually,  however, 
these  oeeiipatiuns  have  been  specialized  and  re- 
moved wliolly  or  in  |)art  from  the  farm.  Thus, 
the  prodnetion  of  forest  trees  lias  been  speeial- 
ia-d  as  forestry,  and  the  prodnetion  of  fruits, 
vegcUililes,  and  ornamental  plants  lias  formed 
the  subject  of  hortieiilture.  Such  occupations 
as  breecliiig  live  stock,  raising  ])oiiltry,  bee-keep- 
ing, and  lish  cultuie  are  also  pursued  independ- 
ently of  general  agriculture.  The  term  agricul- 
ture has,  Iherefore.  been  gradually  restricted 
to  the  jiiodiiction  of  a  limited  group  of  plants 
and  animals,  such  as  may  be  brought  together  on 
single  farms  in  a  system  of  mixed  husbandry. 
The  particular  animals  and  ])lants  iiidudi'd  in 
agriculture  in  this  narrower  .sense  will  vary  with 
the  region  and  a  variety  of  cireumslanccs.  For 
example:  in  some  regions  the  sweet  potato  is 
raised  in  a  small  way  in  gardens  and  is  there 
considered  a  horticultural  plant,  while  in  regions 
where  it  is  raisi'd  in  large  fields  it  is  con- 
sidered an  agricultural  plant.  In  the  present  ar- 
ticle the  term  agriculture  will  be  used  in  a  some- 
what broad  sense,  and  the  sketch  will  bo  confined 
to  a  brief  outline  of  the  historical  development 
of  agriciiUurc.  general  statistics  of  a  few  of  the 
more  important  agricultural  products,  and  ref- 
erences to  parts  iif  tlic  more  general  literature 
of  agricultiuc,  liifoiniation  regarding  partic- 
ular |)lants  and  .animals,  or  special  agricultural 
industries,  may  be  found  in  other  articles  in  this 
Encyclop;rdia. 

Till;  ICaui.lest  Agriculture.  Agriculture  began 
in  prehistoric  times,  when  primitive  man  first 
began  to  .select  particular  iilaiits  in  his  imme- 
diate environment  as  preferable  to  others  for 
his  use  as  food  or  for  making  his  clothes,  and 
when  he  lirst  directed  his  ell'orts  toward  pro- 
moting the  growth  of  plants.  Whether  these 
attem])ts  preceded  those  to  capture  and  confine 
animals,  with  a  view  to  employing  them  as 
beasts  of  burden,  or  to  using  their  meat, 
milk,  or  skins,  wc  do  not  know.  It  is,  however, 
clear,  that  while  the  migi'atory  habits  of  savage 
tribes  must  have  tended  to  hinder  anything  like 
systciiiatie  cultivation  of  the  soil,  tliey  jirobably 
did  not  prevent  the  domestication  of  animals. 

The  practices  of  some  aboriginal  trilies  at  the 
present  time  indicate  that  efforts  to  promote  the 
growth  of  useful  plants  b.\'  the  removal  of  other 
plants  gi-owing  among  them  antedates  the  plant- 
ing of  seeds.  Similar  evidence  points  to  the  be- 
ginning of  agiicultural  implements  in  the  use 
of  pointed  and  forked  sticks  to  scratch  the  soil 
or  remove  obnoxious  vegetation.  The  union  of 
two  sucli  sticks  with  a  leatliern  thong  made  a 
nide  mattock  or  hoe.  and  a  larger  implement  of 
the  same  kind  formed  the  primitive  plow,  which 
was  drawn,  very  likely,  at  first  by  men 
and  afterward  by  domesticated  animals.  The 
great  burden  of  agiicultural  labors  was  in  those 
early  ag<'S  undoubtedly  thrown  upon  woman,  as 
has  been  the  ease  among  thi'  tribes  of  North 
Anicriciii  Indians,  whose  men  have  devoted 
themselves  almost  exclusively  to  the  chase  and 
to  war.  It  is  interesting  to  observe  that  severe 
military  recpiirements  still  necessitate  the  em- 
ployment of  women  in  field  labor  on  the  conti- 
nent of  Kurope. 

K(iyi'Tl.\x  Aniuct'LTiTKE.  In  tracing  the  de- 
velopment of  agriculture  in  historical  times  we 


naturally  turn  lirst  to  l';gypt,  the  motherland  of 
our  civilization.  The  records  preserved  on 
ancient  monuments  allow  us  to  trace  the  his- 
tory of  agriculture  in  Kgypt  back  to  at  least  yOOO 
B.C.  At  that  early  time  various  animals  had 
already  become  domesticated,  and  the  gidwing 
of  crops  for  man  and  beast  by  a  regular  system 
of  tillage  and  irrigation  had  been  united  with 
the  feeding  of  large  numbers  of  animals  on  the 
ranges.  'I'here  was,  however,  no  fixed  distinetion 
between  wild  and  domesticated  animals,  and 
with  certain  kinds  of  animals  the  limits  of  do- 
mestication had  not  been  detiiiitely  settled.  The 
land  and  live  stock  were  very  largely  the  property 
of  the  royal,  priestly,  and  military  classes;  the 
care  of  animals  and  the  performance  of  farming 
ojierations  were  in  the  hands  of  hired  laborers 
or  slaves.  Agriculture  was,  however,  a  more 
honorable  occupation  than  trading  or  the  me- 
chanical arts.  Herdsmen  and  fisliermen  were 
in  the  lowest  class;  swineherds  ('specially  were 
despised.  Cattle,  sheep,  goats,  and  swine  were 
kept,  often  in  largo  herds  and  Hocks.  The  cattle 
belonged  to  the  same  species  as  the  present  cat- 
tle of  India.  Both  bulls  and  cows  were  used 
for  labor,  but  the  tlesh  of  the  males  only  was 
eaten.  Shee])  were  kept  for  both  wool  and  milk 
(from  which  cheese  was  made),  but  do  not  ap- 
pear to  luive  been  often  used  for  food.  Goats 
seem  to  have  furnished  the  principal  milk  sup- 
ply of  ancient  Egypt.  Swine  were  raised  in 
large  numliers,  though  they  were  considered  un- 
clean and  were  forbidden  food  except  on  certain 
days  or  for  the  priests.  The  donkey  and  camel 
were  the  principal  beasts  of  burden  from  prehis- 
toric times.  The  donkey  was  probably  first  do- 
mesticated by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  being  taken 
from  the  wild  asses  which  came  from  their  home 
at  the  headwaters  of  the  Xile.  Horses  were 
brought  into  Egypt  about  1000  n.c..  when  the 
Shepherd  Kings  from  Asia  conquered  the  coun- 
try. The  stallions  only  were  used  for  war  and 
for  shows.  They  were  kept  in  stables  and  fed 
on  straw  and  barley.  Water  fowls,  especially 
geese,  were  abundantly  raised.  Breeding  of  ani- 
mals by  selection  was  customary,  as  well  as 
branding  them  for  identification.  "When  the 
Nile  overllowed,  animals  of  all  kinds  were  placed 
ujion  arliliciai  raised  ground,  and  fed  upon 
wlieat  straw  and  leguminous  fodder  raised  for 
the  purpose. 

C'ro|)s  were  grown  with  the  aid  of  the  alluvial 
deposits  annually  made  by  the  ovcrllowing  Nile 
and  of  irrigation  to  supply  the  lack  of  rainfall. 
Irrigation  water  was  taken  from  the  Nile  and 
distributed  through  numerous  canals  and 
ditches.  The  water  was  raised  to  the  top  of 
the  river  bank  by  liandsweeps  such  as  are  often 
used  on  farms  to-day  for  raising  water  from 
shallow  wells,  or  by  means  of  a  vessel  held  with 
straps  between  two  laborers,  who  pulled  against 
each  other  in  lifting  the  water.  In  some  cases 
seed  was  sown  after  the  Nile  flood  without  prep- 
aration of  the  land,  and  was  trodden  in  by  ani- 
mals. fJrnerally.  the  plow  or  the  hoc  was  iised. 
The  plow  consisteil  of  a  wooden  plowshare, 
double  handle,  and  draught  |)(de  or  beam.  "The 
beam  and  stilt  were  fastened  together  by  thongs 
or  by  a  twisted  rope,  which  kept  the  share  and 
beam  at  a  proper  distauce  and  helped  to  prevent 
the  former  from  penetrating  too  deeply  into  the 
earth."  The  plow  was  drawn  by  two  bulls 
or  cows,  yoked  by  the  shoulders  or  attached  by 
the  horns.     Generally,  one  man   held   the  plow 


AGRICULTURE. 


214 


AGRICULTURE. 


and  another  drove  the  animals,  but  sometimes 
one  man  performed  both  duties.  The  hoe  was 
made  of  wood,  and  consisted  of  a  roimded  or 
pointed  bUide  attached  to  a  handle  by  a  twisted 
thong.  Other  tillage  implements  sometimes  used 
were  the  harrow  and  the  roller.  Tlie  cereals 
grown  were  bearded  wheat,  six-rowed  barley, 
durra  {iioryhiiin  i: H7(/a ie,  var.) ,  and  millet  (Pun- 
icum  miliaceum) .  The  seed  was  sown  broad- 
cast; the  wheat  and  barley  in  November,  after 
the  subsidence  of  the  Nile  flood,  and  the  durra 
either  at  that  time  or  in  April.  Wheat  was  har- 
vested in  JIarch,  barley  in  April,  and'  spring 
durra  in  July.  "Wheat  and  barley  were  headed 
with  a  toothed  sickle,  or  cut  lower  down  and 
bound  into  sheaves."  The  gi'ain  was  trodden  out 
by  donkeys  or  oxen  on  earthen  thrashing-floors 
constructed  in  the  open  field,  where  the  chaff  was 
fanned  out  by  the  wind.  Granaries,  often  built 
of  the  Nile  mud,  were  used  for  storage.  Durra 
■was  pulled  up  by  the  roots,  and  the  seed  was  re- 
moved with  a  comb-like  stripper  similar  to  that 
sometimes  used  now  for  removing  broom-corn 
seed.  Flax  was  raised  from  prehistoric  times  for 
its  fibre,  from  which  the  clothing  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians  and  the  wrappings  of  the  mummies 
were  largely  made.  It  is  doubtful  whether  cot- 
ton was  gi-own  in  Egypt  in  very  ancient  times, 
though  it  seems  to  have  been  introduced  there 
from  the  East  previous  to  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  era.  Lentils,  lupines  {Lupinus 
ternis),  onions,  garlic,  and  radishes  were  com- 
monly raised  vegetables.  The  horse  beau  (Faha 
vulgaris),  chick  pea  (Cicer  arietinum) ,  and 
chickling  vetch  {Latht/rus  sativiis)  were  also 
probably  raised.  For  ifruits  the  Egj'ptians  had 
grapes,  olives,  figs,  pomegi"anates,  and  dates. 
Other  cultivated  plants  were  the  watermelon  and 
castor-oil  plant. 

Babylonia.  Of  Babylonian  agriculture  there 
are  few  records.  As  in  Egj-pt,  it  supported  a 
dense  population.  The  Euphrates  overflowed, 
hut  did  not  do  the  work  of  the  Nile. 
In  all  the  region  irrigation  turns  desert  lands 
into  fruitful  fields.  Of  such  fields  Herodotus 
said:  "This  is  of  all  lands  with  which  we  are 
familiar  by  far  the  best  for  growth  of  corn. 
When  it  produces  its  best  it  yields  even  three 
hundredfold.  The  blades  of  wheat  and  barley 
grow  there  to  full  four  fingers  in  breadth  ;  and 
though  I  well  know  to  what  a  height  jnillet  and 
sesame  grow,  I  shall  not  mention  it.  for  I  am 
well  assured  that  to  those  who  have  never  been 
in  the  Babylonian  country  what  has  been  said  re- 
specting it's  productions  will  appear  incredible." 

Palestine.  The  Scriptures  are  full  of  allu- 
sions to  the  operations  of  the  husbandman  in 
Palestine,  as  well  as  in  Egypt.  The  operations 
in  the  two  countries  necessarily  formed  striking 
contrasts,  the  crops  in  the  former  being  depend- 
ent on  the  rains  for  growth,  in  the  latter  upon 
the  inundations  of  the  Nile.  The  Hebrews,  be- 
fore their  sojourn  in  Eg\'pt,  had  been  a  semi-pas- 
toral people,  and  they  must  have  learned 
something  of  Egj'ptian  agriculture  during  the 
years  of  bondage.  Their  laws  were  those  of  an 
agricultural  people.  Land  was  practically  in- 
alienable. Extensive  plains  of  fertile  soil  yielded 
the  finest  wheat.  The  hill-sides  were  covered 
w-ith  vines  and  olives,  often  planted  in  terraces 
formed  with  much  labor  to  .nfford  a  large  mass 
of  soil  in  which  the  plants  might  flourish  in  the 
almost  rainless  summer.  The  valleys  were  ^\•ell 
watered,    and    afforded    pasture    for    numerous 


flocks.  Of  the  smaller  cultivated  plants,  millet 
was  the  chief  summer  crop,  but  it  was  cultivated 
to  only  a  limited  extent,  being  confined  to  those 
spots  that  could  be  artificially  watered.  Wheat 
and  barley  were  the  chief  cereals,  as  the  winter 
rains  were  sufficient  to  bring  them  to  maturity. 

Greece.  From  the  Grecian  literature  covering 
the  period  from  1000  B.C.  to  the  conquest  of 
Greece  by  Rome,  140  B.C.,  we  get  comparatively 
little  definite  agricultural  information.  In  ad- 
dition to  the  animals  used  in  Egypt,  mules  were 
grown  and  used  for  labor.  In  winter,  animals 
were  housed.  Swarms  of  bees  were  commonly 
kept.  Wheat  and  barley  were  the  cereals,  and 
hemp,  as  well  as  flax,  was  raised.  The  fruits  of 
Egpyt,  except  the  date  palm,  were  grown,  and 
in  addition,  cherries,  plums,  almonds,  pears,  ap- 
ples, and  quinces.  The  list  of  vegetables  is  also 
lengthened,  and  includes  turnips,  beets,  cabbage, 
lettuce,  chicory,  garden  peas,  and  kidney  beans. 
The  common  lupine  {Lupinus  albus)  took  the 
place  of  the  species  gi-own  in  Egypt,  and  is  said 
to  have  been  used  for  gieen  manuring.  It  is  as- 
serted that  the  Greeks  introduced  the  use  of 
manure  to  promote  the  growth  of  crops. 

Rome.  Roman  agriculture  has  received  spe- 
cial attention  because  so  much  was  written 
about  it  by  the  Romans  themselves,  and  because 
they  carried  it  into  other  countries,  where  it 
modified  or  dominated  agricultural  customs. 
When  Rome  was  only  a  colony  on  the  Tiber,  land 
was  divided  among  the  citizens  in  small  allot- 
ments. There  was  a  domain  of  public  land, 
which  was  continually  extended  by  tlie  conquest* 
of  neighboring  States  and  the  partial  confisca- 
tions that  followed.  Although  land  in  the  con- 
quered territory  was  sometimes  granted  to  the 
poorer  citizens,  there  were  large  tracts  of  public 
lands  that  were  either  cultivated  or  allowed  to 
remain  in  pasture.  The  common  conditions  were 
that  the  occupants  paid  one-tenth  of  the  produce 
of  the  corn  lands,  one-fifth  of  the  produce  of 
vines  and  fruit  trees,  and  a  moderate  rate  per 
head  for  cattle  pastured.  The  occiipants  were 
merely  tenants  at  will,  and  theoretically  the 
state  could  resume  or  sell  the  lands  at  any  time. 
Yet  the  right  of  possession  was  good  against  all 
until  the  lands  had  been  resumed;  and  in  process 
of  time  there  came  to  be  families  so  long 
in  possession  that  they  could  not  be  dispossessed. 
Only  the  wealthy  had  the  cattle  or  slaves  that 
made  such  occupation  possible.  The  burdens 
upon  these  occupiers  of  the  public  lands  were 
much  less  than  those  upon  the  small  farmers  who 
owned  their  farms.  Thus,  at  least  two  classes 
of  cultivators  were  in  existence,  the  small  pro- 
prietors and  the  wealthy  tenants  holding  the 
lands  of  the  State.  An  addition  to  the  strife  be- 
tween these  two  classes  was  the  pressure  brought 
to  bear  in  the  interest  of  the  landless.  Even 
after  the  Romans  became  masters  of  all  Italy, 
little  more  than  four  acres  was  assigned  to  each 
citizen,  and  the  domain  lands  increased  enor- 
mously. Attempts  were  constantly  made  to  re- 
strict the  extent  of  land  that  could  be  occupied 
by  the  wealthy,  but  generally  without  effect. 
(See  Agrarian  L.^w.)  A  great  deterioration  and 
a  consequent  agricultural  change  took  place 
during  the  century  that  followed  the  first  Punic 
War  (ended  B.C.  241).  The  place  of  the  small 
farmer  was  taken  by  the  planter,  who  cultivated 
a  great  extent  of  territory,  using  slave  labor. 
The  small  proprietors  either  sold  their  no  longer 
])rofitable   farms   or   were   drixen   from   them   by 


AGRICULTURE. 


AGRICULTURE. 


the  large  hiiuMioUlei.s.  In  Sicily,  the  fust  prov- 
ince, and  in  the  others  successively,  the  _o\vner- 
ship  of  the  land  was  vested  in  the  Roman  people. 
From  these  provinces  came  the  trilmte  of  f;rain 
that  made  grain-raising  uii|)rofitalile  in  Italy. 
Hence,  the  large  estates  were  gradually  given 
over  to  the  keeping  of  flocks  and  the  raising  of 
cattle.  Among  the  Roman  writers  upon  agri- 
culture were  Varro,  Columella,  .'ind  I'liny.  Ear- 
lier than  these  in  time  and  m<ue  celelirated  was 
Cato  the  Censor  (died  14!t  Ii.c),  who  gives  us 
not  only  the  most  minute  jtarliculars  regarding 
the  management  of  the  slaves  on  his  large  Sabine 
farm,  hut  al.so  all  the  details  of  husbandry,  from 
plowing  to  the  reaping  and  thrashing  of 
the  crop. 

Horses,  asses,  mules,  cuttle,  sheep,  and  swine 
were  raised  by  the  liomau  farmers,  and  nuieh 
attention  was  given  to  the  breeding  of  animals 
for  special  purposes.  Castration  was  customary, 
and  o\en  were  the  principal  work  animals  used 
on  the  farm.  Mules  were  extensively  used,  es- 
pecially as  beasts  of  burden.  The  milk  of  sheep 
and  goats  was  generally  used  for  drink,  and  also 
for  making  cheese.  Columella  describes  a  meth- 
od of  making  :Mid  preserving  cheese,  and  says 
that  the  milk  used  in  cheese-making  was  cur- 
dled in  various  ways,  but  commonly  with  a 
lamb's  or  kid's  rennet.  Poultry  cullure  was  an 
elaborate  industry,  and  included  tlie  raising  of 
hens,  geese,  ducks,  teals,  pigeons,  turtle-doves, 
swans,  and  peacocks.  Much  attention  was  also 
given  to  fish  culture,  and  such  animals  as  hares, 
snails,  and  dormice  were  raised  in  considerable 
numbers.  Wheat  was  the  most  important  cereal 
crop  cultivated  by  tlie  Komans,  and  both  smooth 
and  bearded  varieties  were  raised.  Si.\-rowed  and 
tworowcd  barley,  too,  was  grown  to  a  consider- 
able extent.  Millet  was  grown  to  some  extent. 
Oats  and  rye  were  introiluced  in  comparatively 
late  times.  Land  given  to  grain  was  fallowed  for 
the  whole  of  every  alternate  year.  One-third  of 
the  fallow  was  manured  and  sown  with  some 
green  crop,  as  cattle  food.  Fallow  received 
from  four  to  five  furrowings  before  the  wheat 
was  .sown  in  the  fall.  The  crop  of  wheat  ripened 
about  the  middle  of  .lunc.  but  the  sunum-rs  were 
too  dry  for  the  raising,  with  certainty,  of  millet 
and  otlier  summer  crops.  Alfalfa  (lucerne),  com- 
mon vetch  (Viria  sativa),  chickling  vetcli,  and 
chick  pea  were  grown  for  fodder.  Hemp,  flax, 
beans,  turnips,  and  lupines  al.so  are  mentioned 
as  occasionally  cultivated.  To  the  list  of  fruits 
and  vegetables  produced  in  ancient  l"-g>'pt  and 
Greece  the  Komans  added  apricots,  peaches,  mel- 
ons, and  celery.  Meadows  were  carefully  pre- 
pareil.  iind  rotation  of  crops  w-is  practiced  to  a 
certain  extent.  The  soil  was  thoroughly  culti- 
vated with  the  plow  and  harrow  or  the  hoe  and 
rake;  blind  and  open  drains  were  used;  in 
some  regions  irrigation  was  employed.  Manures 
of  difTeient  kinds  were  abundantly  used,  and  va- 
rious methods  for  their  preservation  and  distri- 
bntii  n  were  laborated.  Wheat  and  barley  were 
usually  rea]i(d  with  a  sickle,  liut  sometimes  they 
were  jnillcd  un  l)y  the  roots,  or  tl)e  heads  were 
cut  oir  with  shears.  They  were  thrashed  with 
flails  or  with  a  board  studded  with  iron  spikes 
or  sharp  (lints,  wliich  was  drawn  over  the  straw, 
or  by  trampling  with  cattle  or  horses.  The 
Romans  carried  their  agriculture  into  the 
ruder  countries  eoni|i.ered  by  them.  The  vine 
growing  wild  in  Sicily  was  carried  into  Gaul, 
where  it  was  acclimated  with  diiriculty.     To  the 


rude  Britons  tlic  Komans  taught  agiiculture  so 
successfully  that  before  the  period  of  occupation 
was  over  they  were  exporting  large  quantities  of 
grain. 

Tmk  IX\i!K  Age.s  and  the  MimiLE.AoES.  The 
deterioration  of  Ronum  agiiculture  was  accel- 
erated by  the  overthrow  of  the  Roman  Empire. 
The  conquering  nations  had  advanced  but  little 
beyond  the  [jastoral  stage.  During  the  following 
period  of  the  Dark  Ages  the  two  iiiMuences  work- 
ing for  the  benefit  of  agriculture  in  Western  F.u- 
rope  were  the  Saracen  in  Spain  and  the  religious 
houses  in  the  other  countries.  The  .Saracens  irri- 
gated and  tilled  with  untiring  industry.  They 
introduced  the  plants  of  Asia  and  Africa ;  culti- 
vated rice,  cotton,  and  sugar,  and  covered  the 
roeks  of  Southern  Spain  with  fruitful  vines.  In 
general,  throughout  Western  Europe,  land  was 
cheap,  and  many  worthless  tracts  were  given  to 
the  Cluncli.  In  some  of  the  religious  orders  la- 
bor with  the  hands  was  imposed  upon  the  mem- 
bers. They  studied  the  works  of  the  Roman 
writers  upon  agriculture,  and  soon  had  the  best 
cultivated  lands  in  those  countries  through  which 
tlieir  influence  extended.  Charlemagne  encour- 
aged the  planting  of  vineyards  and  or- 
chards. On  the  whole,  the  Crusades  helped 
the  agriculture  of  Western  Europe.  In  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  Middle  Ages  the  people  of  the  low 
countries  of  Western  Europe  came  to  be  as  dis- 
tinguished for  their  agriculture  as  for  their  com- 
merce and  manufactures.  They  plowed  in  green 
crops;  the  people  of  Holland  developed  dairy- 
ing; the  Flemings  gained  the  reputation  of 
being  the  oldest  practical  farmers.  Also  in  the 
plain  of  Northern  Italy,  watered  by  the  I'o,  agri- 
culture was  in  an  advanced  condition.  .V 
large  part  of  it,  of  great  natural  fertility,  drew 
forth  the  praises  of  I'olybius,  who  visited  it 
about  ttfty  years  after  it  came  into  the 
hands  of  the  Romans.  In  the  thirteenth  and 
fourteenth  centuries,  under  the  influence  of  irri- 
gation, the  region  became  a  garden,  supporting 
a  large  population  and  exporting  grain.  In  the 
England  of  the  same  period  the  agriculture 
showed  alternations  of  indolence  and  bustle,  of 
feasting  and  semi-starvation.  In  August,  l.'?17, 
wheat  was  twelve  times  as  high  in  price  as  in  the 
following  Sei)tember.  Rye  was  the  breadstuff  of 
the  peasantry.  Little  manure  was  used.  Oxen, 
not  horses,  were  used  for  teams.  In  the  four- 
teenth century  serfdom  disappeared  frcmi  Eng- 
land, and  the  tenant  farmer  became  established. 
"Between  KiS!)  and  1444  the  wages  of  agri 
cultural  laborers  doubled;  harvests  were  plenti- 
ful ;  beef,  mutton,  pork  became  their  food ; 
sumptuary  laws  against  extravagance  of  dress 
and  diet  attest  their  prosperity"  (Prothero). 
Laborers  without  food  could  earn  a  bushel  of 
wheat  in  two  days  and  a  half;  of  rye  in  a  day 
and  a  half. 

By  the  beginning  of  modern  history,  the 
fruitful  lands  of  Western  Asia  and  Southeast- 
ern Europe,  swept  by  wars  and  desolated  by  eon- 
quest,  had  been  placed  under  the  ban  cif  the 
Turk.  The  conquest  of  the  Moors  in  Spain  and 
their  snb>e(|iient  exinilsion  caused  an  injury  to 
the  agriculture  of  the  peninsula  which  has  not 
been  repaired.  The  discovery  of  the  New  \\'orld 
showed  two  grades  of  agriculture  carried  on  by 
those  who  lia<l  never  seen  the  horse  and  were 
practically  without  domestic  animals.  Even  the 
careful  tillage  of  the  ancient  Peruvian  had  no 
influence  upon  Europe  and  little  upon  the  Amer- 


AGRICULTTJBE. 


21G 


AGKICULTUKE. 


ica  of  succeeding  centuries.  The  great  contribu- 
tion of  America  to  the  world's  agriculture  was 
tile  three  plants,  the  potato,  tobacco,  and  Indian 
corn  or  maize.  In  the  region  north  of  Mexico 
the  labor  of  planting  and  caring  for  the  scanty 
crops  was  performed  by  the  women,  who  broke 
the  gi'ound  with  the  rudest  possible  impli'inents. 

England.  In  the  sixteenth  century  agricul- 
ture in  England  became  more  profitable,  inclos- 
ures  were  made,  and  the  rights  of  common  were 
greatly  restricted.  Hops  were  introduced  from 
Holland.  Turned  from  the  former  wool  expor- 
tation, the  farmers  began  to  raise  wdieat  in  large 
quantities  to  be  sent  out  of  the  country.  A 
law  in  the  middle  of  the  century  practically  pre- 
vented grain  exportation  and  turned  wheat 
lands  into  pasturage.  The  resulting  high  price 
of  food  and  the  destitution  on  the  part  of  labor- 
ers brought  another  reaction,  and  a  replowing 
of  gi-azing  lands.  The  sixteenth  century  saw  the 
end  of  the  villeinage.  In  1595,  laborers  without 
food  during  the  summer  months  worked  six  days 
for  a  bushel  of  wheat,  four  days  for  a  bushel  of 
rye,  and  three  and  one-half  days  for  a  bushel  of 
barley.  Gardening,  greatly  neglected  in  the  first 
part  of  the  seventeenth  centui'j',  received  due 
:ittention  in  the  latter  part.  Deep  drainage,  too, 
began  to  be  talked  about.  From  the  middle  of 
the  seventeenth  century  to  the  nineteenth,  Eng- 
land looked  to  Flanders  for  the  perfection  of 
careful  tillage.  From  the  Flanders  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  Sir  Kichard  Weston  brought  tur- 
nips and  red  clover,  and  .Arthur  Young  afterward 
called  him  a  greater  benefactor  than  Newton. 
By  the  end  of  tlie  century  turnips  and  clover 
Avere  extensively  cultivate;!  in  alternation  with 
•wheat.  The  cultivation  of  grasses  was  begun 
in  this  century  with  the  introduction  of  peren- 
nial rye  grass.  White  clover  was  introduced  in 
1700,  and  timothy  and  orchard  grass  came  to 
England  from  America  about  1760.  The  eight- 
eenth century  saw  revolutions  in  English 
farming.  One  came  when  Lord  Townsend  estab- 
lished the  Norfolk  sj'stem.  Under  this  system 
of  first,  wheat ;  second,  turnips ;  third,  barley ; 
fourth,  clover  and  grass,  one-half  of  the  land 
was  constantly  under  grain  crops  and  the  other 
under  cattle-grazing.  Large  numbers  of  sheep 
and  cattle  were  fattened  on  tlie  turnips,  and  the 
consumption  of  roots  on  the  land  increased  the 
yield  of  the  barley.  The  Norfolk  system  was  a 
success  from  the  beginning.  The  rental  of  certain 
farms  increased  fivefold,  and  farmers  in  special 
cases  made  handsome  fortunes.  Susceptible  of 
many  modifications,  it  has  had  much  to  do  with 
the  improved  agriculture  of  England.  Beans, 
peas,  and  vetches  were  generally  grown,  often  in 
mi.xtures  with  wheat  or  oats.  Hemp  was  grown 
for  rope-making.  The  common  vegetables  were 
onions,  leeks,  mustard,  and  jieas,  and  the  fruits 
were  apples,  gi'apes,  and  plums. 

Another  revolution  came  from  the  breeding  ex- 
periments of  Bakcwell,  commenced  in  1750.  To 
mention  a  single  point,  it  had  taken  three  or  four 
years  to  prepare  sheep  for  the  market;  those 
In-ed  by  Bakewell  were  prepared  for  the  market 
in  two  years.  Besides  making  a  reputation  and 
a  fortune  for  himself,  he  made  for  others  a  way 
since  followed  in  breeding.  Jethro  Tull,  whose 
book  on  Horsc-hocina  Hiisbandri/  appeared  in 
1731,  was  almost  in  touch  with  the  methods  of 
the  nineteenth  century.  His  thcoi-y  was  that 
seeds  should  l)c  sowed  in  drills,  and  the  .spaces 
between   tlie   drills   kept   thoroughly^  cultivated. 


He  invented  a  drill  and  ,a  horse-hoe.  He  did  not 
succeed  in  obtaining  a  large  crop,  but  successful 
modifications  of  the  method  have  since  been 
made. 

North  America.  The  white  colonists  of  North 
America  had  much  to  discourage  them  as  agri- 
culturists; in  New  England  they  had  the  addi- 
tional drawbacks  of  long  winters  and  a  rocky 
soil.  The  colonists  in  Virginia  found  both  In- 
dian corn  and  tobacco,  the  latter  fitted  to 
become  an  article  of  export.  The  New  England 
settlers  brought  with  them  English  modes  of 
farming.  From  the  Indians  they  learned  how 
to  raise  corn  (maize),  breaking  the  soil  with 
a  hoe  and  manuring  with  fish.  Corn  was  the 
great  product  to  be  depended  upon,  although 
other  grains  were  cultivated,  and  cattle  and 
slieep  increased  slowh',  fed  first  up'^n  the  native 
gi'ass,  then  upon  timothy  specially  fitted  for 
New  England  soil. 

Potatoes  began  to  be  raised  in  the  first  part  of 
the  eighteenth  century.  The  southern  colonists, 
more  favored  by  nature,  made  less  actual  prog- 
ress than  those  of  the  North.  Even  as  late  aa 
1790,  as  we  learn  from  McJlaster's  Histori/  of 
the  Ainciicaii  People,  little  progress  was  made. 
In  New  England  and  New  York,  as  well  as  far- 
ther south,  barns  were  small,  implements  rude, 
and  carts  more  common  than  wagons.  In 
Georgia  the  hoe  was  moie  often  used  than  the 
plow ;  in  Virginia  the  poor  whites  thrashed 
their  grain  by  driving  their  horses  over  it. 
Throughout  the  South  it  was  the  common  prac- 
tice tci  grow  crops  witliout  rotation,  and  in  gen- 
eral manure  was  throwTi  away.  A  little  later 
came  the  invention  of  the  cotton  gin  and  the  be- 
ginning of  the  reign  of  cotton,  with  a  demand 
for  fresh  fields  and  a  disregard  of  careful  tillage. 
Early  in  the  century  the  importation  of  the 
Spanish  merino  sheep  changed  the  farming  of 
the  North  and  greatly  increased  the  production 
of  wool. 

The  Nineteenth  Centuky.  In  the  nineteenth 
century  the  progi-ess  of  agriculture  was  pro- 
foundly alfected  by  great  general  causes,  some  of 
which  exerted  a  world-wide  influence.  Among 
these  were :  ( 1 )  the  application  of  science  to  the 
improvement  of  agriculture;  (2)  tlie  revolution 
in  transportation  methods  through  the  use  of 
steam  power  on  land  and  sea;  (.1)  the  rapid 
opening  of  vast  areas  of  new  land  in  North  and 
South  America,  Australia,  and  Africa  to  settle- 
ment, cultivation,  and  gi'azing;  (4)  the  inven- 
tion and  extensive  use  of  labor-saving  machinery 
as  applied  to  agriculture;  (5)  the  abolition  of 
serfdom  and  slavery;  (6)  the  specialization  of 
agricultural  industries;  (7)  the  organization  of 
the  distribution  of  agricultural  products  and 
their  use  in  manufactures  in  accordance  with  the 
modern  business  principles  governing  the  or- 
ganization of  other  great  industries;  (S)  the  es- 
tablishment of  governmental  agencies  for  the 
promotion  of  agriculture;  (9)  the  voluntary 
eoiiperation  of  farmers  through  numerous  asso- 
ciations; and  (10)  the  wide  dissemination  of 
agricultural  information  through  book-s.  Journals, 
public  documents,  and  farmers'  meetings.  Scien- 
tific studies  and  experiments  for  the  benefit  of 
agriculture  began  with  the  development  of  ag- 
ricultural chemistry  early  in  the  century.  The 
most  widespread  practical  result  of  the  investi- 
gations in  agricultural  chemistry  has  been  the 
extensive  use  of  a  large  number  of  forms  of  com- 
mercial fertilizers.     In  more  recent  years  a  wide 


AGRICULTURE. 


217 


AGRICULTURE. 


range  "f  smte>sful  nsiarili  on  lu'li;ilf  of  agri- 
culture has  bfi'ii  ilfvi'loped  with  the  aiil  of  tho 
biolof;ical  .si'ioutcs,  ami  iu  the  dosing  years  of  tlie 
niuetifiith  century  iiivestijiatious  in  agricultural 
|>hysics  assiiiiietl  jjroat  iniportauce.  The  marvel- 
ous success  of  soieiitillc  etlort,  larjjely  iiniler  gov- 
eminent  patrouage,  as  applied  to  dairying  and 
the  sns;ar-l)eet  industry,  is  oik-  of  the  notable 
achievements  of  that  century.  Organized  scien- 
tilie  rcseaivh  for  the  bcnetit  of  a;;riculturc 
througli  experiment  stations  anil  kindred  in.sti- 
tutious  has  become  a  regular  and  permanent 
agency  for  the  advancement  of  this  art.  See  AG- 
8KlL"ptR.\L  EXI'KKIMK.NT  SlATlo.V  ;  and  AuKI- 
CULTIKE,    Oi;rAltTMKNT   OF. 

The  vital  interest  of  the  whole  eomnmnity  in 
the  success  of  agriculture  as  the  great  basal  fti- 
dustry  has  been  di>tlnctly  recognized  during  the 
ninetwnth  lentury  by  the  widespread  establish- 
ment of  governmental  ageni'ies  for  its  promotion. 
Agrieultuif  has  now  a  defmite  place  in  the  min- 
istries of  alnio.st  all  the  civilized  nations  of  the 
globe.  In  (ireat  liritain  the  Government  fo.sters 
agricultural  interests  tbixnigh  a  Hoard  of  Agri- 
culture. In  the  I'nited  States  the  Federal 
Government  maintains  a  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, whn.sc  chief  olHcer  has  lunl  a  .seat  in 
the  I'lesideut's  Cabinet  since  ISS'J  as  the  Sec- 
retary of  .Vgricutture.  Many  of  the  States,  too, 
have  departments,  boarils.  or  commissioners  of 
agriculture. 

AuEici'LTrR.\i  Machinery.  One  of  the  fea- 
tures of  the  agricultural  history  of  the  past  fifty 
years  has  Iwen  the  extensive  introduction  of  ma- 
eiiiucry.  Sowing  uuicliines.  cultivators,  and  all 
the  machine^  that  ilisi>lace  the  hiH'  are  of  com- 
paratively rwent  invention.  As  earl.v  as  ;i3  A.i>.. 
aii-ordiiig  to  I'liny.  the  (iauls  used  a  cart  with 
projei-lious  in  front  which  cut  or  tore  otV  the 
heails  of  grain;  but  until  recent  times  little  ef- 
fort was  made  to  invent  or  introduce  labor- 
saving  maeliinery,  owing  to  popular  prejiulice. 
The  threshing  machine  was  not  invented  until 
liSti,  and  though  an  attempt  was  made  early  in 
the  century  to  construct  r<'ai)ing  nuicliines.  but 
small  success  was  won  until  the  time  of  IJell, 
Hus.sey,  and  McCoriiiiek.  (See  Kkai'Kks,  Kkap- 
ixc.  I  In  the  hay  harvest,  horse  power  is  ap- 
plie<l  by  means  of  the  niowing-nmcliine,  the 
hay-tediler,  the  rake,  and  niaehines  for  loading 
»nil  unloiiding  the  hay.  .\nother  class  of  ma- 
eliines.  as,  for  example,  the  one  for  threshing, 
deal  with  the  gatheivd  crops.  The  use  of  a 
system  of  machinery  like  that  applieil  to  dairy- 
ing has  nuide  great  changes  in  certain  lines 
of  agrieultui-e.  From  horse  |Miwer,  too,  there 
has  lieen  a  partial  change  to  steam  power. 
About  the  year  I.S.IO  the  steam  plow  began  to 
be  uswl  in  England.  One  s[}ecial  advantage 
in  the  ininds  of  Knglish  farmers  was  the  depth 
to  which  the  soil  i-ould  be  turne<J ;  nioretiver, 
the  enjrine  was  utilized  for  many  purposes  on 
the  liirgt^  estates  of  that  country.  The  great 
advantagt"  of  steam  farm  machinery  in  America 
has  been  for  o|)erations  like  that  of  thresh- 
ing, but  the  use  r>f  steam  for  this  piirpose  has 
not  proved  es|)»-cially  eeonomical.  Improved 
farm  nuiehinery  in  .\merica  has  made  possible 
the  rapid  settling  of  the  new  States  and  the 
successful  gathering  of  their  immense  harvests. 
See  IIakvkst  a.m>  Hakvb.stixo:  Implk.mkxts, 
AtiBitii.TrRAr, ;  TiiRKsiii.NG  and  Tiirkshi.no 
Machines;  1»i.ow,  T'i.owi.no.  Tn  an  article  on 
the  progress  of  agriculture  in  the  United  States, 
Vol   I.  —  IG. 


Mr.  G.  K.  Holmes,  of  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, states  that  '"the  amount  of  human  labor 
now  (1S!)K)  required  to  ])roduce  a  bushel  of 
wheat  from  b<'ginning  to  end  is  on  an  average 
only  ten  minutes,  whereas  in  1830  the  time  was 
three  hours  and  three  minutes.  During  the  in- 
terval between  these  years  the  eo.st  of  the  human 
labor  rc<iuired  to  produce  this  bushel  of  wheat 
declined  from  17%  cents  to  S';.  cents.  In  the 
contrast  thus  presented  the  heavy,  clumsy  plow 
of  the  day  was  used  in  IS.tO;  the  seed  was 
sown  by  hand  and  was  harrowed  into  the 
ground  by  the  drawing  of  b\ishcs  over  it;  the 
grain  was  cut  with  sickles,  hauled  to  a  barn,  and 
some  time  before;  the  following  spring  was 
thrashed  with  flails;  the  winnowing  was  done 
with  a  sheet  attached  to  rwls,  on  which  the  grain 
was  placed  with  a  shovel  and  then  to.ssed  up  and 
down  by  two  men  until  the  wind  had  blown  out 
the  chart'.  In  the  latter  year,  on  thi-  contrary, 
the  ground  was  ploweil  and  puherizetl  with 
the  same  operation  by  a  disk  plow;  the  seed 
was  sown  with  a  mechanical  seeder  drawn 
by  horses;  the  reaping,  thrashing,  and  sacking 
of  the  wheat  were  done  with  the  combined  reai»r 
and  thrasher  drawn  bj'  horses,  and  then  the 
wheat  was  ready  to  haul  to  the  granary." 

System  in  Fm:.\ii.\g.  There  is  a  movement  in 
agriculture  to  provide  for  local  demands,  to  take 
advantage  of  growing  e<'ntres  of  population,  to 
strive  for  exisdlence  and  exact  system  in  place 
of  haphazard  methods.  The  evaporator  has 
broadened  the  fruit  market.  The  canning  indus- 
try has  utilized  fruits  and  vegetables  and  saved 
the  agricultural  balances  in  sections.  Cold 
storagi',  rapid  trans])ortation,  and  the  refriger- 
ator car  have  reduced  risks  and  shortened 
apparent  distances.  New  Zealand  is  in  the  mar- 
kets of  Loudon.  Canada  and  the  I'nited  States 
have  a  protitable  apple  trade  with  England.  The 
exjwnses  of  transportation  have  been  reduced  to 
a  fraction  of  the  previous  cost,  and  thus  the 
wheat  laiuls  of  Dakota  have  been  laid  alongside 
those  of  both  New  England  and  old  England, 
with  gain  for  the  one  and  with  loss  for  the 
others.  In  dairying  there  has  been  one  of  the 
triumphs  of  recent  agriculture.'  Specialization, 
with  scicntitic  method  and  improved  machinery, 
has  bixiught  excellence  w  itliout  destruction  of  the 
market.  Dairy  products,  in  contrast  with  others, 
are  higher  than  they  were  fifty  years  ago.  Car- 
ried on  largely  as  <-o<'«perative  undertakings, 
creameries  and  cheese  factories  (see  Daihying) 
havo  increased  in  Europe  and  America.  A  large 
industry  in  England,  dairying  on  the  coo|>erative 
basis  has  been  on  the  increase  in  France.  The 
Netherhinds,  famous  for  its  careful  agriculture, 
is  a  leading  dairy  coiuitry.  Switzerland  and 
Canada  export  large  quantities  of  cheese.  Den- 
mark no  loi\ger  competes  for  the  wheat  trade, 
but  has  become  one  of  the  most  successful  of 
dairy  countries,  exporting  immense  quantities  of 
high  grade  butter  to  England. 

America  in  Kkcf.nt  Times.  The  past  fifty 
years  have  been  a  period  of  careful  cultivation, 
though  with  many  exceptions,  in  America.  Thor- 
ough drainage  and  deej)  i>lowing.  established  in 
England,  have  been  also  made  .\merican.  A 
great  variety  of  oonimercial  fertilizers  are 
widely  used.  Tn  the  I'nited  States  alone  it  is 
estimated  that  about  2.(100.000  tons  of  such  fer- 
tilizers are  annually  consumed.  The  storing  of 
green  crops  in  silos  has  become  common.  A 
great  amount  of  intelligent  work  has  been  given 


AGRICULTURE. 


218 


AGRICULTURE. 


to  securing  plants  and  trees  suited  to  local  con- 
ditions in  different  climates.  Numerous  varie- 
ties of  all  sorts  of  cultivated  plants  have  been 
obtained  through  selection  and  otherwise,  and 
in  this  way  the  areas  devoted  to  different  crops 
have  been  gieatly  extended.  In  the  vicinity  of 
the  large  cities  market  gardening  has  been  a 
profitable  branch  of  agi'iculture,  and  has  been 
the  culmination  of  careful  cultivation.  Some- 
what similar  to  it  has  been  an  industry  which 
has  developed  in  the  United  States  under  the 
name  of  "truck  farming,"  and  is  carried  on  in 
places  remote  from  markets.  A  large  part  of 
the  vegetables  consumed  in  the  large  American 
cities  come  from  places  from  500  to  1500  miles 
distant.  According  to  a  census  bulletin,  issued 
in  1891,  in  the  United  States,  upward  of  $100,- 
000.000  of  capital  is  invested  in  this  industry; 
500,000  acres  are  given  to  it,  more  than  230,000 
persons  are  employed,  and  the  annual  return  is 
$76,000,000.  The  South  Atlantic  States  are 
largely  interested  in  "truck  farming,"  which, 
under  favorable  conditions,  is  generally  very 
profitable.  Other  forms  of  special  agi-icultural 
industries  which  have  made  great  progress  in 
recent  years  are  the  breeding  of  animals,  fruit 
culture,  poultry  raising,  and  bee-keeping. 

Cottonseed,  formerly  considered  very  largely 
a  waste  product,  is  now  utilized  in  a  variety  of 
forms,  and  adds  largely  to  the  value  of  the  cotton 
crop.  Not  only  large  quantities  of  oil  are  made 
from  this  seed,  but  also  oil  cake  and  meal  for 
feeding  stuffs  and  fertilizers.  Even  the  hulls  of 
cotton  are  used  for  fertilizers,  cattle  food,  fuel, 
and   paper-making. 

In  speaking  of  the  agi'iculture  of  the  United 
States,  besides  brandies  touched  upon,  reference 
should  be  made  to  tobacco,  which  is  grown 
widely;  to  the  sugar-cane,  grown  chiefly  on  the 
alluvial  lands  of  the  Mississippi ;  to  rice,  grown 
profitably  in  the  lowlands  of  certain  Southern 
States ;  to  the  tropical  and  sub-tropical  products 
of  Florida  and  California,  and  to  the  immense 
flocks  and  herds  of  the  "ranches"  in  the  mountain 
region  and  on  the  gi'eat  plains  of  the  western 
half  of  the  continent. 

In  the  West,  since  1880,  irrigation  has  been 
employed  on  a  large  scale  in  an  attempt  to  re- 
claim land  within  the  arid  belt,  a  region  extend- 
ing from  the  centre  of  Kansas  and  Nebraska  to 
the  farthermost  Pacific  Coast  range  of  moun- 
tains. In  that  region  of  scanty  rainfall,  irriga- 
tion may  be  practiced  by  taking  a  water 
supply  fi'om  the  large  streams  flowing  from  the 
mountains.  Within  a  small  area,  water  may  be 
obtained  from  the  "underflow"  by  means  of  ar- 
tesian wells.  Although  the  results  of  surveys 
show  that  only  a  com])aratively  small  part  of 
the  belt  can  be  irrigated,  in  certain  localities 
thousands  of  acres  are  being  made  profitable. 
In  two  valleys  of  Arizona  (the  Salt  and  the 
Gila)  more  than  450  miles  of  irrigating  ditches 
were  opened  in  the  ten  years  1880-90.  In  the 
.single  county  of  San  Bernardino,  Cal.,  irrigation 
increased  the  number  of  acres  under  cultivation 
from  18,400  in  1880  to'  144,950  in  1890.  See 
Irrigation  ;   Artesian   Well. 

Other  Couxtries.  In  Europe  the  cultivation 
of  the  sugar-beet  has  become  a  prominent  industry 
in  Germany,  Austria-Hungary,  France,  and  Rus- 
.sia,  and  of  some  importance  in  Rclgium  and  the 
Netherlands.  Germany  grows  more  than  one- 
third  of  the  product,  and  the  four  countries  more 
than  nine-tenths  of  it.    The  vine  is  of  importance 


in  all  the  Mediterranean  region  and  in  favored 
localities  like  those  along  the  German  Rhine, 
■where  vineyards  have  given  an  average  net  re- 
turn of  more  than  $100  per  acre.  Italy  gives  to 
the  vine  9,000.000  acres,  and  France,  with  lowest 
acreage  in  1891,  and  larger  before  and  since,  gives 
on  an  average  5,000,000  acres.  France,  also  dat- 
ing its  progress  from  the  Revolution,  has  Ijecome 
one  of  the  richest  of  agricultural  countries,  and 
previous  to  1874  was  the  greatest  wheat  produc- 
ing country  of  the  world.  It  is  noted  for  its 
small  farms  and  thrifty  agricultural  class,  more 
than  half  of  whom  are  land  owners.  Germany, 
the  greatest  potato-producing  country  of  the 
world,  is  also  a  country  of  varied  agricultural 
production.  Austria-Hungary,  only  about  half  a 
century  from  serfdom,  has  a  government  that  fos- 
ters agriculture,  and  presents  the  sharp  contrast* 
illustrated  by  the  steam  cultivator  on  large  es- 
tates and  the  wooden  plow  on  small  farms.  Rus- 
sia, only  thirty  years  from  serfdom,  shows  agri- 
cultural methods  in  sharp  contrast  with  an  im- 
mense agricultural  production. 

The  garden  of  Italy  is  the  Lombard  plain, 
with  its  more  than  1,000,000  acres  of  irrigated 
land  and  its  careful  systems  of  cultivation.  Be- 
sides large  crops  of  wheat,  maize,  grapes,  and 
olives,  Italy  produces  great  quantities  of  lemons 
and  oranges,  and  has  more  than  half  a  million 
people  engaged  in  raising  silkworms.  In  Spain, 
despite  vines,  oranges,  olives,  and  the  possibili- 
ties of  irrigation  and  a  succession  of  crops,  ag- 
riculture looks  backward  to  the  time  of  the 
Moor. 

China,  with  an  agriculture  unchanged  from 
legendary  times,  and  India  are  countries  in 
which  rude  implements  are  overbalanced  by  iiTi- 
gation  and  garden-like  cultivation.  With  rice 
as  a  principal  food  product,  they  support  a  dense 
population,  have  a  great  variety  of  crops,  and 
are  increasing  factors  in  computing  the  world's 
supply. 

Egypt,  under  the  guidance  of  England,  is  pro- 
ducing gi-eat  amounts  of  sugar  and  a  high  grade 
cotton. 

Australasia  has  already  developed  beyond  the 
pastoral  stage,  and  besides  cattle  and  sheep  Is 
exporting  dairy  and  other  products.  In  South 
America,  the  Argentine  Republic  is  an  important 
factor  in  the  world's  agricultural  market,  with 
its  wheat,  wool,  cattle,  and  wine;  and  Brazil 
holds  a  leading  place  in  the  production  of  coffee. 
In  Central  America,  including  Mexico,  the  rais- 
ing of  cattle  and  sheep  has  become  a  large  in- 
dustry, and  the  exports  of  coffee,  cocoa,  and 
bananas  are  important.  The  West  Indies  and 
the  Hawaiian  Islands  produce  large  quantities  of 
cane  sugar. 

The  following  table,  prepared  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Mr.  John  Hyde,  statistician  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  shows  the 
amount  of  the  principal  agricultural  products 
of  different  countries  for  the  year  1900.  Al- 
though these  returns  are  not  complete  for  all 
the  countries,  they  furnish  interesting  data  re- 
garding the  relative  agricultural  production  of 
different  regions.  Of  the  world's  wheat  crop  of 
about  2013  million  bushels,  the  United  States 
produces  nearly  one-fifth.  The  other  chief  wheat 
growing  countries  are  Russia,  France,  Austria- 
Hungary.  India.  Gernuiny,  Italy,  Spain,  and  the 
Argentine  Republic.  The  United  States  produces 
three-fourths  of  the  world's  maize  crop  of  2825 
million  bushels,  and  more  than  one-half  of  the 


AGRICULTUBE. 


219 


AGRICULTURE. 


crop  of  7535  inillicin  |miumiIs  uf  idUoii.  Kui*sia 
leads  tlic  wfirUI  in  the  piixhiction  of  rye,  oats, 
and  t)arley,  aiul  in  the  yield  of  potatoes  it  is 
surpassed  hy  (ierniany  only.  .Australia,  the  Ar- 
gentine Kepublic.  Kussia,  and  the  I'nited  States 
are  the  ehiof  wool  firowin*;  countries.  Outside  of 
the  I'nited  States  most  of  the  eotton  is  j;ro\vu  in 
India,  China,  and  Kfjypt.  Tobaeeo  is  an  impor- 
tant erop  in  AuslriaUungary,  Jlexico,  Japan, 
Gernianv,  and  France. 


AGRICULTURAL 

PR 

ODU 

CTS 

OF 

Tni 

:  WOULD,  1900. 

Million  Bushels. 

.Million 

POUNIIS. 

"5 

i 

a 

i 

s 

0 
0 

g 

s 

0 

1 

Africa  : 

23 

6 
2 

14 

m 
101 

• 

34 

7 
1 

5 

&1 

10 

CapeofGoodllope 
Egypt 

Several  Countries 

America  : 
ArjiiMitine   Re- 
jmblic 

3 

24 
m 

56 

2 

' 

■553 

50 

ii4 
.... 

32 

711 
//i 
"99 

clOO 
3 

m 

m 

711 

1 

m 
m 

1 
370 

0 

Caiiatlti 

44 

12 
1.5 

522 

183 
20 
20 
.5 
30 

■'56 

*1P0 

12 

e:j0 

20 

2 

4 

809 

141 

8 

120 

4 

0 

H 

5(1 

6.390 

A-13 

105 

4 

57 

28 

8 

110 

8 

2105 

..'. 

23 
'«i3 

114 

rf54 

12 

Mexico  

5 

96 

United  States 

Asia: 

Central  Asia (9)... 
China 

24 

1 

59 
3 

809 
6 

211 
1 

4320 

'600 

1418 

CO 

n 
72 

/289 

46 
35 

85 

a5 

16 

44 
3 

"35 

8 
17 

TraiiH-Caucasia  .. 

Turkey 

Several  Countries 
Australasia 

ErRoi'E: 
Austria  -  Hungary 

10 

142 

"38 

... . 
"20 

lOT 
19 

7 

i 

115 
3 
11 

. . . . 
"2.5 

193 

20 
8 

"26 

657r 

108 

1 

40 

347 

1 

«101 
8 

'33 

15 

510 

64 

Buleariu 

fi  ftH 

Cyprus  and  Malta 
Denmark 

'is 

64 

3.8r 

"22 
44 

i;i8 

'3.5 

258 
489 

■*i9 

4.53 
1414 

France     

'4 

.... 

.511 

£71 

6i2 

104 

CJerniany 

60 

Italy 

688 

is 

J  80 

Ml 

ilO 

24 

3 
12 

27 
5 

(i 

904 

2 

19 

a 
2 

7 
4 

18 

16 

16 

80 

'ere 

94 

fl 

Netherlands 

N  0  r  ^v  a  y      and 

Sweden 

2 

8 
13 

Rumania 

Russia 

Servia  

15 
■2Xi 

4 
55 

1 

71 

9 

744 

10 

10 

5 

170 

62 

887 
2 

6218 

3 

■4 

i 

'soi 
ni 

Switzerland 

United  Kingdom . 

(6) 
140 

a— Report  of  S.  >f.  D.  North,/  —Washed  and  unwashed. 

.Sccrct.'iry  of  National   ,\ri-V/      In  Kusf^ia 

wic'ialion  of    Wool   Manii- A  -  Inthnles  lialkan  Peninsula. 

faclurcT«,  1900.  i  -  Kleece-wushcU. 

6-1899.  j  — Kstiniated. 

c— Includes  Natal  and  Orange  k  —1897. 

Free  Slate.  I  — 1S95. 

d— Census,  1891.  m— No  data. 

«— 1898.  n —No  estimate. 

Kiiii.ioGRAPHY.  Only  a  few  works  on  agricul- 
ture have  eome  down  to  us  from  aneient  litera- 
ture. .Vmonir  these  the  most  important  are: 
Hesiod,  U'or/iS  and  Days;  Cato,  Dc  lie  Huxtira ; 
Varro,  Rcnini  liuslicuruiii,  Libri  III.:  Vergil, 
Georims ;  Pliny,  Xatiirol  lliatorti;  Palladius,  Dc 
Re  liuKtica.  The  modern  literature  begins  with 
I'.  Crescenzi,  a  Bolognese,  who  at  the  beginning 


of  the  fourtecntli  century  wrote  his  RuraVtum 
Coiiiiiiorloiiiiii,  l.ihri  Xll.  The  first  English 
book  on  agrieulture  is  Sir  .Vnthony  Fit/.herbcrt's 
77ic  liokc  of  llushandric  (London,  1523).  I5e- 
tween  that  time  and  the  year  1800  some  200 
British  authors  wrote  on  agricultural  topics. 
Among  tlu'ir  works  are  Tusser,  I'ivc  Hiiiiiliid 
Points  of  (load  II u.ibnndrii.  et^.  (  1573)  ;  .1.  Morti- 
mer, Tin-  Wh'ilr  Art.  of  Hushaudrii  (London, 
1807)  ;  J.Tull,  lloinc-hociiiy  II iisbaiidri/ (London, 
182!));  A.  Young,  Annals  of  A (jricult urc  (Lon- 
don, 1813).  In  the  United  States  few  books 
on  agrieulture  were  published  prior  to  18(10. 
Among  these  may  be  mentioned  .T.  Kliot, 
Agriculliiiiit  Essays  (Boston,  HCO)  ;  S.  Deane, 
New  Enfiland  Farmer,  or  Cleorgical  Dictionary 
(Portland.  17!)7)  :  B.  Vaughan,  Rural  Socra- 
tes (  llallowell,  1800).  During  the  nineteenth 
century  the  number  of  English  and  .\nierican 
works  on  agrieulture  greatly  increased,  and 
not  only  did  the  geiieral  treatises  become 
more  thorough  and  scientific,  but  also  a  large 
amount  of  valuable  literature  on  special  sub- 
jects was  published.  Only  a  few  books  of  more 
general  importance  will  be  mentioned  here:  J. 
C.  Loudon,  Kncycloixedia  of  Ayriculturc  (Lou- 
don, 1825)  :  J.  C".  .Morton.  .1  Ciiclopadia  of  Af/ri- 
cultarc  (London,  1850-52):  Handbook  of  the 
Farm  (London.  18(18)  ;  ,1.  Periam,  The  American 
Eneyclopa-dia  of  Agriculture  (Chicago,  1881); 
L.  H.  Bailey,  Ifural  Heienee  Series  (New  York, 
1895-1901)  ;'  Bailey  and  Miller,  Eneyclopwdia  of 
American  Horticulture,  4  volumes  (Xew  York, 
1900-02)  ;  J.  E.  T.  Rogers,  History  of  Ayricullurc 
and  I'riecs  in  England  (Oxford,  1882)  :  R.  E.  Pro- 
thero.  The  I'ioiicers  and  Progress  of  English 
Farming  (London,  1880)  :  H.  Stephens,  Book  of 
the  Farm  (London,  1855);  P..  Wallace.  Farm 
Live  Slock  of  (Ircat  liritnin  (Edinburgh,  1885)  ; 
India  in  1SS7  (London,  1888)  -..Farming  Indus- 
tries of  Cape  Colony  (London.  1890)  :  The  Uural 
Economy  and  .Agriculture  of  Australia  and  ^Vest 
Zealand  (London,  1891);  E.  B.  Voorhces,  First 
Principles  of  Agriculture  (Boston,  1S9(!)  :  Ferti- 
lizers (New  York,  1898)  ;  L.  H.  Bailey.  The 
Principles  of  Agriculture  (New  York.  1898); 
W.  P.  Brooks,  Agriculture  (Springfield.  Jlass., 
1901).  MANfUES:  .1.  Harris.  Talks  ou  .Manures 
(New  York,  1878)  :  C.  M.  Aikman,  Manures  and 
the  Principles  of  Manuring  (London,  1899)  ;  F. 
W.  Sempers,  Manures:  How  to  .Make  and  How 
to  Use  Them  (Philadelphia,  1893).  Ciiemi.stry 
OF  AoniciLTlRE:  F.  H.  Storer,  Agriculture  in 
Some  of  its  Relations  to  Chemistry  (New  York, 
1897).  Farm  C'rop.s  and  Soils:  F.  II.  King.  The 
Soil.  Rural. Science  .Scries  (New  York,  1895); 
W.  Freani,  Rothainsted  Experiments  in  Wheat, 
Barley,  and  dra.is  Lands  (London.  1888)  :  .1. 
P.  Roberts,  On  the  Fertility  of  the  Land.  Rural 
Science  Series  (New  York,  1897)  ;  S.  W.  .Tohn- 
son.  How  Crops  (Irow:  (New  York,  1808:  London, 
1809)  ;  How  Crops  Feed  (New  York,  1 870 ) .  Stock 
BREEOiNf: :  M.  >iiles.  Stock  Breeding  ( New  York 
1878).  Feedixo  of  A.mmals:  H.  Stewart, 
Shepherd's  Manual  (New  York.  1878):  II.  P. 
Armsbv.  Manual  of  Cattle  F<eding  (New  York, 
1890)  :"  W.  A.  Henry.  Feeds  and  Feeding  (Mad- 
ison. Wis.,  1898)  ;  ,t.  II.  .lordan,  The  Feeding  of 
Animals  (New  York  and  London.  1901). 
Dairyi.no:  H.  Wing.  Milk  and  Its  Products, 
Rural  Science  Series  (New  York,  1895)  ;  .T.  W. 
Deeker.  Cheese  Making  (Columbus,  Ohio,  1900). 
Duals A<iE:  F.  II.  King.  Irrigation  and  Drainage, 
Rural  Science  Series  (New  York,  1899)  ;  Physics 


AGRICULTURE. 


220 


AGRICULTURE. 


of  Agriculture  (iladison,  \Yis.,  1001);  JL 
Miles,  Land  Drainage  (New  York,  1897)  :  G.  E. 
Waring,  Jr.,  The  Report  of  the  Uassachnsetts 
Drainage  Commission  (Newport,  R.  I.,  1886)  ; 
Sewerage  and  Land  Drainage  (New  York,  1889)  ; 
Draining  for  Profit  and  Draining  for  Health 
(New  York,  1S(J7).  History  of  AoRicrLTuuE: 
Gr.  Rawlinson,  Ancient  Egypt  (London.  1887)  ; 
C.  G.  B.  Daubeny,  Lectures  on  Roman  Husbandry 
(Oxford,  1357)  ;  C.  W.  Hoskyns,  Short  Inquiry 
into  the  History  of  Agriculture  (London,  1849)  ; 
E.  C.  Flint.  One  Hundred  Years'  Progress,  Re- 
port Department  of  Agriculture  (Washington, 
1872).  For  further  information,  the  publica- 
tions of  the  State  boards  of  agriculture,  agricul- 
tural experiment  stations,  and  tlie  reports  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  espe- 
cially the  Experiment  Station  Record,  Farmers' 
Bulletins,   and   Tear-boolcs. 

In  the  United  States,  the  British  Empire,  and 
most  of  the  countries  of  Europe,  numerous  agri- 
cultural journals  are  published.  Among  the  most 
important  are  the  following:  The  United  States. 
The  American  Agriculturist  (New  York);  The 
American  tlnrden  (New  York)  ;  Breeder's  Ga- 
zette (Chicago);  The  Cultirator  ami  Country 
GentJeman  (Albany)  ;  The  Florida  Agriculturist 
(Deland.  Fla.)  ;  Hoard's  Dairyman  (Fort  At- 
kinson, Wis.)  ;  Experiment  Station  Record 
(Washington)  :  Pacific  Rural  Press  (San  Fran- 
cisco) ;  Rural  Xen:  Yorker  (New  York)  :  South- 
ern Planter  (Richmond,  Va.)  ;  Wallaces'  Farmer 
(Des  Moines,  la.).  Gre.\t  Britain'.  The  Agri- 
cultural Gazette  (London)  :  Farmer's  Ga-ette 
(Dublin)  :  Field,  Farm,  and  Garden  (London)  ; 
Farm,  and  Home  (London)  ;  Gardeners'  Chron- 
icle (London).  Cau.^d.a..  Journal  of  Agriculture 
and  Horticulture  (Montreal)  ;  Canadian  Horti- 
culturist (Toronto).  France.  Journal  d' Agri- 
culture Pratique  (Paris)  ;  La  Semaine  Agrieole 
(Paris);  Revue  Horticolc  (Marseilles).  Ger- 
many. Deutsche  Lnndu-irtschaftlichc  Presse 
(Berlin)  ;  Fiihling's  Landu-irtshaftUche  Zeitung 
(Leipzig)^;  Molkerei-Zcituug  (liilde^heiiii) .  Aus- 
tria. Ostcrreichisehes  Landtcirtschaftliches 
Wochenblatt  (Vienna).  Itaxy.  BoUetino  di 
Notizie  Agrarie  (Rome).  Denmark.  Land- 
mands  Blade  ( Copenhagen ) .  ,\i'str.\ua.  Agri- 
cultural Gazette  of  Neu;  South  Wales  (Sydney)  ; 
Qiiecnsland  Agricultural  Journal  (Brisbane): 
Joiirnal  of  Agriculture  and  Industry  of  South 
A  ustralia   ( Adelaide) . 

AGRICULTURE,  United  States  Depart- 
ment OF.  The  department  was  established  as  a 
separate  branch  of  the  government  in  18(32.  It 
grew  out  of  a  voluntary  distribution  of  seeds, 
begun  by  the  Commissioner  of  Patents  in  1836. 
In  1839.  Congress  made  an  appropriation  of 
.$1000  "to  bo  taken  from  the  Patent  Office  fund 
for  the  purpose  of  collecting  and  distributing 
seeds,  prosecuting  agricultural  investigations. 
and  procuring  agricultural  statistics."  Small 
amounts  were  thus  drawn  from  that  fund  annu- 
ally (except  in  1840.  1841,  and  1846)  up  to  18.54. 
when  the  whole  amount  was  reimbursed  and  a 
separate  appropriation  was  made  for  the  agricul- 
tural work  of  the  Patent  Otfice.  That  year  an 
entomologist  was  employed,  and  in  18.5.5  a  chem- 
ist and  a  botanist  were  added  to  the  staff,  and  a 
propagating  garden  was  begun.  After  separa- 
tion from  the  Patent  Office,  the  chief  officer  of  the 
department  was  styled  Commissioner  of  Agricul- 
ture. He  was  not  a  member  of  the  President's 
cabinet  until   1889,  when  he  became  Secretary 


of  Agriculture.  The  first  corami-ssioner  was 
Isaac  Newton  of  Pennsylvania,  and  the  first  sec- 
retary, Norman  ■!.  Colman  of  Missouri,  who  was 
also  the  last  commissioner.  The  succeeding  sec- 
retaries have  been  .Tercmiah  M.  Rusk  of  Wiscon- 
sin, J.  Sterling  JSIorton  of  Nebraska,  and  .Tames 
Wilson  of  Iowa.  The  department  is  situ-ated  in 
the  city  of  Washin,gton.  in  a  beautiful  park  of 
thirt.y-five  acres.  bef;ween  the  Smitlisonian  Insti- 
tution and  the  Washington  Monument,  but  is  at 
present  inadequately  housed.  As  defined  in  the 
act  of  establishment,  the  dl^ties  of  the  depart- 
ment are,  "to  acquire  and  diffuse  among  the 
people  of  the  L^'nited  States  useful  information 
on  subjects  connected  with  agriculture  in  the 
most  general  and  comprehensive  sense  of  that 
word,  and  to  jjrocure,  propagate,  and  distribute 
among  the  people  new  and  valuable  seeds  and 
plants.  With  the  progress  of  agricultural  sci- 
ence, scientific  branches  have  been  added,  until 
the  department  has  become  one  of  the  greatest 
scientitie  establishments  in  the  world.  Its  ad- 
ministrative functions  also  have  been  materially 
enlarged  in  recent  years.  In  1884,  the  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industry  was  organized,  and  in  1888, 
the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations.  ( See  Agricui,. 
TURAL  Experiment  Station.)  In  1891,  the 
Weather  Bureau  was  transferred  from  tlie  War 
Department  to  the  Department  of  .\gricultuve, 
and  in  1901  a  Bureau  of  Plant  Industiy  was 
established  by  combining  several  divisions  whose 
work  related  to  plants.  At  the  same  time 
Bureaus  of  Soils,  Forestry,  and  Chemistry  were  > 
created  to  take  the  place  of  divisions  with  the 
same  names.  The  department  issues  a  great 
variet.y  of  popular,  technical,  and  scientific 
publications.  The  Year-book  (edition  500,- 
000  copies)  and  the  series  of  Farmers'  Bullcfins 
are  distributed  gratis,  largely  through  members 
of  Congress.  A  monthly  list  of  publications  is 
sent  free  to  all  applicants.  Other  publications 
are  issued  in  limited  editions  for  libraries,  agri- 
cultural colleges,  and  experiment  stations,  sci- 
entific institutions,  and  persons  coiiperating  in 
the  work  of  the  department :  they  are  also  sold 
by  the  Superintendent  of  Documents.  Periodical 
publications  of  the  department  are  the  Experi- 
ment Station  Record,  Monthli/  Weather  Review, 
and  The  Crop  Reporter.  In  1901  the  department 
issued  000  different  publications ;  the  total  num- 
ber of  copies  was  nearly  8.000.000.  For  the 
fiscal  year  ending  .lune  30.  1902,  the  appropria- 
tion for  the  department  was  $3,802,420,  exclusive 
of  $720,000  for  the  agricultural  experiment  sta- 
tions. 

The  present  organization  and  main  lines  of 
work  of  the  department  are  shown  in  the  follow- 
ing table : 

ORGANTZATION  AND  WORK  OF  r>{ITED  STATES 
DEP.AETMENT  OF  AGRICULTUHE,  1903. 


Division. 

Scientific  and  Tech- 
nical Work. 

Athninistrative 
Work. 

Office   of  the 
Secbetart. 

Supervision  of  all 
public  bueinesB  re- 
lating; to  the  &sn- 
ciilturul  indugtry: 
appointment  and 
supervision  of  De- 
pjirtmunt  officura 
anil  cniplovees; 
care  of  Dei)artment 
Krniiiiiis,  buildings, 
supplies  and  other 
property. 

AGRICULTURE. 

Oboanization'  ani>  WiiKK  OF  Unitki>  States  Depaiit- 

MEST  OP   AgUICDLTUKC,   1902.— (CortttttUfid). 


221  AGRIMONY. 

Organization  and  Wohk  ■►f  iNiTEn  Statbb  Bbpabt- 
MENT  OP  Agricultiike,  ^902.— (Continued). 


Division. 


Wkatiier  Bubead 


BrREAi*  OP  Animal 

1KU08TRT. 


Bhrbau  op  Plant 
Indcstky. 


BtrnxAU  of  Chem- 
istry. 


BrREAL*  OF  Soils. 


Oppice  opExpeui- 
MENT    Stations. 


I>IVI8I0N     OF    FOR- 
B9TKT. 


Scienliflc  niul  Tecli- 
nicjil  Work. 


Reacarchee  i»  cli 
matologry  and  nic 
teorologip'. 


RcH-'urrhes  on  ani- 
mal diseases,  in- 
citulin<;  cliemical. 
bactL'iiological  and 
zordopical  investi- 
gations. 

Iiivesticratione  in 
dairying. 


Researcliee  in  eco. 
noniic  botiniy;  poi 
li'clion  and  niain- 
tijnmicc  of  National 
llcrhiirinni  ;  pnritj' 
and  vitality'  tests  o'f 
flceds. 

Researchee  on  phys 
ioloi^y  and  di^caeee 
of  plants ;  plant 
lirccdinjj:. 

Reswirrhes  on  the 
natunil  hiattn-y. 
goosrupliical  dis 
tribntiini.  and  utili- 
zatitiM  of  prnspep 
and  forae:c  plants 

Investigation  on  va- 
rieties of  fruits, 
with  special  refer- 
ence to  their  ndap- 
tahiiity  to  varioiiB 
soils  and  climates. 

Colli'Ction  of  seeds 
and  plants  from 
foreign  countrieti 
for  testiiig  at  the 
State  airricultural 
cTipcritnunt  eta- 
lions. 

Testing;  and  propa- 
gating economic 
plants. 

Researches  in  a<rri- 
cultural  chemistry, 
eiJpi^cially  on  foods, 
8u  gar -producing 
plants,  fertilizers, 
soils,  materials  for 
road  making,meth- 
odsof  analysis,  etc. 

Investijration,  sur- 
vey and  mapping 
tif  soils  ;  studies  in 
agricultural  phys- 
ics ;  investigations 
in  curing  and  fer- 
menting tobacco. 

Collect  i(ni  anil  dis- 
semination of  infor- 
mation regarding 
agricultural  educa- 
tion and  researcii 
in  the  United  States 
and  abroad.  In- 
vest i  gat  ions  on 
food  and  nutrition 
of  man  and  on  ir- 
rigation. 

Researelu's  on  nat- 
ural history,  biol 
ogy,  und  utilisiation 
of  forests  and  for- 
est trees. 


Administrative 
Work. 


Forecasting  weath- 
er: warning  against 
storms  and  lloods; 
maintenance  and 
operation  of  sea- 
cojist  telegraph 

lines  and  collection 
and  ti'ansmission 
of  marine  intelli- 
gence. 

Inspection  of  ini- 
pOTi  and  export 
animals  and  vestnels 
for  their  transpor- 
tation; supervision 
of  interstate  move- 
ment of  cattle  and 
inspection  of  live 
slock  and  their 
products  slaughter- 
ed for  food  con- 
sumption. 


piircbaee  and  dis- 
tribution of  seeds, 
lari:ely  thronph 
members    of   Con- 


Cnre  of  Department 
park  and  conserva- 
tories, ^lannge- 
ment  of  Arlington 
Experimental 
Farm. 


Supervision  of  ex- 
penditures of  agri- 
cultural experi- 
ment stations  in 
the  United  States ; 
maintenance  of  ex- 
perinunt  stations 
m  Alaska,  lliiwaii, 
and  Porto  Rico. 


Management  of 
forests  to  demon- 
strate economic 
possibilities  of  ra- 
tional treatment. 


DiTlSlON    OP    Bio- 

LouiOAL  Survey. 


Division  op  Ekto- 

UOLOGY. 


Office  of  PtrnLic 
RoAii  Inquiktes. 


The  Library. 


Division  op  Publi- 
cations. 


Division     of     Ac- 
counts ANO  Dis- 

JftUKSEilENTS. 


Scientific  and  Tech- 
nical VVurk. 


Administrative 

Work. 


Researches  on  geo- 
{Crraptiic  distriba- 
tion  of  animals  and 

!>lant.s;  nuipping  of 
ife  zones  ;  studies 
of  food  liabtis  of 
birds  and  mam- 
mals. 

Researches  on  life 
hietorv  an d  goo- 
graphic  distribu- 
tion of  insects,  and 
on  means  of  reiires- 
sion  of  injurious 
insects. 

Collection  and  dis 
semination  of  in 
formation  Tei,'ard- 
ing  road  manage- 
ment; exptiriuu-ntt' 
in  road  making. 

Prt'paration  of  raf- 
alogni'S,  i  nde  x  es, 
and  bibliographies 
on  agricultural 
subjects. 

Editing  of  Depart- 
ment pulilications. 
esjH'cially  the  Year- 
booJi. 


The  regulation  of 
t  h  e  lucroductiuu 
of  American  or 
foreign  birds  or 
animals  iu  locali- 
l  ies  w  here  tiu*y 
have  not  iicrctofore 
existed. 


Management  of  De- 
])artnient  library  of 
70.0U0  volumes, 
largely  mi  agricul- 
ture "and  agricul- 
tural science. 

Supervision  of  De- 
partment printing 
and  illuslratiiu)s  : 
distribution  of  pub- 
lications. 

Management  of  fi- 
nancial business  of 
Departm  ent,  in- 
cluding estimates. 
re(Hiisitions,  con- 
tracts and  l>ay- 
ments. 


AG'RIGENTUM  (Lat.  name  for  the  Gk. 
' Aufitiya^,  Ahratjas).  The  motleni  Girgenti,  a 
to\vn  on  the  southern  const  of  Sieily.  in  lat.  37" 
17'  N..  and  long.  1'^"  28'  E,,  founded  by  a  colony 
from  Gcla  {oS2  ii.c),  and.  in  the  earlier  ages, 
one  of  the  most  important  phtces  in  the  island. 
During  the  sixth  and  fifth  centuries  B.C.,  under 
various  rulers,  among  tiiem  the  tyrant  PliaUiris, 
it  rose  to  great  power  and  splendor,  having  a 
populatio!!  of  200.000.  It  was  utterly  destroyed 
by  the  Carthaginians  (405  B.C.),  and  it  never 
fully  recovered.  In  the  course  of  the  Punic  Wars, 
it  was  compelled  to  submit  to  the  Romans.  From 
S25  to  108G  A.D.  it  was  in  the  possession  of  the 
Saracens,  from  whom  it  was  conquered  by  Count 
Roger  Guiscard.  The  modern  Girgenti  has  about 
22,000  inhabitants,  and  is  the  capital  of  the 
province  of  the  same  name.  The  ancient  walls 
can  still  he  traced,  and  there  are  a  ntnnber  of 
picturesque  remains  of  temples  and  other  l)uild- 
ings  of  the  Greek  period.  The  best  preserved 
are  the  temple  of  Concord  and  the  so-called  tem- 
ple of  Hera  Lacinia  :  the  largest  is  the  unfinished 
temple  of  Zeus. 

AGTIIMONY  (Lat.  AffHmonia,  for  Gk.  nir-r. 
ficjvri,  (irtntnoiif,  a  kind  of  poppj').  A  genus  of 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Rosacea:.  The  com- 
mon agrimonj*  {Affrimonia  eupatoria)  is  a  native 
of  Great  Hritain  and  parts  of  Europe,  and  also 
is  found  in  the  United  States,  growing  in  bor- 
ders of  fields,  on  waysides,  etc.  It  has  an  up- 
right habit,  attains  a  heiglit  of  two  feet  or  more. 
and  has  interruptedly  pinnate  leaves,  with  the 
leaflets  aerrate  and  downy  beneath.     The  flowers 


AGRIMONY. 


222 


AGTIA. 


are  small  and  yellow,  in  close  racemes.  The 
whole  plant  has  a  pleasant,  slightly  aromatic 
smell,  and  is  bitter  and  styptic.  A  decoction  of 
it  is  used  as  a  gargle ;  the  dried  leaves  form  a 
kind  of  herb  tea,  and  the  root  has  some  celeb- 
rity as  a  vermifuge.  Very  similar  to  this  is 
Agrimonia  parviflora,  a  native  of  Virginia,  the 
Carolinas,  etc.,  which  has  a  very  agreeable  fra- 
grance. 

AGRIP'PA.      See  under  Herod. 

AGRIPPA,  HENEICU.S  Cornelius  ( 14SG-153.5 ) . 
A  cosmopolitan  physician,  philosopher,  and  writ- 
er, whose  genius  and  learning  had  a  tinge  of 
quackery.  He  was  born  at  Cologne,  September 
14,  1486.  At  the  age  of  twenty,  he  was  sent 
by  Emperor  Maximilian  on  a  diplomatic  mission 
to  Paris.  At  twenty-throe,  he  was  teaching  the- 
ology at  Dole,  in  the  Franche-Comte.  Here  he 
attacked  the  monks,  who  replied  with  an  accusa- 
tion of  heresy.  In  1.510,  he  reentered  the  diplo- 
matic service,  and  the  next  year  he  attended, 
as  theologian,  tlie  schismatic  Council  of  Pisa. 
In  151.5,  he  lectured  at  Pavia,  where  he  received 
a  doctor's  degree  in  law  and  medicine;  then, 
after  some  years  in  diplomatic  service,  he  became 
involved  once  more  in  .controversy  with  the 
Church,  for  his  bold  defense  at  Metz  of  a  woman 
accused  of  witchcraft.  He  practiced  medicine  at 
Geneva,  Fribourg.  and  Lyons,  and,  under  pres- 
sure of  poverty,  composed  a  keen  Latin  satire 
on  the  existent  state  of  science,  A  Dcrlnmatioii 
on  the  Uncertainty  and  Vanity  nf  the  Sciences 
and  Arts,  and  on  the  Excellence  of  the  Word  of 
God  (De  Inccrtitudine  et  Vanitate  Scicntianim, 
etc.)  (1527),  which  furnished  new  occasion  for 
malicious  accusation.  In  1529,  he  quarreled  with 
the  qucen-motlier.  Louise  of  Savoj',  and  left 
Lyons  for  the  Netherlands,  to  become  historiog- 
rapher of  the  Emperor  Charles  V..  of  whose 
reign  he  wrote  a  history.  His  salary  was  un- 
paid, and  he  was  imprisoned  and  finally  banished 
from  Cologne  for  debt.  He  found  a  brief  refuge 
at  Grenoble,  where  he  died,  February  18,  1533, 
onlj'  to  be  pursued  in  the  grave  by  a  spiteful 
epitaph  from  his  Dominican  enemies.  Agrippa 
was  a  man  of  clear  sight  and  keen  wit :  but  he 
lacked  stability,  seriousness,  and  discretion. 
His  Works  appeared  at  Lyons  in  two  volumes 
(1550).  They  are  analyzed  in  Henry  Morley's 
appreciative  Life  of  Aijrippa  (London.  1850). 
Noteworthy  are  Agrippa's  De  Occulta  Philoso- 
phia  (1510),  which  gives  an  account  of  the  Cab- 
bala (q.v.),  and  De  '^'obilitate  et  Prcecellentia 
Fcrminei  Scxiis    (1532). 

AGRIPPA,  JiARcr.s  Vipsanius  (63-12  B.C.). 
A  Roman  general  and  statesman.  Though  not  of 
high  birth,  he  rose  to  an  exalted  position  through 
his  own  talents.  He  first  married  Manclla.  llie 
niece,  and  then  Julia,  the  daughter,  of  Octavi- 
anus  (Augustus).  He  was  eminent  both  in  war 
and  in  peace;  and  as  a  general,  counselor,  and 
friend  of  the  Emperor,  did  good  service  to  him 
and  to  the  lioman  State.  As  a  general,  he  laid 
the  foundation  for  the  sole  dominion  of  Octavi- 
anus,  and  commanded  his  fleet  in  the  battle  of 
Actium  (q.v.).  He  was  generous,  upright,  and 
friendly  to  the  arts:  Rome  owed  to  him  the  res- 
toration and  construction  of  several  aqueducts, 
and  the  erection  of  the  Pantheon,  besides  other 
public  works  of  ornament  and  utility. 

AG'RIPPI'NA.  ( 1 )  The  daughter  of  M.  Vip- 
sanius Agrippa  (q.v.)  and  Julia,  daughter  of 
Augustus.     She  was  one  of  the  most  heroic  and 


virtuous  women  of  antiquity.  Slie  was  married 
to  Germanicus  (see  Germanicus  Cesar),  whom 
she  accompanied  in  all  his  campaigns.  She  open- 
ly accused  Tiberius  before  the  Senate  of  having 
hired  the  murderers  of  her  husband;  and  the 
tyrant,  who  hated  her  for  her  virtues  and  the 
esteem  in  which  she  was  held  Ijy  the  people,  ban- 
ished her  to  the  island  of  Pandataria,  near 
Naples,  whei'e  she  voluntarily  died  of  hunger 
(33  A.D.).  (2)  The  daughter  of  the  last  men- 
tioned, and  one  of  the  most  detestable  women 
that  ever  lived.  In  her  second  widowhood,  she 
induced  the  Emperor  Claudius,  her  own  uncle,  to 
marry  her,  and  espoused  his  daughter,  though 
already  betrothed  to  another,  to  her  son  Nero. 
In  order  to  bring  tlie  latter  to  the  throne,  she 
ruined  many  rich  and  noble  Komans,  excluded 
Britannicus,  the  son  of  Claudius  by  Messalina, 
and  finally  poisoned  the  Emperor,  her  husband. 
She  then  endeavored  to  govern  the  Empire 
through  her  son  Nero,  who  was  proclaimed  empe- 
ror ;  but  her  ascendency  proving  intolerable,  Nero 
caused  her  to  be  put  to  death  ( 59  a.d.  ) .  She 
enlarged  and  adorned  her  native  city,  Cologne, 
which  received  from  her  the  name  of  Colonia 
Agrippinensis. 

/^AG'ROPY'RON    ( Literally   field-wheat.     Gk. 

ajpof,  arjros,  field  +  ■^vpd^,  pyros,  wheat).  A 
genus  of  grasses  including  about  fifty  species, 
most  of  which  are  perennials.  A  number  are 
native  to  the  western  United  States,  where  they 
are  commonly  known  as  wheat  grasses,  and  are 
held  to  be  valuable  for  pasturage.  Other  species 
are  common  to  Europe  and  the  eastern  United 
States,  where  Agropi/ron  rcpciis,  often  called 
couch  grass  and  twitch  grass,  is  a  pest  to  agri- 
culture. It  has  a  long  rhizome  that  roots  at 
the  nodes,  and  if  plo\^•ed  or  harrowed  it  merely 
breaks  up  into  new  plants.  Therefore  it  is  hard 
to  eradicate.  Upon  tlie  Western  ranges,  however, 
it  is  deemed  a  good  hay  grass.  The  habits  of 
the  plants  enable  them  to  withstand  drought,  a 
characteristic  that  commends  them  in  the  large 
stock  regions.  Some  of  the  valuable  species  are 
Agropyron  caniiium,  bearded  wheat  grass:  Agro- 
pyroii  diverr/ens,  wire  bunch  grass;  Agropyron 
pseudo-repens,  western  couch  grass ;  Agropyron 
spicatuni,  western  wheat  grass:  and  Agropyron 
tencruin,  slender  wheat  grass.  In  Australia 
Agropyron  scabrum  is  considered  a  good  winter 
grass.  Some  of  the  species,  as  Agropyron  repens, 
are  recommended  as  binder  grasses  for  railroad 
embankments  and  otlier  places  liable  to  wash- 
outs. The  root  stalks  of  Agropyron  repens.  well 
known  in  medii  ine  under  the  name  I{<i<li.r  gram- 
inis,  have  diuretic  and  aperient  properties. 

AGTELEK,    og'te-lek,    or    AGGTELEK.     A 

village  of  Hungary,  in  the  county  of  Giimor, 
about  40  miles  west-southwest  of  Kaschau  (Map; 
Hungary,  G  2).  It  is  known  for  it.s  remarkable 
stalactite  cavern,  called  Baradla  (steaniing- 
place).  the  largest  in  the  world  after  the  Mam- 
moth Cave  in  Kentucky.  It  is  entered  through  an 
opening  scarcely  3  feet  high  bj-  5  feet  wide.  It 
consists  of  a  lab3'rinth  of  caverns  comnnuiicating 
with  one  another,  whose  cimibined  length  is 
about  five  miles.  The  largest  of  them  is  over  900 
feet  long  and  more  than  90  feet  in  lieight  and 
breadth."  Many  of  the  stalactitic  formations  are 
of  singular  and  fantastic  shape,  giving  rise  to 
the  names  borne  by  some  of  the  grottoes,  such  as 
the  Cathedral.  Paradise.  Flower  Garden,  etc. 
AGTJA,  ii'gwa.     A  South  American  toad{Bnfo 


AGTTA. 


223 


AGUILAR. 


niaii/iKs),  which  is  the  largest  load  known,  hciiig 
sonictinics  eight  inches  Ion-;.  It  became  a  pest  ii 
few  years  ago  in  Jamaica,  wliere  it' was  intro- 
duced in  !S44  as  an  encni,v  to  the  rats,  which 
were  devouring  the  sugar-cane.  It  multiplied 
excessivel.v,  and  althougli  it  destroyed  young 
rats,  hecamc  a  nuisance  hy  its  numbers,  noctur- 
nal hellowings,  and  destruction  of  ground-birds, 
chickens,  and  eggs.  It  has  since  l)ccome  less 
numerous  and  troublesome.  See  illustration  on 
Colored    Plate  accompanying  To.\n. 

AGTJA,  VolcAn-  pe,  viM-kan'  da  ii'gwa.  A 
conical  volcanic  mountain  in  (Juatcmala.  Central 
Ameri<a  (Map:  Central  America,  I?  ;i).  It  is 
over  15,000  feet  high,  and  has  a  ciater  about  100 
feet  in  diameter,  from  which  streams  of  hot 
water  are  occasionally  ejected.  Northwest  of 
Agua  are  situated  the  volcanoes  of  I'acoya  and 
Fuego.  The  old  town  of  Guatemala  was  de- 
stroyed in  1541  by  the  hot  water  eruption  of 
Agua. 

AGUADILLA,  a'gwa-De'l.ya.  The  chief  town 
of  the  department  of  the  same  name  (2.30  square 
miles,  pop.,  0!),ti45).  situated  on  tlu^  western 
coast  of  Porto  Rico  (Map:  Porto  Rico,  A  2). 
It  has  a  fine  bay  and  contains  an  old  church  and 
a  fort.  It  was"  founded  in  1775  and  unsuccess- 
fully attacked  by  the  British  in  17!t7.  Pop., 
ISItil,  G4-25. 

AGUADO^  a-gW!i'D6,  Ale.jandro  M.\niA,  Mar- 

<Jl-IS  OK  LAS  -MaRISMAS  IIKL  (  J  TAIIALQII  VIR    (  17S4- 

1842).  -\  celebrated  Spanish  financier  of  .lewish 
descent.  He  was  born  in  Seville,  and  in  Paris 
became  one  of  the  wealthiest  bankers  of  modern 
times.  During  the  Spanish  War  of  ln<lepcndcnce 
he  fought  with  distinction  with  lliose  who  sup- 
ported .loscph  Bonaparte.  Kxiled  in  1SI5,  he 
went  to  Paris  and  engaged  in  the  Ciiban  and 
Mexican  trade  and  in  banking.  Beginning  in 
1823,  he  negotiated  four  Spanish  loans,  thus 
saving  Spain  from  bankruptcy.  In  return,  Fer- 
dinand VII.  ennobled  him  and  gave  him  mining 
and  other  concessions.  He  was  naturalized  in 
France  in  1828,  and  at  his  death  left  a  fortune 
of  more  than  sixt.v  million  francs  and  a  splendid 
collection  of  pictures. 

AGUARA,  ii'gwiVra'.  or  GUARA,  gwa-rii' 
|nati\c  namcl.  A  Brazilian  native  nanu'  con- 
fusingly ajiplied  in  books  to  various  South  .\nier- 
ican  animals,  perhaps  most  strictly  to  the  crab- 
eating  dog  {('(inix  ninrrirnriis)  of  (Juiana.  In 
the  valle.v  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  A/.ara's  fox- 
dog  is  called  '"Aguara  chay,"  and  the  maned 
wolf  ".Xgnan'i  guazu."  Sec  Fox  l)o(i,  and 
Maxei)  Woi.f. 

AGUAS  CALIENTES,  ii'gw;-is  kii'h'-on'tAs. 
An  inhinil  State  of  ^Icxico.  with  an  area  of  29.50 
8q\iarc  miles  and  a  |iopiilntioii   (  1!100)   of  101.010. 

AGUAS  CALIENTES  (Sp..  Hot  Springs). 
The  caidtal  ot  tlic  State  of  Aguas  Calientes,  ;!00 
miles  northeast  of  Mexico  Cit.v  (Map:  Mexico,  H 
7).  It  is  situated  on  a  plateau  0000  feet  above  se:i 
level,  and  is  the  point  of  intersection  of  the  roads 
from  Mexico  to  Sonora  and  Durango,  and  that 
from  San  Luis  Potosf  to  Gniidalajara.  Besides 
the  cultivation  of  fields  and  gardens,  the  man- 
ufacture of  cloth  is  very  considerable,  and 
is  carried  on  by  the  factory  system.  It  is  the 
scene  of  a  great  fair,  iield  at  Christmas  time 
each  year,  and  lasting  two  weeks.  The  numerous 
hot  springs  of  the  surrounding  district  give  the 
town  its  name.  Pop.,  1800,  32.400;    1895,  30.900. 


A'GTTE  (  Fr.  (xi.<;ii,  from  Lat.  acuta  fchris,  acute, 
violent  fever),  I'lhris  intirmiltrns.  The  common 
name  for  intermittent,  or  malarial,  fever,  and 
chariicterizcd  by  certain  paroxysms.  Each  parox- 
ysm is  composed  of  three  stages.  In  the  first,  a 
cold  sensati(ui  crecjjs  up  the  back,  and  spreads 
over  the  body;  the  patient  shivers,  his  teeth  chat- 
ter, his  knees  knock  together;  his  face,  lips,  ears, 
:md  nails  turn  blue;  he  has  pains  in  his  head, 
b;ick,  and  loins.  During  this  stage  the  tempcra- 
tuie  rises  to  102°  or  even  to  105°  F.  This  con- 
dition is  succeeded  by  Hushes  of  heat,  the  coldness 
gives  place  to  warmth,  and  the  surface  regains 
its  natural  appearance.  The  warmth  continues 
to  increase,  the  face  becomes  reil  and  turgid,  the 
head  aches,  the  breathing  is  deep  and  oppressed, 
the  pulse  full  and  strong.  The  tempi'iatiire 
ranges  from  103°  to  105°  F.  The  third  stage 
now  comes  on;  the  skin  becomes  soft  and  moist, 
the  pulse  resumes  its  natural  force  and  frequen- 
cy, and  a  copious  sweat  breaks  from  the  whole 
body,  the  temperature  falls  to  the  norinal.  and 
the  patient  generally  sleeps. 

These  paroxysms  occur  at  regular  intervals. 
The  interval  between  them  is  called  '"an  inter- 
mission." When  they  occur  every  day.  the  pa- 
tient has  quotidian  ague:  every  second  da.y.  ter- 
tian: and  when  they  are  absent  for  two  days, 
i/uartan.  There  is  a  double  (jiiotiuian  form,  in 
which  there  are  two  complete  paroxysms  in 
ever,v  twenty-four  hours.  All  ages  are  liable  to 
this  disease.  For  the  cause  of  this  disease,  see 
M.\LARIA  AND  M.VLARIAI,  FeVER.  See  INTERMIT- 
TENT  Fever. 

AGTJESSEAtr,  a'gc-so'.  Henri  Francois  d' 
1  1008-1751  I.  A  distinguished  law.yer  and  chan- 
cellor of  France,  pronounced  by  Voltaire  the 
most  learned  magistrate  that  France  ever  pos- 
sessed. He  was  born  at  Limoges,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Haute-Vienne.  He  received  his  earliest 
education  from  his  father,  and  devoting  himself 
to  the  study  of  law,  becanu^  aroval-t/i'ncrul  at 
Paris  in  1090,  and  at  the  age  of  thirt.y-two,  pro- 
ciircur-iicncral  of  the  parlcmcnt.  While  holding 
this  olfice  he  effected  many  improvements  in  the 
hiws  and  the  administration  of  justice.  A  steady 
defender  of  the  rights  of  the  ])eo[)le  and  of  the 
(Jallican  Church,  he  successfully  opposed  the 
decrees  of  Louis  XIV.  and  the  Chancellor  Voisin 
in  favor  of  the  papal  bull  Vnifftnitus  (q.v.). 
During  the  regency,  he  became  chancellor,  but 
after  a  year  (1718)  fell  into  disgrace  through 
opposing  Law's  system  of  finance,  and  retired  to 
his  country  scat  at  Fresnes,  Returning  to  office 
in  1720.  he  was  exiled  a  second  time  for  his  oppo- 
sition to  Cardinal  Dubois.  In  1727,  he  obtained 
from  Cardinal  Fleury  permission  to  return,  and 
in  1737  he  resinned  the  otfice  of  chancellor,  in 
which  he  remained  till  1750.  His  works  have 
been  published  in  thirteen  volumes  (Paris,  1759- 
80,  ISIO)  ;  IaIIiis  incditcs  (Paris,  1823).  Con- 
sult ^lonnier,  Le  Chancelier  d'Aguesseau  (Paris, 
1S04). 

AGUILAR,  ii'gMiir'.  Grace  (1810-47).  An 
Knglish  writer  of  Jewish  parentage.  She  was 
born  at  Haeknc,y,  and  fiist  became  known  by 
two  works  on  her  own  religion.  Tlic  Siiiril  of 
Judaism  (first  published  in  .America,  1842), 
and  Thr  Jcici.th  Faith  (lS4(i),  in  the  former  of 
which  she  attacked  the  fornnilism  and  tradition- 
alism of  .ludaism.  ami  insisted  on  its  spiritual 
and  moral  aspects.  She  also  wrote  much  fiction, 
more  or  less  of  a  religious  character,  of  which 


k 


AGUILAR. 


224 


AGUIRBE. 


only  the  most  popular  story.  Home  Influence 
(1S47,  and  about  thirty  subsequent  editions), 
was  published  during  her  lifetime.  The  further 
titles  include  A  Mother's  Recompense  (1850), 
The  Vale  of  Cedars  (1850),  and  The  Days  of 
Bnicr    (1S52). 

AGUILAR  DE  LA  FRONTEBA,  ii'gj-lar' 
da  la  froii-ta'ra.  A  town  of  Andalusia,  Spain, 
in  the  province  of  Cordova,  occupying  the  sum- 
mits and  slopes  of  several  low  hills  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Cabra,  an  affluent  of  the  Genii,  26 
miles  south-southeast  of  Cordova  ( Map :  Spain, 
C  4 ) .  The  surrounding  country  is  very  fer- 
tile, and  abounds  in  vineyards  and  orange  groves. 
Many  of  the  houses  are  of  three  stories,  and  the 
town  .is  remarkable  for  the  whiteness  of  its 
houses  and  the  cleanliness  of  its  streets.  It  has 
several  handsome  sqiuxrcs,  a  fine  parish  church, 
a  monastic  chui'ch  containing  examples  of  many 
famous  Spanish  masters,  and  a  dismantled  Moor- 
ish castle.  The  chief  trade  is  in  corn  and  wine. 
There  are  salt  springs  in  its  neighborhood.  Pop., 
1900,    13,311. 

AGUILAS,  ii'ge-las.  A  sea-port  town  of 
southern  Spain  (Map:  Spain,  E  4).  It  is  situa- 
ted in  the  province  of  JV'lurcia,  on  the  Aguilas- 
Lorca-Murcia  Raihvay.  It  has  a  good  harbor, 
and  its  port  fonns  the  chief  outlet  for  the  min- 
eral products  of  the  siirrounding  country.  It 
contains  several  smelting  works.  Pop.,  1900, 
15,753. 

AGTIILERA,  a'ge-la'ra,  Vextura  Rnz(1820- 
81).  A  Spanish  lyric  poet,  called  "the  Spanish 
Beranger."  He  was  born  at  Salamanca,  and  in 
1843  went  to  Madi'id  to  study  poetry  and  politi- 
cal journalism.  Here  he  occupied  important 
official  positions  under  the  liberal  ministries.  The 
journals  edited  or  controlled  by  him  were  char- 
acterized by  bold  ideas  and  keenness  of  criti- 
cism; and  in  these,  as  also  in  his  Sati/rns  and  in 
the  poems  entitled  Ecos  Xacionales,  he  endeavors 
to  arouse  the  masses  to  a  sense  of  their  national 
dignity.  His  most  important  works  are  the  col- 
lections of  poems  entitled  Elegias  (1862)  ;  Armo- 
nias  y  cnntnres;  La  Arrndia  moelema ;  and  Le- 
yenda  de  norhe-hiirna  (1872).  Several  collections 
of  his  prose  ^xritings.  which  consist  mostly  of 
short  novels,  have  been  published.  An  edition  of 
his  complete  woYks  appeared  at  Madrid  in  1873. 
and  selections  from  his  poems  weie  published 
under  the  respective  titles,  Inspiraciones  (ISd'S) , 
and   Pocsifis    (1880). 

AGUINALDO,  ji'gfi-niil'do,  Em-elio  (.1870—). 
The  leader  of  Filipino  insurrections  against 
Spain  and  the  United  Stales.  He  was  the  young- 
est of  three  children,  and  was  educated,  first,  in 
his  native  town,  and  afterward  at  the  College  of 
San  Juan  de  Letrfln  in  Manila.  At  this  institu- 
tion, which  is  conducted  by  Dominican  friars,  he 
remained  for  four  years.  In  coui-se  of  time  he 
became  yohenindorcillo,  or  mayor  of  (!avit(^  Vicjo, 
and  was  acting  as  such  upon  the  outbreak  of  the 
insurrection  in  August,  1800.  Owing  to  his  prom- 
inent ]>artiripation  in  this  uprising,  he  went  to 
Hong  Kong,  consenting  to  a  permanent  exile 
from  the  islands  on  condition  of  a  large  payment 
on  the  part  of  Sjjain.  In  1898  he  returned  to 
Manila,  for  the  avowed  purpose,  it  was  said,  of 
aiding  the  United  States  in  the  war  against 
Spain,  and  immediately  after  the  battle  of 
Manila  organized  an  insurrection,  which  soon 
assumed  proportions  unp.aralleled  in  the  history 
of  the  archipelago.     In  this  movement  he  dis- 


played great  ability  and  extrao)-dinary  personal 
magnetism. _  Of  the  twenty-six  province's  of  Luzon, 
nearly  all  'were  soon  in  open  rebellion,  and  in 
the  course  of  several  months  probably  15.00(J 
Spaniards  were  captured  and  more  than  2009 
driven  out  of  the  islands.  During  the  campaign 
Ag-uinaldo  was  engaged  in  considerable  diplo- 
matic fencing  with  the  United  States.  In  .June, 
1898,  he  organized  a  pTovisional  government, 
consisting  of  officers  of  his  staff,  as  well  as 
several  of  his  relatives  and  friends;  and  in  Aug- 
ust of  the  same  year  this  body  appointed  him 
generalissimo  of  the  Filipinos  and  president  of 
the  revolutionary  government.  In  July  he  ad- 
dressed an  apjieal  to  the  Powers  for  the  rec^ 
nit.ion  of  Filipino  independence.  In  1899  he  as- 
sumed the  offensive  against  the  United  States, 
beginning  operations  by  an  attack  upon  Manila, 
Feliniary  4-5,  in  whicli  he  was  unsuccessful. 
During  1899  there  were  a  number  of  severe  eii- 
gagements.  Finally,  the  native  troops  were  so 
hard  pressed  by  the  Americans  that  Aguinaldo, 
after  repeatedly  reTiio-\-)iig  his  ca]iital.  was  com- 
pelled to  flee  to  the  mountains.  Here  the  fight- 
ing was  continued  witli  varying  success  until 
March  23,  1901,  when  Aguinaldo  was  captured 
by  Brigadier-General  Frederick  Funston  at  Pala- 
wan, province  of  Isabella,  Luzon,  and  brought  ta 
Manila.  On  April  2,  1901,  he  formally  took  ikt 
oath  of  allegiance  to  the  United  States. 

AGtriRRE,  ,a-ger'ra,  LorE  de  (c.  1507-Gl).  A 
Spanish  c.\:plorer  in  Peru,  known  as  the  "traitor" 
and  "tyrant."  He  was  born  in  Ofiate  in  tbe 
piovince  of  Biscay,  and  came  to  America  at  an 
early  age.  He  "\\as  in  Peru  dxning  the  period 
of  the  insuri'ections  -which  followed  the  subju- 
gation of  the  Ineas,  and  took  an  active  part  in 
most  of  them.  The  tnrliulent  spirits  wlio  sui"- 
vived  these  repeated  uprisings  were  finally  influ- 
enced to  join  an  expedition  to  search  for  El 
Dorado  under  Pedro  de  Ursua.  They  crossed  the 
Andes  and  started  down  the  headwaters  of  the 
Amazon  in  the  early  summer  of  1560.  Aguirre 
brought  about  the  deatli  of  Ursua,  and  gained 
gi-eat  influence  over  Fernando  de  Guzman, 
Ui'sua's  successor.  He  then  forced  his  compan- 
ions to  renounce  their  allegiance  to  Spain  and 
to  recognize  Guzman  as  King  of  Tierra  Firme 
and  Peru.  He  deteimined  to  abandon  the  search 
for  El  Dorado  and  return  to  Peru,  conquer  that 
country,  and  establish  an  independent  kingdom 
there.  Shortly  afterward  the  newly  made  king 
opposed  some  of  his  plans,  and  .\guirrc  there- 
upon murdered  him,  together  with  his  closest 
frieiuls.  Continuing  down  the  Amazon.  Aguirre 
made  his  way  by  one  of  that  river's  tribtl- 
taries  to  the  Orinoco,  where  he  built  large  ves- 
sels, in  which  he  sailed  to  the  island  of  Mar- 
gaiita.  Yie  was  forced,  however,  to  abandon  the 
plan  of  fighting  his  way  across  Panama  and  to 
Peru.  Instead,  he  landed  on  the  coast  o"f  Vene- 
zuela, marched  inland,  and  was  lirought  to  bav 
and  killed  at  Baiquisimcto,  early  in  Xovembcr, 
1561.  His  last  act  was  to  kill  his  owni  daiighter 
with  a  poniard.  In  a  letter  addressed  to  King 
Philip  II.,  he  declared  that  he  had  killed  twenty 
persons  during  the  voyage  do^nn  the  Amazon, 
and  the  recorded  list  of  those  he  ordered  mur- 
dered is  more  than  sixty,  including  women  and 
priests. 

Brm.TOGRAPTiY.  Simon.  The  Cruise  of  the 
Traitor  Afinirrc.  translated  by  IMavkliam  and 
Bollaert,  Chapter  XL,  Hakhiyt  Society  Publica- 
tion No.  28    (London,   18G1).     This  account  of 


AGUIRRE.  225 

tlu-  oxpodition  was  (ifii\r.l  from  iiiciuhors  "f  the 
party.  C\in<iilt  alsii  Haiidolior,  The  Oildcd  Han 
(Xc»-  York.   lS!t3l. 

AGUJA,  u-iiixr'na  (Ciiliaii.  probably  corruplod 
from  Portu;j.  uflnlha.  nriulhno.  spear-fish).  A 
large,  voracious  garfish  {Ti/htisiirus  foflialnr)  of 
the  coasl  of  western  Me.^ieo,  held  in  preat  dread 
bv  fishenm-ii.  The  iian«>  (also  sjielled  a-eivjon) 
is  extended  to  various  related  species  of  the  West 
Indies  and  iiei<;hboiing  coasts.     Sec  KEEnt.EFlSH. 

AGULHAS,  ii-s^T^yas  (rVirJtijr.  needles  >, 
C^fE,  Tlio  most  southern  ]>oin1  of  Africa,  alvml 
100  miles  psstsoutheast  of  llie  Ca^»e  of  Oood 
Hcipc,  in  lat.  34°  51'  S..  loufr.  lfl°  -VV  K..  with  a 
lijrhthonse  <>iyvtod  in  IS+lt  at  an  elevation  of  "li 
f^'t  (Map:  Cajx'  fVilony.  F  1M,  The  Asntlhas 
Bank  extends  along  the  whole  southern  coast  of 
Africa.  It  is  :!W»0  miles  in  lenirth.  and  opposite 
the  O^qie  of  <TOod  Hope  as  ninch  as  2Wl  in 
breadth. 

AGtrSTIN,       a'gftos-ten'.        Spe       Imuai)E, 

A(il  STIX    KC. 

AGTJSTINA,  H'swis-t^'na  (?-lfl.~).  The 
"Maid  i)f  Sarapiss;)."  A  iira»dirrr  in  the  Span- 
ish arniy.  She  distinsrtiished  herself  during  the 
siege  of  Sarajrossa,  180S-09,  by  heroic  parti<ijia- 
tion  in  several  severe  encounters  with  the  French. 
Onee  slie  siwtehed  the  fuse  from  a  falling  c;in- 
nonier  and  fired  the  gun  at  the  enemy,  gaining 
by  this  act  the  name  of  "La  Artillcra."  She  was 
n'lade  suh-licutenant  in  the  Spanish  army,  and 
presented  vith  many  decorations.  Kyron  sings 
her  praises   in   Child-c   UnroM    (t'anto  i.   .54-S<5). 

AGTJTAINO,  ii'gtto-tr'no.  A  ilalay  people  on 
Agutaiiio  Island.     See  PhiliiTIXES. 

A'HAS  (Heb.  father's  brothor).  King  of 
Israel  from  87,'>  to  S53  B-C-,  tlw  son  and  succes- 
sor of  Omri  (I,  Kings  xri  :  2J>^xxii  :  ■^^^).  Tlie 
story  of  his  rciga  is  told  at  greater  length  than 
that  of  any  other  monarch.  Intt  the  narrative, 
in  the  opinion  of  many  Bible  critics,  is  deriv<>d 
from  two  different  scnuecs,  which  dill'er  as  to  the 
point  of  view  frimi  which  the  events  in  .Xhab's 
reign  are  viewed.  The  one  ix-presents  the  attitude 
of  tile  Yalnveh  purists,  the  other  a  i>atriotic  ad- 
miration of  Ahab's  Itravery  and  vigorous  policy, 
by  means  of  which  Ahab  succ«'ded  in  checking  the 
ad\anee  <if  the  Aramaic  kingdom,  wliose  seat  was 
«t  Damascu>.  Tliis  Syrian  State,  which  could 
easily  combine  witJi  the  enemies  of  the  Hebrews 
— Moab  and  Kdom  more  ]iar1icularly — was  the 
great  danger  that  thrc\ateiie<i  tin'  ver_\'  existence 
of  the  Israelitish  kingdom.  Ahab  not  only  held 
Menhadad  at  bay,  but  ictaincd  contnd  over  Moab, 
to  whicli  the  inscription  of  King  Mesha  of  Moab 
(see  Mo.MtlTE  Stoxk)  Wars  witTOSs.  Xo  less 
than  tliree  campaigns  were  waged  against  S\Tia. 
In  llu'  first  two,  Ahab  was  snccessful ;  and  in  the 
interval  between  the  second  and  third,  Renhadad 
and  .\hab  joinwl  forces  to  withstand  an  att^ick 
of  the  .Assyrian  king,  Shalmanesn^r  11.  Tlic  lat- 
U-r  in  his  inscription  mentions  Ahab,  and  plac<'s 
the  size  of  the  force  furnished  by  him  a1  1200 
chariflts,  liOO  hois*>men,  and  i;0,000  soldiers. 
The  Assyrian  kings  were  fond  of  exaggerating, 
after  a  victory,  the  strengtli  of  their  oppcmcnts, 
and  the  figures  mentioned  are  jirohably  too  liigh. 
Shalmaneser  met  the  combination  of  PaV-stinian 
and  Syrian  forces  at  Karkar,  near  the  river 
Orontes.  and  claims  to  have  gained  a  great  vic- 
tory. If  this  be  so.  the  eonseqtiences  do  not 
appear  to  have  been  of  any  moment,  for  shortly 


AHAZ. 


aftiTwaril  Assyrian  armies  are  again  obliged  to 
undertake'  an  expedition  to  tlie  west.  .Shortly 
after  the  battle  of  Karkar,  Ahab's  relations  with 
Henhadad  are.  again  hostile,  and  he  combines 
with  .Tehoshaphat,  Kingof  .Indah,  in  a  mov<-mcnt 
to  cru>ii  Aram.  The  Hebrews,  however,  are  de- 
feated, and  .\hali  himself  is  slain.  Ahab.  while 
a  follower  of  Yahwi'h,  did  not  hesitate,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  tenib-ncy  showii  by  vigorous 
rulers,  to  seek  the  helo  of  other  powers.  His 
marriage  to  .le-zebel,  daughter  of  Ethbaal.  the 
King  of  Tyre  (sc^e  .1ose]]hus,  Antiq.,  viii.  KM), 
led  to  the  introdtiction  of  the  worship  of  Mel- 
kart,  the  Raal  of  Tvre,  as  part  of  the  official 
cttlt-  That  .\hal)  did  not  regard  such  an  act  as 
hostik-  to  \"ahwch  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  his 
chiMren  liear  namet.  in  which  Yahweb  appears  as 
an  element  (.Ichoram,  Ahaziah,  Athaliah),  but 
in  the  eyes  of  a  7x-alous  Yahwist,  like  the  prophet 
Elijah,  such  conduct  was  reprchensiltle,  and  a 
conlli<t  ensm-s  between  tlie  king  and  the  prophet. 
The  story  of  the  conflict,  which  covers  chapters 
xvii-xix.  of  I,  Kings,  is  embellished  with  forceful 
incidents,  all  intended  to  bring  <mt  the  superior- 
ity of  Kiijah  and  to  show  Ahab  in  the  light  of 
a  wicked  and  sinful  king,  which  he  assuredly  was 
m>l.  It  must  Ix'  admitted,  however,  tliat  his 
ptdiey  was  a  purely  sivular  one.  and  that  he  was 
guided  by  political  and  not  religious  considera- 
tions ill  his  various  acts.  So.  the  severest  charge 
brmight  against  him.  his  a^juiescence  in  the 
judicial  murder  of  \abotli,  which  was  brought 
about  by  Jezebel,  apjiears  in  a  less  opprobrious 
liglit  if  we  ixK-all  that  the  questicm  of  royal  au- 
thority was  at  stake,  and  that  Ahab  could  not 
alTord  to  risk  his  position  among  his  people  as 
their  lord  and  master  by  yiidding  (o  any  opposi- 
tioti.  however  justified,  against  a  rinal  request. 
(See  Jk/ebeu)  The  story  that  the  blixid  of 
Ahab's  ixidy  was  licked  up  by  dogs  is  an  illustra- 
tion of  the  uncompromising  attitude  towanl  him 
by  the  prophetical  writers. 

AHANTA,  a-hiin'ta.  A  i>ortioii  of  the  Tiiitish 
colon,'*-  of  G<ild  Coast  in  West  .\friea,  fomierly 
belonging  to  the  Dutch,  who  founded  the  settle- 
ment <if  .\xii]i. 

AHASTJERtTS,  ;ih.=\j:'fi-e'n1s.  The  name  by 
which  two  kings  of  Media  and  Persia  arc  men- 
tioned in  the  ]?ibh'.  One  and  the  best  known 
is  the  monarch  in  Esther's  days  (sec  Esther), 
who  is  the  same  as  the  Persian  king  Khshayar- 
sha,  corresponding  as  is  now  generally  recognized 
to  Xerxes  (48.V'iKi5  B.C.)  ;  the  identity  of  the 
other,  referred  to  as  the  father  of  Darius  the 
Mede  in  the  IJook  of  Daniel  (chapter  ix  :  1 ) .  can- 
not he  determined.  The  Hebrew  form  of  the 
nami'  is  Acba-iverosJi,     See  Xekxes. 

AHASUERUS.  ( 1 )  The  name  of  the  H'niirfcr- 
hici  .Ictr  I  q.v.) ,  according  tn  one  legend.  (2)  The 
title  of  a  drama  by  Edgar  (>)uinet  (published 
1SS31    based  on  thip  same  story. 

A'HAZ  (neb.,  he  has  taken  hold).  Son  of 
Jolhani,  and  eb'veuth  king  of  .Indah.  who  ruled 
from  731;  to  T'JS,  though,  acciu'iling  to  some  schol- 
ars, his  reign  lasted  till  Tl.'i  n.c.  His  rule  was 
marked  by  disturbances,  conlliets  witli  surronnd- 
ing  nations,  and  innovations  in  religious  rites. 
Early  in  his  reign  Pekah,  King  of  Israel,  and  Re- 
ziii.  King  of  Syria,  undertook  to  conquer  the  king- 
dom of  .ludah,  and  besieged  .lerusalem,  but  did 
not  take  the  city  ( Isaiali  vii  :  1).  though  they 
carried  awa,v  many  ea]>tives  (II.  (Mironicles 
xxviii :  5) .   Incursions  were  made  by  the  Edomites 


AHAZ. 


226 


AHLWARDT. 


and  Philistines,  and  Ahaz  asked  help  of  Tiglath- 
Pileser.  King  of  Assj'ria  ill.  Kings  xvi  :  7.  II. 
Chronicles  xxviii  :  10-22),  who  drove  out  the  in- 
vaders, but  took  heavy  toll  from  Ahaz,  compel- 
ling him  to  appear  at  Damascus  as  a  vassal. 
While  there,  Ahaz  saw  an  altar,  and  ordered 
Uriah,  the  high  priest,  to  build  one  like  it.  On 
this  Ahaz  made  sacrifices;  but  he  went  further. 
He  broke  up  the  sacred  vessels,  closed  th<"  doors 
of  the  temple,  sacrificed  to  Syrian  deities,  and 
caused  his  son  to  pass  through  the  fire  to  Moloch 
(II.  Chronicles  x.wiii  :  .3,22-26).  Isaiah  (chap- 
ters ii-v)  furnishes  a  sad  picture  of  condi- 
tions prevailing  in  Judea  in  the  days  of 
Ahaz.  frivolity,  perversion  of  justice,  avarice, 
oppression,  besides  infidelity  toward  Yahweh,  be- 
ing among  the  charges  brought  by  the  prophet 
against  the  king  and  his  court.  His  name  ap- 
pears on  the  Assyrian  monuments  under  the 
form  Ya-u-ha-zi,  from  which  the  conclusion  seems 
justified  that  the  full  name  of  the  king  was 
Jehoahaz    ("Yaluveh  has  taken  hold"). 

A'HAZI'AH  (Heb.  sustained  by  the  Lord). 
The  name  of  two  kings  mentioned  in  the  Bible. 
( 1 )  The  son  and  successor  of  Ahab.  and  eighth 
king  of  Israel,  whose  reign  mav  be  approxiraatelv 
fixed  at  853-852  B.C.  He  followed  his  father's  ex'- 
ample  in  his  devotion  to  the  Phcenician  Baal. 
On  his  accession,  the  Moabites  revolted,  refusing 
to  pay  tribute,  and  before  he  could  make  prep- 
arations to  go  against  them,  he  fell  from  a  win- 
dow of  his  palace.  He'  sent  messengers  to  the 
god  Baal  Zebub  of  Ekron  to  know  the  result  of 
his  injuries,  but  the  messengers  met  Elijah,  the 
prophet  of  Yahweh.  on  the  way,  who  sent  them 
back  with  word  that  the  king  would  sxirely 
die  (II.  Kings,  chapter  i).  Upon  his  death 
Joram,  his  brother,  came  to  the  throne.  (2)  Son 
of  Jchoram  and  of  Ahab's  daughter,  Athaliah 
(II.  Kings  viii:  25-27),  the  sixth  king  of  .Tudah. 
who  is  called  Azariah  (II.  Chronicles  xxii  :0) 
and  .lehoahaz  (II.  Chronicles  xxi  :  17).  He  took 
part  with  his  uncle,  Jehoram,  of  Israel,  in  the 
latter's  campaign  against  Hazael,  King  of  Syiia, 
in  which  the  two  kings  were  defeated  (II.  Kings 
viii:  28-29:  IT.  Chronicles  xxii:  5).  Ahaziah 
was  soon  after  slain  by  .Jehu  (842  B.C.)  (II. 
Kings  ix  :  27 :  IT.  Clnonicles  xxii  :  7-9),  after  a 
reign  of  only  one  year  (II.  Kings  viii  :  20;  II. 
Chronicles  .xxii  :  2). 

AHEAD'.     See  Bearing. 

AHIMELECH,  a-hlm'elek  (Heb.,  brother  of 
tlie  kingl.  A  .lewisli  higli  priest  who.  accord- 
ing to  I.  Samuel  xxii:  11,  was  the  son  of  Ahitub. 
Some  scholars  are  of  the  opinion  that  he  is  iden- 
tical with  Ahijah,  who  is  also  spoken  of  as  a 
son  of  Ahitub (1.  Samuel  xiv  :  3).  JIelek."king." 
being  a  title  of  Yahweh.  it  might  be  used  inter- 
changeably with  Jah.  but  it  seems  more  plausible 
to  assume  that  Ahijah  and  Ahimclecli  were 
brothers,  and  that  Ahimelech  succeeded  Ahijah 
in  the  oHice  of  high  priest.  When  David,  warned 
by  Jonathan,  fled  from  Saul,  Ahimelech.  at  Xob. 
fed  him  with  tlie  shew-bread,  gave  him  the  sword 
of  Goliath,  and  assisted  him  to  escape  (I.  Samvi- 
el  xxi  :  1-10).  For  this  offense  Saul  put  .Ahim- 
elech and  his  whole  priestly  household  to  death, 
only  one  man.  .\biathar,  escaping  ( I.  Samuel 
xxi'i  :  11-20). 

AHITH'OPHEL  (Heb..  brother  of  folly,  i.e., 
foolish).  .\  native  of  (iiloli  in  .Tudca :  privy 
coiinselor  of  David,  and  probably  grandfaHier  of 
Bathshttba    (II.    Samuel   xi:3;'xxiii   34).     He 


was  trusted  implicitly  by  David,  as  well  as  by 
Absalom,  whose  revolt  he  joined  (II.  Samuel 
xvi:  23;  XV:  12).  Hushar,  "David's  friend," 
also  counseled  Absalom,  but  with  a  view  to  help- 
ing David  (II.  Samuel  xvi  :  10:  xvii  :  16),  and 
his  counsel  of  delay  prevailed  over  Ahithophcl's 
plan  of  quick  action  ( Tl.  Samuel  xvii  :  1-14). 
Hereupon  Ahithophel,  in  despair,  went  home,  put 
his  household  in  order  and  hanged  himself  (II. 
Sanuiel  xvii  :  23) . 

AHLEFELDT,  a'le-fglt,  Ellsa  Da^tdia  Mar- 
GAUETiiA,  Cou.VTEss  (1790-1855).  A  German 
woman  noted  for  her  patriotism  and  her  love  of 
letters.  She  was  born  in  Denmark,  and  in  ISIO 
became  the  wife  of  JIajor  von  Liitzow,  a  German 
officer,  whom  she  accompanied  on  his  campaigns. 
She  distinguished  herself  by  her  care  of  the 
wounded  on  the  battlefield.  In  1824  she  sepa- 
rated from  her  husband,  and  lived  for  a  time 
with  the  author  Immermann. 

AHLFELD,  iil'fcdt,  Joha.xn  Friedrich  (1810- 
1SS4).     A  Lutheran  pulpit  orator.     He  was  born 
at  Mehringen,  Anhalt;  studied  at  the  University 
of    Halle     (1830-33);    taught    and    preached    in 
various   places  till  in   1847  he  became  pastor  in    • 
Halle,  whence  in   1851   he  went  to  the  Nicolai-     ,' 
kirche  in  Leipzig.     There,  till  his  resignation  in      5 
1881,  he  wielded  a  great  spiritual  influence  as     • 
a  leading  evangelical.     He  died  in  Leipzig.     He     ] 
published  several  volumes  of  sermons.     Consult 
his  Life   (Halle,  1885). 

AHLGREN,  al'gren,  Erx,st,  pen  name  of  Vic- 
TouiA  Maria  Be.xedictssox,  iiie  Bruzelius 
(1S50-188S).  A  Swedish  author.  She  was 
born  at  Domme,  near  Trelleborg  (Scania), 
and  in  1871  married  Christian  Benedictsson, 
postmaster  of  Hiirby.  In  conseriuence  of  ill- 
ness and  of  great  worry,  she  committed  suicide 
at  Copenhagen,  whither  she  had  gone  in  1S88. 
Her  collection  of  novels,  entitled  Fran  f<kaiie 
(Stockholm,  1884),  and  the  satirical  narrative 
I'cnningar  (Money,  Stockholm,  1885;  second 
edition,  1889)  soon  made  her  name  known  fa- 
vorably throughout  Sweden,  A\here  she  was  after- 
ward regarded  as  the  most  distinguished  among 
the  younger  woman  writers.  Her  works  are 
characterized  by  marked  simplicity  of  style  and 
a  powerful  and  artistic  description  of  life. 
Among  them  niaj'  be  mentioned  Fru  Marianne 
(Stockholm,  1887;  second  edition.  1890);  Folk- 
lif  och  Sma  Berattcher  (Stockholm,  1888); 
Ih'riiftchrr  och  Vflcast  (Stockholm,  1888); 
Fomeos  Julia,  a  drama  (1888)  ;  Final,  a  drama 
(in  collaboration  with  A.  LundgSrd,  Stockholm, 
1885). 

AHLQUIST,  -iKkvist,  Aiorsx  E.vgelbert 
(182C-S9).  A  Finnish  philologist  and  poet,  pro- 
fessor of  Finnish  literature  at  Helsingfors.  He 
was  distinguished  for  ethnographic  investiga- 
tions, especially  of  the  dialects  and  races  of  the 
Ural-Altaic  family.  In  1847  he  started  a  Fin- 
nish journal.  He  translated  some  of  Schiller's 
works  into  Finnish,  and  wrote  poems.  His  more 
important  original  works  are:  Tl'o(is7i  Orammar 
(Helsingfors,  1885)  ;  An  Attempt  at  a  Moksha- 
.)[ordtrinian  Grammar  (St.  Petersburg,  1861); 
Tlir  SInirtnrr  of  the  Finnish  Language   (1877). 

AHLWARDT,  iil'vlirt,  Herma.vx  (1840—). 
.\  German  politician  an.l  anti-Semitic  agitator. 
He  was  born  at  Krien,  Prussia,  and  al>oiit  1890 
joined  the  anti-Semitic  movement.  He  published 
a   number  of  writings  under  the  titles  of  Der 


AHLWARDT. 


227 


AHMES. 


yer:icei/lu)ir!>ih(iiiiiil'  tkr  Arisclicit  Vulkcr  mit 
den  /ik/oi  '  (ISiiO)  ;  Kid  ciiics  ,lu<kii  (IHOl); 
Jiidischc  T'lKtik-  (1892);  and  JucUii/lintcn 
(1S1I2).  in  wliifh  last-mentioiu'd  paniplilct  lie 
declared  tliat  Ludwig  Liiwe  &  Co.  had  fur- 
nished wortliless  guns  to  the  army,  and  liad  been 
hired  hy  the  AllUince  Isnulitc  to  cheat  the  (Jer- 
man  (JovcrMnient.  These  charges  were  dechired 
by  Chancclhir  von  Caprivi  to  be  false,  but  the 
popularity  of  the  agitation  steadily  increased: 
and  Ahhvai-dl  was  elected  dc|iuty  to  tlu'  Reichs- 
tag in  ISHi.  and  reelected  in  lSl):i.  lie  visited 
the  I'nited  States  in  18!)5.  for  the  purpose  of 
fstalili-^hing  an  anti-Semitic  propaganda  here, 
hut   failed  iif  his  object. 

AHLWARDT,  Wiliiel.m  (1S2S— ).  A  Ger- 
man orientalist.  He  studied  Oriental  languages 
at  Grcifswald.  his  native  city,  and  at  Giittingen, 
and  afterward  devoted  himself  to  an  analytical 
investigation  of  the  Arabic  nuinuscripts  in  the 
libraries  at  d'otha  and  Paris.  He  became  second 
librarian  and  professor  of  Oriental  languages 
at  tin-  University  of  Grcifswald  in  IStil.  The 
following  arc  a  few  of  his  iiioie  important  works 
on  Arabic  pliilology  and  literature:  Vcbcr  Pucsic 
vtid  Porta-  drr  Arahcr  ((Jolha.  ISSO)  :  The 
Dirnns  of  the  .S'i.r  .l)iririit  Ar(fliir  Poctf:  (London, 
1870 1.  He  also  edited  the  following  works  by 
Arabic  authors:  F.lfachri  (Icscliirhtr  drr  isln- 
tnischen  Peiche.  .  .  ■  voii  Ibii  Eltigthaqn; 
(Gotha.  ISfiO)  :  Chalef  Elahmar's  Kasside(Ore\U- 
wald,  18511)  ;  and  Uiwan  drs  Ahu  Xoira.<<  (Greif.s- 
■wald,  18(il).  .-V  noteworthy  achievement  of  Ahl- 
■xvardt's  is  his  catalogue  of  all  tlu'  Arabic  JISS. 
in  the  Roval  Lilu'arv  at  Berlin  (in  general  cata- 
logue,  in'volunics.   i?erlin,   1887-lHOO). 

AHMADABAD,  a'ma-da-bad' (For  derivation 
see  Ai;.\i)  I .  Tlu>  chief  town  in  the  district  of 
the  same  name,  in  the  presidency  of  Bombay, 
India,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Sabar- 
mati.  2!)0  7nilcs  north  of  Bombav.  in  lat.  2.3°  N., 
long.  72°  3(1'  E.  (Map:  India"  B  4).  It  was 
fo\indcd  in  the  year  1412,  on  the  site  of  the  an- 
cient -Vshawal,  by  Ahmed  or  Ahmad  Shah,  and  in 
1818  came  under  British  rule.  It  was  fauKUis  for 
its  nianiifacture  of  rich  fabrics  of  silk  and  cot- 
ton, articles  of  gold,  silver,  steel,  and  cnnmcl. 
industries  still  carried  on,  and  to  which  m:iy  be 
added  the  manufacture  of  pajier  and  superior 
pottery.  It  has  recovered  much  of  its  extensive 
trade  in  indigo,  cotton,  and  opium.  It  was  for- 
merly one  of  the  largest  and  most  magnificent 
capitals  in  the  east,  and  its  architectural  relics 
are  splendid,  even  in  the  midst  of  decay.  The 
Jnmiia  or  .luma'ah  Masjid,  or  great  mosque,  rises 
from  the  centre  of  the  city,  and  is  adorned  by 
two  superbly  decorated  minarets.  Its  domes  are 
supported  by  lofty  columns,  regularly  disposed, 
and  the  concave  of  these  cupolas  is  ornamented 
with  mosaic  and  fretwork.  The  pavement  is  of 
the  finest  marble.  The  mosque  of  Sujaat  Khan 
and  the  modern  .Iain  temple  of  Sctb  llatlii  Sinh 
are  extremely  beautiful.  There  is  likewise  an 
ivory  mosr|ui'.  ~o  named  from  the  circumstance 
that,  althiiugh  built  of  white  marble,  it  is  lined 
with  ivory,  and  iidaid  with  a  profusion  of  gems, 
to  imitate  n:\tural  flowers,  bordered  by  a  silver 
foliage  on  mother-of-pearl.  There  arc  also  the 
Fire  Temple  and  the  Tower  of  Silence  of  the 
Parsis.  Ahnuidabad  once  abounded  in  gardens, 
and  there  were  aqueducts,  reservoirs,  etc. 
The  city  walls,  built  in  the  fifteenth  century, 
which    had    become    very    dilapidated,    were    re- 


paired in  lS.'i4.  and  a  svstem  of  water- works  was 
installed.      Pop.,    1 8!ll."  148,400;    lUOl,    180,700. 

AHMADABAD.  A  district  of  IJombay  (q.v.), 
British    lii.li:i    (.Maj)  :  India,   1'.  4). 

AHMED,  iiii'med,  or  ACHMET,  iiK'niet, 
Vkiik  Pa.sh.v  (1818 — ).  A  Turkish  statesman, 
born  in  t'onstantinople.  and  educated  in  Paris. 
His  historical  and  statistical  researches  appeared 
in  Saltiiiiiic.  an  aniuuil  of  the  Ottoman  Empire 
begun  in  1847.  He  has  been  intrusted  by  the 
Porte  with  many  important  mission.s  abroad,  and 
was  president  of  the  council  and  minister  of  the 
interior  at  the  conclusion  of  the  Treaty  of  San 
Stefano  (1878).  He  did  nuuli  to  acqu:iint  bis 
countrymen  with  French  literature  by  his  ad- 
mirable translations  of  the  plays  of  Molii-re  and 
others. 

AHMED  KHAN,  Kiin  or  kiin.  See  IMonool 
Dv.\  \stif;s. 

AHMEDNAGAR,  a'med-nuK'ur,  or  AHMED- 
NUGGUR  (Skr.  n<ir,arn.  city).  A  large  town 
in  the  presidency  of  Bombay.  India,  situated  12li 
miles  east  of  the  city  of  Bombay,  in  lat.  19° 
C  N.,  long.  74°  40'  E.,  on  a  branch  of  the 
Great  Indian  Peninsular  Railway  (Map:  India, 
B  5).  It  was  once  a  splendid  and  [)oi)nlous  city, 
and  relics  of  its  former  magnificence  arc  to  be 
seen  in  many  fine  specimens  of  .Moslem  architec- 
ture. It  is  noted  for  its  manufacture  of  carpets, 
silks,  cottons,  brass,  and  copper  utensils.  The 
city  is  surrounded  by  an  earthen  wall,  and  is 
guarded  by  a  fort  half  a  mile  to  the  east.  The 
houses  are  mostly  built  of  .sun-dried  brick.  It 
has  a  good  water  supply,  conveyed  by  means  of 
aqueducts.  Founded  in  1494  by  Ahmed  Xuzara 
Shah,  it  reached  a  high  degree  of  prosperity 
during  the  reign  of  his  son,  Burhan.  but  after 
his  death  witnessed  an  incessant  series  of  wars. 
It  came  under  British  rule  in  1S17,  since  when  it 
has  regained  much  of  its  former  prosperity. 
Several  places  in  India  bear  the  same  name. 
Pop.,  41.700. 

AHMEDNAGAR.  A  district  of  Bombay, 
Briti-li  hiilia   (Map:  India,  B  5). 

AHMED  SHAH,  ah'med  sha  (1724-7.3). 
Ameer  of  Afghanistan  from  1747  to  177.3.  He  was 
hereditary  chief  of  the  Abdali  tribe,  and  held  a 
connnand  in  Nadir  Shah's  cavalry  until  the  lat- 
ter's  assassination  (1747),  when  Ahmed  went  to 
Afghanistan,  changed  the  name  of  his  tribe  to 
Durrani,  and  was  accepted  as  their  ruler  by 
the  Afghan  chiefs  at  Kandahar.  He  was  a  war- 
like ruler,  and  accmnulated  great  wealth,  includ- 
ing the  famous  Kohinoor  diauKuid.  \\i'  cap- 
tured Lahore  in  1748  and  conquered  Kashmir; 
and  in  17;>(!  defeated  the  Great  Jlogul  and 
took  and  sacked  Delhi.  His  conquests  intro- 
duced rebellion  and  disorder  into  the  Jfogul  Em- 
pire. He  defeated  the  Sikhs  and  Mahrattas  at 
Panipat.  . January  l>,  1701,  but  was  finally  obliged 
to  yiclil  the  Punjab. 

AHMES,  ii'mes,  or  AAHMESU,  ii'me-soo. 
An  Egyptian  scribe,  who  lived  licfnrc  1700  u.  c. 
lie  wrote  DIrcrlions  for  Oljliiiiiiiiii  thr  Kiioir1rdr)C 
of  (ill  Dnrl;  Thinris.  This  work  was  not  original 
with  him.  It  was  copied  from  an  older  treatise, 
dating  from  about  2500  n.c.  It  is  important  as 
one  of  the  earliest  satisfactory  accounts  of  an- 
cient Egyptian  mathematics.  It  has  been  trans- 
lated by  Eisenlohr,  Ein  malhematixrhr!!  Hand- 
biich  drr  nitrti  Arpi/pter  (Leipzig,  1877).  See 
Algebra,  and  Arithmetic. 


AHN. 


228 


AI. 


AHN,  -in,  JonAxx  Franz  (1796-1865).  A 
German  grammarian  and  educationist.  He  was 
born  at  Ai.K-la-Cliapelle,  was  for  a  time  a  mer- 
chant, but  studied  mathematics  and  modern  lan- 
guages, and  was  for  many  years  a  teaclier  in 
Neuss.  He  wrote  many  manuals  for  teaching 
languages,  his  method  of  instruction  being 
an  extension  of  that  of  Seidenstiicker.  His 
Practicnl  Method  for  a  Rai)id  and  Easy  Acguisi- 
Hon  of  the  French  Language  {Praktischer  Lehr- 
gang  ~ur  Sehnellen  nml  Leichtcn  Erlernting  der 
franzosischen  Sprachc,  1834)  has  passed  through 
more  than  two  hundred  editions  and  been  exten- 
sively imitated. 

AHNFELDT,  jin'felt,  Arvid  Woltoang 
Nathaxael  (1845-90).  A  Swedish  litterateur, 
born  at  -Lund.  He  .studied  art  at  Lund  and 
Upsala,  and  was  for  some  time  an  official  in  the 
royal  library  at  Stockliolm.  In  1881  he  was  ap- 
pointed editor  of  the  journal  Ur  Dagens  Kronlka. 
He  publislied  a  number  of  important  mono- 
graphs, such  as  those  on  Alnuirist  (1876).  and 
Crnsenstolpe  (1880),  a  VerldslUteraturens  Bis- 
toria   (1875-76),  and  otWr  works. 

AHOY'  (a  -j-  hop).  A  nautical  form  of  hail. 
Its  original  signification  is  said  to  have  been 
stop,  and  it  still  partakes  of  that  meaning  in  a 
modified  sense.  It  is  used  as  a  hail  to  passing 
boats,  vessels,  and  implies  that  communication 
with  them  is  desired.  The  common  form  of  usage 
is  "boat  ahov,"  "ship  ahoy,"  "steamer  ahoy," 
etc. 

AHRENS,  -i'rens,  Heixrich  (1808-74).  A 
German  writer  on  law.  philosophy,  and  psychol- 
ogy. He  studied  at  Gi'ittingen.  and  was  concerned 
in  the  political  troubles  in  1831,  by  reason  of 
which  he  was  forced  to  flee  to  Paris.  In  1834 
h«  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Brussels. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Frankfi>rt  Parliament  of 
1848,  and  on  the  committee  to  draft  a  new  Ger- 
man constitution.  In  1 850  he  was  chosen  pro- 
fessor of  legal  and  political  science  at  Gratz, 
and  in  1859  was  called  to  a  similar  chair  at 
Leipzig.  For  a  niuubcr  of  years  he  represented 
the  Leipzig  L^niversity  in  the  First  .Saxon  Cham- 
ber. Among  his  works  are:  Courf:  de  Psychologie 
(1837-38)  ;  Cours  dc  droit  nofiirrl  (1838)  ;  Die 
juristische  Encyklopiidne  ( 1855-57 ) .  The  two 
last  named  works  have  been  republished  in  sev- 
eral languages. 

AHRENS,  Heinrich  Ludolf  (1809-81).  A 
eelebiated  German  philologist,  born  at  Helm- 
stedt.  He  studied  at  Gtittingen,  where  he  began 
his  career  as  privat-docent  in  1829,  but  left  Got- 
tingen  in  the  following  year  to  accept  a  position 
at  Ilfeld.  where  he  remained  for  fourteen  years. 
In  1849  he  was  made  director  of  the  lyceum  at 
Hanover,  a  position  which  he  held  until  the  year 
before  his  death.  He  devoted  himself  especially 
to  the  Greek  dialects,  and  may  be  said  to  have 
laid  the  scientific  foundation  of  their  study.  His 
chief  publication  was  Dc  Grwcw  Limguw  Dia- 
lectis  (1839-43).  He  publislied  also,  in  1855-59, 
a  two-volume  edition  of  the  Greek  bucolic  poets, 
Theocritus.   Bion,  and  Mosclnis. 

AHBIMAN,  ii'ri-man.  The  ancient  Persian 
devil,  a  personification  of  the  evil  spirit  and 
principle  of  evil,  the  idea  which  answers  in  the 
Zoroastrian  religion  to  Satan  in  .Judaism  and 
Christianity.  He  is  represented  as  the  head  and 
chief  of  the  powers  of  darkness  and  sin.  and  he 
has  legions  of  demons  about  him.     Next  to  him 


are  ranged  six  arch-fiends,  the  chief  of  whom  is 
Aeshma,  the  Daeva,  or  "demon  of  fury,"  corre- 
sponding to  the  name  Asmodeus  in  the  Book  of 
Tobit.  Ahriman's  name  appears  in  the  Avesta 
as  aiigra  mainyu,  or  angra  mainyu,  Pahiavi,  o?iaj-- 
man,  Persian,  ahriman — whence  our  spelling  of 
the  word.  The  term  mainyu  means  spirit;  the 
title  angra  msra  is  uncertain,  but  it  is  presumed 
to  signify  injury,  opposition,  antagonism.  Ahri- 
man  is  the  spirit  of  opposition,  antithesis,  and 
antagonism  to  the  Persian  god  Ormuzd  (q.v.). 
The  two  spirits  severally  represent  the  king- 
dom of  light,  goodness,  and  life,  and  the  kingdom 
of  darkness,  evil,  and  death.  The  relation  of  the 
one  spirit  to  the  other,  especially  of  Angra 
JIainyu,  as  the  maleficent  spirit,  to  Spenta 
Mainyu,  or  the  beneficent  spirit,  has  been  fre-. 
quently  discussed.  Consult:  Darmesteter.  Or- 
■niazd  et  Ahriman  (Paris,  1877),  and  Jackson, 
Die  iratiische  lieMgion,  in  Geiger  and  Kuhn's 
Grundriss  der  iranischcn  Philoloqie  (Strasshurg, 
1900). 

AHU,  ji'hoo.  The  name  in  Persia  of  the  com- 
mon Asiatic  gazelle.     See  Gazelle. 

AHtJATLE,  ii'oo-at'l  (Mexican).    A  prepara- 
tion for  food  of  the  eggs  of  a  Mexican  species  of 
ephydrid    fly,    which    is    formed    into    a    paste 
mixed  with  hens'  eggs  and  then  fried.     For  fur 
ther  information,  see  Ephydea  ;  Fly. 

ASTJLL'  (o  -f-  hull).  A  maritime  term,  used 
to  denote  the  position  of  a  ship  when  all  .her 
sails  are  furled  .and  her  helm  lashed  on  the  lee 
side;  in  such  a  position  she  lies  nearly  with  her 
side  to  the  wind,  but  with  the  head  turned  a 
little  toward  the  direction  of  the  wind. 

AHTJMABA,  ii'oo-ma'Da,  Don  Pedro  Gie6n, 
Marques  de  las  Am.\rillas,  Duke  of  (1788- 
1842).  A  Spanish  general  and  statesman,  born 
at  San  Sebastian.  He  was  appointed  an  olBeer 
in  the  Royal  Guards  in  1S06,  and  during  the  war 
against  the  French  rendered  important  services  as 
chief  of  the  general  staft'  of  tlie  Spanish  army. 
Upon  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution  of  1820  he 
\^-as  appointed  minister  of  war,  but  soon  retired 
because  of  the  opposition  of  the  Radicals.  He 
was  appointed  by  Ferdinand  VII.  a  member  of 
the  council  of  regency  during  the  minority  of 
Isabella,  and  in  1835  accepted  the  portfolio 
of  war  under  the  premiership  of  Toreno.  He  soon 
resigned,  and  went  to  Bordeaux  in  1836,  but  sub- 
sequently returned  to  JIadrid. 

AHITRA  MAZDA,  a-hoo'r.i  maz'da.  See 
Ormazd. 

AHWAZ,  a-wiiz'.  A  small  village,  once  a  res- 
idence of  tlie  Persian  rulers,  situated  on  the  River 
Karun,  about  45  miles  south  of  Shuster  (Map: 
Persia,  C  5 ) .  Near  Alnvaz  are  the  ruins  of  the 
old  town,  lying  along  the  river  for  a  distance 
of  over  ten  miles.  There  is  still  to  be  seen  an 
old  castle  of  gigantic  proportions,  and  a  few 
other  remnants  of  former  splendor.  In  the  third 
century,  Ahwaz  was  the  thief  city  of  a  province 
of  the  same  name,  and  under  the  subsequent  riile 
of  the  Arabs  it  became  an  important  commercial 
centre.  A  concession  to  navigate  the  Karun 
from  the  Persian  Gulf  to  Ahwaz  w.as  granted  to 
a  British  company,  which  runs  a  steamer  on  the 
river,  and  is  carrying  out  improvements  on  the 
road  between  Ahwaz  and  Ispahan. 

AI,  fi'i  (Heb,  ruin).  A  city  of  the  Canaajii- 
ites,  twelve  miles  north  of  Jerusalem.  It  is  men- 
tioned in  the  narrative  about  Abraham  (Genesis 


AI. 


229      AIDE-TOI  ET  LE  CIEI,  T' AIDER  A. 


xii  :  S),  where  its  situation  is  definpJ  as  east  of 
Be(hcl.  Wlifii  the  Isiaclitos  came  into  Canaan 
thev  niadi'  an  unsiicressiul  attack  on  Ai  (Joshua 
vii  :■")).  '>ut  on  tlio  second  attack  the  city  was 
taken  (.Joshua  viiil  and  destroyed.  Isaiah 
(Isaiah  .\  :  2S)  mentions  tlie  city,  so  that  it  must 
have  been  rebuilt.  After  the  captivity  it  was 
inhabited  by  tlie  Beujauiinites  (Ezra  ii:2S; 
Nehemiuh  vii  :  32).  The  modern  site  is  Khirbet 
Haiyun.  Us  niius  e\isli.(l  in  the  time  of  Kuse- 
bius  and  St.  Jerome,  though  none  are  now  to  be 
tounJ  there. 

AI,  til.     The  three-toed  sloth.     See  Sloth. 

AI,  ii'c.  or  ATTVrT,  a'ft.  A  Japanese  salmon 
{Suhno  altiirlist.  remarkable  for  j;oing  down 
some  rivers  to  spawn  in  the  sea,  and  ascending 
other  rivers  annually  to  spawn  near  their 
sources. 

AICABD,  a'kiir'.jEAN  FRiN^ois  Victor  ( 1848 
— ).  A  French  author,  born  at  Toulon.  At 
first  he  studied  law.  but  subscijueutly  turned 
to  literature,  in  which  he  made  his  first  appear- 
ance with  the  drama  ./einiCf  croynnrfs  (1867). 
Ills  works,  which  are  in  general  distinguished 
by  a  liuished  style,  include  A.u  clair  de  la  lune 
(1870),  a  oue-act  comedy  in  verse;  Les  rebel- 
lions et  le.i  npaisemetits  (1871),  Po&ines  de 
Protence  (1874),  Ln  rhnnsnn  df  Venfant  (1S76), 
Mirtle  et  "Xori  (1880),  Lamarfme  (1883),  a 
poem  which  received  the  prize  of  the  French 
i^cadcniv.  and   Ji-sus    (IS'.W). 

AID  (Fr.  aide,  from  Lat.  ad,  in  +  iuvare,. 
to  help).  In  feudal  times,  a  term  denoting  a 
pavment  in  moucy  or  produce  due  from  a  vassal 
to  "his  lord.  The  term  is  a  translation  of  the 
Latin  word  sux-iUum.  lu  theory  it  was  a  free 
grant  made  in  exceptional  cases.  But  the  eases 
soon  came  to  be  fixed  by  custom.  "The  three  chief 
aids"'  were  paid  ( 1 )  for  the  loid's  ransoiu  when 
in  captivity:  (2)  for  the  expenses  of  making  the 
lord's  eldest  son  a  knight:  (3)  for  the  dowry 
of  the  lord's  eldest  daughter.  Sometimes  a 
fourth  chief  aid  was  recognized  for  the  expense 
of  the  lord  when  going  on  a  crusade.  Fre- 
<)uently  also  aids  were  deniandeil  from  the  vas- 
sals when  the  lord  made  a  y)urney  to  the  court 
of  his  suzerain,  or  to  Rome.  Aids  were  levied 
upon  all  classes  of  freehold  tenants — upon  those 
holding  in  free  and  common  socage  (q.v.),  as 
well  as  upon  the  holders  of  knights'  fees  (q.v.) 
— and  continued  to  be  nominally  due  and  exigi- 
ble until  abolished  by  ])nrtiainent.  12  Car.  II., 
c.  24  (l(i(iO).  though  they  had  gradually  fallen 
into  disuse  and  were  probably  even  then  prac- 
tically obsolete.  See  FFADALtsxi ;  Te.\ube. 

AIDA,  a-e'd;'i.  .Vn  opera  by  Verdi  (words  by 
Ghislanzoni),  first  played  at  Cairo.  Kgypt,  De- 
cember 24,  1871,  at  the  inauguration  of  the  Khe- 
dive's new  theatre.  The  scene  of  it  is  laid  in 
ancient   Egy])t. 

AIDAN,  n'don.  Saint  (?-fi.51).  First  bishop 
of  I.indisfarne.  He  was  one  of  those  distin- 
^lislied  monks  of  the  oarlv  Scotehlrish  Church 
who  were  received  into  the  calendar  of  saints 
without  the  ceremony  of  canonization.  In  early 
life  he  was  a  monk  in  lona.  the  famous  island 
olT  the  Scotch  coast.  Oswald,  the  cdeliratcd 
kini;  of  Xorthunibria.  requested  the  conimunitv 
of  lona  to  send  to  his  court  one  of  their  brethren 
who  would  teach  the  Christian  religion  to  his 
p>  ople.  The  lirst  person  sent  was  a  certain  Cor- 
man,  who  was  too  dogmatic  and   intolerant   to 


be  a  successful  missionarv.  On  his  return  to 
report  to  the  synod  his  failure,  .Mdan,  who  pos- 
sessed the  patience,  geniality,  and  popular  man- 
ners littinl  for  the  task,  was  consecrated  bishop 
(ti3o)  and  sent  forth.  Through  his  success,  he 
left  A  great  rei)utation  as  the  earliest  promul- 
gator of  Christianity  in  the  northern  districts. 
He  die<l  at  BamlM>rough,  Aug\ist  31,  651.  For 
his  biographv  i-oiisult  Fryer,  Aidan,  the  .Xpostle 
of  the  Xoilk  (Loudon,  ls's4). 

AIDE,  •A'vdY,  CiiARi.Es  HAMttTON  (I83(V— ). 
An  English  poet  aud  novelist.  He  was  born  in 
Paris,  the  son  of  a  Civek  diplomatist.  His 
mother  was  a  daughter  of  Admiral  Sir 
George  Collier.  He  was  educated  at  Bonn, 
served  seven  .vears  in  the  British  army,  ami  then 
devote<l  himself  to  liter.iture.  Among  bis  poems 
are  tileuuore  llS.ifi),  and  Songs  Without  Haste 
(1882).  His  novels  include  kita  (lS5t)>,  Fas- 
sages  in  ilie  Life  of  a  Lady  (1887),  and  KIi:a- 
beth's  Pretenders  ( 1895).  As  a  ballad  writer  he 
is  known  by  The  Oanube  River  and  Renteniber  or 
Forget. 

AID-DE-CAMP,  itd'de-kaN'  (Fr.,  camp  as- 
sistant), or  AID.  .\  military  oftieer  serving  on 
the  staff  of  a  ct>mmanding  general  ollicer.  In 
time  of  war  it  is  a  position  of  grave  responsi- 
bility, as  shown  by  the  terrible  mistake  which 
led  to  the  brilliant,  but  foolish,  light  cavalry 
charge  of  the  British  in  the  Crimean  War  of 
1854.  it  is  also  a  position  involving  much  dan- 
ger, as  may  be  seen  from  the  nature  of  the 
duties  performed.  On  active  service  the  aid-de- 
camp is  in  close  co7ifidentinl  touch  with  the  gen- 
eral oOicer  to  whom  he  is  attached,  and  when 
necessarv  acts  as  his  military  secretary.  On  the 
battle-field  he  carries  all  orders  from  the  gen- 
eral in  conuuand  to  the  commanding  officers 
of  the  various  arms,  and  must  of  neccssit.v  be 
alert,  quick-witted,  resourceful,  and  prompt, 
giving  his  mes.sage  in  the  plainest  and  most 
uiuuistakable  form.  Wherever  possible  such 
orders  must  be  delivered  in  writing.  In  Euro- 
pean nations.  ;in  a|)pointment  of  aid-de-cami). 
particularly  if  on  the  staff  of  the  niler  or  a  mem- 
ijer  of  the  ruling  family,  carries  much  social 
as  well  as  military  prestige,  while  in  all  services 
it  is  a  mvK'h  coveted  and  much  sought  appoint- 
ment. In  the  I'nited  States  a  lieutenant-general 
is  allowed  to  have  two  aids  (lieutenant-colonels) 
and  a  military  secretar.v:  a  niajorgeneral,  three 
aids  (either  captains  or  lieutenants  I  :  anil  a 
brigadier-general,  two  aids  (lieutenants).  Be- 
fore an  ollicer  can  receive  such  appointment,  he 
must  have  served  at  least  three  of  the  tive  pre- 
ceding ye;irs  with  his  regiment  or  corps.  The 
appointment  is  for  live  years,  and  may  not  be 
exceeded,  except  on  request  of  a  general  who 
retires  within  one  year. 

AIDENN,  a'd.n.  A  collateral  form  of 
Eden.  I'aradise,  from  the  Arabic  .4«/«.  used  by 
Poe  in  The  Itnreii,  on  account  of  the  rhyme. 

AIDE-TOI  ETLE  CIEL  T'AIDERA..1d'twa' 
a  Ic  -^.v:\l  tiVd'-ra'  i  Fi.  •■|lelp  thy>elf.  Heaven  will 
help  thee").  The  cry  of  certain  French  ]iolitical 
writers  to  the  middle  classes  about  the  year 
1S24.  It  became  the  watch-word  :uid  title  of  a 
societv.  having  for  its  object  to  agitate  the  elec- 
toral bodv  in  opposition  to  the  government.  This, 
however,  was  to  be  done  by  means  strictly  legiti- 
mate, ehietly  by  correspondence  and  political 
public:itions.  Alost  of  its  founders  and  active 
members  belonged  to  the  party  of  Doctrinaires 


AIDE-TOI  ET  LE  CIEL  T'AIDERA.      230 


AIKEN. 


(q.v.),  as  Guizot,  who  was  president  for  some 
time,  Duclu'itel,  Duvergier  de  Hauranne,  Dubois, 
Remusat,  Thiers,  Cavaignac,  etc.  Lc  Globe  was 
the  organ  of  the  association,  and  afterward  Le 
National.  The  society  had  a  great  .share  in 
bringing  about  the  revolution  of  July,  1830.  and 
was  at  first  countenanced  by  the  new  govern- 
ment; but  after  a  short  time  it  was  dissolved 
(1832). 

AIDIN,  i-den'.  or  Guzel-hiss.^r.  An  im- 
portant town  in  the  Turkish  Vilayet  of  Aidin 
(21. .500  square  miles:  population,  1.39(5.500),  in 
Anatolia.  It  is  on  the  river  Meander,  about  56 
miles  southeast  of  Smyrna,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  rail  (Jlap:  Turkey  in  Asia,  B  4). 
It  is  picturesquely  situated  near  the  ruins  of 
ancient  Tralles,  and  has  well  shaded  streets, 
fine  bazaars,  and  a  number  of  mosques.  It  has 
an  extensive  trade  in  flgs  and  cotton.  Its  pop- 
ulation is  about  36,000. 

AID'-MA'JOB.  An  adjutant  in  the  French 
army.     See    .-\:i,iuta.\t. 

AIGNER,  a'nyfi',  Joseph  Matthaus  (1818- 
86).  An  Austrian  painter.  He  was  born  at  Vi- 
enna and  studied  under  Anierling.  He  took  part 
in  the  revolution  of  1848,  but  subsequently  was 
pardoned.  He  was  particularly  known  for  his 
portraits,  including  those  of  Grillparzer,  Feueh- 
tersleben,  Lenau,  and  Rubinstein. 

AIGKET,  a'^ret  or  fi-gret',  or  Aigrette 
(Fr. ).  A  small  white  heron  or  egret.  (See 
Egret.)  Hence,  a  plume  or  erect  ornament 
of  feathers,  originally  the  long  filiform  tuft 
of  feathers  that  spring  from  the  back  of  the 
egret  in  the  breeding-season,  and  arranged  to 
adorn  the  hair,  a  bonnet,  headdress  or  helmet, 
or  something  similar  to  this,  especially  wlien 
jeweled.  "A"  small  bundle  of  these  feathers  has 
been  used  among  Eastern  nations  as  an  ornamenr. 
and  worn  in  the  front  of  the  turban,  caftan,  or 
other  headdress  by  personages  of  high  rank,  be- 
ing occasionally  mounted  with,  or  its  form  imi- 
tated by,  precious  stones;  and  the  gift  of  an 
egret  so  bejeweled  has  been  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  marks  of  honor  that  could 
be  be'stowed  by  an  Oriental  ruler  upon  a 
favorite  minister  or  successful  leader."  The 
fashion  has  spread  to  Western  nations  and 
given  rise  to  various  decorations  on  military 
hats,  and  for  women's  hair  and  bonnets. 
The  demand  of  millinery,  indeed,  during  the  last 
quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century,  caused 
such  inroads  upon  the  breeding  colonies  of  white 
herons  in  all  parts  of  the  world  that  these  birds 
are  everywhere  gi-eatly  diminished  in  numbers, 
and  in  some  regions,  "as  in  Florida,  are  almost 
exterminated.  As  the  desired  plumes  grow  only 
during  the  breeding  season,  the  killing  of  a  bird 
for  their  sake  usually  means  the  death  of  a 
family  and  the  rapid  depopulation  of  the  colony. 
From'  this  point  of  view,  and  remembering  that 
gieat  cruelty  is  likely  to  accompany  the  obtain- 
ing of  the  plumes,  the  statement  of  the  annual 
sates  of  aigrets  in  London  and  other  great  mar- 
kets is  appalling  to  all  persons  of  a  humane  mind 
and  delicate  taste. 

AIGTJEBELLE,  ag'bel'.  Palt-  Alexandre 
Xeveie  r)'  I  is:)  1-7.5).  A  French  naval  officer  who 
entered  the  Chinese  army.  He  distinguished  him- 
self against  the  Taipings  in  1862-04.  commanded 
the  Fianco-C'hinese  corps,  and  captured  Hang- 
chow-fu,    for    which    service    he    was    made    a 


mandarin  of  the  first  class.  He  established  the 
arsenal  at  Fu-chow-fu  and  taught  the  Chi- 
nese to  construct  European  vessels,  the  first 
Chinese  man-of-war  being  launched  under  liis  su- 
pervision in  1869.  In  that  ^-ear  he  was  made 
Grand  Admiral  of  the  Chinese  fleet. 

AIGTJES-MORTES,  ag'mort'  (anciently  Lat. 
Aqua:  Uortua,  Dead  Springs).  A  small  town  in 
France  (population.  1901.  4223),  in  the  Depart- 
ment of  Gard,  which  claims  to  have  been  founded 
by  the  Roman  Marius  (Map:  France.  L  8).  It 
is  situated  in  an  extensive  marsh  impregnated 
with  sea  salt,  and  is  about  three  miles  from  the 
ilediterranean,  with  which  it  is  connected  by 
a  canal.  It  was  from  Aigues-Mortes  that  St. 
Louis  sailed  in  1248.  and  again  in  1270.  for  the 
Crusades — a  proof  that  the  sea  then  reached  this 
spot.  In  15.38  Francis  1.  had  an  interview  at 
Aigues-ilortes  with  Charles  V. 

AIGUILLE,  a-gwel'  (Fr.,  a  needle).  The 
name  given  to  certain  sharp  mountain  peaks  in 
the  Alps  often  covered  with  ice  and  snow,  and  so 
called  from  their  resemblance  to  needles. 
jVround  Chamounix  a  number  of  the  peaks  bear 
this  name.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  an  in- 
strument used  by  engineers  to  pierce  a  rock  for 
the  reception  of  gunpowder  in  blasting. 

AIGUILLETTE,  .I'gwil-let'  (from  Fr.  aiguil- 
lettc.  a  point,  pointed  tag;  diniin.  of  aiguille, 
needle).  A  detachable  portion  of  a  military 
dress  uniform  consisting  of  bullion  cords  and 
loops  and  worn  on  the  right  shoulder.  In  the 
United  States  Army  it  is  now  worn  by  officers  of 
the  adjutant-general's  and  inspector-general's  de- 
partments, chief  and  assistant  of  office  of  rec- 
ords, aids-de-camp,  and  adjutants  of  regiments. 
Aids-de-camp  and  military  secretaries  who  have 
increased  rank  wear  it  with  their  regimental 
and  corps  uniform  to  indicate  their  being  on 
stafl'  duties. 

AIGUILLON,  a'gwe'yo.x',  Armaxd  de  Vigxe- 
rot  Di  pi.essis  Richelieu.  Due  d'  (1729-82). 
A  Frencli  statesman,  minister  of  foreign  aflfairs 
under  Louis  XV.  (1771-74).  He  became  gov- 
ernor of  Brittany  in  1754.  His  despotic  admin- 
istration of  his  province  finally  brought  upon 
him  the  condemnafion  of  the  Parliament  of 
Rennes.  But  Madame  du  Barry,  the  mistress 
of  Louis  XV.,  not  only  saved  him  from  punish- 
ment, but  finally  brought  about  his  promotion  as 
minister.  He  was  entirely  incompetent,  and 
Louis  XVI.  replaced  him  by  Vergennes. 

AIJALON,  a'ja-lon.     See  Ajaxox. 

AIKA'WA,  l-kii'wa.  A  town  of  Japan,  situ- 
ated on  the  western  coast  of  the  island  of  Sado 
(Map:  Japan,  F  4) .  It  is  poorly  built  but  very 
important  on  account  of  the  gold  and  silver 
mines  situated  close  to  it.  Its  population  is  over 
15,000. 

AIKEN,  a'ken.  A  beautiful  town  and  country 
seat  of  Aiken  Co.,  South  Carolina,  on  the  South 
Carolina  and  Georgia  railroads,  17  miles  east  of 
Augusta  (Map:  South  Carolina.  C  3).  It  has  a 
fine  location,  at  an  elevation  of  600  feet  above 
sea-level,  in  an  agricultural  and  pine  forest  re- 
gion, and  the  dryness  and  comparative  mildness 
of  its  climate  have  combined  to  make  Aiken  an 
important  health  resort.  Aiken  is  the  seat  of 
Aiken  Institute,  for  white  students;  the  Scho- 
fiehl  Xormal  and  Industrial  School  and  Imman- 
uel  Training  School,  for  negroes.  Aiken  was 
first  incorporated  in  1835,  and  is  governed  under 


AIKEN. 


231 


AIMAK. 


a  olnrtcr  of  1800,  icviscil  in  ISIIT,  wliicli  pro- 
vitlc-^  for  a  mayor,  olci-tccl  biennially,  ami  a  city 
cuunril,  composed  of  the  mayor  and  six  alder- 
men. Annual  town  meetings  arc  lieUl  to  nom- 
inate till'  city  council.  The  water  supply  and 
sewerage  system  are  under  municipal  control. 
Pop.,  1800,  23G-2;    1000,  8414. 

AIKEN,  \Vn.i.iAM  (1800-87).  An  American 
lcj;islat(U'.  He  was  born  in  Charleston,  S.  C, 
and  graduated  at  the  College  of  Scnith  Carolina 
(182.')).  After  serving  in  the  State  Legislature 
{ 18.'iS-4;i)  ■  he  was  governor  of  South  Carolina 
(1844-40),  and  was  a  Democratic  reiiresentative 
in  Congress  from  1851  to  18.')",  during  which 
time  he  lacked  only  one  vote  of  becoming 
speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives.  He 
opposed  both  nullification  and  secession,  and 
after  leaving  Congress  took  no  active  part  in  i)()I- 
ities,  except  in  180G,  when  he  was  again  elected 
to  Congress,  but  was  not  admitted  to  a  seat. 

AIKIN,  .Ion.\,  W.D.  (1747-1822).  An  Eng- 
lish physician  and  author.  He  had  only  mod- 
erate success  as  a  physician,  but  gained  con- 
siderable reputation  as  a  scholarly  writer.  With 
his  sister,  Jlrs.  Barbauld,  he  i)ublished  Eri-ii- 
inys  at  Home  (si.\  volumes,  1702-05),  together 
with  a  number  of  biogi'aphical  works,  in- 
cluding (Icncral  Biography  (ten  volumes,  1700- 
1815).  He  edited  tlie  .I/oHf7i/;/  .1'a.'7"-i"P  (1700- 
1807),  and  Dodshi/'s  Annual  Register  (1811- 
1815). 

AIKIN,  LrcY  (1781-1804).  An  English 
writer,  daughter  of  John  Aikin,  and  liis  assistant 
in  nnich  of  his  work.  She  wrote  one  novel,  Lar- 
imer (1814).  but  her  reputation  rests  on  her 
series  of  court  memoirs,  beginning  with  Memoirs 
of  the  Court  of  IJIiralielh  (1818),  and  on  her 
Life  of  Addison  (18  13).  She  also  wrote  memoirs 
of  lur  father  and  of  her  aunt,  Mrs.  Barbauld. 

AIKMAN,  ak'nion.  William  (1082-17.31).  A 
Scottish  portrait  painter.  He  studied  in  Edin- 
burgh and  Rome,  traveled  in  Italy  and  Tur- 
key, and  practiced  his  art  first  in  Edinbiirgh  and 
afterward  in  London.  He  painted  portraits  of 
Allan  Ramsay,  Gay,  Thomson,  and  John,  Duke 
of  Argyll. 

AILANTHUS,  a-lan'thfls,  or  AILANTO 
(.\lalaeea  iiunie,  tree  of  heaven).  -V  lofty, 
spreading  tree  {Aiianthus  glandulosus) ,  of  the 
natural  order  Simarubacese.  a  native  of  China, 
but  now  frequently  planted  to  shade  p\ddio 
walks  in  the  south  of  Europe,  in  England, 
and  in  Xorth  America.  The  flowers  of  the  male 
plant  have  a  disgusting  odor.  Tlu'  leaves  resem- 
ble those  of  tlie  ash.  The  tree  nourishes  on 
light  soils,  and  is  hardy  enough  to  endure  even 
the  climate  of  the  north  of  .Scotland.  It  has  been 
somewhat  extensively  planted  in  the  United 
States.  The  tree  is  easily  propagated  by  siu'kcrs 
and  cuttings  of  the  roots.  The  wood  is  fine- 
grained, satiny,  and  suitable  for  calunet  making. 
Ailanthns  imlicrbillora  ami  .\ilantlnis  punctata 
are  among  the  important  timbi'r  trees  of  Aus- 
tralia. .\nother  s])ecies,  .\ilanthus  execlsus,  is 
common  in  India.  The  geniis  .\ilanthus  has  been 
recognized  by  fossil  fruits  and  leaves  in  Tertiary 
beds  i,f  lOuicipe  .in.l   Xorth  America. 

AILANTHUS  MOTH.  A  large,  hardy,  silk- 
spinning  moth  (I'hilosamia  ej/nthia),  introduced 
from  China  into  the  United  States  on  the  ailan- 
thus  tree.  The  caterpillar  may  be  identified  by 
its  rows  of  tufts  of  white  hairs! 


AILETTE,  a-Iet'  (Er.  little  wing).  An  ap- 
jiendage  to  the  armor  worn  by  knights  on  each 
shoulder.  Ailettcs  were  of  various  forms  and 
sizes,  and  bore  the  heraldic  device  of  the  knight. 
They  were  not  intended  i)riniarily  for  defense, 
as  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  most  of  them 
stood  up  straight  in  the  air,  but  in  some  cases 
they  seem  to  have  been  adapted  as  a  defense  for 
the  shoulders.  They  were  in  use  between  1280 
and  1330.  Epaulets  arc  said  to  have  been  de- 
riveil  from  these. 

AILLY,  a'ye',  PiEitKK  n',  or  Petrus  de 
Alliaco  (13.50-1420).  A  Erench  theologian.  He 
studied  theology  in  Paris,  where,  in  1380.  he 
became  a  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne.  He  was  leader 
of  the  Nominalists,  asserted  that  the  Cliurch 
rests  on  Christ,  not  on  Peter,  and  derives  its 
authoritative  teachings  from  the  Scriptures,  not 
from  canon  law.  lie  became  giand  master  of  the 
College  of  Xavarre,  Paris,  iii  1384,  and  in  1389 
confessor  and  almoner  to  Charles  VL,  and  the 
same  year  Chancellor  of  the  University  of  Paris. 
His  defense,  two  years  previous,  of  the  Immacu- 
late Conception,  won  him  the  epithets  "Eagle 
of  France"  and  "Hammer  of  Heretics."  He  be- 
came Bishop  of  Le  Puy,  1395,  and  of  Cambrai  in 
1.397.  He  induced  the  calling  of  the  Council  of 
Pisa,  of  which  he  was  an  active  member.  He 
was  made  cardinal  by  John  XXIII.  (1411),  and 
was  sent  as  legate  to  Germany  in  1413.  He 
was  prominent  in  the  Council  of  Constance,  1414- 
18,  furthering  the  condemnation  of  Huss  ^jnd 
Jerome  of  Prague,  but  strenuously  advocating 
reform  in  the  Church;  nuiintain'ing  the  au- 
thority of  councils  over  that  of  poi)es,  and  aid- 
ing in  the  election  of  Martin  V.  in  place  of 
three  rival  popes.  He  was  afterward  made 
papal  legate  at  Avignon  until  his  death.  His 
writings  arc  numerous.  Among  them  is  an  at- 
tempt to  harmonize  astronomy  and  theology. 
For  his  biogra])liy,  consult:  P.  Tschackeit 
iGotha.   1877),  and  L.  Salembier   (Lille,  ISSO). 

AILRED,  al'rOd.  Saint,  .Etiiei.ued,  Etiiei.- 
RED  (llOO-OO).  \n  ICnglish  ecclesiastic  and  his- 
torian, born  at  Hexham,  Northumberland,  He 
was  educated  at  the  Scotch  court,  became  a 
(^istercian  monk  in  Rievaulx  Abbey,  Yorkshire, 
then  abbot  of  Revesby,  1142,  then'of  Rievaul.x, 
114G,  ri'maining  so  till  his  death,  January  12, 
1100.  He  was  canonized  in  1101.  He  was  the 
author  of  many  liistorieal  and  theological  w'orks, 
the  former  of  liltl:>  value,  owing  to  their  un- 
limited credulity.  Lcland  says  he  saw  .\ilred's 
tond)  at  Rievaulx  adorned  with  gold  and  silver 
ornaments.  His  works  are  in  Jligne,  Patrol.  Lat., 
cxcv. 

AILSA  CRAIG,  al'.sa  krag.  A  small  island 
ofV  tlie  western  coast  of  Ayrshire,  Scotland 
(Map:  Scotland,  0  4).  It  is  only  two  miles  in 
circumference  and  rises  to  a  height  of  1114  feet 
above  the  sea.  It  terminates  in  high  clilTs  on 
the  northwest,  and  contains  some  springs  near 
its  summit.  It  is  well  known  for  its  columnar 
form,  ami  has  a  lighthouse,  erected  in  1830. 

_  AIMAK,  i-niiik'.  A  term  of  ;Mongolian  origin 
signifying  "clans,"  and,  witli  the  jirefix  ehar 
("four"),  employed  as  a  designation  for  a  num- 
ber of  tribes  inhabiting  the  central  and  north- 
western part  of  Afghanistan.  Little  is  known 
concerning  them  except  that  they  are  a  Mongo- 
lian people  dwelling  in  the  midst  of  an  Aryan 
population,  and  speaking  a  diale-t  that  seems 
closely  related   to  the  Calmuek,  though   largely 


AIMAK.  33 

influenced  by  the  Persian.  According:  to  some 
authorities  the  four  prineip;il  tribes  of  the  Aimak 
are  the  Jamjidi.  the  Firozkohi.  the  Tainiuni.  and 
the  Hazaras:  others  malce  a  definite  distinction 
between  the  Aimak  and  the  Hazaras,  characteriz- 
ing the  former  as  Sunnite  Mohammedans  and  the 
latter  as  adherents  in  the  main  of  the  Shiite 
sect.  Macgregor,  (VjtJraJ  .'l.vwt  (Calcutta.  1S71), 
substitutes"  the  Saidnat  for  the  Hazaras,  and  esti- 
mates the  total  number  of  the  .\imak  at  2.50,000, 
describing  them  as  semi-nomadie  in  their  habits 
and  excellent  fighters.  They  are  suppose<l  to  be 
descendants  of  Turkish-Tartar  tribes  which  un- 
der Hulaku  Kahn  overthrew  the  Persian  Cal- 
iphate in  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century. 

AIM  ABA,  l-nui'rti.  Any  of  many  large  car- 
nivorous lishes  of  South  America,  especially  com- 
mon in  the  Amazonian  rivers,  some  twenty 
species  of  which  form  the  heterognatlious  family 
Erytlirinida;  and  the  genus  Macrodoa.  They  are 
also  called  trahiras. 

AXMARD,  .'I'mar',  Gustavi:  (1818-83),.  A 
French  novelist.  He  shipped  to  America  as  a 
eabin-boy,  spent  ten  years  among  the  Indians  of 
the  western  prairies,  and  traveled  in  Spain.  Tur- 
key, and  the  Caucasus.  In  184S  he  was  in  Paris, 
and  an  officer  of  the  Garde  :Mobile.  At  the  time 
of  the  Franco-Gorman  war.  he  organized,  and  for 
a  while  commanded,  the  so-called  "francs-tireurs 
of  the  press."  He  is  sometimes  called  the  French 
Fenimore  Cooper.  He  published  many  adventure 
staries,  for  the  most  part  improbable  but  inter- 
esting. The  list,  many  volumes  of  which  have 
been  trarLslated  into '  English,  includes:  Les 
trappeurs  de  I'Arkansus  (1S.>8);  Le  rirand  chef 
des  Aneas  (1858);  Les  pirates  de  hi  prairie 
(18.5(1),  and  Les  scalpciirs  hhines  (1873). 

AIME-MARTnT.a'ma'mar'taN',  LotjIS-  See 
Martix.  Louis  Aime. 

AI'MON.     See  Ayjion. 

AIM'WELL.      ( 1 )   A  character  in  Farquhar's 

comedy.  The  lU-aux'  Stnitnfiem  (q.v.).  (2)  A 
character  in  Shirley's  The  Witty  Fair  One  (q.v.). 

AIN,  aN.  A  river  in  France,  which  rises  in 
the  .Jura  Mountains.  It  flows  through  the  de- 
partments of  Jura  and  Ain,  and  after  a  course 
of  about  120  miles  falls  into  the  Khone.  18  mites 
above  Lyons  (Map:  France.  M  5).  It  is  «se<l  for 
floating"  timber,  and  admits  of  navigation  down 
stream  only. 

AIN.  A  frontier  department  of  France,  sepa- 
rated from  Switzerland  and  Savoy  by  the  Khone 
(Map:    France.  M  .5).     Capital,  Bourg. 

AINEMOLO,  i'na-m(5'li'i,  VixcENZO.  A  Sicil- 
ian painter  of  tlie  early  sixteenth  century,  con- 
sidered by  some  the  most  important  artist  of 
Sicily.  He  studied  at  Rome  under  Raphael,  whose 
stvlc"  he  imitated.  His  best  known  works  are  a 
"Christ  Carrying  the  Cross"  (Santa  Maria  la 
Nuova.  Naples),  a  'Madonna"  (San  Domeiiico, 
Palermo),  and  "Martyrdom  of  the  Forty  Mar- 
tyrs" (Museum  of  Palermo). 
"  AINGER.  an'jer,  AuBEn  (1837-1904).  An 
Enflish  clergyman  and  writer.  He  was  born  ia 
London,  and  was  educated  at  King"*  College  and 
at  Trinity  Hall.  Cambridge.  He  was  ordained 
priest  in  186:i,  and  three  years  afterward  was 
appointed  reader  of  the  Temple  Church,  a  posi- 
tion which  he  held  until  1804,  when  he  succeeded 
Dean  Vaughan  as  ^[aster  of  the  Temple.  He  is 
a  canon  of  Bristol  and  cUaplain-iu-ordinary  to 


■3  AINO. 

the  king.  As  an  author,  he  is  best  known  for 
his  editions  of  Iiamb's  Collected  Works  and  for 
his  Biography  of  Charles  lamb  ("■English  Men 
of   Letters   Series"). 

AOTMELLES,  In'mil-ler.  Max  E]tfA:«uix 
(1807-70).  A  German  painter  of  architectural 
subjects,  born  iu  >tuuich.  He  studied  at  the 
Munich  Academy,  devoted  himself  to  the  revival 
of  stained-glass  painting,  and  in  IS-U  became 
director  of  the  royal  manufactory  of  stained 
glass,  where,  under  his  supervision,  a  great  deal 
of  work  was  done  for  the  cathedrals  of  Cologne, 
Katisbon,  and  Speier,  St.  Paul's  in  London,  and 
the  St.  Peter's  College.  Cambridge.  His  inte- 
riors were  hard  and  cold  in  color,  but  in  the 
ornamentation  of  Gothic  interiors  he  showed  a 
good  knowle<lge  of  architecture.  He  also  won 
a  reputation  as  a  painter  of  architectural  sub- 
jects. Two  interior  views  of  Westminster  Ab- 
bey done  by  him  hang  in  the  JIunich  Gallery; 
similar  views  and  others  are  in  the  National 
Gallery  of  Berlin;  there  are  interiors  of  the 
Church  of  Our  Lady  in  Munich,  and  views  of 
St.  Lawrence  Church  in  Nuremberg  and  other 
places.     He  died  in  Munich. 

ArtTO,  I'no.  or  AINXT,  I'noo  (mem  of  Aiona, 
their  reputed  ancestor,  or  possibly  a  cofnip-  ' 
tion  of  inu,  dog,  contemptuously  applied  to  ', 
tiiem  by  the  Jai>anese).  Ab  aborigiii:il  peo-  i 
pie,  now  numbering  some  If. 000  souls,  in  north- 
ern and  eastern  Yezo.  tlie  southern  part  of  Sag- 
halien,  and  the  southern  Kuriles  (all  but  1500 
live  on  Yezo).  They  inhabited  once  a  great 
part,  if  not  all.  of  the  .Japanese  Archipelago, 
and  were  the  first  race  to  dwell  there,  unless 
the  so-called  "pit-dwellers"  of  Yezo  and  Sagha- 
lien  were,  as  Hitchcock  (1890)  suggeste<l,  driven 
out  by  them  when  they  intruded  into  this  area 
from  their  former  home  on  the  adjoining  Asiatic 
coast  many  centuries  B-C,  as  the  arclurologieal  re- 
mains (shell  heaps,  stone  implements,  pottery, 
etc. )  in  Japjin  indicate.  The  retreat  northward 
of  the  Aiuo  is  noted  in  Japanese  chronicles  re- 
ferring to  the  "barbarians."  The  physical  char- 
acteristics of  the  Aino — short  stature,  flattened 
humerus  and  tibia,  heavy  beards,  and  general 
hirsuteness  (much  e-\aggerated  by  travelers), 
lighter  skin,  doliehocephaly  and  brachycephaly, 
somewhat  regular  features," and  non-savage  looks 
— have  given  rise  to  theories  of  relationship  with 
almost  every  known  j-ace.  Drinton  (1890)  allies 
them  writh  "the  Giliaks  of  the  Amur;  Deniker 
(1900)  considers  them  s-m  gcnnis;  Keane 
(189(5)  and  Baelz  (1901)  believe  them  to  have 
been  originally  of  the  Caucasian  (white)  race. 
The  last,  who  "has  studied  the  Aino  at  tii-st  hand, 
is  of  the  opinion  that  they  are  the  extreme  east- 
ern branch  of  a  race  related  to  the  Caucasian 
stock,  once  occupying  much  of  Northeastern  Asia, 
but  split  into  two  sections  by  the  inroads  of  the 
Mongol-T'urkish  j>eoples  at  a  very  remote  date, 
a  view  which  has  a  good  deal  to  commend  it.  But 
the  .\ino  are  not  a''uniforndy  pure  type,  as  the 
differences  between  those  of  Yezo  and  of  Saghalien 
show.  The  linguistic,  geoarapliical.  and  mytho- 
logical researches  of  B.  H.  Chamberlain  (18S7) 
and  B;u-helor  ( 1882-1891)  prove  both  Ihe  uni.|ue- 
ncss  of  the  Aino  tongiu'  and  the  great  influ- 
ence upon  .Tapanese  life  exerted  by  that  Jieo- 
ple  in  times  past.  Driven  northward  from  their 
ancient  habitat  in  southwestern  and  central  Ja- 
pan, they  have  left  their  names  on  the  natural 
features  "of  the  archipelago.     Their  language  is 


AINO. 


233 


AINSWOKTH. 


simple  and  harmonious  and  resembles  tlie  Jap- 
anese in  structure,  but  is  quite  distinct  in  viic-ab- 
ulary.  It  lias  been  redui-ed  to  writinj;  only  re- 
cently. The  Kev.  John  Bachelor  has  compiled  an 
Aino  grammar  and  dictionary,  and  translated 
the  New  Testament  into  the  tongue.  The  Aino 
relijiion,  originally  a  rather  primitive  nature- 
worship,  with  the  cult  of  the  bear  especially 
prominent,  and  their  folk-tales,  have  evidently 
received  some  additions  from  Japanese  sources 
in  historical  times.  In  the  last  few  years  some  of 
the  Tsuishikari  Aino  have  become  Buddhists  of 
the  Monto  sect,  and  a  few  others  in  the  region  of 
Piratori  have  become  Protestants.  A  good  accoiuit 
of  the  .Mno  (with  bibliography)  was  i)ublished 
by  Professor  Hitchcock  in  the  Re/jort  of  the 
United  States  yntioiiat  Museum  for  ISlll).  Since 
then  the  most  important  literature  alxnit  tliem  is 
to  be  found  in  the  anthropological  studies  of 
Koganei  (lS93-'.)4)  and  Landor's  Almic  iiitli  tlic 
Eainj  Ainu  (1S93).  Baelz.  in  the  Vrihioul- 
lungen  dtr  Berliner  Gesellschaft  fiir  Anlhropolo- 
gie  for  ISJOl,  considers  that  the  amount  of  Aino 
blcHxI  in  the  Ja[)anese  outside  of  Yezo  has  been 
much  underestimated.  He  notes  also  the  increas- 
ing  intermixture  of  Japanese  and  Aino.  and 
foresees  the  ultimate  disappearance  of  the  lat- 
ter, not  by  extinction,  but  by  natural  amalga- 
mation with  tlie  former.  This  amalgamation  is 
favored  by  the  giadual  abandonment  of  ideas 
about  their  alleged  mental  inferiority.  (See  Jap- 
a:<,  paragraph  Ktlmulofii/.)  lu  addition  to  the 
works  cited  in  the  text,  consult:  Uritlis,  TIte  Mi- 
kado's l-^mpire  ( Xew  York.  187G)  :  !4ird.  V nheat- 
tn  Truck':  in  ■lapnn  (London.  18.H.">);  Chamber- 
lain and  Bachelor,  .li'iio  Studies  (Tokio.  ISST); 
Transitetiuns  of  the  Aaiatic  Society  of  Japan 
(Yokohama.  1374-98). 

AINSLIE,  anz'li,  Hew  (  17!>2-IS7S)  .  A  Scot- 
tish-American poet,  born  at  Bargeny  Mains.  Ayr- 
shire. While  a  clerk  in  the  register  house  at 
Edinburgh  he  acted  as  amanuensis  to  Professor 
Dugald  Stewart.  He  emigrated  to  the  United 
States  in  1822,  and  joined  for  a  year  Robert 
Owen's  venture  at  Xew  Harmony,  Ind.  (See 
H.*.RMONTSTS.)  He  subsequently  went  into  busi- 
ness. His  numerous  dialect  poems  had  extended 
his  reputation  to  Scotland,  where  he  w,as  enthu- 
siastically received  by  literary  folk  in  lsii4. 
These  poems,  many  of  which  were  highly 
esteemed  by  Sir  Walter  Scott,  were  (olleeted 
and  edited  by  a  friend,  W.  Wilson  (IS.'j.i). 
Some  of  them  are  also  to  be  found  in  Wilson's 
Poets  and  Poetry  of  Scotland    (187(1). 

AINSWORTH,  anz'wflrth,  Fredericiv  Cr.vy- 
TON  (1852 — ).  An  American  soldier,  born  at 
Woodstock,  Vt.  He  was  appointed  assistant 
surgeon,  United  States  Army,  in  1874,  and  in 
1891  major  and  surgeon.  In  1892  he  was  pro- 
moted to  be  colonel  and  <'hief  of  the  Kecord  and 
Pension  Olfice,  and  in  that  capacity  introduced 
the  inde.x  record-card  system,  by  means  of  which 
the  history  of  every  soldier  is  made  readily 
available.  He  was  promoted  to  be  brigadier- 
general  in  1890.  and  appointed  editor  of  the 
Official  Wur  n,i„rds. 

AINS'WORTH,  Henry  (1571-162.'?).  An  Eng- 
lish scholar  and  divine.  He  was  driven  from 
England  by  proscription  in  l.>93  because  he  was 
a  Brownist.  and  lived  in  poverty  in  Amsterdam 
until,  in  l.i9<i.  he  became  teacher  in  the  cliureh 
there  of  the  Brownisls.  Though  never  forward, 
he  was  the  most  steadfast,  resolute,  and  cultured 
Vol.  r.— it. 


champion  of  the  principles  of  civil  and  religious 
freedom  represented  liv  the  nonconformists  in 
Great  Britain  and  America.  While  fighting  for 
freedom  from  hierarchical  tyranny,  Ainsworth 
pursued  his  Hebrew  studies,  and  for  a  long  time 
biographers  had  two  Henry  .Vinsworths,  one  the 
learned  rabbinical  student,  the  other  the  arch- 
heretic  and  leader  of  the  Separatists;  but  the 
two  were  one  man.  His  most  notable  work  is  A 
Defense  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  Worship  and 
Ministry  used  in  the  Christian  Churches  sepa- 
rated from  Antichrist,  af/ninst  the  challevyes, 
cavils,  ana  contradictions  of  M.  Smythe  in  his 
book  entitled  "The  Differences  of  the  Churches 
of  the  Separation"  (Amsterdam,  1609).  He 
wroti!  notes  on  all  the  books  of  the  Pentateuch, 
the  Psalms,  and  Solonu)u's  Song.  Ther<'  is  a 
story,  not  probable,  that  he  was  poisoned  by 
Jews. 

AINS'WORTH,  Robert  (lBUO-1743).  An 
English  lexicographer,  author  of  a  Latin  diction- 
ary which  was  once  extensively  used.  He  was 
horn  near  Manchester  and  taught  schiMil  in  Lon- 
don. He  began  his  dictionary  in  1714;  it  was 
first  published  in  173t). 

AINSWORTH,  Wn.LiAM  Francis  (1807- 
9li  I .  An  Knglislv  physician,  geologist,  and 
traveler.  He  was  born  in  E.xeter.  and  grad- 
uated in  medicine  at  Edinburgh  in  1827.  He  then 
traveled  in  France,  and  prosecuted  geologiial 
investigations  in  the  Auvergne  and  Pyrenean 
mountains.  On  his  return  in  1828  he  conducted 
the  Journal  of  Xatural  and  (leoyruphical  Science, 
and  delivered  lectures  on  geolo.gy.  In  1835  he 
was  attached  as  physician  and  geologist  to  the 
Euphrates  expedition  under  Colonel  Chesney,  and 
returned  home  in  1837  througli  Kurdistan,  the 
Taurus,  and  Asia  Minor,  visiting  the  latter  again 
the  following  year.  He  pulilishcd  Researches  in 
Assyria  (1838).  He  also  published  The  Claims 
of  the  Christian  Aborigines  in  the  East  (1843) 
and  Trar(ls  in  the  Track  of  the  Ten  Thousand 
Creeks  (18441.  He  was  for  a  time  editor  of 
the  Xew  Monthly  Maga:::inG.  He  was  a  member 
of  many  learned  societies. 

AINSWORTH,  William  Harrison  (1805- 
82  I .  All  Knglish  novelist,  born  at  Manchester. 
His  creative  fancy  began  early  to  show  itself  in 
ballads  and  tales,  which  appeared  in  the  local 
news])apers  and  in  contributions  to  the  London 
Magazine  and  other  perioili<-als.  He  first  studied 
law,  but  tiring  of  that,  hi-  began  a  publishing 
business  in  London,  and  that  did  not  succeed. 
His  first  novel  was  Sir  John  Chircrton  (1826)  : 
his  second,  Uookuood  (1834),  was  very  favor- 
ably received.  Crichton  (1837)  and  Jack  Shep- 
pard  (1839)  followed  soon  after.  He  edited 
lienllcy's  Miscellany  for  a  time;  in  1842  began 
his  own  Ainsworlh's  Magazine,  and  from  1853 
edited  the  New  Monthly  Magazine.  Some  of  his 
other  works  are:  Lancashire  Witches  (1848)  ; 
Slur  Chamber  (1854);  Cardinal  Pole  (1863); 
■frjhn  Law,  the  Projector  (1864);  The  Spanish 
Match  (1865);  Meriie  England  (1874);  and 
ISeaii  Nash  (1880).  All  his  works,  and  particu- 
larl.v  his  earlier  ones,  were  remarkably  popular 
in  England.  Their  publication  began  when  the 
inane  "fashionable  novel"  w;is  the  staple,  and 
they  presented  an  agreeable  contrast.  The  his- 
torical element,  together  with  the  scenery  of  his 
native  country,  is  prominent  in  most  of  them. 
Analysis  of  character  or  motives  had  no  place  in 
his   works;    his   strength   was   in   the  vividness 


AINSWOBTH. 


334' 


AIR  BRAKE. 


and    directness    with    which    he    realized    scenes 
and  incidents. 

AINTAB,  intab'.  A  town  in  the  Syrian 
vilajet  of  Aleppo,  Asiatic  Turkey,  situated  about 
65  miles  north  of  the  city  of  Aleppo  (Map:  Tur- 
key in  Asia,  G  4).  It  is  an  important  military 
post  and  is  well  fortified.  It  carries  on  an  ex- 
tensive trade  in  leather  and  cotton,  and  lies  on 
the  route  leading  from  Aleppo  to  Armenia.  Its 
population  is  about  43,000,  and  consists,  to  a 
great  extent,  of  Armenian  and  Greek  Christians. 

AIR,  U-er',  or  Asben.  A  hilly  region  in  the 
southern  part  of  Sahara,  situated  between  17° 
and  20°  northern  latitude  and  7°  and  10°  eastern 
longitude.  It  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  best  pop- 
ulated centres  of  Sahara,  but  has  been  very  little 
explored  as  yet.  The  valleys  are  supposed  to  be 
fertile  and  the  climate  temperate.  There  are 
no  permanent  rivers,  but  the  numerous  ravines 
fill  with  water  during  the  rainy  season,  and  it 
often  happens  that  a  large  valley  is  converted 
into  a  river  in  a  very  short  time.  The  country 
is  ruled  by  a  native  Sultan,  and  the  population, 
estimated  at  about  100,000,  consists  chiefly  of 
Tuaregs.     Capital,  Agades   (q.v.). 

AIR  (Lat.  aer,  Gk.  ar/p,  aer,  irom  uciv,  aein, 
to  blow).  The  mixture  of  gases  forming  the  at- 
mosphere of  the  earth.  It  consists  essentially  of 
79.03  parts  of  nitrogen  and  20.97  parts  of  oxygen, 
with  varying  small  quantities  of  carbonic  acid, 
ammonia,  ozone,  argon,  helium,  neon,  krypton, 
and  xenon  Iqq.v. ),  aqueous  vapor.  Certain 
chemical  conqjounds,  as  eonunon  salt,  ammonium 
nitrate,  etc.,  as  well  as  minute  particles  of  ani- 
mal, vegetable,  and  mineral  matter,  are  also  fre- 
quently found  in  the  air.  Early  chemists  called 
all  gases  airs.  The  chief  properties  of  air  and 
the  phenomena  they  give  rise  to  may  be  found 
treated  under  Atmosphere  ;  Aerodynamics  ; 
AiiRosT.\Tirs;   Barometer:  Aeronautics,  etc. 

AIR  BLAD'DER  Or  FISH'ES.     See  Fish. 

AIR  BRAKE.  A  brake  worked  by  com- 
pressed air,  which  is  extensively  applied  to  rail- 
\\'a.y  cars  in  the  United  States,  and  also  to  a  less 
extent  in  other  countries.  Air  brakes  are  also 
used  on  street  railwa}'  cars.  The  air  brake  in 
its  first  form  was  invented  by  George  Westing- 
house,  Jr.,  an  American  engineer,  in  1869,  and 
is  known'  as  the  straight  air  brake.  This  brake 
consisted  of  an  air  pump,  a  main  reservoir,  and 
an  engineer's  valve  on  the  locomotive,  and  of  a 
train  pipe  and  brake  cylinder  on  each  car.  The 
air  pump  served  to  keep  the  main  reservoir  filled 
with  air  under  pressure,  and  the  brakes  were  ap- 
plied by  throwing  the  engineer's  valve  so  as  to 
allow  the  air  from  the  main  reservoir  to  enter 
the  train  pipe  and  thence  into  the  brake  cylin- 
ders on  the  cars,  thus  forcing  the  pistons  out 
and  applying  the  brakes  on  each  car.  The  train 
pipe  of  one  car  was  connected  to  that  of  the  next 
by  flexible  hose,  with  a  coupling  between  cars. 
This  form  of  brake  had  several  objections,  the 
more  important  of  which  were  that  the  brakes 
on  the  forward  ears  were  applied  so  much  sooner 
than  those  on  the  rear  cars  that  the  rear  ears 
bunted  up  against  the  forward  cars,  causing 
shocks  and  damage;  and  in  case  a  hose  burst  or 
a  coupling  parted,  the  air  pressure  would  es- 
cape without  setting  the  brakes.  These  objec- 
tions to  the  straight  air  brake  led  Mr.  Westing- 
house  to  invent,  in  1873,  the  automatic  air  brake. 


In  this  brake  each  car  was  equipped  with  aa 
auxiliary  reservoir  and  a  triple  valve  in  addition 
to  the  train  pipe  and  brake  cylinder.  The  triple 
valve  was  located  at  the  junction  of  the  train 
pipe  and  the  two  pipes  leading  to  the  brake 
cylinder  and  to  the  auxiliary  reservoir.  The 
principle  of  operation  of  this  improved  brake  is 
as  follows:  Air  pressure  is  maintained  in  the 
auxiliary  reservoirs  and  in  the  train  pipe  at 
all  times  when  the  brakes  are  not  applied,  the 
pressure  in  the  train  pipe  being  exactly  equal  to 
that  in  the  reservoirs,  and  there  being  no  pres- 
sure in  the  brake  cylinder,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  as  long  as  the  train  pipe  and  auxiliary 
reservoir  pressures  are  equal,  the  triple  valve  is 
held  in  a  position  closing  the  air  inlet  to  the 
brake  cylinder.  To  apply  the  brakes,  the  equili- 
brium between  the  train  pipe  and  the  auxiliary 
reservoir  pressures  is  disturbed  by  allowing  air 
to  escape  from  the  train  pipe;  as  soon  as  this 
is  done,  the  excess  air  pressure  in  the  auxiliary 
reservoir  throws  the  triple  valve  so  that  it  admita 
pressure  from  the  reservoir  into  the  Ijrake  cylin- 
der and  applies  the  brakes.  To  release  the 
brakes,  air  pressure  is  retained  in  the  train 
pipes  by  admitting  air  to  it  from  the  main 
reservoir  on  the  locomotive.  This  gives  an  ex- 
cess pressure  in  the  train  pipe  above  the  pres- 
sure in  the  auxiliary  reservoir,  which  throws  the 
triple  valve  so  as  to  close  the  inlet  to  the  brake 
cylinder  and  open  the  inlet  to  the  auxiliary 
reservoir  from  the  train  pipe,  thus  allowing  the 
two  to  attain  equal  pressures  again.  To  permit 
air  to  escape  from  the  train  pipe,  and  thus  apply 
the  brakes,  there  is  the  engineer's  valve  pre- 
viously mentioned,  and  also  a  conductor's  valve 
on  each  car,  the  latter  being  used  only  in  case  of 
emergency.  It  is  evident  also  that  should  a 
break  occur  in  the  train  pipe,  or  its  hose  connec- 
tions, through  any  accident,  the  pressure  is  re- 
lieved and  the  brakes  are  applied  automatically. 
It  will  readily  be  appreciated  from  what  has 
been  said  that  the  triple  valve  is  an  exceedingly 
important  part  of  the  mechanism  of  the  auto- 
matic air  brake.  It  performs  three  duties:  (1) 
C'liarges  the  auxiliary  reservoirs;  (2)  ajiplies 
the  brakes;  and  (3)  releases  the  brakes.  These 
duties  are.  moreover,  performed  automatically, 
and,  as  experience  has  shown,  with  almost  abso- 
lute certainty  as  long  as  the  valve  mechanism  is 
kept  in  good  order.  The  triple  valve  is,  how- 
ever, not  the  only  automatic  feature  of  the  air 
brake.  The  operation  of  the  air  pump  is  con- 
trolled automatically  by  a  pump  governor,  which 
shuts  the  steam  oft'  from  the  air  pump  as  soon 
as  the  pressure  in  the  main  reservoir  has  reached 
a  certain  amount,  and  admits  it  ag.ain  when  the 
pressure  falls  below  this  amount.  There  is  also 
an  automatic  contrivance  for  closing  the  ends  of 
the  coupling  hose  when  they  are  disconnected; 
this  valve  opens  automatically  when  the  hose  is 
coupled.  This  describes  brietly  the  construction 
and  operation  of  the  plain  automatic  air  brake. 
It  was,  as  will  be  obvious  to  all,  a  vast  improve- 
ment over  the  straight  air  brake.  Its  chief  ob- 
jection was  that  in  an  emergency  application  on 
a  long  train  the  forward  brakes  were  applied  so 
much  sooner  than  those  in  the  rear  that  the 
slack  of  the  train  ran  ahead  and  often  did  gi'Cjit 
damage.  To  remedy  this  objection  TMr.  Westing- 
house  invented,  in  1887,  the  quick  action  triple 
valve,  by  which  the  application  was  so  much 
hastened  at  the  rear  of  the  train  that  the  slack 
had  no   chance  to   run   ahead.     At  present  the 


AIR  BRAKE. 


235 


AIR   COMPRESSOR. 


quick  action  brake  is  tlic  picvailins  equipment 
of  railway  trains  in  .Vmerica.  it  lia\  ini;  replaced 
practically  entirely  the  i)lain  automatic  brake. 
The  very  hi^h  passenger  train  speeds  of  recent 
years  led  Mr.  Wcstinghouse,  in  lSt)7.  to  place  on 
the  market  a  high  speed  brake.  This  brake  is 
designed  to  use  very  high  air  pressure  when  the 
brake  is  applied  with  the  train  at  full  speed, 
which  pressure  is  gradually  reduced  by  an  auto- 
niiitic  reducing  valve  on  the  brake  cylinder  as 
the  speed  diminishes.  This  l)rakc  has  not  been 
extensively  used.  Tests  made  with  the  regular 
high  speed  brake  attached  to  a  fifty-car  train 
ghowed  the  following  among  other  results: 
Emergency  stop  of  train  running  at  40  miles  per 
hour  made  in  about  075  feet,  in  20  seconds; 
breaking  the  train  in  two  at  a  speed  of  from  20 
to  2.5  miles  per  hour,  the  two  sections  stopped 
at  distances  of  from  32  feet  to  ISO  feet  apart; 
applying  brakes  with  train  standing  to  show 
rapidity  of  action,  all  brakes  applied  within 
two  seconds;  comparison  of  emergency  air  brake 
stop  and  hand  brake  stop  at  20  miles  per  hour; 
air  brake  stop  in  158  to  104  feet,  hand  brake  stop 
in  1000  feet  to  1720  feet;  service  stop  test  to  de- 
termine time  of  release  of  brakes,  all  brakes 
released  in  four  seconds.  Several  forms  of  air 
brake  besides  the  Wcstinghouse  have  been  em- 
ployed to  some  extent  in  .\merica,  but  they  are 
exactly  similar  in  their  principles  of  operation. 
The  air  brake  has  been  applied  to  electric  street 
cars  and  to  cable  cars.  In  this  application  the 
air  pump  is  operated  from  one  of  the  axles,  and 
usually  the  straight  air  system  is  used,  in  ex- 
actly similar  form  as  it  was  formerly  used  for 
ste.a'ra  railway  trains.  Those  desiring  further 
and  more  technical  information  on  this  subject 
are  referred  to  Blackall.  Air  Brake  ('atrchism 
(New  York.  1000)  ;  Synnestvedt,  Air  Brake  Dis- 
eases (New  York.  1900)  ;  Proceedings  Master 
Car  Buildi-rx'    Association. 

AIR  CELLS,  or  AIR  SACS.     See  Bird. 

AIR   COMPRES'SOR,    or  AIR   PUMP.     A 

machine  for  coinpressing  air.  Compressed  air  is 
used  for  a  nuiltitude  of  purposes  in  the  arts  and 
in  manufacturing,  and  to  catalogue  all  of  its  uses 
would  require  a  great  amount  of  space.  The 
simplest  fmin  of  air  pump  is  the  little  appara- 
tus for  inflating  bicycle  tires,  with  which  nearly 
every  one  is  familiar.  These  bicycle  pumps  are 
made  both  single  and  double  acting,  the  single 
acting  pump  being  the  simplest  form  of  air  com- 
pres.sor.  Compared  with  the  enormous  air  com- 
pressing machines  used  in  shops  and  mines,  this 
little  device  seems  almost  too  trivial  to  merit 
notice,  but  by  carefully  observing  its  actions  and 
their  ell'ects  we  have  brought  to  our  attention 
several  phenomena  which  ace  inijiortant  facts  in 
air  compressing  on  a  large  scale.  One  of  these 
phenomena  is  the  power  required  to  pump 
against  the  resistance  of  the  compressed  air 
in  the  nearly  inflated  tire:  the  second  and  more 
important  is  the  fact  that  a  very  [)erceptible 
development  of  heat  results  as  the  pumping  pro- 
ceeds. The  bearing  of  both  these  observations 
will  appear  as  we  proceed.  For  the  present  it 
need  only  be  observed  that  hand  air  pumps  .of 
the  simple  form  indicated  are  used  for  a  variety 
of  purposes  where  only  a  small  amount  of  com- 
pressed air  is  required.  Where  a  somewhat 
larger  volume  of  air  is  required,  hand  pumps 
provided  with  fly-wheels  and  operated  by  one  or 
more  men  by  means  of  a  crank,  are  employed. 


With  these  large  hand  pumps  we  arrive  at  power 
ail'  compressors. 

The  air  pump  was  invented  by  Otto  von 
Cluericke  of  Magdeburg,  Germany,  about  1654. 
In  1753  Hoi!  used  an  air  engine  for  raising 
water,  and  in  1788  .Smeaton  invented  a  pump 
for  use  with  diving  apparatus.  In  1851  eom- 
pressed  air  was  used  by  William  Cubitt  for 
bridge  work,  and  a  little  later  it  was  used  by 
Brunei  for  the  same  jnirpose.  In  1852  Colladon 
patented  the  application  of  compressed  air  for 
driving  machine  drills  in  tunnel  construction. 
Sommeiller  developed  CoUadon's  idea,  and  con- 
structed an  air  compressing  plant  for  the  Mont 
Cenis  Tunnel  work.  (See  Tunnel.s.)  The  Soni- 
meiller  compressor  was  operated  as  a  ram.  util- 
izing a  natural  head  of  water  to  force  air  at 
80  pounds  pressure  into  a  receiver.  The  column 
of  water  contained  in  a  long  pipe  on  the  side  of 
the  hill  was  started  and  stopped  automatically 
by  valves  controlled  by  engines.  The  weight 
and  momentum  of  the  water  forced  a  volume  of 
air  with  such  a  shock  against  a  discharge  valve 
that  it  was  opened,  and  the  air  was  discharged 
into  the  tank.  The  valve  was  then  closed  and 
the  water  checked,  and  a  portion  of  it  was  al- 
lowed to  discharge  and  the  space  to  fill  with  air, 
which  was  in  turn  forced  into  the  tank.  The 
injection  of  water  in  the  form  of  a  spray  into 
the  compressor  cylinder  was  first  introduced  on 
the  St.  (iothard  funnel  work  begun  in  1872.  The 
first  compressor  used  in  .\merica  was  developed 
by  Mr.  Thoiuas  Doane,  the  chief  engineer  of  the 
Hoosac  Tunnel,  and  was  employed  on  that  work. 
This  compressor  had  four  single  acting  cylinders, 
and  was  cooled  by  the  injection  of  water  through 
the  inlet  valves  into  the  cylinders.  These  early 
compressors  are  of  historical  interest  only  at 
the  present  time.  As  the  necessity  for  com- 
pressed air  i)Ower  grew,  inventors  turned  their 
attention  to  the  design  and  construction  of  com- 
pressors which  would  combine  efficiency  with 
light  weight  and  economy  of  space  and  cost.  As 
the  result  of  this  work,  the  modern  air  compres- 
sor has  been  developed. 

The  simplest  form  of  power  air  compressor  is 
the  air  brake  ])um]i,  with  which  practically  every 
American  locomotive  is  equipped.  In  this  pump, 
it  will  be  readily  understood,  the  main  considera- 
tions are  economy  of  space,  light  weight,  and 
absolute  reliability  of  .action:  economy  of  steam 
consumption  being  quite  a  secondary  matter.  -V 
9'/;  inch  air  brake  i)ump,  for  example,  will  give 
1.8*5  cubic  feet  of  air  at  90  pounds  pressure,  with 
a  consumption  of  1  pound  of  steam  at  140  pounds 
pressure,  while  a  two-stage  Corliss  air  compres- 
sor will  give  13.7  cubic  leet  of  air  at  90  pounds 
pressure  with  the  same  steam  consumption.  The 
standard  air  brake  has  a  steam  cylinder  and  an 
air  cylinder  of  the  same  size,  viz.,  9^4  inches 
diameter  and  10  inch  stroke,  set  vertically  one 
aliove  the  other,  with  a  common  piston  rod.  See 
.\IR  Bn.\KE. 

It  has  been  stated  above,  in  referring  to  the 
bicycle  pump,  that  air  is  heated  by  compression. 
.\s  heat  causes  air  to  expand,  a  cubic  foot  of  hot 
air,  at,  say,  75  pounds  pressure,  will  decrease 
in  volume  When  cooled,  and  thus  bring  about 
a  reduction  in  pressure  to  something  less  than 
75  pounds.  Evidently,  therefore,  a  loss  of  work 
done  in  compression  results  from  the  heating  of 
the  air.  The  amount  of  the  loss  is  estimated  at 
21.3  per  cent,  of  the  total  work  done  in  compress- 
ing air  to  75  pounds  pressure.     To  save  this  loss. 


AIR   COMPKESSOR. 


236 


AIR   COMPRESSOR. 


compressors  are  designed  with  some  form  of  de- 
vice for  keeping  the  air  cool  during  compression. 
Two  systems  are  used,  by  which  It  is  attempted 
to  l»:eep  the  air  cool  during  compression,  and 
tliese  systems  divide  air  compressors  into  two 
classes,  as  follows :  ( 1 )  Wet  compressors  which 
introduce  water  directly  into  the  cylinder  during 
compression,  (a)  in  the  form  of  a  spray,  and 
(b)  by  the  use  of  a  water  piston;  (2)  Dry  com- 
pressors, which  admit  no  water  directly  into 
the  cylinder,  but  have  the  cylinder  surrounded 
by  a  jacket,  into  the  space  between  which  and 
the  cylinder  walls  water  is  forced  and  kept  in 
circulation.  The  water  piston  compressor  is  now 
seldom  used.  Cooling  by  the  water  spray  injec- 
tion gives  the  most  efficient  results  as  far  as  cool- 
ing the  air  is  concerned,  but  it  has  so  many 
objections  that  it  has  been  found  to  be  the  best 
practice  to  use  the  less  efficient  but  vastly  more 
simple  water-jacket  system,  and  endure  the  loss 
of  iieat  wliich  miglit  be  saved  by  using  water 
spray  injection.  Accordingly,  we  find  that  most 
air  compressors  are  nowadays  provided  with  a 
water-jacketed  air  cylinder  for  cooling  the  air 
during  compression.  Vertical  air  compressors 
have  the  steam  cylinders  placed  vertically  above 
the  air  cylinders:  horizontal  compressors  Iiave 
the  steam  and  air  cylinders  placed  horizontally 
one  ahead  of  the  other.  Direct  air  compressors 
have  the  steam  and  air  piston  on  the  same  piston 
rod,  so  that  the  thrust  of  the  steam  piston  gives 
a  direct  thrust  on  the  air  piston ;  indirect  acting 
compressors  transfer  the  thrust  of  the  steam  pis- 
ton by  means  of  cranks  and  gearing  to  tlie  air 
piston  rod.  A  simple  acting  compressor  is  one 
which  compresses  air  on  the  forward  stroke  of 
the  air  piston  only,  the  back  stroke  doing  no 
useful  work;  a  double  acting  compressor  com- 
presses air  on  both  the  forward  and  back  strokes 
of  the  air  piston.  A  two-stage  compressor  part- 
ly compresses  the  air  in  one  cylinder,  from 
which  it  is  passed  to  a  second  cylinder,  where  it 
is  furtlier  compressed.  Generally,  the  air  in 
passing  from  the  first  to  the  second  cylinder 
passes  through  an  inter-cooler,  where  it  is  cooled 
by  water.  Three-stage  and  four-stage  compres- 
sors are  sometimes  employed.  A  duplex  air  com- 
pressor consists  of  a  riglit-hand  steam  and  air 
cylinder  and  a  left-hand  steam  and  air  cylinder, 
each  side  being  capable  of  being  run  separately. 
or  the  two  sides  can  be  run  togetlier.  A  duplex 
compressor  may  liave  either  tlie  air  cylinders  or 
the  steam  cylinders,  or  both  air  and  steam  cylin- 
ders compounded.  Air  compressors  may  have 
the  steam  cylinders  replaced  by  a  pulley,  so  that 
they  may  be  operated  by  a  belt,  or  by  a  water 
wheel  obtaining  power  from  a  head  of  water. 
Whate\er  the  form  of  compressor  wliich  is 
used,  the  mechanical  action  in  compressing  the 
air  is  that  of  a  piston  working  in  a  cylinder, 
exactly  as  in  the  case  of  a  bicycle  pump.  As 
each  cylinderful  of  air  is  compressed,  it  is  forced 
into  a  sheet-iron  or  sheot-steel  tank  called  a 
receiver.  This  receiver  is  cylindrical  in  form, 
and  serves  as  a  reservoir  of  compressed  air  for 
supplying  the  machine  which  is  operated  by  air 
pressure.  The  receiver  is  often  provided  with 
an  arrangement  for  cooling  the  contained  air 
by  water.  While  it  is  advantageous  for  the 
reason  given  aliove  to  keep  the  air  as  cool  as 
possible  during  compression  and  while  it  remains 
in  the  receiver,  as  soon  as  it  leaves  the  receiver 
heating  it  is  an  advantage,  for  the  reason  that 
by  this  heating  its  volume  or  its  pressure  is  in- 


creased. So  important  is  this  advantage,  theo- 
retically, that  devices  called  reheaters  are  often 
employed  to  heat  the  air  just  before  it  passes  to 
the  motor  or  the  tool  which  it  operates.  Re- 
heaters  are  made  in  many  forms,  the  usual  one 
being  a  kind  of  stove  or  oven  through  which  the 
air  passes  by  means  of  a  spiral  pipe  or  some 
other  arrangement  which  allows  it  to  be  quickly 
heated.  Some  of  the  many  methods  of  util- 
izing compressed  air  in  engineering  and  the  arts 
are  given  in  the  following  list  of  uses,  compiled 
by  a  prominent  American  manufacturer  of  air 
compressors:  Rock  drills,  coal  cutters,  pumps, 
hoisting  engines,  and  other  machinery  in  mines 
and  tunnels,  air  brakes  on  railroad  and  street 
cars,  switches  and  signals,  engines,  hoists,  cranes, 
stone  carving  and  boiler  calking  tools,  chipping 
tools,  polishing  machines,  riveters,  punches,  ham- 
mers, tapping,  screwing  and  drilling  machines, 
stay-bolt  cutters,  angle  iron  shears,  paint  ma- 
chines, sand  blast  apparatus,  molding  machines, 
wood  bundling  machines  and  shop  tools  of  e\'ery 
description,  oil  fires  under  ovens,  furnaces,  and 
boilers,  and  in  fifty  other  applications,  such  as 
welding,  annealing,  tempering,  oil  illuminating 
lights,  pneumatic  transmission  tubes,  street  rail- 
way motors  and  mine  locomotives,  passenger  and  .' 
freight  elevators,  sheep  shearing  machines  and  f 
cloth  cutters,  railway  crossing  gates  and  jacking^  • 
up  cars,  and  steering  gear  of  vessels,  charging  ; 
pneumatic  dynamite  guns  and  projectiles,  and 
automatic  sprinkler  systems  for  fire  protection,  ': 
tunnel  driving  by  the  pneumatic  process :  sink-  i 
ing  caissons  for  structural  foundations;  pump- 
ing wells  by  air  lift  pump  method:  conveying 
and  elevating  acids,  chemicals,  and  other  liquids; 
racking  otT  beer  in  breweries:  aerating  water 
supplies  of  cities,  towns,  and  villages:  agitating 
fluids,  such  as  asphalt,  molasses,  and  chemical 
solutions:  mixing  nitro-glycerinc :  removing  hose 
from  mandrels  in  rubber  factories :  inflating 
tires:  testing  tinware. pipe,  hose, and  other  manu- 
factured products  required  to  stand  pressure; 
increasing  and  maintaining  pressure  on  hydrau- 
lic elevators;  sprays  of  all  descriptions,  includ- 
ing physicians',  hospitals",  sanitariums',  and 
baths:  spraying  solution  in  the  manufacture  of 
silk  ribbon:  moving  and  elevating  grain,  culm, 
and  other  material ;  cleaning  carpets,  car  cush- 
ions, etc.;  unloading  dump  cars:  raising  sunken 
vessels :  supplying  divers  in  submarine  opera- 
tions: refrigerating,  ventilating,  and  cold  stor- 
age; manufacture  of  various  gases:  disposition 
of  sewage:  and  for  a  large  number  of  other  duties 
in  railroad  shops,  chemical  works,  and  in  con- 
nection with  a  wide  variety  of  experiments  and 
patented  processes.  For  the  great  majority  of 
these  uses  an  air  pressure  below  75  pounds  per 
square  inch  is  ample,  but  for  charging  the  tanks 
of  compressed  air  locomotives,  for  liquefying 
gases,  etc.,  much  higher  pressures  are  required. 
The  highest  known  pressure  to  which  air  has 
been  compressed  is  400<l  atmospheres  (about 
60.000  pounds)  per  square  inch,  but  this  was  a 
hxboratory  experiment.  The  safe  limit  of  pres- 
sure for  u.se  in  the  arts  to-day  is  largely  deter- 
mined by  the  strength  of  the  retaining  vessel  or 
reservoir,  and  has  reached  its  limit  at  about 
3000  pounds  per  square  inch.  To  obtain  these 
great  pressures  specially  designed  air  compres- 
sors have  to  be  constructed. 

For  a  concise  and  reailable  history  of  air  com- 
pressors and  of  the  use  of  compressed  air,  con- 
sult: Saunders,  Compressed  Air  Production  (Nevr 


AIR     COMPRESSORS 


i-J '' 


I.CLAYTON    DUPLEX    COMPRESSOR. 

2.  PISTON     INLET     AIR     CYLINDER     for     Ingersoll- 

Sepgeant  Compressor,  showing  water-jacket 

and   valves. 


3.  SHEET    STEEL    AIR    RECEIVER. 

4.  SECTIONAL    VIEW    OF    RAND    RE-HEATER. 

5.  INGERSOLL-SERGEANT    COMPRESSOR. 

6.  RAND    COMPOUND    COMPRESSOR. 


AIR   COMPRESSOR. 


237 


AIB  GUN. 


York,  1002)  ;  for  a  somewhat  more  technical 
discussion  of  the  pi-oihut ion  and  use  of  com- 
pressed air,  F.  Kichards,  Com  pressed  Air  (New 
York,  I8SI5).  The  most  comprehensive  descrip- 
tive treatise  on  compressed  air  in  En};lish  is 
Hiscox,  Comjirrsscd  Air  and  Its  Applications 
(New  York.   lilOl). 

ATK  CTTSHION,  ki.is.li'nn.  A  mattress  or 
cushion  comiJOBtil  of  a  baj;  or  sack  of  air-tight 
fabric,  which  can  he  inflated,  and  whidi  possesses 
many  advantages  of  comfort,  cleanliness,  and 
portability.  Airbeds  were  known  as  early  as 
the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  but, 
heing  made  of  leather,  were  expensive,  .and  it 
was  only  after  the  invention  of  air-tight  or  rub- 
ber cloth  that  ihcy  couhl  be  constructed  at  a 
moderate  cost.  An  air-bed  consists  of  a  sack  in 
tlie  form  of  a  mattress,  which  may  be  divided 
into  a  number  of  compartments,  each  airtight, 
or,  as  is  more  usual  at  present,  it  may  have  a 
single  compartment  with  the  walls  tied  to  each 
other  to  preserve  its  shape  when  inflated.  The 
bed  is  supplied  with  a  valve,  or  valves,  through 
which  tlic  air  is  blown  in  by  a  bellows  or  an  air- 
pump.  They  are  especially  valuable  in  many 
cases  of  sickness,  and  for  use  by  camping  parties. 
Air-inflated  pillows  are  made  to  go  with  the  mat- 
tresses. The  air-cushion  is  another  contrivance 
of  the  same  kind,  the  layer  of  rubber  being  se- 
curely paste<l  or  c(micnted  to  a  layer  of  strong 
cloth,  the  cloth  giving  strength  and  the  rubber 
impenetrability,  and  the  whole  sack  covered  with 
ticking.  The  chief  drawback  to  these  contri- 
vances is  their  liability  to  being  spoiled  by  a  rent 
or  a   puncture. 

AIBD,  ard,  TiiOM.^s  (1802-76).  A  Scottish 
poet  of  considerable  tiilcnt.  He  was  horn  at 
Bowden.  in  Koxburghshire.  was  educated  at 
the  University  of  Edinburgh,  and  gained  the 
friendship  of  many  distinguished  men,  especially 
John  W  ilson,  wlio  always  spoke  of  him  in  very 
high  terms.  In  lS;i;j  he  became  editor  of  The 
Itutiifrirs  Herald,  a  new  journal,  started  cm  con- 
servative principles,  an  ollice  which  he  tilled  till 
1804.  His  works  are  not  so  well  known  as  they  de- 
se^^•e  to  be.  from  their  intrinsic  merit.  In  spite 
of  very  warm  praise  from  Carlylc  and  others, 
they  have  failed  to  secure  a  large  measure  of 
public  approbation.  The  Devifs  Dream  is  ]>er- 
haps  an  exception  to  the  rest,  for  it  is  both  well 
known  and  ailniired.  There  is  something  almost 
Dantesque  in  the  stern,  intense,  and  sublime 
litcralness  of  the  conception.  ,  Whether  the 
scenes  are  on  a  large  scale,  as  in  The  DcriVs 
Dream,  or  minute,  as  in  The  Summers  Day, 
there  is  the  same  clear,  vigorous,  and  pictur- 
esque word-]>ainting.  In  1827  Aird  published 
Relifiidus  Cliaracieristics,  a  piece  of  exaH<>d 
prose- poetry;  in  184.5.  The  Old  liachelor,  a  vol- 
ume of  talcs  and  sketches;  in  184S.  a  collected 
edition  of  his  ])ocms,  a  .second  edition  of  which 
appeared  in  lS,i(i.  and  in  18.52  lie  <'ditcd  the 
select  poems  of  David  Macbeth  Moir  (the  "Delta" 
of  HlnckxrcKid'a) .  prefixing  a  memoir.  See  his 
life  and  poems,  edited  by  J.  Wallare   (1878), 

AIRD'RIE  (Oadhel.  Smooth  Height;  from 
aird,  height).  A  flourishing  town  in  Lanark- 
shire, Scotland,  11  miles  east  of  Glasgow  (^lap: 
Scotland,  D  4).  The  highroad  between  Kdin- 
burgh  and  Glasgow  intersecting  it  forms  its  prin- 
cipal street.  It  has  risen  rapidly,  was  incorpo- 
rated in  1821,  and  is  now  one  of  the  most  flour- 
ishing inland  towns   in   Scotland.     Little   more 


than  a  century  ago  it  consisted  of  a  solitary 
farmhouse  or  two.  but  the  abundance  of  iron 
and  coal  found  in  tlie  vicinity  luis  given  its  in- 
dustries an  immense  imjtetus.  There  are  also 
c-otton  weaving  establishments  and  paper  mills. 
Pop.,  1891,  nmnieii>al  borough,  19,135;  1901. 
22.288. 

AIRE,  .-ir,  or  AIRE-SUB-L'ADOUR,  flr'- 
sur'la'dooi'.  .\  town  of  the  department  of 
Landes,  France,  picturesquely  situated  on  the 
slope  of  a  hill  on  the  left  bank  of  the  .\dour,  112 
miles  south  of  Bordeaux  ( Map :  l''rance,  F  8 ) .  It 
has  been  the  seat  of  a  bishopri<'  since  the  fifth 
century,  and  its  cathedral  of  St.  Wolfram  is  a 
fine  exami)le  of  flamboyant  Gothic,  begun  by 
Cardinal  Georges  .\ntoine.  under  Louis  XII.,  but 
afterward  <(implcted  in  a  mean  and  paltry  stvle. 
Aire  has  also  a  college  and  a  library.  Its  in- 
dustries are  not  considerable,  hut  its  tanyards 
and  hat  factories  give  cnlplo^^nent  to  most  of  its 
inhabitants.     Pop..    1S!W,.  24r!4:    ln01,2247. 

AIRE,  or  AIBE-STJR-LA-LYS,  fir'si.ir-U- 
k-s'.  A  town  of  the  department  of  Pas-de-Calais, 
France,  on  the  Lys  and  at  the  junction  of  three 
canals,  30  miles  southeast  from  Calais.  Tlie 
town  is  fortified  and  well  built,  but  its  situation 
is  low  and  marshy.  Its  chief  buildings  are  the 
handsome  (Jothic"  church  of  St.  Peter,  dating 
from  the  liftecnth  century,  the  Hotel  du  Baillage 
or  Corps  de  (Jardc  of  the  sixteenth  century,  the 
Hotel  de  Ville,  and  extensive  barracks.  It  has 
various  domestic  manufactures  and  a  trade  in 
agricultural   products.      Pop..  1001.   84.58. 

AIREDALE   TER'RIER,   ar'dSl.     See   Ter- 

RIKR. 

AIR  EN'GINE.  See  Compressed  Air  En- 
gine and  Caloric  Engine. 

AIR  GUN.  An  instrument  somewhat  re- 
sembling a  sporting  rifle,  designed  to  discharge 
darts  or  bullets  by  the  elastic  force  of  compressed 
air.  As  ordinarily  made,  an  air  gun  consists 
essentially  of  an  air  chamber  or  reservoir,  usu- 
ally located  in  the  stock;  of  a  condensing  sjTinge 
for  pumping  air  into  the  reservoir,  and  of  a 
valve  operated  by  a  trigger,  which  admits  the 
compressed  air  from  the  reservoir  to  the  barrel 
behind  the  bullet.  In  some  weapons  of  tliis  sort 
a  pressure  of  as  much  as  500  pounds  is  .secured 
in  the  reservoir.  Usually  onl.v  a  portion  of  the 
air  in  the  reservoir  is  used  for  a  single  shot, 
and,  therefore,  a  number  of  shots  may  be  fired 
without  recharging  the  reservoir  simply  by  re- 
leasing the  pull  on  the  trigger  immediately  and 
thus  closing  the  valve  between  the  reservoir  and 
barrel  after  a  small  ])firtion  of  the  air  has  es- 
caped. This  permits  rc]icating  air  guns  to  be 
made  similar  in  the  mechanism  for  inserting  the 
bullets  to  repeating  firearms.  Obviously,  the 
pressure  in  the  reservoir  decreases  with  each  dis- 
charge of  air,  and,  therefore,  each  succeeding 
bullet  is  discharged  with  less  force  than  the  pre- 
ceding one.  .\t  l>est.  the  force  with  which  a 
bullet  is  discharged  from  an  air  gun  is  much 
less  than  is  given  by  giiniiowder.  Sometimes  air 
guns  are  made  in  the  fonn  of  canes  or  walking 
sticks,  which,  like  sword  canes,  are  carried  for 
pur])oses  of  personal  defense  in  sudden  emer- 
•;encies.  Tlie  range  of  an  air  gun  of  the  ordinarv 
kind  is  from  180  to  2.50  feet.  The  air  gun  was 
known  in  France  over  two  centuries  ago.  and  the 
ancients  were  acquainted  with  a  device  liy  which 
air  acted  on  the  short  arm  of  a  lever,  the  longer 


AIR  GUN. 


238 


AIR  PUMP. 


arm  of  which  was  used  to  propel  a  bullet.  In 
1886  Lieutenant  E.  L.  Zalinski  of  the  United 
States  Army  invented  a  pneumatic  gun  for 
throwing  projectiles  filled  with  dynamite;  and 
later  the  Vesuvius  was  built  for  the  United 
States  Na\-y  and  equipped  with  three  of  these 
guns.  This  vessel  was  used  during  the  blockade 
of  Santiago  Harbor  in  the  Spanish-American 
War  of  1S9S.  During  the  Brazilian  civil  war  of 
1803  the  Xictlurou  was  equipped  with  a  pneu- 
matic gun  50  feet  long  and  of  1.5  inches  calibre. 
The  conclusions  of  experience  with  both  sets  of 
guns  was  that  the  range  of  the  gun  was  too 
small  and  the  accuracy  of  its  fire  insufficient  to 
make  it  a  serviceable  weapon  on  shiplioard.  The 
Sims-Dudley  pneumatic  gun  used  in  the  last 
Cuban  rebellion  is  a  field  piece  having  a  range 
of  from  2000  to  3600  yards.  It  consists  of  a 
lower,  or  combustion,  tube  7  feet  long  and  iy^ 
inches  in  diameter,  and  an  upper  tube,  or  barrel. 
20  feet  long  and  214  inches  in  diameter,  mounted 
on  a  regular  field  gun  carriage.  A  cartridge 
inserted  into  the  breech  of  the  combustion  cham- 
ber, and  containing  a  7  to  9  ounce  charge  of 
smokeless  powder,  is  fired;  tliis  compresses  tlie 
air  in  the  lower  chamber  so  that  it  passes  into 
the  upper  tube  or  barrel  behind  the  projectile 
and  forces  it  out.  The  projectile  is  a  light 
casing  filled  witli  explosive  gelatine,  which  is 
fired  by  a  time  fuse,  or  by  a  contact  fuse  upon 
striking. 

AIROLO,  i-ro'lij  (In  German,  Eriels).  A 
village  in  Switzerland,  in  the  canton  of  Ticino, 
on  the  upper  Ticino,  3755  feet  above  the  sea,  66 
miles  south  of  Lucerne,  at  the  south  end  of  the 
St.  Gotliard  Pass  and  of  the  St.  Gothard  Rail- 
way Tunnel  (q.v. )  (Map:  Switzerland  C  2) .  On 
September  17,  1877,  it  was  two-thirds  burned, 
but  later  rebuilt  in  stone.  December  27-28,  1898, 
it  was  partially  destroyed  by  an  avalanche.  The 
inscription,  "Suvarov  Victor,"  that  was  carved 
in  tlie  rocks  to  commemorate  the  victory  here 
of  the  Russians  over  the  French.  September  13, 
1790,  is  now  obliterated.     Pop.,  less  than  2000. 

AIR  PLANT.     See  Epiphyte. 

AIR  PORT.      See  Siiipblilding. 

AIR  PUMP.  An  instrument  for  removing 
tlie  air  from  a  vessel.  These  pumps  may  tie 
divided  into  two  classes,  mechanical  air  pumps 
and  mercurial  air  pumps.  The  mechanical  air 
pump  was  invented  by  Otto  von  Gucricke  al)out 
1054,  and  a  specimen  of  his  early  apparatus 
is  shown  in  Fig.  1  of  the  accompanying  page 
illustration.  In  Fig.  2  is  illustrated  a  modern 
simple  air  pump  whose  essential  part  is  a  hollow 
brass  or  glass  cylinder,  in  which  an  air-tight  pis- 
ton is  made  to  move  up  and  down  by  a  rod. 
From  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder  a  connecting 
tube  leads  to  the  space  which  is  to  be  exhausted, 
wliich  is  usually  formed  by  placing  a  bell-glass, 
called  the  receiver,  with  edges  ground  smooth 
and  smeared  with  lard,  on  a  flat,  smooth  plate 
or  table.  When  the  piston  is  at  the  bottom  of 
the  barrel  and  is  then  drawn  up.  it  lifts  out  the 
air  from  the  barrel,  and  a  portion  of  the  air  un- 
der the  receiver,  by  its  own  expansive  force, 
passes  through  the  connecting  tube  and  occupies 
the  space  below  the  piston,  which  would  other- 
wise be  a  vacuum.  The  air  in  the  receiver  and  bar- 
rel is  thus  rare/; ft/.  The  piston  is  now  forced  down, 
and  the  effect  of  this  is  to  close  a  valve  placed  at 
the  mouth  of  the  connecting  tube  and  opening 
inward  into  the  barrel.     The  air  in  the  barrel  is 


thus  cut  ofT  from  returning  into  the  receiver,  and 
as  it  becomes  condensed  forces  up  a  valve  in 
the  piston,  which  opens  outward,  and  thus  es- 
capes into  the  atniospiiere.  When  the  piston 
reaches  the  bottom  and  begins  to  ascend  again 
this  valve  closes;  and  the  same  process  is  re- 
peated as  at  the  first  ascent.  Each  stroke  thus 
diminishes  the  quantity  of  air  in  the  receiver; 
but  from  the  nature  of  the  process  it  is  evident 
that  the  exhaustion  can  never  be  complete.  Even 
theoretically  theie  must  always  be  a  portion  left, 
though  that  portion  may  be  rendered  less  than 
any  assignable  quantity;  and  practically  the 
process  is  limited  by  the  elastic  force  of  the  re- 
maining air  being  no  longer  sufficient  to  open 
the  valves.  The  degree  of  raicfaetion  is  indi- 
cated by  a  gauge,  on  the  principle  of  the  barom- 
eter. As  this  air  pum]'>  only  withdraws  the  air 
at  the  rate  of  one  cylinder  full  for  a  double 
stroke  of  the  piston,  pumps  with  two  barrels  are 
frequently  used,  in  which  case  the  pistons  iire 
each  attached  to  the  same  handle  but  each  moves 
in  an  opposite  direction  to  the  other,  the 
object  being  to  double  the  work  done  at  each 
stroke  of  the  handle.  Such  a  pump  is  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  5  of  the  page  plate.  A  large 
nimiber  of  modifications  of  this  type  of  pump 
have  been  invented,  all  of  which  are  the  same 
in  general  principles.  There  are  several  rea- 
sons why  such  pimips  do  not  continue  the  process 
of  rarefaction  indefinitely,  but  after  a  certain 
stage  their  effects  cease  and  the  tension  of  the  ' 
air  undergoes  no  further  change.  Leakage  at 
various  joints  in  the  pump  is  one  limiting  cause 
to  the  action  of  the  machine.  It  is  impossible 
to  prevent  leakage  entirely,  and  at  the  beginning 
of  the  operation  the  quantity  of  air  which  enters 
the  receiver  through  leakage  is  very  small  in 
comparison  with  the  amount  pumped  out.  But 
as  the  exhaustion  proceeds  the  leakage  is  faster 
on  account  of  the  reduced  pressure  in  the  re- 
ceiver, and  finally  a  limiting  point  is  reached 
when  the  inflow  and  outflow  are  equal  and  no 
reduction  in  the  tension  of  the  air  takes  place. 
Another  limit  to  the  action  of  this  machine  is 
caused  by  the  fact  that  there  must  always  be 
some  space  between  the  bottom  of  the  piston  and 
the  lower  end  of  the  cylinder,  which  is  untra- 
versed  by  the  piston.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  operation  this  space  contains  air  at  atmos- 
pheric pressure,  which  is  rarefied  at  each 
stroke  of  the  piston :  but  some  tension  always 
remains  there,  and  when  the  air  of  the  receiver 
reaches  the  same  tension  no  further  effect 
will  be  produced  by  the  pump.  Perhaps  the 
most  important  trouble,  however,  with  this 
type  of  air  pump,  as  well  as  the  most  diflicult 
one  to  remedy,  is  the  .absorption  of  air  by  the 
oil  used  for  lubricating  the  pistons.  This  oil 
finds  its  way  in  a  greater  or  less  quantity  to  the 
bottom  of  the  cylinder,  where  its  absorbed  air 
is  partially  given  up  at  the  moment  the  piston 
begins  to  rise.  This  class  of  pumps  is  not  good 
enough  for  the  manufacture  of  incandescent 
lamps  and  vacuum  tubes,  and  recourse  is  had 
to  the  mercurial  air  pump,  by  means  of  which 
a  much  greater  degree  of  exhaustion  is  obtained. 
The  principle  of  the  mercurial  air  pump  was 
first  known  in  the  seventeenth  century,  when 
Torricelli  showed  how  to  produce  a  vacuum  by 
filling  a  tube  over  30  inches  long  and  closed  at 
one  end,  with  mercury,  and  then  inverting  the 
tube,  with  the  open  end  temporarily  closed,  in  a 
vessel  containing  the  same  liquid.     The  mercury 


AIR     PUMPS 


1.  APPARATUS    OF    OTTO    VON    GUERICKE    with    water 

receptacle  at   base  removed. 

2.  SECTION    OF    SIMPLE    AIR   PUMP. 

3.  BUNSEN    WATER    PUMP. 


4.  MERCURIAL    AIR     PUMP,     Topler-Hagen     form    with 

Improvements. 

5.  MECHANICAL  AIR  PUMP,  with  two  vertica'  cylinders. 

6.  SELF-ACTING     SPRENGEL     MERCURIAL     AIR     PUMP, 

with  auxiliary  water   pump. 


AIR  PTJMP. 


239 


AIR  PUMP. 


Geissler  Tump. 


in  (tio  tul)e  then  ilesicnds  to  a  lici^'lit  equal  to 
that  iif  the  baroiMotcr  abiive  llic  level  of  the 
mercury  in  the  lower  eu]),  and  a  vacuum  is  left 
in  the  top  of  the  tube. 
This  is  always  alluded  to 
as  a  Torricellian  vacuum, 
and  is  foun<l  in  the  ordi- 
nary' barometer.  In  1855, 
(Jeissler  invented  a  mercu- 
rial air  j)\inip  in  which  the 
vacuum  is  produced  by 
coiincctin;;;  a  receiver  witli 
a  Torricellian  vacuum.  The 
ori;;inal  form  of  (Jeissler's 
liunij)  is  shown  in  the 
accompanyinj;  '  diagram, 
which  will  serve  to  illus- 
trate the  principle  of  the 
operation  of  puni])s  of  this 
class,  though  tliey  have  re- 
ceived numerous  modifica- 
tions and  improvements. 
In  most  mercury  pumps 
the  parts  are  made  of 
glass,  the  connections  be- 
ing made  with  rubber  tub- 
ing. In  the  diagram,  A  is 
a  large  bulb.  I!  is  a  tube  about  ;i  feet  long,  (' 
a  rubl>er  tube  uniting  the  lower  end  of  /{  with 
the  vessel  I),  which  is  oi)en  on  top.  .1  can  be 
conne<-lc(l  with  either  of  the  tul>cs  (1  or  /•',  but 
not  with  both  at  once,  or  it  can  be  shut  off  from 
both.  The  receiver  to  be  exhausted  is  connected 
with  (j,  and  /•'  leads  to  the  open  air.  Enough 
mrecury  is  used  to  fill  ,1,  /?,  (!,  and  D,  as  shown, 
and  the  vessel  D  is  capable  of  being  raised  or 
lowered.  The  o]ieratiou  of  the  jiump  is  as  fol- 
lows: Sujipose  the  vessel  D  is  raised  a  little 
higher  than  .1,  as  in  the  figure.  Tlie  mercury 
will  flow  into  the  bulb  .1,  which  it  tills  if  the 
cock  E  is  turned  so  as  to  connect  .-I  with  the 
outside  air,  /•'.  The  cock  is  then  turned  so  as  to 
connect  .1  through  the  tube  (1  with  the  vessel  to 
be  exhausted,  the  air  in  which  at  this  stage  is 
at  atmospheric  pressure.  D  is  then  lowered,  and 
the  level  of  the  nu'rcury  in  .1  is  lowered  in  con- 
seqiu'iice,  the  mercury  running  down  B  and  C 
to  D.  .\s  the  mercury  in  A  descends,  air  is 
drawn  from  the  receiver  tlirough  (1  into  A,  so 
when  the  mercury  has  desceiuled  below  A  the 
whole  space  is  filled  with  the  air  drawn  through 
G,  which,  having  cx])anded  from  the  receiver  at- 
tached to  (1,  is  at  less  than  atmospheric  pressure. 
The  cock  E  is  then  turned  so  as  to  cut  off  com- 
munication between  A  and  G.  D  is  then  slowly 
raised,  and  the  mercury  Hows  gradually  back 
into  .t,  com|ircssing  the  air  above  it  until  it  is 
at  atmosplicric  [ircssure.  At  this  point  the  cock 
E  should  be  turned  to  connect  .1  with  the  out- 
side air  /■',  and  as  U  continues  rising  the  mer- 
cury continues  to  drive  out  all  the  air  at  F,  until 
the  bulb  .1  is  filled  with  mercury  to  the  cock  E, 
which  is  then  closed  so  as  to  cut  off  all  commu- 
nication with  .1.  When  D  is  again  lowered,  the 
mercury  does  not  begin  to  fall  in  .1  until  I)  is 
about  .■)()  inches  below  .4.  It  then  begins  to 
desci'ud,  leaving  a  Torricellian  vacuum  above  it, 
and  I)  is  lowered  until  .1  is  empty.  The  cock 
is  then  turned  so  as  to  connect  .1  with  the  re- 
ceiver through  CI.  and  the  remaining  air  in  that 
vessel  expands  and  fills  A.  The  cock  E  is  next 
turned  off.  I)  is  raised,  and  the  merctirv  rising  in 
A  compresses  the  air  above  it  until  it  is  let  o>it 
at  /'  by   turning  the  cock.      By   repeating  this 


operation  a  sufficient  number  of  times  a  vacuum 
is  gradiKilly  produced  in  the  receiver  connected 
to  G.  When  the  operation  is  nearly  finished 
great  care  nuist  be  taken  not  to  raise  the  ves- 
sel D  too  rai)idly,  or  the  impact  of  the  nuMcury 
against  the  top"  of  the  bulb  A  will  break  the 
apparatus.  It  will  also  be  seen  that  when  the 
vacuum  is  nearly  reached  the  mercury  in  .1 
will  be  at  the  top  of  the  bulb  when  1>  is  about 
;!0  inches  below.  If  the  valve  should  be  turned 
to  /•'  at  this  point,  the  inrush  of  air  would  drive 
the  mercury  down.  Therefore,  no  conununica- 
tion  between  .4  and  /■'  must  be  made  until  D 
has  been  raise<l  on  a  level  with  E,  and  no  com- 
municatiim  between  (/'  and  A  must  be  made 
until  D  is  lowered  '30  inches  again,  otherwise 
mercury-  will  run  through  (,'  into  the  receiver 
which  is  being  exhausted. 

The  (ieissler  pump  just  described  may  be  taken 
as  the  type  of  mercury  pumps,  which  are  classi- 
fied as  upward  driving,  and,  while  a  number  of 
imi)rovpmeiits  in  details  have  been  introduced, 
making  tlicm  of  a  more  practical  type  for  fac- 
tory use,  these  pumps  all  operate  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  connecting  the  receiver  to  be  exhausted 
with   Torricellian   vacuum. 

Sprengel  brought  out  his  well-known  form  of 
mercury  [)ump  in  18()5,  and  the  diagram  shows 
it  in  its  simplest  form.  The  Sprengel  pump  is  a 
general  tyjie  of  what  are  classified  as  downward- 
driving  pumiis.  .4  is  a  funnel  having  a  stop-cock 
C,  and  II  is  a  tube  of  small  bore,  called  the  shaft 
or  fall-tube.  The  receiver  to  be  exhausted  is 
connected  to  the  tube  G.  which  branches  ofT  from 
near  the  top  of  the  shaft.  The  tube  B  terminates 
very  close  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  I),  which  is 
provided  with  a  spout  /•',  as  shown,  leading  to 
the  cup  E.  The  distance  from  the  branch  it  tf) 
the  top  of  the  mercury  in  the  vessel  F  must  be  at 
least  three  feet.  A  is  filled  with  mercury,  which 
Hows  down  the  shaft  U,  the  rate  of  llo'w  being 
regulated  by  the  cock  C,  so  that  a  very  small 
stream  is  allowed  to  fall.  This  mercury" in  fall- 
ing breaks  up  into  short  lengths,  between  which 
are  small  columns  of  air  which  flow  in  at  the 
junction  of  (.'  with  the  shaft  B.  The  weight  of 
the  mercury  forces  these  short  col- 
umns of  air  down  the  shaft  B  to  the 
mercury  in  />,  from  the  surface  of 
which  they  escape.  The  mercury  as 
it  runs  into  the  cup  E  must  he 
Iiimred  back  into  the  funnel  .4.  This 
operation  continues  until  no  more 
air  is  carried  down  with  the  mer- 
cury. When  the  vacuum  is  nearly 
completed,  the  mercury  in  the  fall- 
tube  will  fall  with  a  sliari),  rattling 
noise,  showing  that  there  is  not 
enough  air  carried  down  with  it  to 
act  as  a  cushion.  With  all  kinds 
of  mercury  pumps,  however,  it  is 
necessary  to  continue  the  operation 
for  a  considerable  time  after  the  re- 
ceiver is  api)arently  exhausted.  Kven 
when  no  more  air  appears  to  be  car- 
ried on  by  the  pump,  the  vacuum 
will  improve  as  the  operation  con-  E^S 
tinucs.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  Sprengel 
the   air    sticks    to    the    surface    of  Pump. 

the   glass,   forming  a   sort  of  coat- 
ing,   which    is    swept    off    the    surface    by    the 
pump,    but   very    slowly.     The    simple    form    of 
Sprengel     pump     is     better     than     the     simple 
G'eissler   pump,   but   is   not   well   suited   to   fac- 


AIR  PTTMP. 


S40 


AIBY. 


tory  work  on  account  of  the  slowness  of  its 
action.  The  drawback  is  oxercome,  to  a  great 
extent,  by  supplying  the  pump  with  a  number 
of  fall-tubes,  which  act  together  as  a  single  one. 
For  example,  if  six  fall-tubes  are  used,  the  work 
of  removing  the  most  of  the  air  is  done  in  one- 
sixth  of  the  time  required  by  a  single  jiumji. 
After  the  greater  part  of  the  air  is  removed,  how- 
ever, the  time  taken  to  produce  a  good  vacuum 
is  not  nearly  so  much  reduced,  and  it  is  chiefly 
in  the  early  part  of  the  operation  where  the 
saving  of  time  is  effected.  Another  drawback 
to  all  mercury  pumps  is  their  liaViility  to  break- 
age, even  with  the  most  careful  usage.  In  tlie 
Sprengel  pump,  owing  to  the  continual  hammer- 
ing of  the  mercury,  the  fall-tubes  are  very  often 
broken,  even  after  only  a  very  short  usage.  A 
method  is  in  use  with  both  of  these  forms  of 
pumps  which  consists  of  exhausting  into  a  par- 
tial vacuum  instead  of  into  the  atmosphere. 
This  is  accomplished  by  inclosing  the  part  of  the 
apparatus  where  the  air  is  expelled  in  a  cham- 
ber which  is  kept  at  a  partial  vacuum  by  means 
of  a  meclianical  or  water  air  pump.  By  this 
means  the  mercury  pump  will  work  against  a 
pressure  much  less  than  the  atmospheric  pres- 
sure, and  consequently  the  fall-tubes  and  the 
height  to  which  the  "mercury  must  be  raised 
can  be  very  much  reduceil,  while  the  air  is  much 
more  readily  drawn  down  and  out  of  the  fall- 
tubes.  In  factory  work  the  raising  of  the  mer- 
cury from  the  lower  to  the  upper  level  of  the 
piniips  is  done  mechanically  and  not  by  hand. 
It  may  be  raised  by  a  force-pump,  or  in  small 
buckets  on  an  endless  chain,  or  by  air  ])ressure. 
The  latter  may  be  simply  atmospheric  pressure, 
and  the  mercury  is  raised  by  being  broken  up 
into  small  lengths  with  air  spaces  between,  like 
a  Sprensel  pump  working  upward  into  a  vac- 
uum chamber.  The  illustrations  show  modern 
forms  of  mercury  pumps.  In  an  improved  form 
of  Sprengel  pump  designed  by  G.  W.  A.  Kahl- 
baum  a"  steel  gun-baVrel  replaces  the  glass 
fall-tube.  This  avoids  the  electrification  of  the 
glass  by  the  friction  of  the  falling  mercury, 
and  with  the  other  improvements  introduced 
enables  a  hicher  vacuum  to  be  attained  than 
ever  previously.  In  this  way,  in  .1901,  he  was 
able  to  obtain  a  degree  of  exhaustion  corre- 
sponding to  a  pressure  of  .0000018  millime- 
ters of  mereuiy,  which  is  considered  the  best  on 
record. 

The  degrees  of  exhaustion  reached  by  the  vari- 
ous mercurial  a-ir  pumjis  may  be  seen  from  the 
following  table  adapted  from  Miillcr-Pouillet, 
Lehrhiich  der  Physil; : 


Geissi^er's  Pump. 
(Older  t.vpp.) 


KBAVoWy's  Pnwp. 


Geisbi.er's  Pump. 
(Later  t.vpe.) 


Beesel-Hagen. 


V.  WaltenhofeQ. 


Bessel-Hagen. 


C  C  X  c 

c  t  5.= 


c  ^  c  c 
E  <s,'Z  a 


e 

1 

o 

III 

1  £  1  = 

Amount  0( 
exhaustion,  in 
fractions  of  an 

Crookes. 

,000046 

1 

HAM    PtrMl\ 

17,000,000 

Bessel-Hagen. 

.000009 

1 

(Later  type.) 

84,000,000 

Sprencel  -  GiMise- 

HAM  Pump. 

("W'itli  improve- 

Eood. 

.0000069 
.000008 

1 

110,000,01)0 

1 

ments.) 

390,000,000 

Sprengel  Pump. 

(With  improve 

nieiUs,  1901.) 

Kahlbaum. 

.0000018 

1 
420,000,000 

1 

92;e8S 


The  water  pump  invented  by  Bunsen  is  a 
simple  form  of  ap])aratus  that  is  found  generally 
in  physical  and  chemical  laboratories,  and  ade- 
quately answers  when  too  high  a  degree  of  ex- 
haustion is  not  required.  It  consists  of  a  tube 
attached  to  a  faucet  or  other  supply  of  water 
under  pressure,  through  which  A\'ater  empties 
into  a  chamber  provided  with  two  outlets.  From 
one  of  these  the  water  flows  out,  carrying  with 
it  the  air  from  the  vessel  to  be  exhausted,  which 
is  connected  -with  the  second  tube.  In  its  orig- 
inal fonn  this  piece  of  apparatus  was  made  of 
glass  and  rubber  tube,  but  with  metallic  parts 
that  allow  it  to  be  connected  to  an  ordinary  fau- 
cet. It  is  extensively  used  in  laboratories.  The 
page  illustration  -(Fig.  3)  shows  one  form  of 
such  a  water  pump.  Descriptions  of  air  pumps 
of  various  forms  are  to  be  found  in  all  the  large 
treatises  on  physics,  including  those  of  Ganot, 
Doschanel,  and  ]\liiller  -  Ponillet  (Brunswick, 
1886),  the  latter  (in  G<>nnan)  giving  a  complete 
account  of  the  most  important  types  of  apparatus 
of  this  class.  In  the  Juurnal  of  the  Society  of 
.irfs.  Volume  XXXVI.  (London,  1888),  there  is 
an  interesting  and  valuable  article  on  "Tlie  De- 
velopment of  the  ^Mercurial  Air  Pump,"  by  S.  P. 
Thompson,  in  which  the  various  fomis  of  this 
instrument  are  described.  This  has  been  re- 
printed in  book  form.  The  reader  is  also  re- 
ferred to  the  columns  of  the  Amwlcn  dcr  Plnjsilj 
nnd  Clicmie  and  the  American  Jovrval  of  Sici- 
cvec.  in  which  are  described  many  forms  of  air 
jium[is  nnd  vacuum  apparatus. 

AIR  RESIST'ANCE  of  a  Pectectile.  See 
Ballistics. 

AIRY,  fir'i.  Sir  Georre  Biddell  (18ni-n2). 
An  English  astronomer.  He  was  born  at  Alnwick. 
Northumberland,  and  graduated  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege. Cambridge,  in  1819.  In  1825,  he  discovered 
th'e  optical  defect  of  astigmatism  and  provided 
a  corrective  for  it.  He  was  elected  to  the  Plu- 
mian  professorship  at  Cambridge  in  1828.  and 
intrusted  with  the  management  of  the  Cambridge 
Observatory,  the  results  of  his  labors  being  pub- 
lished in  the  compilation  entitled  Afttronoinirid 
Oh.ieri^ations,  9  volumes  (C^ambridge.  1829-38), 
which  became  the  model  of  all  analogous  works 
since  published  in  Great  Britain.    In  1836  he  sue- 


AIRY. 


241 


AITON. 


cwdod  Pond  as  royal  ustionoiiir»r  of  Iho  Green- 
wii'li  ObsiMvatory, wliprc  lie  introduM'd  or  perfect- 
ed niiniernus  astriinomioiil  instruments,  <levised 
clearer  nnd  qnirker  iiietho<ls  of  caleulation.  and 
instituted  vulualde  researc-lies  in  lua^netisni. 
meteorolofry,  and  pliotograi>hy.  One  of  his  most 
important  adiievenionts  was  the  establishment 
of  a  mechanical  device  in  the  form  of  nia<;nets 
and  iron.  \vherel)y  the  disturbaiKC  of  the  compass 
in  iron-built  vessels  can  be  rectified.  It  was  he, 
also,  who  conducted  the  astronomical  ol)scrva- 
tions  prepaiatoiy  to  tlie  definition  of  the  bound- 
ary tx-lwecn  Canada  and  the  United  States. 
Ainonir  tlu'  works  written  by  this  distinguished 
scientist  during  liis  exceptionally  lonf;  and  useful 
career,  the  followin<;  are  especially  noteworthy: 
Gruritation,  for  the  Penny  ('i/clopwdia,  also  pub- 
lished separately  (1885);  Mathematical  Tracts 
oil  J'hfisical  .IslnuiniHif  (fourth  edition.  I808I: 
/psiric/i  Lectures  on  Astronomi/  (fourth  edition, 
1858)  ;  Trcati.iis  on  Errors  of  Observation 
(18(il);  tiotind  (ISiiO);  Marinctism  (1870): 
"Trijionomet ry,"  "FifTure  of  the  Earth."  "Tide 
and   Waves."   in    Eneiiclopirdia    MetropoUtana. 

AiSH-KUL,  ii'esh-kool'.     See  Ai.A-Kn,. 

AISLE,  il  (Fr.  aile,  wing,  from  Lat.  ala,  con- 
tracted from  axilla).  An  architectural  term 
meaninfi  the  lateral  section  of  the  interior  of 
any  Iniilding  which  is  divided  by  rows  of  piers 
or  columns,  hi  such  interiors  the  hip:her  and 
broader  central  section  is  called  the  nave;  the 
narrower,  lower  sections  are  the  aisles,  divided 
from  the  nave  or  from  each  other  by  the  lines  of 
supports.  There  are  a  few  cases  of  such  an 
arranuenient  in  (ireck  temples.  The  develop- 
ment of  interior?-  of  this  type  came  with  the  rise 
of  the  Christian  basilica  or  church  in  the  fourth 
century,  when  the  smaller  cliurehes  lu\d  two 
and  the  larger  ones  four  aisles  on  eitlier  side  of 
the  central  nave.  In  contemporary  circular  or 
polygonal  buildings — -especially  baptisteries, 
mausoleums,  and  chapels  —  the  central  dome  was 
often  encirclcil  by  one  or  more  concentric  lines  of 
arcades,  forming  aisles  with  lower  ceiling  or 
vault.  When,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  the  upper 
parts  of  the  church — transept  and  choir — were 
so  much  enlarged  under  monastic  influence  ajid 
the  development  of  cathedral  architecture,  then 
the  aisles  were  continued  around  the  transept 
and  the  apse,  thus  adding  great  richness  to  the 
interiors.  In  a  few  eases  tliere  were  as  uuiuy  as 
three  aisles  on  each  side  of  the  church.  They 
varied  very  much  in  height,  according  to  schools, 
periods,  and  methods  of  construction:  and  in 
some  schools  (bombard,  Norman,  Jlyzantine. 
Karly  (Jothic.  etc.),  they  were  surmounted  by 
open  galleries,  and  sometimes  by  closed  galleries 
(south  of  France)  ;  while  in  other  cases,  espe- 
cially in  the  early  vaulted  Romanesque,  the 
vaults  of  the  aisles  reached  almost  as  high  as 
those  of  the  nave. 

There  are  se\eral  improi)er  tises  of  the  term: 
in  the  case  of  hall-churches  with  two,  three,  or 
more  naves  of  equal  height,  these  divisions  are 
sometimes  incorrectly  called  aisles.  Also,  in 
modern  usage  it  is  wrongly  a])plied  to  the  pas- 
sageway iH'tween  two  rows  of  seats  in  a  build- 
ing.    See  CiiiKCii. 

AISNE,  fin.  .\  tributary  of  the  Oise.  which 
rises  in  the  deiiarlmcnt  of  Meuse,  France.  It 
flows  northwest  through  the  departments  of 
Ardennes.  Aisne,  and  part  of  Oise,  where  it  falls 
into    the    river    Oise    above    Compi&gne     ( Map : 


France,  K  2).  Its  length  is  170  miles,  of  which 
.'14  are  navigable.  It  is  ctmnected  with  the  Meuse 
and  Mariu'  rivers  by  canals. 

AISI^E,  an.  A  department  in  the  north  of 
France  (q.v.i,  formed  of  parts  of  the  old  Picar- 
die.  P.ril.  and  Ile-de-France.     Capital,  Laon. 

Ai'SSE,  iiV-sA'.  MAnF.Mor.SRr.l.E  ( lfi94?-17.33). 
A  French  writer,  born  in  Circassia.  She  was 
taken  captive  by  a  Turkish  nuirauding  expedi- 
tion, and  about  IGOS  was  bought  at  the  Constan- 
tinople slave  market  by  the  Comte  de  Ferriol, 
the  French  ambassador.  She  was  educated  at 
Palis,  where  she  was  subsequently  a  prominent 
figure  in  many  salons.  Her  letters  to  Mine. 
Calandrini  were  first  published  in  1787,  with 
notes  by  Voltaire.  In  1847  a  critical  edition 
was  published  by  M.  J.  Ravenel,  with  a  study  by 
Sainte-Beuve, 

AISTULF,  rs'tulf,  or  ASTOLF,  iis'tolf  (died 
7.iti).  A  king  of  the  Lombards.  He  succeeded 
Ivachis,  who  entered  a  monastery  in  749.  In 
752  he  seized  Kavenna,  and  soon  after  attempted 
to  capture  Rome.  The  Pope,  nnalile  to  get  aid 
from  the  Emperor  at  Constantinople,  went  to 
implore  assistance  from  Pepin  (q.v.).  The 
hitter,  in  754.  invaded  Italy,  defeated  -Vistulf, 
and  forced  him  to  promise  to  give  up  the  con- 
quered territory.  This  Aistulf  did  not  do,  but 
in  January,  756,  laid  siege  to  Home.  Pepin 
again  went  to  aid  the  Pope,  besieged  Aistulf, 
who  had  left  Rome  on  learning  of  Pepin's  ad- 
vance, in  Pavia.  and  forced  him  to  surrender  the 
Exarchate  of  Ravenna.  (See  Do.natiox  of  Pe- 
pin.) The  dates,  which  were  disputed,  are  dis- 
cussed and  fixed  in  Giegorovius.  Citfi  of  Rome 
ill.  the  ^f iridic  Aiics,  Volume  II.   (I.,ond(m,  1S!)(1). 

AITKEN,  at'ken,  Rouert  (1734-1802).  A 
Scotch- American  printer  and  bookseller.  He 
was  publisher  of  the  I'cnnsi/lraiiia  .\tiifia~inr,  or 
Anierieaii  Monthly  Museum,  in  1775  and  177(>, 
and  in  1777  was  imprisoned  as  a  sympathizer 
with  the  Patriot  cause.  At  a  considerable  loss, 
he  printed  the  first  American  edition  of  the 
Hible  (17S2),  He  is  supposed  to  have  written 
An  Inquiry  Conccrninq  the  Principles  of  a  Com- 
mercial Hyitem  fur  the  United  l^tntcs   (1787). 

AITKEN,  William  TIav  JIacdowall  Hi-ntf.r 
(1841  — ).  A  Church  of  England  jireacher,  born 
in  Liverpool.  September  21.  1841,  B.A..  Oxford. 
IStio.  M.A.,  IS07.  Since  1877  he  has  been  gen- 
eral superintendent  of  the  Church  of  England 
Pajochial  Mission  Society,  which  he  founded  in 
1870.  He  is  one  of  the  most  eminent  and  suc- 
cessful of  revival  preachers.  His  publications 
consist  of  sermons.  In  1900  he  was  appointed 
canon  of  Xnrwi<'li. 

AIT'KENITES.  In  the  Chinch  of  England, 
the  partisans  of  Robert  Aitken  (1800-7:1),  a  cler- 
gyman who  liad  been  for  a  time  a  Wesleyan,  and 
wlio,  after  1840.  having  returned  to  the  Estjil)- 
lished  Chiir<h,  desired  to  combine  with  its  eccle- 
siastical ])ractice  certain  views  of  the  Metho- 
dists, especially  in  regard  to  conversion. 

AITON,  ii'ton,  Wn,i.iAM  (1731-93) .  A  Scotch 
botanist.  He  was  trained  as  a  gardener,  and 
in  1754  became  assistant  to  Philip  Miller,  super- 
intendent of  the  garden  at  Chelsea.  In  1759.  he 
was  made  director  of  the  royal  botanical  gardens 
at  Kew,  which  he  rendered  the  richest  in  exist- 
ence, and  held  the  place  until  his  death.  In 
1793,  he  published  his  excellent  work,  Hortus 
Ketcensis,  or  a  Catalogue  of  the  Plants   Culti- 


AITON. 


949 


AIX-LA-CHAPELLE. 


voted  ill  the  Royal  Botanical  Gardens  at  Keic. 
This  was  re-edited  by  his  son  and  successor  in 
office,  William  Townsend  Aiton. 

AIVALIK,  i'va-lek'.  A  seaport  town  on  the 
western  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  on  the  Gulf  of 
Adramyti,  opposite  the  island  of  Mitylene 
(Map  :  Turkey  in  Asia,  B  3).  It  has  a  large 
trade  in  oil.  Its  harbor  is  extensive,  but  the 
entrance  is  very  shallow.  The  town  suffered 
terribly  at  the  hands  of  the  Turks  at  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  but  has 
recovered  since,  and  is  now  of  considerable  im- 
portance. Its  population,  estimated  at  30,000, 
is  almost  exclusively  Greek. 

AIVAZOVSKI,  i'va-zof'sks,  Ivan  Konstan- 
TixoviTCH  (1817-1900).  A  Russian  painter.  He 
was  born  in  Feodosia,  in  the  Crimea,  and  by 
express  command  of  the  Czar  Nicholas  was  ad- 
mitted as  an  imperial  pensioner  to  the  Academy 
of  x\rt  at  St.  Petersburg.  He  was  one  of  the 
greatest  marine  painters  of  Russia,  his  subjects 
being  taken  largely  from  the  naval  liistory  of 
that  country.  Among  his  best  productions  may 
be  mentioned:  "Sunrise  on  the  Black  Sea" 
(1850)  ;  "Creation,"  "Deluge,"  and  several 
others,  now  at  the  Hermitage  at  St.  Petersburg 
(1865);  "Sea  Fights  at  Revel,  Viborg,  and 
Tchesme,"  "Wreck  of  the  Frigate  Ingermann- 
land,"  "Peter  the  Great  at  Krasnaya  Gorka" 
(all  at  the  Winter  Palace,  St.  Petersburg)  ; 
"View  of  Constantinople,"  "Calm  >Sea."  and 
"Naples  by  Moonlight"  (Academy  of  Si.  Peters- 
burg) ;  "Solar  Eclipse"  (Geographical  Society, 
St.  Petersburg)  ;  "Lighted  Castle  on  the  Sea" 
(Peterhof)  ;  "Calm  Sea  by  Moonlight,"  "Mon- 
astery of   St.   George"    (Moscow  Museum). 

AIWALYK.     See   Aivalik. 

AIX,  aks  or  as  (Anciently  Lat.  AqiUB  Sextiw, 
Springs  of  Sextius).  A  town  of  France,  former- 
ly the  capital  of  Provence,  now  the  capital  of 
an  arrondissement  in  the  department  of 
Bouches-du-Rhone  (Map:  France,  M  8).  The 
principal  buildings  of  the  town  are  the  Palais 
de  Justice,  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  and  the  cathedral 
of  St.  Sauveur.  The  cathedral  dates  from  the 
eleventh  century,  and  is  a  fine  example  of  Roman- 
esque architecture.  The  Palais  de  Justice  was 
not  completed  until  1831,  and  is  in  the  Renais- 
sance style.  The  town  is  very  bright  and  cheer- 
ful in  appearance,  and  its  many  squares  and 
parks  enliven  every  quarter.  Aix  is  famous  for 
its  springs  and  natural  fountains.  That  of  the 
Rotunda  is  decorated  with  statues  of  Justice, 
Agriculture,  and  Art ;  anotlier  fountain  is  sur- 
mounted by  a  statue  of  Reng  of  Anjou,  the  patron 
of  troubadours.  It  is  the  work  of  David.  There 
is  a  museum  of  antiquities  containing  valuable 
Gallic,  Roman,  and  Christian  remains.  The 
town  has  a  university  in  conjunction  with  Mar- 
seilles (see  Aix,  Factltes  d').  as  well  as  an 
academy  of  sciences.  Its  library  is  famous  in 
southern  France,  and  contains  about  150,000 
printed  works  and  over  1200  manuscripts  ;  among 
these  latter  are  many  letters  of  Mary  Stuart. 
There  is  also  a  school  of  art,  and  a  picture  gal- 
lery, in  which  are  examples  of  Granet,  the  great 
architectural  painter,  who  was  a  native  of  Aix. 
The  industry  of  the  town  consists  chiefly  in  the 
cultivation  of  the  olive,  in  cotton-spinning, 
leather-dressing,  and  trade  in  oil,  wine,  almonds, 
etc.  Tlie  warm  springs  are  slightly  sul|)liurous, 
with  a  temperature  from  90°  to  100°  F.,  clear 
and   transparent,   with   a   slightly   bitter   taste. 


They  have  the  reputation  of  improving  the 
beauty  of   the   skin. 

Aix  was  in  Roman  times  Aquae  Sextiae,  from 
Caius  Sextius  Calvinus,  who  in  123  B.C.  headed 
the  Roman  colony  which  had  been  formed  to 
defend  the  Greeks  of  Marseilles  against  the  Sal- 
luvii.  The  field  on  which  Marius  defeated  the 
Teutones  and  Ambrones,  in  102  B.C.,  lies  in  the 
plain  between  Aix  and  Aries.  In  the  Middle 
Ages,  under  the  counts  of  Provence  (see  Re.x^), 
Aix  was  long  a  great  literarv  centre.  Pop.,  1896, 
28,900;    1901,  29,418. 

AIX,  or  AIX-LES-BAINS,  -la'bfiN'  (Fr.  the 
Bath  Waters  or  Springs;  see  l)clow).  A  suKill 
town  of  Savoy,  France,  in  a  delightful  valley 
near  Lake  Bourget,  7  miles  north  of  Chani- 
bi^ry  (Map:  France,  M  6).  Its  celebrity  as  the 
source  of  medicinal  waters  dates  from  the  Roman 
occupation.  The  Romans  gave  it  the  name  of 
Aquip  Gratime.  and  built  splendid  baths  there: 
among  its  numerous  remains  of  Roman  times 
are  the  Arch  of  Campanus  and  tlie  ruins  of  a 
tenijilc  and  of  .a  raporarmm.  Tlie  liot  springs, 
two  in  number,  are  of  sulphurous  quality,  and  of 
a  temperature  above  100°  F.  They  are  used 
both  for  drinking  and  as  baths,  and  attract 
annuallv  two  thousand  invalid  visitors.  Pop., 
1901,  .5349. 

AIX,  Facultij.s  d',  fa'kul'ta'  daks'  or  das',  or 
Academie,  a'ka'da'nic'.  Schools  of  law  and  the- 
ology existed  at  Aix  perhaps  at  the  beginning  of 
the  thirteenth  century.  They  were  organized  in 
1409  by  Papal  bull  into  the  University  of  Aix, 
which  represented  Provengal  learning,  if  not  lit- 
erature, during  most  of  its  existence  from  its 
foundation  until  its  dissolution  and  reorganiza- 
tion under  Napoleon,  in  1808,  after  which  for 
nearly  a  century  it  was  an  academy  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  France.  The  present  University  of 
Aix-liarseilles  has  faculties  of  law  and  philoso- 
phy at  Aix,  and  faculties  of  mathematics-science, 
medicine-])harniacy.  and  the  free  faculty  of  law 
at  Marseilles.     Tliere  are  772  students. 

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE,  -la-sha'p6l',  Ger.  Aach- 
en (named  from  its  springs,  Lat.  Aquw,  and 
the  palace  chapel).  A  city  of  the  Prussian 
Rhine  Province,  and  capital  of  the  government 
district  of  the  same  name,  situated  in  a  valley 
near  the  River  Wurm,  about  40  miles  west  of 
Cologne  (Map:  Prussia,  B  3) .  The  cky  is  divid- 
ed into  the  inner  or  old  town,  the  outer  or  new 
town,  and  the  suburb  of  Burtscheid.  The  streets 
are  generally  broad  and  well  paved.  Among  the 
principal  ones  are  the  Theaterstrasse,  Hochstras- 
se,  and  Wilhelmstrasse.  The  most  important 
public  squares  are  the  Marktplatz,  with  tlie 
bronze  statue  of  Charlemagne,  the  Miinsterplatz, 
and  the  Kaiserplatz,  with  a  large,  handsome 
fountain.  Its  private  houses  are  for  the  most 
part  handsome  modern  buildings,  and  give  the 
city  a  thorouglily  niddcrn  appearance.  With  the 
exception  of  its  two  or  three  public  buildings 
and  churcheSj^  little  of  tlie  ancient  town  remains. 
Its  former  ramparts  have  been  leveled  and  turned 
into  promenades,  and  only  two  of  its  old  gates 
remain  standing.  Foremost  among  the  public 
buildings  of  interest  is  the  cathedral,  a  most 
striking  specimen  of  various  styles  of  ecclesi- 
astical architecture.  The  oldest  portion,  which 
probably  dates  from  the  year  796  A.D.,  is  an 
octagonal  chapel,  surrounded  by  a  gallery  and 
surmounted  by  .a  cupola  built  in  the  Byzantine 
style.     A  stone  in  the  floor  marks  the  supposed 


AIX-LA-CHAPELLE. 


243 


AIZANI. 


burial  place  of  Cliarleinagne,  ami  above  it  han<»s 
an  imiiicnse  cliaiulolicr  of  gilded  copper.  Tlie 
choir,  datin;;  from  tlie  fourteenth  eenlurv.  an<l 
built  in  the  Gothic  style,  marks  tlie  second  period 
of  construction.  The  lluiifiarian  Cliapel,  built  in 
the  early  part  of  the  eifjhteenth  century,  contains 
the  sacred  relics,  which  are  exhibited  to  the 
populace  every  seven  years.  Tlie  other  churches 
of  srcat  -Ago  are  those  of  St.  Foilan  and  St.  Paul, 
with  fine  stained  irlass  windows.  In  the  ilarkt- 
platz  stands  the  Gothic  Hathhaus,  built  on  the 
site  of  Charlemagne's  palace,  and  containing  tlie 
famous  and  immense  coronation  hall  of  the  Ger- 
man emperors,  de- orated  with  frescoes  depicting 
scenes  from  the  life  of  Charlenuigne.  The  Rath- 
haus  is  flanked  by  two  towers,  one  of  which,  the 
Granusturni,  dates  from  the  thirteenth  century. 

The  city's  afVairs  are  directed  by  a  munici- 
pal council  of  thirty  members  and  an  executive 
board  of  live.  Aix-la-('hapellc  has  an  excellent 
system  of  sewers,  which  carry  the  refuse  into  the 
river.  The  yearly  expenditure  is  about  $2000,  or 
about  2Vo  cents  per  capita,  compared  to  Pots- 
dam's per  capita  expenditure  of  about  21  cents. 
The  city  has  owned  and  operated  since  18S0 
large  water  works,  which  nel  it  annually  about 
.tSS.OOO.  Tt  has  an  organized  fire  department, 
upon  which  it  expends  annually  the  sum  of  about 
$l(i.(lOll.  The  g-.is  works  are  in  the  hands  of 
private  coni])anies,  which  pa.v  the  city  a  tax  of 
about  half  a  cent  for  each  cubic  meter  sold  for 
lighting  purposes,  and  about  a  (|uarter  of  a  cent 
on  each  cubic  meter  sold  for  cooking  purposes. 
The  city  owns  an  electric  light  plant,  which,  how- 
ever, is  leased  to  a  private  company.  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  has  (|uite  a  number  of  parks  and  prom- 
enades, including  a  municipal  botanical  garden, 
on  which  it  expends  annually  about  .$13,000. 
Its  educational  institutions  induile  free  g\nn- 
nasiums,  a  splendidly  equipped  technical  high 
school,  an  industrial  high  school,  an  art  school, 
a  teachers'  preparatory  school,  and  a  deaf  and 
dumb  school.  Tliere  are  six  public  libraries, 
includitig  the  municipal  library,  containing  about 
100.000  volumes.  The  (ommerce  of  Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle  is  of  considerable  importance.  Its  prin- 
cipal industry  is  wool-spinning  and  the  manufac- 
ture of  cloth,  which  is  ex)>orted  to  all  parts  of 
the  world.  There  are  also  important  manufac- 
tures of  needles,  glass  buttons,  knives,  umbrellas, 
soap,  cement,  bells,  pottery,  and  croekei'y.  Aix- 
la-C'hapelle  is  advantageously  situated  as  a  com- 
mercial centre,  being  on  the  Prussian  State  Rail- 
way and  on  the  line  to  Antwerp.  Local  trallie 
facilities  arc  aH'ordcd  by  electric  street  railway 
lines  within  the  city,  connecting  it  also  with 
many  of  the  neighboring  towns.  The  hot  sul- 
phur springs  of  Aix-la-t'liapellc  are  celebrated. 
They  are  fre(|uentcd  yearly  by  about  20,000  vis- 
itors. The  ]irincipal  spring  is  the  Kaiserquelle, 
with  a  temperature  of  i:W°  F.  In  1800  the  pop- 
ulation of  -Mx-la-Chapelle  was  over  103,000;  in 
1000,  13.).000. 

Aix-la-Chapelle  was  called  .\quisgranum  by 
the  Romans,  who  frecpicntcd  the  jdace  in  great 
numbers  on  account  of  its  warm  springs.  Un<ler 
the  Frankisli  enqierors  it  enjoyed  great  prosper- 
ity. Pepin  erected  here  a  fine  palace  in  705; 
Charlemagne  nuide  the  city  his  home  and  lav- 
ished favors  Tipon  it.  Between  813  and  l.'iSI, 
the  Roman  emperors  were  crowned  in  Aix-la-f'ha- 
pelle,  and  seventeen  imperial  diets  assembled 
there.  Prior  to  the  Reformation.  Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle was  one  of  the  most  nourishing  of  the  free 


imperial  cities  of  Germany.  The  removal  of  the 
imperial  coronations  to  Frankfort  marked  the 
end  of  a  city's  splendor,  while  the  religious 
troubles  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centu- 
ries, and  a  disastrous  fire  in  10.50  hastened 
its  decline.  In  1793  it  was  taken  by  the 
French,  but  was  ceded  to  Prussia  in  181;'). 
Consult:  Stiibbeii,  ".\achcns  Bebauungsplan  und 
liauliche  Ziikunft,"  in  the  Deutsche  liauzcitunfj 
(T'Crlin,  1880);  Drapeyron,  "Aix-la-Chapelle  et 
Charlemagne,"  in  the  livvuc  dc  Geographic,  Vol- 
umes XLV.  and  XLVl.  (Paris,  1899)  ;  "Reforma- 
tionsgeschichte  AacluMis."  in  the  Hhiloriaehc  I'ol- 
Uinchc  lil.'ilter.  Volume  CXXVllI.  (Munich, 
1901). 

Theaties  of  Peace,  and  Congress  of  Aix-la- 
CiiAPELi.E.  The  first  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle 
ended  the  war  carried  on  lietwcen  France  and 
Spain  for  the  possession  of  the  Spanish  Nether- 
lands, known  as  the  War  of  Devolution.  On  the 
death  of  Philip  I\'..  Louis  XIV.  laid  claim  to 
a  large  portion  of  those  territories  in  the  name 
of  his  wife,  Maria  Theresa,  the  daughter  of  Phil- 
ip, urging  the  law  of  succession  prevailing  in 
Rrabant  ;ind  Xamur  respecting  private  property. 
The  victorious  progress  of  Louis  was  checke<l 
by  the  trijile  alliance  between  England,  Holland, 
and  Sweden,  and  a  treaty  of  peace  was  concluded 
at  Ai?:-la-('hapelle  in  lOOS.  by  which  France 
retained  possession  of  the  fortresses  of  Charlcrois 
and  Lille,  which  she  had  already  taken,  but  gave 
back  Franche  Comte  to  S]i;un. 

The  second  i)eace  of  Aix-la-Chapellc  concluded 
the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession  (1748).  (See 
SuccEs.^ioN,  WaI!s  OF.)  In  general  the  posses- 
sions of  the  several  states  remained  as  before  the 
war.  Austria  ceded  Parma,  Piacenza,  and  Gnas- 
talla  to  the  Spanish  infante,  Philip;  and  the 
possession  of  Silesia  and  Glatz  was  gniaranteed 
to  Prussia.  The  privilege  of  the  Assiento  Treaty 
(q.v.)  was  confirmed  to  England  foi-'  four  years, 
and  the  Pretender  was  expelled  from  France. 
Owing  chielly  to  the  exertions  of  her  minister, 
Kaunit/,  Austria  came  olT  with  but  small  sacri- 
fice, and  obtained  a  ratification  of  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction    (q.v.)    from  the  signatory  powers. 

The  Congress  of  Aix-la-('liapelle  was  held  in 
1818,  for  regulating  the  atTairs  of  Europe  after 
the  Napoleonic  wars.  The  emperors  of  Russia 
and  Austria  and  the  King  of  Prussia  were  per- 
sonally present.  The  plenipotentiaries  were 
Metternich.  Castlereagh,  and  Wellington,  Hard- 
cnberg  and  BernstortT,  Nesselrode,  and  Capo  d'ls- 
trias,  with  Richelieu  on  the  part  of  France. 
France  was  admitted  to  take  part  in  the  delib- 
erations as  one  of  the  five  great  powers  of  Eu- 
rope, who  proceeded  thereupon  to  sign  a  protocol 
announcing  a  policy  known  as  that  of  the  "Holy 
A.lliance"  (q.v.).  An  important  result  of  the 
Congress  achieved  t)y  Richelieu  was  the  imme- 
diate evacuation  of  France  by  the  foreign  forces. 
Consult  de  Rroglie,  La  pnix  d'Aix-Ut-l'hiipclle 
(Paris,  1892). 

AIZANI,  i-z:"i'nl.  or  AZANI.  a-za'ni.  A  city 
in  Phiygia.  In  1824,  its  remains  were  found 
by  the  Earl  of  .\shburnham,  about  30  miles 
southwest  of  Kutaieli.  There  was  a  temple  of 
Zeus,  a  theatre,  a  stadium,  and  a  gymnasium. 
The  theatre  is  in  good  preservation — with  a  di- 
ameter of  ISf)  feet;  it  had  fifteen  rows  of  marble 
seats.  The  Rhyndacus  (now  Adranus)  rises 
near  the  site  of  Azani  and  passes  through  it; 
it  was  crossed  by  two  white  marble  bridges,  each 


AIZANI. 


244 


AKABAH. 


of  five  serai-circular  arches.  Tombs,  Roman 
coins,  and  inscriptions  have  been  found.  It  is 
mentioned  by  Strabo. 

AIZELIN,  a'z'-laif',  EugI^xe  Antoine  (1821- 
—  ?) .  A  French  sculptor.  He  was  born  at  Paris, 
and  studied  with  Ramey  and  Dumont  at  the 
Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts.  "  Among  his  numerous 
works  may  be  mentioned:  "Nyssia  au  Bain" 
(1859.  now  in  the  Palais  Pompeian  on  the  Ave- 
nue Montaigne.  Paris):  "Psyche"  (1863,  Musee 
du  Luxembourg);  "L'Adolescence"  (1868); 
"L'Idylle"  {IS'i.  for  the  court  of  the  Louvre)  ; 
"Amazone  Vaincue"  (1876);  "Mignon"  (1880); 
"Agar  et  Ismael"  (1888).  He  also  executed  the 
group  entitled  "La  Danse"  for  the  facades  of  Le 
Cirque,  and  a  number  of  statues  for  the  Theatre 
du  Chfitelet,  the  :figlise  de  la  Trinite,  and  other 
public  buildings. 

AJACCIO,  a-ya'cho.  The  capital  of  the  French 
department  of  Corsica,  comprising  the  whole  of 
the  island  (Jlap:  France,  Corsica,  P  9).  It  is  a 
seaport  with  a  well-sheltered  harbor,  and  stands 
on  the  west  coast,  in  a  fertile  belt  of  land  known 
as  Campo  d'Oro,  Its  cathedral  dates  from  lo85, 
and  the  liouse  of  Xajioleon,  who  was  born  in 
Ajaccio,  August  1.5,  1769,  is  still  standing.  A 
marble  statue  of  the  First  Consul  is  seen  in  the 
main  square.  The  chief  emplo.\-ments  ate  the 
anchovy  and  pearl  fisheries,  and  the  trade  in 
wine  and  olive-oil,  which  the  neighborhood  pro- 
duces in  abundance,  and  of  good  quality.  The 
harbor  is  protected  by  a  strong  fort.  Pop., 
20.197.  Consult  O.  Joanne,  Ajaccio  et  scs  en- 
virons   (Paris,  1899), 

AJALON,  aj'a-lon,  or  AIJALON,  a'ja-lon 
(R.  v.).  A  town  in  ancient  Palestine,  14  miles 
northwest  of  Jerusalem,  where  Joshua  command- 
ed the  moon  to  stay  its  course  till  he  had  fin- 
ished his  battle  (Joshua  x:  13).  It  was  given 
to  Dan  (.Toshua  xix  :  42),  who,  however,  could 
not  keep  it  from  the  Amorites,  who  had  it  in  the 
pre-monarchia!  period  (Judges  1:3.5).  Reho- 
boam  fortified  it  (II.  Chronicles  xi  :  10) ,  but  in 
Asa's  days  it  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Philis- 
tines (II.  Chronicles  xxviii:  18).  It  is  men- 
tioned in  the  Amarna  letters  ( fourteenth  century 
B.C.)  under  the  form  Aialuna.  The  modern  vil- 
lage of  Yalo  represents  the  ancient  site. 

AJAWA,  a-ja'wa.  A  Bantu  tribe  of  Portu- 
guese East  Africa,  described  by  Livingstone. 
They  have  acquired  some  culture  from  contact 
with  the  Arabs.  Cannibalism  still  exists  among 
them,  and  at  the  funeral  of  a  chief  women  are 
sacrificed :  though  they  are  accounted  intelli- 
gent, industrious,  and  enterprising,  a  manly  and 
independent  tribe  of  blacks  superior  to  others 
in  this  region. 

A' J  AX  (Lat.  form  of  the  Gk.  Ain^,  Ains). 
Tlie  name  of  two  of  the  Greek  heroes  of  the  Tro- 
jan War.  One  of  them  was  called  Ajax  the  Less, 
or  the  Locrian,  being  the  son  of  Oileus,  ICing  of 
the  Loerians.  At  the  head  of  forty  Locrinn  ships 
he  sailed  against  Troy,  and  was  one  of  the  brav- 
est of  the  Greek  heroes;  in  swiftness  of  foot  he 
excelled  all  except  Achilles.  When  Cassandra 
fled  to  the  temple  of  Athena,  after  the  taking  of 
Troy,-  it  is  said  that  Ajax  tore  her  from  it  by 
force  and  dragged  her  away  captive.  Others 
make  him  even  %')olate  the  prophetess  in  the 
temple.  Though  he  excul[)ated  himself  by  an 
oath  when  accused  of  this  crime  by  Ulysses,  yet 
he  did  not  escape  the  vengeance  of  the  goddess, 


who  caused  him  to  be  engulfed  in  the  waves  on 
his  voyage  toward  Greece. 

The  other  Ajax,  called  by  the  Greeks  the 
Greater,  was  the  son  of  Telaiiion,  King  of  Sala- 
mis,  and  grandson  of  .Eaeus.  He  sailed  against 
Troy  with  twelve  ships,  and  is  represented  by 
Homer  as,  next  to  Achilles,  the  1:iravest  and 
handsomest  of  the  Greeks.  After  the  death  of 
Achilles,  Ajax  and  Ulysses  contended  for  the 
arms  of  the  hero,  and  when  the  prize  was  ad- 
judged to  Ulysses,  Ajax  in  a  fit  of  insanity  slew 
the  Grecian  flocks,  fancying  he  was  slaying  his 
enemies.  On  recovering  his  reason  he  threw 
himself  on  his  sword.  Sophocles,  in  the  tragedy 
of  Ajax,  attributes  his  madness  to  the  wrath  of 
Athena.     See  Trojan  War. 

AJMEK.E,  aj-mer'.     An  ancient  city  of  Raj- 
putana,  India,  the  capital  of  the  British  province 
of    .\jmere-Merwara,    228    miles    west    of    Agra 
(Map:    India,  B  3.)     It  is  situated  in  a  pictur- 
esque and  rocky  valley  at  the  foot  of  the  moun- 
tain of  Taragiirh,  which  is  crowned  by  a   fort 
commanding  ^he  city.     The  city  is  surrounded 
by  a  stone  wall,  with  five  lofty  and  handsome 
gateways  on  the  west  and  north.     Most  of  the 
streets'are  narrow  and  dirty,  but  some  of  them     ' 
are  spacious  and  contain  fine  residences,  besides     '<', 
mosques    and    temples    of    massive    architecture.     ' 
The  Daulat   Bagh,  or   "Garden   of  Splendor,"  is     ' 
now  the  residence  of   the  British   commissioner     '. 
of  the  province.     The   tomb  of   the   Mussulman     ( 
saint,  Kwajah,  within  the  town,  is  held  in  great     , 
veneration,  and  pilgrimages  are  made  to  it  even 
by   Hindus.     The   Emperor   Akbar    journeyed  to 
it  from  Agra  on  foot  in  1570,  in  fulfillment  of  a 
vow  after  the  ^-isit  of  his  son  Jehanghir.     In  Oc- 
tober, a  great  annual  fair  is  held  in  honor  of  the 
saint,  at  which  presumed  miracles  are  wrought. 
Ajmere  has  manufactures  of  oil,  cotton  cloths, 
celebrated  dyeing  establishments,  and  a  trade  in 
opium  and  salt.     It  is  the  seat  of  Ajmere  College 
and    of    Mayo    College,    a    secondary    institutioa 
opened  in  1875.     The  Anasagar,  a  large  artificial 
lake  to  the  north  of  the  city,  supplies  it  with 
water.     Ajmere   dates   from   about    145   a.d.;  it 
came   under   British    rule   bv   purchase   in    1818. 
Pop..   1891,   68,800;    1901,   75,800. 

AJMEEE-MEBWABA,  -mrir-wa'ra.  A  prov- 
ince of  British  India,  belonging  to  the  Presidency 
of  Bengal,  and  situated  between  25°  30'  anil 
26°  45'  N.  lat.  and  between  73°  53'  and 
75°  22'  E.  long.  (Map:  India,  B  3).  It  occupic'^ 
an  area  of  2711  square  miles.  The  climate  is 
unhealthful  and  fevers  are  prevalent.  The  sur- 
face is  mountainous  in  the  west,  and  the  soil  is 
raturally  unfertile  and  scantily  watered.  By 
irrigation  it  has  been  brought  to  some  degree  of 
productivity,  and  now  yields  some  cotton,  wheat, 
and  other  food  grains  and  oil  seeds.  Iron  and 
a  few  other  metals  are  found.  Pop.,  1901,  476,- 
330,  as  against  542,358  in  1891.  The  inhabitants 
are  mostly  Hindus,  the  number  of  Moham- 
medans being  about  75,000.  The  capital  is  Aj- 
mere  (q.v. ) . 

AK'ABAH.  A  village  near  the  Gulf  of  Ak- 
abah.  supposed  to  occupy  the  site  of  the  Elath 
of  Scripture  (Map:  Asia,  C  6).  Ruins  in  the 
Red  Sea  a  short  distance  to  the  south  still  bear 
the  name  Ezion-geber,  It  lies  on  the  route  from 
Egypt  to  S\Tia. 

AKABAH,  Gulf  of.  Ancient  Sinus  .^lan- 
ites.  The  eastern  of  the  two  inlets  on  the  north 
end  of  the  Red  Sea,  running  into  Arabia  Petrtea, 


AKABAH. 


845 


AKENSIDE. 


abinit  100  miles  northeast,  with  a  wiilth  of  12 
to  17  miles  (.Map:  Asia,  C  ti).  Xavifjation  is 
ditlicult  on  account  of  reefs  and  sudden  squalls. 
The  only  good  harbor  is  (ioMen  Port,  on  the  west 
shore,  ."j;i  miles  from  the  entiance  and  2!)  miles 
east  of  ilount  Sinai. 

AKAKIA,  a'ka'k^-a',  Le  DorxEt  k.  The  name 
of  a  noted  French  phj'sieian  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury (Martin  .\kakia,  Grccizcd  from  the  French 
name  ■suns-mulic) ,  borrowed  as  a  pseiidoni,Tn 
by  V'oltairc  in  his  Uiutribc  du  Doctcur  Alcakia. 
This  was  a  brilliant  satire,  covering;  with  ridi- 
cule Maii])ertuis  and  the  Berlin  Academy,  of 
which  lie  was  president.  King  Frederick  II., 
however,  ii.id  it  ]mblicly  burned   (1752). 

AKAMAGASEKI,  a'ka-mU'ga-sa'kc-.  See 
Shimonoseki,. 

AKASHI,  a-ka'she.  A  town  of  Japan,  in  the 
prefecture  of  Hiogo,  situated  on  the  northern 
coast  of  the  Inland  Sea,  and  giving  its  name  to 
the  passage  between  Ilonshiu  and  the  island  of 
Awaji  (Map:  .Jap:>n,  D  ti).  It  is  a  station  on 
the  Sanyo  Railway,  and  it  lies  twelve  miles  east 
of  Kobe,  whose  inhabitants  go  there  for  the  sum- 
mer. It  contains  :i  Shinto  temple  in  honor  of 
the  ancient  poet  Kaki-no-motonoHitomaro,  and 
the  remains  of  a  moat  and  a  large  castle.  Its 
liieridi:ui  is  used  for  the  standard  time  of  Japan. 
Pop.,   1898,  21.196. 

AKBAR,  Uk'ber;  Hind.  pron.  uk'ber  (Ar. 
very  great  I,  properly  Jalal-ud-Din  Muuammad 
(1542-1G05).  Emperor  of  Hindustan,  the  great- 
est Asiatic  monarch  of  modern  times.  His 
father,  Huniayun.  was  deprived  of  the  throne  by 
usurpers,  and  lied  for  refuge  to  Persia.  On  his 
way  thitlier,  in  the  town  of  .\merkote,  .\kbar 
was  born  in  l.")42.  Hiimayun  recovered  the 
throne  of  Delhi  in  l.j.55,  after  an  e.\ile  of  twelve 
years,  but  died  within  a  year.  The  prince  of 
fourteen  at  first  committed  the  administration  to 
Bahrnm  Khan  as  regent  minister,  but  finding 
this:iuthoritydegenerating  into  tyranny,  he  shook 
it  otr  by  a  bold  stroke  and  took  the  power  into 
his  own  hands  (l.KiO).  .At  this  time  only  a  few  of 
the  many  provinces  once  subdued  by  the  Mongol 
invaders  w<'rc  actually  subject  to  the  throne  of 
Delhi:  in  ten  or  twelve  years  Akb;ir's  empire 
embraced  the  whole  of  Hindustan  north  of  the 
Deeean.  The  wisdom,  vigor,  and  humanity  with 
which  he  organized  and  administered  his  vast 
dominions  are  unexampled  in  the  East.  He  pro- 
moted commerce  by  constructing  roads,  estab- 
lishing a  uniform  system  of  weights  and  meas- 
ures, and  a  vigorous  police.  He  exercised  the 
utmost  vigilance  over  his  viceroys  of  provinces 
and  otiier  otiicers,  to  sec  that  no  extorti<in  was 
practiced,  and  that  justice  was  impartially  ad- 
ministered to  all  classe.;  of  his  subjects.  For  the 
adjustment  of  fixation,  the  lands  were  accurately 
measured,  and  statistics  were  taken,  not  only  of 
the  population,  but  of  the  resources  of  each  prov- 
ince, lie  also  forbade  <;liild-marriage.  permitted 
the  remarriage  of  widows,  and  endeavored  to 
stop  the  pr:ictice  of  suttee.  In  religion  Akhar 
was  exceedingly  liberal,  largely  on  account  of  the 
infiucnce  of  the  vizier  .\bu-l  Fazl.  He  >vas  fond 
of  inquiries  as  to  religious  beliefs,  and  invited 
Portuguese  missionaries  from  Goa  to  his  court 
to  give  an  account  of  the  Christian  faith. 
Tie  even  attempted  to  promulgate  a  new  eclectic 
religion  of  his  own,  which,  however,  never 
took  root.  Literature  received  the  greatest  en- 
couragement.     Schools   were  established   for   the 


education  of  both  Hindus  and  Mohammedans; 
and  numbers  of  Hindu  works  were  translated 
from  Sanskrit  into  Persian.  Abu-1  Fazl  (q.v.), 
the  able  minister  of  Akbar,  has  left  a  valuable 
history  of  his  master's  reign,  entitled  AKImr 
.\iiiiKih  (History  of  Akbar)  :  the  third  volume, 
containing  a  description  of  Akbar's  empire,  de- 
rived from  the  statisticial  inquiries  above  men- 
tioned, and  entitled  .li/in-i-ALbitr  {  Institutes 
of  Akbar),  has  been  tianslated  into  English  by 
Gladwin  (3  volumes,  Calcutta,  17S(;,  and  London, 
lS0O),and  by  Hlochmann  and  Jarett  (;i  volumes, 
Calcutta,  1873-04).  Akbar's  latter  days  were 
embittered  by  the  death  of  two  of  his  sons  from 
dissipation,  and  by  the  rebellious  conduct  of  the 
third,  Selim  (known  as  Jehangir),  who  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  ItiOS,  and  was  suspected  of 
being  the  cause  of  his  death.  Consult  .\l;il- 
lesim.  AKhar,  Rulers  of  India  Series  (Oxford. 
1891-1901). 

AKEE'  (native  name,  its  scientific  name  being 
Cupnnia  or  Hlialiia  sdjiidii).  A  fruit  tree  of  the 
order  Sapindace;c.  a  native  of  tropical  .\frica, 
introduced  into  .fainaica  in  the  latter  p;irt  of  the 
seventeenth  centviry.  It  grows  to  ;v  height  of 
upward  of  25  feet,  with  numerous  branches  and 
alternate  pinnate  leaves  resembling  those  of  the 
ash.  The  flowers  are  small,  white,  on  axillary 
nicemes;  the  fruit  is  about  the  size  of  a  goose's 
egg,  with  three  cells  and  three  seeds,  and  its 
succulent  aril  li:is  a  grateful  subacid  fhivor.  The 
fruit  is  little  inferior  to  a  nectarine.  Boiled 
down  with  sugar  and  cinnamon,  it  is  used  as 
a  remedy  for  diarrhcea.  The  distilled  water  of 
the  flowers  is  used  by  negro  women  as  :i  cosmetic. 
The  akee  sometimes  produces  fruit  in  hothouses 
in  Great  Britain.  In  order  to  obtain  tMs  the 
roots  should  be  cramped  in  pots.  The  Aki  of 
New  Zealand  is  a  totallj'  dillerent  plant,  Mrtro- 
sidrros  bKxifolia,  of  the  natural  older  Myrtaceie, 
a  shrub,  which  sends  out  lateral  roots,  and  so 
attains  the  summits  of  the  loftiest  trees. 

Fossil  Foums.  Under  the  names  Cupanites 
and  Cupanoides.  several  forms  of  friiits  have  been 
described  from  the  Eocene  clays,  of  the  Tertiary 
age,  of  Great   Britain. 

AKEI/T)AMA.     See   Aceldama. 

AKEM'PIS,1;homas.   SeeKEMPis,  ThomasA. 

AKENE'.     See   Achejje. 

A'KENSIDE,  JlAitK  (1721-70).  An  English 
author  of  considerable  celebrity  in  his  own  day, 
on  account  of  his  didactic  poem,  the  I'lca.tiires  tif 
the  Imiiyiiuition.  and  some  medical  works.  He 
was  born  at  Xewcastlc-on-Tvnc.  where  his  father 
was  a  butcher.  Being  intended  for  the  Pres- 
byterian Church,  he  was  sent  to  study  theology 
at  Kdinburgh,  but  soon  abandoned  it  for  medi- 
cine. He  graduated  as  a  physician  at  Leyden  in 
1744,  and  practiced  at  Northampton,  then  at 
Hampstead,  and  finally  in  London.  His  success 
as  a  practicing  physician  was  never  very  great, 
owing,  it  is  said,  to  his  haughty  and  pedantic 
nrinner.  He  died  in  Loudon,  soon  after  being 
appointed  one  of  the  physicians  to  the  Queen. 
At  Leyden  ho  had  formed  an  intimacy  with  Jere- 
miah Dyson,  and  this  rich  and  generous  friend 
allowed  him  £300  a  year.  Some  of  his  medical 
treatises,  as  that  on  dysentery,  won  for  him  dis- 
tinction as  a  scholar.  His  later  poetry,  consist- 
ing chiefly  of  odes  and  hymns,  did  not  attain  the 
same  reniit.ation  as  his  Pleasures  of  the  Imaqini'.- 
tion,  which   was  completed  in  his  twenty-third 


AKENSIDE. 


246 


AKHUND  OF  SWAT. 


year.  In  Peregrine.  Pickle,  Smollett  satirically 
sketched  the  character  of  Akenside  under  that 
of  the  pedant  who  undertakes  to  give  an  enter- 
tainment after  the  manner  of  the  ancients. 
Akenside,  who  practiced  blank  verse  and  the 
Spenserian  stanza,  was  one  of  the  pioneers 
among  the  romantic  poets.  He  became  dissatis- 
fied with  his  juvenile  production,  and  at  his 
deatli  had  written  a  portion  of  a  new  poem  on 
the  same  subject.  Both  poems  were  published 
in  the  complete  edition  of  his  works  in  1772. 
For  his  biography  consult:  Bucke  (London, 
18.32),  and  Dyce  (London,  1800);  also  Beers, 
English  Romanticism  in  the  Eighteenth  Cen- 
tury  (Xcw  York,  1899). 

AKERBLAD,  a'ker-blad,  Johann  David 
(170U-1819).  A  Swedish  Orientalist  and  learned 
epigraphist.  He  was  secretary  of  the  Swedish 
embassy  to  Constantinoijle,  whence  he  went  to 
Jerusalem  and  the  Troad  in  1792-97.  Later  he 
was  charge- d'affaires  at  Paris,  Ijut  spent  his  last 
years  in  Rome.  He  puldished  Juscriptionis 
PhuenicicF  Oxoniensis  Intcrprelulio  (1802)  and 
Lettre  sitr  Vinscription  egi/ptienne  de  Rosette 
(1802).. 

AKERMAN.      See   Akkerman. 

AKERS,  a'kerz,  Benjamin  (Paul)  (1825-01). 
An  American  sculptor.  He  was  born  in  West- 
brook.  Me.,  .July  10,  182,5,  and  died  at  Pliiladel- 
phia,  ilay  21,  1801.  While  in  his  father's  saw- 
mill he  made  toys,  and  turned  his  original  de- 
signs into  ornamental  woodwork.  He  tried  to  be 
a  printer,  then  essayed  to  paint,  but  on  viewing 
a  plaster  east  he  decided  for  sculpture,  and 
placed  himself  under  the  instruction  of  Carew  of 
Boston.  In  1852  he  went  to  Florence,  where  he 
passed  a  year  in  study.  In  1854  he  visited  Rome. 
While  in  that  city  he  executed  his  "Una  and  the 
Lion,"  "Girl  Pressing  Grapes,"  "Isaiah,"  and 
otlier  works.  He  remained  in  Europe  until,  in 
1800,  failing  health  drove  him  home  for  a  last 
vain  endeavor  to  recover  his  strengtii.  Haw- 
thorne referred  to  his  "Milton"  and  "  The  Dead 
Pearl-Diver"  in  The  Marble  Faun :  and  it  is  said 
that  the  character  of  Kenyon  in  that  book  is 
drawn  from  the  personality  of  the  young  sculp- 
tor. Akers  also  produced  many  portrait  busts 
or  medallions  of  distinguislied  Americans,  among 
tliem  Longfellow,  Edward  Everett,  and  Sam 
Houston.  He  had,  moreover,  ability  as  an  art 
writer,  but  only  a  few  of  his  essays  have  been 
published. 

A'KERSHEM,  Miss  Sopiironia.  A  char- 
acter in  Dickens's  Our  Mutual  Friend.  She  be- 
comes the  wife  of  Albert  Lammle  (q.v.). 

AKHALTSIKH,  a'Kal-tslK'.  The  chief  town 
of  a  district  in  the  government  of  Tiflis,  Russian 
Armenia,  about  95  miles  west  of  Tiflis.  and  1450 
miles  by  rail  southeast  of  Moscow,  on  the  banks 
of  the  Poskhov-Tchai,  an  affluent  of  the  Kur 
(Map:  Russia,  F  0).  It  is  situated  in  a  valley 
of  the  Keldir  Mountains,  3370  feet  above  the  sea 
level.  By  the  river  running  through  it,  tlie  town 
is  divided  into  the  old  town  and  citadel,  on  the 
left  bank,  and  the  new  town  on  the  right.  The 
town  is  not  surrounded  by  walls,  for  the  citadel 
is  considered  sufficient  protection,  it  being  very 
strong  and  built  on  an  almost  inaccessible  rock. 
The  climate  is  salubrious,  although  the  winters 
are  very  severe  and  the  summers  exceedingly  hot. 
The  surrounding  scenery  presents  a  view  of  wild, 
rugged  beauty,  enhanced  by  the  numerous  gar- 
dens encircling  the  town.     The  mosque  of  Sultan 


Ahmed,  built  on  the  model  of  St.  Sophia  in  Con- 
stantinople, has  a  library  attached  to  it  which 
was  accounted  one  of  the  most  valuable  in  the 
East;  but  the  Russians  carried  off  a  great  part 
of  its  most  valuable  treasures  to  St.  Petersburg. 
Some  manufactures,  especially  of  the  smaller 
arms  and  weapons,  are  carried  on  in  the  town, 
and  it  maintains  an  active  trade  with  various 
places  on  the  Black  Sea.  Some  10  miles  to  the 
northwest  of  the  town  are  the  well-known  Abas- 
Tumansk  mineral  springs.  Deposits  of  lignite 
are  also  found  in  the  neighborhood.  Akhaltsikh 
was  anciently  called  Keldir  or  Chaldir.  Once 
a  considerable  mart  for  trading  in  Christian 
slaves,  it  has  since  its  occupation  by  Russia 
become  a  Christian  town,  SO  per  cent,  of  its 
population  being  .\rmenians  and  10  per  cent. 
Jews.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  archbislKipric  of  the 
Greek  church.  In  1828,  when  the  Russians  took 
possession  of  it,  it  had  a  population  of  50,000, 
but  it  has  been  decreasing  ever  since,  so  that 
at  the  time  of  the  taking  of  the  last  census,  in 
1897,  there  were  only  15,300  inliabitants. 

AKHISSAR,  iik'his-sar'  ( anciently  Lat.  Thya- 
tira,  Gk.  OvaTeipn,  Tliyatciru) .  A  town  in  the 
Turkish  vilayet  of  Smyrna,  Asiatic  Turkey,  situ- 
ated 52  miles  northeast  of  Smyrna,  on  somewhat 
elevated  ground  in  the  valley  of  the  Hyllus 
(Jlap:  Turkey  in  Asia,  B  3).  The  streets  are 
paved  with  carved  stone,  and  other  relics  of  an- 
tiquity abound,  but  there  are  no  ruins  of  ancient 
buildings.  Cotton  goods  are  exported.  The  town 
is  situated  on  the  ]Monissa-Soma  Railway.  Popu- 
lation estimated  at  0000  to  8000. 

AKHMIM,  aiv-mOm',  or  EKHMIM,  cK-mOm'. 
A  city  of  some  10,000  inhabitants,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Nile,  in  LTpper  Egj-pt  (Map:  Egj^it, 
EG).  It  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  Chemrais 
or  Panopolis,  the  seat  of  worship  of  the  harvest 
god  Min.  an  ithyphallic  deity  whom  the  Greeks 
identified  with  Pan.  In  Cliristian  times  the  city 
became  an  important  religious  centre,  and  many 
converts  congregated  in  the  vicinit}'.  Nestorius, 
patriarch  of  Constantinople,  whose  heresy  was 
condemned  by  the  Council  of  Ephesus,  431, 
died  in  banishment  at  Panopolis. 

AKHTYRKA,  aK-tlr'ka.  A  town  of  Euro- 
pean Russia,  in  the  government  of  Kharkov,  72 
miles  northwest  of  Kharkov  and  520  miles  south 
of  Moscow  (Map:  Russia,  D  4).  It  is  situated 
on  a  small  river  of  the  same  name,  an  affluent 
of  the  Dnieper,  in  a  rather  low  valley,  and  until 
very  recently  was  unprotected  from  anniial  in- 
undation. Even  at  present  the  surrounding 
country  is  often  submerged,  so  that  at  times,  es- 
pecially in  the  spring,  connuunicatinn  witli  tlie 
town  becomes  very  difficult.  It  is  a  thriving  little 
town,  nevertheless,  doing  a  lively  trade  with  the 
great  pilgrim  crowds  attracted  there  by  the  fa- 
mous Akhtyr  image  of  the  Holy  Virgin,  and  by 
the  Trinity  cloister,  situated  on  the  outskirts  of 
the  town.  Some  manufacturing  is  carried  on  in 
textiles,  boots  and  shoes,  and  a  great  annual  fair 
is  held.  A  considerable  commerce  is  also  carried 
on  in  gi-ain  and  cattle.  The  town  was  founded 
bv  the  Poles  in  1041  and  acquired  by  the  Rus- 
sians in  1647.     Pop..  1897,  23.400. 

AKHUND  OF  SWAT,  a-K(5ond',  swat,  The 
(?-1878).  A  Mohanuucdan  saint,  who  exer- 
cised great  influence  and  had  almost  imques- 
tioncd  authority  over  .Mohanunodans  all  over 
Central  Asia.     His  residence  in  the  mountainous 


AKHTJND  OF  SWAT. 


247 


AKKON. 


country  of  Swat,  on  the  borders  of  India  and 
Afghanistan,  was  the  resort  of  numerous  pil- 
grimages to  consult  him  on  (|ueslions  of  every 
kind.  For  lialf  a  century  the  Kn^lish  (lovern- 
mcnt  assiduously  watched  tliis  man,  who  pos- 
sessed a  power  which  no  other  |>erson  in  Asia 
lould  pretend  to  wield;  but  the  Akbund  gen- 
erally kept  on  friendly  terms  with  the  Enplish. 
In  1S77,  the  Ameer  of  Afghanistan  songlit  his 
advice  in  regard  to  the  proper  course  in  the  Kus- 
so-Turkish  \Var. 

AKIB,    a'k.b'.    Lk    Kmuun.     The    pseudonym 


tress,  now  the  cliief  town  of  a  district  in  the 
(Jovernmcnt  of  Bessarabia,  Russia,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Dneister,  12  miles  from  the  Black  Sea  and 
about  30  miles  from  (Jdcssa  (Map:  Russia,  C  5). 
It  was  the  Alba  Julia  of  the  Romans.  The  chief 
industry  of  the  town  is  the  raising  of  fruits,  es- 
pecially of  grapes,  there  being  no  less  than  2000 
gardens  within  the  city  proper,  l)esides  numerous 
other  beautiful  ones  which  surround  the  town. 
An  annual  fair  is  held  here  during  the  month  of 
December.  The  harbor  is  accessible  to  large 
steamers,   and   the   town    has   regular    steamship 


under  which  Voltaire  i)ublished  in   ITlU   his  Ser-  comnuinication  with  Odessa,  to  which  it  exports 

,„i,ii   ,hi    h'ahl,i„   M;ih—h<Hluil   dc  flh-brcu.  salt,  fish,  wools,  and  wines.     A  treaty  was  signed 

AKIBA,   BEN   JOSEPH,   ake'ba   ben   jo'/.ef.  '""■^'  between  Russia  and  Turkey  in  lS2(i. 
.\  famous  rabbi  and  head  of  a  rabbinical  schoid  at  AKKESHI,   or   AKISHI,   a-ke'shf.     A   town 

l'.(>ne-Barak,    near    JalVa.    who    tlourislicd    in    the  of  .lapan,  situated  on  the  southern  coast  of  Yezo, 

tirsl   and  second  centuries  a.d.     Although  be  be-  on  the  Akkeshi  Bay.     It  is  famous  for  its  oyster 


I 


gan  the  study  of  the  law  at  a  comparatively  ad- 
vanced age,  he  rose  to  a  prominent  position 
among  the  rabbis  of  his  day  by  virtue  of  his 
learning  and  acumen,  and  many  are  the  stories 
and  legends  told  about  his  early  struggles  and 
iinal  success.  He  laid  the  basis  of  the  "Mishiia" 
by  beginning  the  systematization  of  .lewish 
oral  law,  and  his  collection  became  known  as 
the  Mishna  of  Rabbi  Akiba.  His  inlluence  as  a 
teacher  upon  the  founders  of  the  Mishna  was 
also  very  great,  and  it  was  he  likewise  who,  to  a 
large  degiee,  advanced  the  peculiar  biblical  exe- 
gesis which  is  a  characteristic  fiviture  of  Tal- 
mudic  literature.  Ilis  scholarship  did  not  weaken 
Akiba's  interest  in  the  political  all'airs  of  the 
day.  He  was  involved  in  tlic  great  Jew- 
i-.li  revolt  against  Rome,  arrayed  liinisclf  on 
the  side  of  Bar-Cochba,  or  Bar-Cochebas,  the  pre- 
tended Messiah,  and  acted  for  a  time  as  his 
armor-bearer.  lie  was  captured  by  the  Romans 
and  i>ut  to  death  c.  l.'ij  .\.|).  witJi  great  tortures, 
liut  bore  his  pains  with  wonderful  fortitude. 
Legends  gathered  around  the  career  of  Akiba, 
and,  like  Moses,  he  is  reported  to  have  been  120 
years  old  at  death.  His  grave,  shown  at  Tibe- 
rias, became  a  place  of  devout  pilgrimage. 

AKITA,  a-ke'ta,  or  KTIBOTA,  koohr/ta.  A 
town  of  Japan,  the  capital  of  tlic  prefecture  of 
the  same  name,  situated  on  the  western  coast  of 
Hiinshiu,  near  the  Hacliiro  l.agoon  (Map:  .r:i|Ki!i. 
<i  4).  It  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  in  rice 
«it!i  Hakodate,  and  has  some  manufactures  of 
cloth  and  cotton  crape.     Pop.,   I8>I8,  2!),477. 

AKKA,  iiklcfl.  A  pygmy  tribe  or  race,  now 
living  in  the  forests  of  British  East  Africa, 
aliout  long.  25°  E.  In  heiglit,  the  Akka 
:iverage  about  4  feet  6  inches;  color,  yellow 
brown;  features,  negroid.  They  are  extremely 
I'tiring  and  do  not  mix  with  neighboring  tribes, 
though  usually  they  live  near,  and  are  under  the 
protection  of,  the  tall  negroes.  Their  houses 
are  dome-shaped,  arranged  in  ii  circle,  with  the 
communal  conking  (ire  in  the  centre.  Though 
dwarfs  in  stature,  they  do  iu)t  hesitate  to  attack 
large  game  with  poisoned  arrows,  the  python 
being  their  favorite  quarry.  Their  food  is  jirin- 
cipally  nuts  and  berries.  The  .\kka  tribe  pre- 
sents a  difficult  ethnological  ])robleni,  next  to 
nothing  being  known  of  their  language  and  cus- 
toms. Consult:  Schweinfurth.  Iltiirt  of  Africa 
(London.  1873);  Denikcr,  l><in:i  of  Man  (Lon- 
don. 1000). 

AKKAD,  iik'kad  or  ak'kad.     See  AccAn. 

AKKEEMAN,  iik'ker-miin'.     Formerly  a  for- 


beds   and  contains  an   oyster-canning  establish- 
ment. 

AKKRA,  ;-i-kr;i'.  or  ACCRA.  The  chief  town 
of  the  British  West  .\fricaii  colony  of  the  Gold 
Coast  (Map:  Africa.  1)  4).  It  has  a  salubrious 
climate,  being  separated  from  the  interior  of  the 
colony  by  mountain  chains.  It  extends  for  about 
three  miles  along  the  coast,  and  is  divided  into 
the  four  ports  of  .lames  Town.  I'ssher  Town,  'N^ic- 
toriaborg,  and  Cliristiansborg,  the  latter  being 
the  seat  of  the  government.  Although  the  num- 
ber of  Europeans  is  comparatively  small,  the 
town  bears  strong  marks  of  European  inlluence. 
It  has  several  churches,  a  bank,  a  club  house,  and 
a  number  of  European  .shops.  The  population, 
including  the  suburbs,  is  about  20,000. 

AK'MOLINSK'.  .\  Russian  territory,  con- 
stituting the  northeast  and  largest  section  of 
the  Kirghiz  Steppes  in  Russian  Asia  (Map:  .\sia, 
F  3).  "  It  lies  between  the  L"ln-Tai  and  Isliim 
rivers  on  the  west  and  the  Irtvsh  on  the  north- 
east. Area,  about  22.^,000  square  miles.  The 
entire  territory  is  divided  into  three  sections, 
greatly  differing  in  their  geological  aspect.  The 
northern  part  is  a  rather  low  ])lain.  with  many 
salt  lakes  and  salt  pits.  The  middle  section, 
cros.sed  by  hillocks,  is  habitable  in  parts  only. 
Here  are  centred  the  mineral  resources  of  the 
territory,  consisting  principally  of  gold,  copper, 
and  coal.  The  southern  portion  is  a  waterless 
desert-steppe,  and  is  known  under  the  name  of 
Bcdnak-Dola.  meaning  "the  hungry  st(>ppe."  Its 
climate  is  very  severe;  it  is  extremely  hot  in  the 
summer,  and  there  are  ejiidemics  of  malaria  and 
diarrhcea.  Its  principal  industries  are  the  grow- 
ing of  flax  and  tobacco,  cattle  raising,  fishing, 
an<l,  in  some  localities,  hunting.  The  mining  in- 
dtistry  is  but  little  developed.  Its  population 
increased  from  403.400  in  1SS7  to  ()S7,000  in 
1807:  about  two-thirds  of  the  people  are  no- 
madic. The  principal  towns  are  Akmolinsk, 
Omsk,  Atbassar,  anil   I'etropavlovsk. 

AKOI'METOI.     See   Acwmet.e. 

AK'RAGAS  (Ok.  ■AKpayac).  The  ancient 
Oreek  name  of  the  Sicilian  city  Oirgenti.     See 

AclilCEXTLM. 

AK'RON.  A  manufacturing  city  and  railroad 
centre,  the  county  seat  of  Summit  County,  Ohio., 
It  was  founded  in  182.").  and  incorporated  as 
a  town  in  1830.  It  is  3;')  mill's  south  of 
Cleveland,  on  the  Ohio  Canal  and  the  Erie,  the 
Baltimore  and  Ohio,  the  IViinsylvania.  and  other 
railways.  The  city  is  surrounded  by  a  chain 
of   lakes,    where    hotels,    etc.,    have   been   estab- 


AKRON". 


24-8 


AL. 


lished,  and  their  accessibility  by  electric  roads 
is  tending  to  make  Akron  attractive  as  a 
summer  resort.  The  industries  of  the  city 
include  a  great  variety  of  manufactures,  among 
which  may  be  mentioned  printing  and  litho- 
graphing, iron,  steel,  sewer  pipes,  rubber,  pot- 
tery, and  agricultural  implements.  Tlie  may- 
or's term  of  otlice  extends  over  two  years,  as 
does  that  of  the  board  of  city  commissioners, 
a  bi-partisan  board  which  controls  the  executive 
power.  The  city  council  is  made  up  of  sixteen 
members,  two  from  each  ward.  The  board  of 
education  is  elected,  and  has  full,  independent 
power  in  all  school  matters,  including  the  power 
of  taxation.  The  city's  annual  income  amounts 
to  about  $910,000;  expenditures  to  $700,000,  of 
which  $200,000  is  spent  in  constru<;tion  and  other 
capital  outlay,  and  $440,000  in  maintenance  and 
operation.  The  chief  items  of  expense  are: 
police  department.  $30,000;  fire  department, 
$.55,000;  and  schools.  $135,000.  Akron  is  the 
seat  of  Buchtol  College,  an  institution  under 
Universalist  control.  The  city  maintains  a  hos- 
pital and  library.  Pop.,  1870,  10,000:  1890, 
27,601;  1900,42,728,  Consult  S.  A.  Lane,  ^jf/y 
Years  and  Over  of  Akron  and  Summit  Coiinttt 
(Akron,  1892). 

AKSAKOFF,  Sergei  Timofeyevitch  (1791- 
1859).  A  Russian  writer,  born  in  the  Govern- 
ment of  Ufa.  He  was  educated  at  the  University 
of  Kazan,  and  held  office  on  the  legislative  com- 
mission at  St.  Petersburg  from  1807  to  1812. 
His  works  include  the  serio-humorous  Observa- 
tions on  Angliny  (1847),  ilenwirs  of  a  Hunts- 
man in  the  Clorcrnmcnt  of  Orenburg  (1852), 
with  their  continuation.  Talcs  and  Memories  of 
a  Huntsman  (1855),  and  The  Family  Chronicle 
(1850),  by  some  considered  his  best  work,  of 
which  a  second  part  appeared  as  Bog  roe's  Child- 
hood (1858).  A  selection  from  his  shorter  writ- 
ings was  published  in  1858. 

AKSAKOFF,  ak-sii'kof,  Ivan  Sergeyevich 
(1823-86).  A  Eussian  writer  and  leader  of  the 
Panslavists,  born  in  the  Government  of  Ufa. 
He  studied  in  the  school  of  jurisprudence  and 
graduated  in  1842.  afterward  entering  the  Mos- 
cow division  of  the  Senate.  In  1848  lie  entered 
the  service  of  the  ministry  of  the  intc.ior,  as  a 
"specially  commissioned  officer."  He  left  this 
service  in  1852  for  journalistic  work,  becoming 
editor  of  the  Moscow  ;S6or>ufc  (Miscellany)  .which 
was  suppressed,  the  editor  being  put  under 
special  surveillance  and  forbidden  ever  to  be  the 
editor  of  a  pajier  again.  He  was  ccmimissioned 
by  the  Geographical  Society  to  study  the  fairs  of 
Ukrayna,  and  his  report  received  the  medal  of 
the  Geographical  Society,  the  .\cadeniy  of  Sci- 
ence .also  recognizing  its  value  by  awarding  to 
its  author  one-half  of  the  Demidoff  prize.  In 
185.5-56  he  was  in  Bessarabia  in  command  of  the 
Serpnkhoflf  detachment  of  the  Moscow  levy  dur- 
ing the  (himean  War.  He  established  the  Den, 
a  weekly  paper  published  from  1861  to  1865, 
and  the  Moskra,  .a  daily  paper,  which  was  estab- 
lished in  1867.  This  latter  sheet  was  suppressed 
three  times  by  the  Government  within  twenty- 
two  months,  these  suppressions  aggregating 
thirteen  months  of  that  period.  During  its  sup- 
pression, the  .1?o.s/,ric/i  was  published  in  its  place, 
ostensibly  under  another  editor.  AksakofT  was 
the  leader  of  the  Panslavist  party  in  Russia, 
and,  as  a,  chairman  of  the  Slavic  Philanthropic 
Society,  worked  incessantly  in  the  interest  of 
a  united  state  of  all  the  Slavic  nations.     During 


the  Russo-Turkish  War  he  became  the  recognized 
leader  of  all  those  influences  that  brought  about 
the  War  of  Liberation  of  the  Balkan  Slavs,  and 
his  speeches  in  support  of  this  cause  had  a 
world-wide  circulation.  On  July  4.  1878,  during 
a  session  of  the  Slavic  Philanthropic  Society,  he 
made  an  impassioned  speech,  in  which  he  ar- 
raigned the  Russian  diplomats,  charging  them 
with  vacillation  and  treaclierous  submission  in 
the  presence  of  the  other  members  of  the  Berlin 
Congress  tliere  sitting.  He  called  upon  tlie  Em- 
peror to  fulfill  his  promises  of  "carrying  this 
sacred  undertaking  to  its  very  end."  and  demand- 
ed tlie  rescue  "of  Russian  glory,  honor,  and  con- 
science that  were  being  buried  at  the  Congress." 
The  Moscow  Slavic  Committee  was  suppressed, 
and  Aksakoff  was  banished  from  Moscow,  but 
was  permitted  to  return  in  December  of  that 
year.  From  1880  until  his  death  he  published 
the  weekly  Rus  in  the  interests  of  the  Slavophil 
party.  In  December,  1885,  he  marie  a  bitter 
attack  on  Russian  diplomacy  in  Bulgaria,  with 
the  result  that  an  official  reprimand  was  issued 
against  his  paper  for  "discussing  current  events 
in  a  tone  inconsistent  with  true  patriotism." 
.■\ksakofi'  replied  in  an  even  more  pointed  article, 
in  which  he  defined  true  patriotism.  He  took 
the  rebuke  very  much  to  heart,  however,  and  his 
death  on  February  8,  1886,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  hastened  by  the  effect  which  the  reprimand 
produced  U()ou  him.  He  was  the  iK'st  known 
poet  of  the  Slavophil  cause.  His  complete  works 
were  published  posthumously. 

AKSHEHR,  •llc'sheHr  (Turk.  White  Town, 
ancient  Gk.  '}n-/ ofir/'Amv,  Philomclion).  A  city  in 
the  Turkish  vilayet  of  Konieh,  Asia  Minor,  situa- 
ted on  the  Scutari-Konieh  line,  south  of  the  Lake 
of  Akshehr  (Map:  Turkey  in  Asia,  D  3).  It 
lies  at  the  foot  of  the  Sultan-Dagh  in  a  fruitful 
and  well-watered  region,  and  has  a  considerable 
trade  and  manufactories  of  carpet.  Pop.,  about 
15.000. 

AKSTJ,  ;ik-soo'.  A  tow^^  of  Eastern  Turkestan. 
It  is  situated  in  41°  7'  N.  lat.  and  81°  E.  long., 
260  miles  northeast  of  Yarkand,  west  of  the 
River  Aksu.  at  an  altitude  of  over  3000  feet 
(Map;  Asia,  H  4) .  It  is  surrounded  by  a  strong 
wall  and  is  of  considerable  strategic  importance. 
It  is  a  meeting  place  for  the  caravans  from  Rus- 
sia, China,  West  Turkestan,  Kashmir,  and  India. 
Tlie  inhabitants  are  engaged  chietly  in  the  manu- 
facture of  metal  ware,  cotton  goods,  and  har- 
ness. In  1718  Aksu  was  nearly  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake.  In  1807  it  was  taken  by  the  Khan 
of  Kashgar.  but  was  recaptured  by  the  Chinese 
in  1877.     Its  population  is  estimated  at  40,000. 

AKYAB,  :ik-yiib'.  A  town  of  Burma,  India. 
The  chief  seaport  of  the  district  of  Akyab  or 
Arakan  proper,  and  the  capital  of  the  province  of 
Arakan  (Map;  Asia.  J  7).  It  is  situated  on  the 
eastern  side  of  the  island  of  Akvali.  at  tlie  mouth 
of  the  Kuladan  River,  in  lat.  20°  7'  N.,  190  miles 
southeast  of  Calcutta.  The  houses  are  well  built, 
the  streets  broad  and  regular,  and  it  has  a  fine 
and  well-protected  harbor.  Its  chief  article  of 
export  is  rice.  The  United  States  is  represented 
by  a  c(msular  agent.  Its  rise  from  a  fishing  vil- 
lage dates  from  its  choice  as  a  port  and  the  cap- 
ital of  the  province  in  1826.     Pop.,  1891,  38.000. 

AL,  iil.  The  article  in  the  Arabic  language. 
The  pronunciation  of  the  initial  vowel  is  vague, 
so  that  the  article  vacillates  between  al  and  el. 
Before  dentals,  sibilants,  and  liquids,  the  I  sound 


AL. 


249 


ALABAMA. 


is  assimilated  to  the  following  oonsonanl.  so 
that,  e.g..  rl-aliains  (the  sun)  becomes  csh-shnm^  : 
and  a«;ain,  tlie  initial  vowil  is  fiequently  elided, 
when  the  word  pieoedino;  the  vowel  ends  in  a 
vowel,  eg.,  Ahu-l-Fcda  for  Abii-al-F'cda.  The 
essential  clement  of  tlie  article  is  the  /,  which 
belongs  to  the  category  of  natural  sounds  having 
a  demonstrative  force.  The  Arabic  article  ap- 
pears in  such  Knglish  words  as  algebra,  alchemy, 
alcove,  and  Alliambra,  which  are  directly  derived 
from  the  Arabic. 

ALABAMA.  A  river  formed  by  the  junction 
of  the  t'oosa  and  Tallapoosa  rivers,  about  10  miles 
north  of  Montgomery,  Ala.  (Map:  Alabama, 
B  4).  Its  general  course  is  westward  to  Selma, 
thence  south-westward  to  about  50  miles  north 
of  Mobile,  where  it  meets  the  Tonibigbee,  and 
with  that  stream  forms  the  Jlobile  River.  It  is 
320  miles  long,  and  navigable  from  its  mouth  to 
Montgomery,  nearly   its  entire  length. 

ALABAMA,  al'a-ba'ma,  known  as  the"CoT- 
Tox  Statk."  One  of  the  Gulf  States  of  the 
American  I'nion,  situated  between  lat.  30"  10' 
and  3.5°  N.,  long.  84°  ^3'  and  88°  30'  VV.  It 
is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Tennessee,  on  the 
east  by  Georgia,  on  the  south  by  Florida  and  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  on  the  west  by  Mississippi; 
lengtli,  about  330  miles  from  north  to  south; 
average  width,  175  miles;  total  area,  52,250 
square  miles,  of  which  710  square  miles  is  water 
(Map:  United  States,  J  4).  Alabama,  by  the 
census  of  1900,  ranks  as  the  eighteenth  State 
in  the  Union  in  population,  the  twent\'-seventh 
in  size,  and  ninth  in  order  of  admission. 

TopoGKAPiiY.  The  southern  extremity  of  the 
.Appalachian  mountain  system  extends  into  the 
State  from  northern  Georgia  in  a  series  of  low 
parallel  ranges.  Of  these.  Raccoon  and  Lookout 
mountains  are  the  most  prominent,  but  do  not 
attain  any  great  elevation.  They  are  flat-topped 
ridges,  about  1000  feet  in  elevation  at  the  Geor- 
gia line,  gradually  lowering  to  the  westward, 
the  Raccoon  Mountains  extending  in  a  very  low 
range  (called  Sand  Mountains)  well  across  the 
State,  while  the  Lookout  Mountains  terminate 
abruptly  after  reaching  a  distance  of  about  60 
miles  within  the  State.  To  tlie  southeast  of 
these  ranges  lies  the  comparatively  level  Pied- 
mont region.  To  the  southwest,  at  the  very  ter- 
minus of  the  mountain  system,  is  the  low-lying 
Cumberland  plateau — the  coal-fields  of  Alabama. 
On  the  north  of  all  these  are  the  lower  lands  of 
the  Tennessee  valley.  The  whole  region  just  de- 
scribed includes  the  northeast  two-fifths  of  the 
State.  The  remainder,  the  southwest  three-fifths 
of  the  State,  constitutes  the  coastal  plain,  which 
slopes  gradually  from  an  ele%ation  of  about  600 
feet   to   sea   level. 

Climate  and  Sofl.  Excepting  in  the  lowland 
along  the  rivers,  the  climate  is  very  healthful, 
particularly  in  the  north.  Extremes  of  tempera- 
ture are  rare,  the  mean  temperature  for  .January 
being  42.0°  and  for  .July  83.9°.  The  summer  heat 
is  tempered  by  winds  from  the  gulf.  Snow  falls 
occasionally  in  January  and  February,  but  rare- 
ly in  the  south  ;  the  frost  limits  at  Montgomery 
are  October  10  and  April  25.  The  prevailing 
winds  for  the  whole  year  are  from  the  south  and 
southwest. 

Tile  average  temperature  and  rainfall  in  the 
north  are  59.70°  and  54  inches  respectively,  grad- 
ually increasing  to  66.60°  and  63  inches  in  the 
south. 

The  valley  of  the  Tennessee  has  chiefly  a  deep 
Vol.  I.— 18. 


red  calcareous  soil,  utilized  for  the  cultivation 
of  cereals;  that  in  the  metamorphic  legion  is 
a  red  or  gray  loam  with  clay  subsoil;  in  the  coal 
regions  it  is  sandy,  with  sand  or  clay  subsoil ; 
the  north  or  middle  divisions  are  bordered  by  a 
wide  belt  of  red  or  yellow  loam  over  stratified 
rocks  and  pebbles,  and  are  heavily  wooded;  the 
cotton  belt  has  a  heavy  black  calcareous  soil 
from  two  to  twenty  feet  deep,  forming  a  portion 
of  the  so-called  "black  belt"  of  the  Southern 
States.  South  of  this,  brown  and  red  clay  loams 
predominate.  In  the  extreme  southern  counties 
the  soil  is  light  and  sandy.  Swamp  land  occu- 
pies considerable  areas  in  various  parts  of  the 
State. 

Geology.  The  stratified  rocks  represent  every 
formation  occurring  in  the  Appalachian  region. 
There  are  three  geological  divisions  of  Alabama, 
namely:  The  northern,  containing  most  of  the 
State  north  and  west  of  a  line  from  the  northeast 
corner  of  the  State  through  Birmingham  nearly 
to  Tuscaloosa,  and  including  the  great  Tennessee 
valley,  in  which  the  rock  masses  belong  to  the 
Sub-carboniferous  limestones  and  the  Coal  meas- 
ures ;  their  strata  are  approximately  horizontal. 
Adjoining  this  on  the  east  is  the  middle  region, 
bounded  by  a  line  drawn  from  Tuscaloosa 
through  Centreville,  Clanton,  and  Wetumpka  to 
Columbus,  Ga.  This  includes  (1)  the  metamor- 
phic region,  with  altered  and  crystalline  sedi- 
ments of  Silurian  or  preceding  ages — (^uartzites, 
marbles,  granites,  and  gneisses;  the  strata  in 
many  places  disintegrated  into  masses  of  strati- 
fied clay  and  inteilaminated  with  quartz  seams. 
(2)  The  Coosa  valley,  with  prevailing  calcareous 
rocks.  (3)  The  Coosa  and  Cahaba  coal  fields, 
their  strata  consisting  of  sandstones,  conglom- 
erateiB,  shales,  and  coal  beds,  tilted  and  unequally 
de-graded.  This  division  contains  some  of  the 
highest  land  in  the  State.  The  southern  divi- 
sion, south  and  west  of  these  limits,  including 
the  cotton  belts,  consists  largely  of  drift  deposits 
irregularly  stratified  over  the  eroded  surface  of 
Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  rocks.  Clark  County, 
between  the  Alabama  and  Tombigbce,  is  rich  in 
fossil  remains  of  Cretaceous  and  "Tertiary  age. 

MiXEr..4.L  Re.sovrces.  The  southern  "limit  of 
the  mineral  region  may  be  indicated  by  a  line 
passing  through  Pikeville,  Tuscaloosa,  and  We- 
tumpka to  Columbus,  Ga.  Within  this  area  are 
the  comparatively  insignificant  gold  deposits  of 
Randolph  County,  and  three  fields  of  bituminous 
coal  over  8600  square  miles  in  extent,  named 
from  the  rivers  that  drain  them — the  Warrior, 
the  Cahaba,  and  the  Coosa.  Cannel,  free-burn- 
ing, lump,  coking,  gas,  and  other  coals  of  supe- 
rior quality  are  found.  There  are  extensive 
beds  of  iron  ore,  including  red  hematite,  limonite, 
black-band,  drift,  magnetic,  and  specular;  and 
the  Choceolocco,  Anniston,  Coosa,  Cahaba,  Bir 
mingliam,  and  other  valleys  are  noted  for  the 
abundance  of  their  iron  ore.  Among  other  miner- 
al products  are  asbestos,  asphalt,  copper,  corun- 
dum, emery,  fire-clay,  graphite,  granite,  litho- 
graphic stone,  manganese,  white  and  variegated 
marble,  marl,  red  ochre,  phosphates,  bauxite, 
pottery  and  porcelain  clays,  salt  (in  the  south- 
west), slate,  soapstone,  and  small  amounts  of 
silver  and  tin.  Natural  gas  has  also  been  dis- 
covered, but  the  supply  is  inconsiderable. 

Mining. — It  is  not  until  recent  years  that 
the  great  mineral  resources  of  the  State  have 
been  extensively  exploited.  This  recent  growth 
of  the  mining  industry  has  been  largely  responsi- 
ble for  the  quickening  of  the  general  industrial 


ALABAMA. 


250 


ALABAMA. 


life  of  the  State,  and  the  creation  of  a  most  op- 
timistic spirit  concerning  her  future  industrial 
progress.  Coal  and  iron  are  the  leading  miner- 
als, and  the  immediate  proximity  of  these  con- 
.stitutes  an  advantage  not  enjoyed  in  the  more 
extensively  developed  iron  mining  districts  of 
Lake  Superior.  The  industry  has  attained  its 
greatest  development  in  the  Birmingham  region. 
The  value  of  bituminous  coal  mined  in  the  State 
rose  from  $2..500,000  in  ISSO  to  .$.5,000,000  in 
1898  and  .$10,000,000  in  1000.  This  gave  the 
State  fifth  rank  in  the  amount  and  sixth  rank 
in  the  value  of  the  output.  A  large  portion  of 
the  coal  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  coke,  the 
State  taking  third  rank  in  the  production  of  that 
article.  The  growth  of  iron  mining  has  been  no 
less  striking.  In  1880  there  were  171,000  long 
tons  mined  Tin  1889,  1,570.000  tons;  and  in  1899, 
2,662,000  tons,  the  value  for  the  latter  year  be- 
ing $2,600,000,  and  ranking  the  State  next  to 
Michigan  and  llinnesota  in  importance.  Sev- 
enty-two per  cent,  of  the  product  is  red  hematite 
and  28  per  cent,  brown  hematite.  Virginia  alone 
produces  a  larger  amount  of  the  latter  variety 
of  ore.  Limestone  is  quarried  extensively,  and 
most  of  it  is  burned  into  lime  or  used  as  a  flux. 
The  average  annual  value  for  the  last  decade 
was  about  $:!00,000.  Bauxite  is  mined  in  Chero- 
kee County,  and  graphite  in  Cleburne  County. 
Building  clays,  sandstone,  and  mineral  springs 
are  each  of  some  commercial  value  in  the  State. 

Fisheries.  Owing  to  the  limited  coast  line 
of  the  State,  its  sea  fisheries  are  of  less  impor- 
tance than  those  of  the  other  Gulf  States.  The 
industry  gives  employment  to  less  than  a  thou- 
sand men,  and  the  value  of  the  product  is  only 
about  $150,000, 

Agriculture.  Agriculture  is  the  leading  in- 
dustry of  the  State,  but  it  is  not  keeping  pace 
with  "the  other  rapidly  developing  industries  or 
with  the  increase  of  population.  Agiiculture  re- 
ceived a  decided  setback  from  the  Civil  War,  and 
has  not  yet  completely  adjusted  itself  to  the  new 
industrial  regime.  The  acreage  of  farm  land  and 
the  percentage  of  improved  land  (about  40  per 
cent.)  are  but  little  larger  than  they  were  in 
18G0,  while  the  valuation  of  farm  land  and  the 
amount  and  value  of  almost  every  kind  of  farm 
property  and  produce  is  less  than  it  was  in  1860. 
The  old  plantation  system  of  large  farms,  whose 
cultivation  was  carried  on  under  the  direction 
of  the  owner,  has  given  way  to  a  system  of  small 
rented  farms.  The  average  size  of  farms,  which 
was  347  acres,  in  1860,  has  decreased  about  60 
per  cent.,  and  the  rented  farms  constitute  almost 
lialf  of  the  entire  number — botli  methods  of  rent- 
ing, tliat  for  a  fixed  money  payment  and  that 
fur  a  share  of  the  product,  being  equally  in  vogue. 
The  farm  land  is  still  held  bv  a  comparatively 
few  individuals,  a  considerable  proportion  of 
whom  are  representative  of  the  mercliant  class. 
The  holdings  are  divided  into  convenient  por- 
tions, and  the  negro  renter  receives  a  mea- 
gre supply  of  farm  equipments,  upon  which,  as 
also  upon  the  prospective  crop,  the  merchant 
holds  a  lien.  The  negro  becomes  the  customer 
of  the  merchant  and  can  seldom  catch  up  with 
his  obligations.  The  merchant  finds  his  rent 
most  certain  and  his  sale  of  provisions  greatest 
when  the  renter  confines  fiimself  largely  to  the 
cultivation  of  cotton,  which  he  willingly  does, 
and  thus  cotton  remains  king.  The  continu- 
ous planting  of  this  crop  before  the  war,  as 
well  as  since  that  time,  has  resulted  in  the  ex- 


haustion of  a  naturally  fertile  soil.  While  cot- 
ton is  grown  in  most  parts  of  the  State,  much 
the  greater  portion  is  raised  in  the  "cotton  belt," 
a  narrow  strip  of  black  prairie  land  extending 
east  and  west  across  the  State  in  the  latitude  of 
Montgomery.  Alabama  usually  ranks  fourth 
in  the  value  of  her  cotton  product.  Corn  is 
next  in  importance,  and  its  acreage  is  almost 
equal  to  that  of  cotton,  but  the  product  is  of 
much  less  value.  Oats  are  the  only  crop  that 
has  experienced  a  remarkable  increase  in  culti- 
vation— an  increase  about  commensurate  with 
the  decrease  in  the  cultivation  of  wheat, 
which  has  become  relatively  unimportant,  though 
the  past  decade  has  witnessed  a  revival.  These 
and  small  quantities  of  other  cereals  are 
grown  most  extensively  in  the  "cereal  belt," 
or  the  valley  of  the  Tennessee  River  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  State.  This  valley  is 
also  very  favorable  for  the  raising  of  apples 
and  other  fruits,  the  mountains  on  either 
side  giving  protection  from  the  heat  of  the  south 
and  the  winds  of  the  north.  Peanuts  are  raised 
in  the  southeast.  The  State  takes  a  high  rank 
in  the  production  of  peaches  as  well  as  melons. 
Cowpease,  sweet  potatoes,  and  sugar  cane  are 
extensively  grown  throughout  the  State.  Most 
of  the  sugar  cane  in  recent  years  is  manufactured 
into  molasses.  There  is  much  barren  \vaste 
land  in  the  mountain  regions  of  the  north,  while 
forests  still  cover  the  greater  portion  of  the 
southern  end  of  the  State.  Cotton  being  the 
predominant  crop,  the  conditions  are  not  favor- 
able for  the  extensive  raising  of  stock.  Such  as 
is  raised  goes  to  supply  the  local  needs.  The 
following  tables  indicate  the  trend  of  the  agri- 
cultural industry: 


03 

a 

=  r 

^  00 

fe  ® 

aJ 

a. 

c 

a 

o  s 

r 

P 

.a 

03 

1900 

133,500 

132,300 

231,800 

279,000 

1,866,000 

171,800 

J  890 

121,200 

134,800 

97,000 

292,000 

486,500 

1,421,800 

386,000 

ai'3 

if 

11 

i7 

®   OE   C 

do  a 

Us 

i 

1900 

29.,sno,ooo 
isno 

30,000,000 

4,300.000 
3,230,000 

916,000 
208,000 

1,061,000 
915,000 

2,300,000 

? 

1,242,000 

94,001) 
54,00(1 

There  is  to-day  evidence  of  a  gi-owing  senti- 
ment in  favor  of  diversified  farming  and  an  in- 
creasing tendency  toward  the  raising  of  pease, 
alfalfa,  and  other  leguminous  plants  which  arc 
of  special  value  to  the  soil,  and  there  is  in  gen- 
eral a  more  hopeful  view  of  the  agricultural 
future,  and  a  belief  that  it  is  sharing  in  the 
general  industrial  awakening  of  the  South. 

Manufactures.  Recent  years  have  clearly 
demonstrated  that  Alabama  possesses  a  combi- 
nation of  advantages  for  manufacturing  enter- 
prise such  as  are  scarcely  found  in  any  other 
part  of  the  country,  and  which  promise  to  place 
her  in  the  front  rank  of  manufacturing 
States.       The   raw   material   and   the   auxiliary 


AREA  AND  POPULATION  OP  ALABAMA  BY  COUNTIES. 


Map 
Index. 

Area  in 
County  Seat.             etiuare  - 
niilce. 

Population. 

18'JO. 

1900. 

Autauga 

c:3 

B5 
D4 
B3 
CI 

D3 
04 
D2 
D3 
Dl 

C3 
A4 
B4 
D2 
D2 

C'4 
Bl 
B4 
C3 
C4 

C4 
CI 
D4 
B3 
Ul 

C3 
B4 
CI 
B2 

Al 
D4 
B3 
B3 
D4 
CI 
02 
A2 
Bl 

Bl 
1)3 
Bl 
03 
D3 

0  1 
B3 
Al 
0  1 
A5 

B4 
03 
CI 
B3 
AS 

0  4 
D2 
D3 
02 
03 

A3 
0  2 
D3 
B2 

B2 

A4 

B3   B4 

Bl 

Prattville 

595 
1,591 
it>0 
622 
752 

609 
;69 

6:36 

590 
.583 

703 
912 
1,213 
694 
56:3 

677 
.581 
8:31 
671 
1,029 

612 

595 
0.54 
983 
783 

031 
968 
5.33 
647 

689 
662 
682 
r26 
992 
1,163 
1,059 
606 
703 

642 
631 
600 
747 
615 

806 
978 
744 
5!K) 
1,278 

1,037 
809 
,589 
758 
937 

684 
579 
6.52 
650 
829 

896 

677 

759 

1,371 

860 

1,0.50 

914 

634 

13,:3."30 

8,941 
34,898 
13,824 
21,927 

27,063 
21,641 
:33,836 
26,319 
20,469 

14,.549 
17,.526 
22,634 
15,765 
13,218 

12,170 
30,189 
14,.5M 
15,906 
7,536 

15,435 
13,4:39 
17,325 
49,450 
21,106 

21,732 

8,666 
21,926 

12,823 

10,681 
10,690 
23,007 
27,501 
34,847 
28,026 
88,501 
14,187 
23,739 

20,725 
28,694 
21,201 
31,.550 
18,4:39 

.38,119 
33,095 
11,:M7 
18,9:35 
51,587 

18,990 
56,172 
24,089 
29,333 
32,470 

24,423 
17,319 
24,093 
17,3.53 
20,886 

29,574 
29,:346 
25,460 
30,362 

16,078 
7,9:35 

30,816 
6,553 

17,915 

Dilpbne 

1.3,194 

Barbour 

Bibb 

Blount 

Bullock                     

35.152 

18,498 

23,119 

Union  Springe 

:31,944 

Butler 

35,761 

.34,874 

Lafayette 

32,5&4 

Center 

21,096 

16,523 

Butler 

18,1:36 

Clarke 

Clay 

Cleburne 

Coffee 

Col  bert 

tirovehill  

Ashland 

Eilwarilsville 

27,790 
17,099 
1:3,206 

Elba 

30,972 

Tuscnuibia 

23,,341 

17,514 

Cooea 

Covington 

Crenshaw 

Rockford 

16,144 
15,346 

Luverne  

19,668 
17,849 

Ozark 

31,189 

Dallas 

Dekalb         

Selum 

Fort  Payne 

54,657 
33,558 

26,099 

11, .320 

Gadsden 

Fayette 

37,361 

14,1-32 

Franklin 

Russellville 

Geneva 

16,611 

19,096 

Greene 

Hale 

31,182 

Greensboro  

Abbeville 

:31,0I1 

:36,147 

Jackeon 

.30,508 

140,420 

16,084 

Florence 

Moulton 

26,559 

20,134 

Lee 

31,836 

Athens 

32,.387 

3.5,651 

Macon 

Tuskegee 

2.3,126 

43,702 

Marengo 

Linden 

38,316 

Hamilton 

14,494 

33,389 

MobUe 

Mobile 

63,740 

Monroeville 

23,666 

?2,047 

Decatur   

38,820 

:il,783 

Carrollton 

24,402 

Pike 

Troy 

29,172 

21,647 

Russell 

Scale 

27.083 

Asiieville .... 

19,425 

Shelby 

Columbiana 

Livingston 

Talladega 

23,684 

'  Sumter        

.32,710 

35,773 

DadevilTe 

29,675 

Tuscaloosa 

Walker           

:36,147 

Jasper 

Saint  Stephens 

25,162 

11,134 

35,631 

Double  Springe 

9,554 

IGHT.   1»1  ANO   mt,   BY  DOD0,ML«O  «  COMfANr. 


J 


ALABAMA. 


251  ALABAMA. 


agencies  of  manufacture  are  found  in  close  prox- 
imity. In  the  north  iron  ore  is  found  in  the 
same  locality  with  coal,  limestone,  and  dolomite, 
making  jiossible  a  minimum  cost  of  production 
for  iron  and  its  manufactures.  The  immense  for- 
ests of  tlie  South  supply  material  for  the 
lundicr  industry,  and  the  production  of  tar, 
lur|icntini'.  and  resin.  The  numerous  waterfalls 
and  rapids  in  the  State  supply  the  needed  power 
for  turning  the  cotton  crop  into  the  manufac- 
tured product,  though  the  abundance  and  cheap- 
ness of  coal  has  much  retarded  the  utilization 
of  this  power.  With  these  advantages  must  also 
be  considered  the  lesser  cost  of  living  in  the 
South,  thus  making  a  lower  wage  ])ossible.  The 
comparative  scarcity  of  strikes  and  the  absence 
id'  labor  legislation  and  prohibition  of  child 
labor  in  the  State  have  served  as  an  additional 
attraction  for  capital  from  the  North.  The 
greatest  and  almost  the  sole  obstacle  in  the  way 
of  manufacturing,  especially  of  iron  products, 
has  been  the  high  railway  freight  rates,  which 
make  it  dilficult  to  compete  with  the  products  of 
the  Nortli.  The  improvement  of  the  water- 
course of  the  Warrior  River,  already  partially 
executed,  will  reduce  80  per  cent,  the  cost  of 
conveying  iron  products  to  Mobile,  which  will 
result  in  a  large  increase  of  the  exports  of  pig 
iron  to  foreign  countries,  already  amounting  in 
IPOn  to  1  l.'S.OOO  tons,  and  exceeding  those  from  any 
other  State.  The  following  table  for  the  eleven 
leading  industries  shows  a  remarkable  develop- 
ment during  the  decade  in  nearlj'  every  industry. 
The  iron  and  steel  industry  leads.  Steel  manu- 
facture in  Alabama  is  of  recent  origin.  Ala- 
bama iron  ores  are  not  suited  to  the  manufac 
ture  of  steel  by  the  Bessemer  process,  and  it 
was  not  until  the  recentl}'  manifested  preference 
for  steel  manufactured  by  the  open  hearth  proc- 
ess that  profitable  manufacture  of  steel  in  Ala- 
bama was  possible.  Of  the  foundry  and  machine 
shop  products,  east  iron  pipe  is  tlie  most  im- 
]iortant,  tlie  other  leading  products  being  stoves, 
car  wlieels.  boilers,  and  engines.  While  the 
State  was  behind  some  of  her  sister  .States  in 
developing  cotton  manufactures,  the  progress 
from  18!)0  to  1900,  which  was  greater  than  that 
for  an_v  other  industry,  leaves  no  doubt  of  the 
future  prominence  of  the  State  in  the  production 
of  cotton  goods.  Fertilizers  are  produced  by  a 
process  of  combining  Alabama  cottonseed  meal 
with  phosphates  from  Florida  mines.  In  the 
following  table  the  comparisons  of  wage  earners, 
while  not  exact,  are  reasonably  indicative  of  the 
actual  facts. 

COMPARATIVE  SUMMARY  OF  ELEVEN  LEADING 

INDUSTRIES. 


Comparative  Summart  of  Eleven  Leading  Industries. 
{Contimied.) 


r£ 

2 

a 

3 

II 

^1 

Value  of  Products, 
including  Custom 
Worli  and  Re- 
pairing. 

Total  for  selected  industries 
for  state 

1000 
IS'.IO 

3,3.3.5 
1.544 

.37,317 
20,657 

$6a..382.086 
34,814,503 

Increase,  1800  to  1900 

1,791 
116.0 

59,5 
51.9 

10,690 
80.8 

70.  S 
66.3 

S7,.568,184 
79.2 

Per  cent,  of  total  of  all  in- 
dustries in  state 

1900 
1890 

75  3 
68.0 

Cars  and  general  simp  con- 
etruction  and  repairs  by 
steam  railroad  companieB.. 


Coke    

Cotton,  ginning* 

Cotton  goods 

Fertilizers 

Flouring     and     grist    mill 
products 

Foundry  and  machine  shop 
products 

Iron  and  steel 

Leather,     tanned,     curried 
and  finished 

Lumber  and  timber  products 

Oil,  cottonseed  and  cake 


.§•3 

s- 

3 

Si 

o  2 
<  -^ 

Value  of  Products 
including  Custom 
Work  and  Re- 
pairing 

1900 
1890 

19 
12 

4.030 
1,378 

4,l;2,198 

1,.58I,207 

1900 
1890 

15 
19 

1,592 
1,120 

3,786.433 
2,474.377 

1900 
1890 

1,216 

218 

1,518 
792 

1,218,283 
213,529 

1900 
1890 

31 
13 

8.:M2 
8,088 

8,1.53.136 
8,190,771 

1900 
1890 

17 
8 

439 
830 

8,008,162 
765,000 

1900 
1890 

781 
702 

540 
1,043 

3,310,757 
3,060,452 

1900 
1890 

74 

41 

3.461 
1,460 

5,488.441 
2,196,913 

1900 
1890 

85 
35 

7,8.38 
5,685 

17.392,483 
12.544,227 

1900 
1890 

18 
81 

105 
41 

1,0115,358 
77,066 

1900 
1890 

1,111 
472 

9,273 
6,335 

18,867..551 
8,507,971 

190O 
1890 

28 
9 

7.59 
490 

8,985.890 
1,203,989 

*Doe8  not  include  many  ginneries  operated  in  connection 
with  saw,  grist,  and  cottoiiseed  oil  mills,  or  for  the  use  exclu- 
sively of  plantations  on  which  they  are  located. 

Transportation  and  Commerce.  The  Ala- 
bama and  Tombigbee  rivers,  witli  their  more  im- 
portant tributaries,  and  the  Chattahoochee  River 
on  the  east  boundary,  offer  excellent  facilities  for 
navigation.  Railroad  construction  was  very 
slow  in  developing,  but  has  made  a  steady 
increase  in  recent  years,  in  marked  contrast  with 
most  Northern  States.  The  mileage  in  1880 
amounted  to  1843  miles,  but  increased  to  4226 
in  1000,  or  more  than  half  the  mileage  of  the 
State  of  New  York.  There  were  7.81  miles  for 
every  100  square  miles  of  territory,  and  22.55 
miles  for  every  10,000  inhabitants.  Almost  every 
trunk  line  of  the  South  passes  through  Birming- 
ham. There  is  a  State  Railroad  Commission, 
which  fixes  rates,  but  railroads  are  not  bound 
to  adopt  them.  In  case  of  damage  suits,  how- 
ever, the  rates  fixed  by  the  commission  are  prima 
facie  reasonable.  Mobile  is  the  only  seaport, 
and  the  chief  exports  are  cotton,  coal,  and  lum- 
ber. New  Orleans  takes  the  bulk  of  the  cotton 
for  export  trade,  and  Pensaeola  the  lumber. 

Banks.  t)n  October  31.  11)00.  there  were  forty- 
three  national  banks  in  the  State,  thirty  of  which 
were  in  operation.  The  capital  stock  amounted 
to  .$3,555,000;  circulation  outstanding,  $1,968,- 
000;  deposits,  .$10,933,000;  and  reserve  held, 
.$3,104,000.  On  .June  30,  1900.  there  were  twenty 
State  banks,  having  total  resources  aggregating 
$7,129,000;  capital  stock,  $742,000,  and  deposits, 
$3,489,000. 


AT,  A  BAM  A. 


2.53 


ALABAMA. 


Finance.  In  1900  the  finances  of  the  State 
were  in  the  best  condition  they  have  reached 
since  the  Civil  War.  The  bonded"  debt  of  $9,357,- 
000,  created  during  the  "tarpet-bag"  regime,  con- 
stitutes the  tax-payer's  heaviest  burden.  Provis- 
ions have  been  made  by  hiw  for  tlie  refunding  of 
this  debt,  but  none  looking  to  its  final  extinc- 
tion. According  to  t)ie  new  constitution,  new 
dcl)ts  can  be  incurred  onlj'  for  purposes  of  repel- 
ling an  invasion  or  suppressing  an  insurrection. 
The  valuation  of  property  in  this  State  has  in- 
creased steadily  from  .$i.'i!» .000.000  in  1880  to 
8226.000.000  in'  1900.  The  general  tax  increased 
during  the  same  period  from  $908,000  to  $1,467,- 
000.  The  general  purpose  tax  rate  for  six  years 
has  been  two  and  one-half  mills,  and  for  two 
years  there  has  been  a  special  soldier  and  special 
school  tax  rate  of  one  mill  each.  The  receipts 
for  1900  amounted  to  .$2.0.50,000,  this  being  an 
increase  of  about  $-100,000  over  the  average  of 
previous  years.  The  principal  items  of  revenue 
are:  General  taxes,  50  per  cent,  of  the  entire 
revenue;  licenses,  about  9  per  cent.;  pension  fund 
taxes,  10  per  cent.;  special  school  tax.  10  per 
cent.;  hire  of  convicts,  less  than  5  per  cent.; 
poll  tax  ($1  per  poll.  $150,000).  As  there  are 
over  400,000  people  subject  to  a  poll  tax  in  the 
State,  it  is  evident  that  this  tax  is  generally 
disregarded. 

Education.  Education  in  Alabama  is  in  a 
very  unsatisfactory  but  hopeful  condition.  The 
percentage  of  her  illiteracy  is  exceeded  in  but 
three  other  States.  There  are  great  difficulties 
in  the  way  of  maintaining  satisfactory  educa- 
tional standards,  such  difficulties  as  are  incident 
to  the  breakdown  of  an  inilustrial  sj'stem  and 
the  presence  of  a  large  ex-slave  class.  The 
schools  have  lacked  financial  support,  partially 
through  the  fault  of  the  law,  for  there  has  been 
no  provision  for  local  taxation  for  educational 
purposes.  The  new  constitution,  however,  pro- 
vides for  county  school  taxes.  Many  of  the 
teachers  lack  proper  qualifications  (especially 
the  colored  teachers),  the  schools  are  not  graded, 
and  heretofore  have  been  very  inadequately  su- 
pervised! The  length  of  the  school  term  is  com- 
monly less  than  ninety  days  per  year:  but  in  the 
white  schools  the  teachers  are  often  retained  for 
longer  terms,  at  the  expense  of  the  parents  of 
the  school  children.  Of  late,  however,  public  in- 
terest in  the  matter  has  been  aroused.  Laws  now 
make  it  possible  to  secure  better  qualified  teach- 
ers and  provide  a  better  financial  support.  The 
school  appropriation,  which  for  a  long  time  had 
amounted  annually  to  about  $650,000,  was  in- 
creased in  1900  to  $1,000,000;  but  even  this 
makes  the  sum  for  each  child  of  school  age  only 
about  $1.50.  The  white  children  of  school  age 
numbered  350.000  in  1900:  the  black  children, 
282,000.  In  1899  the  enrollment  of  white  chil- 
dren amounted  to  196.000;  of  blacks.  122.000. 
Thirteen  hundred  children  were  enrolled  in  pub- 
lic high  schools,  and  a  somewhat  less  number 
in  private  secondary  schools.  The  State  sup- 
ports, together  with  the  aid  of  the  Peabody  Fund, 
seven  normal  schools,  three  of  which  are  for 
colored  students.  A  district  system  of  agricul- 
tural schools  has  been  established  by  the  State, 
there  being  nine  such  district  schools.  The  State 
also  supports  an  agricultural  and  mechanical 
college  (colored),  four  normal  schools,  a  Poly- 
technic Institute  at  .Auburn,  a  girls'  industrial 
school  (white)  at  Montevallo.  and  a  university 
at  Tuscaloosa.     Private  institutions  of  learning 


are  as  follows:  Blount  College,  Blountsville;  St. 
Bernard  College,  Cullman ;  Howard  College,  East 
Lake;  Southern  L'niversity,  Creensboro;  Lafay- 
ette College,  Lafayette;  Lineville  College,  Line- 
ville;  Selma  University,  t?clma ;  Spring  Hill  Col- 
lege, Spring  Hill,  and  eight  colleges  for  women. 
The  Industrial  Institute  (colored)  at  Tuskegee 
(q.v.)  has  Ijecome  famous  under  the  administra- 
tion of  Booker  T.  Washington  for  the  efficient 
way  in  which  it  is  helping  to  solve  the  race  ques- 
tion. 

Chakit.^I'.le  and  Penal.  The  State  institu- 
tions comprise  the  Alabama  Institution  for  tlie 
Deaf,  the  Alabama  School  for  Xegro  Deaf  Mutes 
and  Blind,  and  the  Alabama  Academy  for  the 
Blind,  all  at  Talladega :  a  hospital  for  the 
insane,  at  Tuscaloosa :  a  penitentiary,  at  We- 
tumpka,  and  two  prisons  at  Pratt  Mines.  The 
State  owns  a  cotton  farm  and  cotton  mills, 
where  labor  is  performed  by  boys  and  women 
convicted  of  offenses  by  the  courts.  The  convict 
system  has  undergone  radical  improvements,  but 
prisoners  are  still  leased  to  contractors  for  vari- 
ous kinds  of  work.  In  1898  the  convicts  num- 
bered 1 763. 

Religion.  As  in  other  portions  of  the  South, 
the  Baptists  and  the  !Methodists  have  the  field 
almost  to  themselves.  The  other  denominations, 
of  which  the  strongest  are  the  Presbyterian. 
Catholic.  Christian,  and  Episcopalian,  are  small 
in  numbers. 

Popui.ATiox.  The  population  of  the  State  by 
decades  was  as  follows;  1820.  127.901 ;  18.30,  309!- 
527;  1840.  500.756;  18.50,  771.623;  1860,  9G4,- 
201;  1870.  996.992;  1880.  1.262,505;  1890.  1,513,- 
017;  1900.  1.828,697.  Her  rank  rose  from  nine- 
teenth in  1820  to  twelfth  in  1840;  since  1800  it 
has  been  gradually  falling  back,  being  eighteenth 
in  1000.  The  population  increased  2().9  per  cent, 
for  the  last  decade,  or  at  a  ratio  almost  identical 
withthatof  the  nation.  The  number  of  inhabitants 
per  square  mile  in  1900  was  35.5.  as  against  25.fi 
.for  the  whole  country.  In  common  with  the  other 
Southern  States,  the  population  is  almost  entire- 
ly native  born,  the  foreign  born  never  having  ex- 
ceeded 15.000  for  the  whole  State.  The  negroes 
in  1900  numbered  827,000.  but  three  other  States 
containing  a  larger  number.  They  are  centred 
largely  in  the  cotton  belt,  where  in  certain  coun- 
ties they  outnumber  the  whites  five  to  one.  while 
this  ratio  is  just  reversed  in  a  number  of  counties 
north  and  south  of  this  belt.  Owing  to  the  rela- 
tive importance  of  agriculture,  the  population  is 
largely  rural,  but  10  per  cent,  of  the  total  living 
in  cities  of  4000  population  and  over  in  1900. 
With  the  development  of  mining  and  manufactur- 
ing the  urban  element  has  rapidly  increased,  the 
number  of  places  containing  a  population  of  more 
than  4000  having  risen  from  ten  in  1890  to 
sixteen  in  1900.  While  the  negroes  engage  but 
little  in  these  occupations,  they  yet  show  a  strong 
inclination  to  giavitate  to  the  urban  centres. 
For  the  population  of  the  State  by  counties, 
see  back  of  map. 

Cities.  The  census  of  1900  gives  the  follow- 
ing figures  for  the  population  of  the  largest 
cities:  Mobile.  38.469;  Birmingham,  38,415,  and 
Jlontffomery.  30.346. 

GovERNiiENT.  The  present  Constitution  was 
adopted  by  a  vote  of  the  people  in  November, 
1901.  Tlu-  right  of  suft'rage  is  restricted  to  those 
who  liave  resided  two  years  in  the  State,  one  year 
in  tile  county,  and  three  months  in  the  precinct 
or   w;ird,   and  have  paid   the   required   poll  tax 


ALABAMA. 


253 


ALABAMA. 


and  registered.  In  oidor  to  register  prior  to 
December  20,  1902,  the  applicant  must  have  en- 
gaged in,  or  been  a  desoeudant  of,  one  who  has 
partici|xited  in  one  of  the  following  events:  the 
War  of  IS  12.  the  Me.xican  War,  any  war  with  the 
Indians,  the  war  between  the  States,  the  war 
with  Spain,  or  served  with  the  foroes  of  the  Con- 
federate States  or  of  the  State  of  Alabama  in  the 
war  between  the  States;  and  he  must  be  an  indi- 
vidual of  gooil  eharacter.  and  who  understands 
the  duties  and  obligations  of  citizenship  under  a 
republican  form  of  government.  After  .lanuary 
1,  11I03,  the  qualifications  for  citizenship  are  to 
be  modified,  and  from  that  date  the  ability 
to  read  and  write  any  clause  of  the  United 
States  Constitution  in  English,  and  the  pur- 
suit of  some  lawful  calling  for  the  greater 
part  of  the  twelve  months  preceding  the  time 
of  registration,  will  be  prerequisites  for  voting. 
These  qualifications  are  not  required  of  those 
who  own.  individually  or  througli  their  wives, 
a  certain  amount  of  property  free  from  tax 
incumbrances.  Any  person  guilty  of  a  criminal 
ofTeiise.  including  the  selling,  buying,  or  offering 
to  sell  or  buy.  a  vote,  is  debarred  from  voting. 
The  constitution  contains  a  detailed  statement 
of  the  proper  procedure  in  registration,  of  pen- 
alties, etc.  Kach  county  is  to  have  a  board  of 
registrars,  consisting  of  three  members,  who 
issue  life  certificates  to  those  who  are  entitled  to 
them.  An  amendment  to  the  constitution  may 
be  secured  by  a  three-fifths  vote  of  each  house, 
ratified  by  a  vote  of  the  people.  A  constitutional 
convention  may  be  called  when  voted  by  a  major- 
ity of  each  house,  and  ratified  by  the  people, 
and  the  jiower  of  sueli  convention  in  altering, 
revising,  or  amending  the  constitution  is  subject 
1o  no  restrictions. 

Legislative. — The  legislative  body  consists  of 
a  Senate  and  a  House  of  Representatives,  the 
maximum  limit  of  membership  being  35  and  10.5 
respectively.  The  number  of  senators  must  not 
be  more  than  one-third  nor  less  than  one-fourth 
that  of  representatives.  Senatorial  districts  are 
composed  of  contiguous  undivided  counties. 
Elections  are  held  the  first  Tuesday  after  the 
first  Monday  in  November  of  every  fourth  year, 
and  the  legislature  meets  on  the  second  Tuesday 
in  the  following  Janu,ary,  the  session  lieing  lim- 
ited to  fifty  days.  Slembers  are  paid  $4  per  day 
and  traveling  expenses.  Revenue  bills  originate 
in  the  House,  and  cannot  be  passed  in  the  last 
five  days  of  the  session.  The  legislature  must 
provide  for  the  revision  of  the  statutes  every 
twelfth  year.  One  of  the  numerous  legislative 
prohibitions  prevents  the  State  from  engaging 
in  or  aiding  in  internal  improvements. 

Executive. — A  governor,  lieutenant-governor, 
attorney-general.  State  aiulitor,  secretary  of 
State.  State  treasurer,  superintendent  of  educa- 
tion, and  commissioner  of  agriculture  and  indus- 
tries are  elected  every  fourth  year,  at  the  time 
and  place  appointed  for  the  election  of  members 
of  the  legislature.  None  of  these  olTicers  is  elig- 
ible for  reelection,  and  the  governor  is  not  elig- 
ible to  election  or  appointment  to  any  office  in 
the  State,  or  to  the  Senate  of  the  United  States, 
during  his  term  or  within  one  year  after  the 
expiration  thereof.  The  lieutenant-governor  is 
ex-oflicio  president  of  the  Senate,  and  succeeds 
to  the  office  of  governor  in  case  that  office  becomes 
vacant.  The  attorney-general.  Secretary  of  State, 
and  State  auditor  constitute  a  board  of  pardons, 
to  hear  petitions  for  pardons,  commutation,  or 


parole  in  cases  of  felonj-,  and  advise  tlie  governor 
thereon ;  but  the  decision  of  the  governor  does 
not  need  to  conform  with  th.at  of  the  board.  The 
governor  niaj-  veto  any  bill,  or  any  item  of  an 
appropriation  bill ;  but  a  majority  vote  of  each 
house  may  override  the  veto  of  the  governor.  A 
bill  becomes  law  if  the  governor  fails  to  pass 
upon  it  within  one  week  after  it  has  been  sub- 
mitted to  him. 

Judiciary. — The  judicial  power  of  the  State 
is  vested  in  the  Senate,  sitting  as  a  court  of  im- 
peachment, a  supreme  court,  circuit  courts, 
chancery  courts,  courts  of  probate,  such  courts 
of  law  and  equity  inferior  to  the  supreme  court, 
consisting  of  not  more  than  five  members,  as  the 
legislature  from  time  to  time  may  establish,  and 
such  persons  as  may  be  by  law  invested  with 
powers  of  a  judicial  nature.  A  circuit  court,  or  a 
court  having  the  jurisdiction  of  a  circuit  court, 
is  held  in  each  county  of  the  State  at  least  twice 
every  year.  The  State  is  divided  into  chancery 
divisions,  with  a  chancellor  for  each  division. 
The  divisions  are  subdivided  into  districts,  in 
each  of  which  the  chancellor  holds  court  at  least 
twice  each  year.  The  legislature  may  establish 
courts  of  probate  in  each  county.  Judges  of  the 
supreme,  circuit,  chancery,  and  probate  courts 
are  elected  for  a  term  of  six  years.  For  each 
judicial  circuit  a  solicitor  (prosecutor)  is  elected 
for  a  term  of  four  years.  Each  precinct  has  two 
justices  of  the  peace  and  one  constable,  excepting 
precincts  lyinf  within  towns  of  over  l.'iOO  in- 
habitants, in  which  precincts  the  legislature 
may  establish  inferior  courts  in  lieu  of  the  jus- 
tices of  the  peace. 

Local  Government. — Both  county  and  munic- 
ipal corporations  are  limited  in  their  taxing 
and  debt  incurring  powers.  Each  county  elects  a 
sheriff,  who  serves  for  a  term  of  four  years,  but 
he  cannot  be  reelected.  One  year's  residence  is 
necessary  to  secure  a  divorce,  the  principal 
causes  for  which  are  desertion  (two  years)  and 
habitual   drunkenness. 

The  State  has  nine  representatives  in  the 
national  House  of  Representatives.  Montgo- 
mery is  the  capital. 

Militia. — The  authorized  National  Guard  of 
Alabama  niimbers  7788.  while  the  organized 
body  consists  of  2471  men.  The  census  of  1900 
found  328.000  males  of  militia  age,  of  whom 
16.5.000  are  liable  to  military  duty.  The  Na- 
tional C4uard  is  formed  into  one  brigade,  and 
consists  of  three  regiments  of  infantry,  of  twelve 
companies  each:  one  battalion  of  artillery,  com 
posed  of  three  batteries;  one  squadron  of  cavalry, 
coni])osed  of  four  troops. 

History.  In  1540  De  Soto  passed  tlrrough  the 
territory  now  included  in  Alabama,  and  found 
it  occupied  by  powerful  Indian  nations.  Among 
them  were  the  Alibaraas,  who  gave  their  name  to 
the  country:  the  Chiekasaws.  the  Choctaws.  and 
the  Creeks,  together  constituting  the  Muskhogean 
family:  the  Cherokees  and  Apalaches.  Alabama 
was  included  under  Carolina  in  the  royal  grants 
made  by  the  Stuarts  in  1629  and  1663,  but  no 
attempts  at  settlement  were  made  by  the  English. 
In  1702,  the  French,  under  Bienville,  removed 
from  Biloxi  Bay,  where  a  fort  had  been  built 
some  years  previous,  and  erected  Fort  St.  Louis, 
on  Mobile  Bay.  Jlobile  w\as  founded  in  1711, 
and  until  1726  was  the  capital  of  Louisiana. 
In  1714  Fort  Toulouse  was  built  at  the  junction 
of  the  Coosa  and  Tallapoosa,  The  growth  of  the 
colony   was   hindered   by   disease   and   poverty; 


ALABAMA. 


254 


ALABAMA. 


the  Chickasaws  remained  hostile,  and  the  Eng- 
lish planted  their  trading  posts  in  the  wilderness 
north  of  Mobile.  When  France  ceded  her  posses- 
sions east  of  the  Mississippi  to  England,  in 
ir63,  Alabama,  north  of  32°  40',  was  added  to 
the  Illinois  territory,  and  tlie  part  south  of  the 
line  to  West  Florida.  During  the  Revolution, 
W'est  Florida,  which  had  by  that  time  gained 
English  and  Scotch  settlers,  remained  loyal,  and 
in  1779-80  Spain  took  advantage  of  her  own  war 
with  Great  Britain  to  seize  the  province.  After 
1783,  the  United  States,  as  the  successor  of  Eng- 
land, claimed  as  far  south  as  the  thirty-first  de- 
gree, but  iSpain  continued  to  hold  the  territory 
south  of  32°  40'  till  1798.  Georgia  claimed  be"- 
tween  31°  and  35°  to  the  Mississippi,  but  sold  her 
rights  in  1802.  In  1708  Congress  organized  the 
region  included  between  the  Mississippi  River  on 
the  west,  the  Chattahoochee  on  the  east,  the  31st 
parallel  on  the  south,  and  a  line  drawn  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Yazoo  into  Mississippi  Terri- 
tory, and  in  1804  extended  its  northern  boundary 
to  Tennessee;  in  April.  1813.  the  Mobile  district 
was  taken  from  the  Spanish  by  the  United  States 
and  annexed  to  Mississippi  'territory. 

Incited  by  the  British,  the  Creeks  and  their 
allied  tribes  rose  in  1812  against  the  whites, 
their  atrocities  culminating  in  the  great  massacre 
at  Fort  Minims,  on  the  Alabama  River.  August 
30,  1813.  General  .Jackson  headed  the  forces 
sent  against  the  Indians,  and  by  his  victories 
at  Talladega  and  the  Horse  Shoe  Bend  of  the 
Tallapoosa,  1813-14,  forced  them  to  surrender 
their  territory  west  of  the  Coosa  and  south  of 
Wetiimpka.  In  a  number  of  subsequent  treaties 
the  Indians  gradually  abandoned  the  larger  por- 
tion of  their  land,  until,  between  1830  and  1830, 
they  were  removed  in  a  body  west  of  the  ilissis- 
sippi  River.  ( See  CKEEK.S. )  Mississippi  was 
set  off  March  1.  1817.  and  on  March  3  was  formed 
the  territory  of  Alabama,  with  its  seat  at  St. 
Stephens.  The  first  legislature  met  at  Hunts- 
ville,  January  19,  1818,  and  the  State  was  ad- 
mitted to  the" Union  December  14,  1819.  In  1820 
the  seat  of  government  was  removed  to  Cahaba, 
in  1826  to  Tuscaloosa,  and  in  1847  to  Mont- 
gomery. The  people  of  Alabama  were  aggressive 
champions  of  territorial  expansion  for  slavery 
purposes,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  Mexi- 
can ^^'ar.  They  entered  very  zealously'  into  the 
secession  movement,  and  early  in  December,  1800, 
urged  the  Southern  States  to  withdraw  from  the 
Union.  At  Montgomery,  on  January  11,  1861,  an 
ordinance  of  secession  was  passed  by  a  vote  of 
61  to  30 — the  minority  representing  the  northern 
part  of  the  State,  where  the  Whig  party  had 
been  especially  strong.  Forts  Gaines  and  Mor- 
gan, at  the  entraiice  to  Mobile  Bay,  were  seized, 
and  on  January  21  the  senators  and  representa- 
tives withdrew  from  Congress.  Delegates  from 
the  seceded  States  met  at  Montgomery,  February 
4,  and  organized  the  Confederate  Government. 
A  Confeilerate  arsenal,  foundry,  and  navy  yard 
were  soon  established  at  Selma.  In  Fel)ruary 
and  April  of  1S02  Federal  troops  occupied  the 
Tennessee  Valley.  In  .\ugust,  1864,  Farragut 
destroyed  a  Confederate  fleet  in  Jlobile  Bay, 
and,  aided  by  Cicneral  Ciranger  with  a  land  force, 
reduced  Forts  Gaines  and  Morgan.  In  April, 
1805,  the  Union  forces  took  Selma,  Tuscaloosa, 
Slontgomery,  and  Mobile,  A  provisional  govern- 
ment was  established  .June  21,  1805,  and  a  con- 
vention repealed  the  act  of  secession  and  altered 
the  constitution.     State  officers  and  members  of 


Congress  were  chosen  ;  but  Congress,  in  conflict 
with  President  Johnson,  refused  admission  to  the 
representatives  from  Alabama.  By  the  reconstruc- 
tion act  of  March  2.  1867,  Alabama  was  included 
with  Georgia  and  Florida  in  the  third  military 
district,  under  General  Pope.  In  November  a 
new  constitution  was  framed. which  received,  Feb- 
ruary, 1868,  70,182  votes  out  of  71,817  cast,  and 
though  the  majority  of  registered  voters  had  re- 
mained away  from  the  polls.  Congress  declared 
the  constitution  operative,  and  it  continued  in 
foice  till  1875,  when  a  new  constitution  was 
adopted.  On  July  14,  1868,  military  rule  ceased, 
and  on  November  16,  1870,  the  State  ratified 
the  fifteenth  amendment  to  the  Federal  consti- 
tution. For  a  decade  after  the  Civil  War,  Ala- 
bama suffered  from  maladministration.  Party 
spirit  ran  very  high,  and  elections  were  bitterly 
contested.  The  dishonesty  of  officials  and  the 
extravagant  railway  policy  they  pursued  brought 
the  State  and  the  chief  towns  into  serious  finan- 
cial difficulties.  With  the  reorganization  of  the 
public  debt  in  1876  began  an  era  of  quiet  and 
prosperity.  Cotton  and  steel  manufactures  and 
the  mining  industries  thrived  enormously,  and 
many  large  towns  sprang  up  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  State.  Lumbering,  too,  became  of  great 
importance.  The  agricultural  interests,  by  com- 
parison, showed  little  growth.  Educational 
progress  did  not  keep  up  with  economic  develop- 
ment until  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
Since  1874  Alabama  has  been  invarialily  Demo- 
cratic, In  1901  a  constitutional  convention  was 
busy  with  the  problem  of  changing  the  organic 
law  in  such  a  manner  as  to  insure  political  su- 
prem.acy  to  the  white  population. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  governors  of  the 
State,  and  the  parties  to  which  they  belonged: 

TERRITORIAL  GOVERNOR. 

William  W.   Bibb 1817-19 

STATE    GO^-ERXORS, 

W.  W,   Bibb Democrat ,  .  . 

Thomas  Bibb 

Israel    Pickens "         ... 

John  ^Murphy " 

Gabriel  Moore " 

Samuel  B,  Moore " 

.lohn  Gavle " 

Clement  "C.  Clay " 

Hugh  McVay 

Arthur  P,  Bagby " 

Benjamin    Fitzpatrick. .  "         ... 

Joshua  L,  IMartin " 

Reuben   Chapman "         ... 

Henry  W.  Collier " 

John  A.  \A'inston "         ... 

Andrew  B.  Moore " 

John  G.  Shorter 

Thomas  H,  Watts "  _      ... 

Lewis  E,  Parsons Provisional,. 

Robert  M,  Patton Republican.  . 

Wager  Swayne,  ..(military  governor) 

William  H,'  Smith Republican.  , 

Robert  B.  Lindsay Democrat.  .  . 

David  P.  Lewis Republican. . 

George  S.  Houston Democrat.  .  . 

Rufus  W.  Cobb 

Edward  O'Neal " 

Thomas    Seay " 

Thomas  G.  Jones " 

William  C.  Gates 

.Joseph  F,  Johnston  .  ,  , .  " 

William  J.  Sanford " 


1819-20 
1820-21 
1821-25 
1825-29 
1829-31 
1831 
1831-35 
1835-37 
,  1837 
1837-41 
1841-45 
1845-47 
1847-49 
1849-53 
1853-57 
1857-61 
1861-63 
1863-65 
1865 
.  1865-67 
,  1867-68 
,  1868-70 
1870-72 
1872-74 
1874-78 
1878-82 
1882-86 
1886-90 
1890-94 
1894-96 
896-1900 
1900 


ALABAMA. 


255 


ALABAMA  CLAIMS. 


Bini.looRAPiiY.  lirown,  .SV/iooZ  Uinlory  of  Ala- 
bama (1!)()0)  ;  Phillips.  Iron  Makinfj  in  Alabama 
(Slontgoiiiery,  Ala.,  IS9C;  second  edition.  18!IS)  ; 
Owen,  Iliblioyruphy  of  Alabama,  in  1898  Annual 
Keport  of  American  Historical  Association 
(\V.ishington,  1897);  Clark,  History  of  Educa- 
tion in  Alabama,  ]702-lS!)9  (Washington,  1889)  ; 
llill.vaid.  The  New  South  (Baltimore,  1887); 
Brewer.  Alabama   (Montgomery-,  1872). 

ALABAMA  CLAIMS.  A  series  of  claims 
for  indcmnily  made  upon  Great  Britain  by  the 
United  States,  based  upon  the  alleged  omission 
of  threat  Britain  to  observe  the  obligations  im- 
posed by  international  law  upon  neutral  nations 
with  reference  to  their  dealings  with,  and  duties 
to,  belligerents.  The  claims,  in  most  particulars, 
arose  from  damages  inflicted  by  vessels  in  the 
Confederate  service  which  had  been  fitted  out  or 
built  in  English  waters  and  allowed  to  sail 
thence.  The  Declaration  of  Paris  (q.v. ),  adopt- 
ed in  18,5()  by  most  of  the  nations  of  Christendom, 
had  abolished  privateering,  and,  though  the 
United  .States  was  not  a  party  to  the  convention, 
this  decree  had  become  a  recognized  principle  of 
international  law.  Moreover,  both  the  United 
.  States  and  England  had  passed  acts  early  in  the 
century  prohil)iting  the  equipment  of  land  or 
sea  forces  for  the  purpose  of  operating  against 
the  territory  or  commerce  of  a  friendly  nation, 
and  making  it  the  duty  of  the  Government  to 
prevent  such  filibustering  (Act  of  Congress  of 
April  20,  1818,  3  Stats,  at  Large,  448;  Foreign 
Enlistment  Act,  59  George  III.,  cap.  69).  It 
was  upon  these  acts  and  principles  affecting 
international  relations,  that  the  claims  of  the 
United  States  were  founded. 

The  facts  of  the  case  were  these:  Following 
President  Lincoln's  call  for  volunteers,  President 
Davis  of  the  Confederate  States  offered  letters 
of  mar(|ue  and  reprisal  (q.v.)  to  private  vessels 
to  prey  upon  the  commerce  of  the  United  States. 
Prompt  advantage  was  taken  of  this  ofl'er,  and 
numerous  privateers  issued  from  southern  ports 
to  harry  the  New  York  and  New  England  mer- 
chant marine.  Meanwhile,  Queen  Victoria  had 
issued  her  proclamation  of  neutrality,  for- 
bidding her  subjects  to  take  part  with  either  side, 
and  directing  her  ofliiial  servants  to  accord  bel- 
liu'crcnt  rights  to  both  parties  to  the  struggle. 
Equipment  was  forbidden  the  vessels  of  both 
belligerents.  Nothwithstanding  this  proclama- 
tion, and  the  repeated  and  urgent  protests  of  the 
American  minister,  Charles  Francis  Adams,  the 
sympathy  of  British  officials,  especially  in  the 
colonial  ports,  with  the  Southern  cause  was  noto- 
rious, and  harbors  like  Nassau  in  the  West  Indies 
became   the   refuge  of   Confederate   cruisers. 

Tlie  history  of  the  Alabama  is  typical  of  the 
more  flagrant  cases  submitted  to  the  tribunal  of 
arliit ration.  She  was  built  at  Birkenhead,  Eng- 
land, under  circumstances  of  great  suspicion. 
The  attention  of  the  British  Government  was  re- 
peatedly called  to  the  case,  and  finally  some  steps 
were  taken  by  the  authorities  to  detain  the  ves- 
sel ;  but  "No.  290,"  as  she  was  called,  left  port 
without  register  or  clearance  papers,  .July  29, 
]8(i2,  and,  taking  on  her  equipment  in  the  Azores 
from  two  English  vessels,  assumed  the  name 
Alabama,  under  which  she  became  famous,  and 
set  out  on  her  career  of  destruction.  In  much 
the  same  manner  the  Florida,  Georgia.  Shenan- 
doah, and  various  other  cruisers  eluded  the 
watchfulness  of  British  officials.  Before  her 
destruction  by  the  Kearsarge,  June  19,  18G4,  the 


Alabama  is  said  alone  to  have  captured  and 
destroyed  seventy  vessels  of  the  Vnited  States. 
The  first  phase  of  the  controversy  appeared 
in  18(i2,  in  the  negotiations  between  the  Ameri- 
can minister,  Jlr.  Charles  Francis  Adams,  and 
Lord  John  Russell,  with  reference  to  the  alleged 
violation  of  England's  Foreign  Enlistment  Act 
by  the  Alabaiiia,  and  the  (obligation  of  the  Eng- 
lish Government  to  detain  her;  and  though  tlie 
English  Government  manifested  a  different  pol- 
icy subsequent  to  the  sailing  of  the  Alabama,  and 
prevented  the  sailing  of  ships  which  were 
equipped  in  violation  of  law,  several  ships  which 
had  come  from  English  ports  were  nevertheless 
on  the  seas,  and  the  total  damage  inflicted  by 
them  U])on  American  shipping  was  enormous. 
The  whole  matter  constituted  the  most  important 
problem  of  diplomacy  left  as  a  result  of  the  Civil 
War.  As  early  as  18(i5,  steps  were  taken  to 
determine  a  method  of  adjustment;  but  it  was 
not  till  1871  that  a  basis  for  adjudication  was 
agreed  upon,  in  the  important  Treaty  of  Wash- 
ington, May  8.  By  this  treaty,  it  was  stipulated 
that  all  claims  known  generically  as  the  "Ala- 
bama claims"  should  be  submitted  to  the  decis- 
ion of  five  arbitrators,  one  named  by  England, 
one  by  the  United  States,  and  one  each  by  the 
King  of  Italy,  the  Emperor  of  Brazil,  and  the 
President  of  the  Swiss  Confederation.  For  the 
guidance  of  this  court  of  arbitration,  the  Treaty 
of  Washington  laid  down  the  important  "three 
rules"  defining  the  obligation  of  a  neutral  power 
to  use  "due  diligence"  to  prevent  the  hostile  use 
of  its  ports  against  a  friendly  nation.  In  accord- 
ance with  this  arrangement,  the  court  met  at 
Geneva,  December  15,  1871.  The  chairman  of 
the  court  was  Count  Federigo  Sclopis,  the  arbi- 
trator named  by  the  King  of  Italy;  and  tlie 
other  members  were  Baron  d'ltajuba,  Brazilian 
minister  at  Paris,  .Jacob  StamipHi.  for  three 
terms  president  of  the  Swiss  Confederation.  Sir 
Alexander  Cockburn,  and  Mr.  Charles  Francis 
Adams.  The  chief  counsel  for  England  was  Sir 
Roundel!  Palmer,  and  the  American  counsel  were 
William  M.  Evarts.  Caleb  Gushing,  and  Morrison 
R.  Waite.  The  American  case',  however,  was 
prepared  by  Mr.  J.  C.  Bancroft  Davis.  Both 
the  case  and  the  counter-case  w-ere  prepared  and 
maintained  with  great  ability  and  acumen,  and 
the  arguments  were  followed  with  marked  inter- 
est. More  than  once,  howtfver,  a  premature  ter- 
mination of  the  proceedings  was  threatened  by 
the  insistence  of  the  American  counsel  upon  the 
fact  that  in  estimating  the  indemnity  not  only 
direct  damages  should  be  considered,  but  also 
such  indirect  losses  as  had  befallen  citizens  of 
the  United  States  through  the  decrease  of  trade, 
the  increase  of  insurance  rates,  the  prolongation 
of  the  war,  and  the  additional  cost  of  the  prose- 
cution of  the  war  caused  by  these  cruisers. 
Finally,  the  claims  of  the  United  States  for 
indirect  damages  were  unanimously  rejected,  on 
the  ground  that  the  principles  of  international 
law  did  not  sanction  an  award  of  compensation 
between  nations  upon  claims  of  that  indefinite 
character.  On  September  14,  1872,  the  final 
award  was  signed,  by  which  it  was  decreed 
that  England  had  incurred  no  liability 
arising  from  the  action  of  the  Sumter,  the 
Kashrille,  the  Georgia,  the  Tallahassee,  and 
the  Chirtcamauga,  or  of  their  tenders,  and 
by  a  vote  of  three  to  two  that  England  had 
incurred  no  liability  for  the  work  of  the  Retri- 
bution.    It  was,  however,  determined,  by  a  vote 


ik 


ALABAMA  CLAIMS. 


256 


ALACOQUE. 


of  tliree  to  two,  that  England  «  as  responsible  for 
a  portion  of  the  acts  committed  by  the  »S'Aenan- 
doah;  by  a  vote  of  four  to  one  that  England 
was  liable  for  tlie  results  of  all  the  operations 
of  the  Florida:  and  by  a  unanimous  vote  that 
England  was  responsible  for  all  the  depredations 
of  the  cruiser  Alabama;  and  that  liability 
also  attached  to  the  acts  of  the  tenders  of  the 
Florida  and  the  Alabama.  The  consideration  of 
claims  arising  from  the  operations  of  other  ves- 
sels was  excluded  for  want  of  evidence.  Instead 
of  awarding  specific  damages  apportioned  against 
the  several  ships  and  among  the  several  private 
parties  injured,  the  court  awarded  a  single  sum 
of  .$15,500,000,  as  a  full  indemnity  of  all  claims 
against  Great  Britain.  This  amount  was  accord- 
ingly paid  in  the  following  year.  In  order  to 
determine  the  claims  of  private  owners,  and  to 
distribute  the  fund  among  such  claimants.  Con- 
gress created,  by  the  statute  of  .June  23.  1S74, 
a  claims  court  by  which  judgments  were  ren- 
dered aggregating  §9.315.753.  A  second  and  sim- 
ilar court  was  established  by  the  statute  of  June 
5,  1SS2.  The  indirect  results  of  this  arbitration 
— which  belong  rather  to  the  history  of  inter- 
national law  than  to  that  of  the  case  under  con- 
sideration— were  of  even  greater  importance  than 
its  direct  results.  In  strengthening  the  prin- 
ciple of  arbitration  as  a  means  of  settling  grave 
international  differences,  in  fuinishing  a  high 
example  of  justice  and  disinterestedness  in  judg- 
ing between  nations,  and  in  defining  and  elevat- 
ing the  conception  of  national  responsibility,  the 
Geneva  tribunal  rendered  an  incalculable  service 
to  humanity.  The  rules  laid  down  for  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  arbitrators  and  the  court  will 
be  found  under  the  title  Washi.ngtox,  Treaty 
OF.  For  its  permanent  contributions  to  inter- 
national law,  see  that  title.  The  circumstances 
under  which  the  case  was  submitted  to  arbitra- 
tion, and  its  relation  to  other  questions  of  ditter- 
ence  between  England  and  the  United  States 
existing  at  the  time,  are  explained  in  the  arti- 
cles on  Arbitration.  International  Law,  and 
Washington,  Tre.\ty  of. 

Bibliography.  For  the  most  recent  and  com- 
plete work  upon  the  Geneva  arbitration,  consult : 
J.  B.  Moore.  International  Arbitrations,  pages 
495-082  {Wasliington,  1898)  :  and  for  a  discus- 
sion of  the  claims  courts,  pages  4039-4685  of  the 
same  work:  also  Balch,  The  Akibama  Arbitra- 
tion (Philadelphia.  1900);  Beaman.  The  Ala- 
bama Claim.i  and  their  t^etllenicnt  (Washington, 
1871)  ;  Davis.  Mr.  Fish  and  the  Alabama  Clainis 
(Boston,  1893)  ;  C.  F.  Adams,  Life  of  Charles 
Francis  Adams  (Boston.  1900);  Cushing,  The 
Treaty  of  M'ashinfiton,  an  authoritative  work 
upon  the  preliminaries  (Washington,  1873)  ;  for 
discussions  of  special  phases  of  the  subject,  Bul- 
lock, Secret  Service  of  the  Confederate  States 
(London,  1883)  :  R.  Semmes,  The  Cruise  of  the 
Alabama  (London.  1804)  ;  and  A,  Sinclair,  Two 
Years  on  thr  .ilabama  (Boston,  1895).  A  re- 
markable collection  of  printed  and  manuscript 
official  papers  per)aining  to  the  arbitration  was 
made  by  Hon.  ,1.  .\.  -T.  Creswell  and  given  to  the 
Johns  Hopkins  T'nivcrsity. 

ALABAMA  STATE  AGBJCUL'TURAL 
AND  MECHAN'ICAL  COL'LEGE,  originally 
Alabama  Polytechnic  In.stitute.  An  Ameri- 
can college,  situated  at  Auburn,  Ala.  It  was 
organized  in  1872.  under  the  Federal  land  grant 
act  of  1802.  The  value  of  its  grounds,  build- 
ings, and  equipment  is  $476,000,  and  its  total 


income  is  about  $51,000.  It  has  a  campus  and 
forum  of  304  acres;  library,  15,000  volumes; 
faculty,  29;  actual  number  of  students.  384,  in 
preparatory,  collegiate,  chemical  and  agricultu- 
ral, pharmaceutical,  and  engineering  courses. 

AL'ABASTER  (Gk.  a/.a/3oT[p]oc,  afa()as«[r]os, 
a  box  or  casket  of  alabaster,  the  name  of  the 
mineral  heinga/a3aa-[pyT>ig,alabast[r1ites,  which 
according  to  Pliny,  yat.  HisJ.  xxxvii,  10,  54, 
§  143,  was  derived  from  the  Eg.vptian  town 
Alabastron.  where  it  was  quarried).  A  name 
given  to  two  kinds  of  white  stone,  chemically 
distinct,  but  resembling  each  other  in  appear- 
ance, and  both  used  for  ornamental  purposes. 

Alabaster  pi-oper  is  a  white,  granular,  semi- 
transparent  variety  of  gj'psimi  (q.v.)  or  sulphate 
of  lime.  It  occurs  in  various  countries,  but  the 
finest  is  found  near  Volterra.  in  Tuscany,  where 
it  is  worked  into  a  variety  of  the  smaller  objects 
of  sculpture,  vases,  time-piece  stands,  etc.  Gyp- 
seous alabaster  of  good  quality  is  also  found  in 
Derbyshire.  England,  and  many  ornamental  arti- 
cles are  made  of  it  at  ilatlock  and  other  places. 
Being  slightly  soluble  in  water,  it  cannot  be 
exposed  to  the  weather;  and  its  softness  causes 
the  surface  easily  to  become  rough  and  opaque. 
Xor  is  it  generally  found  in  sufficient  masses  for 
large  works. 

Tne  other  stone  is  a  compact,  crystalline  car- 
bonate of  lime,  deposited  from  water  in  the  form 
of  stalagmite,  etc.  It  is  distinguishable  from 
the  gypseous  alabaster  by  its  effervescing  with 
an  acid,  and  by  its  greater  hardness;  real  ala- 
baster may  be  scratched  with  the  nail.  Pots  of 
perfume  were  called  alabastra.  even  when  made 
of  other  materials.  Alabaster  has  not  been 
found  in  commercial  quantities  in  the  United 
States.     See  Gypsum. 

ALABASTER,  William  (15G7-1C40).  An 
English  divine,  scholar,  and  poet,  born  at  Had- 
leigh,  Sufl'olk.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  and  in  1590,  as  chaplain  to 
Robert,  Earl  of  Essex,  accompanied  the  expedi- 
tion led  by  the  latter  against  (I'adiz.  In  Spain  he 
was  converted  to  tlie  Roman  Catholic  faith ; 
but  having  subsquently  again  become  Protestant, 
he  was  appointed  a  prebendary  of  St.  Paul's 
Cathedral,  and  was  presented  to  the  living  of 
Tharfleld,  Hertfordshire.  "He  was,"  says  Fuller 
{Worthies  of  E /upland ) .  "an  excellent  Hebrician, 
and  well  skilled  in  cabalistical  learning;" 
statements  verified  by  such  treatises  as  the 
Apparatus  in  Rerrlationem  Jesu  Chrisfi  (IG07), 
and  the  Conunentarius  de  Bestia  Apocalyptica 
(1621),  and  by  his  Lexicon  Pentaglotton  (1637). 
By  .-Inthony  a  Wood  (Athenir  Oj-onienses)  he  is 
with  some  hyperbole  styled  "the  rarest  poet  and 
Grecian  that  any  one  age  or  nation  produced." 
His  poetic  reputation  must  depend  largely  on 
his  Latin  tragedy  Roxana  ( 1632 ) .  written  in  the 
Senecan  manner,  and  frequently  presented  in 
the  hall  of  Trinity.  This  tragedy  was  referred 
to  by  Dr.  Johnson  (Life  of  Milton)  as  the  onl.v 
noticeable  specimen  of  Ijatin  verse  of  English 
authorship  previous  to  the  appearance  of  Mil- 
ton's elegies. 

ALACOQUE,  a'h'i'kok'.  ^Lvrguerite  Marie 
(1647-90).  A  French  nun.  whose  visions  gave 
rise  to  the  adoration  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus. 
She  was  born  in  Burgundy.  July  22,  1647.  She 
took  the  veil  in  the  convent  of  the  Order  of  the 
Visitation,  at  Paray-le-Monial,  where  she  is  said 
to    have   performed   miracles,   prophesied,   made 


ALACOQTJE. 


257 


ALA-KUL. 


levelatioiis,  and  held  <lireft  lommunication  with 
God  and  the  angels.  She  foretold  the  day  of  her 
death  (t)i-tober  17,  lti!)0),  and  cut  the  name 
Jesus  Christ  on  her  bosom  with  a  knife.  She  was 
beatified  by  Pius  IX.  in  18-l(i. 

ALACBANES,  ii'la-kra'nes.  A  group  of 
small  islands,  surrounded  by  dangerous  reefs 
in  the  tiulf  of  Mexico,  100  miles  north  of  Sisal,  in 
tne  State  of  Yucatan,  Mexico. 

ALA-DAGH,  a'la-dJig'  (Turk.  Mottled  Jloun- 
tain).  A  mountain  chain  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  over 
11,000  feet  hinh,  with  the  Mount  of  Euphrates 
on  its  northern  slope  (Map:  Turkey  in  Asia, 
K  3).  The  chief  portion  of  the  chain  is 
above  the  basin  of  Lake  Van,  between  39"  and 
40°  N.  lat.  and  42°  and  44°  E.  long.,  forming 
part  of  the  water-shed  between  the  Caspian  Sea 
and  the  Persian  Gulf. 

ALAD'DIN.  The  hero  of  the  Arabian  Nights 
talc  of  Aladdin  and  the  Wonderful  Lamp.  He 
is  a  poor  boy  in  China,  who,  through  a  strange 
adventure,  gets  possession  of  an  old  lamp  and 
ring  of  magical  properties.  A  chance  rubbing 
of  the  former  calls  to  his  service  a  mighty  genius 
Idjinn),  the  "slave  of  the  lamp,"  who  quickly 
brings  him  to  wealth,  and,  having  given  him  the 
princess  for  his  bride,  builds  him  a  magnificent 
palace  in  a  single  night.  Later  the  lamp  is  lost, 
in  the  absence  of  Aladdin,  through  the  trick  of 
the  African  magician  who  had  formerly  owned  it, 
and  who  now,  as  a  peddler,  offers  the  princess 
"new  lamps  for  old."  He  by  its  agency  carries  off 
the  whole  establishment  to  Africa,  but  the  "'slave 
of  the  ring"  enables  Aladdin  to  follow,  and  in 
the  end  the  nuigician  is  slain,  the  lamp  recov- 
ered, and  Aladdin,  with  his  home  and  bride,  re- 
turned to  prosperity  in  China.  Aladdin's  lamp 
has   become  a   proverbial   expression. 

ALADJA  DAGH,  ,a-lii'ji  daG.  A  mountain 
region  of  Russian  Transcaucasia,  occupying  the 
eastern  part  of  the  province  of  Kars.  It  is  noted 
as  the  ]ilace  of  a  decisive  engagement  between 
the  Eus^iian  forces  under  the  Grand  Duke  Jlichael 
and  the  Turks  under  Mukhtar  Pasha  on  October 
15,  1877.  The  Russians  surrounded  the  Turkish 
force,  which  was  entrenched  .at  Aladja  Dagh, 
with  the  result  that  a  part  of  them  fled  toward 
Kars,  while  about  7000  surrendered.  This  vic- 
tory had  a  decisive  effect  on  the  course  of  the 
war. 

ALAGOAS,  ii'la-go'as.  The  former  capital  of 
the  State  of  Alagoas,  Brazil,  situated  on  the 
south  side  of  the  Lake  of  Manguaba  (  Lagoa  Man- 
guaba  (Map:  Brazil,  K  5).  Its  chief  trade  is  in 
hides,  rum,  sugar,  cotton,  and  iron.     Pop.,  4000. 

ALAGOAS.  A  State  of  Brazil,  formerly  a 
district  of  the  State  of  Pernambuco,  which  sur- 
rounds it  on  the  north  and  west.  Its  southern 
and  eastern  boundaries  are  formed  by  the  River 
S:~io  Francisco  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  respec- 
tively. Its  area  is  22..')80  square  miles.  In  spite 
of  the  fertile  soil  and  abundance  of  water,  the 
province  is  very  sparsely  settled  and  agricul- 
ture is  pursued  only  on  a  limited  scale,  owing 
to  the  deadly  climate  and  prevalence  of  cholera 
and  fever.  The  chief  agricultural  products  are 
sugar,  tobacco,  cotton,  and  some  coffee.  Pop., 
1800.  ."ill. 000.  Capital,  Maceio  (q.v.).  Consult 
Rerenseamcnto  do  estado  das  Alagoas  (Rio  de 
Janeiro,    1898). 

ALAI  (a-li'l  MOUNTAINS.  A  mountain 
range  of  Russian  Transcaucasia,  in  the  territory 


of  Ferghana,  north  of  the  Pamirs.  It  consists 
of  a  number  of  parallel  ranges,  :ind  is  separated 
by  the  valley  of  the  Waksh  River  from  the  Trans- 
Alai  chain.  Its  average  altitude  is  nearly  10,000 
feet,  while  a  few  peaks  rise  beyond  20,000   feet. 

ALAIN  DE  LILLE,  a'lri.x'  de  lei'  (1114?- 
1203  ?).  A  Flemish  Cistercian  monk,  called  "the 
universal  doctor;"  distinguished  in  philosophy, 
theology,  history,  science,  and  poetry.  He  was 
appointed  bisliop,  but  soon  resigned  to  enter  a 
monastery.  He  wrote  chiefly  in  verse  on  al- 
chem}',  natural  philosophy,  and  doctrinal  sub- 
jects. There  is  confusion  about  his  identity  and 
(omparatively  little  is  known  of  his  life;  but 
he  received  his  name  from  Lille,  in  Flanders, 
probably  his  birthplace. 

ALAIS,  a'la'.  A  town  of  the  department  of 
Gard,  France,  situated  in  a  fertile  plain  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Gardon  at  the  base  of  the 
Cevennes  Mountains.  23  miles  northwest  of 
Nlnies,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  railway 
(Map:  France,  L  7).  Alais  is  a  very  flourish- 
ing town,  and  owes  its  prosperity  chiefly  to  the 
mineral  wealth  of  the  surrounding  district,  which 
produces  coal,  iron,  lead,  zinc,  and  manganese. 
The  blast  furnaces,  mines,  and  factories  of  vari- 
ous kinds  give  employment  to  large  numbers  of 
men,  and  Gard  may  be  justly  called  the  Black 
Country  of  France.  Pop.,  1901,  18,108.  Alais 
sided  with  the  Protestants  in  the  religious  wars 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  Louis  XIII.  in 
person,  accompanied  by  the  Cardinal  de  Riche- 
lieu, besieged  it,  and  having  taken  it  in  1029, 
demolished  its  walls.  Three  years  later,  the 
Baron  of  Alais  having  taken  jiart  in  the  re- 
bellion of  Montmorency,  the  castle  was  destroyed. 
Protestantism  still  prevails  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent. Consult  Memoirs  ct  Comptes-rendus  du 
la  Societe  Heientiliiiue  ct  Litteraire  d'Alais. 

ALAIS,  PEACE  OF.  A  treaty  which  ended 
the  Huguenot  wars  in  France.  It  was  signed 
June  28,  1629,  after  the  taking  of  Alais  by  the 
royal  forces.  La  Rochelle  having  fallen  by  the 
policy  of  Richelieu  the  year  before.  By  its  terms 
the  fortifications  of  the  Protestant  towns  were 
razed  and  the  Catholic  worship  reestablished  in 
them,  but  amnesty  and  freedom  of  conscience 
were  giaiited  to  the  rebels. 

ALAJTTELA,  ii'lii-Hwii'la.  The  largest  city 
of  the  province  of  Alajuela.  Costa  Rica,  13  miles 
west  of  San  .Jose,  and  a  little  on  the  western  side 
of  the  water-shed  between  the  Atlantic  and  the 
Pacific  (Map:  Central  America,  E  5).  The  city 
is  very  prosperous,  because  of  the  neighboring 
coffee  and  sugar  plantations  and  the  large  cattle 
ranches.  Here  many  of  the  insurrections  against 
the  republic  had  their  rise,  notably  the  dar- 
ing attempt  in  1824  of  the  Spaniard  Jose  Za- 
mora  to  bring  the  State  once  more  under  Span- 
ish rule.     Pop.,  1897,  about  15,000. 

ALA-KUL,  ii'la-kooK  (Kirghiz,  Turk..  Mot- 
tled Lake).  The  name  of  two  lakes  in  the  terri- 
tory of  Semiryetchensk,  on  the  Russian-Chinese 
frontier,  04  miles  east  of  the  lake  of  Balkash, 
Central  Asia  (Map:  Asia.  H  4),  The  Greater, 
or  Eastern  Ala-Kul.  called  also  AIsh-Kul.  covers 
an  area  of  790  square  miles,  is  39  miles  long,  28 
miles  wide,  and  has  an  average  depth  of  about 

13  or  14  feet.  Its  banks  are  low  and  sandy, 
and  it  is  fed  by  six  insignificant  streams.  The 
western  Ala-Kul  or  Sassyk-Kulya,  separated 
from  the  eastern  lake  by  a  marshy  neck  of  land 

14  miles  wide,  is  but  28  miles  long  and  11  miles 


ALA-KITL. 


258 


ALAND  ISLANDS. 


■wide,  and  is  fed  by  small  streams.     The  water 
•of  both  lakes  is  salty,  and  fish  is  scanty. 

ALALONGA,   al'a-lilu'ga,  or  ALILONGHI, 

al'Mun'gi.    The  long-finned  tunny  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean.    See  Tunny. 

ALAMAN,  ii'la-man',  Lucas  (1775-1855).  An 
eminent  Mexican  statesman  and  historian.  For 
a  time  he  was  a  deputy  of  the  colony  in  the 
Spanish  Cortes,  but  in  182.3,  upon  the  downfall  of 
Iturbide,  returned  to  Mexico.  As  minister  of  do- 
mestic and  foreign  affairs  under  two  successive 
administrations  he  developed  industry,  agricul- 
ture, and  education.  In  1834  he  was  "director  of 
the  industrial  commission  appointed  by  Santa 
Anna,  in  whose  dictatorial  measures  he  subse- 
quently (1853)  took  part.  He  wrote  an  ex- 
tretnely  valuable  Historia  de  Mejico,  chiefly  de- 
voted to  the  nineteenth  century  (5  volumes, 
1849-52).  His  further  publications  include  Di- 
sertaciones  sobre  la  Historia  Mejicana  (1844-49). 

AL'AMANCE,  Battle  of.  See  Regulatobs, 
The. 

ALAMAN'NI.      See  Alemanni. 

ALAMANNI,  a'la-man'n*.  Lnoi  (1405-1556). 
An  Italian  poet.  He  was  born  in  Florence,  and, 
like  Dante,  was  destined  to  spend  his  best  years 
in  exile.  The  Alamanni  were  zealous  partisans 
of  the  Medici,  whose  favor  Luigi  himself  enjoyed 
until  some  fancied  grievance  led  him  to  conspire 
against  the  life  of  the  cardinal  Giulio  de'  Jtedici, 
later  Pope  Clement  VII.  Being  detected,  he  fled, 
and  eventually  took  refuge  at  the  French  court, 
where  he  stood  high  in  favor  with  Francis  I. 
and  afterward  with  Henry  II.,  both  of  whom  as- 
signed him  to  important  embassies.  Except  for  a 
brief  interval,  when  Florence  threw  off  the  yoke 
of  the  Medici  and  he  returned  home  to  urge,  un- 
successfully, that  the  republic  should  seek  the 
protection  of  the  Emperor.  Charles  V.,  Alamanni 
spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  France,  and 
there  most  of  his  poems  were  written.  His  col- 
lected works  include  translations,  epigrams, 
plays,  La  collivnzione,  a  didactic  poem  in  imita- 
tion of  Vergil's  Georgics ;  Oyiere  toscanc,  vigor- 
ous satires  which  have  been  imitated  in  English 
by  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt ;  and  two  long  poems  based 
upon  the  Arthurian  romances:  Girone  il  Corfese, 
in  twenty-four  cantos,  and  the  Avarchidc,  in 
twenty-five,  tlie  latter  being  in  structure  the 
story  of  the  Iliad,  freely  adapted  to  fit  the  siege 
of  Avareo  (the  modern  Bruges),  and  cliietly  in- 
teresting as  marking  the  transition  from  the 
complicated  adventures  of  Ariosto's  Urlaiido 
Ji'urioso  to  the  classic  unity  of  Tasso.  Alamanni's 
Versi  e  prose,  edited  vvitli  a  biography,  by  P. 
Kaftaelli,  was  issued  in  two  volumes  (Florence, 
1859). 

ALAMAN'NIA.     See  Alemaxnia. 

ALAMEDA,  a'la-ma'da.  A  beautiful  residen- 
tial city  in  Alameda  Co.,  California.  It  is  six 
miles  across  the  bay  from  San  Francisco,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  ferry  lines,  ami  is  on 
the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad  (Map:  California, 
B  .3).  The  executive  power  of  the  city  is  vested 
in  the  president  of  a  board  of  trustees,  consist- 
ing of  five  members.  The  electric  light  plant  is 
owned  and  operated  by  the  municipality.  In 
1854,  with  a  population  of  100,  Alameda  was 
incorporated.  Its  growth  has  been  rapid  since 
1870.     Pop.,   1890,   11,165;    1900,   16,464. 

ALAMINOS,    ii'14-me'n63,    Antonio    de.     A 


Spanish  pilot,  one  of  the  first  to  take  vessels  to 
the  North  American  coast.  He  was  born  at  Pa- 
los,  Spain.  During  the  second  decade  of  the  six- 
teenth century  he  conducted  Ponce  de  Leon,  Her- 
nandez de  Cordova,  Francisco  de  Garay,  and 
other  voyagers  who  wished  to  reach  the  shores  of 
the  northern  continent.  He  is  supposed  to  have 
been  the  author  of  the  earliest  detailed  map  of 
a  part  of  what  is  now  the  United  States,  de- 
signed to  show  the  limits  of  claims  by  discovery. 
This  map  was  first  printed  bv  Navarrete,  Colec- 
cion    (M.adrid,   1829,   III.    148). 

ALAMO,  a'la-m6,  The.  A  Franciscan  mis- 
sion, built  within  the  nresent  San  Antonio. 
Texas  (q.v.),  about  1722,"  and  occasionally  used 
after  1793  as  a  fort.  It  consisted  of  a  church,  an 
inclosed  convent  yard  about  100  feet  square,  a 
convent  and  hospital  building,  and  a  plaza  cover- 
ing about  two  and  one-luilf  acres,  and  protected 
by  a  wall  8  feet  high  and  33  inches  thick.  In 
1831!,  during  the  war  for  Texan  independence,  a 
remarkable  conflict  occurred  here  between  a 
small  company  of  Texans  and  Americans,  includ- 
ing Colonel  David  Crockett  and  Colonel  James 
Bowie,  who  held  the  fort  under  Colonel  W.  B. 
Travis,  and  some  Mexicans  who  attacked  it  un- 
der Santa  Anna  (q.v.).  After  a  bombardment 
lasting  almost  continuously  from  February  23 
to  March  6,  a  small  breach  was  made  in  the  walls, 
and  early  on  the  morning  of  the  6th  the  ilex- 
icans  assaulted  in  force.  They  were  twice  driven 
back  with  great  loss,  but  scaled  the  parapet  in 
the  third  attempt  and  a  desperate  hand-to-haml 
conflict  ensued,  in  which  the  Texans,  though  al- 
ready greatly  weakened  by  privations  and  fa- 
tigue, fought  with  the  utmost  valor  until  only 
five  of  their  number  remained  alive.  These  were 
captured  and,  on  Santa  Anna's  order,  weri' 
killed  in  cold  blood.  Three  women,  two  chil- 
dren, and  a  negro  boy  alone  survived  out  of 
a  garrison  which,  including  a  reenforcement  of 
thirty-two  men  that  arrived  on  March  1,  had 
numbered  about  180.  The  Mexican  loss  was 
probably  as  large  as  500,  though  Santa  Anna,  in 
his  untrustworthj'  report,  gave  it  as  70  killed 
and  300  wounded.  "Remember  the  Alamo!"  be- 
came a  war-cry  of  the  Texans,  who  finally  de- 
feated and  captured  Santa  Anna  at  San  Jacinto 
(q.v.).  In  allusion  to  Ihe  heroism  shown  by  thr 
small  garrison.  Alamo  has  been  called  "the  Ther- 
mopylae of  America."  Consult :  J.  L.  Ford,  Ori- 
fiin  and  Fall  of  the  Alamo  (San  .\ntonio,  1896)  ; 
A.  !M.  Williams,  Sam  Houston  and  the  War  of  In- 
dependence in  Texas  (Boston.  1893)  :  and  Cor- 
ners. Sun  Antonio  de  Bexar  (San  Antonio.  1890). 

ALAMOS,  a'la-mos.or  EEAL  DE  LOS  (ra-al' 
(la  lus)  ALAMOS  (Sp..  the  poplars  or  syca- 
mores). A  town  in  the  .State  of  Sonora,  Mexico, 
125  miles  northwest  of  .Sinaloa  (Map:  Mexico, 
D  4).  Of  itself  the  town  is  unimportant,  but 
the  region  is  famous  for  its  silver  mines.  Pop. 
about  10,000. 

ALAN,  -il'nn,  Wii.i.tam.  See  Axlen,  Wil- 
i.ta:m. 

AL'AN-A-DALE'.  One  of  the  companions 
of  Robin  Hood  (see  Hood,  Rohin)  in  the  old 
ballads  and  in  Scott's  Irnnhoe.  In  the  former 
he  is  a  light-hearted  young  man.  much  addicted 
to  the  "chanting"  of  roundelays,  whom  Robin 
assists  to  elope  with  his  love. 

Aland  islands,  a'land.  An  archipeUago 
of  some  300  small  islands  and  rocks,  in  the  Gov- 


Aland  islands. 


25!) 


ALARCON  Y  MENDOZA 


ernment  of  AI)u-Biiirncboi{;,  Finland,  at  the  en- 
trance of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  (  Map :  Paissia,  B  2 ) . 
The  narrow  pass  of  sea  separating  them  on  the 
west  from  the  Swedish  coast  at  Grisslehanin  is 
known  as  the  Aland  Bay  (Aland  Haf).  About 
eighty  of  them  are  inhabited.  The  group  has  an 
area  "of  550  square  miles.  Pop.,  18,400.  Al- 
though these  rocUy  isles  are  covered  with  but  a 
thin  stratum  of  soil,  tliey  bear  Scotch  hr.  spruce, 
and  birch  trees,  and  with  proper  cultivation  pro- 
duce barley  and  oats,  besides  affording  subsist- 
ence to  a  hardy  breed  of  cattle.  The  inhabitants, 
of  Swedish  origin,  are  skillful  sailors,  fishermen, 
and  seal-hunters.  The  largest  of  the  islands, 
which  gives  its  name  (signifying  "land  of 
streams")  to  the  whole  group,  is  about  18  miles 
long  by  1-1  broad.  It  is  tolerably  wooded  and 
fruitful.  These  islands  belonged  formerly  to 
Sweden,  but  were  seized  by  Russia  in  1809.  Pre- 
vious to  this  they  had  several  times  changed 
hands  between  tliesc  two  powers.  In  1717  the 
Swedes  were  defeated  by  the  Russians  in  a  naval 
engagement  near  Aland,  the  first  important  ex- 
ploit of  the  Muscovite  navy.  The  importance  of 
these  islands  as  a  military  position  led  to  the 
construction,  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor. Nicho- 
las I.,  of  those  strong  fortifications  at  Bomar- 
sund,  which,  in  August,  1854,  were  destroyed  by 
the  Anglo-French  force,  commanded  bj'  Sir 
Charles  Napier  and  Baragua}'  d'Hilliers. 

ALA'NI  (Gk.  'A?.avoi,  Alanoi) .  Nomadic 
tribes  of  Eastern  origin  who  spread  over  Europe 
during  the  decline  of  the  Roman  Empire.  They 
probably  were  first  encountered  by  the  Romans 
,  when  Pompey,  in  the  Mithridatic  War,  led  an 
I  expedition  into  the  Caucasus.  In  276  a.d.  they 
1  were  checked  by  the  Emperor  Tacitus  in  their  at- 
tempt to  go  eastward  into  Persia.  The  Iluns 
gave  them  a  severe  defeat  on  the  Tanai's  (now 
Bon)  in  375,  and  tlien  the  Alani  divided,  some 
going  east,  but  the  larger  portion  joining  their 
conquerors  in  an  onslaught  upon  the  Goths.  With 
the  Vandals  and  Suevi  they  entered  Gaul  in  40(>, 
and  later  crossed  the  Pyrenees  and  founded  set- 
tlements in  Lusitania,  where  they  lived  for  some 
time  in  peace.  In  418  they  were  attacked  by 
the  Visigoths,  their  king  was  slain,  and  they 
became  subject  to  Gunderic,  king  of  the  Vandals, 
losing  completely  their  national  independence. 
Later  they  served  under  the  ^'isigothic  king, 
Theodoric,  but  they  .sympathized  with  the  Huns, 
and  their  desertion  at  Chalons  (451)  came  near 
bringing  defeat  upon  the  Roman  army.  They 
were  mentioned  occasionally  in  later  times,  and 
seem  to  h.ave  kept  their  independence  in  the  East 
a.fter  the  si.xth  century.  In  1221  Genghis  Khan 
defeated  them,  and  they  were  so  completely  sub- 
jugated in  1237  by  Batu  Khan  that  their  name 
disappeared  from  history. 

ALA'NUS   AB   IN'STJLIS.      See   Alain   de 

LlI.I.E. 

AL-ARAF,  al-a'raf.    See  Araf. 

ALARCON,  ii'lilr-krm',  Hernando  de. 
A  Spanish-.-imerican  navigator,  and  the  first 
European  to  ascend  the  Colorado  River.  On 
Jlay  9,  1540,  he  sailed,  with  two  vessels,  from 
Aeapulco,  with  instructions  from  the  ^'■ieeroy 
Mendoza  to  coilperate  with  the  expedition  under 
Vasquez  Coronado.  which  had  gone  in  search  of 
the  Seven  Cities  of  Cibola,  in  what  is  now  New 
Mexico.  Alareon  sailed  to  the  head  of  the  Gulf 
of  California,  and  completed  the  explorations 
begun  by  Ulloa  in  the  preceding  year,  by  satis- 


fying himself  that  tliere  was  no  ojien  water  pas- 
sage between  the  Gulf  and  the  South  Sea  or  Pa- 
cific Ocean.  Subsequently  he  entered  the  Colorado 
River,  which  he  named  the  Buena  Guia.  With 
two  small  boats  he  ascended  the  river  for  a 
considerable  distance,  making  important  obser- 
vations of  the  natives.  On  the  .second  voyage 
he  probably  proceeded  past  the  present  site  of 
Fort  Yuma.  He  learned  that  Coronado  had 
reached  Cibola,  but  was  unable  to  communicate 
with  him.  A  map  drawn  l)y  Domingo  del  Cas- 
tillo, one  of  Alarcon's  pilots,  in  1541,  is  the  ear- 
liest detailed  representation  of  the  Gulf  and  the 
lower  course  of  the  river,  of  which  it  gives  a 
very  accurate  idea.  It  was  first  engraved  for 
tlie  Archbishop  Lorenzana  in  1770,  and  is  given 
in  facsimile  by  Winsor,  Xurrulive  and  Critical 
History  of  America  (Boston,  1886).  Consult 
Winship,  "Coronado,"  in  Reports  of  Bureau  of 
FAhnology  (Washington,  1895). 

ALARCON,  Pedro  Antonio  de  (1833-91).  A 
modern  Spanish  novelist  and  statesman,  born  at 
Guadix,  in  Granada.  He  began  his  professional 
career  as  a  journalist,  and  wrote  for  the  Eco  del 
Occidcnte  of  Cadiz,  and  after  the  outbreak  of  the 
revolution  in  1854  edited  for  a  time  a  radical 
satirical  paper.  El  Latigo.  But  he  soon  with- 
drew from  participation  in  politics  and  began  the 
series  of  short  stories  and  essays  which  after- 
ward were  collected  into  numerous  volumes,  such 
as  Cosas  que  fucron  (1871)  ;  Amores  y  amorios 
(1875):  Juicios  literarios  y  artisticos  (1883). 
His  share  in  the  Morocco  campaign  of  1859  bore 
fruit  in  his  Diario  de  uii  tesiiyo  de  la  guerra 
de  Africa  (1860),  a  chronicle  noteworthy  for  its 
vivid  picturesqiieness  and  stirring  patriotism. 
For  many  years  after  this  he  took  an  active  part 
in  national  affairs,  and  served  successively  as 
deputy,  member  of  the  Council  of  State,  and  am- 
bassador to  the  Porte.  Of  his  many  later  novels. 
El  escdndalo  (1875),  written  in  defense  of  the 
.Jesuits,  made  the  greatest  sensation  at  the  time, 
and  led  him  to  write  other  novels  with  religious 
themes:  El  niiio  de  la  hola  (1880),  and  La  pro- 
diga  (1881).  But  their  fame  was  transitory, 
and  he  will  be  much  longer  remembered  for  his 
less  ])retentious  stories  and  sketches,  his  His- 
torietas  nacionnles.  and  his  El  sombrero  de  tres 
picos  (1874),  a  study  of  rustic  manners,  trulj' 
Spanish  in  its  atmosphere,  which  shows  lilareOn 
at  his  best.  His  last  volume  was  a  brief  account 
of  his  works,  Historia  de  mis  libros  (1884),  a 
sort  of  literary  testament. 

ALARCON  Y  MENDOZA,  a'liir-kon'  e  men- 
d.rtha.  Don  .Iian  Ruiz  de  (?-1639).  A 
Spanish  dramatist  of  importance,  born  in  tlie 
province  of  Tosco,  Jle.vico.  At  least  as  early  as 
l(i22  he  was  in  Spain,  where  he  was  appointed 
prolocutor  to  the  royal  council  for  the  Indies, 
and  where  he  published,  in  1628,  a  volume  of 
eight  dramas.  He  added,  in  1635,  a  second  vol- 
ume, containing  twelve  others.  His  haughty 
remonstrance  against  the  inadequate  apprecia- 
tion of  his  merit  made  him  tlie  object  of  the 
often  boorish  ridicule  of  Lope  de  Vega,  Gilngora, 
and  other  contemporary  poets.  Moreover,  many 
of  his  works  passed  current  under  the  names  of 
others,  by  whom  they  were  appropriated,  or  to 
whom  they  were  attributed.  Thus,  his  Verdad 
sospechosa  ("Truth  Suspected") ,  jvhich  served  as 
prototype  for  the  Mentcur  of  Corneille,  was  by 
the  latter  originally  referred  to  Lope  de  Vega.  In 
the  opinion  of  Ticknor :  "He  is  to  be  ranked  with 


ALARCON  Y  MENDOZA 


260 


ALARK. 


the  very  best  Spanish  dramatists,  during  the 
best  period  of  the  national  theatre."  Of  his 
more  important  plays  may  further  be  mentioned : 
Las  paredes  oyen  ("Walls  Have  Ears")  and  El 
texedor  de  Segovia  ("The  Weaver  of  Segovia"). 
The.  best  edition  is  that  of  J.  E.  de  Hartzenbusch 
(Madrid,  1852:  Volume  XX.  of  the  Biblioteca 
de  Autores  Espafwles).  Consult:  Ticknor,  His- 
tory of  Spanish  Literature  (New  York,  1849; 
sixth   American  edition,   Boston,    1888). 

ALARD,  a'liir',  Jean  Delphin  (1815-88). 
A  French  violinist.  He  was  born  at  Bayonne, 
March  8,  1815.  the  son  of  an  amateur  violinist: 
studied  in  Paris  under  Habeneck  and  F^tis,  and 
won  the  notice  of  Paganini  when  he  appeared  in 
concerts.  In  1840,  Alard  succeeded  Baillot  as 
first  violinist  to  the  king,  and  in  184.3  became 
professor  of  the  violin  at  the  Paris  Conserva- 
toire, a  post  he  held  until  1875.  Sarasate  (q.y.) 
was  among  his  pupils.  He  was  a  representative 
of  the  modern  French  school  of  violin  playing, 
eompcsed  nocturnes,  duos,  4tudes,  etc.,  for  the 
violin,  and  was  the  author  of  an  Ecotc  dii  I'iolon, 
which  was  adopted  by  the  Conservatoire.  He 
died  in  Paris.  February  22,  1888. 

AL'ABIC   (Goth,  from  al.  all  +  reiks,  ruler). 
The  great  chieftain  of  the  Visigoths.     He  makes 
•   his   first  appearance   in  history   in  394   a.d.,   as 
leader  of  the  Gothic  auxiliaries  of  Theodosius  in 
his  war  with  Eugenius;  but  after  the  death  of 
the  former  he  took  advantage  of  the  dissensions 
and  weakness  that  prevailed  in  the  Eastern  Em- 
pire to  invade   (395)    Thrace,  Macedon,  Thessaly, 
and     Illyricum.     devastating    the    country     and 
threatening  Constantinople  itself.     Rufinus.  the 
minister  of  Arcadius,  appears  to  have  sacrificed 
Greece  in  order  to  rescue  the  capital,  and  Athens 
was  obliged  to  secure  its  own  safety  by  ransom. 
Alavic   proceeded   to   plunder   and   devastate   the 
Peloponnesus,  but  was  interrupted  by  the  land- 
ing of  Stilicho   in  Elis  with   the  troops  of  the 
West.     Stilicho  endeavored  to  hem  in  the  Goths 
on  the  Peneus,  but  Alaric  broke  through  his  lines 
and    escaped    with    his    booty    and    prisoners    to 
Illyricum,  of  which  he  was  appointed  governor 
by"  the  Emperor,  Arcadius,   who.   frightened   by 
his  successes,  hoped  by  conferring  this  dignity  on 
him  to  make  him  a  peaceful  suliject  instead  of  a 
lawless  enemy    (396)-     In   tOl  he  invaded  upper 
Italy,  and  Honorius,  the  Emperor  of  the  West, 
fled   from  Rome  to   the   more  strongly   fortified 
Ravenna.     On  the  way  to  Gaul,  in  402  or  403, 
Alarie  encountered  Stilicho  at  Pollentia  on  the 
Tanarus;  and  soon  after,  the  result  of  the  battle 
of  Verona  forced   him   to   retire   into   Illyricum. 
Through   the  mediation   of   Stilicho,  Alaric   con- 
cluded   a    treaty    with    Honorius,    according    to 
which  he  was  to  advance  into  Epirus.  and  thence 
attack  Arcadius  in  conjunction  with  the  troops 
of    Stilicho.     The    projected    expedition    did    not 
take  place,  yet  Alaric  demanded  indemnification 
for  having  undertaken  it,  and  Honorius,  by  the 
advice   of    Stilicho,    promised    him    4000    pounds 
of  gold.    When,  after  the  death  of  Stilicho  ((].v.) , 
Honorius  failed  to  fulfill  his  promise,  Alaric  ad- 
vanced with  an  army  and  invested  Rome,  which 
he   refused   to   leave   until    lie   had   obtained    the 
promise  of  5000   pounds   of  gold   and   30,000  of 
silver.     But  neither  did  this  negotiation  produce 
any    satisfactory    result,    and    Alaric    again    be- 
sieged Rome   (409  A.D.).     Famine  soon  rendered 
it   necessary   that   some   arrangement   should   be 
made,  and   in   order   to   do   it,   the  Senate   pro- 


claimed Attains,  the  prefect  of  the  city,  emperor 
instead  of  Honorius.  But  Attains  displayed  so 
little  discretion  that  Alaric  obliged  him  publicly 
to  abdicate.  The  renewed  negotiations  with 
Honorius  proved  equally  fruitless  with  the  form- 
er, and  Alaric  was  so  irritated  at  a  perfidious 
attempt  to  fall  upon  him  by  surprise  at  Ravenna 
that  he  advanced  on  Rome  for  the  third  time. 
His  victorious  army  entered  the  citj'  August  14, 
410,  and  continued  to  pillage  it  for  three  days, 
Alaric  strictly  forbidding  his  soldiers  to  dis- 
honor women  or  destroy  religious  buildings. 
When  Alarie  quitted  Rome  it  was  only  to  prose- 
cute the  conquest  of  Sicily  and  Africa.  The  oc- 
currence of  a  storm,  however,  which  his  ill- 
constructed  vessels  were  not  able  to  resist, 
obliged  him  to  abandon  the  project.  He  died 
before  the  close  of  the  year  at  Consentia  (Cosen- 
za),  in  Bruttium.  Legend  says  that  in  order 
that  his  body  might  not  be  discovered  by  the 
Romans  it  was  deposited  in  the  bed  of  the  river 
Busentinus,  which  was  temporarily  diverted 
from  its  course,  and  that  the  captives  who  had 
been  employed  in  the  work  were  put  to  death. 
Rome  and  :ill  Italy  celebrated  the  death  of  Alaric 
with  public  festivities.  Consult:  Hodgkin. /iaiy 
and  Her  Invaders  (Oxford,  1885)  :  F.  A.  Grego- 
rovius.  History  of  Rome  in  the  Middle  Ages,  Eng- 
lish translation.  Volume  1.  (New  York,  1892); 
I;.  Lanciani,  The  Destruction  of  Ancient  Rome 
(Boston,  1899). 

ALARIC  II.  King  of  the  Visigoths,  485- 
507.  He  succeeded  his  father,  Eurie.  He  was  of 
a  peaceful  disposition,  and  wished  to  live  on 
friendly  terms  with  the  Franks.  His  dominions 
were  very  extensive.  Besides  Hispania  Tarra- 
conensis  and  Btetica.  he  possessed  numerous  rich 
provinces  in  Gaul,  and  formed  an  alliance,  which 
still  further  increased  his  power,  with  Gonde- 
band  and  Theodoric,  the  latter  of  whom  was  his 
father-in-law  and  King  of  the  East  Goths.  At 
length,  however,  he  came  into  collision  with  the 
ti'rankish  monarch.  Clovis,  whose  cupidity  had 
been  excited  by  the  extent  and  fertility  of  the 
territories  over  which  Alaric  II.  ruled.  An  ex- 
cuse was  found  for  breaking  the  peace  which 
existed  between  the  two  nations  in  the  fact  that 
Alaric  II.  was  a  zealous  Arian.  This  circum- 
stance had  given  great  offense  to  many  of  his 
subjects,  who  were  orthodox  Catholics ;  and  osten- 
sibly to  vindicate  the  true  doctrine,  the  newly 
converted  barbarian  Clovis  declared  war  against 
him.  The  result  was  fatal  to  Alaric  II.  He 
was  slain  by  the  hand  of  Clovis  himself  at 
Vouillg,  near  Poitiers,  and  his  forces  routed. 
Alarie  II.  is  said  to  have  been  indolent  and 
luxurious  in  his  youth :  but  this  may  simply  im- 
ply that  he  was  not  fond  of  those  sanguinary 
pleasures  which  captivated  his  savage  contem- 
poraries. He  was  tolerant  in  his  religious  con- 
victions. Though  an  Arian,  he  did  not  persecute 
the  Catholics.  He  enacted  several  useful  stat- 
utes, and  kept  a  watchful  eye  on  all  parts  of  his 
kingdom.  It  was  during  his  reign  that  the  Bre- 
viarium  Alaricianum,  or  Breviary  of  .\laric  II. 
(q.v. ),  was  drawn  up.  It  is  a  selection  of  im- 
perial statutes  and  writings  of  the  Roman  juris- 
consults. Alaric  II.  sent  copies  of  it  to  all  his 
governors,  ordering  them  to  use  it  and  no  other. 
An  edition  of  it  was  published  by  Hiinel  (Leipzig, 
1849). 

ALARM'    (Fr.  alarme,  It.  aH'arme.  to  arms, 
from  Lat.  pi.  arma,  arms).     In  military  usage,  a 


ALABM. 


361 


ALASHEHK. 


term  which  is  not  so  important  now  as  formerly. 
Originally  an  alarm  was  signified  by  the  burning 
of  a  beacon,  the  ringing  of  a  bell,  beating  of 
drums,  or  the  firing  of  a  gun.  Now,  i^  most 
instances,  an  alarm  is  transmitted  by  telegraph, 
telephone,  signal  lamps,  and  heliograph,  among 
other  devices.  In  military  camjis,  army  posts  or 
barracks  there  is  generally  an  alarm  or  assem- 
bly post  arranged,  where  the  troops  may  assem- 
ble in  response  to  calls  of  sudden  emergency, 
such  as  fire,  riot,  or  otlier  unusual  wcurrcnce. 

ALABM.  A  self-acting  contrivance  employed 
to  call  attention  to  danger  or  accidents,  or  to 
arouse  persons  from  sleep.  The  common  alarm- 
clock  is  a  familiar  example  of  such  a  device, 
and  the  electric  burglar-alarm  is  another.  The 
simplest  and  most  common  arrangement  of  bur- 
glar-alarm consists  of  an  electric  bell  with  wires 
leading  to  all  parts  of  the  windows,  doors,  and 
other  parts  of  the  building  to  be  protected.  The 
terminals  of  these  wires  are  set  in  the  framing 
of  the  windows  and  doors,  so  that  if  they  are 
opened  the  action  presses  springs  together  and 
rings  the  bell  in  precisely  the  same  way  as  by 
pressing  the  ordinary  push-button.  All  special 
kinds  of  alarms  for  house  protection  consist  of 
modifications  in  the  method  of  making  the  con- 
tact suitable  for  s]iecial  purposes,  such  as  laying 
sheets  of  tin  under  the  carpet  to  make  contact 
with  the  wires  when  the  carpet  is  stepped  upon. 
Means  are  also  generally  introduced  for  indicat- 
ing which  window  the  signal  comes  from.  This 
is  done  by  leading  the  wires  fiom  each  window 
separately  through  an  annunciator,  which  shows 
through  which  \rire,  and  consequently  from  which 
window,  the  signal  came.  The  alarm  will  also 
sound  if  a  window  is  carelessly  left  open.  The  en- 
tire wiring  of  houses  is  also  frequently  connected 
with  the  police  station  by  wire,  so  that  it  is 
notified  of  any  tampering  with  the  house  in  the 
absence  of  its  occupant.  Bank  vaults  and  safes 
are  also  protected  by  numerous  complicated 
mechanical  and  electrical  devices  which  in- 
stantly give  an  alarm  to  watchmen  or  police 
officers  of  any  disturbance  due  to  tampering  or 
attempted  burglary.  Automatic  fire  alarms  are 
made  in  a  variety  of  forms.  A  frequent  arrange- 
ment consists  of  a  string  supporting  a  weight 
whose  fall  sets  in  operation  a  train  of  mechan- 
ism which  sounds  a  bell  alarm.  The  weight  is 
caused  to  fall  by  the  burning  of  the  supporting 
string.  (See  Fire  Alarms.)  In  steam  boilers 
an  alarm  check  valve,  operating  under  the  pres- 
sure of  steam,  is  employed  to  give  the  alarm  when 
the  injector  ceases  to  Work,  or  when  the  water 
falls  below  the  point  of  safety.  In  locomotive 
boilers  a  fusible  plug  is  set  into  the  crown  sheet 
over  the  firebox ;  this  plug  remains  intact  as 
long  as  water  covers  the  crown  sheet,  but  melts 
should  it  become  dry.  allowing  the  steam  to  es- 
cape into  the  firebox  and  warn  the  engineer  of 
the  danger.  Telegraph  and  telephone  lines  xisu- 
ally  have  some  arrangement  by  which  a  break 
in  the  wires  is  indicated  by  a  bell  alarm.  Fog 
bells,  fog  whistles,  and  whistling  buoys  are  forms 
of  alarms,  and  there  are  a  great  variety  of  other 
forms,  such  as  alarm  compasses,  which  are  con- 
trived to  sound  an  alarm  wlien  the  vessel  de- 
viates from  its  course;  alarm  funnels  contrived 
to  ring  a  bell  when  the  liquid  has  reached  a  cer- 
tain height  in  a  cask  which  is  being  filled,  and 
typewriter  alarm  bells  which  ring  as  the  end  of 
the  line  being  written  is  approached. 


AL'ABO'DIAN.  A  term  derived  from  the 
Alarodii  of  the  classical  geographers  and  Herod- 
otus, applied  by  Sayce  and  some  other  ethnogra- 
phers and  philologists  to  the  linguistic  stock 
represented  especially  by  the  Georgian  among 
the  numerous  languages  of  the  region  of  the  Cau- 
casus. The  Alarodii  dwelt  about  Mount  Ararat, 
and  are  supposed  by  some  to  be  identical  with 
the  Urartu  of  the  Assyrian  inscriptions. 

ALABY,  a'la'rc',  Jules  (1814  — ) .  A 
French  dramatic  composer.  He  was  born  at 
Mantua.  Italy,  of  French  parentage,  and  was 
educated  at  the  Milan  Conservatory.  After  fre- 
quent tours  through  Europe  he  became  estab- 
lished at  Paris  as  nuisical  director  at  the  Thea- 
tre des  Italiens.  Among  his  principal  works  are: 
Hosamonda,  an  opera  (Teatro  de  la  Pergola, 
Florence.  1840)  ;  La  redemption,  an  oratorio 
(Paris,  1851);  Sardanapale,  an  opera  (St.  Pe- 
tersburg. 1852);  La  I'oix  humainr  (Royal  Op- 
era. Paris,  1861);  Locanda  Gratis,  opera-bouffe 
(Thft'itre  des   Italiens,   1866). 

ALAS,  a-liis'.  Leopoldo  (1852—).  A  Span- 
ish journalist  and  novelist,  and  professor  of  law 
at  the  University  of  Oviedo.  As  a  critic,  he  is 
noted  for  his  intolerance  of  pretense  and  medi- 
ocrity, and  for  the  fearlessness  with  which  he 
speaks  his  mind  regarding  men  of  established 
reputation.  As  a  novelist,  he  has  produced  an 
unimportant  work.  Su  linico  hijo,  a  volume  of 
short  stories  called  Pipa.  and  one  serious  novel. 
La  regenta.  an  analytical  study  of  criminal  pas- 
sion, revealing  a  rare  subtlety  of  observation. 
Alas  is  justly  regarded  by  many  critics  as  one  of 
the  most  promising  figures  in  contemporary 
Spanish  liteiature.  In  journalism  he  is  best 
known  under  the  pseudonym  of  Clarin. 

ALAS'CANS.  A  designation  of  foreign 
Protestants  in  London  in  the  time  of  Edward  VI. 
from  the  name  of  .Tohn  a  Lasco  (or  Laski).  a 
Polish  reformer  ami  refugee,  who,  in  1550,  was 
appointed  by  the  King  as  superintendent  of  the 
foreign  consrregation  there. 

ALAS'CO.  In  Scotfs  Kenihrorth  (g.v.),  an 
astrologer,  also  known  as  Dr.  Demetrius  Do- 
boobie.  who  aids  the  evil  designs  of  Richard 
Varney  against  Amy  Robsart. 

A  LASCO,  ii  las'k6,  Johannes,  or  Jan  Laski 
(1499-1500).  A  Polish  nobleman  and  traveler, 
born  in  Warsaw.  He  imbibed  the  doctrines  of 
Zwingli  at  Ziirich.  He  also  knew  Erasmus,  who 
esteemed  him  highly,  and  in  his  will  provided 
for  the  sale  of  his  library  to  him.  He  returned 
to  Poland,  1520,  but  left  in  15,36.  on  his  declara- 
tion of  Protestantism,  and  went  to  Frisia.  There 
he  preached  Protestantism,  but.  anticipating  per- 
secution, he  went  to  London,  on  Cranmer's  invita- 
tion, and  became  superintendent  of  the  congre- 
gation of  the  foreign  Protestant  exiles.  On  the 
accession  of  Mary,  in  155.3.  he  and  all  his  congre- 
gation were  banished.  In  1550,  he  returned  to 
Poland,  where  he  died,  at  Pirchow,  .Tanuary  13, 
1560.  He  wrote  many  treatises,  and  was  one 
of  the  eighteen  divines  who  prepared  the  Polish 
version  of  the  Bible.  For  his  biography,  con- 
sult H.  Dalton    (London,   1880). 

ALASHEHB,  a'lS-shgHr'  (Turk.  Mottled 
City).  A  city  in  the  Turkish  vilayet  of  Aidin, 
or  Smyrna,  lying  about  75  miles  east  by  south  of 
Smyrna,  on  the  northern  slope  of  Mount  Tmolus 
(Map:  Turkey  in  Asia,  C  3).     It  is  surrounded 


ALASHEHR. 


262 


ALASKA. 


by  a  partly  ruined  wall,  and  contains  eight 
mosques  and  five  Greek  churches.  Remains  of 
ancient  sculpture  are  to  be  found.  Alashehr  is 
connected  by  rail  with  Manissa.  and  is  the  seat 
of  a  Greek  archbishop.  The  population  is  esti- 
mated at  about  20,000.  Alashehr  was  founded 
by  Attains  Philadelphus,  King  of  Pergamos, 
about  200  B.C.,  and  is  supposed  to  be  one  of  the 
"seven  churches  of  Asia"  mentioned  in  the  Apoc- 
alypse. 

ALASKA  (said  to  derive  its  name  from  an 
English  corruption  of  Al-ay-eK-sa,  the  great  land, 
and  formerly  known  as  Russian  America ) .  A 
territory  of  the  United  States,  comprising  the 
extreme  northwestern  part  of  the  North  .Ameri- 
can continent,  together  with  all  the  islands  near 
its  coast  and  the  whole  of  the  Aleutian  Archipel- 
ago, excepting  Bering's  and  Copper  islands,  l.ving 
off  the  coast  of  Kanitchatka.  It  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  Arctic  Ocean,  on  the  east  by 
the  Yukon  District  of  Canada  and  by  British 
Columbia,  on  tlie  south  liy  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
on  the  west  by  the  Pacific  Ocean,  Bering  Sea, 
and  the  Arctic  Ocean.  The  greater  part  of  the 
mainland  lies  between  the  141st  and  168th  me- 
ridians of  western  longitude,  but  the  most  west- 
erly of  the  islands,  Attoo,  lies  in  187°  W.  The 
mainland  on  the  north  extends  to  71°  30'  N. 
lat.,  and  on  the  south,  a  narrow  strip,  about 
30  miles  wide,  stretches  down  the  Pacific  c«ast 
to  54°  40'  X.  lat.  at  the  meridian  of  130°  W. 
long.;  total  length  of  mainland  from  southeast 
to  northwest  is  about  ll.^O  miles:  greatest  width, 
800  miles;  area,  about  oflO.OOO  square  miles, 
exceeding  that  of  the  original  thirteen  States, 
and  equal  to  nearly  one-sixth  of  that  of  the 
United  States. 

TopoGB.\pirY.  Alaska  is  divided  by  its  physi- 
cal features  into  four  regions,  distinguished  by 
great  difi'erences  of  climate  and  productions: 
(1)  The  southern  coast  region,  or  Sitka  dis- 
trict, extending  from  Dixon  Sound  northwest- 
ward to  Cook's  Inlet  and  bounded  inland  by  the 
watershed  between  the  coast  and  the  Tanana  and 
Kuskokwini  rivers.  (2)  The  Aliaskan  Peninsula 
and  AlSutian  Islands.  (3)  The  triangular 
drainage  are.a  of  the  Kuskokwini  River,  between 
the  Alaskan  Mountains  southward  and  the 
Yukon  watershed  on  the  north.  (4)  The  basin 
of  the  Yukon,  and  the  plains  northward  of  it 
to  the  shores  of  Bering  and  the  Arctic  seas. 

( 1 )  The  Const  District. — This  consists  of  many 
islands,  a  narrow  coastal  table-land,  and  the 
western  e.xtensions  of  the  Coast  Range,  which  are 
from  50  to  75  miles  wide,  and  which  northward 
of  Lynn  Canal  run  behind  (east  of)  the  St.  Elias 
Alps,  pass  through  Canadian  territory,  and  then 
reappear  to  swing  around  and  down  into  the 
Aliaska  PeninsTila  as  the  .\laskan  Range;  while 
the  St.  Elias  Alps  border  the  coast  from  Cross 
Sound  westward  to  the  Kenai  Peninsula.  Tlie 
Coaiit  rajiges  consist  of  many  irregular  and 
nearly  equal  uplifts,  set  with  peaks  reaching 
about  8000  feet  of  altitude.  The  St.  Elias  Alps, 
however,  are  narrower  and  more  regular,  and 
contain  some  of  the  highest  peaks  on  the  conti- 
nent, and  their  western  continuation,  the  Chu- 
gatch  Alps,  bear  the  greatest  glaciers  known 
outside  of  the  polar  regions ;  this  range  is  dis- 
tinct from  the  Coast  Range  topographically  and 
geologically.  Among  its  most  prominent  peaks 
(in  their  order  northwestward)  are:  Mount 
Crillon  (altitude,  15,000  feet).  Mount  Fair- 
weather    ( 15,292   feet) ,  Mount  Vancouver    ( 15,- 


6C6  feet).  Mount  Cook  (13.758  feet),  and  Mount 
St.  Elias  ( 18,024  feet) .  ( See  St.  Elias,  Moint.  ) 
In  an  isolated  position,  about  100  miles  north  of 
the  mouth  of  Copper  River,  is  the  volcano  Mount 
Wrangel  (altitude  17.500  feet),  which  was  in  a 
state  of  eruption  during  the  early  years  of  the 
century.  Along  the  southern  coast  are  numerous 
(1100)  rocky,  mountainous,  forested  islands, 
separated  by  glacier-cut  "sounds"  and  channels, 
forming  the  Alexander  Archipelago  (area,  13.000 
square  miles),  whose  largest  islands  are  Prince 
of  Wales,  Admiralty.  Baranov,  and  Chichagov. 

The  coast  confronting  these  islands,  and  west- 
ward to  the  Aliaskan  Peninsula,  is  the  region 
of  the  massive  glaciers  and  magnificent  scenery 
for  which  Alaska  is  famous.  Rivers  of  ice  occu- 
py every  gorge  in  the  littoral  mountains,  fill 
the  head  of  each  of  the  many  deep  fiords  that 
penetrate  the  coast  (all  eroded  by  the  still  great- 
er glaciers  of  the  past,  for  everywhere  the  ice 
is  steadily  diminishing),  and  increase  in  size 
successively  northwestward.  Among  the  best 
knowni  are  those  about  the  head  of  Lynn  Canal, 
and  those  coming  down  to  Cilacier  Bay,  where 
two  glaciers  are  especially  noteworthy — the  Muir 
and  the  Pacific.  Tlie  former  discharges  into  the 
head  of  the  bay,  and  its  front  presents  a  line 
of  ice-cliffs  over  200  feet  in  height,  and  more 
than  three  miles  long.  The  Pacific  glacier  de- 
scends from  the  Fairweather  Range  west  of  the 
bay.  and,  like  the  Muir,  discharges  daily  an 
enormous  number  of  icebergs,  sometimes  of  liuge 
size.  Wlierever  the  mountain  channel  down 
which  the  ice  flows  opens  at  a  distance  back  from 
the  shore  it  spreads  out  like  a  fan  or  delta,  and 
the  confluence  of  groups  of  such  glaciers  forms 
the  mighty  ice-walls  that  border  the  coast  west- 
ward, of  which  the  Malaspina  Glacier  in  Yakutat 
Bay  is  most  conspicuous.  This  is  described  by 
Russell  as  a  plateau  of  ice  having  an  area  of 
five  to  six  hundred  square  miles,  and  a  surface 
elevation  of  about  1550  feet.  Another  scientific 
explorer  says  of  it  that  the  greatest  of  the  Swiss 
glaciers  would  appear  as  mere  rivulets  on  its 
surface,  yet  many  other  masses  of  moving  ice 
reaching  tidewater  to  the  westward  approach  or 
even  exceed  it  in  dimensions  and  grandeur.  The 
well-known  Valdez  Glacier  has  fifteen  miles  of 
frontal  ice-clifl's,  and  many  lives  have  been  lost 
since  1897  in  attempting  to  cross  it  to  the  inte- 
rior.     (See  GL.\ciEn.) 

The  principal  rivers  of  this  district  are  the 
Copper,  with  its  affluent  the  Chechitna,  both 
practically  unnavigable  on  account  of  rapids; 
and  more  westerly,  flowing  into  Cook's  Inlet,  are 
the  ilatanuska,  Knik,  and  Suchitna.  The  last- 
named  is  navigable  for  light-draught  boats  for 
about  110  miles,  while  its  main  tributary,  the 
Yetna,  is  navigable  for  100  mile^  above  its 
mouth,  and  forms  a  part  of  the  route  to  the 
Kuskokwini  Valley.  I'his  coast  district  is  bound- 
ed on  the  north  by  the  watershed  between  it  and 
the  Tananfi  and  Kuskokwim  rivers,  consisting 
of  a  line  of  very  lofty  elevations  called  the  Alas- 
kan Jlountains,  which  continue  the  Coast  ranges 
behind  the  St.  Elias  Alps  and  around  west- 
ward to  the  Ivenai  and  Aliaskan  peninsulas.  It 
is  studded  with  lofty  peaks,  increasing  in  height 
toward  the  west,  where  the  uplift  culminates, 
about  100  miles  north  of  Cook's  Inlet,  in  Mount 
McKinley,  20,404  feet  in  altitude,  which  is  the 
highest  peak  in  all  North  America.  Close  by 
are  unnamed  peaks  nearly  its  equal.  Other  great 
mountains   in  the  same  uplift  are  the  Iliamna 


l^ 


/^^. 


ALASKA. 


and  Redoubt  volcanoes  (about  12,000  feet), 
Drum  (13.300  feet).  Haves  (14.500  feet).  Kim- 
ball (10.000  feet).  Lituya  (11,8.32  f?et),  Sanfoiil 
(14,000  feet),  Tillman  "(  13,300  feet),  and  many 
others  unmeasured.  JIany  passes  admit  of  trav- 
el routes  (mere  trails)  from  the  coast  across  to 
the  Kuskokwim.  Yukon,  and  Tanana  valleys. 
The  Kenai  Peninsula  is  an  important  part  of  this 
district. 

(2)  The  Aliaskan  and  Aleutian  District. — This 
is  the  mountainous  prolongation  of  the  continent 
southwestward,  fi-oni  the  great  lliamna  Lake, 
continued  by  the  Aleutian  Islands,  a  chain  of 
half-submerged  mountaing  (about  1.50  in  num- 
lier)  Avhich  reaches  out  almost  to  the  Siberian 
coast,  and  separates  the  I'acific  from  Bering  Sea. 
All  these  islands  are  lofty,  some  peaks  rising  to 
8000  feet,  and  including  several  occasionally 
active  volcanoes:  and  all  are  treeless,  but  clothed 
with  grass,  herbage,  and  some  shrubs.  The 
large,  mountainous  and  forested  Kadiak  Island, 
off  the  eastern  shore  of  the  peninsula,  may  be 
included  in  this  division. 

(3)  The  Kuskokwim  District. — The  triangular 
territory  drained  by  the  Kuskokwim  River  and 
its  branches  forms  a  large  area  likely  to  be 
made  serviceable  in  future,  in  spite  of  the  fact 
that  the  great  river  itself  is  so  obstructed  at 
its  delta  and  so  shallow  as  not  to  admit  of 
entrance  and  navigation  b)-  large  boats.  The 
climate  is  endurable  in  winter,  and  in  summer 
admits  of  hay  culture  and  gardening  along  the 
lower  river,  where  the  country  is  open,  wliile 
the  eastern  part  of  the  district  lies  among  min- 
eral-bearing mountains.  A  comparatively  low 
watershed   separates   it   from   the   Lower   Yukon. 

(4)  Yukoii  Valley  and  Arctic  ,l/f(.s7,«.^The 
northern  district  embraces  all  of  Alaska  from  the 
course  of  the  Y'ukon  northward.  Along  tlu>  Cana- 
dian boundary  it  is  mountainous,  the  TananS, 
coming  in  from  the  southeast  and  the  Porcupine 
from  the  northeast,  both  draining  r(nigli,  ele- 
vated regions.  The  river  is  much  imjieded  by 
shallows  and  islands  through  the  middle  part  of 
its  course,  and  broadens  into  an  extensive  delta, 
with  outer  bars,  at  its  mouth,  so  that  it  can  be 
navigated  only  by  flat-bottomed  steamboats  of 
light  draught,  and  only  from  mid-.Tune  to  mid- 
September.  Northward  of  the  river  the  country 
is  for  the  most  part  an  almost  treeless  plain, 
swampy,  descending  gradually  to  the  coast,  where 
the  more  northern  part  is  a  broad  area  of 
marshy  waste,  or  tundra,  similar  to  that  of 
Siberia.  The  coast  region  north  of  the  mouth  of 
the  river,  however,  is  mountainous  and  deeply 
indented  by  Norton  Sound,  in  which  lies  the 
island  of  St.  Michael,  near  the  south  sliore. 
North  of  Norton  Sound  a  mountainous  peninsula 
stretches  westward  to  Bering  Strait,  terminating 
in  Cape  Prince  of  Wales,  only  48  miles  from  the 
easternmost  point  (East  Cape)  of  Kamtchatka. 
Northward  of  this  peninsula  is  Kotzebue  Sound, 
opening  into  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  receiving 
such  large  rivers  as  the  Selawik  and  Noatak, 
Mhile  the  Koivak  and  Colville  descend  from  the 
unknown  interior  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  the  latter 
far  to  the  eastward.  The  northernmost  point 
of  this  coast  is  Point  Barrow,  where  the  Govern- 
ment maintains  intermittently  a  weather  obser- 
vation station  and  a  relief  house  for  whalers. 
Out  in  tlie  middle  of  Bering  Sea  is  the  large 
island  of  St.  Lawrence,  the  Diomed  Islands  lie 
in  the  throat  of  Bering  Sea,  and  the  Pribylov  or 
Seal  Islands  form  a  small,  desolate  group  about 


2C,3 
,     i.'iO 


ALASKA. 


miles  north  of  Oonalashka.  Owing  to  its 
irregular  contour,  the  coast  line  of  Alaska  meas- 
ures^ about  8000  miles,  exceeding  the  entire  coast 
line  of  the  United  States  on  the  Atlantic  Ocean; 
an  idea  of  its  extent  can  be  best  conveyed  by 
quoting  the  statement  of  Professor  Guyot:  that 
the  island  of  Attoo  is  as  far  west  of  San  Fran- 
cisco as  the  coast  of  Maine  is  east  of  that  city. 

Climate  and  Soil.  Alaska  varies  in  clinuite 
and  soil  according  to  the  divisions  above  noted, 
and  according  to  altitude  and  nearness  to  or 
remoteness  from  the  sea.  The  climate  of  the 
south  coast  region,  however,  is  so  modified  by  the 
shielding  mountains  and  the  presence  of  the 
ocean  (where  the  .Japan  current  (lows  along  the 
coast  from  the  eastward)  that  this  part  of  Alas- 
ka may  be  called  temperate,  and  its  climate  ana 
productions,  as  far  north  as  Sitka,  at  least, 
ditTer  little  from  those  of  British  Columbia.  The 
isotherm  of  40°  mean  annual  temperature,  which 
passes  through  the  lower  St.  Lawrence  Valley 
on  the  eastern  side  of  the  continent,  curves  north- 
ward west  of  the  Rpcky  Mountains,  and  is  the 
mean  annual  isotherm  of  the  southern  Alaskan 
coast  region;  but  the  climate  of  this  region  ex- 
hibits less  extremes  between  winter  and  summer 
temperature  than  does  that  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
Valley,  and  is  far  more  rainy,  as  must  neces- 
sarily be  the  case  where  the  prevailing  winds 
come  off  the  ocean  and  almost  immediately  strike 
against  snowy  mountains  which  condense  and 
precipitate  their  moisture  almost  incessantly. 
Davs  without  rain  are  rare,  and  fogs  prevail. 
These  conditions  so  modify  the  temperature  of 
the  coast  that  the  mercurv  rarely  descends  below 
zero  or  rises  above  80°  F.  Much  the  same 
temperature  exists  over  Kadiak  Island  and  the 
Aleutian  chain,  but  with  greater  cold  and  more 
wind  and  snow  in  winter.  Cook's  Inlet  has  the 
agreeable  peculiarity  of  being  almost  free  of  the 
fogs  so  prevalent  elsewhere.  Noi'th  of  the  moun- 
tains, where  the  country  is  barricaded  against 
the  tempering  influence  of  the  Pacific  and  ex- 
posed to  the  northern  winds,  lower  temperature 
and  drier  conditions  prevail. 

Data  for  the  Kuskokwim  division  are  scanty^ 
but  indicate  that  the  average  for  midwinter  ap- 
proaches zero  and  for  midsummer  about  50°.  In 
the  lower  Yukon  Valley  semi-arctic  conditions 
prevail,  a  brief,  warm  summer,  averaging  about 
(;0°  F.  for  July,  being  followed  by  a  long  winter 
of  excessive  cold,  the  average  temperature  from 
December  to  ilarch  at  Nulato  being  about^lO" 
below   zero,   with   frequent   "spells"   of   —40°    to 

50°    F.     It    is    colder    further    up    the    river, 

where  navigation  is  limited  to  three  months.  ( See 
Y'UKON.)  At  St.  Michael's  Island  and  on  the 
neighboring  coast  (Nome)  of  Norton  Sound,  the 
teiuperature  is  more  moderate  than  in  the  inte- 
rior, the  winter  being  less  protracted  and  severe. 
Along  the  northern  coast  the  climate  is  truly 
arctic,  the  annual  mean  at  Point  Barrow  being 
about  25°  F.  The  northern  interior,  wherever 
level,  is  swampy,  and  the  soil  is  permanently- 
frozen  a  yard  or  so  below  the  surface.  In  the 
southerly'  half  of  Alaska,  at  least,  the  soil  is 
fertile  enough,  so  far  as  its  qualities  go. 

Flora.  All  Alaska  north  of  the  Y'ukon  and 
west  of  the  mountains  along  the  Porcupine  River, 
near  the  Canadian  boundary,  is  swampy  tundra, 
bearing  only  small  bushes  and  some  dw.arf  wil- 
lows and  spruce.  The  hills  of  the  northwestern 
coast  are  barren,  and  those  of  the  Kuskokwim 
Valley  only   lightly  wooded,   except  toward   its 


ALASKA. 


264 


ALASKA. 


head,  where  spniee  forests  clothe  the  bases  of  the 
mountains,  separated  by  grassy  valleys,  exhibit- 
ing a  wide  diversity  of  tall  flowering  herbage 
and  low  shrubs.  Tlie  Aleutian  Islands  are  en- 
tirely without  trees,  except  a  few  scrub  willows; 
but  some  ha^e  great  numbers  of  bushes  allied  to 
the  cranberry  and  whortleberry.  Under  the 
moist  and  temperate  intluences  heretofore  men- 
tioned, the  coastal  strip,  liowever,  from  Kadiak 
down  to  British  Columbia,  is  clothed  witli  a 
forest  which  becomes  of  great  size,  variety,  and 
economic  value  from  Cross  Sound  southward. 
Deciduous  (hard-wood)  trees  are  white  birches, 
poplars  (often  very  large),  alders  and  similar 
kinds,  usually  of  small  si^e  and  importance; 
but  coniferous  trees  form  extensive  forests  over 
all  the  islands  and  around  the  bases  of  the  moun- 
tains up  to  the  edge  of  the  ice  or  snow,  which 
lies  permanently  at  an  average  elevation  of 
about  2000  feet.  The  most  widely  distributed 
species  is  the  Sitka  or  Alaskan  spruce  (.IftiV? 
sitchensis) ,  which  is  scattered  over  the  whole 
territory  as  far  north  as  the  Arctic  Circle,  but 
reaches  a  useful  size  only  on  the  shores  of  Prince 
William  Sound  and  on  the  islands  of  the  Alex- 
ander Archipelago.  (See  SpI!i;ce.)  It  is  the 
tree  which  ser\es  most  of  the  wants  of  the 
natives  for  house-building,  tire-wood,  torches,  and 
general  purposes,  a»nd  is  the  principal  resource 
for  lumber  for  mining  and  other  rough  purposes 
on  the  coast  and  in  the  interior ;  but  owing  to 
its  slow  growth  the  timber  is  knotty  and  not 
adapted  to  the  finer  uses.  The  liemlock  {.ibies 
mortPHsiana)  and  the  balsam  fir  may  exceed 
the  Sitka  spruce,  but  are  uncommon  and  of 
little  service,  except  that  the  bark  of  the  former 
is  useful  for  tanning  hides.  The  yellow  cedar 
{Cupressus  nutkaensis) .  however,  is  very  valu- 
able. It  has  been  nearly  exterminated  on  Bar- 
anov  Island,  but  remains  numerous  and  of  large 
size  on  several  islands  southward ;  it  is  from 
this  that  the  great  dug-out  boats  of  the  Haida 
Indians  are  made.  Its  wood  is  clear-grained 
and  very  durable. 

Fauna.  Tlie  fauna  of  Alaska  is  very  extensive 
and  economically  valuable.  The  catalogue  of  its 
mammals  and  birds  forms  a  long  list;  of  high 
zoological  interest.  Reptiles  and  amphibians 
are  of  course  few.  but  insects  present  a  wide 
variety,  diminisliing  toward  the  north;  among 
these  mosquitoes  are  painfully  conspicuous, 
swarming  in  summer  on  the  central  and  northern 
plains  in  such  dense  masses  as  to  make  life  in 
the  lowlands  almost  im])ossible  for  either  men  or 
animals.  The  neighboring  seas  are  peculiarly 
rich  in  small  marine  creatures  (see  Arctic  Re- 
gion) ;  hence  fishes  abound,  and  these  support 
numerous  marine  carnivores,  such  as  seals,  etc., 
to  be  spoken  of  later.  The  larger  land  animals 
include  the  moose,  south  of  the  Yukon ;  caribou, 
formerly  widely  numerous,  but  now  nearly  ex- 
terminated, wlieme  the  efforts  of  the  (iovern- 
ment  to  restock  the  country  with  reindeer ;  and, 
in  the  southeastern  mountains,  sheep  and  goats. 
Porcupines  and  hares  of  various  species  abound, 
and  form  an  inijwrtant  food  resource  for  the 
inland  natives,  besides  Icnuuings,  marmots,  squir- 
rels, mice,  etc.:  while  suitable  streams  every- 
where south  of  the  Arctic  borders  support  bea- 
vers (now  uncommon)  and  muskrats.  These 
animals  supply  f(«)d  for  bears,  lynxes,  and  a  long 
list  of  smaller  fur-bearing  carnivores.  The  bears 
include,  besides  the  polar,  grizzly,  and  black 
species,  the  huge  Kadiak  bear  and  the  glacier 


bear,  which  are  exclusively  local.  (See  Bear.) 
The  marine  mammals  are  whales  of  several 
kinds,  the  Pacific  walrus,  Steller's  sea-lion,  and 
five  other  species  of  hair  seals  (see  Seal),  and 
the  fur-seal.  The  fur  animals  embrace  gray 
solves,  the  basal  stock  of  the  native  sledge-dogs; 
the  white  arctic  fox,  common  near  the  coast 
from  the  Aliaska  Peninsula  northward,  and  on 
the  islands  of  Bering  Sea,  while  its  "blue"  vari- 
ety inliabits  the  Aleutian  Islands;  the  red  fox, 
and  its  variety,  the  "cross"  fox,  occur  every- 
\\liere;  but  the  black  variety  is  rare  and  almost 
unknown,  except  in  the  eastern  mountains.  Of 
the  nuistelines,  the  sable  is  numerous  wherever 
coniferous  forests  extend;  and  more  generally 
distributed  are  the  weasels  (ermine)  and  wol-_ 
verines,  while  minks  are  common  along  all  .water- 
courses, and  otters  less  so.  The  most  notable  of 
Alaskan  fur  animals,  however,  is  the  sea  otter 
{Latnx  lvti-i.i) ,  which  formerly  was  numerous 
along  the  entire  southern  coast,  but  now  is  found 
only  on  a  few  remote  islands,  where  it  will  soon 
become  extinct  unless  rigorously  protected. 
Choice  skins  are  now  worth  .$100  to  the  hunter, 
and  bring  .$.500  in  New  York  or  London.  With 
their  disappearance  will  go  the  last  res^juixes  of 
many  Aleuts.  In  1809  the  catch  reported  in 
San  Francisco  was  1.54  skins,  woith  ,$30,000. 

Sealing,  Whaling,  Fue-Huntlno,  and  Fish- 
eries. The  seals  tliat  visit  the  shores  of  Alaska, 
especially  from  the  Aleutian  Islands  nortliward, 
are  the  main  dependence  of  the  natives  for  food, 
furnishing  materials  for  boat-building,  house- 
making,  dog-harness,  etc.,  and  are  hunted  perti- 
naciously with  guns,  spears,  nets,  etc.,  and  their 
skins  are  an  article  of  intertriltal  trade.  To 
white  men  they  arc  of  small  ini]iortance.  The 
wall-US  is  almost  the  sole  dependence  of  the 
Eskimos  at  and  beyond  Bering  Strait,  and  is 
steadily  diminishing,  because  it  is  al.so  hunted 
by  white  men  for  the  sake  of  its  ivory.  Fossil 
elepliant  ivory  is  also  collected  extensively  by 
the  Eskimos.  The  white  whale  and  the  great 
arctic  whales  are  also  of  prime  importance  to 
the  Arctic  Alaskans,  and  tliese  animals  attract 
annually  a  considerable  whaling  fleet,  which  en- 
deavors to  leave  the  Arctic  Ocean  before  the 
straits  are  obstructed  by  ice;  vessels  often  fail 
to  do  so,  however,  and  must  pass  the  winter  in 
the  ice  along  the  north  shore  of  Alaska.  In 
ISOS  tlie  catch  of  whales  was  140. 

The  fur-.seal  was  formerly  abundant  along 
both  coasts  of  the  strait  and  on  most  islands 
in  Bering  Sea ;  now  it  is  restricted  to  the  Cop- 
per Islands  of  the  Sil>erian  coast,  and  to 
the  Prib>lov  group  or  Seal  Islands,  where  it  is 
theoretically  protected  by  the  government  under 
the  care  of  an  American  corporation  whose 
rentals  have  yielded  much  more  than  tlie  amount 
paid  for  the  purcha.se  of  Alaska.  The  Congres- 
sional regulations,  however,  have  failed  to  put 
an  end  to  pelagic  sealing,  in  the  suppression  of 
which  Great  Britain  will  not  join.  In  conse- 
quence, the  herds  of  seals  resorting  to  the  Priby- 
lov  Islands  to  breed,  from  which  an  annual 
quota  of  30.000  (fiunierly  100.000)  skins  is 
permitted  to  be  taken,  have  steadily  diminished. 
The  catch  for  1898  was  1S,0.S2.  But  35  Cana- 
dian vessels  took  in  pelagic  catch  from  Ameri- 
can herds  28,132.  This  ruthless  taking  of  the  seals 
threatens  their  early  extinition.  This  would 
mean  the  loss  to  Alaslca  of  the  most  valuable 
item  in  the  fur  trade  of  the  world.  The  fur 
trade  was,  indeed,  the  first  inducement  for  the 


ALASKA. 


265 


ALASKA. 


early  settlement  of  Alaska,  and  until  recently 
her  principal  tominercial  resource.  Wasteful- 
ness, competition,  and  the  degradation  of  the 
natives  have  greatly  reduced  the  output;  yet 
large  numbers  of  skins  of  foxes,  martens,  er- 
mines, beaver,  and  similar  furs  are  still  col- 
lected; and  on  several  of  the  Aleutian  Islands 
blue  foxes  are  being  reared  in  semi-domesticity 
for  the  sake  of  their  pelts,  so  that  a  regular  in- 
dustry in  that  direction  is  arising.  The  annual 
market  value  of  the  fur  product  of  Alaska  was 
estimated  in  1S80  bv  Petrov,  United  States  Cen- 
sus  Agent,    at    $2,250,000. 

The  fislieries  of  Alaska  were  naturally  unex- 
celled liy  those  of  any  part  of  the  world. 
Cod,  halil)ut,  and  other  valuable  deep-sea  fishes 
inhabit  the  waters  otT  the  coast  in  seemingly 
inexhaustil)le  quantities,  and  a  beginning  has 
been  made  of  a  regular  fishery  by  vessels  from 
San  P^rancisco.  The  anadromous  fishes  are  nu- 
merous and  of  the  finest  quality.  Every  stream, 
from  the  farthest  north  to  British  Columbia,  is 
crowded  with  some  si)ecies  of  salmon  (q.v.), 
herring,  whitefish.  smelt  (see  Candle-Fi.sh)  ,  or 
other  fish,  ascending  them  to  spawn.  Without 
these  hordes  of  river  fish  no  Indian  could  long 
exist  in  the  more  northern  portions  of  the  terri- 
tory, and  the  natives  catch  and  preserve  vast 
quantities  for  winter  use.  The  salmon  have 
long  been  the  object  of  extensive  civilized  indus- 
tries along  the  southern  coast,  and  for  years  the 
output  of  salmon  has  exceeded  600,000  cases, 
and  in  ISOS  reached  almost  1,000,000  cases.  In 
18!t!)  the  canners  employed  1208  white  men,  830 
natives,  and  ISiiO  Cliinese.  The  industr}'  is  of 
little  service  to  the  territory,  however,  as  nearly 
all  the  labor  and  the  material  used  are  extra- 
neous, comparativeh'  none  of  the  wages  earned 
is  paid  or  spent  in  Alaska,  and  the  fisheries  are 
being  conducted  in  a  recklessly  wasteful  man- 
ner. 

AoRicirLTUUE.  Alaska  is  too  far  north  to  be 
of  any  importance  as  an  agricultural  country, 
yet  the  southern  coast,  the  Kenai  Peninsula,  and 
the  Aleutian  Islands  possess  possibilities  of  a 
limited  agricultural  development.  The  soil  is 
very  fertile,  but  the  expense  of  preparing  it  for 
oiltivation  is  enormous.  The  census  of  1900 
returns  only  159  acres  of  farm  land;  but  the 
cultivation  of  this  showed  that  the  hardier, 
quick-growing  vegetables,  such  as  turnips,  ruta- 
bagas, potatoes,  carrots,  beets,  etc.,  could  be  very 
successfully  raised.  Grasses  of  highly  nourish- 
ing qualities  grow  luxuriantly,  furnishing  excel- 
lent grazing  facilities.  The  climate  does  not 
admit  of  the  ripening  of  oats  or  the  curing  of 
hay,  but  grass  can  be  stored  in  silos  for  winter. 
Two  enterprises  which  have  been  encouraged  by 
the  national  government  are  worthy  of  note. 
One  is  tlic  development  of  fox  farming,  the  foxes 
being  bred  for  their  furs,  as  heretofore  noted. 
This  industry  promises  to  become  of  considerable 
importance  in  some  of  the  western  islands.  The 
other  is  tlie  introduction  of  the  reindeer  into 
the  far  northwestern  region.  The  latter  is  dis- 
cussed more  particularly  elsewhere  (.see  Rein- 
deer) ;  but  it  may  be  said  here  that  about  3500 
reindeer  are  now  in  use  in  .Alaska,  of  which  only 
about  one-sixtli  belong  to  the  Government,  the 
remainder  being  owned  by  missions  and  natives. 
They  thrive  upon  the  moss,  but  are  in  danger 
from  dogs,  wolves,  and  reckless  prospectors  and 
hunters.  They  are  used  as  draught  animals 
mainly,  and  have  been  of  great  service  in  carry- 

VOL.    I,— 19. 


ing  mails  in  winter,  and  in  transporting  pro- 
visions, rescuing  lost  or  starving  parties  of  min- 
ers and  soldiers,  and  in  various  other  ways. 
Their  introduction  seems  to  be  .a  success.  The 
annual  ap|jrupriations  for  their  care  and  for 
new  importations  from  Siberia  have  been  recent- 
ly .$25,000  annually. 

Geology  and  Mineral  Resouroe.s.  The  coast 
ranges  of  the  southern  extremity  of  Alaska  are 
granitic  in  character,  and  their  elevation  was 
comparatively  recent,  geologically,  being  probab- 
ly at  some  time  between  the  Triassic  and  Creta- 
ceous eras.  The  archipelagoes  belong  to  them  in 
geological  character  and  history,  and  everywhere 
there  is  evidence  of  great  glaciation.  Much  more 
recent  than  this,  even,  and  probably  the  youngest 
mountain  range  on  the  continent,  are  the  St. 
Klias  Alps,  which  Russell  considers  to  have  been 
elevated,  with  tremendous  disturbance  of  the 
strata,  since  the  close  of  the  Tertiary  period,  when 
the  rocks  of  the  Yakutat  series  were  deposited. 
The  peninsula  of  Aliaska,  the  Aleutian  chain, 
and  the  hills  along  the  border  of  Bering  Sea 
are  mainly  of  volcanic  origin,  including  several 
volcanoes  which  have  been  active  within  historic 
times  or  are  now  subject  to  frequent  eruptions. 
(See  BoGosLov. )  Hot  medicinal  springs  are  nu- 
merous, and  might  be  of  great  hygienic  impor- 
tance to  the  skin-diseased  natives  if  they  could  be 
induced  to  utilize  the  waters.  The  line  of  vol- 
canic upheaval  and  activity  along  the  south 
coast  is  as  long  as  the  distance  from  Florida  to 
Nova  Scotia,  and  the  whole  of  Alaska  and  the 
Bering  Sea  basin  are  steadily  rising.  The  moun- 
tains of  the  southeastern  interior  and  along  the 
Canadian  Ixjrder  consist  of  an  ancient  granitic 
axis  overlaid  by  schi.sts,  quartzites,  and  other 
stratified  rocks,  which  have  been  uplifted  and 
greatly  disturbed  and  altered  by  dikes  and  other 
igneous  intrusions  and  overflows,  and  are  sub- 
stantially a  part  of  the  northern,  mineral-bearing 
Rocky  Mountain  system  traceable  southward  into 
central   Britisli  ''olumbia. 

Coal  has  been  found  in  many  places  in  Alaska. 
Its  deposits  near  Cape  Lisbourne  and  elsewhere 
along  the  Arctic  coast  have  long  been  known 
and  occasionally  utilized  by  whaling  steamers 
and  revenue  cutters.  I,t  also  occurs  on  the  Yu- 
kon, in  the  Aleutian  Islands,  near  Kadiak,  on  the 
Kenai  Peninsula,  at  the  head  of  Prince  William 
Sound,  and  elsewhere.  Costly  experiments  have 
been  made  in  mining  and  using  it  on  the  south 
coast,  but  it  is  everywhere  found  to  be  only  a 
lignite,  frequently  good  enough  for  domestic 
use,  but  poor  for  steam-making,  because  so  full 
of  sulphur,  etc.  This  poor  quality,  together  with 
the  competition  of  imported  coal,  has  prevented 
its  serious  use  thus  far.  Petroleum,  somewhat 
exploited,  iron  of  poor  quality,  copper,  and  many 
minerals,  earth  and  building  stones  (marble, 
etc.)  are  known,  but  are  not  yet  commercially 
valuable.  Silver  ore  has  been  found  in  alloy 
wherever  gold  occurs,  and  some  galena  ores  are 
known,  but  little  profitable  working  has  been 
undertaken.  The  total  value  of  the  silver  prod- 
uct in  1899  was  estimated  at  $181,000.  Gold, 
however,  is  widespread,  and  is  now  the  chief 
source  of  attractiveness  and  wealth   in  Alaska. 

flold  Milling. — The  presence  of  gold  in  the 
sands  of  interior  rivers  and  on  the  southern 
beaches  was  known  to  the  Russians  and  to  the 
fur-traders  long  ago.  but  prospecting  was  dis- 
couraged. About  1870  prospecting  began,  and 
resulted  in  discoveries  of  auriferous  placers  and 


ALASKA. 


266 


ALASKA. 


quartz  veins  of  varying  riehnes;s.  The  first  one 
of  importance  was  on  Douglas  Island,  where  a 
"camp"  of  miners  soon  gathered  to  work  the 
placers.  Soon  afterward  ledges  of  quartz  ore 
were  discovered,  and  bought  by  John  Treadwell, 
who  organized  a  company  to  develop  the  mines. 
Works  were  erected,  tlic  town  of  Juneau  arose 
on  the  neighboring  mainland,  and  these  mines 
are  now  one  of  the  richest  gold-producing  prop- 
erties in  the  world.  The  ore  is  easily  crushed, 
can  be  rolled  down  into  the  stamp-mills  by  grav- 
ity-tramways, and  all  machinery  (including 
electric  hoists,  etc.)  is  operated  by  water  power. 
This  cheapness  enables  a  low  grade  of  ore  to 
be  worked  at  a  large  profit,  and  about  1.500 
stamps  are  kept  in  continuous  and  almost  auto- 
matic operation,  while  Douglas  Island  and  the 
space  under  Gastineau  Channel  and  the  neinjh- 
boring  shore  are  being  completely  honeycombed 
with  tunnels  and  slopes.  Jlany  other  good 
mines  have  been  opened  in  the  neighborhood;  and 
workings  have  been  developed  satisfactorily  on 
Baranov  Island  near  Sitka,  on  Sumdum  Bay,  at 
the  head  of  Lynn  Canal,  and  elsewhere  in  the 
Alexander  Archipelago  and  on  the  mainland. 
The  beach  sands  and  river  gravels  have  yielded 
profitable  gold  about  Yakutat  Bay,  at  Turnagain 
Arm  at  the  head  of  Cook's  Inlet,  and  on  the 
shores  of  Kadiak  and  Unrra  islands.  The  discov- 
ery of  rich  gold  placers  in  the  Yukon  district 
in  1807  led  to  vigorous  prospecting  of  the  whole 
Yukon  Valley  and  its  tributaries  within  the 
mountains,  and  auriferous  deposits,  often  of 
great  richness,  were  found  along  the  river  course 
at  and  near  the  Canadian  boundary  and  especial- 
ly along  the  Tananii.  (See  Yukon.)  This  led 
to  an  exploration  of  the  coast  hills,  and  resulted 
in  several  "finds"  about  Norton  Sound,  of  which 
the  most  remarkable  was  that  at  Cape  Nome, 
where  the  sands  of  the  beach  yielded  extraordi- 
nary richness,  and  where  later  extensive  placers 
were  disclosed  along  neighboring  streams.  The 
output  of  the  whole  territory  increased  from 
$2,700,000,  in  1897,  to  •f!7..531,600  in  1900.  The 
output  in  1900  surpassed  that  of  the  preceding 
year  by  .$2,40(i,000,  the  Nome  district  being  re- 
sponsible for  the  gieatcr  part  of  this  aiuount. 
Circle  City,  .lack  Wade,  ilunock,  and  Kyokuk 
districts  in  the  interior  of  Alaska  produced  alto- 
gether  about   $1,000,000. 

Transportation  and  Commerce.  The  south- 
ern coast  of  Alaska  has  numerous  excellent  har- 
bors, which  are  accessible  the  year  round,  as 
far  north  as  Sitka  and  .Juneau.  The  bays  of  the 
farther  coast  (except  Valdez)  become  filled  with 
bergs  from  glaciers  and  pack-ice  in  winter,  thus 
closing  the  head  of  Cook's  Inlet  and  compelling 
the  people  of  Sunrise  City  to  travel  to  Resurrec- 
tion Harbor,  on  the  south  side  of  Kenai  Penin- 
sula, in  order  to  take  ship  most  of  the  year. 
It  would  seem  as  though  these  people  might  eas- 
ily pass  from  Turnagain  Arm  across  the  narrow 
isthmus  to  Prince  William  Sound,  and  so  effect 
a  great  saving  of  distance:  bu»  Morey  learned  in 
1899  that  the  crags  and  glaciers  which  consti- 
tute that  neck  of  land  were  practically  iincross- 
able,  except  on  sledges  or  snow-shoes  in  winter, 
when  the  adjacent  harbors  are  useless.  The 
harliors  of  the  Aleutian  Islands  are  open  all 
winter,  but  drifting  ice  packs  .'ind  freezes  along 
the  shores  of  the  shallow  Bering  Sea  closing 
the  bays  early  in  November:  after  which  St. 
Michael's  Island,  Nome,  and  all  other  ports  of 
that  coast  are   closed   until   the   ice   comes   out 


of  the  Yukon  and  dissolves  in  the  sea.  This 
rarely  happens  before  June  I.t,  after  which  that 
river  is  navigable  for  about  three  months,  Sep- 
tember 15  being  the  latest  date  when  it  is  consid- 
ered safe  to  leave  Eagle  City  for  the  last  out- 
ward trip.  (See  Yukon  River.)  There  are 
few  safe  harbors  along  this  coast,  where  the 
water  is  exceedingly  shallow  for  a  long  distance 
from  shore,  and  the  deltoid  river-mouths  are 
obstructed  by  bars;  and  at  St.  Jlichaels,  Anvik, 
Nome,  and  other  settlements  vessels  must  anchor 
in  the  offing  and  load  and  unload  by  means  of 
lighters,  with  constant  readiness  to  steam  away 
from  storms,  so  that  expensive  delays  are  likely. 
All  the  trafiic  of  the  Yukon  River  is  by  way 
of  the  island  and  port  of  St.  Michaels,  some  00 
miles  from  the  Yukon  mouth,  long  ago  estab- 
lished as  a  fur-trading  station.  Here  ocean 
steamers  land  and  receive  passengers  and  cargoes 
during  the  open  season,  which  are  there  trans- 
ferred to  and  from  the  river-boats.  These  are 
flat-bottomed,  stern-wheeled  steamboats,  the  larg- 
est of  which  may  draw  four  feet  of  water;  the 
distance  to  the  eastern  boundary  of  Alaska 
(Eagle  City)  is  about  1.500  miles,  and  sufficient 
boats  are  in  service  to  fill  the  needs  of  traffic, 
and  afford  a  regular  and  constant  means  of 
transportation  between  the  upper  river  and  the 
coast,  where  regularly  sailing  steamers  ply  be- 
tween Nome  or  St.  Michaels  and  Victoria,  B.  C, 
or  Seattle  or  San  Francisco.  There  is  also  more 
irregular,  but  frequent  communication  between 
Sitka  and  all  the  places  of  call  along  the  south 
coast  and  the  Aleutian  archipelago.  Steamer  com- 
munication between  Sitka.  Skagway,  Juneaii.  or 
Fort  Wrangel.  and  citlier  Vancouver  or  Victoria, 
B.  C.  or  the  ports  of  Puget  Sound  or  California, 
is  almost  daily  in  summer  and  at  frequent  inter- 
vn\s  in  winter.  From  Skagway  a  railroad  crosses 
White  Pass  to  Whitehorse  Rapids,  where  pas- 
sengers and  freight  are  transferred  to  the  steam- 
boats of  the  upper  Yukon  lines,  by  which  the 
journey  is  continued  to  Dawson.  Thus,  in  sum- 
mer regular  and  comfortable  means  of  access 
are  open  to  all  parts  of  the  Yukon  Valley.  The 
White  Pass  Railroad  is  operated  as  continuously 
through  the  winter  as  the  weather  permits,  and 
travel  and  the  carriage  of  mails  continue  more 
or  less  regularly  by  means  of  public  stages  and 
private  dog-sledges.  Several  other  railway 
routes  have  been  sketched  out,  and  a  wagon  road 
has  been  built  from  Port  Valdez  to  the  Copper 
River. 

Teleffraph  Lines. — The  Canadian  Government 
has  constructed  a  telegraph  line  from  the  summit 
of  White  Pass,  continuing  a  line  from  Skagway, 
down  the  Yukon  Valley  to  the  boundary,  where  it 
connects  with  an  American  telegraph  line  from 
that  point  (Eagle  City)  to  Valdez.  A  telegraph 
cable  is  in  operation  between  St.  ^lichacls  and 
Nome,  and  an  overland  line  is  building  from 
Nome,  via  Eaton  (reindeer  station).  Nulato.  and 
other  landings  along  tlie  Yukon,  to  Eagle  City. 
The  foreign  trade  of  Alaska  has  been  steadily 
increasing.  There  arc  no  statistics  of  the  com- 
merce between  Alaska  and  the  ports  of  the 
United  States,  inasmuch  as  it  is  administered 
as  a  customs  district.  The  foreign  commerce 
for  the  year  ending  June  .'W,  1901,  shows  that 
the  imports  of  merchandise  for  that  year  amount- 
ed to  $,558,000,  and  the  exports  of  merchandise 
to  .$2,534,000,  of  which  $2,018,000  was  domestic 
merchandise.  The  imports  of  gold  amounted  to 
$15,816,000,  of  which  a  large  part  was  the  prod- 


ALASKA. 


IG'T 


ALASKA. 


lut  of  (lie  V\ikon  district  in  Canada  whicli 
passed  thiongh  Alaska  for  exportation.  One 
hundred  and  eiglity-six  American  and  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty-seven  foreign  vessels  entered 
Alaskan  ports  during  the  year. 

PoprL.\Tiox.  The  natives  of  Alaska  consisted 
of  several  dilferent  peoples.  Tlie  bulk  of  north- 
ern Alaska  and  its  coasts  were  originally  occu- 
pied by  people  of  Eskimo  stock.  These  were  in 
contact  with  the  Athabascan  Indians,  who 
occu|)ied  the  mountains  eastward,  the  valley  of 
the  Yukon,  and  the  south  coast  region  as  far 
west  as  C'ook"s  Inlet,  beyond  which  the  Aleutian 
Islands  were  possessed  by  an  entirely  separate 
pco])lc.  the  Aleuts.  Tlic  coast  and  islands  from 
Yakutat  Bay  southward  to  I'ugct  Sovuid  were 
held  liy  the  advanced  and  skillful  tribesof  the 
Thlinkeet  race.  The  numbers  of  all  these,  when 
first  encountered  by  the  Russians,  can  only  be 
surmised.  The  first  careful  census  was  that  of 
1880,  which  gave  31,240  as  the  total  native  pop- 
ulation of  unmixed  blood.  The  census  of  1900 
reported  '20.536.  Jtore  than  half  of  these  are 
Eskimos.  The  natives  of  Alaska  have  shown  a 
greater  williTigness  to  adopt  a  civilized  manner 
of  life  than  most  of  the  other  native  American 
tribes.  Whole  communities  have  taken  up  the 
vocations  of  white  men.  The  native  shows  a 
willingness  to  work,  which  is  quite  unusual 
among  people  of  his  race.  The  United  States 
has  not  forced  the  reservation  system  upon  him, 
and  he  has  always  been  self-supporting.  However, 
his  present  status,  in  many  instances,  is  most 
pitiable.  Fishing  companies,  in  disregard  of  the 
rights  or  interests  of  the  natives,  have  depleted 
many  of  the  streams  of  their  supply  of  fish,  thus 
destroying  the  Indian's  principal  source  of  a  live- 
lihood. The  destruction  of  fur-bearing  animals 
does  him  similar  injury.  The  denial  of  citizen- 
ship, which  he  is  eager  to  assume,  prevents  him 
from  locating  raining  claims,  acting  as  pilot,  and 
enjoying  other  privileges  which  are  granted  as  a 
matter  of  course  to  his  intruding  white  neighbor. 
Other  influences  toward  his  decrease  and  deg- 
radation are  the  ease  with  which  he  may  ol)tain 
or  make  intoxicating  liquor,  despite  prohibitory 
laws,  and  the  spi-ead  of  syphilitic  diseases.  For 
an  ethnological  description  of  the  natives,  see 
articles  Aleutian  I.sl.\nds,  and  Eskimo. 

The  white  population  for  many  years  after  the 
departure  of  the  Russians  consisted  only  of  fur- 
traders  and  similar  wanderers.  In  1880  only 
430  white  persons  and  1750  half-breeds  were  to 
be  counted  in  all  Alaska.  The  subsequent  dis- 
covery of  gold  caused  an  intlux  of  population, 
and  the  census  of  1900  reported  a  white  popu- 
lation of  30.507,  only  one-tenth  of  which  was 
female.  The  increase  was  mainly  in  the  valley 
of  tile  Y'ukon  and  on  the  Norton  Sound  Coast, 
and  later  accessions  to  the  Nome  district  prob- 
ably added  25,000  to  this  during  1901  and  1902. 
The  largest  town  is  Nome  (q.v. ),  near  Cape 
Nome,  on  the  northern  shore  of  Xorton  Sound, 
which  in  1902  had  a  population  of  about  40,000. 
Anvik  and  many  other  settlements  and  mining 
camps  are  near  it,  \vhere  a  large  part  of  the 
pojnilation  spend  the  biief  summer  at  work, 
gathering  in  Nome  for  the  winter.  Eagle  City 
is  at  the  point  where  the  Yukon  crosses  the 
Canadian  l)oundary,  and  has  a  customs  and  mili- 
tary garrison  (  Fort  Egbert) .  Circle  City,  near 
the  Arctic  Circle,  is  the  river-port  for  the  gold 
diggings  in  Birch  Creek  and  in  the  central 
Tanana  Valley,  and  has  a  fluctuating  population 


of  from  500  to  1500.  There  is  a  military  post 
(Fort  Liscomb)  at  the  mouth  of  'the  Tanana. 
Sunrise  City,  at  the  extreme  head  of  Cook's 
Inlet,  is  the  supplving  point  for  a  group  of  placer 
diggings  on  the  Kciiai  Peninsula,  and  contains 
from  "lOOO  to  2000  people.  Settlements  are 
found  on  Kadiak  Island  (St.  Paul's  or  Kodiak) 
and  on  TTnga.  Valdez,  at  the  head  of  Valdez 
Bay,  an  inlet  from  Prince  William  Sound,  is  of 
permanent  importance  as  the  port  of  entry  for 
the  Copper  Ri^.er  Valley,  to  which  a  wagon  road 
leads  eastward,  since  it  has  been  made  the 
military  and  surveying  headquarters  of  the  Gov- 
ernment, which  has  erected  a  garrison  there, 
and  the  village  contains  several  hundred  people. 
Sitka  is  one  of  the  oldest  settlements  on  the 
northwest  coast,  and  \\as  the  Russian  head- 
quarters. (See  Sitka.)  It  is  now  the  judicial 
and  ofiicial  centre  of  the  territory;  but  owing  to 
its  distance  from  important  mines,  fisheries, 
etc.,  had  a  population  in  1900  of  only  1396. 
I;arger  and  more  active  is  the  gold  mining  town 
of  Juneau,  at  the  entrance  of  Taku  Inlet,  which 
is  the  centre  of  a  fairly  pevraanent  population  of 
about  3000,  At  the  head  of  Taku  Inlet  is  Skag- 
v.ay.  the  seaport  of  the  White  Pass  Railway, 
with  a  population  of  about  1500.  Fort  VVran- 
gel,  a  settlement  formerly  of  importance,  but 
now  in  decline,  and  scattered  fishing  villages, 
occupied  chiefly  by  Indians,  complete  the  list  of 
towns.  Seventy  -  eight  settlements  altogether 
were  reported  in  the  census  of  1900. 

Government.  Alaska  is  an  unorganized  Ter- 
ritor}',  there  being  no  general  legislative  body. 
Alaska  is  controlled  by  laws  passed  by  the  United 
States  Congress,  and  its  administrative  and  ju- 
dicial officers  —  governor  (residing  at  Sitka), 
surveyor-general,  attorneys,  judges,  and  others 
—  are  appointed  by  the  President  of  the  United 
States.  Towns  of  a  certain  size  are  allowed  to 
incorporate  and  elect  governing  bodies.  Legis- 
lation in  1900  divided  Alaska  into  a  judicial 
district,  with  three  courts,  at  .Juneau,  St.  Mi- 
chaels, and  Eagle  Cit,v.  These  judges  are  au- 
thorized to  appoint  commissioners  throughout 
.iKlaska,  who  are  to  act  as  justices  of  the  peace, 
recorders,  probate  judges,  and  perform  other 
duties  civil  and  crim.inal.  A  new  criminal  code 
for  Alivska  was  adopted  in  Congress  in  1899, 
and  a  new  civil  code  the  following  year.  As 
yet,  it  is  impossible  for  settlers  to  acquire  title 
to  the  public  lands.  In  1898  Congress  extended 
the  operation  of  the  homestead  law  to  Alaska, 
but  has  failed  to  piovide  for  a  survey  of  the  land 
and  thus  render  settlement  possible. 

Much  trouble  has  grown  out  of  the  working 
of  the  mining  laws.  The  right  to  locate 
claims  by  power  of  attorney  granted  by  these  laws 
lesults  in  extensive  districts  being  staked  and 
then  abandoned,  awaiting  such  developments 
as  will  give  the  holdings  a  speculative  value. 
Much  "claim  jumping"  has  been  practiced;  in- 
deed, there  have  been  but  few  paying  claims  that 
have  not  been  involved  in  litigation.  It  has  been 
impossible  to  anticipate  the  emergencies  which 
have  arisen  from  the  sudden  addition  to  the 
population,  and  oftentimes  civil  order  has  been 
disrespected  and  legal  justice  has  been  extremely 
tardx'.  This  was  conspicuous  at  Nome:  but  the 
evils  there  were  corrected  in  1901.  and  proper 
laws  put  into  operation.  Military  force  at  times 
has  had  to  assert  its  authority,  and  a  consid- 
erable force  was  maintained  in  the  territory 
from    1899    onward.     On    the    whole,    however. 


ALASKA. 


268 


ALATATT. 


while  the  miners  liave  been  a  law  unto  them- 
selves, the  instinct  for  good  and  for  order  has 
been  in  the  ascendency,  and  remarkably  few 
excesses  have  been  perpetrated. 

Education.  In  1900  the  United  States  Bu- 
reau of  Education  maintained  twenty-five  public 
schools  in  the  Territory  on  an  inadequate  annual 
appropriation  of  $30,000;  but  incorporated 
towns  may  provide  for  themselves  by  their  privi- 
lege of  using  one-half  of  the  money  collected 
from  license  lees  for  educational  purposes. 

Heligion.  The  Russian  Greek  Church  was  the 
first  in  the  field,  and  continues  to  support 
churches  and  schools  at  difl'crent  points.  The 
Episcopalians,  Presbyterians,  and  other  religious 
denominations  carry  on  extensive  missionary  and 
educational  work  in  the  Territory.  The  Presby- 
terians maintain,  moreover,  an  industrial  train- 
ing school  at  Sitka.  Almost  the  whole  native 
population  has  been  brought  under  the  influence 
of  Christian  teaching. 

History.  In  July.  1740,  the  Danish  navi- 
gator Bering,  wlio  was  in  the  Russian  service, 
discovered  a  number  of  islands,  among  them  that 
bearing  his  name.  Russian  explorers  and  trad- 
ers gradually  pushed  further  eastward  and  came 
into  conflict  with  the  natives,  whom  they  cruelly 
maltreated.  The  coast  of  Alaska  was  visited 
by  Captain  Cook  in  1778,  and  by  the  Spaniards 
at  about  the  same  time.  In  1778  a  Russian 
company  was  organized  to  exploit  the  new  coun- 
try. In  1784  the  first  permanent  settlement  was 
made  at  Three  Saints,  on  Kadiak  Island,  and  in 
1790.  Alexander  Baranov  was  made  manager  of 
the  trading  company.  In  1799  the  Russian- 
American  Company  was  chartered,  and  was 
granted  control  of  all  Russian  interests  in  North 
America  for  twenty  j-ears.  Trading  posts,  in- 
cluding Sitka  (1799),  and  missions  of  the  Greek 
Church  were  established  at  many  new  points. 
The  cliarter  of  the  Russian-American  Company 
was  renewed  in  1820  and  1844.  In  1804-(J7  parts 
of  tlie  country  were  explored  by  the  Western 
Union  Telegraph  Company,  with  the  object  of 
connecting  Europe  with  America  by  telegraph  at 
Bering  Strait,  but  the  project  was  abandoned 
when  the  Atlantic  cable  became  successful.  In 
March,  1867,  the  Territory  was  ceded  to  the 
United  States  for  $7,200,000  in  gold,  and  on 
October  18  a  military  force  of  the  United  States 
at  Sitka  took  formal  possession.  In  1808  the 
laws  of  the  United  States  I'elating  to  customs, 
commerce,  and  navigation  were  extended  over 
the  mainland,  islands,  and  waters.  A  military 
post  was  maintained  at  Sitka  for  ten  years,  and 
other  garrisons  were  established,  but  in  1877 
all  troops  were  withdrawn.  In  maintenance 
of  its  claim  to  joint  possession  with  Russia  of 
Bering  Sea  (q.v.)  as  an  inland  water,  the  United 
vStates  several  times  seized  British  vessels  en- 
gaged in  taking  fur  seals,  and  the  complications 
resulting  therefrom  were  made  the  subject  of 
prolonged  negotiation  between  the  United  States 
and  Great  Britain.  The  v\'hale  and  seal  fisheries 
of  Alaska  were  rapidly  approaching  exhaustion, 
when  the  discovery  of  gold  along  the  Yukon  in 
1890-97.  and  at  Cape  Nome  on  the  west  coast 
in  1898-99.  completely  changed  economic  condi- 
tions there,  and  caused  a  svidden  inroad  of  popu- 
lation. Tlu>  vast  importance  of  the  Canadian 
Klondike  region  brought  the  long  -  standing 
boundary  dispute  between  the  United  States  and 
Canada  to  a  crisis.  Canada  demanded  such  a 
rectification  of  the  line  in  the  region  of  the  Lynn 


Canal  as  would  have  placed  in  her  possession  Skag- 
way.  Pyramid  Harbor,  and  Dyea.  the  principal 
entrances  to  her  slold-flelds.  In  1901  nothing  more 
than  a  modus  virendi  between  the  two  countries 
had  been  arrived  at.  By  a  congressional  act  of 
.June  0,  1900,  Alaska  was  made  a  civil  and  judicial 
district. 

BiBLiOGRAPHr.  Abercrombie,  Copper  River 
Exploring  Expedition  (Washington,  1900)  ; 
Schwatka,  Along  Alaska's  Grvnt  River  (New 
York,  1885)  :  Swineford,  Aluslca:  Its  History, 
Climate,  and  Natural  /?eso»rce,9( Chicago,  1898)  ; 
Bruce,  Alaska:  Its  History  and  Rf sources  (Seat- 
tle, 1893)  :  Bancroft,  Alaska  (San  Francisco, 
1.S86)  :  Elliott,  Chir  Arctic  I'rorince  (New  York, 
1886)  :  John  Burrouglis  et  al..  Jlarriman  Alaska 
Expedition  (New  Y'ork,  1991)  ;  Ennnons, "Alaska 
and  Its  Mineral  Resources,"  National  Geograph- 
ical Magazine  (Washington,  1S98)  ;  IngersoU, 
Colden  Alaska:  A  Complete  Account  of  the  Yu- 
kon Valley  (Chicago,  1S97)  ;  Heistand,  The  Ter- 
ritory of  Alaska  ( Kansas  City,  1898);  Dall, 
"Report  on  Coal  and  Lignite  of  Alaska,"  United 
States  Geological  Surrey,  Serentcenth  Annual 
Report,  Fart  I.  (Washington,  1896)  :  Reports 
and  Bulletins  of  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey  for  1895  (Washington,  1899)  ;  United 
States  Geological  Survey,  Explorations  in  Alaska 
(Washington.  1900)  :  'Reports  of  the  United 
States  Board  of  Education,  of  the  Treasury,  and 
War  Departments  (Washington,  1899-1901); 
Reports  of  the  Governor  of  Alaska  to  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Interior;  United  States  Military 
Affairs  Committee :  Narratives  of  Explorations 
in  Alaska  ( Wasliington,  1900)  ;  bibliography  in 
Appleton's  Guide  to  Alaska  (New  York,  1896)  ; 
Ray  and  Murdock,  Report  of  the  International 
Polar  Expedition  to  Point  Barrow,  Alaska 
(Washington,  1885)  :  Nelson,  Report  on  Natural 
History  Collections  Made  in  Alaska,  1S77  to 
18St  (Washington,  1887)  :  Turner,  Contributions 
to  the  Natural  History  of  Alaska  (Washington, 
1886). 

ALASKA  SA'BLE.    See  Skunk. 

ALASSIO,  a-l:is'sy6.  A  seaport  of  Italy  on 
the  Gulf  of  Genoa,  57  miles  southwest  of  the 
city  of  Genoa  (Map:  Italy,  C  3).  In  winter  it 
is  frequented  by  foreigners,  particularly  by  Eng- 
lish-speaking people,  and  in  summer  the  excellent 
bathing  attracts  Italians.  The  natives  are  most- 
ly fishermen  and  boat  builders.  Pop.,  1901, 
5630.  Consult  Seheer's  Alaseio  und  seine  Um- 
gchung  (Weisbaden,  1886). 

ALASTOR  {Gk.'A'Ada-up).  (1)  An  avenging, 
haunting  spirit.  Among  tlie  Greeks  the  name 
was  sometimes  applied  to  Zeus  as  an  avenging 
deity ;  also  to  the  Furies.  In  the  Middle  Ages 
it  was  given  to  one  of  Satan's  chief  ministers,  a 
demon  supposed  to  execute  his  purposes. 

(2)  A  poem  by  Shelley  published  in  1816,  en- 
titled in  full,  Alastor,  or  the  Spirit  of  Solitude. 

ALATATJ,  a'latou'  (Turk..  Jlottled  Mountain 
Range) .  A  name  given  to  a  range  of  lofty  moun- 
tains forming  the  boundary  between  Turkestan 
and  Mongolia  and  the  northern  limit  of  the 
great  tableland  of  Central  Asia  (Map:  Asia, 
G  4).  It  is  made  up  of  three  sierra-like  sub- 
ranges, the  Dzungarian,  the  Trans-Hi,  and  the 
Kuznets  Alatau.  These  are  all  grouped  around 
Lake  Issik-Kul  as  a  central  point.  The  peaks  of 
the  Alatau,  which  are  principally  of  granitic 
formation,  attain  an  elevation  of  over  15,000 
feet. 


ALATERNTJS. 


269 


ALBANI. 


AL'ATER'NUS  (Lat.).  A  gcmis  of  plants 
of  the  natural  oriler  Rhamiiacca'.  akin  to  Rliani- 
nus  (see  Blcktiiorx  ) ,  but  more  generally  re- 
garded as  a  sub-genus  of  Khaninus.  It  consists 
of  evergreen  shrubs,  of  which  the  best  known  is 
Alaternus  phillyrea  or  Rhamnus  alaternus,  a 
large  shrub,  densely  branched,  with  shining  al- 
ternate, more  or  less  ovate,  leaves.  The  Howers 
are  dicecious,  racemed,  numerous,  and  small, 
nnioh  sought  after  by  bees.  This  shrub  is  abun- 
dant in  Europe.  The  berries  partake  of  the  pur- 
gative qualities  attributed  to  Rhamnus  cathar- 
tiea. 

ALATE.I,  a-lil'tre.  An  episcopal  city  in  south 
Italy,  nine  miles  north  of  Frosimme  (Map:  Italy, 
HO).  The  Cyclopean  gateway  and  walls  of  the 
ancient  aletrium  are  splendidly  preserved.  It 
has  many  cloth  factories.     Pop.,  1881,  5500. 

ALATYK,  ii'la-ter'.  The  chief  town  of  a  dis- 
trict iu  the  government  of  Simbirsk.  Russia,  on 
the  Sura,  107  miles  northwest  of  Simbirsk  (Map: 
Russia,  G  4|.  It  has  two  cathedrals,  four  mon- 
asteries, a  hospital,  schools,  etc.  Milling,  brew- 
ing, and  brick-making  are  the  principal  indus- 
tries. Pop.,  1897,  11.100.  It  was  founded  in 
1552  by  Ivan  the  Terrible. 

ALATJSI,  ii'lou-sc'.  A  town  on  the  Alausi 
River,  in  the  province  of  C'himborazo.  Ecuador, 
75  miles  east  of  Guayaquil  (Map:  Ecuador.  B  4). 
It  is  situated  on  a  plateau  of  the  Andes,  in  a 
fertile  region,  abounding  in  hot  springs.  Pop., 
6000. 

ALAUX,  :\'\t,'.  ,Iean,  called  le  Romatn  ( 1786- 
1864).  A  French  historical  painter,  born  at 
Bordeaux.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Vincent  and 
Gu#rin,  and  in  1815  won  the  Grand  Prix  de 
Rome.  He  was  director  of  the  French  .\cadeniy 
at  Rome  from  1840  to  1S5,3.  and  in  1851  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Institute.  His  works 
include  "Pandora  Brought  from  Hcawn  by  iler- 
cury"  (Palace  of  St.  Cloud,  destroyed  1870), 
"Burial  of  Our  Lord"  (Xotre  Dame  de  Loretto, 
Paris),  and  twenty-nine  canvases  in  the  museum 
of  Versailles. 

ALAVA,  a'la-va,  Don  Miguel  Ricardo  de 
(1771-184.3).  A  Spanish  general.  He  was  born 
at  Vittoria,  Spain,  and  died  at  Bareges,  France. 
Sprung  from  a  noble  family,  he  entered  the  navy 
in  early  life,  but  changed  later  to  the  land  ser- 
vice. His  political  conscience  was  as  flexible  as 
his  political  career  w'as  checkered.  He  aban- 
doned Ferdinand  VII.  for  the  French  in  1808: 
left  the  French  for  the  English,  in  1811.  and 
entered  once  more  into  the  service  of  Ferdinand, 
in  1815.  as  minister  to  The  Hague.  In  1820, 
he  was  leader  of  the  Liberals  in  the  Cortes;  in 
1822  he  fouglit  against  Ferdinand's  guards  at 
Madrid,  and  the  next  year  he  negotiated  with 
the  Due  d'Angouleme  for  the  restoration  of 
Ferdinand  to  his  throne.  Fearing  Ferdinand's 
vengeance,  however.  Alava  lied  the  country. 
From  his  exile  in  England  he  was  recalled  by 
Maria  Christina,  who  made  him  ambassador, 
first  to  London,  in  1834.  and.  in  1835.  to  Paris. 
The  following  year  he  refused  to  swear  to  the 
constitution  of  1812.  reestablished  by  the  insur- 
rection of  La  Granja,  and  retired  to  France. 

ALAY,  a-li'.  A  Turkish  ceremony  on  the 
assembling  of  the  forces  at  the  breaking  out  of 
a  war.  the  chief  feature  of  which  is  a  ])ublic 
display  of  the  sacred  standard  of  Jlohanuned. 
which  may  be  looked  upon  only  by  Moslems  and 


touched  only  by  emirs.     It  is  a  capital  otTense 
for  a  Christian  to  look  upon  the  banner. 

ALB.     See  Costume,  Ecclesiastical. 

ALBA,  iil'ba  (ancient  Lat.  Alha  Pompeia, 
White  Pompeia).  An  episcopal  city  of  north 
Italy,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tanaro, 
31  miles  southeast  of  Turin  (!Map:  Italy,  C  3). 
The  vast  Gothic  cathedral  dates  from  1480,  and 
there  are  rich  collections  of  ancient  manuscripts, 
coins,  vases,  and  household  utensils.  The  coun- 
try produces  wine,  grain,  cattle,  silk,  truffles,  and 
cheese.     Pop.,  1 88 1,  0900. 

ALBA,  al'ba.     See  Alva. 

ALBACETE,  iil'ba-tha'ta.  A  town  of  Spain, 
capital  of  the  province  of  the  same  name,  in 
Murcia.  It  is  situated  an  altitude  of  more 
than  3800  feet;  138  miles  southeast  of  Madrid, 
and  on  the  railway  which  runs  from  Madrid  to 
Alicante  (Map:  Spain,  E  .3).  It  .stands  in  a 
fertile  but  treeless  plain ;  consists  of  an  upper 
and  a  lower  town,  tlie  latter  of  which,  being  mod- 
ern, is  built  with  some  degree  of  regularity,  and 
contains  a  number  of  squares  and  many  good 
houses.  It  is  a  place  of  considerable  trade,  and 
is  noted  in  Spain  for  the  manufacture  of  knives 
and  other  steel  goods.  Annual  cattle  fairs  are 
held  here.     Pop..  18S7.  20.700;    1:100,21,373. 

AL'BACORE,  or  AL'BICORE  (Portug.  and 
Sp.  albacnra,  from  Ar.  al,  the  +  bakr,  a  young 
camel,  a  heifer).  A  tunny,  especially  the  long- 
finned,  or  alalonga.     See  Tunny. 

AL'BA  LON'GA.  An  ancient  town  of 
liatium,  founded,  according  to  the  popular  ac- 
count (Livy  i  :  3),  by  Ascanius,  son  of  ^Eneas, 
on  a  ridge  overlooking  the  Alban  Lake.  Here 
lived  several  generations  of  kings,  and  here  were 
born  the  twins  Romulus  and  Remus,  sons  of  the 
King's  daughter,  Rhea  Silvia,  by  the  god  Mars. 
Alba  Longa  was  destroyed  under  Tullus  Hos- 
tilius.  third  king  of  Rome,  and  never  rebuilt, 
its  inhabitants  being  removed  to  Rome.  The 
legend,  in  its  general  outline,  is  doubtless  based 
on  facts.  In  1817  a  remarkable  pre-historie  ne- 
cropolis was  found  here,  buried  under  volcanic 
ashes,  and  containing  burial-urns  in  the  form  of 
round  huts.  (See  Arcii.t;ology. )  The  site  of 
the  town  seems  to  have  been  near  tlie  modern 
Castel  Gandolfo.  The  Emperor  Domitian  had  a 
villa  here. 

ALBAN,  .al'bon.  Saint.  According  to  legend, 
the  first  martyr  of  Britain.  He  was  born  at 
A'eruliini  in  the  third  century,  and  after  having 
long  lived  as  a  heathen,  was  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity, but  put  to  death  in  304.  His  day  is 
Jtme  22.  The  town  of  St.  Albans,  which  bears 
his  name,  is  believed  to  stand  on  the  site  of  his 
birthplace  or  the  scene  of  his  martyrdom.  See 
St.  Alrans. 

ALBA'NI.  In  ancient  times,  a  people  in  Asia 
inhal)iting  the  country  between  tlie  Caucasus 
and  the  Cyrus  River,  and  between  Armenia  and 
the  Caspian  Se.a.  corresponding  with  the  modern 
Daghestan,  Shirvan,  and  Laghistan.  The  an- 
cient Albanians  were  described  as  tall,  strong, 
and  of  giaceful  appearance.  They  were  nomads. 
A  Roman  army  under  Pompey  first  encountered 
them  in  65  n.c  and  found  a  force  of  60.000  in- 
fantry and  22.000  cavalry  opposing  it.  Pompey 
secured  a  nominal  submission,  but  they  continued 
practically  independent. 

ALBANI,    al-ba'ne.      A   rich    and   celebrated 


ALBANI. 


270 


ALBANIAN   LANGUAGE. 


family  of  Konie,  who  came  originally  from  Al- 
bania' in  the  sixteenth  century  and  settled  first 
at  Urbino.  The  great  inlluence  of  the  family 
dates  from  the  accession  (1700)  of  Giovanni 
Francesco  Albani  to  tlie  papal  throne  as  Clement 
XI.  It  has  since  furnished  a  succession  of  car- 
dinals. Cardinal  Alessandro  Albani  (1692- 
1779)  made  the  celebrated  art  collection  of  the 
Villa  Albani  at  Rome. 

ALBANI,  Alessakuro  (1692-1779).  A 
nephew  of  Pope  Clement  XI..  created  cardinal 
by  Innocent  XIII.  in  1721.  He  was  born  at  Ur- 
bino, and  was  a  brother  of  Annibale  Albani. 
Under  llaria  Theresa,  he"  served  as  minister  at 
the  papal  court  and  crown-protector  of  Austria. 
After  his  death  his  collection  (at  Rome)  of 
statues  and  other  worlds  of  art  was  bouglit  by 
George    III. 

ALBANI,  Emma  ( 1S51— ) .  The  stage  name 
of  JIarie  Louise  Cecilia  Emma  Lajeunesse.  A 
Canadian  dramatic  soprano.  She  was  born  at 
Chamblv,  near  Jlontreal,  November  1,  1851.  She 
made  lier  first  public  appearance  at  Albany, 
N.  Y..  when  but  twelve  years  old.  She  studied  un- 
der Duprez,  of  Paris,' and  Lamperti,  of  Milan, 
made  her  debut  at  Messina  as  Ainina  in  La  Son- 
r.ainhuln  (1S70),  and  has  sung  in  opera  in  Lon- 
don, Paris,  Berlin,  St.  Petersburg,  and  many 
cities  of  the  United  States.  Among  her  imper- 
sonations are:  Senta  in  the  Fijjing  Dutchman, 
Elisabeth  in  TaniiliMuxer,  Elsa  in  Lohengrin, 
Marguerite,  Lucia,  Jlignon,  Ophelia,  and  Isolde. 
Madame  Albani  has  also  sung  in  oratorio.  She 
married  Mr.  Gve,  of  London,  in  1878.  Consult 
II.  S.  Edward's,  The  Prima  Donna  (London, 
1888). 

ALBANI,  Francesco  (1578-1660).  An  Ital- 
ian painter  of  the  Carracci  School,  the  lifelong 
friend  of  Guido  Reni.  He  was  born  and  lived 
chiefly  at  Bologna.  He  leaned  to  the  classical  in 
subject,  and  although  he  was  styled  the  Anacreon 
of  painting,  liis  manner  was  far  removed  from  the 
dignified  simplicity  of  Greek  art.  His  figures 
were  charming  and  graceful,  but  were  gay  and 
sportive  rather  than  dignified.  Albani  opened 
an  academv  in  Rome,  and  it  is  in  that  city  that 
the  chief  memorials  of  his  works  are  to  be  found. 
By  a  second  marriage  he  became  tlie  father  of 
twelve  children,  all  of  whom  were  so  beautiful 
that  they  served  as  models  for  his  most  famous 
paintings.  Among  his  chief  works  are  the  fres- 
coes of  scenes  from  Ovid  in  the  Torlonia  Palace 
and  "Four  Seasons"  in  the  Borghese  Gallery, 
Rome;  "Cupids  Dancing"  and  ten  others  at 
Dresden;  "Cupids  Disarmed."  "The  Toilette  of 
Venus,"  and  thirteen  others  in  the  Louvre. 

ALBANI,  M.\TTHIAS.  The  name  of  two 
famous  Tyrolese  violin  makers,  father  and  son. 
The  father  was  born  in  1621  at  Bozen.  He  was 
a  pupil  of  Staiiier.  The  son  studied  with  the 
masters  of  violin  making  at  Cremona,  and  after- 
ward settled  at  Rome.  He  died  in  1673.  The 
instruments  he  made  between  the  years  1702  and 
1700  are  exceedingly  valuable,  and  are  hy  some 
considered  equal   to  those  of  Amati. 

ALBANI,  Vli.l.A.  The  palace  of  the  .\Ibani 
family  at  Rome,  containing  a  famous  collection 
of  antique  works  of  art. 

ALBANIA,  :'il-bri'ni-a ;  Mod.  OK:  .al'Bil-nG'a 
(Turk.  A  rnnut  I .  .\  country  in  the  western  part 
of  the  Balkan  I'cninsula.  embracing,  in  the  wid- 
est sense  of  the  name,  the  Turkish  vilayets  of 


.Janina,   Jlonastir.   Scutari,   and   a   part   of  Kos- 
sovo    (Map:   Turkey  in  Europe,  C  4).     It  takes 
in  ancient  Hlyria,  most  of  Epirus,  and  parts  of 
Macedonia,  and  covers  an  area  estimated  at  from 
10,000  to  22,000  square  miles,  according  as  the 
name  is  taken   in  a   narrower  or  broader  sense. 
It    borders   on    Montenegro   and   the    Sanjak   of 
Xovilnizar  on  the  north.  Macedonia  on  the  east, 
Greece  on  the  south,  and  the  Adriatic  Sea  on  the 
west.     The  whole  region  is  traversed  hy  numer- 
ous   high    mountain    chains,    separated    by    long 
and  narrow  ^•alleys,  running  from  northwest  to 
southeast.     The  elevated  plateaus  found  among 
the   mountain   chains   are   mostly    fruitful    and 
well  populated,  and  some  of  them  inclose  lakes. 
The  rivers  of  Albania,   of   wdiich   the  most  im- 
portant are  the  Boyana,  Drin,  Devol,  and  Voyus- 
sa,  have  an  exceedingly  tortuous  course,  on  ac- 
count of  the  mountainous  character  of  the  sur- 
face.    The    climate    is    healthful    and    moderate, 
and  the  soil  for  the  most  part  fertile.     Grain  and 
tobacco  grow  well,  and  the  olive  is  cultivated  ex- 
tensively and  exported  on  a  considerable  scale. 
Some  fish  and  sea  salt  are  also  exported.      The 
population  of  Albania,  within  the  broader  limits 
given  above,  is  probably  not  far  from  2.000,000, 
but  Albania   proper,   or  the   legion  which   is   in- 
habited mainly  by  Albanians,  has  a  much  smaller 
population.     The  Albanians,  or  Arnauts,  who  in 
their   own   language   call   themselves   Shkipetars 
(Skipetars),  are  the  descendants  of  the  ancient 
Illyrians,   and  occupy  a   unique   position   among 
the     Caucasian    races.     Only    .slightly    civilized 
and   very   warlike,    they   keep   the   country   in   a 
constant    state    of    turmoil.      The    differences    in 
religion  of  the  various  tribes,  their   strong   feeling 
of  clanship,  together  with  the  warlike  spirit   of 
the   jieople.   afford   ample   opportunity   for   civil 
strife.     In  their   form   of  government   the  Alba- 
nians still  retain  some  of  the  patriarchal   insti- 
tutions, and  Turkish  authority  is  only  slightly 
recognized.     The  JMohamniedan   religion   is  pro- 
fessed  by  most   of   them,   while  the   Christians 
number  190,000,  divided  almost  equally  between 
Roman  and   Greek  Catholics.     There   are  nearlj' 
200.000    Alljanians    in    Greece,    found    chiefly    in 
Attica,  Megaris.  and  the  islands  of  the  .Egean; 
about    100,000    in    southern    Italy,    and    smaller 
groups    in   the   Slavonic   provinces   of   southern 
Austria.     The  turbulent   tribes  which   inhabited 
the  region  in  antiquity  resisted  all  attempts  at 
subjugation,    and    except    during    the    reign    of 
Pyrrhus  of  Epirus  (206-272  B.C.)   never  acknowl- 
edged   any    supreme    authority.     In    the    Jliddle 
Ages   the   inhabitants  displayed   the   same  obsti- 
nacy  in   their   resistance  to  the  Turkish   power. 
Their  great  leader,  George  Castriota,  or  Scander- 
beg    (1404-68),   overwhelmed   twenty-three  Otto- 
man armies,  some  of  them   commanded  by  the 
sultan   in   person,   and   though    after   the   fall   of 
Scutari,   in   1478,  the   nominal   authority  of   the 
Porte    was    acknowledged,    the    country    at    all 
times  enjoved  a  very  large  measure  of  freedom. 
From  1807' to  1822  Albania  was  practically  inde- 
pendent under  the  rule  of  AH  Pasha    (q.v.),  the 
Lion  of  Janina.     The  feeling  of  inveterate  hos- 
tility for  the  Greeks  kept  the  Albanians   from 
embracing  their  cause  in  the  war  of  liberation. 
Consult:  H.  Callan, "Albania  and  the  Albanians,^' 
in  Scottish  (leoariiphiral  Magazine.  \  olume  X\  . 
(Edinburgh.   IS'OO)  :    P.  Traeger.   ••Mitthcilnngen 
uiid    Funde    aus    Albanien."    in    /.cit.schrift    fiir 
Eihmdmiir.  Volume  XXXII.  (Berlin,  1000). 
ALBA'NIAN  LAN'GTJAGE.     Tlie  Albanian 


ALBANIAN    LANGUAGE. 


2n 


ALBANY. 


forms  one  of  the  eight  chief  divisions  of  the 
Indo-Gerinanic  hinguagcs  (q.v. ),  and  is  a  de- 
scendant of  tlie  ancient  lUyrian,  of  which  only 
a  few  words  are  preserved.  On  account  of  the 
large  numljcr  of  Greek  loan-words  in  its  vocabu- 
lary, the  All)anian  was  formerly  thought  to  be- 
long to  the  Hellenic  brancli  of  dialects;  Imt  it  is 
now  known  to  be  quite  independent,  and  to  form 
a  branch  by  itself,  akin  rather  to  the  Slavic  fani- 
ilj-  than  to  the  Greek  group.  Geographically,  the 
language  is  not  confined  to  Albania  alone,  but 
may  be  traced  also  in  southern  Italy  and  Sicily. 
Two  main  dialect-groups  of  the  language  may  be 
distinguished.  The  northern  class,  called  Gegish', 
is  the  more  primitive,  while  the  southern,  or 
Toskish,  is  permeated  with  loan-words.  Of  all 
the  languages  of  the  Indo-Germanic  group,  Al- 
banian has  been  the  most  changed  in  vocabulary 
by  borrowed  words,  although  it  has  preserved  in 
the  main  its  structure.  The  vocabulary  of  loan- 
■«ords  is  chielly  Latin,  augmented  by  Slavic  and 
Greek  accretions,  and,  in  Gegish  especially,  by 
numerous  Turkish  words.  In  point  of  literary 
culture  Albanian  is  the  most  backward  of  all 
the  Indo-Germanic  languages,  and  it  can  scarcely 
be  said  to  possess  a  literature.  While  rich  in 
folk-songs,  tales,  and  proverbs,  it  is  only  within 
a  comparatively  short  time  that  any  systematic 
endeavor  has  been  made  to  cultivate  the  literary 
potentialities  of  the  people.  In  the  Gegish  dia- 
lects the  alphabet  usually  employed  is  the  Ro- 
man, with  certain  modifications,  while  the 
Toskish  adopts  the  Greek  letters  with  some  slight 
changes.  Consult :  Pisko,  Kur:::gcfasstcs  Huiid- 
buch  dcr  nordalhancsischcii  Sprachen  (Vienna, 
ISOtJ);  Dozon,  Manuel  do  la  langiic  chkipc  on 
Albannise  (Paris,  1878)  ;  G.  Meyer,  Kurzijcfasstc 
albancsisclie    (jrainmatik    (Leipzig,    1888)  ;    Eii/- 

•  mologisches  Wbrterbuch  der  albanesischcn 
Sprache     (Strassburg,     1801);     Pedersen,    Alba- 

>  nesische  Texte  (Leipzig,  1895). 

ALBAN  (ril'b«n)  MOTJN'TAINS.  A  group 
of  volcanic  mountains  in  central  Italy,  13  miles 
southeast  of  Rome,  with  several  extinct  craters, 
two  of  which  are  occupied  by  sombre  Lake  Al- 
bano  and  beautiful  Lake  Nemi  (Map:  Italj-, 
G  6),  The  central  crater  terminates  in  Punta 
Faette  and  in  Monte  Cavo,  3145  feet  above  the 
sea,  on  which  stood  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Lati- 
aris.  where  the  sacrificial  festival  of  the  Feria; 
Latinoe  was  celebrated  annually.  The  scanty 
ruins  of  the  temple  disappeared  about  1777,  when 
Cardinal  York,  the  last  of  the  Stuarts,  built  on 
the  spot  a  Passionist  monastery.  From  here 
there  is  a  splendid  view  of  the  sea,  the  Cam- 
pagna.  and  the  surrounding  mountains.  The 
beauty  of  the  scenery  and  the  agreeableness  of  the 
climate  have  made  tlie  Alban  Jlountains  a  favor- 
ite summer  resort  of  the  Romans  from  the  most 
ancient  times.  Places  that  are  worthy  of  a  visit 
by  the  tourist  are  Frascati  (q.v.),  Albano.- 
Grotta  Ferrata,  Marino,  Castel  Gandolfo  (q.v.), 
and  Rocco  di  Pai)a.  The  site  of  All)a  Longa 
(q.v.),  Rome's  motlier  city,  was  on  the  east  side 
of  Lake  Albano. 

ALBANO,  al-bil'no.  A  town  of  Italy,  about 
18  miles  fiom  Rome,  on  the  declivity  of  the 
lava-walls  which  encompass  Lake  Albano  (ilap: 
Italy,  G  6) ,  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  has  about 
7000  inhabitants,  and  is  surrounded  by  hand- 
some mansions  of  the  wealthier  Romans.  It  is 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  lake  from  the  site  of 
Alba  Longa,  and  owed  its  origin  to  the  villas  of 


ancient  Roman  magnates,  such  as  Pompey,  Dorai- 
tian,  and  Clodius,  A  valuable  wine  is  produced 
in  the  environs.  Near  the  town,  on  the  old  Ap- 
pian  \\'ay,  are  found  the  remains  of  an  amphi- 
theatre and  ancient  tombs.  The  Alban  Lake,  or 
Lago  di  Castello,  is  formed  in  the  basin  of  an  ex- 
tinct volcano,  has  a  circumference  of  G  miles,  with 
a  depth  of  about  350  feet.  Its  elevation  is  nearly 
1000  feet  above  the  sea  level.  Ancient  writers 
say  that,  while  the  Romans  were  at  war  with  the 
Veientes  (398  B.C.),  this  lake  rose  to  an  extra- 
ordinary height  in  the  heat  of  summer.  Etruscan 
diviners  declared  that  the  conquest  of  Veil  de- 
pended upon  letting  off  the  waters  of  the  lake. 
Stimulated  by  this,  the  Romans,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Etruscans,  opened  an  emissary  or 
tunnel  through  the  lava-wall  on  the  northwest. 
In  the  execution  of  this  work  they  acquired  the 
art  of  mining,  which  they  now  ajtplied  to  under- 
mine the  walls  of  Veil.  The  tuiuiel,  which  still 
remains,  and  still  fulfills  its  ancient  office,  is 
more  than  a  mile  in  length,  with  a  height  of  7 
feet  and  a  width  of  4  feet.  On  the  eastern  bank 
of  the  lake  rises  Monte  Cavo,  the  ancient  Alba- 
nus  Mons,  3000  feet  high,  which  commands  an 
extensive  and  magnificent  view.  Upon  its  sum- 
mit once  stood  the  magnificent  temple  of  Jupiter 
Latiaris,  which  was  approached  by  a  paved  way, 
for  the  ascent  of  the  solemn  processions  of  the 
Latin  confederation  (Fcriw  Latinw),  and  for 
the  ovations  of  Roman  generals.  The  road  re- 
mains, in  great  part,  perfect  to  this  day.  The 
Albano  stone,  called  peperino,  was  nuich  used  in 
Roman  buildings.  It  is  a  kind  of  volcanic  tufa, 
of  an  ash-colpr,  and  is  still  quarried  extensively 
at  Albano. 

ALBANO.  A  lake  in  Italy,  near  the  town  of 
the  same  name  (ilap:  Italy.  G  (1).  It  is  situ- 
ated in  the  crater  of  an  extinct  volcano,  at  an 
elevation  of  970  feet  above  the  sea.  Its  only 
outlet  is  a  tunnel  built  by  the  Romans  during 
the  siege  of  Veil  in  the  fourth  century  B.C.  The 
lake  is  about  10t)0  feet  deep,  full  of  fish,  and 
famous  for  its  beautiful  scenery.  On  the  eastern 
shore  of  the  lake  ri.ses  Monte  Cavo,  or  Albano, 
3000  feet  above  the  sea,  with  the  ruins  of  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  Latiaris  on  its  summit. 

ALBANS,  al'banz,  St.     See  St.  Aleans. 

ALBANY,  .al'ba-ni.  A  fortified  seaport  and 
municipality  of  Plantagenet  Co.,  West  Australia, 
on  King  George's  So\ind.  302  miles  southeast  by 
south  of  Perth  by  rail  (.Map:  Australia,  B  5). 
It  is  noted  for  its  fine  harbor,  is  a  station  and 
port  of  call  for  the  Peninsular  and  Oriental  Com- 
pany's steamers,  and  is  also  a  coaling  depot. 
The  United  States  has  a  resident  consular  agent. 
Pop.,  3000. 

ALBANY.  Capital  of  New  York  State,  and 
county  seat  of  Albany  Co.,  and  an  important 
railroad  and  commercial  city.  It  is  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  Hudson  River,  nearly  six  miles  below 
the  head  of  navigation,  145  miles  north  of  New 
York  C'itv  and  about  200  miles  west  of  Boston 
( Map :  New  York,  G  3 ) . 

A  narrow  alluvial  plain  extends  along  the 
river,  and  from  this  the  ground  rises  sharply  to 
a  sandy  plateau  about  two  hundred  feet  above 
tide  level,  with  valleys  separating  the  four  ridges 
into  which  the  slope  is  divided.  The  principal 
streets  are  Broadway,  and  North  and  South 
Pearl  streets,  which  run  parallel  to  the  river, 
and  State  Street,  which  runs  westward,  ascend- 
ing the  face  of  the  hill  at  a  very  steep  grade.  The 


ALBANY. 


ALBANY. 


most  striking  feature  as  well  as  the  most  impor- 
tant edifice  inAlbany  is  tlieC'apitol.whichis  built 
of  Maine  granite,  in  the  Renaissance  stjie.  Since 
its  corner-stone  was  laid,  in  1871,  it  has  cost 
over  twenty-four  million  dollars.  The  edifice 
has  been  built  with  the  advantage  of  large 
ideas  and  limitless  resources,  and  the  disadvan- 
tages of  a  succession  of  architects  with  changing 
views;  these  circumstances  have  left  their  im- 
print on  the  structure.  But  when  all  has  been 
said  in  criticism  of  details,  the  general  plan,  and 
unused  possibilities,  it  must  be  ranked  among 
the  great  buildings  of  the  country.  Within 
are  rooms  for  the  Assembly,  Senate.  Court  of 
Appeals,  the  State  Library  of  over  430,000  vol- 
umes, the  governor,  and  other  State  officials. 
Many  relics  of  the  Revolution  and  Civil  War  find 
place  in  its  spacious  corridors.  Facing  the  Cap- 
itol are  the  State  Hall,  and  the  city  hall,  of  i-ed 
sandstone,  with  Komanesque  doorways  and  ma- 
jestic campaniles.  The  Federal  building,  contain- 
ing the  custom  house  and  post  oftice,  is  at  the 
foot  of  State  Street,  and  on  the  same  avenue, 
about  a  block  below  the  Capitol,  is  the  State 
Museum  of  Natural  History.  In  the  residence 
districts,  the  most  important  architectural  fea- 
tures are  the  churches,  four  of  which  have  more 
than  a  local  interest:  The  North  Dutch  church, 
8t.  Peter's  Cliurcli,  "one  of  the  richest  specimens 
of  French  Ciothic  in  this  country."  the  cathedral 
of  All  Saints,  and  the  cathedral  of  the  Immacu- 
late Conception,  w'ith  lofty  double  spires  and  a 
spacious  interior  treated  with  taste  and  dignity. 

Other  important  buildings  are  the  new  Union 
Station,  the  Hotel  Ten  Eyck.  the  Albany  Acad- 
emy, Harmanus  Bleecker  Hall,  and  the  State 
Arsenal.  The  second  Van  Rensselaer  manor 
house,  built  in  1705,  was  removed  in  1893  to  the 
campus  of  Williams  College  at  Williamstown, 
Mass.  The  old  Schuyler  mansion  is  now  used  as 
an  orphan  asylum  In-  the  Sisters  of  Charity.  Al- 
bany is  the  seat  of  a  State  normal  college,  and 
contains  the  law  and  medical  departments  of 
Union  University  at  Schenectady,  and  also  Dud- 
ley Observatory,  in  the  southwest  corner  of  the 
city.  Near  the  latter  are  the  pavilions  of  the 
new  hospital,  built  in  1800:  and  in  the  same 
section  is  the  State  penitentiary,  opened  in  184S, 
which  confines  annually  between  300  and  400 
prisoners,  the  majority  sentenced  for  short  terms. 

The  city  has  470  acres  devoted  to  parks,  the 
largest  of  which,  Washington  Park,  in  the  west- 
ern part  of  the  city,  contains  a  lake  1700 
feet  long,  and  t^^■o  fine  bronzes :  Calverley's 
statue  of  "Robert  Burns,"  and  Rhind's  statue 
of  "Moses  at  the  Rock  of  Horeb."  In  the  beau- 
tiful Rural  Cemetery  about  four  miles  north  of 
the  city  is  the  tomb  of  President  Arthur. 

Trade  and  TRANSPOETATroN.  Albany  is  a 
terminus  of  the  Boston  and  Albany  railroad, 
and  the  division  terminus  on  the  main  lines  of 
the  West  Shore,  the  New  York  Central  and  Hud- 
son River  and  the  Delaware  and  Hudson  rail- 
roads. It  is  thus  at  the  intersection  of  the  great 
thoroughfares  of  traffic  and  travel  from  Boston 
and  New  York  to  the  west  and  the  north  H  also 
has  direct  steamboat  conununication  by  day  and 
night  lines  with  New  Ytirk  and  Hudson  River 
points,  while  by  the  Erie  and  the  Champlain 
canals  it  has  water  routes  to  the  interior  of  the 
State  and  the  west  and  north.  It  still  remains 
an  important  centre  of  passenger  travel,  but  the 
great  bulk  of  freight  movement  now  passes  the 
city  in  through  shipments.    Manufacturing  inter- 


ests in  Albany  have  increased  considerably  during 
tlie  last  ten  years.  The  most  important  in- 
dustries now  include  iron,  wood,  and  brass  manu- 
factures; printing  and  engraving;  shirt,  collar, 
and  cuff  manufactures ;  manufactures  of  clothing, 
caps,  and  knit  goods ;  brewing ;  tobacco  and  cigar 
manufactures;  and  carriage  and  wagon  building. 

Within  the  city  are  about  28  miles  of  street 
railways,  and  electric  lines  connect  also  with 
towns  some  distance  from  Albany.  There  are 
three  bridges  across  the  river  to  Itensselaer,  two 
of  which  are  used  by  the  railroads  and  foot  pas- 
sengers, and  the  third  only  is  open  to  wagon 
traffic.  The  water  supply  is  furnished  in  part  by 
a  gravity  supply,  from  a  lake  five  miles  distant; 
but  a  large  proportion  is  pumped  from  the  Hud- 
son River,  and  an  improved  filtration  system 
has  recently  been  adopted  for  the  latter  supply. 
There  are  about  82  miles  of  paved  thoroughfare's, 
some  of  which  arc  laid  with  asphalt  and  brick, 
though  most  of  the  important  streets  are  paved 
with  granite  blocks  and  many  still  have  cobble- 
stone pavements. 

Admikistbation.  As  provided  by  legislative 
enactment  for  cities  of  the  second  class,  the 
government  is  vested  in  a  mayor,  elected  bien- 
nially: a  city  council,  the  piesident  being  elected 
at  large  and  the  aldermen  by  wards;  and  admin- 
istrative departments  constituted  as  follows: 
Finance — comptroller,  treasurer,  and  a  board  of 
estimate  composed  of  the  mayor,  comptroller,  cor- 
poration counsel,  president  of  the  common  coun- 
cil, city  engineer,  and  treasurer:  Pnblic  Works — 
commissioner,  who  appoints  superintendents  of 
water  works  and  parks,  city  engineer;  and  a 
board  of  contract  and  supply,  composed  of  the 
mayor,  comptroller,  commissioner  of  public 
works,  corporation  counsel,  and  city  enffineer; 
Public  Safctii — conniiissioner,  who  appoints  chiefs 
of  police  and  fire  departments,  with  their 
subordinates,  and  a  health  officer  and  district 
health  physicians;  Assessment  and  Taxation — 
four  assessors,  two  elected  every  two  years  for 
a  term  of  four  years;  Charities  and  Correction — 
commissioner,  who  appoints  an  overseer  of  the 
poor  and  assistants :  Judiciary — one  police  court 
justice  who  holds  office  for  six  years,  and  three 
city  court  justices:  JjOic — corporation  counsel, 
who  appoints  an  assistant  and  subordinates.  Of 
these  officials,  the  comptroller,  treasurer,  asses- 
sors, and  police  and  city  court  justices  arc  elect- 
ed; all  others  are  appointed  by  the  executive.  A 
sealer  of  weights  and  measures  is  also  appointed 
by  the  mayor,  and  supervisors  are  chosen  by 
popular  election. 

The  annual  expenditures  of  the  city  amount 
to  about  $2,800,000.  the  principal  items  of  ex- 
pense (for  maintenance  and  operation)  being 
about  $160,000  for  the  police  department,  $140;- 
000  for  the  fire  department,  $290,000  for  schools. 
$300,000  for  bureau  of  waters,  and  $90,000  f(u- 
street  lighting. 

Pop..  1870.  69.422:  1880.  90,758;  1890,  94,923; 
1900.  94.151.  including  17.700  persons  of  foreign 
birth  and  1200  of  negro  descent. 

History.  Albany  claims  to  be  the  second  old- 
est permanent  settlement  within  the  limits  of  the 
thirteen  colonies,  and  has  a  much  greater  histori- 
cal significance  on  account  of  its  strategic  im- 
portance during  the  century  of  conflict  between 
the  English  and  French  in  America  and  in  the 
American  Revolution.  As  early  as  1524,  the 
French  navigator  Verrazano  sailed  up  the  Hud- 
son River,  and  about  1540  a  French  trading  post 


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ALBANY. 


373 


ALBANY. 


was  sot  up  near  the  present  site  of  Albany.  But 
this  pioved  only  temporary,  and  the  continuous 
history  of  the  place  dates  from  the  efl'ective  dis- 
covery of  the  region  by  Henry  Hudson  in  1609. 
Hudson':-,  voyage  was  followed  by  Lutcli  traders, 
who,  in  l(il4,  established  a  trading  talion  on 
Castle  Island  under  the  name  of  Fort  Nassau. 
Three  years  later,  the  trading  post  was  removed 
to  the  mainland  and  given  the  name  Be  -^rwyck. 
The  first  actual  settlers,  howeve-,  were  rigl.teen 
Walloon  families,  who  arrived  in  1(524.  Curing 
the  same  year.  Fort  Orange,  or  Aurania,  waj 
built,  near  the  site  of  the  present  State  Capitol. 
Two  5'ears  later  an  Indian  war  broke  up  the 
settlement  for  a  time.  In  1020,  Killiaen  Van 
Rensselaer  olitairod  an  extensive  grant  of  land 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Fort  Orange,  and  sent 
over  settlers  from  Holland,  who  rented  their 
land  from  him  as  their  patroon,  or  lord  of  the 
manor.  (See  Patroox.)  On  the  transfer  of  New 
Netherlands  to  tlie  English,  in  1004,  the  name 
of  Albany  was  given  to  the  settlement,  in  honor 
of  the  Duke  of  York  and  Albany,  afterward 
James  II.;  and  shortly  afterx.ard  a  long-standing 
dispute  as  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  patroon 
over  the  earlier  settlements  was  compromised. 
In  1080,  Albany  received  a  city  charter  from 
Governor  Dongan,  providing  for  an  elected  coun- 
cil and  a  mayor  to  be  appointed  by  the  governor. 
Tlie  first  mayor,  Peter  Schuyler,  continued  to 
serve  until  !(i!)4.  The  settlement  continued  to 
be  inhabited  nuiinly  by  the  Dutch,  but  the 
increase  in  the  English  population  is  indicated 
by  the  erection  of  an  English   church  in   1714. 

As  a  frontier  town  open  to  Indian  attacks, 
Albany  was  protected  not  only  by  tlie  fort,  but 
by  a  stockade  surrounding  the  compactly  built 
area.  During  the  French  and  Indian  w-ars,  the 
city  was  the  storehouse  for  munitions  of  war, 
the  rendezvous  for  the  troops,  and  a  place  of 
safety  for  refugees  and  wounded  soldiers.  In 
1754  there  was  held  at  .\lbaiiy  the  first  general 
Congress  (see  Albany  Co.vve.ntion)  of  all  the 
colonies,  at  which  plans  of  union  were  discussed. 

Burgoyne's  campaign  in  1777  was  directed 
against  Albany,  as  the  key  to  the  situation  in 
the  north:  but  the  battle  of  Saratoga  preserved 
this  strategic  point  to  the  patriots.  During  the 
next  twenty  years  Albany  was  at  times  the  head- 
quarters of  the  State  government;  in  1797  it 
was  made  the  permanent  capital  of  the  State, 
and  the  first  State  house  was  built  a  few  years 
later. 

In  1820  Albany  had  a  population  of  only 
12.030 ;  but  the  Erie  Canal  opened  a  new  field 
for  commercial  activity,  and  brought  a  rapid 
development.  By  1840  the  population  was  33,- 
721,  or  nearly  treble  that  of  twenty  years  before; 
by  1800  it  had  reached  02,307.  but  since  then 
the  increase  has  been  at  a  slower  rate.  In  1839 
there  began  the  "Anti-Rent  War"  (see  Axti- 
Eexti.sm  ) ,  the  result  of  an  attempt  by  the  Van 
Rennssclaer  heirs  to  collect  the  quit-rents  on  the 
old  leases  made  in  the  pre-Revolutionary  days. 
Albany  has  been  visited  by  several  disastrous 
fires,  those  in  1797  and  1848  being  the  most 
destructive.  The  L  wer  part  of  the  city  has  often 
been  inundated  by  spring  floods  in  the  river.  In 
ISSO  the  bi-ccntennial  of  the  incorporation  of 
the  city  was  celebrated  with  elaborate  ceremo- 
nies: and  on  January  6,  1897,  the  centennial  of 
the  selection  of  the  city  as  the  State  capital  was 
also  commemorated.  In  1894  the  Delavan 
House,  for   fifty  years   the  resort  of   politicians 


and  eminent  men,  was  burned.     See  A.  J.  Weise, 

The  History  of  the  City  of  Albany  (Albany, 
1884)  ;  J.  Munsell,  The  Annals  of  Albnny,  10  vol- 
umes (Albany,  18.50-.59),  and  Collections  on  the 
City  of  Albany,  4  volumes  ( .Vlbany,  1805-71); 
and  a  sketch  in  L.  P.  Powell's  Historic  Towns 
of  the  Miilrllc  Slates  (New  York,  1899). 

ALBANY.  A  city  and  county  seat  of  Linn 
Co.,  Oregon,  85  miles  south  by  west  of  Portland, 
on  the  Willame  te  Kiver,  and  on  the  Southern 
Pacific  and  the  Corvalli  and  Eastern  railroads 
(Map:  Oregon,  B  5).  The  river,  crossed  here 
by  a  fine  steel  bridge.  su])plies  good  water  power. 
Theie  are  wagon  and  furniture  factories,  saw 
and  planing  mills,  foundries  and  machine  shops, 
a  wire  mattress  factory,  brickyards,  and  woolen 
and  fiouring  mills.  Flour,  grain,  and  sandstone 
are  exported.  Albany  was  settled  about  1850, 
and  was  incorporated  in  1804.  Pop.,  1890,  3079; 
1900,  3149. 

ALBANY.  A  city  and  county  seat  of  Dough- 
erty Co.,  Ga.,  107  miles  south  by  west  of 
Macon;  on  the  Flint  River,  at  the  head  of  high 
water  navigation,  and  on  the  Central  of  Georgia, 
the  Plant  System,  the  Seaboard  Air  Line,  and 
the  Albany  and  Northern  railroads  (Map:  Geor- 
gia, B  4).  It  is  in  an  agricultural  region,  and 
controls  large  commercial  interests,  particularly 
in  cotton,  cottonseed  oil,  bricks,  fertilizers,  lum- 
ber, etc.  The  city  has  wide  streets  and  hand- 
some residences:  is  the  home  of  the  Georgia 
Chautauqua ;  and  is  noted  for  numerous  artesian 
wells,  which  are  the  exclusive  source  of  the  water 
supply.  Settled  in  1836,  Albany  was  incorpo- 
rated tw'o  years  later.  The  government,  under  a 
charter  of  1899,  is  administered  by  a  mayor, 
elected  every  two  years,  and  a  city  council,  whose 
consent  is  required  for  all  appointments  of 
administrative  officials  made  by  the  mayor.  The 
water  works  and  electric  light  plant  are  owned 
and  operated  by  the  municipality.  Pop.,  1890, 
4008;   1900,  4000. 

ALBANY.  A  city  and  county  seat  of  Gentry 
Co.,  Mo.,  50  miles  northeast  of  St.  Joseph,  on 
the  Chicago,  Burlington  and  Quincy  Railroad 
(Map:  Missouri,  B  ij.  It  is  a  residential  place, 
with  commercial  interests  and  some  industrial 
establishments,  but  is  known  primarily  as  the 
seat  of  Central  Christian  College  (Christian), 
opened  in  1892,  and  of  the  Northwest  Missouri 
College  (Methodist  Episcopal.  South),  opened  in 
1893.  Settled  in  1840  and  incorporated  about 
two  years  later,  Albany  is  governed,  under  a 
charter  of  1897,  by  a  mayor,  biennially  elected, 
and  a  city  council.  The  water  works  and  electric 
light  plant  are  owned  and  operated  by  the  muni- 
cipality.    Pop.,  1890,  1334:   1900,  2025. 

ALBANY,  or  AL'BAINN.  An  ancient  name 
for  Scotland,  retained  in  poetical  usage  down  to 
our  own  day.  Connected  with  it  is  the  term 
Albiones,  applied  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  entire 
British  Islands  in  Festus  Avienus's  account  of 
the  voyage  of  Hamilcar,  the  Carthaginian,  in 
the  fifth  century  B.C. ;  also  the  term  Albion 
(q.v.),  which  appears  as  the  name  of  the  islands 
in  Aristotle's  Treatise  of  the  World.  It  may,  in- 
deed, be  assumed  that  Albion,  or  Albany,  was  the 
original  name  of  Britain  among  its  Celtic  popu- 
lation, and  that  it  only  became  restricted  to  the 
northwest  provinces  of  Scotland  when  the  Celts 
had  for  the  most  part  become  confined  to  the 
same  region.  The  modern  use  of  the  name  Al- 
bany may  be  said  to  have  taken  its  rise  in  an 


ALBANY. 


374 


ALBATROSS. 


act  of  a  Scottish  council,  lield  at  Scone,  in  June, 
139S,  when  the  title  of  Duke  of  Albany  was 
conferied  on  the  brother  of  King  Robert  III., 
then  acting  as  legent  of  the  kingdom.  The  title, 
being  forfeited  in  the  grandson  of  the  first  holder, 
was  afterward  conferred  on  Alexander,  second 
son  of  King  James  II.,  in  the  person  of  whose 
son,  .John,  it  became  extinct  in  1530.  Subse- 
quently it  was  conferred  on  a  number  of  princes 
of  the  royal  family.  Prince  Charles  Stuart  as- 
.sumed  the  appellation  of  Count  of  Albany  as 
an  incognito  title,  and  gave  the  title  of  Duchess 
of  Albany  to  his  legitimated  daughter.  The 
title  was  restoi'ed  in  1881  and  conferred  upon 
Prince  Leopold,  and  after  his  death  upon  his 
son. 

ALBANY,  Duke  of.  See  Leopold,  George 
DuNCAX  Albert. 

ALBANY,  DcKE  of.  In  Shakespeare's  King 
Lear  (q.v.),  the  husband  of  Lear's  daughter 
Goneril    (q.v.). 

ALBANY,  Loui-SA  JIaria  Caroline,  also 
Alovsia.  Countess  of  (1753-1824).  The  wife 
of  Charles  Edward  Stuart  ( q.v. ) ,  grandson  of 
James  II.  of  England.  She  was  the  daughter  of 
Prince  Gustavus  Adolphus  of  Stolberg-Gedern, 
who  fell  in  the  battle  of  Leuthen  in  17.57.  Dur- 
ing her  married  life  she  bore  the  name  of  the 
Countess  of  Albany.  She  had  no  children,  her 
marriage  proved  an  unhappy  one.  and  in  order 
to  escape  from  the  ill-usage  of  her  husband,  who 
lived  in  a  state  of  continual  drunkenness,  she 
souglit  refuge  in  a  nunnery,  1780.  At  the  death 
of  tlie  Prince,  in  1788,  the  court  of  France  al- 
lowed her  an  annual  pension  of  60,000  livres. 
She  outlived  the  house  of  the  Stuarts,  which  be- 
came extinct  at  the  death  of  her  brother-in-law, 
Cardinal  Y"ork,  in  ISO".  At  Florence,  where 
she  lived  for  a  long  time,  her  palace  was  a 
notable  resort  for  men  famous  in  political  and 
literary  circles.  Her  name  and  her  misfortunes 
have  been  transmitted  to  posterity  through  the 
works  and  autobiography  of  Alfieri  (q.v.),  whose 
mistress  she  was  after  the  death  of  the, Prince, 
and  through  the  treasures  of  the  Mus^e  Fabre. 
founded  by  another  of  her  lovers.  Her  body  and 
that  of  Alfieri  repose  in  the  same  tomb  in  the 
church  of  Santa  Croce  at  Florence,  between  the 
tombs  of  ilachiavelli  and  Michelangelo.  Con- 
sult: Lee,  The  Countess  of  Albany  (London, 
1884)  ;  Reumont,  Die  GrAfin  von  Albany  (Berlin. 
1800). 

ALBANY    CONVENTION    OF     1754.     In 

1754,  when  hostilities  were  about  to  begin  be- 
tween the  French  and  Englisli  in  America,  the 
lords  of  trade  recommended  that  an  intercolonial 
convention  lie  called  to  "confirm  and  establish  the 
ancient  friendship  of  the  Five  Nations"  and  con- 
sider plans  for  a  permanent  union  among  the 
colonies.  On  .June  If),  commissioners  from  Mas- 
.sachusetts.  Connecticut,  Xew  Hampshire,  Rhode 
Island,  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and  New  "i'ork 
assendiled  at  Albany,  and.  after  arranging  for 
the  participation  of  the  Indians  in  the  war, 
adopted,  with  some  modifications  (July  11),  a 
plan  of  intercolonial  union  proposed  by  Frank- 
lin. This  plan  provided  for  the  appointment  by 
the  crown  of  a  ])resident-general,  who  was  to 
nominate  military  officers,  commission  all  offi- 
cers, and  have  veto  power  over  the  acts  of  the 
Grand  Council:  and  for  a  Grand  Council,  to  be 
made  up  of  representatives  chosen  by  each  col- 
ony every  three  years,  no  colony  to  have  more 


than  seven  members  nor  less  than  two.  This 
council  was  not  to  be  prorogued,  dissolved,  or 
kept  in  session  longer  than  six  weeks  against  its 
consent,  and,  with  the  approval  of  the  president- 
general,  was  to  manage  Indian  affairs,  authorize 
new  settlements,  nominate  all  civil  otiicers,  im- 
pose taxes,  enlist  and  pay  troops,  and  construct 
forts,  all  of  its  acts  to  be  valid  unless  vetoed  by 
the  crown  within  three  years.  The  plan  was 
everywhere  rejected — by  the  court  and  the  royal 
governors,  because  it  gave  too  much  power  to  the 
colonies ;  by  the  colonies,  because  it  gave  too 
much  power  to  the  king.  It  is  notable  as  being 
the  first  comprehensive  scheme  of  union  formally 
proposed  to  the  various  colonial  goverinnents  in 
America.  Consult:  Keiv  York  Colonial  Docu- 
iiients.  Volume  VI.:  and  R.  Frothingham,  Rise 
of  the  Republic    (Boston^   1872). 

ALBANY  RE'GENCY,  The.  A  name  popu- 
larly given  to  a  group  of  New  York  Democrats 
living  at  Albany,  who,  from  1820  to  about  1850, 
controlled  the  nominating  conventions  and  pat- 
ronage of  their  party  within  the  State,  and  by 
dictating  its  general  policy,  exerted  a  powerful 
influence  in  national  as  well  as  State  politics. 
They  derived  their  power  largely  from  their 
great  personal  influence  and  remarkable  political 
sagacity,  and  were,  for  the  most  part,  earnest 
opponents  of  political  corruption,  though  they 
uniformly  acted  upon  the  principle,  first  formu- 
lated in  1833  by  one  of  their  number  (Marcy), 
that  ''to  the  victors  belong  the  spoils."  Among 
those  who  at  various  times  were  members  of  this 
unofficial  body  were:  Martin  Van  Buren,  William 
L.  Marcy,  Silas  Wriglit,  .Tohn  A.  Dix.  Edwin 
Croswell,  Benjamin  F.  Butler,  A.  C.  Flagg,  Dean 
Richmond,  and  Samuel  A.  Talcott,  several  of 
whom  '"graduated"  from  it  into  high  offices  under 
the  national  government.  The  Regency's  loss  of 
prestige  dated  from  about  1848,  when  their  op- 
ponents adopted  methods  similar  to  their  own, 
and  the  Democratic  party  in  the  State  split 
into  irreconcilable  factions.  (See  Barnburners.) 
Consult:  J.  D.  Hammond.  Hintor;/  of  Political 
Parties  in  the  State  of  Xcw  York  ( Cooperstown. 
1840)  :  Morgan  Dix.  Memoirs  of  John  A.  Dix 
(New  York.' 1883). 

AL'BATEG'NIUS.     See  Al-Battani. 

AL'BATROSS  (Corrupted  from  Portug.  al- 
catraz,  the  cormorant,  from  Ar.  al,  the  +  qadus, 
bucket,  referring  to  its  water-carrying  pouch). 
A  popular  name  for  the  large  marine  birds  of  the 
family  Diomedea,  closely  related  to  the  petrels 
(c).v. ).  Albatrosses  are  among  the  most  exclu- 
sively pelagic  birds  known.  They  occur  on 
nearly  all  parts  of  the  ocean,  excepting  only  the 
north  Atlantic,  and  even  there,  owing  to  their 
extraordinary   powers   of   flight,   they   are   occa- 


BEAK  op  AN  ALBATROSS. 


sionally  seen.     Like  the  petrels,  albatrosses  have 
the  hind  toe.  or  hallux,  reduced  to  a  mere  claw. 


ALBATROSS. 


275 


ALBEDO. 


•or  entirel}'  wanting,  while  tlic  other  three  toes 
are  full}-  webbed.  Tlie  nostrils  ul.so  open  at  the 
<'ii(ls  of  nearly  cylindrical,  horizontal  tubes,  a 
character  upon  which  the  order  Tubinares  is 
based.  Albatrosses  differ  from  petrels,  however, 
not  only  in  their  great  size,  but  also  in  having 
the  nostril  tubes  placed  one  on  each  side  of  tlie 
bill,  at  its  base,  instead  of  close  together  on  top. 
The  bill  of  an  albatross  is  a  heavj'  and  powerful 
structure,  four  inches  long  or  more,  and  strongly 
hooked  at  the  tip.  The  covering  consists  of  sev- 
eral distinct  plates  of  horn.  The  plumage  of  the 
body  is  very  thick  and  compact,  and  well  adapted 
to  withstand  not  only  water  but  cold.  Experi- 
ment has  sliowu  that  an  albatross  can  withstand 
a  temjierature  far  below  freezing  for  weeks  at  a 
time,  even  when  confined,  so  that  active  move- 
ment is  impossible.  The  tail  is  comparatively 
short  and  more  or  less  rounded,  hut  the  wings 
are  exceedingly  long  and  pointed.  The  great 
length  of  wing  is  largely  due  to  the  unusual 
length  of  the  humerus  and  the  radius  and  ulna. 
Owing  to  this  great  length  of  upper  arm  and 
forearm,  the  number  of  flight-feathers  carried 
on  the  wing  exceeds  tluit  of  any  other  known 
bird,  the  number  of  secondaries  being  about 
forty.  As  might  be  supposed  from  their  size, 
albatrosses  are  very  voracious.  Their  food  is  all 
gathered  from  the  surface  of  the  sea,  as  they  do 
not  dive.  Fishes,  pelagic  mollusks.  and  other 
floating  animal  matter,  including  the  offal  of 
vessels,  compose  the  food  of  these  l)irds,  and  they 
may  be  caught  from  a  vessel  with  hook  and 
line  baited  with  salt  pork.  Their  power  of  flight 
is  very  remarkable,  and  they  occasionally  follow 
vessels  for  days  at  a  time.  Because  of  this  habit, 
and  because  they  are  almost  the  only  visible  in- 
habitants of  the  wastes  of  the  southern  oceans, 
sailors  regard  them  with  superstitious  affection, 
and  it  is  considered  a  forerunner  of  most  serious 
misfortune  to  kill  an  albatross.  This  fact  has 
passed  into  literature  in  Coleridge's  liiine  of 
the  Ancient  Miirinrr.  The  best  modern  descrip- 
tion of  the  bird  is  in  Fronde's  Oceana.  Alba- 
trosses seldom  visit  land,  and  then  only  remote 
antarctic  islands,  to  breed.  Usually  no  nest  is 
made,  but  the  single  egg  is  dropped  on  the  bare 
earth.  The  egg  is  large  and  white,  and  somewhat 
ellipsoidal  in  shape. 

Tlic  number  of  species  of  albatross  is  still 
doubtful,  but  it  is  probably  not  less  than  ten, 
nor  more  than  a  dozen.  Of  these  all  but  one  or 
two  are  placed  in  the  genus  Diomedea.  The 
largest,  and  (lerhaps  the  best  known,  species  is 
the  W-indcring  albatross  (Diotncdca  cxulans), 
v.liich  is  found  throughout  the  southern  oceans, 
iind  occasionally  straj's  to  Europe  and  to  Florida. 
'1  he  phunage  of  the  adult  is  chiefly  white,  but 
the  larger  wing-coverts  and  part  of  the  back  arc 
more  or  less  barred  with  black.  The  young  are 
dusky,  lightest  on  the  head.  This  species  is 
four  or  five  feet  in  length,  and  ten  to  twelve  feet 
in  extent  of  wings.  On  the  Pacific  coast  of 
North  America  occur  two  species,  the  short-tailed 
(Diomedcn  albatnis)  and  the  black-footed  {Dio- 
medea nigripcsj,  both  of  which  are  said  to  be 
abundant.  They  are  rather  small  for  albatrosses, 
only  three  feet  long  and  about  seven  feet  across 
the  wings.  Another  species  of  about  the  same 
size,  widely  distributed  over  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
is  the  sooty  albatross  {Phrrbetria  fiiUpinosa) . 
These  three  species  are  easily  distinguished  by 
their  color:  The  short-tailed  albatross  is  white, 
with  dark  wings  and  tail  and  flesh-colored  feet; 


the  black-footed  is  dark  chocolate  brown,  whiten- 
ing on  the  head,  and  the  feet  are  black;  while  the 
soot}'  albatross  is  uniform  sooty-brown,  with 
light-colored  feet.  The  last  species  also  has  a 
wedge-shaped  tail  and  a  slender  bill.  The  yellow- 
nosed  albatross  (Diomedea  chlororhi/neha) ,  so 
called  from  the  color  of  the  bill,  is  a  well-known 
soutliern  species.  All  these  small  forms  are 
known  to  sailors  as  "moUynuicks."  See  Plate  of 
Auks.  Alb.\ti!osses,  etc. 

AL-BATTA'NI,  Mohammed  ibn  .Tabir  ibn 
Sin  AX,  known  as  Albategxiu.s  (so  called  from 
Battan  in  Mesopotamia)  (c.850-020) .  An  Arab 
chief,  one  of  the  most  famous  astronomers  and 
mathematicians  of  his  race.  His  first  astronom- 
ical observations  were  made  at  Rakka  (877- 
S7S),  and  extended  over  a  period  of  more  than 
forty  years.  He  also  made  several  important 
contributions  to  pure  mathematics.  He  used 
the  sine  of  an  angle  in  place  of  the  chord  of 
double  the  angle  (an  idea  tluit  had  occurred  to 
Aryabhatta),  computed  a  table  of  cotangents, 
and  fornuilated  certain  propositions  in  spherical 
trigonometry.  His  astronomical  works  were  first 
made  generally  known  to  European  scholars 
through  a  translation  by  Plato  of  Tivoli,  under 
(he  title  Mahoinetis  Alhatenii  de  Molu  (or  Scieii- 
lia)  Aslrnriim.  This  work  has  been  edited  in 
Arabic  and  Latin  by  C.  A.  Nallino  (Milan,  1899). 
Al-Battani  corrected  numerous  errors  of  Ptolemy, 
whom,  in  general,  he  followed:  e.g.  he  gave  the 
obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  as  2.3°  35'  instead  of 
23°  51'  20".  He  also  gave  the  length  of  the 
tropical  year  as  365  days.  5  hours,  46  minutes, 
24  .seconds;  too  short  by  2  minutes.  26  seconds, 
but  an  improvement  upon  that  of  Hipparchus, 
who  gave  365 "i  days —  y^^  day,  which  was  too 
short  by  4  minutes,  48  seconds. 

ALBAXIGH,  al'ba,  John  W.  (1837—).  An 
American  actor  and  manager.  He  was  born  Sep- 
tember 30,  1837,  at  Baltimore,  where  he  made 
his  first  appearance  as  Brutus  in  a  play  called 
Brutus,  or  the  Fall  of  Tarquin  (1855),  on  a 
stage  managed  by  .Joseph  .Jefferson.  Of  Mr.  Al- 
baugh's  many  subsequent  impersonations,  per- 
haps his  best  known  was  that  of  Louis  XL,  at 
what  later  became  Daly's  Theatre,  in  New  York. 
Since  1868  he  has  been  manager  of  theatres  in 
St.  Louis,  New  Orleans,  and  Albany,  and  for  a 
number  of  years  in  Washington  and  Baltimore, 
where  he  owns  the  new  Ijyceiun.  He  retired  from 
the  stage  in  1899.  Much  of  his  leisure  in  recent 
years  has  been  devoted  to  his  noted  stock  farm 
near  Washington.  Consult  Clapp  and  Edgett, 
Players  of  the  Present.  Dunlap  Society,  publish- 
ers (New  York,  1899). 

ALBAY,  al-bi'.  A  province  and  a  town  of 
Luzon,  one  of  the  Philippine  Islands.  The  prov- 
ince takes  in  the  southern  end  of  the  island  and 
contains  an  area  of  2262  square  miles,  and  a 
population  of  296.850  (Map:  Philippine  Islands, 
H  6).  The  surface  bears  traces  of  volcanic 
oi-igin,  and  the  province  has  several  extinct  vol- 
canoes and  the  active  volcano  of  Mount  M.ayon. 
It  is  well  watered  and  has  good  roads.  A  con- 
siderable part  is  covered  by  thick  forests,  full  of 
good  timber  and  game.  The  chief  city  is  situated 
near  the  eastern  coast,  on  the  Bay  of  Albay.  It 
has  a  good  harbor  and  is  the  seat  of  a  consider- 
able trade.     Pop.,  about  14,000. 

ALBE'DO  (Lat.  whiteness).  In  astronomy, 
the  reflecting  power  of  a  planet's  surface.  The 
quantity  of  reflected  solar  light  received  by  us 


ALBEDO. 


276 


ALBERONI. 


from  any,  given  planet  depends,  of  course,  on  the 
character  of  that  planet's  surface.  If  it  were 
like  polished  silver,  for  instance,  the  albedo 
would  be  very  high;  much  higher,  indeed,  than 
the  power  actually  possessed  by  the  surface  of 
any  known  planet.  Astronomers  designate  the 
albedo  of  any  planet  b}'  means  of  a  fraction  in- 
dicating the  ratio  of  light  reflected  to  the  total 
quantity  of  light  received.  Thus  the  moon's 
average  albedo  is  0.1.3,  which  means  that  about 
one-sixth  of  the  light  received  by  the  moon  from 
the  sun  is  again  reflected.  The  albedo  of  Mer- 
cury is  0.14;  of  Venus,  0.76;  of  the  earth  (rough- 
ly), 0.20;  of  ilars,  0.22;  of  .Jupiter.  0.02:  of 
Saturn,  0.72;  of  Uranus,  0.00;  and  of  Xeptune, 
0.52. 

ALBEMARLE,  fik.st  Duke  of.  See  iloxK 
or  AIoNCK.  George. 

ALBEMARLE,  The.  A  Confederate  ram, 
which,  after  doing  great  damage  to  the  Federal 
shipping,  was  blown  up  and  completelv  destroyed 
on  the  night  of  October  27,  1804,  by  W.  B.  dish- 
ing.    See  Cusiii-NG.  W.  B. 

ALBEMARLE,    or   ISABELLA,    ISLAND. 

The  largest  of  the  Galapagos  Islands  (q.v.), 
lying  between  lats.  0°  15'  N.  and  1°  5'  S.,  and 
longs.  00°  50'  W.  and  91°  45'  W.  It  is  of  volcanic 
origin  and  irregular  in  form,  its  greatest  length 
about  90  miles  and  its  greatest  breadth  about 
60.  The  surface,  which  covers  an  area  of 
1650  square  miles,  is  elevated,  reaching  an  alti- 
tude of  4700  feet.  Albemarle  Point  is  the  north- 
ernmost extremity  of  the  island. 

ALBEMARLE  SOUND.  An  inlet  in  the 
coast  of  North  Carolina.  00  miles  long  and  4  to 
15  miles  wide,  separated  from  the  ocean  by  an 
island,  and  not  appreciably  alfected  by  the  tides 
(Map:  North  Carolina.  F  1).  It  receives  the 
Roanoke,  Chowan,  Perquimans.  Little,  and  Pas- 
quotauk  rivers,  and  is  connected  with  Currituck 
and  Croatan  sounds,  the  latter  of  which  flows 
into  Pamlico  Sound.  It  is  about  12  miles  in 
length,  and  its  greatest  depth  is  IS  feet.  It  is  so 
shallow  in  some  places  that  it  is  of  little  value 
for  navigation. 

ALBER,  al'bor,  M.-vtthaus  (1495-1570).  A 
German  theologian,  one  of  the  promoters  of  the 
Reformation.  He  was  born  at  Rcutlingen.  near 
Stuttgart,  was  educated  at  Tiibingen,  and  in 
1521  returned  to  preach  in  Reullingen,  where 
he  introduced  the  Reformation.  He  rejected 
Latin,  and  used  the  native  tongue  in  church 
services,  put  out  the  images,  and  took  a  wife. 
He  was  summoned  before  the  imperial  chambers, 
and  charged  with  nearly  seventy  distinct  heresies, 
to  all  of  which,  save  that  of  speaking  disrespect- 
fully of  the  mother  of  Christ,  he  confessed  guilty. 
He  was  tried,  but  set  free  without  punishment. 
Alber  was  a  friend  and  ally  of  Luther.  He  has 
been  called,  indeed,  the  "Luther  of  Swabia." 
because  of  the  great  part  ho  played  in  that 
country.  Some  of  his  sermons,  a  catechism,  and 
a  work  on  Providence  have  been  published.  For 
his  life  consult  .1.  Hartmann    (Tiibingen,   180.3). 

ALBERDINGK  THYM,  iil'ber-dlnk  tim', 
JosEPitrs  Alkeuti's  (1820-89).  A  Dutch  author, 
born  at  Amsterdam.  In  1876  he  was  appointed 
]irofessor  of  .fsthetics  in  the  Art  Academy  at 
Amsterdam.  From  1852  he  edited  the  Volhs- 
almanak  voor  yrdrrlandschr  KatJioUcken,  and 
from  1855  De  Pirt.iche  Wnrnnde.  devoted  to 
the  art  and  literature  of  the  Middle  Ages.     He 


published  newspaper  criticisms,  Drie  Gedichten 
(1844),  De  Klok  van  Delft  (IS46),  Palet  en 
Harp  (1849),  Yerspreide  Vcrhalen  in  Pro^a  (3 
volumes,  1879-83),  and  other  volumes.  His 
prose  fiction  is  considered  his  best  work.  Con- 
sult the  biography  by  Van  der  Duys  (1889). 

ALBERIC  I.,  ril'ber-ik  (died  925).  An  adven- 
turer, of  Lombard  extraction,  who  appeared  in 
Rome  in  889.  He  soon  joined  his  fortunes  with 
those  of  Berengar  (q.v.),  became  Margrave  of 
Camerino.  and  later  Duke  of  Spoleto.  He  mar- 
ried ilarozia  (q.v.)  before  915,  and  in  916  joined 
.John  X.  in  expelling  the  Saracens,  who  had  ter- 
rorized Italy  for  more  than  thirty  years.  For 
his  services  he  was  probably  made  "Consul  of  the 
Romans."  Nothing  definite  is  known  of  his  later 
years;  but  he  is  said  to  have  ruled  Rome  despot- 
ically for  a  time,  to  have  been  driven  from  the 
city,  to  have  summoned  the  Hungarians  to  his 
aid,  and  to  have  been  slain  by  the  Romans  about 
925. 

ALBERIC  II.  (?-954).  The  son  of  Alberie 
I.  and  ilarozia.  In  932  he  led  the  Romans  in 
a  successful  attempt  to  achieve  their  indepen- 
dence, and  was  elected  "prince  and  senator  of 
all  the  Romans.''  I'ntil  his  death,  in  954.  he 
ruled  the  city  absolutely,  but  wisely  and  mod- 
erately. He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Octavian, 
who  became  Pope,  as  John  XII.,  in  955. 

ALBERONI,  iil'ba-ro'ne,  Gitxio,  Caedixal 
I  ]0(i4-17.'i2  I .  An  Italian  prelate,  minister  of 
Philip  V.  of  Spain.  He  was  the  son  of  a  poor 
vine-dresser,  and  was  born  at  Firenzuola,  in 
Parma.  From  a  chorister  in  a  churcli  at  Piacen- 
za,  he  quickly  rose,  through  his  abilities,  to  the 
dignity  of  chaplain  and  favorite  of  Count 
Roncovieri,  Bishop  of  San  Donino.  After  some 
diplomatic  service  in  Italy  and  a  visit  to 
Paris,  he  was  sent  by  the  Duke  of  Parma  as 
charge  d'affaires  to  Madrid,  where  he  speedily 
gained  the  favor  of  Philip  V.  He  brought  about 
the  king's  marriage  to  Elizabeth  Farnese,  over- 
threw the  powerful  Countess  Orsini.  and  rapidly 
became  grandee,  cardinal,  and  prime  minister 
(17171.  Into  the  languid  body  of  moribund 
Spain  he  infused  new  energy,  invigorated  her 
government,  revived  her  commerce  and  her  manu- 
factures, reconstructed  her  ariny,  rebuilt  her 
fleet.  But  Alberoni  was  ambitious,  and  in  order  to 
gratify  the  covetous  desires  of  Elizabeth  Farnese, 
he  suddenly  invaded  Sardinia,  in  violation  of  the 
Peace  of  Utrecht,  cherishing  the  hope  of  reestab- 
lishing the  monarchy  of  Charles  V.  and  Philip 
II.,  and  startling  Europe  by  his  insolent  audac- 
■  ity.  The  regent  of  France  broke  olT  his  alliance 
with  Spain,  and  united  himself  with  England 
and  Austria,  Alberoni  was  not  dismayed. 
Even  when  the  Spanish  fleet  in  the  Jlediterra- 
nean  was  destroyed  by  an  English  one,  he  con- 
templated an  extensive  war  by  land,  in  which  all 
the  European  powers  were  to  have  been  en- 
tangled. He  patronized  the  Pretender,  to  annoy 
England,  and  the  French  Protestants,  to  annoy 
France.  He  sought  to  unite  Peter  the  Great  and 
Charles  XII.  with  him.  to  plunge  Austria  into 
a  war  with  the  Tvirks.  and  to  stir  up  an  insurrec- 
tion in  Hungary;  and,  through  his  influence  with 
one  of  the  parties  at  the  French  court,  he  actu- 
ally accomplished  the  arrest  of  the  regent  himself 
(the  Duke  of  Orleans).  But  so  universal  be- 
came the  complaints  against  Alberoni.  that 
Philip  lost  courage,  and  made  peace,  agreeing  to 
the  dismissal  of  the  Cardinal.     In  1719  Alberoni 


ALBERONI. 


277 


ALBERT. 


received  a  command  to  quit  Madrid  within  eight 
days  and  the  Ivingdom  within  three  weeks. 
Exposed  to  the  vengeance  of  every  power  whoso 
hatred  he  had  drawn  upon  himself,  he  knew  no 
land  where  he  could  remain.  Not  even  to  Rome 
could  he  venture,  for  Clement  XT.  was  more  bit- 
terly inimical  to  him.  than  was  any  secular  poten- 
tate. He  wandered  about  in  disguise  and  under 
fictitious  names.  At  length  he  was  imprisoned 
in  the  Genoese  territory,  through  the  solicitation 
of  the  Pope  and  the  Spanish  monarch;  but  he 
speedily  reco\ered  his  liberty,  and  two  years  after 
the  death  of  Clement,  was  reinstated  by  Innocent 
XIII.  in  all  the  rights  and  dignities  of  a  car- 
dinal. In  1740  he  retired  to  Piacenza,  where  he 
died  twelve  years  after,  at  the  age  of  eighty- 
eight.  He  bequeathed  his  possessions  in  Lom- 
bardy  to  Philip  V.,  while  his  cousin  and  heir, 
Cesare  Alberoni,  became  possessor  of  1,000,000 
ducats.  Consult:  Eoiisset,  tfistoire  iln  Cardinal 
Alheroni  (The  Hague.  1710,  English  translation, 
London,  1710)  ;  Bersani,  Storia  del  cardinale 
Giulio  Alheroni  (Piacenza.  1862). 

ALBEBS,  al'bers,  Johaxn  Friedrich  Her- 
JIANX  (lSO.5-07).  A  German  physician,  profess- 
or of  pathology  at  Bonn.  He  established  there 
an  asylum  for  the  treatment  of  insanity  and 
nervous  diseases,  and  was  director  of  the  phar- 
macological cabinet.  His  atlas  of  pathological 
anatomy  (Bonn,  18.32-02,  287  plates)  and  books 
on  various  branches  of  medical  science  were 
regarded  as  standard  works,  and  are  still  useful 
and  interesting. 

ALBERT,  rilOjert:  Ger.  pron.  iil'bert.  In 
Goethe's  Sorroics  of  Werther  (q.v. ),  the  husband 
of  Lotte,  with  whom  Werther  is  in  love.  The 
character  is  said  to  be  taken  from  that  of 
Goethe's  friend  Kestner. 

ALBERT,  al'bert.  A  character  in  Sheridan 
Knowles's  comedy,  The  Beggar  of  Beflinul  Green 
(q.v)  ;  the  beggar,  who  is  Lord  Wilfrid  in  dis- 
guise. 

ALBERT,  Ger.  ALBRECHT.  Ul'breKt.  The 
name  borne  by  five  dukes  of  Austria,  of  whom 
two  (I.  and  V.)  were  also  emperors  of  Ger- 
many. Albert  L,  Archduke  of  Austria  and  Em- 
peror of  Germany,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Rudolph 
of  Hapsburg.  and  was  born  in  1248.  Rudolph, 
before  his  death,  endeavored  to  have  Albert  ap- 
pointed as  his  successor  in  the  Empire;  but  the 
Electors,  already  aware  of  the  t^-ranny  of  Albert, 
refused  to  comply.  After  the  old  king's  death 
Austiia  and  Styria  revolted:  but  AUicrt.  having 
vigorously  crushed  the  rebellion,  turned  liis  at- 
tention toward  the  Empire.  The  Archbishop  of 
JIainz.  an  instrtiment  of  the  Pope,  secured  the 
privilege  of  appointing  the  imperial  candidate, 
and  named  his  cousin,  Adolphus  of  Nassau,  in 
1292.  Albert  took  the  oath  of  allegiance  and 
quietly  awaited  developments.  In  1298,  Adol- 
phus. who  had  disgusted  his  subjects,  was  de- 
posed and  Allicrt  was  elected.  He  was  obliged  to 
fight  for  the  new  honor,  and  met  his  rival  in  a 
battle  near  Worms,  in  which  Adolphus  was  de- 
fe.ited  and  slain.  Albert  was  crowned  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  in  August,  1298;  but  Pope  Boniface 
VIll.  declared  that  he  alone  was  emperor,  and 
denied  the  right  of  the  princes  to  elect  .Albert  or 
to  recognize  him.  Albert,  however,  made  an  alli- 
ance with  Philip  the  Fair  of  France,  and  secur- 
ing the  neutrality  of  Saxony  and  Brandenburg, 
invaded  the  Electorate  of  ^Alainz  and  forced  the 
Archbishop  to  make  an  alliance  with  him,  thus 


securing  a  former  ally  of  the  Pope.  Boniface 
was  alarmed  by  h.is  success  and  entered  into 
negotiations  with  him.  As  a  result,  Albert  broke 
his  alliance  with  Philip,  recognized  the  suprem- 
acy of  the  Pope,  and  promised  to  defend  the 
rights  of  the  Roman  court  whenever  called  upon. 
Boniface  then  excommunicated  Philip,  and 
offered  the  throne  to  Albert  in  1303 ;  but  Philip 
soon  retaliated  by  getting  the  Papacy  tinder  the 
power  of  the  French  crown.  After  this  Albert 
fought  unsuccessfully  against  Holland,  Zealand, 
Friesland,  Hungary,  Bohemia,  and  Thuringia. 
In  January,  1308,  news  arrived  of  a  rebellion 
among  the  Swiss  in  Unterwaldcn,  Schwyz,  and 
L'ri,  and  the  Emperor  seized  this  pretext  to  sub- 
jugate the  country.  An  act  of  injustice,  how- 
ever, occasioned  a  crime  which  put  an  end  to  his 
life.  His  nephew.  Duke  John,  claimed  Swabia 
as  his  rightful  inheritance,  but  had  urged  his 
claims  in  vain.  When  Albert  was  departing 
for  Switzerland,  .John  renewed  his  demands,  but 
was  refused,  and  so  he  resolved  to  be  revenged. 
He  conspired  against  his  iincle's  life  and  assas- 
sinated him  on  the  road  to  Rheinfelden,  while 
separated  from  his  followers  by  tlie  River  Reuss. 
The  Emperor  expired  May  1,  130S,  in  the  arms 
of  a  beggar  woman.  His  da\ighter,  Agnes,  Queen 
of  Hungary,  revenged  her  father's  death.  (See 
.Jonx.  THE  Parricipe.)  Albert  left  six  sons  and 
five  daughters,  the  children  of  his  marriage  with 
Elizabeth,  daughter  of  the  Count  of  Tyrol.  The 
story  of  William  Tell  is  connected  with  Albert  I. 
Albert  V.  (as  German  king,  Albert  II.)  was 
born  in  1397  and  inherited  the  duchy  of  Austria 
while  still  a  child.  After  rcii^ivins  wliat  was 
for  the  times  an  excellent  education,  he  assumed 
direct  control  of  the  government  in  1411.  In 
1422  he  married  the  daughter  of  the  Emperor 
Sigismund,  and  on  the  death  of  the  latter,  in 
1437,  succeeded,  by  election,  to  the  crowns  of 
Hungary  and  Bohemia.  In  March,  1438,  he  was 
elected  King  of  Germany.  Wars  with  the  Turks 
and  disorders  in  Bohemia  and  Hungary  disturbed 
his  short  reign.     He  died  October  27,  1439. 

ALBERT  (?-1412).  Duke  of  Mecklenburg 
and  King  of  Sweden,  a  son  of  Duke  Albert 
I.  of  Jlecklenburg.  Within  a  year  after  he  was 
proclaimed  King  of  Sweden  (1304)  he  was  com- 
pelled to  fight  against  his  uncle,  Magnus  II., 
whom  he  defeated  and  captured  at  the  battle  of 
Enkoping.  Hakon  of  Norway,  a  son  of  the  lat- 
ter, who  had  also  disputed  the  right  of  succes- 
sion, fled  after  the  battle,  but  was  compelled  to 
sign  a  treaty  of  peace  in  which  he  renounced  all 
claims  to  the  throne.  The  victory,  however,  was 
bought  at  the  price  of  great  concessions  to  the 
Royal  Council,  and  Albert  could  find  no  sup- 
port among  the  people,  who  were  heavily  bur- 
dened with  taxes.  Consequently,  an  attempt  to 
restore  his  power  failed,  and  Margaret,  widow  of 
King  Hakon  of  Norway,  was  invited  to  the 
throne.  Albert  was  defeated  and  captured  at 
the  battle  of  Falkoping  (February  24,  1389), 
and  was  not  liberated  until  1395,  when  he  for- 
mally resigned  all  rights  to  the  crown,  and  re- 
tired to  Mecklenburg,  which,  as  Duke  Albert 
II.,  he  ruled  until  his  death.  The  accession  of 
Margaret  to  the  throne  of  Sweden  led,  in  l.'?97, 
to  tlic  formation  of  the  celebrated  Union  of  Kal- 
mar,  by  which  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark 
were  formed  into  one  kingdom. 

ALBERT  (1490-1568).  The  last  Grand  Mas- 
ter of  the  Teutonic  Order  and  first  Duke  of  Prus- 


ALBERT. 


278 


ALBEBT. 


sia.     He  was  tlie  son  of  the  Margrave  Frederic 
of  Aiisbaoh,  who  wished  him  to  enter  the  Church. 
He  was  educated  under   the  care  of  Archbishop 
Hermann,  of  Cologne,  where  he  became  a  canon. 
He  did  not,  however,  neglect  knightly  exercises. 
He  accompanied  the  Emperor  Jlaximilian  I.  in 
his  expedition  against  Venice,   and  was  present 
at  the  siege  of   Pavia.      In   1511,   when   scarcely 
twenty-one  years  old,  he  was  chosen  Grand  blas- 
ter of  the  Teutonic  Order,  the  knights  expecting 
their  feudal  allegiance  to  Poland  to  be  abolished, 
on  account  of  his  near  relationship  to  Sigismund. 
the   monarch   of   that  country,   while   they   also 
hoped  for  protection  against  the  Poles  from  his 
friends   in   Germany.       He   was   consecrated    at 
Mergentheim  with  his  father's  consent.     In  1512 
he  removed  to  Konigsberg,  having  been  acknowl- 
edged by  Poland  likewise;   but  refusing  to  take 
the  oath  of  allesiance,  he  was  plunged  into  a  \»rr 
with  Sigisnunid  in  1520.     The  year  after,  a  four 
years'   truce   was   agreed   to   at   Thorn.     Albert 
next  made  his  appearance  at  the  Imperial  Diet 
at  Nuremberg  as  a  German  prince  of  the  Empire, 
to  induce  the  other  princes  to  assist  him  against 
the   Poles.      But   Germany   could   at   that   time 
grant  no  assistance  to  any  one.    Disappointed  in 
his  hopes,  Albert  threw  himself  into  the  cause 
of  the  Reformation,   which   had   rapidly   spread 
into  Prussia  and  broken  the  last  strength  of  the 
declining  order,  whose  possessions  now  appeared 
a  certain  prey  to  Poland.    He  still  hoped  to  pre- 
serve these  by  acting  upon   Luther's   advice  to 
declare    himself    secular    Duke    of    Prussia    and 
place  his  land  under   the  sovereignty  of   Sigis- 
mund.    This  was  done  with  gieat  pomp  at  Cra- 
cow in  April,   152.5,  the  duchy  being  secured  to 
him  and  his-  descendants.     During  the  remainder 
of  his  life  Albert  zealously  sought  to  further  the 
welfare  of  his  duchy.     He  regulated  the  adminis- 
tration of  all  affairs,  both  secular  and  ecclesias- 
tical,  established   the   ducal   library,   founded   in 
■  1544    the    University    of    Konigsberg,    gathered 
many  literarv  men  around  him,  and  caused  their 
works  to  be -printed.     In  1527  he  married  Doro- 
thea, daughter  of   Frederick.   King  of  Denmark. 
Albert  earnestly  desired  peace,  but  found  himself 
entangled  in  conflicts  with  the  nobles  and  in  theo- 
logical disputes,  which,  along  with  other  troubles 
of^a  more  personal  character,  saddened  the  close 
of  his  life.    Consult:    Lohmeyer,  Bcrzog  Alhrecht 
ion  Preusseii    (Dantzic,  1890)  :  and  for  the  part 
played  by  Albert  in  the  Reformation,  Tschakert, 
Her~ori'  Alhrecht  von  Preussen   (Halle,  1894). 

ALBERT  (1550-1621).  Archduke  of  Austria. 
He  was  the  sixth  son  of  the  Emperor  Maximilian 
11.  He  was  brought  up  at  the  Spanish  court, 
and  dedicated  himself  to  the  Church.  In  1577 
he  was  made  cardinal,  in  1584  Archbishop  of 
Toledo,  and  during  the  years  1594-90  held  the 
office  of  Viceroy  of  Portugal.  He  was  ne.xt  ap- 
pointed Stadtliokler  of  the  Netherlands.  In  1598 
he  resigned  his  ecclesiastical  offices  and  left  the 
Church,  and  married  the  Infanta  Isabella,  re- 
ceiving with  her  the  Netherlands  and  Franche 
Comtf.  Had  it  been  possible  to  regain  by  any 
means  Spain's  rebellious  provinces,  Albert's  mild 
character  and  conciliatory  policy  might  have 
done  so.  An  it  was.  he  became  engaged  in  con- 
stant warfare  prosecuted  with  little  success  and 
marked  by  bitter  feeling  on  both  sides.  Later  in 
life  he  became  fanatic,  priest-ridden,  and  in  a 
measure  incapable  of  efhcient  rule.  Consult: 
Dubois,  Histoirc  d' Albert  ct  d'lsabelle  (Brussels, 


1347)  ;    Schmolke,  Albert   and  Isabella    (Berlin, 
1878). 

ALBERT  (1490-1545).  Archbishop  of  Mag- 
deburg and  Elector  of  Mainz,  generally  called 
Albert  of  Brandenburg.  He  was  the  younger  son 
of  the  Elector  John  Cicero  of  Brandenburg,  and 
was  born  in  Brandenburg,  .June  20,  1490.  In  1513 
he  became  Archbishop  of  Magdeburg,  and  also 
administrator  of  the  bishopric  of  Halberstadt, 
and  in  the  next  year  Archbishop  and  Elector  of 
ilainz.  He  was  put  in  charge  of  the  preaching, 
within  a  certain  district,  of  the  jubilee  indul- 
gence granted  by  Leo  X.,  on  the  condition  that 
one-half  the  proceeds  was  to  be  sent  to  Rome. 
He  appointed  the  Dominican  Tetzel  sub-commis- 
sioner in  the  work,  whose  preaching  gave  occa- 
sion to  Luther  to  post  up  his  well-known  ninety- 
five  theses.  He  was  made  a  cardinal  in  1518.  Even 
in  the  Archbishop's  own  diocese  the  reformer's 
doctrines  found  not  a  few  adherents,  so  that  Al- 
bert was  compelled  at  the  Imperial  Diet  at  Augs- 
burg ( 1530)  to  act  the  part  of  peacemaker.  When 
he  joined  the  holy  alliance  against  the  League  of 
Schmalkalden,  Luther  made  a  fierce  attack  on 
him  in  writing.  He  was  the  first  of  all  the  Ger- 
man princes  who  received  the  .Jesuits  into  his  do- 
minions. In  1541  he  granted  religious  liberty 
to  his  subjects,  under  the  condition  that  they 
should  pay  his  debts,  amounting  to  500,000  flor- 
ins. He  died  at  JWainz,  September  24.  1545. 
For  liis  life  consult:  J.  May  (Munich,  1865-75)  ; 
Redlich.  Albert  und  das  A'ci/e  Stift  zu  Halle 
(Mainz,  1900). 

ALBERT,  called  Achilles  (1414-80).  Elec- 
tor of  Brandenburg,  third  son  of  Friedrich  I. 
and  Elizabeth  of  Bavaria.  He  was  born  at  Tan- 
germiinde,  and  after  the  death  of  his  father,  in 
1440,  succeeded  to  the  margraviate  of  Ansbach, 
where,  together  with  several  other  feudal  lords, 
he  soon  came  into  conflict  with  the  inhabitants 
of  the  cities  of  South  Germany,  which  were  unit- 
ed against  him.  In  1449  he  attacked  Nurem- 
berg," but  was  defeated  at  Pillenreut  and  com- 
pelled to  etTect  U  permanent  compromi.se 
(1453).  By  the  death  of  his  brother  John  he 
succeeded  to  the  margraviate  of  Bayreuth,  and  in 
1470  his  brother  Friedrich  II.  transferred  to 
him  the  margraviate  of  Brandenbuig  and  the 
electoral  dignity.  He  was  fond  of  display  and 
amusements,  and  was  distinguished  by  an  en- 
lightenment far  in  advance  of  his  age. 

ALBERT,  called  Alctbiades  (1522-57).  A 
marcrave  of  Brandenburg,  who  was  born  at 
Ansl>ach.  Althougli  reared  in  the  Protestant 
faith,  his  military  enthusiasm  and  love  of  power 
induced  him  to  serve  in  the  army  of  Charles  V., 
and  he  fought  in  the  campaign  against  France 
in  1543.  Afterward  he  conspired  against  the 
Emperor  with  Jlaurice  of  Saxony  and  several 
other  princes,  and  was  personally  instrumcnUil 
in    arranging    the    Treaty    of    Chambord    with 


Henrv   11.   of   France    (January   15,   1552). 


In 


consequence  of  difl'erences  with  his  confederates, 
he  subsequently  again  embraced  the  cause  of 
Charles,  who  ratified  his  territorial  claims.  In 
an  endeavor  to  carry  these  into  efTect..  however, 
.Albert  was  twice  defeated  (July  9  and  Sep- 
tember 12.  1553).  He  was  soon  afterward  out- 
lawed by  the  Emperor,  and  fled  to  France  (1554). 
He  died  in  1557,  shortly  after  his  return  to  Ger- 
man.v. 

ALBERT,     called     The     Bold     (1443-1500). 


ALBERT.  2 

Duke  of  Saxony,  founiler  of  the  Albeitine  line. 
He  was  a  younger  son  of  the  Elector  Frederick, 
called  "the  Gentle."  From  1404  he  reigned  con- 
jointly with  his  brother  Ernest,  who  had  been  in- 
vested with  the  electoral  dignitj",  and  gradually 
obtained  such  valuable  accessions  of  territory 
in  Thuringia  and  clsewliere  that  a  separation 
into  the  Ernestine  and  Albertine  branches  be- 
came necessary.  At  the  Reichstag  held  at  Frei- 
burg, in  141t8,  he  was  appointed  "hereditary 
governor  and  potentate"  of  Friesland.  A  magni- 
ficent bronze  monument  was  dedicated  to  him  at 
Meissen  in  1870. 

ALBERT,  al'bar',  Alexandre  Martin  (1815- 
95).  One  of  the  leading  members  of  the  pro- 
visional government  of  I'rance  after  the  revolu- 
tion of  February,  1848.  Thougli  a  poor  me- 
chanic, he  took  great  interest  in  the  political 
questions  of  his  time,  and  participated  in  the  rev- 
olutions of  18,30  and  1848.  While  keeping  at  his 
trade,  he  edited  a  workingman's  paper,  started 
in  1840,  called  L'Atelier.  He  was  summoned  by 
Louis  Blanc  from  his  shop,  where  he  was  mak- 
ing buttons,  to  the  presidency  of  the  committees 
on  the  national  workshops  and  national  re- 
wards, but  presently  lesigned  and  entered  the 
assembly.  For  his  participation  in  the  attem])t 
of  May  15,  1848,  to  overthrow  the  government,  he 
was  condemned  to  imijrisonment  for  life,  but  was 
pardoned  in  1859  by  Louis  Napoleon.  He  ap- 
peared for  a  moment  during  the  Commune  of 
1871,  but  sank  back  into  obscurity.  He  was 
known  in  French  politics  as  L'ouvrier  Albert. 

ALBERT,  al'bert,  Aristides  Elphonso  Pe- 
ter (1853  — ).  A  bishop  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church,  South,  and  also  a  practicing  phy- 
sician and  surgeon.  His  father  was  a  French- 
man, his  mother  a  slave,  and  he  was  born  in  St. 
Charles  Parish.  Louisiana.  Freed  by  tlie  war,  he 
removed  with  his  mother  to  \ew  Orleans.  He 
graduated  in  arts  and  theology  at  Straiglit  Uni- 
versity, New  Orleans,  and  in  medicine  at  New 
Orleans  University  (18!)2).  After  holding  vari- 
ous appointments  in  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  South,  including  that  of  editor-in-chief 
of  the  Souihicestern  Christian  Aclvocnte  (five 
years)  and  the  presidency  of  Gilbert  College, 
Baldwin,  La.  ( 18<)5-in00) .  he  became  pastor 
of  Wesley  Cliapel,  New  Orleans.  He  represented 
his  conference  in  the  Ecumenical  Conference  in 
London  in  1!I01. 

ALBERT,  CorxT  of  Bollstadt  (c,  1103- 
1280).  A  German  philosopher,  usually  called  .\1- 
bertus  JIagnus,  and  styled  Doctor  UiiireradUs, 
who  was  distinguished  for  the  extent  of  his  ac- 
quirements and  for  his  efforts  to  spread  knowl- 
edge, especially  of  the  works  and  doctrines  of 
Aristotle.  He  was  born  at  Lauingen,  in  Swabia, 
probably  in  1103,  but  the  date  is  disputed.  After 
studying  principally  at  Padua,  he  entered  the  or- 
der of  the  Dominican  friars  in  1221  and  taught 
at  Bologna,  Strassburg.  Freiburg,  and  Cologne, 
where  Thomas  Aquinas  became  his  pupil.  He 
afterward  rejiaired  to  Paris,  where  he  expounded 
the  doctrines  of  Aristotle.  In  1259  he  received 
from  Pope  Alexander  IV.  the  bishopric  of  Ratis- 
bon.  But  in  1262  he  retired  to  a  convent  at 
Cologne  to  devote  himself  to  literary  pursuits. 
Here  he  composed  a  great  number  of  works,  es- 
pecially commentaries  on  Aristotle.  In  1270  he 
preaclicd  a  crusade.  He  died  November  25,  1280. 
The  fullest  edition  of  his  works  was  prepared 
by  Jammy   (21  volumes,  Lyons,  1651),  but  it  is 


rd 


ALBERT. 


uncritical  and  far  from  complete.  Many  of  the 
writings  attributed  to  him  seem  to  be  spurious, 
among  others,  that  entitled  Dc  ficcretis  Muli- 
eriim,  which  was  widely  circulated  during  the 
Middle  .\ges.  The  extensive  chemical  and  me- 
chanical knowledge  which  Albert  possessed,  con- 
sidering the  age  in  wliich  he  lived,  brought  upon 
him  tlie  imputation  of  sorcery,  and  in  German 
tradition  he  has  a  very  ambiguous  reputation. 
It  is  related,  for  instance,  that  in  the  winter  of 
1240  he  gave  a  banquet  at  Cologne  to  William  of 
Holland,  King  of  the  Romans,  and  that  during 
the  entertainment  the  wintry  scene  was  suddenly 
transformed  into  one  of  summer  bloom  and 
beauty.  This  myth  may  rest  on  the  fact  that 
Albert  had  a  greenhouse.  Tlie  scholastics  who 
followed  Albert's  opinions  took  the  name  of  Al- 
bertists.  His  best-known  woiks  are  Summa  The- 
ologiw  and  Summa  dc  Crcaturis. 

ALBERT,  CoLNT  of  Geier.stein,  gi'er-stin.  In 
Scott's  novel,  Anne  of  Geicrstein  (q.v.),  the  head 
of  the  "Secret  Tribunal."  At  various  times  he 
appears  in  monkish  disguise;  later  he  slays 
Charles  of  Burgundy  in  battle. 

ALBERT,  ril'bert:  Ger.  pron.  al'bert,  Ed- 
UAHD  (1841-1900).  An  Austrian  surgeon.  He 
was  born  at  Senftenberg,  in  Bohemia,  and  studied 
medicine  at  Vienna.  In  1873  he  was  made  pro- 
fessor of  surgery  at  Innsbruck.  From  1881  until 
his  death  he  was  clinical  professor  of  surgery  at 
Vienna.  His  published  works  include:  Beitriige 
:ur  Opcratircii  Chinirgie  (Vienna,  1878-80)  ; 
Diagnostik  der  Chirurgischen  Krankheiten  (sev- 
enth edition,  Vienna,  1896)  ;  and  a  text-book  of 
surgery  in  four  volumes,  which  has  passed 
through  several  editions.  Albert's  original  re- 
searches resulted  in  valuable  contributions  to 
surgical  diagnosis,  to  operative  svirgery,  and  to 
other  branches  of  his  profession. 

AL'BERT,  Fr.  pron.  .al'bar',  EroEN  Francis 
Charle.s  d'  (18G4 — ).  A  pianist  and  composer; 
born  at  Glasgow,  April  10,  1864:  the  son 
of  Charles  d'Albert,  a  French  musician  and  dan- 
cing-master, who  was  his  first  teacher.  He 
studied  in  the  National  Training  School,  London, 
under  Sir  Arthur  Sullivan,  Prout,  and  Pauer, 
and  in  1881  gained  the  JMendeLssohn  scholarship; 
under  Hans  Richter  in  Vienna  and  under  Liszt 
in  Weimar.  In  the  same  j-ear  he  made  his  first 
appearance  at  a  philharmonic  concert  in  Vienna 
with  brilliant  success.  He  was  soon  nuide  court 
pianist  in  Weimar,  traveled  in  Europe,  and  came 
to  America  in  the  season  of  1889-90.  His  inter- 
pretations of  Bach  and  Beethoven  have  been  gen- 
erally deemed  the  most  forceful  heard  in  recent 
years.  His  mastery  of  technique,  intellectual 
grasp,  force,  and  fire  place  him  among  the  most 
eminent  pianists  of  the  world.  His  compositions 
include  pianoforte  music,  a  suite,  symphony, 
two  quartets  for  strings,  several  songs',  and  tlie 
operas  Der  Rubin  (1893);  Ghismonda  (1895): 
Gemot  (1897);  Die  Abrciso  (1898);  and  Knin 
( 1900) .  Only  in  the  last  opera  did  the  composer 
free  himself  from  adherence  to  Wagner's  for- 
mulas. In  1892  he  married  the  pianists  Teresa 
Carreno  (q.v.),  but  separated  from  her  in  1895. 
ALBERT, al'bert;  Ger. pron.  iil'bgrt,  Francis 
Charle.?  Augustus  Emanuel  (1819-61).  Prince 
of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  and  the  husband  of 
Queen  Victoria  of  Great  Britain.  He  is  popu- 
larly known  as  Prince  Albert  and  the  Prince 
Consort.  He  was  born  at  Rosenau  Castle,  near 
Coburg,  August  26,  1819,  the  second  son  of  Er- 


ALBERT. 


280 


ALBERT. 


nest,  Duke  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  and  his  wife 
Louise,   daughter   of   Augustus,   Duke   of    Saxe- 
Gotha-Altenburg.     Tn  the  Prince's  sixth  year  his 
parents  separated,  and  he  never  afterward  saw 
his  mother,  who  died  in  1S31.     The  Prince  and 
his  elder  brother,  under  a  private  tutor,  received 
a  careful  education,  and  after  a  year  of  study  at 
Brussels   he   attended   the   University   of    Bonn, 
where,  in  addition  to  the  sciences  connected  with 
statecraft,  he  devoted  himself  with  ardor  to  the 
study  of  natural  history  and  cliemistry,  and  dis- 
played great   taste   for   the   fine   arts,   especially 
painting  and  music.     Several  compositions  of  his 
obtained  puldicity,  and  an  opera,  afterward  per- 
formed  in   London,   is   said   to   have   been   com- 
posed by  him.     He  was  gifted  with  a  handsome 
figure,    and    obtained    expertness    in    all    manly 
exercises.     He  married  the  young  Queen  of  Great 
P.ritain  on  February  10,  1840.     On  his  marriage 
Prince  Albert  received  the  title  of  Koyal  High- 
ness,   was    naturalized    as    a    subject    of    Great 
Britain,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  field-marshal, 
the  knighthood  of  the  Order  of  the  Batli,  and  the 
command  of  a  regiment  of  hussars.    As  the  union 
proved  in  the  highest  degi-ee  a  happy  one.  the 
Prince  was  loaded  with  honors  and  distinctions 
both  by  the  Queen  and  tfie  nation.     The  title  of 
Consort  of  Her  Most  Gracious  ilajesty  was  for- 
mally conferred  in  1842,  and  that  of  Prince  Con- 
sort,' in  1857,  made  him  a  prince  of  the  United 
Kingdom.     He  was  also  made  a  member  of  the 
Privy  Council,  governor  and  constable  of  Wind- 
sor Castle,  colonel  of  the  Grenadier  Guards,  act- 
ing Grand  Master  of  the  Order  of  the  Bath,  chan- 
ceflor  of  the  University  of  Cambridge,  the  stand- 
ard of  which   he   succeeded   in   raising  consider- 
ably, and  Master  of  the  Trinity  House.    Notwith- 
standing his   high  and  favored  position  as   the 
Quecn's^trusted  counselor,  the  Prince,  with  rare 
prudence  and  tact,  abstained  from  meddling  with 
State  affairs,  and  thus  escaped  the  jealousy  and 
detraction   of   parties,    gradually   attaining,    in- 
deed,  the  widest   popularity.     When   the   ^^  hig 
ministry  in  1840  proposed  to  him  the  income  of 
£50,000J  as  consort  of  Queen  Victoria,  the  Tories, 
in   conjunction  with   the  Radicals,   succeeded   in 
limiting    the    sum    to    £30,000.     This    incident, 
wliich  occurred  before  the  marriage,  appears  to 
have  been  the  only  instance  of  any  manifestation 
of  party  feeling  w'itli  reference  to  the  Prince.    On 
the  other  hand,  he  opened  for  himself  an  influ- 
ential sphere  of  action,  in  the  encouragement  and 
■   promotion  of  science  and  art,  appearing  as  the 
patron  of  many  useful   associations  and  public 
undertakings.    "The  Exhibition  of  1851  owed  its 
origin  and  the  greater  part  of  its  success  to  the 
Pri'iice.  An  incessant  worker  in  the  interests  of  his 
adopted  country,   his   toil  undermined  his   con- 
stitution, and  lie  succumbed  to  an  attack  of  ty- 
phoid fever.  December  14,  1801.     His  memory  is 
perpetuated    under    the    surname    "Albert    the 
Good."     The   last  of  his  political   acts,   one   of 
particular    interest    to    the    United    States,    was 
instrumental  in  preventing  a  war  which  threat- 
ened to  arise  out  of  the  seizure  of  the  Confederate 
envoys  on  the  English  steamer  Trent.     The  draft 
of  the  ministerial  ultimatum   submitted  to  the 
Queen  seemed  to  the  Prince  fraught  with  perilous 
irritation.     Weak  then  from  the  beginning  of  his 
last  illness,  he  arose  at  seven  the  next  morning 
.     (December  1,  1801),  and  wrote  and  presented  a 
memorandum  of  his  objections  to  the  Queen.  His 
suggestions,  adopted  by  Lord  Kussell,  proved  ac- 
ceptable to  President  Lincoln.    Consult:  Martin, 


!,!/■(?  (London,  1875-80)  ;  Xitztlnim,  Remliusccnses 
(English  translation,  1887)  ;  Grey,  The  Early 
Years  of  His  Royal  Highness  the  Prince  Consort 
(iS'ew  York,  1867)  ;  Du'nchley,  The  Croun  and  the 
Cabinet:  Five  Letters  on  the  Biography  of  the 
Prince  Consort  (Manchester,  1878)  ;  Kenyon, 
Albert  the  Good  (London.  1890)  ;  Wintle,  The 
Story  of  Albert  the  Good  (London,  1897)  ;  Stock- 
mar.  Dcnkwiirdigkeiten  aus  den  Papieren  da 
Freiherrn  Christian  Friedrich  von  Stockmnr 
(Brunswick,  1872),  translated  by  G.  A.  ]\L  under 
the  title  Memoirs  of  Baron  Stockmar  (London, 
1873). 

ALBERT,  Frederick  ArotsTus  (1828-1902). 
King  of  Saxony.  1873-1902.  He  served  in  the  first 
Schieswig-Holstein  War,  and  after  his  father's 
accession  in  1854.  presided  over  the  Coun- 
cil of  State.  In  180<i  he  commanded  the  Saxon 
army,  cooperating  with  Austria  against  Prussia. 
On  the  entrance  of  Saxony  into  the  North  Ger- 
man Confederation,  this  force  became  the  twelfth 
corps  of  the  North  German  army,  and  with  them 
the  Prince  won  high  honors  at  Gravelotte  and 
Sedan,  receiving  the  Prussian  Iron  Cross  and 
tlie  command  of  the  newly  formed  fourth  army, 
at  the  head  of  which  he  entered  Paris  with  the 
Emperor  and  the  German  princes.  He  succeeded 
his  father  on  the  throne  in  1873.  He  married, 
June  18,  1853,  Caroline,  daughter  of  Prince 
Gustavus  Vasa.  Consult  Dittrich,  Konig  Albert 
iind  Prinz  Georg  von  iiachstn    (ilinden,  189G). 

ALBERT,  Frederick  Rudolph  (1817-95), 
genera  11 V  spoken  of  by  English  writers  as  the 
Archduke  Albert.  Archduke  of  Austria,  son 
of  Archduke  Charles,  grandson  of  Leopold  II., 
and  first  cousin  of  the  father  of  the  reigning 
emperor.  He  was  distinguished  in  youth  as  a 
cavalry  commander,  doing  good  service  in  the 
battle'of  Novara  in  1849.  He  was  governor  of 
Hungary,  1851-60;  in  1806  he  commanded  the 
Ausfria'ns  in  Venetia.  and  won  the  victory  of 
Custozza,  .Tune  24;  but  Benedek's  defeat  at  Sado- 
wa,  July'  3,  made  his  success  nugatory.  He  be- 
came Field-Marshal  in  1803  and  Inspector-Gen- 
eral of  the  Austrian  Army  in  1866.  Albert 
married,  ilay  I,  1844,  Archduchess  Hildegarde. 
daughter  of  Ludwig  I.  of  Bavaria.  She  died 
AprU  2.  1864. 

ALBERT,  Heinbich  ( 1604-51 ) .  A  celebrated 
German  composer,  sometimes  erroneously  called 
Alberti,  who  was  instrumental  in  developing  the 
present  form  of  the  German  Lied.  He  was  born 
at  Lobenstein,  Saxony,  and  in  1622  went  to 
Dresden  to  study  miisie  under  his  uncle,  the 
Kapellmeister  Heinrich  Schutz.  In  conformity 
with  the  wishes  of  his  parents,  however,  he  dis- 
continued his  musical  studies  and  entered  the 
University  of  Leipzig  to  study  law.  He  resumed 
the  study  of  music  at  Konigsberg  in  1626,  under 
Stobiius,"  and  three  years  later  became  organist 
at  the  cathedral  in  "that  city.  Albert  was  not 
only  a  fine  musician,  but  a  poet  of  distinction  as 
wel"l,  and  the  verses  which  lie  set  to  music  were 
usually  of  his  own  composition.  Several  of 
these,  "however,  were  written  by  the  poet  Simon 
Dach,  an  intimate  friend  of  Albert,  and  one 
whose  influence  is  still  evident  in  the  well-de- 
fined poetic  rhythm  of  the  song-forms  created 
bv  the  latter.  "Albert  published  eight  books  of 
a'rias  (1638-50)  and  the  Kiirbishiitte  (1645),  a 
collection  of  chorals,  arias,  and  Lieder  for  one  or 
several  voices.  Many  of  his  hymn-tunes,  such 
as   the  well-known   Gott   des   Himmels   jind  der 


ALBERT. 

Erden,  Ich  iin  jo,  Hvrr,  in  Deiner  Macht  ami 
Unser  Ucil  is  Kommen,  are  still  extensively  used 
in  the  Protestant  service.  A  selection  of  his 
songs,  witli  the  music,  has  been  published  in  the 
work  entitled  Xeudruoke  Dcutschcr  Litteratur- 
U'crkc   (lliille,  18S3). 

ALBERT,  Joseph  (1825-80).  A  German 
plioto^iaplier,  -who  was  born  and  died  at  Munich, 
lie  cstaliiislied  a  idiotographer's  studio  at  Augs- 
burg ill  1840.  and  removed  to  Munich  in  1858. 
About  18fi7  he  introduced  an  im]uovemeiit  of  the 
gi'catest  importance  in  ])hoto-mcchanical  print- 
ing (Lirhtdnick) .  It  had  been  known  since 
about  1854  that  a  film  of  gelatine  containing  po- 
tassium-bichromate does  not  receive  greasy  inks 
unless  it  has  been  previously  subjected  to  the 
action  of  light  and  damping.  This  ifact  had  been 
utilized  for  printing  piujioses  by  coating  a  metal 
plate  with  gelatine  containing  some  bichromate 
of  potasli  and  chloride  of  mercury,  treating  with 
silver  oleate,  and  exposing  to  the  action  of  light 
througli  a  negative.  On  washing  and  inking 
with  a  lithographic  roller,  the  plate  could  be 
used  for  printing.  The  soft  gelatine  coating, 
however,  was  extremely  perishable,  and  therefore 
the  process  was  capable  of  only  limitea  applica- 
tion, until  Albert  introduced  his  improvement. 
Albert  found  tliat  the  gelatine  could  be  sullicient- 
ly  hardened  and  rendered  durable  simply  by  the 
action  of  light.  In  place  of  the  old  metallic 
plates,  he  therefore  substituted  transparent 
jilates,  the  uncoatcd  side  of  which  he  exposed  to 
the  action  of  light.  In  this  manner  it  became 
possible  to  obtain  more  than  a  thousand  "Alber- 
type"  cojiies  from  one  plate,  and  tlie  process  was 
adopted  in  general  use.    See  Gelatin  Process. 

ALBERT  I.,  called  The  Bear  (UOG-TO). 
Margrave  of  Brandenburg.  He  was  the  son  and 
successor  of  Otto  the  Rich,  Count  of  Ballcnstadt, 
and  of  Eilika.  daughter  of  Magnus,  Duke  of  Sax- 
ony. Having  aided  the  Duke  of  Saxony,  who 
became  the  Eni])cror  Lothair,  he  received  from 
the  latter  Lusatia,  to  be  held  as  a  fief  of  the 
Empire,  and  later  the  northern  "mark."  In  the 
year  1138,  Henry,  Duke  of  Saxony,  having  been 
put  under  the  imperial  ban,  the  duchy  was  given 
to  Albert,  when  he  took  the  title  of  Duke  of 
Saxony.  Henry,  however,  was  victorious  in  tlie 
contest  which  followed,  and  Albert  was  com- 
pelled to  llee,  and  retained  only  the  margraviate 
of  Nortliern  Saxony.  .Afterward  Swaliia  was 
given  to  him  as  an  indemnitv.  Returning  to 
his  own  country,  he  had  himself  invested  with 
the  lands  which  he  had  conquered  from  the 
Wends,  as  a  hereditary  fief  of  the  Empire,  and 
thus  became  the  founder  and  first  margrave  of 
the  new  State  of  Brandenburg.  Consult  Heine- 
mann,  Alhrccht  der  Bar  (Darmstadt,  1804). 

ALBERT  I.  (1317-79).  Duke  of  Mecklen- 
burg, fiiunder  of  the  present  reigning  dynasty. 
He  was  a  son  of  Prince  Henry  II.,  the  Lion,  and 
reigned  as  prince  from  1329  until  1348,  when  he 
was  appointed  duke  by  the  Emperor  Charles  IV. 
Relying  upon  the  cities  of  his  realm,  he  sought 
to  suppress  the  frequent  feuds  of  the  nobles,  and 
to  lind  advantages  by  active  participation  in 
the  afl'airs  of  the  Empire.  Upon  the  extinction 
of  the  dynasty  of  Schwerin,  he  united  the  do- 
mains of  that  principality  with  his  own  (1358). 
He  was  also  instrumental  in  securing  the  crown 
of  Sweden  for  his  son,  afterward  known  as  Al- 
bert 11.    See  Albert,  King  of  Sweden. 

Vol.  I.- 20. 


281 


ALBERTA. 


ALBERT  II.,   Duke  of  Mecklenburg.     See 

Aliseut,  KiAti  OF  Sweden. 

ALBERT  IV.,  called  The  Wise  (1447-1508). 
Duke  of  Bavaria,  third  son  of  Albert  III.,  sur- 
named  "the  Pious."'  After  the  death  of  his 
father  in  1400  he  was  placed  under  the  guardian- 
ship of  his  elder  brothers,  John  III.  and  Sigis- 
niund,  who  had  conjointly  succeeded  to  the  regen- 
cy :  and  upon  the  death  of  John  ( 1403 ) ,  he  became 
co-regent  with  Sigisniund.  The  acquisition  of 
the  territories  of  the  house  of  Bavaria-Landshut 
greatly  increased  the  extent  of  his  possessions. 
In  consequence  of  this  increase  of  power,  how- 
ever, he  became  involved  in  a  feud  with  several 
members  of  the  nobility,  and  his  interference  in 
the  affairs  of  Regensburg  (Ratisbon)  finally 
aroused  the  displeasure  of  the  Emperor  and  he 
was  placed  under  the  ban.  His  principal 
achievement  was  the  establishment  of  the  law 
of  succession  in  the  dukedom  of  Bavaria  (July 
8,   1500). 

ALBERT  V.  (1528-79).  Duke  of  Bavaria, 
a  son  of  Duke  William  IV.  and  Maria  Jakobiia 
of  Baden.  He  succeeded  to  power  in  1550,  and 
soon  became  involved  in  religious  and  other  dis- 
putes, in  consequence  of  which  the  power  of  the 
feudal  barons  in  his  dominions  was  completely 
broken.  He  banished  the  Protestants  from  his 
dominions  and  prohibited  the  publication  of 
books  favorable  to  them.  It  was  due  to  his  in- 
itiative that  ilunich  afterward  became  a  great 
centre  of  art.  He  greatlj'  encouraged  engraving, 
painting,  brass-founding,  and  the  industrial  arts, 
and  laid  the  foundation  of  a  museum  of  art  as 
well  as  of  a  museum  of  antiquities,  a  gallery  of 
paintings,  and  a  royal  library.  Upon  his  death 
he  left  debts  to  the  amount  of  two  and  a  half 
million  florins. 

ALBERTA,  iil-ber'ta.  A  district  in  Canada, 
formed  in  1882  out  of  tlie  Northwest  Territories, 
containing  100.000  square  miles  (Map:  Xorth- 
West  Territories.  F  4).  It  is  bounded  on  the 
north  liy  Athaliasca,  on  the  east  by  Saskatcli- 
ewan  and  Assiuiboia,  on  the  south  by  tlie 
United  States,  and  on  the  west  by  British  Co- 
lumbia, the  western  boundary  running  northwest 
and  southeast  along  the  line  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tain divide.  It  lies  between  lat.  49°  and  55°  1', 
and  long.  111°  and  120°.  Topographically,  the 
eastern  half  of  the  district  is  a  part  of  the  great 
central  plain,  the  western  half  belonging  to  the 
Rocky  ^lountain  region.  Tlie  ascent  from  the 
plain  to  the  mountain  is  very  steep.  The  head- 
waters of  tliree  great  river  systems,  ^^■hich  reach 
the  sea  in  three  different  directions,  have  their 
origin  within  the  district;  the  Athabasca  and 
other  streams  of  the  north  drain  northward  into 
the  Mackenzie  system,  the  tributaries  of  the 
]\Iissouri  drain  the  southern  portion  into  the 
Mississi])pi  system,  while  between  the  two  the 
Saskatchewan  and  its  tributaries  drain  the  re- 
gion into  the  Hudson  Bay,  through  the  Nelson 
system.  The  plain  is  prairie  land,  but  the  foot- 
hills of  the  mountains  are  well  wooded.  The 
rain  and  snowfall  are  light,  and  the  atmosphere 
clear  and  invigorating.  Sudden  and  decided  ex- 
tremes in  temperature  are  common  in  winter  and 
summer.  The  winter  winds  from  the  northeast 
are  at  times  very  severe,  while  the  western  winds 
— the  Chinooks — are  warm  and  pleasant.  The 
prairie  afi'ords  excellent  gi'azing,  and  there  are 
some  large,  well-stocked  cattle  ranches.  Mixed 
farming   has   been   found   practicable   at   a   few 


ALBEBTA. 


283 


ALBERT    NYANZA. 


places,  particularly  in  the  valley  of  tlie  Red 
Deer  River.  The  greatest  wealth  of  the 
district,  however,  is  in  its  mineral  resources. 
The  coal  area  is  very  extensive,  and  recent  inter- 
est in  its  mining  indicates  an  enormous  growth  of 
this  indxistry  in  the  near  future.  Gold  is  found 
near  Edmonton.  Two  branches  of  the  Canadian 
Pacific  Railway  cross  the  district  from  east  to 
west,  while  a  tliird  branch  extends  northward  to 
Edmonton.  The  country  is  but  sparsely  settled 
( for  ])opulatiun  see  article  Nortii\ve.st  Terri- 
TOitiES),  most  of  the  settlements  being  close  to 
the  railway  lines.  There  are  a  number  of  small 
foreign  colonies  along  the  line  running  north  to 
Edmonton. 

AL'BERT  CHAP'EL.  A  memorial  chapel  in 
WimUor  Castle.     See  Windsor  Castle. 

ALBERT  ED'WAKD.      See  Edward  VII. 

ALBERT  ED'WARD  NYAN'ZA,  called  by 
the  natives  ^Iuta  XziuE.  A  lake  in  central 
Africa,  a  little  south  of  the  equator,  on  the 
)ioundary  line  between  the  Congo  Free  State  and 
the  British  protectorate  of  Uganda  (Map:  Africa, 
G  5).  It  is  situated  at  an  altitude  of  more  than 
3100  feet,  and  is  one  of  the  sources  of  the  Nile. 
It  is  about  50  miles  long,  and  is  connected  liy  the 
Semliki  River  (about  130  miles)  Avith  the  Al- 
bert Nyanza  on  the  north.  The  lake  was  dis- 
covered in  1870  by  Stanley,  who  regarded  it  as 
the  southern  part  of  Albert  Nyanza.  On  his 
subsequent  visit.  1SS9,  he  explored  it  thoroughly, 
and  named  it  in  lionor  of  the  then  Prince  of 
Wales,  now  King  Edward  VII.  For  geological 
features,  see  Albert  Nyanza  :  Great  Rift  Valley. 

ALBERT  EMBANK'MENT.  The  name  giv- 
en to  a  part  of  the  Thames  Embankment  (q.v.), 
London. 

ALBERT  HALL,  The  Royal.  A  large  am- 
jihitheatre  in  Kensington,  London,  built  in  1807- 
71  for  concerts  and  other  great  assemblies.  In 
shape  the  building  is  oval,  270  by  240  feet  in 
dimensions ;  it  seats  8000  people.  Its  style  is 
Italian  Renaissance,  the  material  being  brick 
and  the  chief  external  crnament  a  frieze  in  terra 
cotta,  representing  the  different  races  of  men. 
Its  organ,  which  has  nearly  9000  pipes,  is  famous 
as  one  of  the  largest  in  the  world. 

ALBERTI,  ul-ber'tf.  DoMENico  (1707-40). 
An  Italian  composer.  He  was  born  in  Venice, 
and  died  in  Formio.  A  style  of  broken  chord 
bass-accompaniment,  which  he  developed,  still 
is  called  "Alberti"  or  "Albertinian"  bass. 

ALBERTI,  Leoxe  Battista  degli  (1404-72). 
An  Italian  architect  and  writer,  born  in  Venice, 
of  the  noble  Florentine  family  of  the  Alberti, 
recalled  from  exile  in  142S.  He  was  the  leader 
in  the  second  phase  of  early  Italian  Renaissance 
architecture,  both  by  the  works  he  executed  and 
by  his  theoretical  writings  and  teachings.  He 
lived  principally  in  Rome,  and  was  for  a  time 
charged  with  the  projects  for  rebuilding  St. 
Peter's  and  the  Vatican.  The  purity  of  his 
classic  taste  is  shown  in  the  fatjade  of  St.  Francis 
at  Rimini,  reproduced  from  a  Roman  triumphal 
arch.  His  intended  use  here  of  the  dome,  his 
barrel  vaults  at  St.  Andrea  in  Mantua,  show  how 
in  construction  he  also  returned  to  the  forms 
of  ancient  Roman  architecture.  He  had  a  num- 
ber of  pupils  and  associates,  who  carried  out 
liis  plans:  Mattco  dci  Pasti.  at  Rimini:  Fancelli, 
at  Mantua:  Rertini  in  the  facade  of  St.  Maria 
Nwclla  at  Florence    (where  he  so  successfully 


copied  the  media val  style  of  incrustcd  marbles)  ; 
and  Rossellino  in  the  famous  Rucellai  Palace 
(1446-51)  at  Florence,  which  combined  the  older 
rustic  bossed  work  with  the  smooth  pilastcred 
style,  and  caused  a  revolution  in  palace  archi- 
tecture. His  book  De  Re  JiJdificatoria  (1485) 
was  the  first  great  work  on  architecture  of  the 
Renaissance,  and  had  been  preceded  by  a  manual 
on  the  five  orders,  as  well  as  by  other  manuals 
on  statuary  and  painting.  He  prepared  the  way 
for  Brunelleschi. 

ALBERTI,  LuiGi  Maria  d'  (1S4I— ).  An 
Italian  traveler,  born  at  Voltri.  He  attended 
tile  College  of  Savona,  and  served  in  the  army 
of  Garibaldi  in  1800.  From  1871  to  1878  he 
made  a  careful  exploration  and  study  of  the 
Island  of  New  Guinea.  The  results  of  this 
expedition  he  published  in  his  Explorazione  della 
Xuova  Guinea  {18S0;  English  translation,  18S0). 

ALBERTINELLI,  alber'te-nel'le,  Mariotto 
(  l-i74-151.'i ) .  An  ltalianpainter.l>ornin  Florence, 
the  friend  and  most  efficient  colleague  of  Fra  Bar- 
tolommeo  (q.v.),  who  was  his  fellow-pupil  under 
Cosimo  Roselli.  It  is  difficult  to  separate  the 
works  of  the  two ;  together  they  produced  an 
"Assmnption"  (Berlin)  and  a  "Last  .Judgment" 
(Santa  Maria  Novella,  Florence).  Albertinelli's 
own  principal  works  are  a  splendid  "Visita- 
tion" (Uffizi),  a  "Holy  Family"  (Pitti),  and 
an  "Annunciation"   (Academy,  Florence). 

AL'BERTITE.  A  form  of  asphaltic  coal 
obtained  at  Hillsborough,  Albert  Co.,  New  Bruns- 
wick. Canada,  where  it  occurred  in  a  fissure  vein 
in  rocks  of  the  Upper  Devonian  age.  It  is  a  soft, 
jet  black  mineral  that  has  been  derived  from 
petroleum  by  oxidization  of  the  oily  contents, 
and  it  was  at  one  time  highly  prized  as  a  gas- 
enricher.     See  Asphaltic  Coal. 

AL'BERT  LEA.  A  city  and  county  scat  of 
Freeborn  Co.,  Jlinn.,  110  miles  south  of  Minne- 
apolis, on  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul, 
the  Minneapolis  and  St.  Louis,  the  Burlington, 
Cedar  Rapids  and  Northern,  and  other  railroads 
(Map:  Minnesota,  E  7).  The  city  has  a  fine 
location  between  two  lakes,  in  a  region  popular 
as  a  place  of  resort ;  it  is  the  seat  of  Albert  Lea 
College  for  women  (Presbyterian),  opened  in 
1885,  and  contains  a  public  libriiry  and  a  hand- 
some court  house.  It  is  the  market  for  the  agri- 
cultural and  dairy  products  of  the  surrounding 
region,  and  has  grain  elevators,  flour  mills,  foun- 
dries and  machine  shops,  brickyards,  wagon  and 
plow  works,  a  woolen  mill,  etc.  There  are  some 
twenty  artesian  wells  of  chalvbeate  waters. 
Pop., 'l890,  3305;   1900,  4500. 

ALBERT  MED'AL.  A  decoration  instituted 
in  F.nuland  (ISOli) — in  memory  of  Prince 
Consort  Albert,  whose  name  it  bears — to  reward 
heroic  acts  in  saving  life  at  sea.  In  1877  it  was 
extended  to  acts  of  gallantly  in  preventing  loss 
of  life  in  perils  on  land.  There  are  two  classes, 
the  first  of  gold  and  the  second  of  bronze,  with 
the  words  "For  Gallantry  in  Saving  Life  at 
Sea"  or  "on  Land,"  as  the  case  may  be.  See 
Memal. 

ALBERT  NYAN'ZA,  called  by  the  natives 
MwUTAN-NziGE.  A  large  lake  of"  British  East 
Africa,  one  of  the  reservoirs  of  the  Nile,  situa- 
ted in  a  deep  rock-basin,  80  miles  northwest 
of  the  Victoria  Nyanza  (Map:  .\frica,  H  4). 
This  lake  is  the  northernmost  of  a  series  of  five 
that  occupy  the  lower  basins  of  a  great  rift 
vallev.  that  extends  for  1000  miles  in  a  general 


ALBERT    NYANZA. 


283 


ALBINO. 


poutlioily  (lirpotion  to  near  the  iiioutli  of  flip 
Ziiiiil>ezi  Kiver.  Tanr;:inyika  and  Nyassa  occupy 
otlicr  portions  of  the  same  rift  valley.  The 
.Albert  Nj'anza  is  of  an  oblong  shape,  and  is  100 
miles  long  from  northeast  to  southwest,  and  2.') 
miles  broad,  having  an  area  of  about  2000  square 
miles.  It  is  intersected  by  lat.  2°  N.  and  long. 
31°  E.  The  Nile  issues  fioni  the  northern  end 
of  the  Albert  Nyanza,  where  the  outlet  of  the 
Victoria  N.yanza.  the  Victoria  Nile,  discharges 
into  the  lake.  At  its  south  end  the  lake  receives 
the  Scndiki,  the  outlet  of  the  Albert  Edward 
Nvanza.  On  the  east  it  is  fringed  by  precipitous 
cliffs,  liaving  a  mean  altitude  of  1.500  feet,  with 
isolated  peaks  rising  from  .5000  to  10,000  feet. 
The  surface  of  the  lake  is  about  2100  feet  above 
the  sea ;  its  water  is  fresh  and  sweet,  and  of  great 
depth  toward  the  centre.  The  novthern  and  west- 
ern shores  of  the  lake  are  bordered  by  a  massive 
range  of  hills,  called  the  Blue  Mountains,  which 
have  an  elevation  of  about  7000  feet.  The  exist- 
ence of  tills  vast  lake  first  became  known  to 
Europeans  through  Speke  and  Grant,  who,  in 
lSfi2,  heard  of  it  under  the  name  of  the  Luta- 
Nzige.  It  was  described  by  the  natives  as  only  a 
narrow  reservoir  forming  a  shallow  back-water 
of  the  Nile.  When  iSiieke  and  Grant,  after  the 
discovery  of  the  V'ictoria  Nyanza.  were,  in  180.3, 
descending  the  Nile  on  their  return  to  Europe, 
they  met,  at  Gondokoro,  Sir  Samuel  White  Baker 
(q.v.K  who  was  ascending  the  river.  After  a 
toilsome  march  and  nuiny  adventures,  his  party 
came,  early  in  1SC4,  in  sight  of  the  lake,  which 
Baker  named  in  honor  of  Prince  Albert,  who  was 
Imt  recently  dead.  The  extent  and  general  out- 
lines of  the  lake  were  not  accurately  determined 
until  1871).  when  it  was  circumnavigated  by 
Signor  Rouiolo  Gessi,  an  Italian  explorer  at- 
tached to  General  Gordon's  Egyptian  expedition. 
A  year  later,  in  1877,  Colonel  Mason,  an  Ameri- 
can officer  in  the  service  of  the  Egyptian  govern- 
ment, made  a  more  careful  survey  of  the  lake, 
fully  confirming  Gessi's  report.  See  Great  Rift 
Valley. 

ALBER'TUS  MAG'NUS.  See  Albert,  Colt.xt 
OF  Bollstadt. 

ALBI,  al'bs,  or  ALBY.  The  capital  of  the 
department  of  Tarn  in  France,  built  on  a  height 
overlooking  the  river  Tarn,  which  is  crossed  by 
a  beautiful  stone  bridge  (Jlap:  France,  .J  8). 
-\lbi  sufi'ered  greatly  (luring  the  religious  wars 
which  devastated  the  land  in  the  time  of  the 
Albigenses.  who  took  their  name  from  this  town. 
The  chief  buildings  are  the  cathedral,  built 
of  brick  in  a  unique  style,  and,  inside,  deco- 
rated on  wall  and  ceiling  with  frescoes  executed 
by  the  first  Italian  painters  of  the  day.  The 
south  portal  is  a  remarkable  example  of  deco- 
rated Gothic.  It  is  dedicated  to  St.  Cecilia,  and 
adorned  with  an  exquisite  recumbent  statue  of 
the  martyr  in  marble.  The  town  maintains  a 
library  of  over  30.000  volumes  ( including  many 
incunabula)  and  a  museum.  There  are  large 
brickyards  at  Albi,  and  it  has  a  considerable 
trade  in  corn,  wine,  fruit,  etc.,  and  linen,  cotton, 
woolen,  and  leather  manufactures.  Pop.,  ISilO, 
14,i183. 

AL'BIA.  A  city  and  cotmty  seat  of  Monroe 
Co..  la.,  07  miles  southeast  of  Des  Moines,  on  the 
Chicago.  Burlington  and  Quincy,  the  Iowa  Cen- 
tral, the  Wabash,  and  other  railroads  (Map: 
Iowa,  E  .3).  With  its  excellent  transportation 
facilities,  the   city   controls   an   extensive   t-rade 


in  coal,  which  is  mined  in  the  snrrounding  coun- 
try, and  in  agricultural  products,  live  stock, 
arid  grain.     Pop.,    1890,   2359;    1900,  2889. 

AL'BIGEN'SES.  A  name  applied  to  the  heret- 
ical (athari  in  the  south  of  France,  about  the 
beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century.  The  name 
arose  from  the  circumstance  that  the  district  of 
Albigeois,  about  Albi,  in  Languedoc,  was  the  first 
point  in  southern  France  where  the  Cathari  ap- 
peared. The  so-called  Albigensian  Crusade  was 
undertaken  by  Pope  Innocent  III.  in  1209.  The 
inunediate  occasion  of  it  was  the  murder  of  the 
papal  legate  and  inquisitor,  Pierre  de  Castelnau, 
who  had  been  commissioned  to  extirpate  heresy 
in  the  dominions  of  Count  Raymond  VI.  of  Tou- 
louse; but  its  real  purpose  was  to  deprive  the 
Count  of  his  lands,  as  he  had  be:  ome  an  object 
of  dislike  from  his  toleration  of  the  heretics. 
It  was  in  vain  that  he  had  submitted  to  the 
most  humiliating  penance  and  tiagellation  from 
the  hands  of  the  legate  Milo,  and  had  solicit- 
ed Papal  absolution  by  great  sacrifices.  The 
legates  Arnold,  Abbot  of  Citeaux,  and  Milo,  who 
directed  the  expedition,  took  by  storm  Beziers, 
the  capital  of  Raymond's  nephew.  Roger,  and 
massacred  20,000  of  the  inhabitants.  Catholics 
as  well  as  heretics.  Arnold's  reputed  saying: 
"Kill  them  all;  God  will  know  His  own,"  is  not 
authentic.  Simon  de  Montfort,  who  conducted  the 
war  under  the  legates,  proceeded  in  the  same 
relentless  way  with  other  places  in  the  territories 
of  Raymond  and  his  allies.  Of  these,  Roger  of 
Bt^ziers  died  in  prison,  and  Peter  I.  of  Aragon 
fell  in  battle.  The  conquered  lands  were  given 
as  a  reward  to  Simon  de  Jlontfort.  who  never 
came  into  quiet  possession  of  the  gift.  At  the 
siege  of  Toulouse,  1218,  he  was  killed  by  a 
stone,  and  Counts  Raymond  VI.  and  VII.  dis- 
puted the  possession  of  their  territories  with 
his  son.  But  the  papal 'indulgences  drew  fresh 
crusaders  from  every  province  of  France  to 
continue  the  war.  Raymond  VII.  continued  to 
struggle  bravely  against  the  legates  and  Louis 
VIII.  of  France,  to  whom  Montfort  had  ceded 
his  pretensions.  After  many  thousands  had  per- 
ished on  both  sides,  a  peace  was  concluded,  in 
1229,  at  which  Raymond  secured  relief  from  the 
ban  of  the  Churcli,  surrendered  large  sums  of 
money,  gave  up  Narbonne  and  several  lordships 
to  Louis  IX.,  and  had  to  make  his  son-in-law, 
the  brother  of  Louis,  heir  to  his  other  posses- 
sions. The  Albigenses  were  left  without  a  pi"o- 
tector.  The  heretics  were  handed  over  to  the 
proselytizing  zeal  of  the  order  of  Donlinicans  and 
the  severe  tribunals  of  the  iTiquisition ;  and  both 
used  their  utmost  power  to  bring  the  recusant 
Albigenses  to  the  stake,  and  also,  by  inflicting 
severe  punishment  on  the  penitent  converts,  to 
inspire  dread  of  incurring  the  Church's  displeas- 
ure. From  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century 
the  name  of  the  Albigenses  gradually  disappears. 
The  reuuiants  of  them  took  refuge  in  the  east, 
some  settling  in  Bosnia. 

ALBI'NO  (Pprtug.  and  Sp.,  from  Lat.  nibus, 
white).  A  term  first  applied  by  the  Portuguese 
to  the  white  negroes  of  west  Africa:  now  applied 
to  any  individual  in  whom  there  is  congenital 
deficiency  of  pigment  in  skin,  hair,  iris,  and 
choroid  of  the  eye.  The  skin  is  abnormally  pale, 
the  hair  is  white  or  pale  flaxen,  and  the  iris  is 
pink.  An  albino  is  termcil  Inicttriliinp  by  the 
Latins,  kakcrhil-  by  the  Germans,  hcdo  in  Cey- 
lon, and  doiido  in  Africa.     The  absence  of  pig- 


ALBINO. 


28-1 


ALBOIN. 


ir.ent  in  tlip  iri>  renders  an  albino's  ej'es  sensitive, 
and  partially  blind  in  the  sunlight.  Albinism, 
or  alphosis,  is  found  in  many  races  as  a  rare 
condition.  Gushing  found  it  among  the  Zuiii. 
It  is  sometimes  a  family  trait.  It  occurs  fre- 
quently among  rabbits,  mice,  birds,  and  other 
lower  animals.  See  also  Somatology ;  Vitiligo ; 
JMelanism  and  Albixism. 

AL'BINOVA'NUS,  Gaius  Peho.  A  Roman 
epic  writer:  a  friend  and  contemporary  of  Ovid, 
who  addressed  to  him  one  of  his  Epistolw  ex 
Ponto.  In  addition  to  his  epic  on  the  exploits 
of  Germanicus,  fragments  of  which  are  preserved 
in  the  Suasorice  of  Seneca,  he  is  said  to  have 
written  a  poem  entitled  Tlicsc'is,  an  epic  on  con- 
temporary history,  and  numerous  epigrams ;  but 
he  was  probably  not  the  author  of  the  elegy  on 
the  death  of  Drusus,  Epicedion  Drusi,  which 
has  been  attributed  to  him.  Albinovanus  is 
quoted  by  the  younger  Seneca,  who  calls  him 
Fabulator  Elcgnntissimus,  and  is  mentioned  by 
Martial  and  Quintilian.  Consult:  Wernsdorf, 
Poetw  Latiui  llinores.  Volume  IV.;  Biihrens, 
Poetce  Latini  Minores,  Volume  I.  (Leipzig, 
1879)  ;  and  Haupt,  Opiixcnla.  Volume  I.    (187.5). 

ALBI'NTJS,  Clodius,  the  popular  name  for 
DEcnu's  Clodius  Ceioxius  Septimius  Alisinus 
(  ?-107  A.D.).  A  Roman  commander.  He  was  a 
governor  of  Gaul  and  Britain  at  the  time  of 
the  death  of  the  Emperor  Commodus  (1!I2),  and 
was  made  Civsar  by  Septimius  Severus  in  194. 
After  defeating  his  rivals,  however,  Severus 
turned  his  arms  against  Albinus,  and  at  the 
battle  near  Lugdunum  (Lyons)  in  Gaul  (197 
A.D.),  Albinus  was  defeated  and  killed.  (Dio. 
Cass.  Ixx.  4,  Vita  Alh.) 

AL'BION  AND  ALBA'NIUS.  An  opera  or 
masque  by  .John  Dryden.  written  to  celebrate  the 
successes  of  the  Stuarjs  after  the  restoration. 
It  was  produced,  with  music  by  Louis  Grabut, 
in  1085,  and  first  published  the  same  year.  It 
is  an  allegory,  with  classical  nomenclature. 
Albion  represents  Charles  II.,  and  Albanius, 
James,  the  Duke  of  York. 

ALBION  (Lat.,  Gtk.  'A?.oi>icjv,  Aloii'iftn.  from 
Lat.  dibits,  white,  referring  to  the  chalk  cliffs  of 
the  southern  coast).  The  most  ancient  name 
on  record  of  the  island  of  Great  Britain.  See 
Albany. 

ALBION.  A  city  in  Calhoun  Co.,  Mich.,  20 
miles  west  of  Jackson,  on  the  Michigan  Central, 
Lake  Shore,  and  Michigan  Southern  railroads 
(Map:  Michigan,  J  G).  The  city  owns  its  water 
supply,  has  a  city  library  and  park,  and  is  the 
seat  of  Albion  College,  under  Methodist  Episco- 
pal control.  Its  principal  manufactures  are 
plow  works,  carriage  works,  mallealile  iron 
works,  flour  mills,  and  agricultural  implements. 
Albion  was  first  settled  in  1830.  and  is  governed 
imder  a  charter  adopted  in  1896.  revised  in  1897 
and  in  1899,  wliicli  provides  for  a  mayor,  elected 
annually,  and  a  city  council,  composed  of  the 
Tnayor.  eifv  clerk,  and  eight  aldermen.  Pop., 
1890:  37(i:!':  1900,  4.519. 

ALBION.  A  village,  the  county  seat  of 
Orleans  Co.,  N.  Y.,  30  miles  west  of  Rochester, 
on  the  Erie  Canal  and  the  New  York  Central 
Railroad  (Map:  New  York,  B  2).  The  Western 
House  of  Refuge  for  Women,  the  Swan  Library, 
the  high  school,  the  court  house.  Pullman  Memo- 
rial Church,  and  Mt.  Albion  Cemetery  are  the 
more  prominent  features  of  interest.     Agricul- 


ture and  quarrying  are  the  leading  industries. 
Albion  is  governed,  under  a  revised  charter  of 
1890,  by  a  mayor,  elected  every  three  years,  and 
a  board  of  trustees.  Pop.,  1890,  4586;  1900, 
4477. 

ALBION,  New.  The  name  given  by  Sir  Fran- 
cis Drake  to  the  western  coast  of  Nortli  America, 
which  he  visited  in  1.579.  It  was  originally  ap- 
plied to  the  whole  region  including  tlie  peninsula 
of  Lower  California,  but  was  restricted  by 
Humboldt  and  other  geographers  to  the  section 
actually  explored  by  Drake  between  San  Fran- 
cisco Bay  and  the  Columbia  River.  Consult  the 
map  in  the  Hakluyt  Society's  edition  of  Fletcher's 
World  Eiicomjxisscd  by  Sir  Francis  Drake. 

AL'BION  COL'LEGTE.  An  American  college, 
situated  at  Albion,  Mich.  It  was  established  as 
a  seminary  in  1835,  and  organized  as  a  college 
in  1801.  In  1901  it  had  21  professors  and  in- 
structors, and  224  students  in  the  college  depart- 
ment, 245  in  the  schools  of  music,  oratoi"y,  and 
painting,  115  in  the  business  department,  and 
133  in  the  preparatory  department.  The  endow- 
ment fund  is  $225,465,  the  value  of  buildings  and 
giounds  .$140,000,  and  the  annual  income  from 
$32,000  to  $35,000,  The  library  contains  13,800 
volumes  and  4000  pamphlets. 

ALBION'S  ENG'LAND.  A  long  narrative 
poem  on  English  historv.  bv  William  Warner 
(e.  1558-10091.  It  was 'tirst  published  in  1580. 
in  four  books  on  legendary  incident.^  from  Noah's 
time  to  that  of  William  the  Conqueror;  but  other 
books  were  successively  added,  till  there  were  six- 
teen, bringing  the  story  down  to  the  reign  of 
James  I.  Many  of  its  materials  have  been  used 
by  later  poets. 
"aLBISTAN,  al'be-stan',  or  EL-BOSTAN,  el' 
bo-st.'iu'  (Turk.  The  Garden).  A  town  in  the 
Turkish  vilayet  of  Aleppo,  about  40  miles  noi-th- 
northeast  of  Marash,  on  the  small  river  of  Jihun 
(Map:  Turkey  in  Asia,  G  3).  It  is  situated  in 
a  fertile  portion  of  Anatolia,  and  has  a  consid- 
erable trade  in  grain.  Its  population  is  about 
8000. 

AL'BITE  (Lat.  alhus.  white).  A  sodium 
feldspar  or  sodium  aluminum  silicate  that  crys- 
tallizes in  the  triclinic  system.  It  is  a  constitu- 
ent of  many  alkaline  rocks,  and  is  found  exten- 
sively in  the  LTnitcd  States.  Certain  varieties 
called  moonstones,  having  a  blue  chatoyant  effect, 
are  cut  and  polished  as  gems. 

ALBO,  itl'bo,  Joseph  (c.  1380-1444).  A  Jew- 
ish preacher  and  theologian  of  Spain.  He  was 
born  probably  at  Monreal,  .\ragon,  studied  un- 
der the  speculative  philosopher  Hasdai  Crescas, 
and  in  1413-14  seems  to  have  taken  part  in  the 
extended  theological  discussion  at  Tortosa.  He 
is  known  chiefly  for  his  apologetic  entitled,  II;- 
Icarim  (Principles),  which  has  exerted  wide  in- 
fluence. The  work  was  first  published  in  1485, 
and  was  translated  into  German  bv  Schlesinger 
(1844).  Consult:  Back,  Josrith  Alio  (1869), 
find  Tiinzer,  Die  Religiotisphilosophic  dcs  Joseph 
Albo  (1890). 

ALBOIN,  ;-il'boin  (  ?-c.  573  ) .  The  founder  of 
the  Lombard  dominion  in  Italy.  He  succeeded 
his  father  in  561  A.n.  as  King  of  the  Lombards, 
who  were  at  that  time  settled  in  Noricum  and 
Pannonia.  He  first  aided  Narses  against  the 
Ostrogoths,  and  afterward,  allying  himself  with 
the  Avars,  attacked  the  Gepid:e  and  defeated 
them  in  a  great  battle  (566),  slaying  their  king, 


ALBOIN. 


285 


ALBBIZZI. 


Cunimund.  with  his  own  hand.  (In  tho  death  of 
his  first  wife,  t'lilotsuinda.  lie  niaiiicd  Kosaniund, 
daugliter  of  Cuniniuiul.  He  invaded  Italy  in  5(iS 
with  his  own  nation  of  Loml)ards,  some  of  the 
Gepid;e,  20.000  Saxons,  and  adventurers  from 
other  nations;  overran  Venetia  in  568,  Ligii- 
ria  in  5(it),  and  Etnuia  in  .570,  and  captured 
Beneventum  in  571.  Pavia  was  conquered  in 
572,  after  three  years  of  siege.  During  a  feast 
at  Verona  he  nuide  his  queen  drink  out  of  the 
skull  of  her  father,  which  he  had  converted  into 
a  wine-cu]).  In  revenge  slie  incited  her  para- 
mour, Uelmichis,  to  murder  her  husband  ( 572  or 
573) .  To  escape  the  fury  of  the  Lombards,  Rosa- 
mund lied  with  her  associate  and  the  treasure 
to  Longinus,  the  exarch,  at  Ravenna.  Longinus 
becoming  .a  suitor  for  her  hand,  she  administered 
poison  to  Helmichis,  who.  discovering  the  treach- 
ery, caused  her  to  swallow  the  remainder  of  the 
cup,  and  she  died  with  him.  For  several  centu- 
ries the  name  of  Alboin  continued  to  be  famous 
among  the  German  nations,  who  celebrated  his 
praises    in    martial    songs. 

ALBONI,  al-bO'ne,  Marietta  (1823-94).  An 
Italian  contralto,  horn  at  Cesena.  in  the  Roma- 
gna.  March  10.  1823.  A  pupil  of  :\Inie.  Bertolotti, 
and  later  of  Rossini,  she  made  her  debut  at  the 
age  of  fifteen  at  Bologna  as  Orsini  in  Lucrezia 
Borgia,  and  her  success  led  to  an  engagement  at 
La  Scala,  Milan.  In  1S4G-47  she  sang  in  all  the 
principal  cities  of  Europe;  in  London,  at  C'ovent 
Garden,  in  rivalry  with  Jenny  Lind,  who  was  at 
Her  Majesty's  Theatre.  In  1852  she  visited  the 
United  States,  singing  in  the  chief  towns  in  opera 
and  concert.  With  the  exception  of  Malibran 
(q.v.),  she  was  the  greatest  contralto  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  Her  voice,  a  fine  contralto 
with  a  compass  of  tw-o  and  one-half  octaves, 
ranging  as  high  as  mezzo-soprano,  possessed  at 
once  jiower.  sweetness,  fullness,  and  extraordi- 
nary flexibility.  In  passages  requiring  elevation 
and  semi-religious  calmness  she  had  no  peers, 
owing  to  tlie  moving  quality  of  her  voice.  She 
possessed  vivacity,  gi"ace,  and  charm  as  an  ac- 
tress of  the  comedienne  type,  but  lier  attempt  at 
a  strongly  dramatic  part,  like  Norma,  turned 
out  a  failure.  She  married  Count  Pepoli,  of  the 
Papal  States,  liut  kept  her  maiden  name  on  the 
stage,  appearing  in  opera  at  Jlunich  as  late  as 
1872.  Her  husband  died  in  ISliU,  and  in  1877 
she  married  it.  Zieger,  a  French  oOicer.  She 
died  at  Ville  d'Avray,  near  Paris.  Consult  G. 
T.  Ferris,  Great  Singers  (New  York,  1893), 
which  gives  a  most  picturesque  account  of  her 
professional  career. 

ALBOBNOZ,  al-bor'noth,  Gil  Alvarez  Car- 
ILLO  DE  (c.  1310-1307).  A  warlike  Spanish 
prelate.  He  was  born  at  Cuenca,  studied  at  Tou- 
louse, and  subsequently  became  almoner  to  Al- 
fonso XL,  King  of  Castile,  who  apjiointed  him 
Archdeacon  of  Calatrava  and  finally  Archbishop 
of  Toledo.  He  took  part  in  the  wars  against  the 
Moors,  saved  the  life  of  the  King  in  the  battle  of 
Tarifa,  and  was  present  f.t  the  siege  of  Algeciras, 
where  the  King  dubbed  him  knight.  On  account 
of  the  boldness  with  which  he  denounced  the 
criminal  excesses  of  Peter  the  Cruel,  he  fell  into 
disgrace,  and  fied  to  Pope  Clement  VI.  at  Avig- 
non, who  made  him  a  cardinal.  Innocent  VII. 
also  recognized  his  abilities  as  an  astute  diplo- 
mat and  sent  him  as  cardinal-legate  to  Rome, 
where,  by  his  tact  and  vigor,  he  secured,  in  spite 
of  the  intricate  complications  of  affairs,  the 
restoration  of  the  papal  authority  in  the  States 


of  the  Church  (13.=)3-(;0).  Pope  Urban  V.  owed 
the  recovery  of  his  dominions  to  him,  and  out  of 
gratitude  appointed  him  legate  at  Bologna,  in 
1367.  In  the  same  year  he  died,  at  Viterbo;  but 
as  lie  had  expressed  a  wish  to  be  buried  at  To- 
ledo, Henry  of  Castile  removed  his  body  with 
almost  royal  lienors,  and  Urban  even  granted  an 
indulgence  to  all  who  had  assisted  in  transfer- 
ring the  body  from  Viterbo  to  Toledo.  He  left 
a  valu;ible  work  upon  the  constitution  of  the 
Roman  Church,  printed  for  the  first  time  at 
Jesi  in  1473,  and  now  very  rare.  By  his  will  he 
provided  for  the  foundation  of  the  College  of 
Spain  at  Bologna. 

ALBRECET,  Ul'brcKt.     See  Albert. 

ALBBECHTSBERGER,  al'breKts  -  berK'er, 
.JoHANN  Georo  (  1736-1809).  An  Austrian  musi- 
cian, one  of  the  most  learned  contrapuntists  of  his 
age.  In  1772  he  was  appointed  court  organist, 
and  in  1792  kapellmeister  of  St.  Stephen's  cathe- 
dral. Among  his  pupils  were  Beethoven  (w'hose 
genius  he  failed  to  recognize).  Hummel,  Mos- 
cheles,  Seyfried,  and  Weigh  Of  his  numerous 
compositions,  few  are  performed  nowadays.  His 
most  important  contributions  to  music  were  his 
theoretical  works,  the  (Iriiiulliclie  Anireisiing  zur 
Komposition  (1818),  and  Kurzgefasstc  Mcthode, 
den  (Jcnrralhass  zu  erlcrnen  (1792),  which  are 
still  valu.able. 

ALBBET,  al'bra'.  Jeanne  d'  (1528-72). 
Queen  of  Navarre,  only  daughter  of  Henry  II.  of 
Navarre,  and  Margaret,  sister  of  Francis  I. 
.Jeanne  married  Antoine  de  Bourbon.  She  was 
celebrated  for  her  intellectual  strength  and  per- 
sonal beauty.  She  embraced  Calvinism,  and.  in 
spite  of  Spanish  menaces  and  Roman  intrigue, 
kept  her  possessions.  In  1567  she  declared  the 
reformed  religion  established  in  the  kingdom, 
and  in  1569,  with  her  children,  Henry,  afterward 
Henry  IV.  of  France,  and  Catherine,  she  brought 
a  small  band  of  Huguenots  to  Coligny  at  La 
Roehelle.  and  after  the  murder  of  the  Prince 
of  Conde  she  was  looked  upon  as  the  only  sup- 
port of  the  Protestants.  She  wrote  pro.se  and 
verse,  and  some  of  her  sonnets  have  been  pub- 
lished. Consult:  Mcmoires  et  poesic.i  de  Jeanne 
d'Albret  (Paris,  1893);  Freer,  Life  of  Jeanne 
d'Alhret    (London,   1855). 

ALBRIGHT,  filljrit,  Jacob  (1759-1808).-  Tlie 
founder  of  the  Evangelical  Association  (q.v.). 
He  was  born  near  Pottstown,  Pa.,  May  1,  1759, 
and  died  at  Miihlbacli,  Pa.,  May  8,  1808.  In  1792 
he  joined  the  ^Methodist  Church,  in  1796  began 
his  very  successful  career  as  preacher  among  the 
Germans,  and  in  1807  was  elected  first  bishop 
of  the  church  which  he  foundi'd. 

ALBBIGHT  BBETH'REN.  See  Evangeli- 
cal Associatiox. 

ALBBIZZI,  al-brPt'se,  I.sabella  Teotochi, 
Countess  n'  (1763-1836).  An  Italian  author. 
She  was  born  at  Corfu,  of  Greek  parentage.  As 
the  w^ife  of  the  inquisitor  of  state.  Count 
Giuseppe  Albrizzi,  her  home  in  Venice  became 
the  rendezvous  for  many  celebrities  of  the  day, 
such  as  Alfieri,  Foseolo,  and  Byron.  With 
Cicognara,  she  was  one  of  the  first  to  call  atten- 
tion to  the  genius  of  Canova,  to  whom  she  paid 
a  glowing  tribute  in  her  celebrated  work,  Opere 
di  seultura  e  di  phistiea  di  Ant.  Canova  descritte 
da  J.  A.  (Florence,  1809)  ;  also  published  under 
the  title  Deserizione  delle  opere  di  (kinova,  5 
volumes    (Pisa,    1821-25).      Her   other   writings 


ALBRIZZI. 


286 


ALBUQUERQUE. 


include  Ritratt!  (Brescia,  1807:  Pisa.  1S2G)  ;  sev- 
enteen essays  on  distinguished  contemporaries, 
and  a  life  of  Vittoria  Colonna    (Venice,   1830). 

ALBRU'NA.  A  German  seer  of  the  time  of 
the  Roman  Emperor  Augustus.  She  is  men- 
tioned b_v  Tacitus  (Gcimnnia.  VIII.),  and  is 
supposed  to  have  acquired  renown  during  the 
campaigns  of  Drusus  and  Tiberius.  Albruna  is 
the  same  as  the  Old  Norse  alfjuna.  and  the 
Anglo-Saxon  lielniii,  and  is  the  collective  term 
for  the  wise  women  of  the  ancient  Germans. 

AL'BUCA'SIS.     See  Abulcasim. 

ALBUERA,  al-bwa'ra.  A  hamlet  in  the 
Spanish  province  of  Badajoz.  It  is  insignificant 
in  itself,  but  famous  for  the  battle  of  Jlay  Ifi, 
1811,  between  the  combined  English,  Spanish, 
and  Portiiguese  forces  under  General  Bercsford. 
and  the  French  under  JIarshal  Soult.  who  were 
not  so  numerous  as  the  allies,  but  had  abundant 
artiller}'.  The  object  of  the  French  was  to  com- 
pel the  English  to  raise  the  siege  of  Badajoz. 
The  result  was  that  Soult  was  obliged  to  retreat 
to  Seville  with  the  loss  of  8000  men :  the  loss 
of  the  allied  forces  was  about  7000.  In  propor- 
tion to  the  numbers  engaged,  the  battle  was  the 
most  sanguinary  in  the  whole  contest.  The 
French  had  at  first  got  possession  of  a  height 
which  commanded  the  whole  position  of  the  allied 
army,  but  they  were  driven  from  it  by  0000 
British,  only  1500  of  whom  reached  the  top 
nnwounded. 

ALBUFERA,  iil'bon-ffi'ra  (Ar.  al  the  +  hii- 
haira.  coast-lake).  A  lake  near  Valencia,  in 
Spain,  about  10  miles  in  length  and  the  same  in 
breadth.  It  is  separated  from  the  sea  by  a  nar- 
row tongue  of  land,  and  a  canal  connects  it  with 
the  city" of  Valencia  (Map:  Spain.  E  3).  It  is 
rich  in  fish  and  fowl,  and  is  said  to  have  been  ex- 
cavated by  the  Jloors.  From  it  Marshal  Suchet 
(q.v. )   took  the  title  of  duke. 

ALBU'GO.     See  Leucoma. 

ALBULA,  al'boo-la.  A  river  in  the  canton 
of  Grison,  oi'  Graubundcn.  Switzerland  (Map: 
Switzerland,  D  2).  The  Albula  is  the  largest 
tributary  of  the  Hither  Rliine,  and  rises  in  the 
Albula  Pass,  flowing  through  the  Albula  Valley 
to  empty  into  the  Hither  Rhine  after  a'  course 
of  29  miles.  Its  outlet  is  4500  feet  lower  than  its 
source. 

ALBULA  PASS.  A  high,  rocky  pass  in  which 
rises  the  Albula  River,  Switzerland  (Map: 
Switzerland,  D  2).  It  is  situated  7000  feet 
above  sea  level,  and  lies  between  the  peak  of 
Crasta  ]Mora  (01)00  feet  high)  and  the  Pitz 
Urtsch  or  Albulahorn  ( 10,700  feet  high) .  Over 
it  runs  the  road  from  Tiefenkasten  to  Ponte.  the 
shortest  route  into  the  Engadine.  A  railroad 
has  recently  been  construited. 

AL'BUM  (Lat.  neut.  of  albiis,  white) .  Among 
the  Romans,  a  wooden  tablet  whitened  witli 
gypsum,  on  which  were  written  in  black  letters 
the  Annales  Maxiiiii  of  the  pontifex.  edicts  of 
the  praetor,  and  public  announcements  of  the 
magistrates  generally.  The  word  was  also  ap- 
plied to  the  contents  of  such  a  board,  and  as  lists 
of  corporations  had  to  be  p\iblished,  album  c;ime 
to  denote  any  such  catalogue;  e.g..  Album  Sena- 
forium,  the  ofllcial  list  of  the  Senate.  In  the 
^Middle  Ages  the  word  was  used  to  denote  any 
list,  catalogue,  or  register,  whether  of  saints, 
soldiers,  or  civil  functionaries.  In  the  gymnasia 
and  universities  on  the  Continent,  the  list  of  the 


names  of  the  members  is  called  the  album.  The 
naiue  is  also  applied  to  the  ''black  board"  on 
which  public  notifications  of  lectures,  etc..  are 
written  up.  But  its  popular  signification  in 
modern  times  is  that  of  a  book  for  containing 
photographs,  or  a  blank  book  for  a  drawing-i-oom 
table,  intended  to  receive  the  fugitive  pieces 
of  verse,  or  the  signatures  of  distinguished  per- 
sons, or  sometimes  merely  drawings. 

ALBU'MEN  (Lat.,  the  white  of  an  egg,  from 
(ilhii:^.  wliitc).  In  plants,  a  name  formerly  ap- 
]ilic.l  to  the  nutritive  tissue  of  seeds,  now  coui- 
numly  known  as  '"endosperm."     See  Seed. 

ALBUMEN,  or  ALBUMIN.  The  most  im- 
portant ingredient  in  the  white  of  egg.  It 
abounds  in  the  blood  and  more  or  less  in  all 
the  serous  fluids  of  the  animal  body.  It  also 
exists  in  the  sap  of  vegetables,  and  in  their  seeds 
and  edible  parts.  Albumen  is  often  used  as 
a  mordant,  to  fasten  various  colors  on  cotton. 
It  is  prepared  industrially  in  considerable  quan- 
tities by  dr^-ing  the  white  of  egg  without  allow- 
ing it  to  coagulate.  For  this  purpose  the  white 
of  egg  is  placed  in  shallow  vessels  and  kept  at 
a  temperature  of  about  50°  C.  (122°  F.)  in 
well-ventilated     chambers.      Unless     coagulation  ■ 

has  taken  place,  the  dried  albumen  remains  com- 
pletely soluble  in  water.  Albumen  is  also  used 
in  photographic  printing,  and  its  property  of 
coagulating  with  heat  into  an  insoluble  variety  1 

renders  it  useful  in  clarifying  solutions,  as  in 
sugar  refining.  With  corrosive  sublimate  I  bi- 
chloride of  mercury)  and  other  poisonous  salts, 
albumen  forms  insoluble  compounds ;  it  is,  there- 
fore, often  used  in  medicine  as  an  antidote.  See 
Albuminuria. 

ALBU'MINOIDS.     See  Proteids. 

AL'BUMINU'RIAl  Lat.  (ilbiimen  +  Ok.ovpov, 
ouroii,  Lat.  iiriim.  urine).  Generally,  a  symptom 
of  disease  of  the  kidneys : notably  Bright's  disease 
(nephritis).  It  consists  of  the  presence  of  albu- 
men in  the  urine.  Tests  for  albuminuria:  (1) 
Pour  into  a  small  test  tube  a  little  fresh  urine, 
then  gently  add  about  one-half  the  same  amount 
of  cold  nitric  acid.  The  presence  of  a  white 
ring  at  the  junction  of  the  liquids  indicates 
albumen.  (2)  Partly  fill  a  test  tube  with  fresh 
urine:  add  a  few  drops  of  acetic  acid;  boil  the 
top  of  the  liquid.  Coagulation  indicates  the 
presence  of  albumen.  Physiological  albuminuria 
occurs  in  young  adults,  after  muscular  exercise, 
and  also  in  some  people  after  cold  baths  and 
during  indigestion.  It  may  not  be  present,  even 
in  severe  Bright's  disease,  and  it  is  not  always 
an  indication  of  disease.     See  Bright"s  Di.sease. 

ALBUWOL,  -il'ljoo-nyol'.  A  town  of  Spain, 
in  the  province  of  Granada,  41  miles  southeast  of 
Granada,  and  about  3  miles  from  the  coast  of.  the 
Mediterranean  (Ma]):  Spain.  D  4).  It  is  a  well- 
built  town,  with  clean,  paved  streets.  The  sur- 
rounding district  aboiinds  in  vineyards,  and  is 
also  very  productive  of  figs  and  almonds.  The 
making  of  wine  and  Ijrandy  and  the  drying  of 
raisin.s  are  the  chief  occupations  of  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  town  itself.  Pop..  1000,  9350.  The 
port  of  AlbuQol  is  a  small  place  called  Ncgra. 

ALBUQUERQUE,  al'boo-ker'ka  (Sp.  from 
Lat.  (ilbiis.  while -f  (/»o-c».s,  oak-tree).  A  town 
of  Estremadura,  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Bada- 
joz, 24  miles  north  of  Badajoz,  and  about  10 
miles  from  the  Portuguese  frontier  (Map:  Spain, 
B  3 ) .     It  was  once  fortified.     Cotton  and  woolen 


ALBUQUERQUE. 


287 


fabrics    aif    inanufaituri'd,    and    a    oonsiderable 
woolen  trade  is  maintained.     Pop.,  7500. 

ALBUQUERQUE.  The  county  scat  of  Ber- 
nalillo Co..  New  ^lexico,  on  the  Rio  Grande,  73 
miles  southwest  of  Santa  F^,  and  on  the  At- 
chison, Topeka  and  Santa  Fe,  and  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  railroads  (Jtap:  New  Mexico,  E  2).  It 
has  an  elevation  of  5000  feet  above  the  sea,  is 
the  seat  of  the  University  of  New  Jlexico  (or- 
ganized 18S9).  a  government  school  for  Indians 
(founded  in  1881).  and  several  academies;  has 
a  large  trade  in  grain,  hides,  wool,  and  manufac- 
tures of  iron  and  brick,  and  in  the  vicinity  are 
silver,  gold,  copper,  and  iron  mines.  Albuquer- 
que was  founded  in  1700.  was  named  in  honor 
of  Albuquerque,  then  Viceroy  of  New  Mexico,  and 
was  a  prominent  settlement  during  the  Spanish 
r(5ginie.  The  new  town  really  dates. from  1880, 
and  was  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1802.  The 
mayor  is  elected  annually  and  the  city  council 
is  composed  of  eight  luenibers.  Pop.,  1890,  3785; 
1900,  6238. 

ALBUQUERQUE,  Affonso  de.  The  Great 
( 14.")3- 1.315 ) .  ^'iceroy  of  the  Portuguese  Indies. 
He  was  born  at  Alhandra,  a  town  near  Lisbon, 
and  is  known  in  the  national  epics  as  "the  Por- 
tuguese Mars''  and  as  "the  Portuguese  Ca?sar." 
Albuquerque  spent  his  youth  in  attendance  at 
the  palace  of  King  Alfonso  V.  He  took  part 
in  the  expedition  against  the  Turks,  which  ter- 
minated in  the  victory  of  the  Christians  at 
Otranto  in  1481.  In  1489  he  became  chief 
equerry  to  King  John  II.  He  was  assigned  to 
duty  on  the  Indian  fleet  of  1503,  and  acquitted 
himself  with  such  discretion  that  King  Emanuel 
appointed  him  viceroy  of  the  Portuguese  posses- 
sions in  the  East  in  1506.  His  predecessor, 
Francisco  de  Almeida  (q.v. ),  refused  to  give  up 
his  office,  however,  and  sent  Albuquerque  as  a 
prisoner  to  Cananore.  In  October,  1509,  he  was 
released,  and  took  over  the  authority  of  the  vice- 
roy. Albuquerque  captured  the  fortress  of  Goa, 
February  16,  1510,  but  was  forced  to  evacuate  it 
and  retire  to  Panjim,  where  he  awaited  reenforce- 
ments  from  Europe,  with  whose  help,  on  Novm- 
ber  26,  1510,  he  recaptured  tlie  city,  which  has 
ever  since  been  the  chief  seat  of  Portuguese  power 
and  commerce  in  the  East.  He  gradually  com- 
pleted the  conquest  of  ilalabar,  Ceylon,  the  Sun- 
da  Isles,  the  peninsula  of  Malacca,  and  (in  1515) 
the  island  of  Ornniz,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Per- 
sian Gulf.  He  made  the  Portuguese  name  respect- 
ed in  the  East,  and  manyof  the  princes, especially 
the  kings  of  Siam  and  Pegu,  sought  his  alliance 
and  protection.  He  maintained  strict  military  dis- 
cipline, was  active,  humane,  respected,  feared  by 
his  neighbors,  and  beloved  by  his  subjects.  Not- 
withstanding his  valuable  services,  Albuquerque 
did  not  escape  the  envy  of  the  courtiers  and  the 
suspicions  of  King  Emanuel,  who  appointed 
Lopez  Soarez,  a  personal  enemy  of  Albuquerque, 
to  supersede  him  as  viceroy.  This  ingratitude 
affected  him  deeply.  Ishmael,  the  Shah  of  Per- 
sia, offered  his  assistance  to  resist  the  arbitrary 
decree  of  the  Portuguese  court,  but  All)uquerque 
would  not  violate  his  allegiance.  A  few  days 
afterward,  commending  his  son  to  the  king  in  a 
short  letter,  he  died  at  sea  near  Goa,  December 
16,  1515.  Emanuel  honored  his  memory  and 
raised  his  son  to  the  highest  dignities  in  the 
State.  This  son,  whose  name,  Braz,  or  Blasius, 
was  altered 'to  Alfonso  after  his  father's  death, 
compiled  from  the  ofticial  disjiatches  and  private 


ALCAICS. 

letters  of  the  viceroy  the  Commrntarios  do 
Grande  Affoiiso  d' Alboquer'iue  (printed  in  Lis- 
bon in  1557;  reprinted  in  1576  and  1774).  A 
translation,  edited  by  W.  de  G.  Birch,  published 
by  the  Hakluyt  Society  of  London,  .in  four  vol- 
umes. 1875-S4",  is  the  standard  authority  for  this 
period  of  Indian  history. 

ALBUR'NUM  (Lat.  sap-wood,  from  alhus, 
white).  An  old  name  for  the  sap-wood  of  ordi- 
nary trees  (Dicotyledons  and  Conifers) .  As  the 
tree  adds  new  layers  of  wood,  the  ascending  sap 
abandons  the  deeper  seated  layers,  which  also 
become  modified  through  age.  Tliis  leads  usually 
to  a  sharp  contrast  in  the  appearance  of  the  two 
regions,  the  outer  region  traversed  by  the  sap 
(alburnum)  being  lighter  in  color  and  consisting 
of  thinner-walled  cells  than  does  the  older  heart 
wood  or  "duramen."    See  Woon. 

ALBURY,  al'ber-i.  A  border  town  of  New- 
South  Wales,  Australia,  on  the  JIurray  River, 
connected  with  the  State  of  Victoria  by  two 
bridges  ( Map :  New  South  Wales,  D  5 ) . 
It  is  sometimes  called  the  Federal  City.  It 
is  at  the  head  of  the  river  navigation,  190 
miles,  by  rail,  northeast  of  Melbourne,  and  has  a 
trade  in  the  agricultural  and  mineral  produce 
of  the  district.  Pop.,  5500.  Consult  The  Union 
Celehralion  at  llhurij,  1883    (Sydney,   1883). 

ALCffi'US  (Gk.  'AUa-toi;,  Alkaios).  One  of 
the  first  lyric  poets  of  Greece,  and  contemporary 
with  Sappho.  He  was  a  native  of  Mitylene.  and 
flourished  at  the  end  of  the  seventh  and  the  be- 
ginning of  the  sixth  century  B.C.  Alca'us  was  of 
aristocratic  birth,  and  became  a  leader  against 
the  tyrants  of  his  native  city,  Myrsilus  and  Me- 
lanchrus.  Being  banished  from  home,  he  traveled 
during  his  exile,  it  is  said,  as  far  as  Egj'pt. 
While  he  was  absent,  a  former  conu'ade  in  arms, 
Pittacus.  was  called  to  the  head  of  the  State  by 
the  people,  whereupon  Alceus  took  up  arms 
against  him  as  a  tyrant;  but  in  attempting  to 
force  his  way  back  he  was  captvircd  liy  Pittacus, 
who,  however,  generously  granted  him  his  life 
and  freedom.  Alca?us's  odes  in  the  J5olic  dia- 
lect— arranged  in  ten  books  by  the  Alexandrians 
— contained  political  songs  bearing  on  the  strug- 
gles against  the  tyrants,  hymns,  and  drinking 
and  love  songs.  Only  fragments  remain.  Alcaeus 
was  the  inventor  of  the  form  of  stanza  which  is 
named  after  him,  the  Alcaic;  this  Horace,  the 
most  successful  of  his  imitators,  transplanted 
into  the  Latin  language.  The  fragments  were 
collected  in  Bergk's  I'oetw  Li/rici  (Irmci,  iii  : 
fourth  edition,  ])p.  147ft"  (Leipzig.  1882).  Con- 
sult Smv.th,  Crreek  Melic  Poets  (New  York, 
1900). 

ALCA'ICS.  Certain  kinds  of  Greek  and  Latin 
logatedic  veise,  named  from  the  poet  Alco?us 
(q.v.),  their  re|)uted  inventor.  The  greater  Alcaic 
consists  of  a  preliminary  syllable  (anacrusis) , 
a  trochaic  dipody,  cyclic  dactyl,  and  trochaic 
dipody  catalectic.  In  Horace  the  second  foot  is 
regularlv  an  irrational  spondee. 

^:.__|    _>    |->^^|    -w|    -A 
The    lesser    Alcaic    is    composed    of    two    cyclic 
dactyls  and  a  trochaic  dipodv  acatalcctic, 

—  ^  I  > 
The  Alcaic   stanza   consists   of  two   greater   Al- 
caics,  a    trochaic   quaternarius,   with   anacrusis, 
and  a  lesser  Alcaic. 

lus  :  turn  et  telnacem    |  propoi^Pti  vilrnni 
non  I  civium  ]   ardor  I   prava  in  I  beiiUum, 
non  I  voltiis  [   instanltis  ty  1  raiini 
mente  qualtit  solilda,  neque  |    Auster 


ALCAIDE. 


288 


ALCANTARA. 


ALCAIDE,  al-kad';  Sp.  prnn.  al-ki'oa 
(Sp.  from  Ar.  al,  the  +  qaid,  governor),  or 
ALCAYDE.  A  Moorish  title,  applied  by  Span- 
ish and  Portuguese  writers  to  a  military  officer 
liaving  charge  of  a  fortress,  prison,  or  town.  It 
has  also  been  used  to  designate  a  jailer.  It  is 
to  be  distinguished  from  alcalde,  which  indicates 
a  civil  olUcer. 

ALCALA  DE  GUADAIBA,  iil'ka-la'  da  gwa- 
Di'ra  (Ar.  al,  the  +  KaVat,  Kul'uh,  castle  +  Sp. 
dc,  of).  The  ancient  Carthaginian  Hienippa 
(place  of  many  springs).  A  town  of  Andalusia, 
Spain,  in  the  province  of  Seville,  seven  miles  east 
by  south  of  Ciuadaira,  partly  on  a  hill,  and 
overlooked  by  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  Moorish 
castle,  once  one  of  the  most  important,  as  its 
ruins  are  still  among  the  finest,  in  Spain  (Map: 
Spain,  C  4).  The  town  is  beautifully  situated, 
and  on  account  of  the  salubrity  of  the  climate 
is  much  resorted  to  as  a  summer  residence 
by  the  inhabitants  of  Seville.  It  is  celebrated 
for  producing  the  finest  bread  in  Spain ;  there 
are  numerous  bakeries  in  the  town  and  Se- 
ville is  cliiefly  supplied  from  it.  Seville  is  also 
supplied  with  water  from  the  hill  above  Alcala, 
which  is  perforated  by  tunnels,  forming  under- 
groundcanals.  Some  of  the  tunnels  are  believed  to 
be  Roman  works,  but  most  of  them  are  known  to 
have  been  made  by  the  Moors.  Pop.,  11100,  8287. 

ALCALA  DE  HENARES,  a-nii'res.  An  old 
town  in  Spain,  in  the  Province  of  Madrid,  sit- 
uated on  the  Henares,  22  miles  from  the  city  of 
Madrid  (Map:  Spain,  D  2).  It  formerly  had  a 
university,  which  was  founded  by  Cardinal  Xim- 
enes  in  1510,  and  once  enjoyed  a  world-wide  fame, 
second  to  that  of  Salamanca  alone.  In  183U  the 
university,  together  with  its  library,  was  re- 
moved to  JIadrid.  In  this  library  was  depos- 
ited the  original  of  the  celebrated  polyglot 
Bible,  which  was  printed  in  this  town,  and  called 
the  Complutensian,  from  the  ancient  name  of  the 
place  (Complutum) .  Alcala  de  Henares  has,  be- 
sides, a  cavalry  school,  a  collegiate  church,  and  a 
prison  for  eight  hundred  female  convicts,  the 
only  institution  of  its  kind  in  Spain.  Its  indus- 
tries include  .a  linen  thread  factory,  soap  works, 
weaving  mills  of  various  kinds,  and  a  great 
leather  factory.  It  is  the  birthplace  of  Cervan- 
tes. Pop.,  moo,  12,0.56.  Consult:  Calleja,  "Bos- 
quejo  Historico  de  los  Colegios  Seculares  de  la 
I'niversidad  de  Alcalft  de  Henares,"  in  Volume 
CXVI.  h'diKia   CoHtcmponniea    (Madrid,   1899). 

ALCALA  LA  REAL,  lii  ra-itl'  (Ar.  al,  the  + 

Kal'at,  Kul'ali,  castle,  fortress,  and  Sp.  la,  the  -\- 
real,  royal).  A  city  of  Andalusia,  Spain,  in  the 
province  of  .Jaen,  26  miles  northwest  of  Granada 
(Map:  Spain,  D  4).  It  is  situated  on  a  conical 
hill,  in  a  narrow  valley,  on  the  north  side  of  the 
mountains  wliich  separate  the  province  of  Jaen 
from  that  of  (iranada,  at  an  elevation  of  nearly 
3000  feet  above  the  sea.  It  is  a  very  picturesque 
town,  iri'cgiilaily  built,  with  steep  and  narrow 
streets  and  bold  towers.  It  has  a  hospital,  for- 
merly an  abbey,  a  very  fine  building.  The  neigh- 
borhood produces  grain  and  fruits  of  the  finest 
quality,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  town  are 
mostly  engaged  in  agriculture.  There  is  some 
trade  in  wine  and  wool.  Pop.,  1900,  15,948.  The 
town  obtained  its  name  from  the  fact  that  it  was 
originally  the  Moorish  castle  and  stronghold  of 
Ibn  Zaide.  In  1340  the  place  was  captured  by 
Alfonso  XI. 


ALCALDE,  al-kiil'da  (Sp.,  from  Ar.  al.  the 
+  tjudi,  judge).  The  general  title  of  judicial  and 
magisterial  office.  Still  used  in  Spain  and  in 
countries  in  America  settled  by  the  Spaniards. 
The  mayor  of  the  pueblo  or  town  is  called  the 
alcalde,  and  is  invested  with  judicial  as  well  as 
executive  powers. 

ALCAM'ENES  (Gk. 'A?./>n//f  I'w,  Alkamenes) . 
A  famous  Athenian  sculptor,  said  to  have  been  a 
pupil  of  Pliidias.  His  latest  work  is  dated  in 
403  B.C.,  but  bis  most  famoxis  works  seem  to  have 
been  executed  from  440  to  430  B.C.  His  greatest 
achievement  Avas  the  "Aphrodite  in  the  Gar- 
den" at  Athens,  of  which  tl\e  "Venus  Genetrix" 
statues  are  probably  copies.  If  Pausanias  is 
right  in  attributing  to  Alcamenes  the  sculptiu'es 
in  the  west  jjediment  of  the  temple  of  Zeus,  at 
Olympia,  and  a  statue  of  Hera  in  a  temple  de- 
stroyed by  the  Persians,  we  nuist  assume  that 
there  was  also  an  elder  sculptor  of  the  same 
name. 

ALCAMO,  al'ka-mo.  A  city  in  Sicily,  835  feet 
above  the  sea,  5  miles  south  of  the  Gulf  of  Cas- 
tellamare,  and  52  miles  by  rail,  plus  5  miles  by 
highway,  southwest  of  Palermo  (Map:  Italy,  H 
9).  It  has  an  Oriental  appearance  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  in  1233,  after  an  insurrection,  Freder- 
ick II.  substituted  a  Christian  for  the  Saracenic 
population.  The  campanile  of  the  cathedral  con- 
tains a  "Crucifixion"  by  Gagini ;  the  church  of 
San  Francesco,  statues  of  the  Renaissance  per- 
iod; and  the  church  Dei  Minori,  a  "Madonna"  by 
Rozzolone.  Above  the  town  to  the  south  towers 
Mount  Bonifato  to  the  height  of  2700  feet,  from 
which  is  a  magnificent  prospect  of  the  gulf  to 
the  north.  The  country  is  agriculturally  rich. 
Pop.  1881,  37,697;  1901,  51,809.  Consult  "Doc- 
umenti  sulle  chiese  di  Alcamo"  in  Arrhivo  Sto- 
lico  .S'iVi7mH0,  Vol.  XXV.      (Palermo.   1900). 

ALCANDRE,  al'kaN'dr'.  In  JIademoiselle 
de  Scudery's  Clelie,  Histoirc  lioiiiainc,  a  charac- 
ter representing  the  young  Louis  XIV. 

ALCANTARA,  al-kan'ta-ra   (Ar.  al,  the  + 

kuntaiali.  bridge).  The  Xorba  Citsarea  of  the 
Romans.  An  ohl  fortified  Spanish  town,  built 
by  the  Moors  in  the  province  of  Estremadura 
(Map:  Spain  B  3).  It  is  noted  for  the  bridge, 
which  was  built  by  Trajan  early  in  the  second 
century.  This  is  670  feet  long  and  210  feet  high, 
with  six  arches,  and  was  constructed  of  stone 
without  cement.  In  1808  tlie  English  partially 
destroyed  the  bridge,  and  it  suffered  again  in  the 
civil  war  of  1836.  From  that  time  until  1882, 
when  it  was  Repaired,  the  inhabitants  used  a 
ferry.    Pop.,  1900,  3097. 

ALCANTARA,  Order  of.  A  religious  and 
military  order  of  knighthood,  established  about 
1150  for  the  defense  of  Estremadura  against  the 
Moors.  In  1197,  Pope  Celestine  III.  confirmed 
the  privileges  of  the  order,  imposing  the  oaths  of 
obedience,  poverty,  chastity,  and  eternal  war 
against  the  Moors.  The  order  was  at  first  known 
as  the  Knights  of  St.  .Julian,  but  in  1217  Alfonso 
IX.  gave  them  the  town  of  Alcantara,  which  he 
had  taken  from  the  JSIoors.  They  settled  in  this 
town,  and  were  known  as  the  Order  of  Alcflntara. 
In  time  the  grand  mastership  of  the  Order  was 
united  to  the  Spanish  crown  by  Pope  Alexander 
VI..  in  1495,  when  the  former  Grand  Master  was 
made  Archbishop  of  Toledo  a7id  a  cardinal.  In 
J 540  the  knights  were  allowed  to  marry,  but  were 
obliged  to  take  an  oath  to  defend  the  Immacu- 


ALCANTARA. 


289 


ALCHEMY. 


late  Conception.  For  a  time  in  their  early  his- 
tory the  Knights  of  Aloi'mtara  acknowledged  the 
superiority  of  the  Knights  of  Calatrava,  but 
later  were  independent.  In  1835  the  Order 
ceased  to  exist  as  an  ecclesiastical  body  and  be- 
came an  order  of  the  court. 

ALCANTARA.  A  seaport  town  of  Brazil, 
in  the  province  of  Jlaranh.no,  17  miles  northwest 
of  Maranhfio,  near  the  mouth  of  the  bay  of  St. 
Jlarcos  (Map  :  Brazil,  J  4).  It  was  formerly 
the  capital  of  the  province,  but  the  shallowness 
of  the  harbor  has  prevented  its  trade  from  in- 
creasing. There  are  two  salt-pits  not  far  from 
the  town.  Cotton,  rice,  and  salt  are  exported. 
Pop.,  about   10,000. 

ALCANTARA.  A  western  suburb  of  Lisbon, 
where,  in  1580,  the  invading  Duke  of  Alva  won  a 
victory  over  the  Portuguese.  It  is  now  a  part 
of  the  city. 

ALCANTARA,  Doctor  of.  An  opera  by  Jul- 
ius Eichberg  (q.v. ),  first  presented  in  Boston  in 
1862. 

ALCARAZ,  iirka-riith'.  A  town  of  La  Mancha, 
Spain,  in  the  province  of  Albacete,  36  miles  west- 
southwest  of  Albacete  (Map:  Spain,  D  3).  It 
stands  on  the  slope  of  an  isolated  hill,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Guadarmena,  a  feeder  of  the  Guadal- 
quivir. A  ruined  castle  crowns  the  summit  of 
the  hill,  and  there  are  also  the  remains  of  a  fine 
Roman  aqueduct.  The  town  owes  its  importance 
to  the  well-known  tin  and  zinc  mines  in  the  vi- 
cinity, which  give  employment  to  its  inhabitants. 
Pop.,   1900.  4503. 

ALCATRAZ',  or  PEL'ICAN  IS'LAND.  An 
island  in  the  bay  of  San  Francisco,  nearly  3 
miles  northwest  of  the  city.  It  is  1650  feet  in 
length,  and  it  rises  130  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  ba_y.  The  United  States  Government  main- 
tains upon  it  an  important  fortification,  which 
commands  the  entrance  to  the  Golden  Gate.  On 
its  highest  ground  has  been  erected  the  highest 
lighthouse  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

ALCAVALA,  iil'ka-va'Ia,  or  ALCABALA 
( Sp.  from  Ar.  «/,  ihe -{- qahulah,  duty,  tax).  A 
duty  formerly  charged  in  Spain  and  her  colonies 
on  transfers  of  property,  whether  public  or  pri- 
vate. It  was  probably  instituted  in  1341  by  Al- 
fonso XI.,  beginning  with  5  per  cent.,  and  by  the 
seventeenth  century  had  increased  to  14  per  cent. 
of  the  selling  price  of  all  commodities,  raw  or 
manufactured,  charged  as  often  as  they  were  sold 
or  exchanged.  This  impost  was  enforced,  despite 
its  ill  efl'ect  on  the  commerce  of  the  kingdom, 
down  to  the  invasion  of  Napoleon,  and  indeed, 
in  a  modified  form,  has  been  continued  to  the 
present  day.  Catalonia  and  Aragon  purchased 
from  Philip  V.  exemption  from  the  tax,  and, 
though  still  burdened  heavily,  were  in  a  flourish- 
ing state  in  comparison  with  districts  covered 
by  the  alcavala. 

ALCAZAR,    al-ka'ziir;    Sp.    pron.   al-ka'thiir 

(Sp.  from  Ar.  at,  the  +  kasr,  palace,  castle). 
The  name  given  in  Spain  to  the  large  palaces 
built  by  the  Moors,  especially  royal  palaces,  or 
those  of  gieat  emirs.  They  are  often  even  more  in 
tlie  nature  of  strongholds  than  the  Florentine  pal- 
aces, being  built  around  one  or  more  large  colon- 
naded courts,  with  towers  at  the  angles,  heavy 
high  walls,  and  a  single  double  gateway ._  Several 
still  exist  in  the  large  Spanish  cities,  dating  from 
Moorish  times,  as  at  ilalaga.  Seville,  Toledo,  and 
Segovia.  The  alcazar  differs  from  the  real  fortress 


palace  or  acropolis  fort,  called  "kal'at"'  (such 
as  the  Alhambra),  in  being  within,  instead  of 
outside,  the  city  streets.  The  term  would  apply, 
however,  to  any  palace  throughout  Jlohammedan 
countries.  The  best  preserved  imitation  in  Chris- 
tian art  of  this  type  is  the  princely  palace  at 
Ravello,  near  Naples,  built  under  tlie  influence 
of  Mohammedan  art. 

ALCAZAR  DE  SAN  JUAN,  al-kjl'thiir  da 
siin  liwiin'.  A  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of 
Ciudad  Real,  situated  !12  miles  by  rail  from 
Madrid  (Map:  Spain,  D  3).  It  lies  in  a  moun- 
tainous region  in  the  vicinity  of  extensive  iron 
mines.  It  has  a  number  of  soap,  powder,  and 
saltpetre  factories,  and  carries  on  a  large  trade 
in  wine.  The  environs  of  Alcfizar  are  believed 
to  have  been  described  by  Cervantes  in  Don 
Quixote.     Pop.,  1900,    11,292. 

ALCE'DO  (Lat.),  ALCY'ONE  (Gk.  'A?mw>?/, 
Alki/oiic).  The  names  of  genera  of  kingfishers, 
in  allusion  to  a  classic  myth.  See  Alcyone  and 
Kingfisher. 

ALCEDO  Y  HERRERA,  iil-thr/nf,  6  ar-ra'ra, 
Antonio.  A  Peruvian  soldier  and  historian, 
whose  Diccionario  geogrdfico-liistoriro  de  tas 
Indias  Occidrntiiles,  published  at  ^Madrid  in  four 
volumes  (1786-89),  supplies  nuich  exclusive 
information  concerning  the  middle  period  of 
Spanish-American  history.  The  original  work 
was  suppressed  by  the  Spanish  government.  An 
English  translation  by  G.  A.  Thompson  (London. 
1812-15)  contains  considerable  additions.  Alcedo 
was  also  the  compiler  of  an  important  biblio- 
graphical work,  the  Biblioteca  Americana,  the 
numerous  manuscript  copies  of  which  are  fre- 
quently cited  by  writers  on  early  American  bibli- 
ography. 

ALCESTE,  al'sest'.  ( 1 )  A  character  in  Mo- 
li&re's  play  entitled  Le  Misaiilhropc  (q.v.). 
( 2 )  A  name  used  as  a  pseudonym  by  a  number 
of  modern  French  writers,  among  them  Amedee 
Achard.  Alfred  Assolant,  Louis  Belmontet,  Hip- 
polyte  de  Castille.  and  Edouard  Laboulaye.  (3) 
A  tragic  opera  by  Gluck,  first  performed  with  an 
Italian  text.  December  16,  1766,  at  Vienna.  Ten 
years  later  it  was  produced  in  French  at  Paris. 

ALCESTER,  .il'ster,  Frederick  Beauchamp 
Paget  Seymour,  Baron  (1821-95).  An  English 
admiral.  He  was  born  in  London,  educated  at 
Eton,  and  entered  the  navy  in  1834.  He  became 
a  captain  in  1854,  a  rear  admiral  in  1870,  and 
an  admiral  in  1882.  In  1880  he  was  in  command 
of  the  allied  fleet  which  made  a  demonstration 
off  the  Albanian  coast  in  order  to  compel  the 
Turks  to  cede  Dulcigno  to  ilontenegro.  For  this 
service  he  was  created  G.C.B.  In  the  Egyptian 
war  of  1882  he  commanded  the  British  fleet  at 
the  bombardment  of  Alexandria.  He  was  raised 
to  the  peerage  later  in  the  same  year. 

ALCES'TIS.     See  Admetus. 

AL'CHEMIL'LA.     See  Lady's  Mantle. 

AL'CHEMIST,    The.     A    noted    comedy  by 

Ben  Jonson.  acted  in  1610,  printed  in   1612.  It 

makes  a  jest  of  the  then  popular  belief  in  the 

philosopher's    stone   and    the   elixir    of    life;  its 

leading  character.  Subtle,  is  a  quack  who  de- 
ludes Sir  Epicure  Mammon  and  other  credulous 
persons  till  he  is  finally  exposed. 

AL'CHEMY  ( Ar.  al,  the  +  klmiya,  from  late 
Gk.  ,i;);/'W'"'  chcmle^ia;  see  below).  Alchemy 
is   to  modern   chemistry   what   astrology   is   to 


ALCHEMY. 


390 


ALCHEMY. 


astronomy,  or  legend  to  history.  In  the  eye  of 
the  astrologer,  a  knowledge  of  the  stars  was  val- 
uable as  a  means  of  foretelling,  or  even  of  influ- 
encing, future  events.  In  like  manner,  the  gen- 
uine alchemist  toiled  with  his  crucibles  and 
alembics,  calcining,  subliming,  distilling,  with 
two  grand  objects,  as  illusory  as  those  of  the 
astrologer — to  discover,  namely,  { 1 )  the  secret 
of  transmuting  the  baser  metals  into  gold  and 
silver,  and  ( 2 )  the  means  of  indefinitely  pro- 
longing human  life. 

Tradition  points  to  Egypt  as  the  birthplace  of 
the  science.  The  god  Hermes  Trisniegistus  is 
represented  as  the  father  of  it;  and  tlie  most 
jjrobable  etymology  of  the  name  is  that  which  con- 
nects it  with  the  most  ancient  and  native  name 
of  Egypt,  Cheiiii  (the  Scripture  Cham  or  Ham). 
The  Greeks  and  Romans  under  the  empire  would 
seem  to  have  become  acquainted  with  it  from  the 
Egj^ptians:  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that 
in  early  times  either  people  had  the  name  or 
the  thing.  Chcrnia  (Gk.  xil'-^'"<  chemcia)  occurs 
in  the  lexicon  of  Suidas.  written  about  the  elev- 
enth century,  and  is  explained  by  him  to  be  "the 
conversion  of  silver  and  gold."  It  is  to  the 
Arabs,  from  whom  Europe  got  the  name  and 
the  art,  that  the  term  owes  the  prefixed  article 
al.  As  if  clicniia  had  been  a  generic  term  em- 
bracing all  common  chemical  operations,  such 
as  the  decocting  and  compounding  of  ordinary 
drugs,  the  grand  operation  of  transmutation 
was  denominated  the  chemia  (al-chemi/) — the 
chemistry  of  chemistries.  The  Roman  Emperor 
Caligula  is  said  to  have  instituted  experiments 
for  the  producing  of  gold  out  of  orpiment  (sul- 
phide of  arsenic)  ;  and  in  the  time  of  Diocletian, 
the  passion  for  this  pursuit,  conjoined  with  mag- 
ical arts,  had  become  so  prevalent  in  the  Empire, 
that  that  Emperor  is  said  to  have  ordered  all 
Egyi)tian  works  treating  of  the  chemistry  of 
gold  and  silver  to  be  burned.  For  at  that  time 
multitudes  of  books  on  this  art  were  appearing, 
written  by  Alexandrine  monks  and  by  hermits, 
but  bearing  famous  names  of  antiquity,  such  as 
Democritus,  Pythagoras,  and  Hermes. 

At  a  later  period,  the  Arabs  took  up  the  art, 
and  it  is  to  them  that  European  alchemy  is 
directly  traceable.  The  school  of  polypharmacy, 
as  it  has  been  called,  flourished  in  Arabia  during 
the  caliphate  of  the  Abbassides.  The  earliest 
work  of  this  school  now  known  is  the  Sunima 
Perfectionis,  or  "Summit  of  Perfection,"  com- 
posed by  Geber  (q.v.)  about  the  eighth  century; 
it  is  consequently  the  oldest  book  on  chemistry 
proper  in  the  world.  It  contains  so  much  of 
what  sounds  very  much  like  jargon  in  modern 
ears,  that  Dr.  .Johnson  ascribes  the  origin  of 
the  word  "gibberish"  to  the  name  of  the  compiler. 
Yet,  when  viewed  in  its  true  light,  it  is  a  wonder- 
ful performance.  It  is  a  kind  of  text-book,  or 
collection  of  all  that  was  then  known  and  be- 
lieved. It  appears  that  these  Arabian  poly 
pharmists  had  long  been  engaged  in  firing  and 
boiling,  dissolving  and  precipitating,  subliming 
and  coagulating  chemical  substances.  They 
worked  with  gold  and  mercury,  arsenic  and  sul- 
phur, salts  and  acids,  and  had,  in  short,  become 
familiar  with  a  large  range  of  what  are  now 
called  chemicals.  Geber  taught  that  there  are 
three  elemental  chemicals — -mercury,  sulphur, 
and  arsenic.  These  substances,  especially  the 
first  two,  seem  to  have  fascinated  the  thoughts 
of  the  alchemists  by  their  potent  and  penetrating 
■qualities.     They  saw  mercury  dissolve  gold,  the 


most  incorruptible  of  matters,  as  water  dissolves 
sugar;  and  a  stick  of  sulphur  presented  to  hot 
iron  penetrates  it  like  a  spirit,  and  makes  it 
run  down  in  a  shower  of  solid  drops,  a  new  and 
remarkable  substance,  possessed  of  properties 
belonging  neither  to  iron  nor  to  sulphur.  The 
Arabians  held  that  the  metals  are  compound 
bodies,  made  up  of  mercury  and  sulphur  in  dif- 
ferent proportions.  With  these  very  excusable 
errors  in  theory,  they  were  genuine  practical 
chemists.  They  toiled  away  at  the  art  of  making 
"many  medicines"  (polypharmacy)  out  of  the 
various  mixtures  and  reactions  of  such  chemicals 
as  they  knew.  They  had  their  pestles  an^  mor- 
tars, their  crucibles  and  furnaces,  their  alembics 
and  aludels,  their  vessels  for  infusion,  for  decoc- 
tion, for  cohabitation,  sublimation,  fixation,  lix- 
iviation,  filtration,  coagulation,  etc.  Their  scien- 
tific creed  was  transmutation,  and  their  methods 
were  mostly  blind  gropings ;  and  yet,  in  this  way, 
they  found  out  many  a  new  substance  and  invent- 
ed many  a  useful  process. 

From  the  Arabs,  alchemy  found  its  way  through 
Spain  into  Europe,  and  speedily  became  entan- 
gled with  the  fantastic  subtleties  of  the  scholas- 
tic philosophy.  In  the  Middle  Ages,  it  was 
chiefly  the  monks  who  occupied  tliemselves  with 
alchemy.  Pope  John  XXII.  took  great  delight 
in  it,  though  it  was  afterward  forbidden  by  his 
successor.  The  earliest  authentic  works  on  Euro- 
pean alchemy  now  extant  are  those  of  Roger 
Bacon  (died  about  1294)  and  Albertus  Magnus. 
Bacon  appears  rather  the  earlier  of  the  two  as 
a  writer,  and  is  really  the  gi'eatest  man  in 
all  the  school.  He  was  acquainted  with  gim- 
powder.  Although  he  condemns  magic,  necro- 
mancy, charms,  and  all  such  things,  he  believes 
in  the  convertibility  of  the  inferior  metals  into 
gold,  but  does  not  profess  to  have  ever  effected 
the  conversion.  He  had  more  faith  in  the  elixir 
of  life  than  in  gold-making.  He  followed  Gel)er 
in  regarding  potable  gold — that  is,  gold  dissolved 
in  nitro-hydroehloric  acid  or  aqua  vegia — as  the 
elixir  of  life.  Urging  it  on  the  attention  of  Pope 
Nicholas  IV.,  he  informs  his  Holiness  of  an  old 
man  who  found  some  yellow  liquor  (the  solution 
of  gold  is  yellow)  in  a  golden  vial,  when  plowing 
one  day  in  Sicily.  Supposing  it  to  be  dew,  he 
drank  it  off.  He  was  thereupon  transformed 
into  a  hale,  robust,  and  highly  accomplished 
youth.  Bacon  no  doubt  took  many  a  dose  of  this 
golden  water  himself.  Albertus  Magnus  had  a 
great  mastery  of  the  practical  chemistry  of  his 
times;  he  was  acquainted  with  alum,  caustic 
alkali,  and  the  purification  of  the  royal  metals  liy 
means  of  lead.  In  addition  to  the  sulphur-and- 
mercury  theory  of  the  metals,  drawn  from  Geber, 
he  regarded  the  element  water  as  still  nearer  the 
soul  of  nature  than  either  of  these  bodies.  He 
appears,  indeed,  to  have  thought  it  the  primary 
matter,  or  the  radical  source  of  all  things — 
an  opinion  held  by  Thales,  the  father  of  Greek 
speculation.  Thomas  Aciuinas  also  wrote  on 
alchemy,  and  was  the  first  to  employ  the  word 
amalgam  (q.v.).  Raymond  Lully  is  another 
great  name  in  the  annals  of  alchemy.  His 
writings  are  much  more  disfigured  by  unintelli- 
gible .jargon  than  those  of  Bacon  and  Albertus 
Jlagniis.  He  was  the  first  to  introduce  the  use 
of  chemical  symbols,  his  system  consisting  of  a 
scheme  of  arbitrary  hieroglyphics.  He  made 
much  of  the  spirit  of  wine  (the  art  of  distilling 
spirits  woidd  seem  to  have  been  then  recent), 
imposing  on  it  the  name  of  aqua  vita;  ardens. 


ALCHEMY. 


291 


ALCIBIADES. 


In    liis   ontluisiasm,   he    pionounced    it    tlic   very 
elixir  of  life. 

But  more  famous  than  all  was  Paracelsus,  in 
whom  alchemy  jjrojier  may  be  said  to  have  cul- 
minated. He  held  that  the  elements  of  compound 
bodies  were  salt,  sulphur,  and  mercury — reprc- 
^>enting  respectively  earth,  air,  and  water,  lire  be- 
ing already  regarded  as  an  imponderable — but 
these  substances  were  in  his  system  purely  repre- 
sentative. All  kinds  of  matter  were  reducible  un- 
der one  or  other  of  these  typical  forms;  every- 
thing was  cither  a  salt,  a  sulphur,  or  a  mercury, 
or,  like  the  metals,  it  was  a  "mixt"  or  compound. 
There  was  one  element,  however,  common  to  the 
four:  a  fifth  essence  or  "quintessence"  of  crea- 
tion; an  unknown  and  only  true  element,  of 
which  the  four  generic  principles  were  nothing 
but  derivative  forms  or  end)odiments;  in  other 
words,  he  inculcated  the  dogma  that  there  is 
only  one  real  elementary  matter — nobody  knows 
what.  This  one  prime  element  of  things  he  ap- 
pears to  have  considered  to  be  the  universal  sol- 
vent of  which  the  alchemists  were  in  quest,  and 
to  express  wliich  he  introduced  the  term  alcn- 
hest — a  word  of  unknown  etymology,  but  sup- 
posed by  some  to  be  composed  of  the  two  German 
words  air  (Iri.it,  "all  spirit."  He  seems  to  have 
had  the  notion  that  if  this  quintessence  or  fifth 
element  could  be  got  at,  it  would  prove  to  be  at 
once  the  philosopher's  stone,  the  universal  med- 
icine, and  the  irresistible  solvent. 

After  Paracelsus,  the  alchemists  of  Europe 
became  divided  into  two  classes.  The  one  class 
was  composed  of  men  of  diligence  and  sense, 
who  devoted  themselves  to  the  discovery  of  new 
com]iounds  and  reactions — practical  workers  and 
observers  of  facts,  and  the  legitimate  ancestors 
of  the  positive  chemists  of  the  era  of  Lavoisier. 
The  other  class  took  up  the  visionary,  fantastical 
side  of  the  older  alchemy,  and  carried  it  to  a 
degree  of  extravagance  before  unknown.  Instead 
of  useful  work,  they  compiled  mystical  trash 
into  books,  and  fathered  them  on  Hermes,  Aris- 
totle. Albertus  Magnus,  Paracelsus,  and  other 
really  great  men.  Their  language  is  a  farrago 
of  mystical  metaphors,  full  of  "red  bridegrooms," 
and  ''lily  brides,"  "green  dragons,"  "ruby  lions," 
"royal  baths,"  "waters  of  life.".  The  seven 
metals  correspond  to  the  seven  planets,  the 
seven  cosmical  angels,  and  the  seven  openings 
of  the  head — the  ej'es,  the  ears,  the  nostrils,  and 
tile  mouth.  Silver  was  Diana,  gold  was  Apollo, 
iron  was  Mars,  tin  was  Jupiter,  lead  was  Saturn, 
etc.  They  talk  forever  of  the  power  of  attrac- 
tion, which  drew  all  men  and  women  after  the 
possessor;  of  the  alcahest,  and  the  grand  elixir, 
which  was  to  confer  immortal  youth  U])on  the 
student  who  should  prove  himself  pure  and  brave 
enough  to  kiss  and  quaflf  the  golden  draught. 
There  was  the  great  mystery,  the  mother  of  the 
elements,  the  grandmother  of  the  stars.  There 
was  the  philosopher's  stone  and  there  was  the 
philosophical  stone.  The  philosophical  stone  was 
j'ounger  than  the  elements,  yet  at  her  virgin 
touch  the  grossest  calx  (ore)  among  them  all 
would  blush  before  her  into  perfect  gold.  The 
philosopher's  stone,  on  the  other  hand,  was  the 
first-born  of  nature,  and  older  than  the  king  of 
metals.  Those  who  had  attained  full  insight  into 
the  arcana  of  the  science  were  styled  wise :  those 
who  were  only  striving  after  the  light  were 
philosophers;  while  the  ordinary  votaries  of 
the  art  were  called  adepts.  It  was  these  vision- 
aries  that   formed   themselves   into   Rosicrucian 


societies  and  other  secret  associations.  It  was 
also  in  connection  with  this  mock  alchemy,  mixed 
up  with  astrology  and  magic,  that  quackery  and 
im])osture  so  abounded,  as  is  depicted  by  Scott 
in  the  character  of  Dousterswivel  in  the  Anti- 
qiKiri).  Designing  knaves  would,  for  instance, 
make  up  large  nails,  some  of  iron  and  some  of 
gold,  and  lacquer  them,  so  that  they  ap])eared 
common  nails,  and  when  their  credulous  and 
avaricious  dupes  saw  them  extract  from  what 
seemed  plain  iron  an  ingot  of  gold,  they  were 
ready  to  advance  any  sum  that  the  knaves  pre- 
tended to  be  necessary  for  applying  the  process 
on  a  large  scale.  It  is  from  this  degenerate  and 
ett'ete  school  that  the  prevailing  notion  of  al- 
chemy is  derived — a  notion  which  is  unjust  to 
the  really  meritorious  alchemists  who  paved  the 
way  for  the  modern  science  of  chemistry.  Priest- 
ley, Lavoisier,  and  Scheele,  by  the  use  of  the 
balance,  tested  the  results  of  alchemy,  and  thence 
the  fundamental  ideas  of  modern  chemistry  were 
Ijorn ;  but  the  work  had  already  been  begun  by 
men  of  genius,  such  as  Robert  Boyle,  Bergmann, 
and  others.  It  is  interesting  to  observe  that 
the  doctrine  of  the  transmutability  of  metals 
— a  doctrine  which  it  was  at  one  time  thought 
that  modern  chemistry  had  utterly  exploded — 
receives  not  a  little  countenance  from  a  variety 
of  facts  every  day  coming  to  light;  not  to  speak 
of  the  periodic  law  of  the  elements,  which, 
while  separating  the  elements  as  a  class  from  all 
other  chemical  substances,  seems  to  indicate  the 
existence  of  unknown  relations  between  the  ele- 
ments themselves.  Consult;  J.  von  Liebig, 
Familiar  Letters  on  f'hemistry,  original  in  Ger- 
man, exists  in  translations  (London,  1851)  ;  F. 
Hofer,  Histoire  dc  la  chitnie  (Paris,  1809); 
G.  F.  Rodwell,  The  liirth  of  I'hemistry  (London, 
1874)  ;  M.  Berthelot,  Lcs  origines  de  I'alcliimie 
(Paris,  1885)  ;  H.  Kopp,  Die  Alchemie  in  iilterer 
und  neucrer  Zeit  (18S(i),  etc.  The  literature  of 
alchemy  is  enormous.     See  also  Ciiemistrt. 

ALCHYMIST,  Der,  der  iUlce-mest.  A  Ger- 
man opera  by  S|iohr,  the  text  being  by  PfeifTer, 
produced  at  C'assel,  July  28,  1830.  It  is  founded 
on  Washington  Irving's  tale  of  The  Alchemist. 

ALCIATI,  al-chii'te,  Andrea  (1492-15.50). 
An  Italian  jurisconsult  of  the  Renaissance,  suc- 
cessively professor  of  law  in  the  universities  of 
Avignon,  Bourges,  Bologna,  Pavia,  and  Ferrara. 
He  improved  the  method  of  studying  Roman  law, 
by  substituting  historical  research  for  the  servile 
forms  of  the  glossarists.  He  wrote  many  legal 
works,  including  commentaries  on  the  Code  of 
.lustinian  and  the  Decretals,  a  history  of  Milan, 
notqs  on  Tacitus  and  Plautus,  and  a  Book  of 
Emblems,  or  moral  sayings,  in  Latin  verse,  which 
has   been   greatly   admired. 

AL'CIBI'ADES.  A  tragedy  in  five  acts  by 
Thomas  Otway,  produced  in  1675  at  Dorset  Gar- 
den Theatre,  Ijondon,  with  Betterton  in  the  title 
rcMe. 

ALCIBIADES  (Gk.  -A'AKiiJtdihK,  Alkihiades) 
(c.  450-404  B.C.).  An  Athenian  politician  and 
general.  He  was  the  son  of  Clinias  and  Dino- 
mache,  and  belonged  to  the  class  of  the  Eupatri- 
doe.  He  was  born  at  .Athens,  lost  his  father  in  the 
battle  of  Coronea  in  440  B.C.,  and  was  in  conse- 
quence educated  in  the  house  of  Perieles,  his 
luicle.  In  his  youth  he  gave  evidence  of  his  future 
greatness,  excelling  both  in  mental  and  bodily  ex- 
ercises. His  handsome  person,  his  distinguished 
parentage,  and  the  high  position  of  Pericles  pro- 


ALCIBIADES, 


292 


ALCIDAMAS. 


cured  him  a  multitude  of  friends  and  admirers. 
Socrates  was  one  of  the  former,  and  gained  con- 
siderable influence  over  him ;  but  was  unable  to 
restrain  his  love  of  luxury  and  dissipation,  which 
found  ample  means  of  gi-atification  in  the 
A\ealth  that  accrued  to  him  by  his  union  with 
Tlipparete.  the  daughter  of  Hipponicus.  His  pub- 
lic displays,  especially  at  the  Olympic  Games,  in 
420  B.C.,  were  incredibly  expensive.  He  bore 
arms  for  the  first  time  in  the  expedition  against 
Potidiea  ( 432  B.C. ) ,  where  he  was  wounded,  and 
where  his  life  was  saved  by  Socrates,  a  debt 
which  he  liquidated  eight  years  after  at  the  bat- 
tle of  Delium  by  saving,  in  his  turn,  the  life  of 
the  philosopher;  but  he  seems  to  have  taken  no 
considerable  part  in  political  matters  till  after 
the  death  of  the  demagogue  Cleon,  when  Nicias 
brought  about  a  treaty  of  peace  for  fifty  years 
between  the  Athenians  and  Lacedaemonians,  421 
B.C.  Alcibiades,  jealous  of  the  esteem  in  wliich 
Nicias  was  held,  set  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
war  party,  and  persuaded  the  Athenians  to  ally 
themselves  with  the  people  of  Argos,  Elis,  and 
Mantinea,  and  did  all  in  his  power  to  stir  up 
afresh  their  old  antipathy  to  Sparta.  It  was  at  his 
suggestion  that  they  engaged  in  the  celebrated  en- 
terprise against  Syracuse,  to  the  command  of 
which  he  was  elected,  with  Nicias  and  Lamaohus. 
But  wliile  preparations  were  being  made,  it 
happened  during  one  night  that  all  the  statues 
of  Hermes  in  Athens  were  mutilated.  The  ene- 
mies of  Alcibiades  threw  the  blame  of  this  mis- 
chief upon  him,  but  postponed  the  impeachment 
till  he  had  set  sail,  when  they  stirred  up  the  peo- 
ple against  him  to  such  a  degree  that  he  was  re- 
called in  the  autumn  of  415  B.C.  in  order  to 
stand  his  trial. 

On  his  way  home.  Alcibiades  landed  at  Thurii, 
fled,  and  betook  himself  to  Sjiarta,  where, 
by  conforming  to  the  strict  manners  of  the  peo- 
ple, he  soon  became  a  favorite.  He  induced  the 
Lacedipmonians  to  send  assistance  to  the  Syra- 
cusans,  persuaded  them  to  occupy  permanently  a 
post  at  Decelea  in  Attica,  to  form  an  alliance 
with  the  King  of  Persia,  and  after  the  unfor- 
tunate issue  of  the  Athenian  expedition  in  Sicily, 
to  support  the  people  of  Chios  in  their  endeavors 
to  throw  ofi'  the  yoke  of  Athens.  He  went  thither 
himself,  and  raised  all  Ionia  in  revolt  against 
that  city.  But  Agis  and  the  other  leading  men 
in  Sparta,  jealous  of  the  success  of  Alcibiades, 
ordered  their  generals  in  Asia  to  have  him  as- 
sassinated. Alcibiades  discovered  this  plot  and 
fled  to  Tissaphernes,  a  Persian  satrap,  who  had 
orders  to  act  i7i  concert  with  the  Lacedfemonians. 
He  now  resumed  his  old  manners,  adopted  the 
luxurious  habits  of  Asia,  and  made  himself  in- 
dis]iensable  to  Tissaphernes.  He  represented  to 
the  latter  that  it  was  contrary  to  tlie  interests  of 
Persia  entirely  to  disable  the  Athenians.  He  then 
sent  word  to  the  commanders  of  the  Athenian 
forces  at  Samos  that  lie  would  procure  for  them 
the  friendship  of  the  satrap  if  they  would  control 
the  extravagance  of  the  people  and  commit  the 
government  to  an  oligarchy.  This  offer  was  accept- 
ed, and  in  411  B.C.  Pisander  was  sent  to  Athens, 
where  he  had  the  supreme  power  vested  in  a  coun- 
cil of  four  hundred  persons.  When  it  appeared, 
however,  that  this  council  had  no  intention  of  re- 
calling Alcibiades.  the  army  at  Samos  chose  him 
as  their  commander,  desiring  him  to  lead  them 
on  instantly  to  Athens  and  overthrow  the  ty- 
rants. But  Alcibiades  did  not  wish  to  return 
to  his  native  country  till  he  had  rendered  it  some 


service,  and  he  accordingly  attacked  and  de- 
feated the  Laceda'monians  by  both  sea  and  land. 
Tissaphernes  now  ordered  him  to  be  arrested  at 
Sardis  on  his  return,  the  satrap  not  wishing  the 
King  to  imagine  that  he  had  been  accessory  to  his 
doings.  But  Alcibiades  found  means  to  escape, 
placed  himself  again  at  the  head  of  the  army, 
beat  the  Lacedaemonians  and  Persians  at  Cyzicus, 
took  Cyzicus,  Chalcedon,  and  Byzantium,  re- 
stored to  the  Athenians  the  donunion  of  the  sea, 
and  then  returned  to  his  country  (407  B.C.),  to 
which  he  had  been  formallv  invited.  He  was  re- 
ceived with  general  enthusiasm,  as  the  Athe- 
nians attributed  to  his  banishment  all  the  mis- 
fortunes that  had  befallen  them. 

Tlie  triumph  of  Alcibiades,  however,  was  not 
destined  to  last.  He  was  again  sent  to  Asia  with 
one  luindred  ships;  but,  not  being  supplied  with 
money  for  the  soldiers'  pay,  he  was  obliged  to 
seek  assistance  at  Caria,  where  he  transferred 
the  command  in  the  meantime  to  Antiochus,  who, 
being  lured  into  an  ambuscade  by  Lysander,  lost 
his  life  and  part  of  the  ships.  The  enemies  of  Al- 
cibiades took  advantage  of  this  to  accuse  him  and 
appoint  another  commander.  Alcibiades  went 
into  voluntary  exile  at  Pactye  in  Thrace,  one  of 
the  strongholds  which  he  had  built  out  of  his  ear- 
lier spoils.  But  being  threatened  here  with  the 
jiower  of  Laceda'monia,  he  removed  to  Bithynia, 
with  the  intention  of  repairing  to  Artaxerxes,  to 
gain  him  over  to  the  interests  of  his  country.  At 
the  request  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants  of  Athens,  and 
A\'ith  the  concurrence  of  the  Spartans,  Pharnaba- 
zus,a  satrap  of  Artaxerxes,  received  orders  to  put 
Alcibiades  to  death.  He  was  living  at  this  time 
in  a  castle  in  Phrvgia ;  Pharnabazus  caused  it  to 
be  set  on  fire  during  the  night.  As  his  victim 
was  endeavoring  to  escape  from  the  flames,  he 
was  pierced  with  a  volley  of  arrows.  Thiis  per- 
ished Alcibiades  (404  B.C.),  about  the  forty-fifth 
year  of  his  age.  He  was  singularly  endowed  by 
nature,  being  possessed  of  the  most  fascinating 
eloquence  and  having  in  a  rare  degree  the  ability 
to  win  and  to  govern  men.  Yet  in  all  his  trans- 
actions he  allowed  himself  to  be  directed  by  ex- 
ternal circumstances,  without  having  any  fixed 
principles  of  conduct.  On  the  other  hand,  he 
possessed  that  boldness  which  arises  from  con- 
scious superiority,  and  he  shrank  from  no  diffi- 
culty, because  he  was  never  doubtful  concerning 
the  means  by  which  an  end  might  be  attained. 
Consult:  The  Lives,  by  Plutarch  and  Nepos: 
Orote,  Hislorif  of  Greece  (New  Yoi'k,  18,53-,56)  ; 
Hertzberg,  Alkihiades,  der  Staatsmann  und  Feld- 
her,-  (Halle,  1853)  ;  Houssaye,  Histoire  d'Al- 
cibiade,  2  volumes   (Paris,  1873). 

ALCI'DA:  Greene's  Met.\morpho.ses.  A 
pami)lilet  by  Robert  Greene,  of  wbicli  tlie  first 
known  edition  dates  from  1017,  though  it  was 
licensed  in  1588  and  probably  published  soon 
after.  It  contains  stories  illustrating  the  ills 
that  result  from  feminine  vanities. 

ALCID'AMAS  (Gk.  '.\?K»5r;/'nf.  An;idam<is) . 
A  Greek  rhetorician,  pupil  of  Gorgias  and  the 
last  of  the  Sopliistical  school.  He  was  a  native 
of  Ehpa,  in  Asia  Minor,  but  between  432  and  411 
B.C.  gave  instruction  in  eloquence  at  .\thcns.  The 
only  extant  declamations  attributed  to  him  are: 
'OrfOTonV,  in  which  Odysseus  accuses  Palamedes 
of  treachery  to  the  Grecian  cause  during  the 
siege  of  Troy;  and  Ilfpi  So^/otwi'.  against  the 
Sophists.  The  latter  oration,  which  is  said  to 
have  been  directed  chiefly  against  Isoerates,  the 


ALCIDAMAS. 


293 


ALCMAN. 


contemporary  of  Alcidamas,  has  been  published 
by-  Blass  in  liis  second  edition  of  Anliplion  (p. 
103).  Consult  Bahlen,  Dcr  Rhetor  Alcidamas 
(1S61). 

ALCIDE,  fil'sed',  Baron  de  M.  A  pseudonym 
of  Alfred  de  IVlusset,  used  about  1834  and  in  18G4. 

ALCI'DES.  A  patronymic  of  Hercules,  from 
tlie  name  of  lii>  grandfather,  Alcaeus. 

AL'CIMUS.  A  high  priest  of  the  Zadokite 
family,  born  aljout  1200  B.C.,  and  raised  to  power 
by  Demetrius  Soter  (lli2  B.C.).  lie  was  a  leader 
in  the  Hellenistic  party  which  ojjposed  the  I\Iac- 
cabees,  and  is  said  on  the  occasion  of  the  defeat 
of  the  latter  (April,  100  B.C.)  to  have  torn  down 
the  wall  of  the  court  of  the  ijiner  temple  at  Jeru- 
salem, probably  for  the  purpose  of  rebuilding 
it  on  a  more  magnificent  scale.  See  the  discus- 
sions of  his  career  in  Wellhausen,  IsraeUHfiche 
vnd  jiidische  (resckichte  (third  edition,  Berlin, 
1S97),  and  Biichler,  Tobiadcn  uiid  die  Oiiiadcn 
iiii  11.  Makkabiieibuche  (Vienna,  1899). 

ALCIN'OtiS  (Gk.  WUivnoc,  Alkinoos) .  A 
mythical  king  of  the  mythical  Phaeacians,  grand- 
son of  Poseidon.  His  daughter,  Nausicaa,  res- 
cued the  shipwrecked  Odysseus,  who  was  enter- 
tained and  sent  home  by  Alcinoiis  and  his  queen. 
Arete.  His  people  are  skilled  seamen,  but  lu.xu- 
rious,  and  his  domain,  Scheria,  a  Grecian  fairy- 
land. Later  tradition  identified  Scheria  witli  the 
island    of   Corcyra    (Corfu). 

AL'CIPHRON  (Gk.  'AXW^paix,  Alkiphron) . 
A  Greek  rhetorician  who  flourished  probably 
about  the  close  of  the  second  century  a.d.  He 
was  the  author  of  118  letters  in  three  books, 
which  profess  to  be  epistles  written  by  common 
people — peasants,  fishermen,  courtesans,  and 
parasites.  Their  style  is  pure  and  their  form 
excellent;  the}-  are  valuable  as  character 
sketches,  which  picture  clearly  Athenian  life  of 
his  time;  and  the  letters  of  the  courtesans,  being 
based  on  the  new  comedy,  especially  on  lost  plays 
of  Menander,  assist  us  to  recreate  that  literature. 
Edited  by  Meineke  (Leipzig,  18.53)  ;  Wagner 
(Paris,  187S),  and  Llercher,  in  his  EpistoJo- 
graphi  Gneci  (Paris,  1873).  There  is  an  Eng- 
lish translation  by  Beloe  (London,  1890). 

ALCIPHRON.  The  hero  of  Thomas  Jloore's 
novel,  Tlio  Epicurean,  published  in  1827,  to 
■which  was  appended,  in  1839,  the  poem  entitled 
Alciphron,  in  which  the  author  had  first  taken 
up  the  theme. 

ALCIPHRON,  or  THE  MINUTE'  PHI- 
LOS'OPHER.  A  work  by  Bishop  Berkeley, 
written  at  his  home  in  Bhode  Island,  and  pub- 
lished in  1732,  after  his  return  to  England.  It 
is  a  dialogue,  in  which  Alciphron,  a  skeptic,  is 
made  the  chief  speaker  for  the  sake  of  showing 
the  \\eakness  of  the  infidel's  position. 

ALCIRA,  al-the'ra.  A  tow^n  of  Spain,  in  the 
province  of  Valencia,  20  miles  south  by  west  of 
^'alencia,  on  an  island  in  the  river  Jiicar,  here 
crossed  by  fine  stone  bridges  (Map:  Spain,  E  3). 
It  is  surrounded  by  old  walls  with  strong  towers. 
The  principal  streets  are  wide,  but  the  town  is 
ill  built.  The  main  buildings  are  three  churches, 
six  monasteries,  and  a  theatre.  The  surround- 
ing C(nintry  is  fertile,  and  abounds  in  the  orange 
and  the  palm,  but  rice  swamps  fill  the  air  with 
malaria.  The  many  canals  admirably  illustrate 
the  system  of  irrigation  introduced  bv  the  Moors. 
Pop.,'  inon.  lO.OOfi!  Alcira  was  known  in  Roman 
times  as  Sstabicula,  and  was  the  chief  seat  of 


the  tribe  of  the  Contestani.  The  district  about 
Alcira  is  sometimes  called  the  garden  of  the  king- 
dom of  Valencia. 

ALCM.iE'ON  {Gk.  'AyMfAaluv,  AlkmaiOii).  In 
Greek  legend,  the  son  of  Amphiaraiis  (q.v.)  and 
Eriphylc,  and  brother  or  father  of  Amphilochus. 
He  was  the  leader  of  the  Epigoni  (q.v.),  who 
captured  Thebes  to  revenge  the  death  of  their 
fathers  in  the  War  of  the  Seven.  As  Eriphyle  had 
betrayed  her  husband  to  his  death,  Amphiaraus 
ordered  his  son  to  kill  her.  For  this  act,  madness 
came  upon  Alcma;on,  and  he  was  pursued  by  the 
Furies.  In  his  flight  he  came  to  Psophis,  in 
Arcadia,  whose  king,  Phegeus,  purified  him  and 
gave  him  his  daughter  Arsinoe.  Alcma>on  gave 
her  the  necklace  and  peplus  of  Harmonia,  the 
bribe  of  Eriphyle.  Driven  bv  the  Furies,  Alcmseon 
then  went  to  the  river-god  Acheloiis.  who  also 
purified  him  and  gave  him  his  daughter,  Callir- 
rhoe.  For  her  he  took  his  gifts  from  his  former 
wife  uirder  pretense  of  dedicating  them  at  Delphi. 
When  his  father-in-law  heard  of  this  deceit,  he 
sent  his  sons,  who  killed  Alcma;on,  but  Alcmoeon's 
sons  by  Callirhoe  took  bloody  vengeance  at  her 
instigation.  There  are  indications  of  a  cult  of 
Alcmseon  at  Psophis,  where  his  tomb  was  shown, 
and  at  Thebes.  Ijater  stories  told  of  Alcma?on's 
conquest  of  Acarnania,  apparently  as  a  mythical 
prototype  of  the  Corinthian  civilization  of  that 
region. 

ALCM^ON  (Gk.  •AlK/iaiui;  AlJcmaiOn).  A 
Greek  physician  and  naturalist,  who  lived  in  the 
last  half  of  the  sixth  century  B.C.  He  was  a 
native  of  Croton,  in  Italy,  and  is  said  to  have 
been  a  pupil  of  Pythagoras.  He  made  important 
discoveries  in  anatomy,  and  was  the  first  to  pi-ae- 
tice  dissection.  He  wrote  a  book  On  Nature,  of 
which  we  have  fragments. 

ALC'M^ON'IDJE  (Gk.  'ATiK/iaiuviSnt,  Alk- 
inairjiiidrii.  descendants  of  Alcmseon).  A  distin- 
guished family  in  ancient  Athens,  whose  founder, 
Alcmaeon,  according  to  tradition,  came  from  Py- 
los,  Messenia.  One  of  them  was  the  Archon 
]\legacles,  who,  about  012  B.C.,  slew  the  conspira- 
tor Cylon  and  his  followers  at  the  altars  where 
they  had  fled,  in  spite  of  his  promise  to  spare 
them.  For  this  sacrilege  the  whole  family  was 
banished,  about  590  B.C.  They  maintained  "a  con- 
flict for  many  years  with  Pisistratus  and  his 
sons,  however,  and  in  510  were  finally  brought 
back  to  Athens  by  the  help  of  the  Spartans,  who 
were  led  to  aid  them  by  the  partiality  of  the 
Delphic  oracle.  Clisthenes  (q.v.),  then  the 
head  of  the  family,  was  the  noted  leojslator. 
Even  more  famous  members  of  it  were  Pericles 
and  Alcibiades. 

ALC'MAN  CATiKiiAv,  Alkman).  A  poet  of 
the  second  half  of  the  seventh  century  B.C.,  who 
is  considered  the  founder  of  Dorian  lyric  poetry. 
He  was  born  at  Sardis,  the  capital  of  Lydia.  in 
Asia  Minor,  but  was  probably  of  Greek  extrac- 
tion. A  doubtful  tradition  said  that  he  was  a 
slave;  in  any  case,  he  attained  to  a  high  position 
at  Sparta,  where  be  made  his  home,  and  became 
teacher  of  the  State  choruses.  In  the  Hellenistic 
period  six  books  of  his  poems  were  current,  com- 
prising partheneia,  hymns,  hyporchemes,  paeans, 
erotica,  and  hymenaia.  He  was  counted  the 
founder  of  erotic  poetry,  and  readied  great  per- 
fection in  his  partheneia.  His  dialect  was  the 
Dorian,  but  his  verses  show  many  .Eolian  char- 
acteristics. Alcman  occupied  the  first  place  in 
the  Alexandrian  Canon.     The  bucolic  poets  re- 


ALCMAN. 


894 


ALCOHOL. 


garded  him  as  their  predpcessor,  and  we  know 
that  he  was  read  with  pleasure  in  the  second 
century  A.D.,  although  his  dialect  was  then  con- 
sidered harsh  and  unmusical.  Only  fragments 
of  his  jioetry  remain,  edited  in  Bergk's  Poclw 
Lj/rici  Gnrci.  III.,  fourth  edition,  pp.  14ff. 
(Leipzig,  18S2)  :  a  fragment  discovered  in  1806 
is  published  in  Oxyrhynchus  Papyri  /.,  No.  VIII. 

ALCME'NE  (Gk.  'AXK/if/vTi,  Alkmene) .  In 
Greek  mythology,  the  daughter  of  Electryon, 
King  of  Mycena;,  and  wife  of  Amphitryon, 
mother  of  Heracles,  by  Zeus,  who  came  to  her 
in  the  form  of  her  husband.  She  was  the 
mother  of  Iphides  by  Amphitryon. 

AL'CO  (native  name).  A  small,  long-haired 
dog  of  tropical  America,  known  both  wild  and  in 
a  domesticated  condition.  In  the  latter  state  it 
is  gentle  and  home-keeping;  and  as  its  ears  are 
pendulous  it  is  considered  by  most  authorities 
as  a  species  introduced  in  the  early  days  of  the 
Spanish  conquest,  and  since  become  partly  feral. 
Consult  Gosse,  A  Naturalist's  Sojourn  in  Ja- 
maica   (London,  I85I). 

ALCOBAQA,  al'ko-ba'sa.  A  town  in  the 
province  ot  Estrcmadura,  Portugal,  situated  be- 
tween the  Alcoa  and  Baca  rivers,  four  miles  east 
of  Vallado,  the  nearest  railway  station.  On  the 
west  Alcobaya  is  dominated  by  a  range  of  hills 
crowned  with  the  ruins  of  a  Moorish  castle.  Jlie 
town  is  famous  for  the  Cistercian  abbey  of  Santa 
5Iaria,  one  of  the  finest  and  richest  monasteries 
in  the  world.  It  contains  the  tombs  of  Inez  de 
Castro  and  of  some  of  the  Portuguese  kings.  The 
buildings  comprise  an  imposing  church  in  early 
Gothic,  five  cloisters,  seven  dormittiries,  a  library 
containing  over  2.'>.000  volumes,  and  a  hospedaria. 
It  is  supplied  with  water  by  a  tributary  of  the 
Alcoa,  which  rlows  through  the  enormous  kitchen. 
The  abbey  was  built  from  1148  to  1222,  was 
sacked  by  the  French  in  1810,  and  in  1834  was 
secularized.  The  north  part  of  the  structure  is 
now  used  as  a  barracks  for  cavalry.  Pop.  of 
town,  1890,  2003. 

ALCOCK,  .al'kok.  Sir  RrTiiERFORD  (1809-97). 
An  English  diplomatist  and  author,  born  in  Lon- 
don. He  studied  medicine,  and  became  distin- 
guished as  an  army  surgeon  and  hospital  in- 
spector, and  afterward  as  a  lecturer  on  surgery. 
In  1844  he  was  sent  as  British  consul  to  China, 
and  he  served  in  Amoy,  Fuchow,  and  Shanghai. 
He  won  such  distinction  in  these  services  that, 
in  1858,  he  was  made  consul  general  in  Japan. 
He  was  accredited  to  the  Shogun,  or  military 
mayor,  who  had  his  headquarters  in  Yedo,  in- 
stead of  to  the  -Mikado,  or  true  emperor,  in  Kioto, 
and  was,  therefore,  like  the  other  foreign  min- 
isters, continually  under  the  menace  of  assassi- 
nation. Twice  the  legation  was  murderously 
attacked,  and  once  burned,  but  Aleock  insisted 
on  the  literal  fulfillment  of  the  treaties.  Under 
his  influence.  Sliimonoseki  was  bombarded  in 
1804,  after  which,  the  Yedo  government  refusing 
to  open  more  ports  to  trade,  an  indenniity  of 
.S.I.OOO.OOO  was  extorted,  part  of  which  was  paid 
by  the  Mikado's  government  in  1874.  Eeciilled 
in  180.5  from  Japan  for  his  action,  he  was  ap- 
pointed minister  plenipotentiary  to  Peking,  and 
served  from  1805  to  1871.  It  was  Aleock  who 
first  brought  .Japanese  art  to  the  world's  notice, 
in  the  London  World's  Exposition  (1802).  He 
was.  from  1870.  for  a  long  time  the  president  of 
the  Royal  Geographical  Society.  His  publica- 
tions include:  Life's  Problems;  The  Capital  of  the 


Tycoon  (1863)  ;  Art  and  Industries  in  Japan 
(1878),  and  many  geograpliical  and  other  ar- 
ticles in  periodicals.  For  further  account  of  his 
career,  consult  R.  J.  Mitchie,  An  Englishman 
in,  China  During  the  Victorian  Era  (Edinburgh, 
1900). 

ALCOFRIBAS  NASIER,  al'ko'fre'bil'  na'- 
sya'.  The  pseudonj'm,  formed  anagrammatieally 
from  his  own  name,  under  which  Francois 
Rabelais  published  his  Pantagruel,  etc. 

AL'COHOL  (Ar.  al,  the  +  kohl,  exceedingly 
fine  powder  of  antimony  for  painting  eyebrows ; 
hence  the  quintessence  of  something;  finally 
rectified  spirits,  alcohol),  or  Eth'yl  Alco- 
hol, C.HjOH,  often  called  spirits  of  wine. 
A  chemical  compound  of  carbon,  hydrogen, 
and  o.xygen  that  has  been  known  and  ex- 
tensively used  from  the  earliest  times.  It  is 
consumed  in  very  large  quantities  in  the  form 
of  intoxicating  liquors,  and  is  used  for  various 
purposes  in  the  arts  and  manufactures.  The 
alcohol  of  commerce,  in  its  various  foums,  is  all 
made  by  fermentation.  Natural  products  con- 
taining a  large  amount  of  starch,  such  as  grain, 
rice,  potatoes,  etc.,  are  reduced  with  water  to  a 
paste,  and  a  small  quantity  of  malt  is  added  to 
produce  fermentation,  by  which  the  starch  is  in 
a  short  time  transformed  into  de.xtrin  and  a 
kind  of  sugar  called  maltose,  according  to  the 
following  chemical  equation: 

3CeH,„05  +  H,0  =:  C,H„A  +  C,,H,Ai 
Starch  Dextrin  Maltose 

Then  yeast,  which  consists  of  living  plant  cells, 
is  added  to  set  up  a  new  process  of  fermentation, 
by  which  the  maltose  is  converted  into  alcohol, 
according  to   the   following  chemical   equation: 


C,:H^O„  +  H,0  : 

Maltose 


:  4C2  HeO  +  400. 

Alcohol 


The  manufacture  of  alcohol  thus  involves  two 
distinct  processes  of  fermentation;  for  neither 
can  alcohol  be  obtained  from  maltose  b.y  the  ac- 
tion of  the  diastase  of  malt,  nor  can  maltose  be 
obtained  from  starch  bj'  the  action  of  yeast.  Small 
quantities  of  organic  substances  are  usually 
produced  along  with  ethyl  alcohol  during  fer- 
mentation ;  one  of  these  is  the  well-known  fusel 
oil,  a  mixture  of  alcohols  chemically  allied  to 
ordinary  alcohol  and  containing  mainly  amyl 
alcohol.  A  small  quantity  of  fusel  oil  is  con- 
tained even  in  the  "raw  s)iirit,"  a  strong 
alcohol  obtained  by  distilling  the  weak  so- 
lution obtained  through  fermentation.  To 
free  the  raw  spirit  from  fusel  oil,  which  is  highly 
injurious,  it  is  mixed  with  water,  filtered 
through  charcoal,  and  subjected  to  a  process  of 
fractional  distillation,  the  intermediate  fractions, 
called  rectified  spirit,  being  practically  free  from 
fusel  oil.  The  presence  of  the  latter  in  spirit- 
uous liquors  may  be  readily  detected  by  adding 
a  few  drops  of  colorless  aniline  and  two  or  three 
drops  of  sulphuric  acid,  a  deep-red  coloration 
being  produced  in  the  presence  of  fusel  oil.  The 
flavor  of  alcoholic  beverages  is  due  to  the  pres- 
ence of  various  organic  substances  often  produced 
by  modifying  the  process  of  manufacture.  Thus 
both  the  flavor  and  color  of  beer  depend  largely 
on  the  temperature  and  duration  of  heat- 
ing of  the  malt  before  using  it;  the  flavor  of 
Scotch  whisky  is  derived  mainly  from  the  peat 
used  in  drying  the  malt,  etc.  The  quantity  of  al- 
cohol contained  in  various  beverages  is  very  dif- 


ALCOHOL. 


295 


ALCOHOL. 


ferent:  gin,  mm,  and  the  strong  liquors  contain 
from  40  to  50  per  cent,  of  alcohol;  port  contains 
from  15  to  25  per  cent. ;  sherry  or  madeira,  from 
15  to  20  per  cent.;  champagne  and  l)urgvnuly, 
from  10  to  1.3  per  cent.:  hock,  from  10  to  12 
per  cent.;  claret,  from  8  to  12  per  cent.;  cider 
and  strong  ale,  5  to  9  per  cent.;  beer  or  porter, 
from  2  to  5  per  cent. :  koumiss,  from  1  to  3  per 
cent.  The  United  titates  Pharinacopwia  fixes  the 
specific  gravity  of  rectified  spirit  at  0.820, 
which  corresponds  to  01  per  cent,  of  absolute  al- 
cohol. The  amount  of  alcohol  in  .spirituous  liq- 
uids is  estimated  by  observing  their  specific 
gravity;  but  as  they  usually  contain  other  sub- 
stances besides  water,  they  must  be  distille<l  be- 
fore a  determination  can  be  made.  Alcohol  in 
its  various  forms,  especially  if  taken  habitually, 
is  highly  injurious  to  health.  While  it  promotes 
very  powerfully  the  secretion  of  the  gastric 
juice,  it  sets  up  inflammation  of  the  gastric  walls 
and  gradually  produces  chronic  dyspepsia.  (See 
Alcohol,  Piiysiologicwl  .\xi)  I'oisonois  Action 
OF.)  The  effects  of  chronic  alcohol  poisoning  are 
described  in  the  article  Alcoholtsm  (q.v.). 

Alcohol  cannot  be  entirely  freed  from  water 
by  distillation.  Anhydrous,  or  absolute  alcohol, 
may  be  prepared  by  boiling  strong  commercial 
alcohol  with  unslaked  lime  until  a  small  sample 
is  turned  yellow  by  barium  oxide;  to  remove  the 
last  traces  of  water  the  alcohol  thus  obtained 
may  be  further  treated  witli  anhydrous  copper 
sulphate  and  finally  distilled  over  a  small  quan- 
tity of  metallic  sodium.  Tlie  presence  of  traces 
of  water  mav  be  readily  detected  by  the  use  of 
dehydrated  copper  suljihate.  whi<-h  remains  white 
only  in  perfectly  anhydrous  alcohol.  Absolute 
alcohol  acts  as  a  deadly  poison.  It  is  a  colorless 
liquid  of  specific  gravity  0.80li2  at  0°  ;  it  boils 
at  78°  and  solidifies  at  about  1.30°  below  zero 
C.  It  is  e.xtremely  hygroscopic  and  mixes 
in  all  proportions  with  water,  ether,  cliloro- 
form,  carbon  disulphide.  and  many  other 
liquids.  It  is  also  an  excellent  solvent  for  many 
substances,  such  as  fats,  oils,  gums,  resins,  and 
a  number  of  inorganic  compounds,  and  is  thus 
largely  employed  in  the  preparation  of  tinctures, 
varnishes,  dyes,  perfunu's,  etc.  The  presence  of 
alcohol  in  aqueous  solutions  is  best  detected  by 
the  so-called  iodoform  reaction:  small  quantities 
of  iodine  and  of  potasli  almost  immediately 
produce  in  tlie  presence  of  alcohol  a  precipitate 
of  iodoform,  which  may  be  readily  recognized  by 
its  odor.  In  this  manner  it  has  been  demon- 
strated that  minute  quantities  of  alcohol  are 
present  in  the  soil,  in  water,  and  in  the  atmos- 
phere. Small  quantities  of  alcohol  have  likewise 
been  found  in  the  urine  in  diabetes.  When  acted 
on  by  an  excess  of  dry  chlorine  gas,  alcohol  is 
transformed  into  chloral,  from  which,  by  the  ac- 
tion of  alkali,  vcr.v  pure  chloroform  may  be  ob- 
tained :  cliloroform  may  also  be  prepared  from  al- 
cohol directlj"  by  the  action  of  Ideacliing  powder 
(chloride  of  lime).  When  warmed  with  concen- 
trated sulpliuric  acid,  alcohol  yields  ordinary 
ether.  Alcohol  is  thus  extensively  employed  in 
the  manufacture  of  chloral,  chloroform,  and 
ether. 

Aqueous  alcohol  was  separated  bv  distilhi- 
tion  from  the  mixture  obtained  through  fermen- 
tation in  the  Middle  Ages.  Lowitz  was  the  first 
to  prepare  anhydrous  alcohol  in  1706.  The  com- 
position of  alcohol  was  first  determined  by  Saus- 
sure  in  1808. 

Consult:     Steven.son,    A    Treatise   on   Alcohol, 


irifji  Tables  of  l<j)cci/ic  (Irafiiies  (London, 
ISS8);  ilaercker,  Handbuch  der  tipiritusfahri- 
kutioH  (Herlin,  188!);  French  translation,  two 
volumes,  Lille,  1889)  ;  and  Roux's  series  of  .seven 
Imoks  on  the  manufacture  of  alcoholic  beverages, 
[jublished  under  the  general  title  La  fabrication 
de  I'alcool  (Paris,  1885-92).     See  Acetylene. 

ALCOHOL,  Physiological  and  Poisonous 
Action  of.  Alcohol  in  a  concentrated  form  ex- 
erts a  local  irritant  action  on  the  membranes  and 
tissues  of  the  animal  bodv, mainly  through  its  ab- 
stracting water  from  t!)e  tissues.  According  to 
its  greater  or  less  dilution,  the  quantity  in  which 
it  is  administered,  the  emptiness  or  fullness  of 
the  stomach,  and  the  nature  of  the  animal  on 
which  the  experiment  is  made,  alcohol  may 
either  act  as  a  gentle  stimulus,  which  assists  the 
digestive  process,  or  it  may  excite  such  a  degree 
of  irritation  as  may  lead  to  the  disorganization 
of  the  mucous  membrane.  It  is  well  known  that 
dilute  alcohol  in  contact  with  animal  matter,  at 
a  temperature  of  from  60°  to  00°,  undergoes 
acetic  fermentation,  and  it  was  maintained  by 
Leuret  and  Lassaigne  that  a  similar  change  took 
place  in  the  stomach.  It  appears,  however,  that 
only  a  small  part  of  the  alcohol  undergoes  this 
change;  and  it  is  the  small  part  thus  changed 
which  produces,  with  other  fermentations  of  the 
fats  and  proteids,  the  penetrating  and  disagree- 
able character  of  the  eructations  and  vomited 
matters  of  drunkards.  Alcohol  is,  however,  for 
the  most  part,  rapidl.y  absorbed  in  an  unchanged 
state  either  in  the  form  of  liquid  or  vapor,  and 
this  absorption  may  take  place  through  the  cel- 
lular (or  connective)  tissue,  the  serous  cavities, 
the  lungs,  or  the  digestive  canal.  This  is  sho-svn 
by  the  experiments  of  Orfila,  who  fatally  intoxi- 
cated dogs  by  injecting  alcohol  into  the  subcu- 
taneous cellular  tissue,  or  bv  making  them 
breathe  an  atmosphere  charged  with  alcoholic 
vapor;  and  by  Rayer,  who  injected  about  half  an 
ounce  of  proof-spirit  into  the  peritoneum  uf  rab- 
bits, which  almost  imuiediatel,v  became  comatose 
and  died  in  a  few  liours.  It  is,  however,  only 
with  absorption  from  the  intestinal  canal  that  we 
have  to  deal  in  relation  to  man.  Almost  the 
whole  of  this  absorption  is  effected  in  the  stom- 
ach, and  it  is  only  when  alcohol  is  taken  in  great 
excess,  or  is  mixed  with  a  good  deal  of  sugar, 
that  any  absorption  bevond  the  stomach  occurs. 
The  rapidity  of  the  absorption  varies  according 
to  circumstances.  The  absorption  is  most  rapid 
when  the  stomach  is  emptv  and  the  drinker  is 
fatigued,  while  the  action  is  delayed  by  a  full 
stomach,  and  especially  bv  the  presence  of  acids, 
tannin,  or  the  mueilaginoirs  and  saccharine  in- 
gredients of  many  wines.  The  chief  action  of  al- 
cohol is  that  on  the  central  nervous  system ; 
either,  as  some  hold,  stimulating  the  cells  of 
the  cerebrum  to  greater  activity,  or,  as  others 
claim,  exerting  a  paralvzing  action  from  the  very 
start  and  reducing  control  or  inhibition.  The 
self-restraint  that  regulates  thought  and  speech 
being  removed,  the  person  seems  more  brilliant 
and  capable.  Recent  studies,  however,  show  that 
under  the  influence  of  even  small  amounts  of 
alcohol  the  capacity  for  work  is  less  and  its 
quality  deteriorates.  Kraepelin,  in  studying 
some  of  the  simpler  problems  of  addition,  multi- 
plication, spelling,  and  pronunciation,  found  that 
the  acuteness  of  perception  was  diminished  and 
the  intellectual  powers  weakened.  Purely  mus- 
cular power  was  increased  with  small  doses  and 


ALCOHOL. 


296 


ALCOHOLISM. 


diminished  under  larger  doses.  On  the  spinal 
cord  the  action  of  alcohol  is  depressing,  appar- 
ently from  tlie  very  beginning.  Lack  of  coordi- 
nation, leading  to  a  staggering  gait  and  blurring 
speech,  are  familiar.  Reflex  irritability  is  also 
diminished,  and  the  spinal  sensory  areas  ulti- 
mately paralyzed.  On  respiration,  alcohol  acts 
appreciably  only  in  large  doses.  The  function  is 
onl3'  slightly,  if  at  all,  stimulated.  Nearing 
death,  the  respiratory  centre  in  the  medvilla  is 
paralyzed.  Alcohol  increases  the  force  of  the 
heart-beat,  and  is  a  useful  heart  stimulant.  It 
is  a  vexed  question  whether  alcohol  is  a  food. 
In  one  sense  of  the  word  it  is.  It  is  capable  of 
being  oxidized  in  the  body,  and  is  tluis  a  source 
of  heat  and  energy.  Atwaterjias  sho-wn  that  at 
least  two  ounces  of  alcohol  can  be  completely 
oxidized  by  the  body  in  twenty-four  hours  and 
none  of  it  be  found  in  any  of  the  excretory  prod- 
ucts. Alcohol,  therefore,  in  a  sense  saves  the 
use  of  fats  and  carbohydrates,  and  thus  the  body 
stores  up  fat  for  future  use.  This  is  one  expla- 
nation why  so  many  users  of  alcohol  grow  fat. 
The  drug  furnishes  heat,  and  the  fat  is,  therefore, 
not  used  up  but  is  stored  in  the  body.  The  doc- 
trine that  whisky  warms  the  body  is  false.  It 
really  lowers  the  temperature,  and  the  evap- 
oration of  the  increased  amount  of  perspiration 
further  diminishes  the  temperature.  It  imparts 
a  sense  of  warmth  to  the  skin  because  it  dilates 
the  blood  vessels  of  the  surface.  Persons  who  are 
to  be  exposed  to  cold  temperatures  wouhl  derive 
more  valuable  effects  from  hot  drinks,  such  as 
coffee,  or  cocoa,  or  milk,  from  the  eating  of 
fatty  food,  starches,  and  sugars  than  they  would 
from  consuming  any  alcoholic  drinks.  After  ex- 
posure is  ended  it  may  be  useful  to  hasten  reac- 
tiop. 

As  alcohol  is  taken  up  directly  into  the  circula- 
tion wherever  it  comes  in  contact  with  any  tissue, 
an  irritation  is  produced  which,  if  continued  for 
any  length  of  time,  results  in  the  formation  of 
new  connective  tissue  cells.  These,  when  formed 
in  abnormal  numbers  in  various  organs,  lead  to 
disturbances  in  the  function  of  these  organs  and 
ultimately  to  disease.  The  blood  vessels  become 
harder  and  lose  their  elasticity.  (See  Arterio- 
ScLEHOSis.)  The  liver  may  become  larger  and 
harder.  The  new  connective  tissue  in  the  kid- 
neys may  cause  Bright's  disease  (q.v.).  Acting 
on  the  brain,  alcohol  may  cause  alcoholic  demen- 
tia ;  or  acting  on  the  superficial  nerves,  may 
cause  neuritis.  These  are  the  results  of  chronic 
alcoholic  poisoning,  which  probably  exceeds  all 
other  agents  as  a  cause  of  poverty,  disease,  crime, 
and  death.  Consult:  Brunton.  "The  Phys- 
iological Action  of  Alcohol,"  in  Practilioner 
(VoUime  XVI.,  London,  1876)  ;  Anstie's  Stim- 
vlants  and  Karcolics  (London,  18G4)  :  Atwater, 
United  Stairs  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bnlle- 
tins  6$  and  C!)  (Washington,  1807-98);  Eosen- 
feld's  Der  Einflnss  des  Alkohols  anf  den  Organis- 
miis  (Wiesbaden,  1901).  See  Alcoholism; 
Antpdotes:  BKUiiiT's  Dlsea.se  ;  and  Intoxica- 
tion. 

AL'COHOLISM.  The  term  employed  to 
denote  the  symptoms  of  disease  produced  by 
alcoholic  poisoning.  In  acute  alcoholism,  which 
is  generally  caused  by  the  rapid  absorption  of 
a  large  quantity  of  alcoholic  drinks,  the 
first  sjanptonis  are  animation  of  manner,  ex- 
altation of  spirits,  and  relaxation  of  judgment. 
The  emotions  are  altered  and  often  perverted; 
muscular  movements  become  irregular  or  ataxic; 


the  mechanism  of  speech  suffers.  The  further 
development  of  the  symptoms  presents  a  variety 
of  effects.  In  the  ordinary  course  of  the  action 
of  the  drug,  dizziness,  disturbance  of  sight  and 
hearing,  and  other  troubles  due  to  disorder  of 
the  central  nervous  system,  ensue,  leading  to 
heavy  sleep  or  profound  coma,  from  which  it  is 
sometimes  impossible  to  rouse  tlie  individual, 
who  lies  completely  paralyzed,  breathing  ster- 
torously.  Sometimes  the  alcohol  affects  so 
strongly  the  centres  of  respiration  and  circula- 
tion that  death  is  caused  by  paralysis  of  one  or 
other,  or  both.  This  condition  of  coma  requires 
to  be  carefully  distinguished  from  opium  poison- 
ing. In  the  former,  the  face  is  usually  flushed 
and  the  pupils  dilated,  while  in  tlie  latter  the 
face  is  pale  and  the  pupils  contracted.  The  odor 
of  the  breath  is  no  criterion,  inasmuch  as  sym- 
pathizing bystanders  are  apt  to  administer 
spirits  in  every  case  of  depression,  often  with 
hurtful  effects.  Fracture  of  the  skull,  delirium 
of  meningitis,  and  coma  after  epilepsy  or  after 
cerebral  hemorrhage  are  often  undiscovered  by 
the  inefficient  ambulance  surgeon,  who  is  led  ti) 
diagnose  a  condition  from  an  alcoholic  breath. 
A  second  class  of  alcoholics  act  in  an  entirely 
different  manner.  Instead  of  sinking  into  stupor  '•, 
or  coma,  the  individual  becomes  more  and  more  ' 
excited,  bursts  into  wild  mirth  or  passionate 
anger,  struggles  violently  with  those  who  at- 
tempt to  soothe  him,  and  may  grievously  harm 
himself  or  others.  This  is  the  condition' known 
as  alcoholic  mania — the  physical  explanation  of 
many  fearful  crimes.  It  is  more  apt  to  follow 
a  somewhat  protracted  debauch.  After  a  longer 
or  shorter  period  of  fierce  excitement,  it  is"  in 
most  cases  succeeded  by  great  depression,  and 
sometimes  during  this  condition  there  may  be 
sudden  death  from  failure  of  the  respiration  or 
circulation.  In  some  patients  the  stage  of  ex- 
citement culminates  in  a  convulsive  seizure.  The 
convulsions  are  repeated  at  intervals,  are  very 
complicated  in  character,  and  produce  remark- 
able contortions  of  the  body.  These  usually 
grow  less  violent,  and,  passing  off,  end  in  deep 
sleep;  but  here  also  death  may  occur  from  the 
action  of  the  poison.  Such  cases  of  "alcoholic 
epilepsy"  are  comparatively  rare,  and  occur  pvin- 
eipally  in  acute  exacerbations  of  chronic  alcohol- 
ism. Acute  alcoholism  is  more  apt  to  occur  in 
those  who  are  of  unsound  mind  and  weak  nerv- 
ous system,  and  this  applies  especially  to  the 
two  last-described  forms  of  the  affection.  In 
the  treatment  of  acute  alcoholism,  it  is  always 
wise  to  wash  out  the  stomach,  in  case  alcohol  is 
present,  or  to  accomplish  much  the  same  object 
by  free  vomiting  and  purgation.  In  the  pro- 
found coma,  the  administration  of  stimulants, 
such  as  ammonia  and  strychnine,  may  be  called 
for,  and  sometimes  artificial  respiration  may  be 
the  only  means  of  saving  life.  In  the  maniacal 
and  convulsive  forms  of  the  affection,  sedatives 
must  be  used.  After  the  immediate  symptoms 
have  passed  away  in  all  forms,  the  individual 
must  be  carefully  fed  with  nutrient  enemata,  on 
account  of  the  disturbance  of  the  digestive  sys- 
tem, along  with  remedies  which  will  subdue  the 
digestive  irritation  and  overcome  the  depression 
of  the  nervous  system. 

Chronic  alcoholism  is  caused  by  the  prolonged 
use  of  overdoses  of  various  alcoholic  drinks. 
Changes  (see  Alcohol.  Phy.sioloqical  and 
PoisoNOU.s  Action  of)  are  caused  in  eveiy  tissue 
of  the  body,  but  the  nervous,  respiratory,   and 


ALCOHOLISM. 


297 


ALCOHOLS. 


circulatory  systems  are  more  especially  affected, 
together  with  the  liver  and  kidneys.  There  is 
always  more  or  less  catarrh  of  the  di<!;estive 
organs,  shown  by  dyspepsia,  heart-burn,  vomit- 
ing—  especially  in  the  morning  —  and  usually 
diarrhea.  The  liver  becomes  enlarged  from  con- 
gestion, and  may  afterward  shrink,  pressing  on 
the  veins  and  bringing  back  blood  to  the  heart 
from  the  abdominal  viscera,  leading  to  conges- 
tion of  the  bowels,  hemorrhoids,  and  hemor- 
rhages. From  changes  in  the  organs  of  circula- 
tion there  is  a  tendency  to  palpitation,  fainting, 
and  l)reathlessness  on  exertion.  These  altera- 
tions are  degenerations  of  the  heart,  which  may 
be  soft  or  even  fatty;  fibrous  changes  in  the 
walls  of  the  arteries ;  and  dilatation  of  the  cap- 
illaries from  paralysis  of  the  vaso-motor  nerves. 
Tliis  last  condition  gives  the  florid  complexion 
and  mottled  appearance  to  chronic  drinkers. 
There  is,  besides,  usually  some  congestion  of  the 
kidneys :  but  it  is  erroneous  to  attribute  Bright's 
disease  mainly  to  alcohol.  The  lungs  are  subject 
to  chronic  congestion  and  catarrh  of  the  bron- 
chial tubes  and  lung  tissues.  The  muscular  sys- 
tem suffers,  the  muscles  becoming  flabby  and 
fatty.  There  is  a  great  tendency  to  deposition 
of  fat,  and  skin  diseases  are  frequently  induced 
by  the  vaso-motor  changes. 

Two  characteristic  results  of  the  action  of  the 
drug  on  the  central  nervous  structures  are  delir- 
ium tremens  and  alcoholic  insanity.  (See  In.sax- 
ITY.)  In  treating  chronic  alcoholism  the  great 
point  is  to  prevent  the  employment  of  alcohol  in 
any  form,  and  to  invigorate  the  bodily  and  men- 
tal functions.     Sec  Delirium. 

Alcoholism  is  also  the  term  used  by  many 
sociological  writers,  especially  French  and  Ger- 
man authors,  in  discussing  the  social  evils  aris- 
ing from  an  abuse  of  intoxicants.  Particularly 
important  are  the  investigations  of  the  relation 
of  alcoholism  to  pauperism  and  crime,  and  the 
legal  aspects  of  the  subject  as  exhibited  in  the 
way  various  communities  deal  with  drunkenness 
(q.v.). 

Bibliography.  The  Committee  of  Fifty  has 
made  the  best  study  of  the  subject  in  its  volume 
on  Economic  Aspects  of  the  Liquor  Problem 
(Boston,  1899).  And  consult  also:  "The  Rela- 
tions of  the  Liquor  Traffic  to  Pauperism,  Crime, 
and  Insanity,"  Twenty-sixth  Anniwl  Report  of 
the  Massachusetts  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics 
(Boston,  1S9.5)  ;  and  "Economic  Aspects  of  the 
Liquor  Problem."  Twelfth  Annual  Report  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Labor  (Washing- 
ton, 1898).     See  Temperance. 

AL'COHOLOM'ETRY  {alcohol  +  Gk.  /lirpov, 
vtctruii.  measure).  A  name  applied  to  any 
process  of  estimating  the  percentage  of  ab- 
solute alcohol  in  a  sample  of  spirits.  Certain 
chemical  methods  have  been  tried  for  the  pur- 
pose, but  the  one  usually  employed  consists  in 
determining  the  specific  gi-avity  of  the  spirit.  As 
liquors,  however,  generally  contain  other  sub- 
stances besides  water,  they  must  be  carefully 
distilled  before  a  determination  can  be  made. 
Every  mixture  of  alcohol  and  water  has  a  spe- 
cific gravity  of  its  own,  whii'h  depends:  (1)  on 
the  relative  composition  of  the  mixture,  and  (2) 
on  the  temperature;  once  the  specific  gravities  of 
various  mixtures  have  been  determined,  the  com- 
position of  a  sample  can  be  ascertained  by  de- 
termining its  specific  gravity  and  observing  the 
temperature.  The  following  table  shows  the  spe- 
cific gravities  of  mixtures  of  alcohol  and  water, 
Vol.  1.— Ji. 


containing  5,  10,  15,  20,  etc.,  per  cent,  by  weight 
of  alcohol,  at  the  temperatures  0°,  10°,  20°,  and 
30°  C: 


Percentnge 

by  Weight 

0° 

10° 

20° 

30° 

of  Alcohol. 

5 

0.901.35 

0.99113 

0.98945 

098680 

in 

0  9IM9.3 

0.98409 

098195 

0.97S93 

15 

0.97995 

O.'.ITSlll 

0.97.527 

11.97142 

30 

0  97.')l)« 

0  972(;:) 

0.96877 

09(141.3 

8,5 

0.97115 

0.9(;672 

0  91)1 85 

0.95628 

;w 

0.96.540 

0.9.".il!IK 

o.iiskra 

0  94751 

a5 

0  95;.H4 

<I!I5174 

0.94514 

0.93813 

40 

(].949:!9 

(1.94i55 

0  9:»ll 

0.92787 

4.') 

0.9:W7T 

0.n:i254 

0.92493 

0.91710 

50 

0.9^940 

0.93182 

0.914110 

0.90.":77 

65 

n.91S48 

0.91(174 

0.90-J75 

0  89456 

60 

0.90742 

0.KU944 

0  89129 

0,88304 

65 

0.89595 

0.S8790 

O.S79i;l 

0.87135 

ro 

0.88420 

0.87I113 

0.86781 

0.S5925 

75 

0.87245 

0.86127 

0.855SO 

0.84719 

80 

0.86085 

0.85215 

0.84.'i66 

0.8.34,S! 

85 

0.84789 

0.8:iil67 

0.8:ill5 

0.822:i3 

90 

0.83482 

0.82665 

0.81801 

0.80918 

95 

0.821 19 

0.82291 

0.8043.3 

0.79,553 

100 

0.80625 

0.79-88 

0.78945 

0.78096 

See  also  article,  Htdrometer. 

ALCOHOLS.  A  name  applied  in  organic 
chemistry  to  one  of  the  largest  and  most  impor- 
tant classes  of  carbon  compounds.  The  alcohols 
possess  in  common  certain  chemical  properties, 
though  they  are  otherwise  very  difl'erent  from 
one  another.  They  all  contain  one  or  more 
hydro.xyl  groups  (OH)  linked  directly  to  some 
fatty  hydrocarbon  group  (such  as  methyl,  CHj, 
ethyl,  C,H,-„  etc.),  and  are  subdivided  both  with 
reference  to  the  number  of  their  hydroxyl  groups, 
and  with  reference  to  the  nature  of  their  hydro- 
carbon groups.  When  the  alcohols  are  acted  on 
by  the  chlorides  or  bromides  of  phosphorus,  chlo- 
rine or  biomine  takes  the  place  of  their  hydro.Kyl 
groups,  and  as  a  result,  halogen  derivatives  of 
the  corresponding  hydrocarbons  are  produced. 
Thus,  by  the  action  of  phosphorus  pentachloride, 
ethyl  alcohol  may  be  transformed  into  ethyl 
chloride  (mono-chloro-ethane),  according  to  the 
following  chemical  equation: 


C.H.OH   -f    PCI, 
Ethyl  alcohol 


=    C2H5CI    -f 

Ethyl  chloride 


POCI3    -f    HCl 


With  reference  to  the  number  of  their  hydroxyl 
groups,  the  alcohols  are  divided  into  mono- 
hydric.  di-hydric,  iri-hydric,  etc.  According  to 
the  nature  of  the  radicle  to  which  these  groups 
are  attached,  alcohols  may  be  saturated  or  un- 
saturated, fatty  or  aromatic.  With  reference 
to  their  chemical  constitution  and  behavior 
toward  oxidizing  agents,  alcohols  are  further 
divided  into  primary,  secondary,  and  tertiary. 
The  primary  alcohols  are  characterized  by  the 
mono-valent  group  CH,OH;  the  secondary,  by 
the  di-valent  group  CHOH ;  the  tertiary  by  the 
tri-valent  group  COH.  The  differences  in  theii* 
reactions  are  described  below. 

The  alcohols  are  in  certain  respects  analogous 
to  the  metallic  hydroxides  of  inorganic  chemis- 
try. As,  for  instance,  potassium  hydroxide 
(KOH)  may  be  considered  as  derived  from  water 
by  replacing  half  of  its  hydrogen  by  potassium, 
so  may  methyl  alcohol  be  considered  as  derived 
from  water  by  substituting  the  hydrocarbon  rad- 
icle called  methyl  (CHj)  for  half  of  its  hydrogen, 
the  corresponding  formulas  being: 


ALCOHOLS. 


298 


ALCOHOLS. 


CH,  — OH 


H  —  OH  K  —  OH 

Water  Pota&siuni  Methyl 

hydroxide  alcohol 

Again,  a.s  metallic  hydroxides  combine  with 
acids  to  form  salts,  so  alcohols  combine  with 
acids  to  form  estei's  (ethereal  salts),  which  are 
perfectly  analogous  to  the  salts  of  inorganic 
chemistry.  The  following  two  equations  repre- 
sent, respectively,  the  formation  of  a  salt  and  of 
an  ester : 

KOH  +  HCl  =  KCl  +  H,0 
Potaspiiim  Hydrochloric  Potassium  "Water 
hydroxide  acid  chloride 

CjH.OH     +     HC=H,0,    =  C,H,C2H,,02    +   H,0 
Ethyl  Acetic  Ethyl-acetic  Water 

aJcohol  acid  ester 

The  hydrogen  of  the  hydroxyl  group  of  an 
alcohol  can  be  replaced  either  by  metals  or  by 
hydrocarbon  radicles.  In  the  former  case,  a 
metallic  alcoholate  is  obtained;  in  the  latter,  an 
ether.  Thus,  by  the  action  of  metallic  sodium 
on  ordinary  (ethyl)  alcohol,  sodium  alcoholate 
is  obtained,  according  to  the  following  chemical 
equation : 

C,H,OH    +    Na    =    C,H,Oya    -f    H 
Ethyl  alcohol  Sodium  alcoholate 

On  the  other  hand,  by  dehydrating  ethyl  alcohol, 
ordinary  ether  is  obtained,  as  follows : 

C,H,OH     +     C,H,OH    —    H,0    =    C.H.OCjH, 

2  molecules  of  ethyl  alcohol  Ethyl  ether 

In  this  transformation  (usually  effected  by  the 
dehydrating  action  of  sulphuric  acid),  the  ethyl 
group  of  one  molecule  of  alcohol  evidently  takes 
the  place  of  the  hydroxyl  hydrogen  of  another 
molecule.  An  analogous  reaction  takes  place 
when  a  mixture  of  two  different  alcohols  is  sub- 
jected to  the  dehydrating  action  of  sulphuric 
acid: 

C.H.OH     +     CH.OH     —     H,0     =     C.H.OCHj 


Ethyl 
alcohol 


Methyl 
alcohol 


Methyl-ethyl 
ether 


The  chemical  similarity  between  the  alcohol- 
ates  and  the  ethers  is  furtlicr  sliown  by  the  fact 
that  the  latter  may  be  readily  obtainetl  from  the 
former.  Thus,  methyl  ether  may  be  obtained 
by  the  action  of  methyl  iodide  on  sodiuni-methj'l- 
ate  (an  alcoholate),  according  to  the  following 
chemical  equation: 

CH^ONa     -f     CH3I    =    CH.OCHj     +     Nal 

Sodium  Methyl  Methyl  Sodium 

methylate  iodide  ether  iodide 

The  chemical  transformations  characterizing  the 
three  sub-classes  of  the  alcohols,  viz.,  the  pri- 
mary, secondary,  and  tertiary  alcohols,  may  now 
be  briefly  considered. 

1.  It  was  mentioned  above  that  primary  alco- 
hols contain  the  group  CH,OH.  When  they  are 
oxidized,  this  group  is  changed  into  the  group 

/H 
C.        which  is  characteristic  of  the  aldehydes — 

N\0 
another  important  class  of  organic  compounds. 
Thus,  when  ethyl  alcohol  is  oxidized  with  chromic 
acid,    ordinary    aldehyde    is    obtained,    according 
to  the  following  chemical  equation: 

CH,CH,0H    +    O    =    CH.CIIO    +    ILO 
Ethyl  alcohol  Aldehyde 

By  further  combination  with  oxygen,  aldehydes 


readily   yield   acids,   the  group   CHO   being   ex- 

//O 
changed  for  the  acid  group  C— OH.     Thus,  when 
ordinary    aldehyde    is    oxidized,    acetic    acid    is 
produced,  as  follows : 

CH3CHO     +     0     —     CHjCOOH 

Aldehyde  Acetic  acid 

If  the  structural  formulae  of  acetic  acid  and 
ethyl  alcohol  are  compared, 

H  H 


C=0 


H— I 


-H 


H— C— H 


A 


i 


Acetic  acid 


Ethyl  alcohol 

it  may  be  seen  that  the  gradual  oxidation  result- 
ed in  the  substitution  of  one  atom  of  oxygen  for 
the  two  atoms  of  hydrogen  linked  to  the  same 
carbon  atom  to  which  the  OH  group  of  the 
alcohol  is  linked.  If  in  the  place  of  these  hydro- 
gens, the  alcohol  molecule  contained  atomic 
groups  like  methyl,  for  instance,  which  could 
not  be  replaced  by  oxygen,  the  acid  could  evi- 
dently not  be  made  by  oxidizing  the  alcohol. 
In  otiier  words,  unless  an  alcohol  contains  two 
hydrogens  linked  to  the  hydroxyl  group  OH 
through  a  carbon  atom,  it  could  not  be  trans- 
formed, by  simple  oxidation,  into  an  acid  con- 
taining the  same  number  of  carbon  atoms ;  only 
primary  alcohols,  characterized  by  the  group 
CH;OH,  are  capable  of  this  transformation. 

2.  When  secondary  alcohols  are  oxidized,  their 
characteristic  group  CHOH  is  converted  into  the 
group  CO,  and  as  a  result  lactones  are  produced, 
thus,  when  iso-propyl  alcohol  is  acted  on  by 
oxidizing  agents,  ordinary  acetone  (di-methyl- 
ketone)  is  produced,  according  to  the  following 
chemical  equation: 

CH3 
\ 

CHOH     +     O     = 
/ 

CH3 


+     H,0 


Iso-propyl  Acetone 

alcohol 

It  is  seen  that  the  molecule  of  acetone  contains 
the  same  number  of  carbon  atoms  as  the  molecule 
of    iso-propyl    alcohol. 

3.  Tertiary  alcohols  cannot  be  transformed  by 
simple  oxidation  into  a  compound  whose  mole- 
cule contains  tlie  same  number  of  carbon  atoms. 
In  the  language  of  the  structural  theory,  the  (mly 
atomic  group  into  which  the  characteristic  COH 
group  of  the  tertiary  alcohols  could  be  converted 
by  sini])le  loss  of  hydrogen  tlirough  oxidation,  is 
tiie  group  CO.  Now,  the  COH  group  is  tri- 
valent,  and  is,  in  tertiary  alcohols,  combined  with 
three  radicles;  thus,  the  simplest  tertiary  al- 
cohol, called  tertiary  butyl  alcohol,  is  represented 
by  the  graphic  formula: 

CH,\ 

CH,— C— 0— H 

CH,/ 


Tertiary  butvl  alcohol 


ALCOHOLS. 


299 


ALCOHOLS. 


If  its  COH  proup  were  oonvertcd  into  CO,  a  eom- 
pouiul  would  be  obtained  in  wliifh  carbon  would 
exist  in  the  peuta-valent  form,  as  shown  by  the 
fornnda : 

CH,,\ 

CH3— C=0 

CH,/ 

Neither  this,  nor  any  other  compound  containing 
jjenta-valent  carbon,  is  known.  In  reality,  when 
a  tertiary  alcohol  is  oxidized,  it  breaks  up  into 
various  compounds,  each  containing  less  carbon 
atoms  than  the  alcohol. 

The  three  sub-classes  of  alcohols  can  thus  be 
readily  distinguished  from  one  another  by  their 
behavior  toward  oxidizing  agents. 

Primary  alcohols  may  be  transformed  into 
corresponding  secondary  or  tertiary  alcohols 
with  the  aid  of  sulphuric  acid.  As  an  example 
may  be  mentioned  the  conversion  of  normal 
jjropyl  alcohol  (primarj-)  into  iso-propyl  alcohol 
(secondary).  (1)  Hy  tlie  dehydrating  action  of 
sulphuric  acid  on  normal  propyl  alcohol,  the 
hydrocarbon  propylene  is  obtained,  according  to 
the  following  equation: 

CH.CH.CH.OH  —  H,0  =  CHjCHiCHj 

Normal  propyl  alcohol  Propylene 

(2)  When  propylene  is  dissolved  in  fuming  sul- 
pliuric  acid  and  the  compound  thus  obtained  is 
boiled  with  water,  iso-propyl  alcohol  is  obtained : 

CH;,CH:CH.,  -f   H„0   =   CH3CH(0H)CH, 
Propylene  Water  Iso-propyl  alcohol 

In  this  manner  a  hydroxyl  group  can  be  made  to 
change  its  position  in  the  molecule  by  simple 
laboratory  methods. 

The  di-h.vdrie  alcohols,  as  the  name  indicates, 
contain  two  hydroxyl  groups.  Glycols  is  the 
name  usually  applied  by  chemists  to  the  di- 
hydric  alcohols.  The  simplest  glycol,  derived 
from  methane  (CHj) — the  simplest  hydrocarbon 
—  should  be  represented  by  the  formul.a 
CH, (OH);.  But  though  certain  compounds  of 
this  glycol  have  been  obtained,  the  glycol  itself 
could  not  be  prepared  in  the  free  state.  Expe- 
rience shows,  in  general,  that  the  formation  of 
a  compound  in  which  two  hydroxyl  groups 
might  be  attached  to  one  carbon  atom  is  almost 
invariably  accompanied  by  a  loss  of  the  elements 
of  water.  The  imaginary  compound  CH.  (OH), 
is  thus  split  up,  according  to  the  following  equa- 
tion: 

CH,(OH)„     =     CH,0     -f     H.O 

The  compound  CH^O  (formaldehyde)  is  there- 
fore obtained  in  reactions  which  might  be 
expected  to  result  in  the  formation  of  the  glycol 
CH2(0H)..  The  simplest  glycol  actually  pre- 
pared is  a  derivative  of  ethane  (C2H,,),  one 
hydroxyl  group  being  attached  to  each  of  the 
two   carbon   atoms   of   ethane,   and   its   formula 

CH.OH 
therefore  being    |  .     This   glycol   evidently 

CH.OH 
contains  two  primary  .alcohol  groups    (.CH2OH), 
by  the  oxidation  of  one  or  both  of  which  a  series 
of  interesting  compounds  is  obtained,  including: 

CH..OH        CHO  CHO  COOH 


COOH 

GlycocoUic 
acid 


CHO  C 


:)H0 
Glyosal 


OOH 

Glyoxylic 
acid 


COOH 

Oxalic 
.acid 


Glycols  containing  two  tertiary-alcohol  groups 
(COil)  are  usually  called  phtacuncs,  the  sim- 
plest pinacone  known  being  represented  by  the 
following  graphic  formula: 

ch:)c-o-h 


Ordinary  pinacone 

The  simplest  and  best  known  tri-Iiydric  alco- 
hol is  the  well-known  glycerin  (q.v.),  which  may 
be  considered  as  derived  from  propane  (CH3 
CHoCHa)  by  the  substitution  of  hydro.xyl  groups 
for  three  hydrogens  attached  to  three  different 
carbon  atoms :  the  constitutional  formula  of 
glycerin  is  CH,(OH) .  CH(OH) .  CH,(OH) . 

Among  the  few  other  poly-hydric  alcohols 
known  may  be  mentioned  the  hexa-hydric  alco- 
hol inniinitol.  which  is  found  in  iiiuiina  (q.v.). 
The  poly-Iiydric  alcolmls  generally  possess  a  sweet 
taste  and  are  insoluble  in  ether.  They  mostly 
occur  ready  formed  in  nature. 

The  mono-hydrie  alcohols  are  rarely  found  in 
nature  in  the  free  state:  in  the  forni  of  esters, 
however,  i.e.,  in  combination  with  acids,  they 
occur  largely  in  the  vegetable  kingdom.  The  for- 
mation of  alcohols  from  the  sugars  through 
fermentation  is  described  elsewhere.  (See  Alco- 
hol and  Ferme.xtation.)  It  remains  to  mention 
here  a  few  of  the  general  chemical  methods  by 
which  alcohols  are  made  artificially. 

1.  Many  alcohols  are  prepared  from  the  corre- 
sponding h_ydrocarbons  by  substituting  halogens 
for  part  of  their  hydrogen,  and  treating  the  halo- 
gen derivatives  thus  obtained  with  dilute  aque- 
ous alkalis  or  with  moist  silver  oxide.  The  fol- 
lowing equations  represent  examples  of  the  for- 
mation of  alcohols  from  halogen-substitutive- 
products   of   hydrocarbons: 


CH3Br     H 

Mono-bromo- 
metliane 


KOH    I 

Potaflsium 
hydroxide 


CH.OH     +     KBr 


Methyl 
alcohol 


Potaj-sinm 
bromide 


C^HjI     +     AgOH 

Moiio-iodo  Silver 

propane  hydroxide 


=     C,H;OH     -f     Agl 


Propyl 
alcohol 


Silver 
iodide 


2.  Since  aldehydes  are  produced  by  the  oxida- 
tion of  primary  alcohols,  the  latter  may  be. 
obtained,  conversely,  by  reducing  aldehydes. 
Thus,  ethyl  alcohol  may  he  obtained  by  the  action 
of  nascent  hydrogen  upon  ordinary  aldehyde, 
according  to  the  following  equation:" 


CH3CHO      +      2H 

Aldehyde 


=    CHjCH.OH 
Ordinary  alcohol 


3.  Since  ketones  are  produced  by  the  oxidation 
of  secondary  alcohols,  the  latter  may,  conversely, 
be  prepared  from  ketones  by  reduction.  Thus, 
secondary  propyl  alcohol  may  be  obtained  by  tlie 
action  of  nascent  hydrogen  on  acetone  (di-methyl- 
ketone),  according  to  the  following  equation: 

CH..CO.CH3     +     2H    =    CH3CH(0H)CH, 
Acetone  Iso-propyl  alcohol 

4.  Tertiary  alcohols  may  be  prepared  from 
chlorides  of  acid  radicles  with  the  aid  of  com- 
pounds of  zinc  and  Iiydrocarbon  radicles.  Thus, 
tertiary  butyl  alcolinl  is  obtained  according  to 
the  following  equation: 


ALCOHOLS. 

CH.COCI      +      2Zn(CH,)j     +      2H,0     = 
Acetyl  chloride  Zinc-metbyl 

(CHjjjCOH    +    CH.ZnCl    +    Zn(0H)2  +  Ca, 
Tertiary  butyl  Zinc-chloro-  Zinc  Methane 


300 


ALCOY. 


alcohol 


methyl 


hydroxide 


The  aromatic  alcohols  may  be  prepared  by 
methods  analogous  to  those  just  described.  Aro- 
matic alcohols  must  be  distinguished  from  the 
phenols — a  class  of  hydro.xyl  derivatives  of  the 
aromatic  hydrocarbons — wliich  are  in  many  re- 
spects quite  diiTerent  from  the  true  alcohols: 
tlius,  phenates  of  the  alkali  metals  are  obtained 
by  the  action  of  alkaline  hydroxides  on  phenols, 
while  alcoholates  can  only  be  produced  from 
alcohols  by  the  action  of  the  alkali  metals  them- 
selves, their  hydroxides  having  no  action  on 
alcohols.  Theoretically  the  difference  between 
aromatic  aleoliols  and  phenols  consists  in  this, 
that  in  the  latter  the  hydroxyl  groups  are 
attached  immediately  to  the  so-called  benzene 
ring,  while  in  the  former  they  are  attached  to  a 
side-chain.  The  difference  is  clearly  shown  by 
the  following  constitutional  formulae,  represent- 
ing, respectively,  a  well-known  phenol  and  the 
simplest   aromatic    alcohol   known: 

/OH 
CeH,  C„H,— CH,— OH 

\CH, 

Cresol  (a  phenol)  Benzyl  alcohol  (an  alcohol) 

The  more  important  alcohols  are  described 
under  special  heads. 

ALCOLEA,  iil'ko-la'a,  Bridge  of.  A  bridge 
across  the  river  Guadalquivir,  eight  miles  north- 
east of  Cordova,  Spain,  the  scene  of  a  battle 
September  28,  1S(!8,  between  the  revolutionary 
troops  of  Serrano  and  those  of  Queen  Isabella. 
Tlie  latter  were  beaten  and  the  Queen,  dethroned, 
fled  to  France. 

ALCORAN,  al'ko-ran  or  al'ko-rUn'.  See 
Koran. 

ALCORN,  al'kern,  .James  Lusk  (181G-94). 
An  American  statesman,  born  in  Galconda,  Illi- 
nois. He  was  educated  at  Cumberland  Univer- 
sity, Kentucky,  and  became  a  lawyer  in  that 
State  and  sat  in  its  Legislature.  He  went  to 
Mississippi  in  1844,  and  served  in  the  State  Leg- 
islature from  1846  to  1865,  when  he  was  elected 
United  States  Senator,  but  was  not  then  per- 
mitted to  take  his  seat.  He  was  elected  governor 
on  the  Republican  ticket  in  1809,  btit  resigned 
two  years  later  to  enter  the  United  States  Sen- 
ate, where  he  continued  until  1877.  In  187.3  he 
was  defeated  for  governor  on  an  independent 
ticket.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  levee  system 
of  the  Mississippi. 

ALCOTT,  nl'kut,  Amos  Bronson  (1799- 
1888).  An  .American  educational  reformer, 
conversationalist,  and  transcendental  philos- 
opher. He  was  l)orn  at  Wolcott,  Conn..  Novem- 
ber 29,  1799,  and  died  in  Boston.  March  4,  1888. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  farmer,  and  his  first  experi- 
ence of  life  was  gained  as  a  peddler  in  the  South. 
In  1828  he  became  an  educational  reformer  and 
established  in  Boston  a  school,  in  which  he  at- 
tracted much  attention  by  the  novelty  of  his 
methods.  Of  this  there  is  a  very  attrnctive  ac- 
count by  Elizabeth  Peabody  (Record  of  a 
fichool,  1834;  third  edition,  1S74).  His  method 
was  largely  conversational,  and  a  transcript  of 
his    talks    appeared    in    1836    as    Conversations 


with  Children  on  the  Gospels.  Ways  that  would 
now  seem  more  commendable  than  noteworthy 
then  met  with  bitter  denunciation,  so  that  Al- 
cott  abandoned  his  school,  moved  to  Concord, 
and  sought  to  disseminate  his  views  on  theology, 
education,  society,  civics,  and  vegetarianism 
through  lectures,  Avinning  attention  by  his  origi- 
nality and  graceful  speech.  In  1842  he  visited 
England  and  returned  with  two  friends,  one  of 
whom  bought  an  estate  near  Harvard,  Mass., 
where  they  endeavored  to  found  a  community, 
"Fruitlands,"  which  speedily  failed.  Aleott 
then  went  to  Boston,  and  thence  to  Concord, 
leading  the  life  of  a  peripatetic  philosopher,  and 
giving  "conversations,"  which  found  increasing 
favor,  especially  in  the  West.  In  later  years 
his  manner  became  more  formal  and  his  always 
nebulous  teaching  apparently  more  orthodox. 
Besides  frequent  contributions  of  "Orphic  Say- 
ings" to  the  Transcendental  organ.  The  Dial,  he 
published  fragments  from  his  voluminous  diary. 
Tablets  (1868);  Coneord  Days  (1872);  Table 
Talk  (1877);  Sonnets  and  Canzonets  (1877), 
and  also  New  Connecticut  (1881),  and  an  Essay 
on  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson,  Bis  Character  and 
Genius  (1882).  For  his  biogi-aphv,  consxilt  San- 
born and  Harris,  Life  (Boston,"  1893);  also 
Lowell's  contemporary  criticism,  in  A  Fable 
for  Critics  (New  York,  1848),  and  A  Study  from 
Two  Heads,  in  the  Poems. 

ALCOTT,  Louisa  JUt  (1832-88).  An 
American  novelist  and  juvenile  -lATiter.  She 
was  born  at  Germantown,  Pa.,  November  29, 
1832,  and  died  at  Boston,  March  6,  1888.  She 
began  her  active  life  as  a  teacher,  writing 
stories  of  harmless  sensation  for  weekly  jour- 
nals, and  publishing  the  insignificant  'Fioiper 
Fables  (18.55).  During  the  Civil  War  she  vol- 
unteered as  an  army  nurse,  and  wrote  for  a 
newspaper  the  letters  afterward  collected  as 
Hospital  Sketches  (1863).  She  first  attracted 
notice  by  Little  Women  (1868:  second  part, 
1869) ,  the  best  and  most  popular  of  her  writings. 
Among  the  more  noteworthy  of  numerous  other 
contributions  to  the  literature  of  adolescence  are: 
An  Old-Fashioned  Girl  (1809),  Little  Men  (1871), 
Jo's  Boys  (1886).  Her  novels.  Moods  (1863) 
and  Work  (1873),  attracted  little  attention.  In 
later  years  she  suffered  much  from  ill-health: 
but  her  writing  was  to  the  last  singularly  buoy- 
ant and  hopeful,  full  of  faith  in  human  nature, 
democracy,  and  freedom.  She  was  tvpical  in 
her  social  ethics  of  the  literary  generation  in 
which  her  father,  Amos  Bronson  Aleott  (q.v.), 
had  been  a  prominent  figure.  There  is  a  Life, 
by  Cheney  (Boston,  1889). 

ALCOTT,  May  (1840-79).  An  American  ar- 
tist, daughter  of  Amos  Bronson  Aleott,  and  wife 
of  Ernest  Nieriken.  She  was  born  at  Concord, 
Mass.,  and  after  attending  the  Boston  School  of 
Design,  studied  under  Krug.  Dr.  Rimmer, 
Hunt.  Vautier,  Johnston,  and  Miiller.  She 
showed  considerable  skill  in  still-life  studies, 
but  attained  her  greatest  success  by  her  oil  and 
water-color  copies  of  the  painting's  of  Turner, 
which  were  higlily  praised  by  MrT  Ruskin,  and 
were  given  to  the  pupils  of  the  South  Kensing- 
ton schools,  London,  to  work  from.  Mrs.  Nieri- 
ken  was  the  author  of  Concord  Sketches  (Bos- 
ton.  1869). 

ALCOY,  al-ko'e.  A  town  of  Spain,  in  the 
province  of  Alicante.  It  is  situated  on  the  river 
Aleoy,  24  miles  north-northwest  of  the  city  of 


ALCOY. 


301 


ALDBOKOUGH. 


Alicante  (Map:  Spain,  E  3),  and  is  one  of  the 
most  busy  and  prosperous  of  Spanisli  towns.  It 
is  picturesquely  placed  on  the  ?lope  of  the 
Sierra  Mariola,  wliose  streams  afford  an  abun- 
dance of  water-power.  The  public  buildings 
include  a  consistory,  town  hall,  poorhouse, 
and  public  granary.  The  city  is  the  great 
centre  of  paper  manufacture,  and  the  mills  are 
of  considerable  antiquity.  Their  production  is 
large.  The  cigarette  paper  of  Alcoy  i.s  known  to 
every  Spanish  smoker,  but  sugar-plums,  pcla- 
dillas  de  Alcoi/,  woolen  cloth,  linen  and  cotton 
goods,  as  well  as  hardware,  also  form  important 
branches  of  manufacture.  Pop.,  1900,  ."il,,??? 
The  prosperity  of  the  place  was  interrupted  for 
a  time  in  1873  by  an  insurrection  of  the  Spanish 
Internationals, 

ALCTJDIA,  al-koo'De-a,  IVIanltel  de  Godot. 
See  GoiKiY,  Manuel,  Duke  op  Alcudia. 

ALCUIW,  al'kwin,  or  Flaccus  Albinus 
(c.  73.5-804),  The  most  distinguished  scholar  of 
the  eighth  century,  the  confidant  and  adviser  of 
Charlemagne.  He  was  born  at  York,  was  edu- 
cated under  the  care  of  Archbishop  Ecbert,  and 
his  relative,  -IClbert,  and  succeeded  the  latter 
as  master  of  the  school  of  York.  Charlemagne 
became  acquainted  with  him  .at  Parma,  as  he 
was  returning  from  Rome,  whither  he  had  gone 
to  bring  home  the  pallium  for  a  friend.  He 
invited  Alcuin  to  his  court,  and  had  his  assist- 
ance in  his  endeavors  to  civilize  his  subjects. 
As  a  result  of  this  association,  Alcuin  became  the 
preceptor  of  the  Emperor,  whom  he  instructed  in 
various  subjects,  especially  rhetoric  and  dia- 
lectics. To  render  his  instruction  more  available, 
Charlemagne  established  at  his  court  a  school 
called  Schola  Palatina,  the  superintendence  of 
which,  as  well  as  of  several  monasteries,  was 
committed  to  Alcuin.  In  the  learned  society  of 
the  court,  Alcuin  went  by  the  name  of  Flaccus 
Albinus.  Many  of  the  schools  in  France  were 
either  founded-  or  improved  by  him.  He  retired 
to  the  abbey  of  St.  Jlartin,  in  Tours,  in  796,  and 
taking  as  his  model  the  school  of  Y'ork,  taught  at 
Tours.  While  there  he  wrote  frequently  to  the 
Emperor.  He  died  Jlay  19,  804.  He  left,  be- 
sides numerous  theological  writings,  a  number 
of  works  on  philosophy,  mathematics,  rhetoric, 
and  ]ihilology,  as  well  as  poems  and  a  great  num- 
ber of  letters.  His  letters,  while  they  betray  the 
uncultivated  character  of  the  age  generally, 
show  Alcuin  to  have  been  the  most  accomplished 
man  of  his  time.  He  understood  Latin,  Greek, 
and  Hebrew.  Editions  of  his  works  appeared  in 
1617  (Paris),  1777  (Ratisbon),  and  in  Migne's 
Patrologia.  Consult  :  Monnier,  Alcuin  et  Char- 
lemagne (Paris,  1SC4)  ;  Mullinger,  Schools  of 
Charles  the  Great  (London,  1877),  and  West, 
Alcuin  and  the  Rise  of  Christian  Schools  (New 
York.  18l)L'). 

AL'CYONA'RIA  (From  Gk.  a>.icvnvle]wi>, 
allciion\e\ion,  bastard-sponge).  A  subclass  of 
the  Anthozoa,  comprising  a  group  of  coral- 
polyps,  characterized  by  the  presence  of  eight 
tentacles  around  the  mouth  and  the  division  of 
the  gastrovascular  cavity  into  eight  chambers. 
Typical  forms,  like  the  precious  red  corals,  fall 
into  the  subordinate  group  Alcyonaeca:  the  sea- 
fans  constitute  the  ai'oup  Gorgonacea ;  and  the 
sea-pens  the  group  Pennatulacea.     See  Coral, 

ALCY'ONE,  or  HALCYONE  (Gk.'A;iCT<5.^)?, 
Alkyonc) .  In  later  Greek  legend,  the  daughter 
of  .Eolus  and  wife  of  Ceyx.     Inconsolable  on  the 


death  of  her  husband,  she  threw  herself  into 
the  sea,  whereupon  she  and  her  husband  were 
changed  into  kingfishers  as  a  reward  of  their 
nuitual  devotion.  Alcj'one  is  originally  a  sea 
divinity,  and  appears  in  the  legends  of  Bceotia, 
Argos,  and  elsewhere.  Tlie  myth  has  been  per- 
petuated in  zoology  by  the  name  of  a  genus  (Al- 
cyone) of  kingfishers;  and  these  birds  are  fre- 
(luently  called  luilcyons  in  poetic  literature. 

ALCYONE  (Gk.  'Mnvivr],  Alhyone).  The 
most  brilliant  of  the  "seven  stars"  or  Pleiades. 
This  is  the  star  which  was  supposed  by  Miidler 
to  be  the  central  sun,  in  reference  to  which  our 
sun  with  its  planets  and  all  other  known  systems 
are  moving,  perhaps  revolving  within  some  al- 
most incomprehensible  period  of  time.  It  has 
been  shown,  however,  that  any  central  sun  hy- 
pothesis is,  as  yet,  far  too  daring,  considering 
the  insufficient  state  of  our  knowledge  of  sidereal 
systems  and  their  motions.     See  Pleiades. 

AL'DABEL'LA.  (1)  In  Ariosto's  Orlando 
Furioso  (q.v.),  the  wife  of  Orlando,  daughter  of 
Monodantes  and  sister  of  Oliviero.  In  French 
and  Spanish  versions  of  the  Orlando  legends 
she  appears  as  Alda  and  Auda,  (2)  In  Dean 
Milman's  tragedy  of  Fazio  (q.v.),  a  fascinating 
but  wicked  woman,  of  whom  Bianca,  Fazio's 
wife,  has  cause  for  jealousy,  and  who  is  finally 
condemned  to  a  nunnery. 

ALDAN,  al-diin'.  An  affluent  of  the  Lena, 
rising  in  the  Siberian  territory  of  Y'akutsk, 
near  the  mountain  ridge  of  Yablonov,  in  lat.  56° 
31'  N.,  and  long.  123°  ol'  E.  (Map:  Asia,  M  3). 
After  flowing  in  a  generally  northerly  direction 
for  1320  miles  it  empties  into  the  Lena,  111  miles 
below  Yakutsk.  It  is  navigable  for  a  distance 
of  over  600  miles.  It  abounds  in  sturgeon  and 
sterlet. 

ALDAN,  al-dan'.  A  mountain  range  on  the 
left  shore  of  the  river  that  gives  it  its  name, 
between  55"  and  61°  N.  lat,  (Map:  Asia,  M  3). 
It  is  a  branch  of  the  Stanovoi,  about  400  miles 
long,  with  an  average  altitude  of  4000  feet. 

ALDBOROUGH,  iiWbilr'6,  or,  colloquially, 
a'bro  (A.  S.  aid,  old).  An  ancient  village  in  the 
West     Riding     of     Yorkshire,     16     miles     west 


ALCYONAKIA. 

northwest  of  Y'ork  (Map:  England,  E  2).  It  is 
chietlv  remarkable  for  its  ancient  ruins.  It  was 
the  Isurium  of  the  Romans,  and  after  Y'ork 
( Eboracum )  the  most  considerable  Roman  camp 
north  of  the  Ilumber,  Remains  of  aqueducts, 
buildings,     tessellated     pavements,     implements. 


ALDBOROUGH. 


30;: 


urns,  and  coins  liavc  been  found  in  great  number. 
Pop.,  1001,  800. 

ALDEB'ABAN  (Ar.  al-daharan,  the  fol- 
lower, i.e.,  of  the  Pleiades).  The  name  of  a  star 
of  the  first  magnitude,  in  the  constellation  Tau- 
rus. It  is  the  largest  and  most  brilliant  of  a 
cluster  of  five  which  the  Greeks  called  the 
Hyades.  From  its  position  it  is  sometimes 
termed  "the  bull's  eye." 

ALDEGONDE,  al'de-goNd',  Philip  van  Mar- 
nix,  Saint.     Sec  Marnix,  Philip  van. 

ALDEGREVER,  jll'dcgra'ver,  Heinrich 
(ir)02-c.  1.5112).  A  German  ])ainter  and  engraver. 
From  his  style,  which  closely  resembles  his  mas- 
ter's, he  has  been  called  "the  Albrecht  Diirer  of 
Westphalia."  His  engravings  put  him  in  the 
first  rank  of  "little  masters."  They  include  por- 
traits of  Luther,  Mclanchtlion,  and  .John  of  Ley- 
den.  Of  his  paintings,  tlie  most  noteworthy  are 
the  "Portrait  of  a  Young  Man"  (1544),  at  Vi- 
enna, and  a  "Resurrection,"  at  Prague. 

AL'DEHYDE,  Acetic,  CH,CH0,  often  called 
Ordinary  Aldehyde,  or  simply  Aldehyde.  A 
colorless  liquid  having  a  peculiar  pungent  and 
suft'ocating  odor.  It  is  verv  volatile  and  inflam- 
mable; it  boils  at  20.8°"  C,  and  has  at  0° 
C.  a  specific  gravity  0.801.  It  occurs  in  crude 
alcohol  and  wood  spirit,  and  is  readily  made  from 
ordinary  alcohol  by  oxidation  with  chromic  acid. 
If  a  mixture  of  three  parts  of  alcohol  and  four 
parts  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  is  run  into  a 
vessel  kept  in  a  warm  water-bath  and  contain- 
ing three  parts  of  coarsely  powdered  potassium  bi- 
chromate and  twelve  parts  water,  a  reaction 
takes  place,  during  whicli  a  considerable  amount 
of  aldehyde  is  formed.  The  latter  is  isolated  in 
a  somewhat  impure  state  by  distillation,  and 
may  be  purified  by  the  use  of  ammonia.  Alde- 
hyde combines  with  ammonia  to  form  a  solid 
crvstalline  substance  called  aldehyde-ammonia, 
aiid  having  the  formula  CH.CH  (NH,)  OH  ;  alco- 
hol and  acetal,  which  are  generally  contained 
as  impurities  in  crude  aldehyde,  form  no  solid 
compound  •nith  ammonia.  Therefore,  to  separate 
aldehyde  from  these  substances,  crystalline  al- 
dehyde-ammonia is  produced  by  the  direct  action 
of  ammonia,  washed  with  ether,  and  broken  up 
by  distillation  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  The 
aldehyde  thus  obtained  is  further  dehydrated  by 
distillation  with  dry  calcium  chloride.  Aldehyde 
is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  certain  valuable 
dyes.  If  added  to  an  ammoniacal  solution  of  sil- 
ver nitrate,  it  produces  a  precipitate  of  metallic 
silver,  which  may  form  a  mirror  if  evenly  de- 
posited on  a  glass  surface.  By  the  action  of  re- 
ducing agents,  aldehyde  is  converted  into  alco- 
hol ;  oxidizing  agents  convert  it  into  acetic  acid. 
If  a  drop  of  strong  sulphuric  acid  is  added  to 
aldehyde,  the  latter  is  transformed  into  paralde- 
hyde, a  colorless,  transparent  liquid  having  the 
molecular  formula  C,;H,,03;  it  has  a  strong  char- 
acteristic odor  and  a  somewhat  burning  taste; 
if  cooled  below  0°  C,  it  solidifies,  form- 
ing crystals  which  melt  at  10.5°  C.  Paralde- 
hyde is  moderately  soluble  in  water,  its  solubil- 
ity deereasing  with  an  increase  of  temperature. 
If  taken  internally  in  doses  of  from  one  to  four 
cubic  centimeters,  paraldehyde  produces  sleep 
witliout  affecting  the  heart;  it  is,  therefore,  used 
as  a  s\ibstitute  for  cliloral.  Iliough  it  has  the  dis- 
agreealjlc  effect  of  imparting  a  persistent  and 
offensive  odor  to  the  l)realh.  Paraldehyde  may 
be  readily  reconverted  into  aldehyde  by  distilling 


ALDEHYDES. 

with  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  By  the  action  of 
acids  on  aldehyde  at  a  low  temperature,  another 
compound  having  the  same  percentage  compo- 
sition as  aldehyde  is  obtained ;  tliis  compound  is 
called  metaldehydc ;  it  is  colorless,  crystalline, 
insoluble  in  water,  and  is  readily  converted  into 
aldehyde  by  heating  with  dilute  acids.  Aldeliyde 
was  first  isolated  and  studied  by  Liebig  in  1835. 

ALDEHYDES  (clipped  form  of  aicohol  de- 
7ti/(irogenatum,  alcohol  deprived  of  hydrogen). 
An  important  class  of  organic  chemical  com- 
pounds characterized  by  the  group  CHO. 
Tlie  aldehydes  are  derived  from  the  primary 
alcohols  (see  Alcohols)  by  i-emoving  part  of 
tlie  hydrogen  of  the  latter  liy  means  of  an  ox- 
idizing agent.  Thus,  when  ethyl  alcohol  is 
oxidized  with  aqueous  chromic  acid,  ordinary 
aldehyde  is  produced  according  to  the  following 
chemical  equation: 

CHjCH.OH  +  0  =  CHjCHO  +  H,0 

Ethyl  alcohol  AUlchyiie 

Most  of  the  aldehydes  are  volatile  liquid  com- 
pounds, and  are  readily  converted  by  oxidizing 
agents  into  the  corresponding  organic  acids. 
Thus  benzaldehyde  (benzoic  aldehyde)  is  read- 
ily oxidized  to  benzoic  acid,  according  to  the 
following  equation : 

CeH.CHO  -f  0  =  CaH.COOH 
Benzaldehyde  Benzoic  acid 

The  aldehydes  react  with  a  great  variety  of 
substances,  and  by  the  use  of  them  chemists  have 
been  able  to  obtain  a  large  number  of  valuable 
organic  compounds.  Among  the  characteristic 
reactions  of  the  aldehydes  may  be  mentioned  the 
following: 

1.  Being  powerful  reducing  agents,  the  alde- 
hydes form  a  mirror  of  metallic  silver  when 
heated  in  a  glass  vessel  with  an  ammoniacal  so- 
lution of  silver  nitrate  to  wliich  some  caustic 
soda  has  been  added. 

2.  By  the  action  of  phosphorus  pentachloride, 
the  oxygen  atom  of  the  aldehyde  group  (CHO) 
is  replaced  by  two  atoms  of  chlorine.  Thus,  by 
the  action  of  phosphorus  pentacliloride  upon  or- 
dinary aldehyde,  ethylidene  cliloride  may  be  ob- 
tained according  to  the  following  equation: 

CHjCHCL  -f  POCI3 


CHjCHO  -f  PCI, 
Aldehyde 


Ethylidene 
chloride 


It  will  be  remembered  that  by  the  same  reagent 
the  hydroxyl  group  OH  of  alcohols  and  acids  is 
replaced  by  one  atom  of  chlorine.  Tlius  ordinary 
alcohol  is  transformed  into  ethyl  chloride,  accord- 
ing to  the  following  equation: 

C,H,OH  +  PCI,  =  C,H,C1  -f  POCI3  -f  HOI 
Ethyl  alcohol  Ethyl  chloride 

3.  The  aldehydes  combine  with  alcohols  to 
form  compounds  called  acetdls.  Thus,  ordinary 
acetal  may  be  obtained  according  to  the  following 
equation : 

CH3CHO  4-  2C2H5OH  =  UH3Ch/2^=][^5  +  H^O 

Aldehyde  Alcohol  Acetal 

4.  The  presence  of  an  aldehj'de  in  a  sample 
submitted  for  examination  (or  the  presence  of 
the  aldehyde  group  CHO  in  a  compound)  may 
be  demonstrated  by  adding  the  substance  to  a  so- 
lution of  a  rosanilin  salt  that  has  been  bleached 
by  sulphurous  acid   (SOj)  :   the  appearance  of  a 


ALDEHYDES. 


303 


ALDER. 


red  coloration  indicates  the  presence  of  an  alde- 
liyde. 

5.  When  treated  with  nascent  hydrogen,  the 
ahleliydes  are  reconverted  into  the  alcohols  from 
wliich  they  are  derived;  while,  as  has  been  stated 
above,  oxidizing  agents  transform  aldehydes  into 
the  corresponding  acids.  Tlie  aldehydes  may, 
therefore,  be  said  to  be  intermediate  between  the 
alcolujls  and  the  acids  of  organic  chemistry. 

ALDEN,  .al'dcn,  Rr-X-Dfokd  R.  (lSOO-70).  An 
.American  soldier.  He  was  born  at  Jleadville, 
Pa.,  and  in  18:il  graduated  at  West  Point,  where 
he  was  an  instructor  from  1833  to  1840.  He  sub- 
sequently served  for  two  years  as  aide  to  General 
Seott,  and  from  1845  to  1852  was  commandant 
of  cadets  at  West  Point.  In  1853  he  organized 
and  led  an  expedition  against  the  Rogue  River 
Indians,  and  in  a  fierce  battle,  fought  near  Jack- 
sonville, Oregon,  was  so  severely  wounded  that 
he  was  soon  afterward  forced  to  retire  perma- 
nently from  the  army. 

ALDEN,  Hexky  JIills  ( 1836—) .  An  Amer- 
ican editor  and  author,  born  at  Mount  Talior 
(near  Danby),  Vermont.  He  gi"aduated  in  1S57 
at  Williams  College,  where  James  A.  Garfield 
and  Horace  E.  Seudder  were  among  his  fellow- 
students,  and  in  1860  at  the  Andover  Theological 
Seminary.  Subsequently  he  was  licensed  to 
preach,  but  never  took  orders.  From  1863  to 
1800  he  was  managing  editor  of  Harper's  Weekly, 
and  in  tlie  latter  year  became  editor  of  Harper's 
Monthly.  In  1803-04  he  lectured  before  the 
Lowell  Institute,  Boston,  on  "The  Structure  of 
Paganism."  He  is  known  as  a  classical  student 
of  large  acquirements,  particularly  in  connection 
with  Greek  literature  and  thought;  and  his  first 
literary  ventures  were  two  articles  contributed 
to  the  Atlantic  on  the  Eleusinian  Mysteries.  His 
long  editorial  service  has  been  unobtrusive  but 
distinctive.  His  personality  has  pervaded  Har- 
per's Mafiazinc,  in  which  he  has  aimed,  among 
other  things,  to  recognize  the  novice,  and  to  en- 
courage the  best  type  of  Americanism.  He  col- 
laborated with  A.  H.  Guernsey  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  Harper's  Pictorial  History  of  the  Great 
I!ehelUoH  (1802-65)  ;  and  has  published  The  An- 
cient  Lay  of  tiorroic,  a  poem  (1872),  and  two 
profound  metaphysical  essays,  Qod  in  His  Woild 
(1800,  published  anonymously),  and  .1  Htudy  of 
Death  (1805),  both  extensively  read  and  en- 
thusiastically received  by  critics  and  thinkers. 
He  received  the  degi-ee  of  L.H.D.  from  Williams 
in   ISOn. 

ALDEN,  Mr.s.  Isabella  McDonald  (1841 — ). 
An  American  author,  who  writes  under  the  pseu- 
donym of  "Pansy."  She  was  born  at  Rochester, 
X.  Y..  and  in  ISOO  was  married  to  tlie  Rev.  Dr.  G. 
R.  Alden.  In  addition  to  much  fiction  for  older 
readers,  her  works  include  the  Pansy  Books,  a 
series  of  about  sixty  juvenile  works.  She  edited 
the  young  folks'  journal  Pansy  from  1873  until 
1806,  and  has  been  on  the  editorial  staff  of  the 
Christian  Endeavor  World,  of  Boston,  and  vari- 
ous other  religious  magazines  of  Boston,  Phila- 
del])hia,  and  New  York.  Her  works  have  been 
translated   into  many  foreign  languages. 

ALDEN,  James  (1810-1877).  An  American 
naval  officer,  born  in  Portland,  Me.  He  entered 
the  navy  as  midshipman  in  1828,  was  in  the 
\A'ilkes  exploring  expedition  to  the  Antarctic 
(1838-42),  in  several  naval  operations  of  the 
Mexican  War  (1848),  and  from  1848  to  1860 
in    the    coast    survey.       In    the    Civil    War    he 


commanded  the  sloop-of-war  Pichmond  at  the 
capture  of  New  Orleans  and  the  attack  on 
Port  Hudson.  He  was  promoted  to  be  cap- 
tain in  1863,  and  commanded  the  sloop  Brook- 
lyn in  Mobile  Bay  and  at  Fort  Fisher.  He 
became  a  commodore  in  1866,  was  placed  in 
command  of  the  Mare  Island  (Cal.)  navy 
yard  in  1808,  and  in  1800  was  appointed 
chief  of  the  bureau  of  navigation.  He  was  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  rear  admiral  in  1 87 1  and 
took  command  of  the  European  squadron ;  he  was 
retired  in  1873. 

ALDEN,  John  (1509-1087).  One  of  the  Pil- 
grim Fathers.  He  was  born  in  England.  As  a 
cooper,  he  was  engaged  in  making  repairs  on 
the  Mayflower  at  Southampton,  and  sailed  in 
her,  signing  the  compact.  He  settled  at  Dux- 
bury,  Mass.,  and  married  Priscilla  Mullens. 
Their  courtship  formed  the  theme  of  Longfellow's 
poem.  The  Courtship  of  Miles  Standish.  He 
was  a  magistrate  for  more  than  fifty  j'ears,  and 
greatly  assisted  in  the  government  of  the  infant 
colony.  He  outlived  all  of  the  other  signers  of 
the  compact. 

ALDEN,  Timothy  (I8I9-I858).  An  Amer- 
ican inventor  of  a  machine  for  setting  and  dis- 
tributing type.  He  was  born  at  Barnstable, 
Mass.,  and  was  sixth  in  descent  from  John  Al- 
den, the  Mayflou-er  Pilgrim.  In  eaily  life  he 
was  a  compositor  in  his  brother's  printing  office, 
and  while  thus  engaged  is  said  to  have  declared: 
"If  I  live  long  enough  I  will  invent  a  machine 
to  do  this  tiresome  work."  After  the  inventor's 
death  the  machine  was  improved  by  Henry  W. 
AUlen. 

ALDEN,  William  Livingston  (1837 — ). 
An  American  author.  He  was  born  in  Williams- 
town,  JIass.,  and  was  educated  at  Lafaj-ette  and 
.Jefferson  colleges.  In  1865  he  joined  the  edi- 
torial staff  of  the  New  York  Times  and  at  once 
attracted  attention  by  his  humorous  writings. 
During  President  Cleveland's  first  administra- 
tion (1885-89)  he  was  consul-general  of  the 
United  States  at  Rome,  and  at  the  expiration  of 
his  term  was  made  chevalier  of  the  Order  of  the 
Crown  of  Italy  by  King  Humbert.  In  1893  he 
settled  in  London,  and  became  literary  corre- 
spondent of  the  New  Y'ork  Times.  Among  his 
publications  are:  Domestic  Explosions  (1878); 
Shooting  fifars  (1879);  il/ora(  Pirates  (1881): 
Life  of  Christopher  Colnmbus  (1882)  ;  Cruise  of 
the  Canoe  Club  (1883);  A  Lost  Soul  (1802): 
The  Mystery  of  Elias  O.  Roebuck  (1896),  and 
7/ is  Daughter  (1807). 

ALDER,  .Tl'der  (Lat.  alnus) .  A  genus  of 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Betulaeefe.  (See 
BiRor.)  The  genus  consists  of  trees  and  shrubs, 
natives  of  eold  and  temperate  climates;  the  flow- 
ers in  terminal,  imbricated  catkins,  which  ap- 
pear liefore  the  leaves  in  some  species,  though  in 
other  species  leaves  and  flowers  appear  simul- 
taneously. In  Alnus  maritima  the  flowers  ap- 
pear in  the  autumn  and  the  fruits  ripen  in  the 
following  season.  The  common  or  black  al- 
der {.ilnus  glutinosa)  is  a  native  of  Great 
Britain  and  of  the  northern  parts  of  Asia  and 
America.  It  has  roundish,  wedge-shaped,  obtuse 
leaves,  lobed  at  the  margin  and  serrated. 
The  bark,  except  in  very  young  trees,  is  nearly 
black.  It  succeeds  best  in  moist  soils,  and  helps 
to  secure  swampy  river-banks  against  the  effects 
of  floods.  It  attains  a  height  of  30  to  60  feet. 
The  wood   is  of  an  orange-yellow  color.     It   is 


ALDEB. 


304 


ALDEENEY. 


not  very  good  for  fuel,  but  aSfords  one  of  the 
best  kinds  of  charcoal  for  the  manufacture  of 
gunpowder,  upon  which  account  it  is  often  grown 
as  coppice-wood.  Great  numbers  of  small  alder 
trees  are  used  in  Scotland  for  making  staves  for 
herring  barrels.  The  wood  is  particularly  valu- 
able on  account  of  its  property  of  remaining 
for  a  long  time  under  water  without  decay,  and 
is  therefore  used  for  the  piles  of  bridges,  for 
pumps,  sluices,  pipes,  cogs  of  mill-wheels,  and 
similar  purposes.  The  bark  is  used  for  tanning 
and  for  dyeing.  It  produces  a  yellow  or  red 
color,  or,  "with  copperas,  a  black  color.  _  The 
leaves  and  female  catkins  are  employed  in  the 
same  way  by  the  tanners  and  dyers  of  some 
countries.  The  bark  is  bitter  and  astringent. 
The  individual  tree,  viewed  by  itself,  may  be  re- 


ALDER  LEAF  AND  CATKINS, 

garded  as  somewhat  stiflt  and  formal  in  appear- 
ance, but  in  groups  or  clusters  it  is  ornamental. 
The  northern  limit  of  the  common  alder  is  the 
Swedish  slijire  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  in  the 
south  of  Angermannland,  where  it  is  called 
the  sea  alder,  because  it  is  only  in  the  lowest 
grounds,  near  the  sea,  that  it  occurs.  The 
gray  or  wliite  alder  (Alnus  inama),  a  native 
of  many  parts  of  continental  Europe,  especi- 
ally of  the  Alps,  and  also  of  North  America 
and  of  Kamtchatka,  but  not  of  Great  Britain, 
differs  from  the  common  alder  in  having  acute 
leaves,  downy  beneath,  and  not  glutinous. 
It  attains  a  rather  greater  height,  but  in 
very  cold  climates  and  unfavorable  situations 
appears  as  a  shrub.  It  ocoirs  on  the  Alps 
at  an  elevation  above  that  to  which  the  common 
alder  extends,  and  becomes  abundant  also  where 
that  species  disappears  in  the  northern  part  of 


the  Scandinavian  peninsula.  The  wood  is  white, 
line-grained,  and  compact,  but  readily  rots  under 
water.  The  bark  is  used  in  dyeing.  Alnus 
eordifolia  is  a  large  and  handsome  tree,  with 
cordate  acuminate  leaves,  a  native  of  the  south 
of  Italy,  but  found  to  be  quite  hardy  in  England. 
Some  of  the  American  species  are  mere  shrubs. 
The  bark  of  the  smooth  alder  (Abius  scrriilata) , 
found  from  south  New  England  to  Wisconsin, 
Kentucky,  and  Florida,  is  used  in  dyeing.  The 
green  or  mountain  alder  (Alnus  viridis)  ranges 
from  north  New  England  to  the  shores  of  Lake 
Superior,and  northward  and  southward  to  North 
Carolina.  Alnus  oregona  is  a  handsome  species 
of  the  northern  Pacific  coast  region.  In  the 
mountain  regions  of  Alaska  and  elsewhere  alders 
are  the  first  arborescent  growth  to  succeed  coni- 
fers swept  away  by  avalanches  or  other  means. 
Several  species  are  natives  of  the  Hima- 
layas. 

Fossil  Forms.  Leaves  of  a  plant  doubtfully 
allied  to  the  alder  have  been  described  from  the 
Cretaceous  rocks  of  Greenland  and  Nortli  Amer- 
ica under  the  name  Alnophy.llum,  while  true 
alders  attained  a  considerable  degree  of  develop- 
ment in  Tertiary  time  throughout  the  northern 
parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa. 

ALDEB  FLY.  One  of  the  semi-aquatic 
neuropterous  insects  of  the  family  Sialidse.     See 

CORYDALIS. 

ALDERMAN,  .il'der-man.  The  designation 
used  in  the  United  States  for  the  i-epresenta- 
tive  of  the  citizens  of  a  district  or  ward  in  a 
city  or  large  town,  whose  duty  it  is  to  attend 
the  local  legislature  and  enact  municipal  regula- 
tions. The  title  originally  derived  from  the 
Anglo-Saxon  ealdonnan,  compounded  of  caldor, 
older,  and  man,  and  applied  to  persons  of  high 
and  hereditary  distinction,  such  as  princes,  earls, 
and  governors.  Whether  any  definite  and  invari- 
able functions  were  connected  with  the  ancient 
rank  of  ealdorman  does  not  seem  to  be  very 
clearly  ascertained.  Its  special  signification  in  the 
titles,  "Alderman  of  all  England"  (aldcrmannus 
totius  Anfflice)  and  "King's  Alderman"  (alder- 
mannus  regis),  is  not  distinctly  indicated.  There 
were  also  aldermen  of  counties,  hundreds,  cities, 
boroughs,  and  castles.  At  present  in  England, 
Wales,  and  Ireland,  aldermen  are  officers  in- 
vested ^A'ith  certain  powers  in  the  nuinicipal  cor- 
porations, either  as  civil  magistrates,  or  as  depu- 
ties of  the  chief  civil  magistrates  in  cities 
and  towns  corporate.  The  corresponding  title  in 
Scotland  is  bailie.  In  the  majority  of  American 
cities,  aldermen  form  a  legislative  body,  having 
limited  judicial  powers  in  matters  of  internal 
police  regulation,  etc.,  though  in  many  cities 
they  hold  separate  courts  and  have  magisterial 
powers  to  a  considerable  extent.  ( See  sections 
on  Local  Government  in  the  articles  on  the  im- 
portant countries,  and  for  the  powers  and  func- 
tions of  aldermen  in  American  cities,  .see  the 
articles  on  cities.) 

ALDEBMAN  LIZ'ABD.  The  name,  in  Cal- 
ifornia, of  tlie  obese  Chuckwalla    (q.v.). 

ALDEBNEY,  al'der-ni  (Fr.  Aunrmy,  the 
h'iduna  of  Antoninus).  One  of  the  Channel  Isl- 
ands (q.v.),  separated  from  Cape  La  Hague, 
France,  by  a  perilous  channel.  7  miles  wide, 
called  the  Race  of  Alderney.  It  is  41/2  miles  long, 
with  an  extreme  breadth  of  li/2  miles  and  an 
area  of  3  square  miles  (1962  acres)  (Map: 
France,  D  2).    The  southeast  coast  is  lofty  and 


ALDERNEY. 


305 


ALDOBBANDINI. 


bold;  it  slopes  to  the  northeast  and  noitli.  form- 
ing small  bays.  It  is  strongly  fortitied,  and  at 
Braye  there  is  an  extensive  granite  breakwater, 
built  at  an  enormous  expense  by  the  British 
Government  in  onler  to  form  a  naval  station  and 
harbor  of  refuge,  but  of  little  value.  St.  Anne, 
in  the  centre  of  the  island,  is  the  chief  town. 
Alderney  is  includeil  in  the  baliwick  and  gover- 
norship of  Guernsey,  but  has  minor  legislative 
and  judicial  administrations  locally  elected.  The 
dangerous  Casket  rocks,  surmounted  by  three 
splendid  lighthouses,  lie  (i  miles  southwest.  Pop., 
181)1,    1857;    l!)ni.  2002. 

ALDEENEY  CATTLE.     See  Cattle. 

ALDEKSGATE,  al'dPrz-gat.  In  the  old  city 
wall  of  London,  the  gate  which  stood  at  the 
present  junction  of  Aldersgate  Street  and  St. 
Jlartin's-le-Grand.  It  was  between  Cripplegate 
and  Newgate.  It  was  rebuilt  in  IGIO,  with  fig- 
ures of  King  .James  I.  and  of  the  prophets  Jere- 
miah and  Sanuiel. 

ALDEESHOT,  iil'der-shot  (for  AldcrshoJt ; 
holt,  a  wood,  Ger.  Holz,  wood).  A  town  in 
Hampshire,  England,  14%  miles  east  of  Basing- 
stoke (Map:  England,  E  5).  Its  importance 
arises  from  the  vicinity  of  the  great  Aldershot 
militarj'  camp.  It  is  a  busy  junction  of  the  Lon- 
don and  Southwestern  Railway,  with  two  depots, 
and  has  all  the  elements  of  a  thriving  town. 
Pop.,   1891,  2.5,595;   1901.  30,974. 

ALDEESHOT  CAMP.  A  permanent  camp 
of  the  British  army,  situated  about  35  miles 
southwest  of  London.  England,  and  used  during 
the  spring  and  sununer  for  army  mana?uvrcs  on 
a  larger  scale  than  is  possible  elsewhere  in  the 
kingdom.  Up  to  the  Boer  War  of  1899,  the  Al- 
dershot garrison  consisted  of  troops  available 
for  service  with  the  first  army  corps.  It  is  also 
used  by  volunteers  and  militia  during  their  an- 
nual training,  and  is  the  headquarters  for  vari- 
ous military  in.struction. 

ALDGATE,  .nld'gat'.  The  eastern  gate  in 
the  old  city  wall  of  London,  near  the  present 
junction  of  houndsditch,  Aldgate  High  Street, 
and  the  Jlinories.  Its  date  and  the  origin  of 
the  name  have  been  nuich  disputed.  The  gate 
probably  dated  from  the  late  Saxon  or  early 
Norman  period,  and  the  name,  spelled  Alegale 
in  a  docvunent  earlier  than  1115,  seems  to  mean 
the  "gate  free  to  all." 

ALDHELM, -ild'helm  (c.  040-709) .  An  eccle- 
siastic, possibly  a  son  of  the  King  of  the  West 
Saxons.  He  was  educated  at  Canterbury,  be- 
came abbot  of  ilalmesbury  about  670,  and 
Bishop  of  Sherborne  in  705,  but  continued  to 
act  as  abbot  of  his  monasteries.  He  was  a  fa- 
mous scholar.  His  works  are  found  in  Migne, 
Patrolor/ia  Ijdfin/t,  vol.  Ixxix. 

ALDIBOEON'TEPHOS  COPHOETSriO.      A 

personage  in  Chrononhotonthokxjos  (q.v.).  The 
name  was  ajiplicd  by  Sir  Walter  Scott  to  the 
pompous  printer,  .James  Ballantyne. 

ALDIE,  jil'dl.  A  village  of  Loudoun  County, 
Va.,  about  35  miles  west  of  Washington,  D.  C. 
Here,  on  .June  17,  1803,  a  force  of  Federal  cav- 
alry under  I'leasonton  defeated  a  force  of  Con- 
federate cavalry  under  Stuart. 

ALDINE  (al'din  or  al'din)  EDITIONS.  A 
name  given  to  the  books  printed  by  Aldus  ilanu- 
tius  and  his  family,  at  Venice  ( 1490-1597  ) ,  prized 


for  their  scholarly  correctness,  beautiful  typog- 
raphy, and  tasteful  manufacture,  and,  latterly, 
for  their  rarity.  They  include  editions  of  (ireek, 
Latin,  and  Italian  writers,  in  many  cases  (he 
earliest  jirinted.  The  first  Aldus  was  an  inno- 
vator. He  first  used  italic  type  (1501)  and  in- 
troduced fine  paper  or  parchment  editions 
(1499).  He  was  an  artist  in  the  designing  of 
type,  having  nine  varieties  of  Greek  and  four- 
teen of  Roman  letters.  The  establishment  re- 
maiued  for  more  than  a  century  in  the  family, 
and  produced  908  works,  which  bear  its  imprint 
of  an  anchor  with  twisted  dolphin,  often  with  the 
Latin  motto,  Hudavit  et  Alsit.  As  the  editions 
gained  in  reputation,  they  were  often  counter- 
feited by  printers  in  Lyons  and  Fhn-ence.  The 
most  precious  are  those  of  the  first  twelve  years, 
especially  The  Hours  of  the  Blessed  \'irc)in 
(1497)   and  the  T'ec.9i7  (1501).     See  Ma.xitius. 

ALDINI,  al-de'ne,  AntoiXIO  (1756-1826).  An 
Italian  statcsnum,  born  in  Bologna.  He  studied 
law  in  Rome  and  became  professor  of  that  sub- 
ject and  a  practising  barrister  there.  After  the 
sepaiation  of  Bologna  from  the  Papal  States,  he 
went  to  Paris,  and  upon  his  return  became 
I5resident  of  the  Council  of  Ancients  of  the 
Cisalpine  Republic.  He  was  dismissed  from  this 
position  in  1798  because  of  his  opposition  to  the 
measures  of  Napoleon,  who,  however,  in  1801, 
made  him  president  of  the  Council  of  State  of  the 
Italian  Republic.  Of  this  position  he  was  de- 
prived by  Jlelzi.  When  the  Kingdom  of  Italy 
was  formed  in  1805,  Aldini  was  made  a  count, 
and  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  in  wdiieh  capacity 
he  drew  up  the  decree  dissolving  the  Papal  States. 
After  1815  he  lived  in  retirement  at  Milan. 

ALDINI,  GiovANXi  (1762-1834).  A  nephew 
of  the  famous  Galvani  and  brother  of  Count  An- 
tonio Aldini ;  a  student  of  natural  science.  He 
held  the  chair  of  physics  at  Bologna,  was  a 
founder  of  the  National  Institute  of  Italy,  re- 
ceived the  British  Royal  Society's  gold  medal, 
and  was  made  Knight  of  the  Iron  Crown  and 
Councilor  of  State  at  Milan.  He  spent  much 
of  his  fortune  in  organizing  a  school  of  science 
for  workingnien  at  Bologna.  He  carried  on  in- 
vestigations in  applied  science,  and  worked  out 
methods  of  ajiplying  galvanism  to  various  useful 
purposes  in  medicine  and  in  the  industrial  arts. 

ALDOBEANDINI,  iil'do-hran-de'ne.  A  noble 
family  of  Florence,  raised  to  the  princely  dignity 
by  Pope  Clement  VIII.  Silve.stro  Aldobran- 
DINI  (1499-1588).  A  famous  teacher  of  law  at 
Pisa.  He  was  banished  by  the  Medici  upon  his 
return  to  Florence  in  1530,  and  went  to  Rome, 
Naples,  and  Bologna,  where,  in  1538,  he  became 
papal  vice-legate  and  vice-regent.  Realizing  the 
futility  of  a  return  to  Florence,  he  went  to  Fer- 
rara,  whence  he  was  called  to  Rome  as  fiscal  ad- 
vocate of  Pope  Paul  III.  Ippoi.ito  ALDOiiRAxnixi 
(1536-1621).  A  son  of  the  preceding.  He  be- 
came Pope,  with  the  title  of  Clement  VIII.  (c|.v. ). 
PlETRO  .\Ll)Oi!RAXiiixt  (1571-1021).  Cardinal; 
a  nephew  of  Pope  Clement  VIII.  He  con- 
tinued the  policy  of  Clement  and  zealously  pro- 
moted the  development  of  the  sciences.  The 
great  sums  of  money  which  he  had  accunuilated 
he  sought  to  secure  by  the  purchase  of  SuhrKjna, 
Bari,  and  Bisignano.  He  became  Archiliishop  of 
Ravenna  under  Poj)e  Paul  V.  Wlien  the  Roman 
branch  of  the  family  became  extinct  (16S1),  a 
dispute  as  to  inheritance  and  succession  arose 


ALDOBRANDINI. 


306 


ALDRINGER. 


between  the  Borghesc  and  the  Pamfili  branches, 
and  the  princely  title,  as  well  as  the  greater  part 
of  the  fortune,  passed  to  the  Borghese  branch. 

ALDOBRANDINI  MAR'RIAGE,  The.  A 
famous  nniral  painting  in  the  Vatican  Library, 
found  in  1000  at  Rome,  and  named  after  its  orig- 
inal owner.  Cardinal  Aldobrandini.  It  is  prob- 
ably of  the  time  of  Augustus.  Some  think  it  the 
marriage  of  Peleus  and  Thetis,  others  of  Paris 
and  Helen,  and  still  others  simply  an  ideal.  It 
presents  the  appearance  of  a  frieze. 

ALDO  MANUZIO,  iil'du  ma-nuo'tse-o.  See 
Maxutius. 

ALDRED,  al'dred  (?-10G9).  A  noted  Eng- 
lish ecclesiastic.  He  becan-  ?  Abbot  of  Tavistock 
about  1027  and  Bishop  of  Worcester,  1044.  He 
made  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem  in  1058;  was 
elected  Archbishop  of  York  in  1000,  and  died 
September  11,  10G9.  He  was  very  influential 
under  Edward  the  Confessor,  by  whom  he  was 
emjiloyed  on  embassies.  He  submitted  to  and 
cro«iied  William  the  Conqueror.  He  was  avari- 
cious, but  capable  and  honest,  instituting  many 
reforms,  and  spending  his  wealth  freely  in  the 
service  of  the  Church. 

ALDRICH,  al'drich  or  al'drlj,  Anne  Reeve 
(18Uli-'J2).  An  American  poet  and  novelist, 
whose  few  works  gave  promise  of  a  brilliant 
future.  She  was  born  at  New  York,  April  25, 
1866,  and  died  there  June  22,  1892.  Her  first 
work,  The  Hose  of  Flame  (1889),  was  followed 
by  The  Feet  of  Love,  a  novel,  in  1890.  Hontjs 
Abox(t  Life,  Love,  and  Death  appeared  posthu- 
mously in  1892.  The  general  characteristic  of 
her  works  is  intense,  passionate,  and  erotic. 

ALDRICH,  Henry  (1647-1710).  An  English 
theolof^ian,  musician,  and  architect,  dean  of 
Christchurch  College,  Oxford,  from  1089.  He 
wrote  a  treatise  on  logic.  Artis  Logicw  Compen- 
dium (1691),  which,  with  notes  by  Dean  Mansel, 
was  used  as  a  text -book  at  Oxford  for  more  than 
a  century.  He  designed  several  of  the  buildings 
at  Oxford,  but  is  best  known  for  his  musical  at- 
tainments. He  wrote  on  the  history  of  music, 
and  composed  services  and  anthems  which  are 
still  used.  His  song,  "Hark!  the  Bonny  Christ- 
church  Bells,"  is  well  known.  He  also  composed 
several  smoking  and  drinking  songs. 

ALDRICH,  Xel.son  Wilmarth  (1841 — ). 
An  American  politician,  born  at  Foster,  R.  I. 
In  1875-76  he  was  a  member  of  the  Rhode  Island 
House  of  Representatives,  and  in  the  latter  year 
its  Speaker.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1878 
and  1880.  In  1881  he  resigned  to  take  a  seat  in 
the  Senate.  He  was  reelected  to  the  Senate  in 
1886.  1892,  and  1898.  Previously  a  prominent 
member  of  the  committee  on  civil  service  and 
finance,  he  wis  chairman  of  the  committee  on 
rules  in  the  Fifty-fiftli  Congress.  He  has  rarely 
taken  part  in  debate,  but  has  been  recognized  as  a 
careful  legislator,  and  a  Republican  leader  in  the 
Senate. 

ALDRICH,  Thomas  Bailet  (18.S6— ).  An 
American  ]Miet.  novelist,  traveler,  and  editor. 
He  was  born  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H..  November 
11,  1836.  After  a  boyhood  spent  in  New  Eng- 
land and  Louisiana,  he  entered  a  counting-house 
in  Now  York  in  1854.  He  was  employed  as 
"reader"  in  a  publishing  house  in  1857.  and  he 
served  successively  on  the  .stafTs  of  th-  New 
York  Evening  Minor,  the  Home  Journal,  and  the 


Saturday  Press.  In  1866  he  removed  to  Boston, 
where  he  was  editor  of  Every  Saturday  until  1874. 
He  then  became  a  regular  staff  contributor  to  the 
Atlantic  Monthly,  and  on  the  retirement  of  W.  D. 
Howells,  in  1881,  succeeded  to  the  editorship, 
which  he  held  until  1890.  Afterward,  he  de- 
voted himself  to  literary  work  and  travel. 
Aldrich  is  best  known  as  a  poet.  He  has,  not 
very  aptly,  been  called  '"the  American  Herriek," 
owing  to  the  fact  that  his  verse  is  graceful,  light, 
and  melodious,  carefully  wrought,  restrained,  and 
reminiscent  of  places  that  he  has  visited.  His 
chief  publications  of  verse,  besides  the  collective 
editions,  are:  The  Bells  (1855),  The  Ballad  of 
Bahie  Bell  (1856),  Panipinea,  and  Other  Poems 
(1861).  C;o(7i  of  Gold,  and  Other  Poems  (1874), 
Floiier  and  Thorn  ( 1870) ,  Friar  Jerome's  Beauti- 
ful Book  (1881),  Mercedes,  and  Later  Lyrics 
(1883),  Wyndham  Towers  (1889),  Unguarded 
Gates,  and  Other  Poems  (1895).  The  prose  of 
Aldrich  consists  of  novels,  short  stories,  and 
books  of  travel.  Like  the  poetry,  it  is  delicate 
and  finished  in  style,  but  seems  to  lack  the 
greater  constructive  values.  His  best-known  piece 
of  fiction  is  probably  Marjorie  Daw  (1873)  ;  and 
his  Story  of  a  Bad  Boy  ( 1870)  is  also  very  popu- 
lar. Other  novels  are:  Out  of  His  Head,  a 
liomance  (1802),  Prudence  Palfrey  (1874),  The 
Queen  of  Sheba  (1877),  The  Stillwater  Tragedy 
(1880),  and  Two  Bites  at  a  Cherry  (1893),  a 
volume  of  short  stories.  His  volumes  of  travel 
and  reminiscence  are:  From  Ponkapog  to  Pesth 
(1883)   and  An  Old  Town  by  the  Sea  (1893). 

ALDRIDGE,  al'drij,  Ira  Frederick  (e.  1810- 
1807),  "The  African  Roscius."  There  are  conflict- 
ing accounts  of  his  earlj'  life.  One  is  that  he  was 
a  mulatto,  born  at  Bel  Air,  Md.,  about  1810,  was 
apprenticed  to  a  German  ship  carpenter,  accom- 
panied Edmund  Kean  to  England  as  a  servant, 
returned  in  1830  or  1831,  and  appeared  on  the 
stage  in  Baltimore  without  success;  after  which 
he  went  back  to  England  and  gained  a  high  repu- 
tation. Another  story  is  that  he  was  the  son  of 
a  native  of  Senegal,  who  was  brought  here  as  a 
slave,  became  a  Christian,  and  pastor  of  Greene 
Street  Chapel  (African)  in  New  York;  that  Ira 
was  born  in  that  city  in  1807.  and  was  sent  to 
Glasgow  University  to  be  educated  for  the  min- 
istry. Preferring  the  drama,  however,  he  made 
his  debut  at  the  Royalty  Theatre,  London,  as 
Othello,  and  became  remarkably  popular.  He 
played  also  Aaron,  in  Titus  Andronicus  (1852), 
and  Zanga,  Orozembo,  Rolla,  and  other  char- 
acters for  which  his  color  was  suited,  throughout 
England.  At  Belfast  he  played  Othello  to  the 
lago  of  Edmund  Kean,  who  greatly  admired  him. 
In  1852  he  appeared  in  Brussels,  and  tliereafter 
on  the  Continent  took  high  rank  in  tragedy.  He 
received  crosses  and  medals  from  the  emperors 
of  Austria  and  Russia  and  the  King  of  Prussia, 
and  was  honored  with  membership  in  several  of 
the  great  academies.  He  married  an  English- 
woman. 

ALDRINGER,  al'dring-er,  also  Altringer, 
or  Aldringen,  Joiiaxn,  Count  (1588-1634). 
A  general  in  the  imperial  German  army  during 
the  Thirty  Y'ears'  War.  He  was  born  at  Dieden- 
liofen  and  studied  at  the  University  of  Paris.  As 
a  reward  for  his  defense  of  the  Elbe  bridge  at 
Dessau,  April.  1626.  against  llansfehl.  he  was  cre- 
ated a  count  in  1028.  He  was  in  high  favor 
with   Wallenstein,   and   after   the   concitision   of 


ALDKINGER. 


307 


ALEMAN. 


licace  with  Denmark  was  appointed  major-gen- 
eral. In  this  capacity  he  served  with  distinc- 
tion under  CoUalto  at  the  siege  of  Mantua.  On 
liis  return  to  Germany,  in  1031,  he  cooperated 
with  Tilly,  and,  upon  the  death  of  that  command- 
er (l(i32),  became  his  successor.  As  field- 
marshal,  he  afterward  conducted  a  successful 
campaign  in  Franconia,  Bavaria,  and  Swabia 
against  the  Swedes.  Eventually  influenced  by 
the  Court  party  against  Wallenstcin,  he  defended 
the  imperial  cause,  although  he  adroitly  evaded 
the  order  to  take  Pilsen.  After  Wallenstein's 
death,  he  fought  against  the  Swedes  on  the 
Danube,  where  soon  afterward  he  met  his  death. 

ALDROVANDI,  al'droviin'de,  Ulisse  (1522- 
160.31.  An  Italian  naturalist.  He  was  of  noble 
birth.  He  became,  in  Io.54,  a  professor  of  phil- 
osophy and  logic,  and  in  1500  lectured  on  botany 
in  tlie  University  of  Bologna.  He  also  practiced 
medicine,  and  succeeded,  after  violent  popular  op- 
position, in  establishing  an  inspectorship  of 
■drugs  and  pharmacies.  The  Pope  confirmed  him 
in  the  olRce.  Afterward  he  became  professor 
of  natural  history,  established  the  Botanical 
Garden  of  Bologna  in  1507,  and  was  employed 
for  many  years  in  forming  a  collection  of  speci- 
mens as  a  basis  for  an  eneyclopa'dic  work  on 
animal  life.  To  this  end  he  traveled  extensively, 
and  enlisted  the  aid  of  Gesner  and  others.  In 
this  work,  and  in  the  preparation  of  drawings, 
he  expended  the  greater  part  of  his  fortune. 
He  ceased  teaching  in  1000,  and  devoted  himself 
to  the  publication  of  his  great  work,  issuing  four 
volumes  in  Latin  on  ornithology  (1559-1003), 
and  one  on  mollusks.  He  bequeathed  his  col- 
lections and  manuscripts  to  the  Senate  of  Bolog- 
na; the  collections  became  the  nucleus  of  the 
great  museum  of  that  city,  and  the  manuscri[)ts 
remained  in  the  university  library.  Ten  other 
volumes,  more  or  less  prepared  by  him,  were 
rapidly  brought  out  by  his  colleagues  and  pupils; 
but  many  manuscripts  and  drawings  remain  un- 
published. He  did  a  great  service  in  stimulating 
scientific  study,  and  collected  an  enormous  num- 
ber of  facts  and  specimens;  but  his  writings  were 
prolix  and  not  discriminative.  Nevertheless, 
some  volumes,  as  those  on  birds,  rapidly  ran 
through  several  editions,  and  the  entire  series 
was  epitomized  by  Johnstone.  Consult  his  biog- 
raphy by  G.  Fantuzzi   (Bologna,  1774). 

ALDUS,  al'dus.     See  Manutius,  Aldus. 

ALE.     See  Beeb  and  Brewing. 

AL'EAN'DER,  Hieronymus  (1480-1542). 
An  Italian  humanist  and  papal  legate.  He  was 
born  at  llotta,  near  Treviso,  and  after  a  short 
course  in  medicine  devoted  himself  to  the  study 
of  theology  and  languages.  He  entered  the  serv- 
ice of  the  Bishop  of  Li6ge,  Eberhard  of  the 
Mark,  in  1514,  and  in  1510  he  went  as  pajial 
legate  to  Germany,  to  combat  the  Lutheran 
movement.  He  inspired  the  famous  edict  of 
Charles  V.  against  the  reformer  (IVIay  20.  1521), 
a  document  antedated  May  8,  1521.  and  prob- 
ably emanating  from  the  pen  of  Aleander.  As 
legate  to  Germany  in  1532,  he  unsuccessfully  en- 
deavored to  frustrate  the  Peace  of  Nuremberg. 
In  1530  Pope  Paul  III.  appointed  him  a  mem- 
ber of  the  reform  commission  under  Contarini 
(q.v. ),  and  two  years  afterward  he  was  created 
cardinal  and  was  again  sent  to  Germany;  but  his 
mission  proved  unproductive  of  results.  His  let- 
ters  and   reports   are   valuable   historical    docu- 


ments, and  his  celebrated  writing,  De  Concilio 
Htibendo,  is  said  to  have  been  consulted  at  the 
Council  of  Trent.  For  his  biography  down  to 
1529,  consult;  J.  Paquier  (Paris,  1900)  ;  also  in 
general,  Brieger,  Aleander  und  Lulher,  1S21 
(Ciotha,  1884)  ;  Kelkoff,  Die  Depeschen  Aleaiiders 
vom  Reichstag  zu  Worms   (Halle,  1880). 

ALEARDI,  Jl'la-iU-'dG,  Aleardo  (1812-78). 
An  Italian  patriot  and  poet,  formerly  hailed  as 
a  riviil  of  Prati.  He  was  born  at  Verona,  studied 
law  at  Padua,  and  was  active  in  the  outbrealv  of 
1848.  His  connection  with  later  conspiracies 
finally  caused  his  imprisonment  in  Josefstadt, 
where  he  remained  until  liberated  by  the  peace 
of  1806.  He  subsequently  became  professor  of 
.■esthetics  at  Florence,  deputy  in  the  Italian 
Parliament,  and  finally  senator.  He  die<l  at 
Verona,  which  has  perpetuated  his  memory  by 
a  monument  and  by  a  bridge  named  in  his  honor. 
Aleardi's  poems  will  live  on  iiccount  of  their 
artistic  finish  and  their  delicate  appreciation  of 
nature;  but  they  are  marred  by  a  prevailing 
lack  of  force  and  are  overburdened  with  imagery. 
The  best  include ;  II  monte  Circello,  Un'  ora  della 
■mia  yioriiiezza,  and  /  sette  sold^jti,  which  w-as 
dedicated  to  Garibaldi.  The  best  edition  of  his 
collected  poems  appeared  at  Florence  (1802). 

ALECSANDRI,  a'lek-san'drfi,  or  ALEXAN- 
DRI,  Vasilio,  or  Basil  (1821-1890).  A  Ru- 
manian patriot  and  poet.  He  was  born  at  Jassv, 
studied  at  Paris  from  1834  to  1839,  took  part  in 
the  revolutionary  movement  of  1848  in  Ruma- 
nia, and  was  obliged  to  seek  refuge  in  Paris. 
In  1859  and  1800  he  was  Minister  for  Foreign 
Affairs,  was  elected  to  the  upper  chamber  in  1S79, 
and  in  1885  was  appointed  Minister  at  Paris. 
He  was  always  active  in  seeking  the  freedom 
and  unity  of  Rumania.  He  collected  Poesii 
populare  a  le  Romanilor  (1853),  and  wrote  Les 
doines  (1853)  and  Doi)?e  si  lacrimioare  (1863), 
two  volumes  of  verse,  anil  the  dramas 
Despot  Voda  ("Prince  Despot,"  1880)  and  Fon- 
tana  Bandusiei  (1884).  His  Opere  appeared  in 
seven  volumes  in  1873-70. 

ALEC'TO  (Gk.  'A\r;icTii,  Alek-tO,  from  4,  a, 
priv.  +  \i57«K,  h'f/ein,  to  stop,  to  cease).  The 
name  of  one  nf  the  three  Eumenides   (q.v.). 

ALEC'TROMAN'CY.     See  Superstition. 

AL'EDO.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Mercer 
County.  111.,  180  miles  west  by  south  of  Chicago, 
on  the  Cliieago,  Burlington  and  Quincy  Railroad 
(Jlap:  Illinois,  B  2).  It  contains  the  ilerccr 
County  Library.  The  city  has  commercial  inter- 
ests, principally  in  agricultural  ]u-oduce.  and 
some  manufactures,  includirg  tile,  brick,  and  to- 
bacco.     Pop..    1890,    1001;    1900,   2081. 

ALEE'.     Sec  Helm. 

ALEGBIA,  a-la'gre-,a.  A  town  of  Cebfi,  Phil- 
ippines, 90  miles  from  Cebfi.     Pop.,  11.400. 

ALEMAN,  ii'la-nian',  Mateo.  A  famous 
Spanish  novelist,  born  at  Seville  about  the  middle 
of  the  sixteenth  century.  Little  is  known  of  his 
life  except  that  he  took  his  bachelor's  degree  at 
Seville  in  1505.  was  appointed  to  the  royal  treas- 
ury in  1508 — a  position  which  he  resigned  after 
twenty  years  as  poor  as  when  he  assumed  it — 
and  is  supposed  subsequently  to  have  gone  to 
America,  and  to  have  died  in  Mexico  during  the 
reign  of  Pliilip  III.  His  writings  include  a 
poetical    biography    of    St.    Anthony    of    Padua 


AliEMAIT. 


308 


ALENCAB. 


(1G04)  and  an  Ortografia  castcllana  (Jlexico, 
1G08).  His  great  work,  lio\vt"V'er,  is  Guzman  de 
Alj'arache  (1599),  a  novel  with  a  rogue  for  the 
hero,  which  revives  the  picaresque  tradition  of 
Mcndoza's  Lazurillo  de  Tonnes.  Guzman  at  once 
became  exceedingly  popular,  and  within  six  years 
had  run  through  twenty-six  editions,  aggregating 
upward  of  50,000  copies,  besides  being  translated 
into  French  and  Italian.  In  IC23  James  Mabbe 
published  the  first  English  version,  of  which  Ben 
Jonson  wrote:  "This  Spanisli  Proteus,  though 
writ  but  in  one  tongue,  was  formed  with  the 
world's  wit."  Both  in  the  delineation  of  manners 
and  in  the  purity  of  style,  Gii::inan  ranks  next  to 
LazariUo,  which  is  recognized  as  the  enduring 
type  of  the  comic  prose  epic.  While  lacking 
Mendoza's  originality,  conciseness,  and  caustic 
humor,  Alenian  shows  keen  powers  of  observation 
and  a  wide  knowledge  of  human  nature :  and  in 
Guzman  he  has  given  the  world  a  most  diverting 
study  of  blackguardism,  his  hero  showing  all  the 
resources  of  a  consummate  rascal  in  the  various 
characters  of  stable  boy,  beggar,  thief,  coxcomb, 
mercenary,  valet,  and  merchant.  The  book,  how- 
ever, is  marred  by  the  moral  reflections  of  the 
author,  which  obtrude  themselves  with  somewhat 
wearisome  persistence.  The  best  edition  of  Ale- 
man  is  found  in  Aribaus's  Bihiioteca  de  wutores 
espafwles,  vol.  iii.  (Madrid,  1846). 

AL'EMAN'NI,  more  correctly  spelled  Ala- 
M.\NNi  (prol>ably.  "all  men").  The  name  of  a 
military  confederacy  of  several  German  tribes 
which  began  to  appear  on  the  lower  and  middle 
Main  about  the  beginning  of  the  third  century. 
Caracalla  fought  with  them  first  on  the  Main 
in  211  A.D.,  but  without  conquering  them;  Alex- 
ander Severus  was  equally  unsuccessful,  but 
Maximinus  finally  drove  them  beyond  the  Rhine. 
After  his  death  they  again  invaded  Gaul,  but 
were  defeated  by  Postumus,  who  pursued  them 
into  Germany,  and  fortified  the  boundary  of  the 
Roman  territory  called  the  Agri  Deeumates.  The 
mounds  near  Pfiirnng,  on  the  Danube,  the  ram- 
part extending  through  the  principality  of  Hohen- 
lohe  to  .Jaxthausen,  and  the  ditch  with  palisades 
on  the  north  side  of  the  Main,  are  remains  of  the 
fortifications.  The  Alemanni,  however,  did  not 
desist  from  their  incursions,  although  repeatedly 
driven  back.  After  282,  being  pressed  upon  from 
the  northeast  by  the  Burgundians,  they  made 
permanent  settlements  within  the  Roman  bound- 
ary from  iMainz  to  Lake  Constance.  At  last 
.Julian  came  (.357)  to  the  relief  of  Gaul,  which 
had  been  suffering  from  the  incursions  of  the 
Alemanni.  and  soon  compelled  eight  chiefs  to 
sue  for  peace.  Tlipir  united  force,  in  their  prin- 
cipal battle  with  .Julian,  amounted  to  35,000 
men.  After  the  fifth  century  the  confederated 
nation  is  spoken  of  as  Alemanni  and  Suavi  or 
Suevi.  During  the'  fourth  century  they  had 
crossed  the  Rhine,  and  extended  as  far  west 
as  the  Vosges,  and  south  to  the  Helvetian  Alps. 
At  length  CTovis  broke  their  power  in  490,  and 
made  them  subject  to  the  Prankish  dominion. 
The  southern  part  of  their  territory  was  formed 
into  a  duchy,  called  Alemannia.  The  name  of 
Swabia  was  later  a])plied  to  the  part  of  the  duchy 
lying  east  of  the  Rhine.  From  the  Alemanni  the 
French  have  given  the  name  of  Allemands  and 
Allemagne  to  Germans  and  Germany  in  general, 
though  the  inhabitants  of  the  north  of  Switzer- 


land, with  those  of  Alsace  and  part  of  Swabia, 
are  the  [u-oper  descendants  of  the  Alemanni. 

AL'EMAN'NIA,  or  AL'AMANIflA.  The 
country  of  the  Alemanni  (q.v.).  The  region  in- 
cluded part  of  the  later  Switzerland  and  Tyrol. 
In  the  tenth  and  eleven  centuries  Alemannia,  or 
Swabia  (q.v.),  was  one  of  the  four  great  duchies 
of  the  German  kingdom. 

ALEMBERT,   a'liiN'bar',   Jean   le   Rond  d'. 

See  D'Alemhert. 

ALEM'BIC  (formed  by  the  Arabs  from  their 
article  al  and  Gk.  fl;iij3i|,  amhix,  a  goblet).  A 
form  of  still  introduced  by  the  alchemists,  who 
used  it  in  manipulative  chemistry  for  distillation 
and  sublimation.  The  vessel  consisted  of  a  body, 
cucurbit  or  matrass.  A,  in  which  the  material 
to  be  volatilized  was  placed ;  a  head  or  capital, 
B,  into  which  the  vapors  rose,  were  cooled,  and 
then  trickled  to  the  lower  part,  C,  whence  by  a 


pipe,  D,  the  distilled  product  passed  into  the  re- 
ceiver, E.  When  very  volatile  liquors  were  dis- 
tilled, it  was  customary  to  introduce  the  re- 
ceiver, E,  into  a  vessel  with  cold  water,  so  as  to 
increase  the  elTectiveness  of  the  condensing  part 
of  the  arrangement.  The  alembic  has  now  been 
entirely  superseded  by  the  retort  and  receiver,  or 
by  the  fiask  attached  to  a  Liebig's  condenser. 

ALEMTEJO,  a'laN-ta'zho  (literally,  in  Por- 
tuguese, "beyond  the  Tagus" ) .  A  province  in  the 
south  of  Portugal,  bounded  by  the  province  of 
Beira  on  the  nortli,  Spain  on  the  east,  Algarve 
on  the  south,  Estremadura  and  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  on  the  west  (Map:  Portugal,  B  3).  Area, 
9431  square  miles.  Alemtejo  is  the  largest  and 
most  sparsely  populated  province  of  Portugal. 
The  eastern  and  southern  parts  are  covered  with 
low  mountains,  rising  to  nearly  2000  feet  on  the 
southern  frontier.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Guadi- 
ana,  Tagus,  and  Sado.  The  climate  is  hot  and 
dry.  The  fertile  plains  are  found  chiefiy  in  the 
northeast,  where  wheat,  barley,  corn,  and  fruit 
are  raised  in  considerable  quantities.  The  rear- 
ing of  domestic  animals  is  also  important.  The 
manufacturing  industries  and  commerce  are  ut- 
terly neglected,  and  the  rich  mineral  resources 
are  left  untouched.  Administratively,  Alemtejo 
is  divided  into  the  three  districts  of  Portalegrc, 
Evora,  and  Beja.     Pop.,  1890,  388,813. 

ALENCAR,  U'lan-kiir',  Josli  Martiniano  d' 
( 1829-77 ) .  A  Brazilian  jurist  and  novelist,  born 
at  Fortabza.  He  studied  law  at  Sao  Paulo,  and 
became  a  brilliant  advocate.  In  1868  he  was 
elected  deputy  for  Cearfi  as  a  Conservative,  and 
in  I8G8-69  was  Minister  of  Justice.     His  works. 


ALENCAR. 


309 


ALESIUS. 


chiefly  fiction,  most  of  the  nintcrial  for  wliich  is 
drawn  from  Indian  legend,  include  (J  Quarany, 
liucema,  O  Gaucho,  and  Urahijiini. 

ALENQON,  /•>.  u'IUn'sun';  Eiifj.  a-len'sOn. 
The  capital  of  tlie  department  of  (Jrne,  in  Nor- 
mandy, France,  situated  on  the  Sarthe  (Map: 
France,  G  3 ) .  It  is  one  of  the  brightest  and 
freshest  looking  towns  in  France.  It  is  the  see 
town  of  a  bishop,  and  the  cathedral  is  its  princi- 
pal building.  Three  battlcmeuted  towers,  the 
only  portion  of  the  old  castle  which  remains,  are 
u.sed  as  the  Hotel  de  Ville.  Tlie  town  church — a 
structure  of  the  sixteenth  century,  containing  the 
remains  of  the  tombs  of  the  Alengon  family,  which 
were  almost  completely  destroyed  at  the  Revolu- 
tion— is  built  in  the  Gothic  style.  The  inhabi- 
tants produce  excellent  woolen  and  linen  stuff's, 
embroidered  fabrics,  straw  hats,  lace,  artificial 
flowers,  hosiery,  etc.  The  manufacture  of  point 
d'Alencon,  and  of  Alengon  diamonds,  is  no  longer 
important.  Pop.,  1901,  17,270.  Consult  Odolant- 
Desnas,  Mcmoires  historiques  sur  la  ville  d'Alen- 
gon   (Alencon,  1787). 

ALEP'PO  (Ar.  Baleh).  One  of  the  most  im- 
portant cities  of  Syria,  and  capital  of  the  Turk- 
ish vilavet  of  Aleppo  ( .30,340  square  miles ;  pop., 
995,800")  (Map:  Turkey  in  Asia,  G  4).  It  is 
about  80  miles  east  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea, 
on  the  desert  stream  of  Nahr-el-TIaleb,  in  about 
3(j°  12'  N.  lat.,  and  37°  12'  E.  long.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  hills,  and  has  regular  and  clean 
streets.  In  the  northwestern  part  stands  the  cita- 
del, situated  on  a  hill  and  surrounded  by  a  deep 
moat.  The  town  Avas  formerly  surrounded  by  a 
strong  wall,  of  which  only  a  small  portion  is  left, 
the  remainder,  together  with  many  of  the  public 
buildings,  having  been  destroyed  by  the  earth- 
quake of  1822.  The  bazaar  is  extensive  and  well 
built.  The  European  colony  of  Aleppo  is  con- 
siderable, and  there  are  several  European  schools 
and  Christian  churches.  Among  the  mosques 
the  most  noteworthy  is  the  Great  Mosque,  or 
Jami  Hakarya,  containing  the  alleged  remains  of 
Zacharias,  the  father  of  .John  the  Baptist.  Be- 
fore the  earthquake  of  1822,  and  repeated  visi- 
tations of  the  plague  and  cholera,  Aleppo  was  a 
great  commercial  centre  in  spite  of  its  inland  po- 
sition. It  supplied  a  large  part  of  the  Orient  with 
various  fabrics  of  wool,  cotton,  silk,  and  silver 
and  gold  ware.  The  trade  is  still  considerable,  and 
its  chief  exports  are  wool,  cotton,  grain,  giuns, 
saffron,  sesame,  and  hides.  Some  silk,  embroidery, 
and  leather  goods  are  manufactured.  The  cliief 
port  of  Aleppo  is  Alexandretta  (q.v.).  The  im- 
portation of  European  goods  by  native  merchants 
is  increasing  rapidly.  Aleppo  is  the  seat  of  a 
United  States  and  several  European  consuls.  The 
population  is  estimated  at  125,000,  including 
about  20.000  Christians,  5000  Jews,  and  some 
Armenians.  Aleppo  is  believed  to  be  of  great 
antiquity.  In  ancient  times  its  name  was  Be- 
roea,  given  to  it  by  Seleucus  Nicator.  It  was 
attacked  and  taken  repeatedly  by  the  Saracens 
and  Mongols,  and  suffered  considerably  from 
earthquakes  during  the  twelfth  century.  In 
151fi  Aleppo  was  wrested  from  the  Mamehd-ces 
by  the  Turkish  Sultan  Selim.  and  it  became  the 
capital  of  a  pashalic.  The  city  is  supposed  to 
have  contained  in  those  times  about  300,000  in- 
habitants, and  carried  on  a  large  trade  by  cara- 
vans, which  subsequently  fell  off  on  account  of 
the  discovery  of  the  sea  route  to  the  East  Indies. 


In  1850  there  was  an  uprising  of  Christians,  sup- 
pressed only  after  considerable  bloodshed.  Con- 
sult E.  Blochet,  "L'histoire  d'Alep,"  in  the  Revue 
dc  rOriciit  Latin   (Paris,  1897). 

ALEPPO  BUT'TON.   See  Boil. 

ALER,  ii'ler,  Paul  ( 1656-1727) .  A  Jesuit  and 
scholastic,  born  at  St.  Veit,  Luxemburg.  After 
teaching  at  Cologne,  he  became  professor  of 
theology  at  Treves,  and  in  1703  regent  of  the 
g}-mnasium  of  Cologne.  In  1713  he  became  regent 
of  the  gj-mnasia  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Miinster, 
Trfeves,  and  Jiilich.  His  best  known  work  is  the 
Gradus  ad  Paniassjiin  (Cologne,  1702)  ;  8th  re- 
vised edition  by  Koch  (Cologne,  1879). 

ALES,  U-lcs',  or  ALESSE,  Alexander.  See 
Alesius,  Alexander. 

ALESHKI,  a-lesh'ke,  formerly  Dnieprovsk. 
The  chief  town  of  a  district,  in  the  Government 
of  Taurida,  Russia.  It  is  near  the  Dnieper  River, 
3  miles  southeast  of  Kherson,  and  153  miles 
northwest  of  Simferopol,  the  capital  of  the  gov- 
ernment (Map:  Russia,  D  5).  Pop.,  1897,  9100. 
It  was  founded  by  the  Genoese  in  the  tenth  cen- 
tury and  called  by  them  Elice. 

ALESIA,  a-le'shi-a.  a  town  of  Ciaul,  the  cap- 
ture of  which,  in  B.C.  52.  forms  one  of  Ca'sar's 
greatest  exploits.  The  Gauls  were  making  a  last 
efl'ort  to  shake  oflT  the  Roman  yoke,  and  Vercin- 
getorix,  their  bravest  leader,  after  several  de- 
feats, had  shut  himself  up  with  80.000  men  in 
Alesia,  there  to  await  the  reenforcements  ex- 
pected from  a  general  insurrection.  The  town 
was  on  a  lofty  hill,  and  well  calculated  for  de- 
fense. Csesar,  with  60,000  men,  surrounded  the 
place,  with  the  view  of  starving  it  into  a  sur- 
render. He  fortified  his  position  by  two  lines 
of  ramparts  of  prodigious  extent  and  strength; 
one  toward  the  town,  for  defense  against  the 
sallies  of  the  besieged;  the  other  toward  the 
plain,  against  the  armies  of  relief.  Before  they 
could  assemble,  250,000  strong,  he  was  ready 
for  them ;  and  all  their  assaults,  combined  with 
the  desperate  efforts  of  the  besieged,  were  of  no 
avail.  Alesia  was  obliged  to  surrender,  and 
Vercingetorix  was  made  prisoner.  Alesia  was 
afterwards  a  i)lace  of  some  note  under  the  Em- 
pire, but  was  destroyed  by  the  Normans  in  864. 
Near  the  site  of  Alesia,  west  of  Dijon,  stands  the 
modern  village  of  Alise  Sainte-Reine.  near  which, 
on  the  summit  of  Mont-Auxois,  Napoleon  III. 
erected  a  colossal  statue  of  Vercingetorix. 

ALESIUS,  a-le'slu-us,  Alexander  (1500-65). 
A  Protestant  theologian.  His  original  name  was 
Ales,  but  he  was  also  called  Alesse,  ab  Ales,  and 
Alane.  He  was  born  in  Edinburgh,  studied  at 
St.  Andrews,  became  a  canon  of  the  Collegiate 
Church,  and  contended  vigorously  for  scholastic 
theology.  He  was  appointed  (1528)  to  refute 
the  reformed  views  of  the  Scotch  protomartyr 
Patrick  Hamilton,  but  the  result  was  that  his 
own  faith  in  the  old  church  was  shaken,  though 
he  long  kept  the  fact  secret.  For  a  sermon 
against  dissoluteness  among  the  clergy  he  was 
put  in  prison  (1531),  whence  he  escaped  to  the 
Continent  (1532),  traveled  in  Europe,  and  set- 
tled in  Wittenberg,  where  he  met  Melanchthon. 
Jleantime  he  was  condemned  in  Scotland  (1534), 
for  heresy,  without  a  hearing.  After  Henry  VIII. 
broke  with  the  Church  of  Rome,  Alesius  went  to 
Englan<l  (1535),  and  was  cordially  received  by 
the  King,  Cranmer,  and  Cromwell,  and  was  ap- 


ALESIUS. 


310 


ALEUTIAN  ISLANDS. 


pointed  lecturer  on  theology  at  Cambridge.  But 
he  gave  offense,  and  soon  went  to  London  and 
practiced  mediehie.  In  1540  he  returned  to  the 
Continent,  and  was  diosen  to  a  theological  chair 
at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  the  first  professor  who 
taught  the  reformed  doctrines.  In  1543  he  quitted 
Frankfort  for  Leipzig,  where  he  filled  a  similar 
professorship  until  his  death.  He  visited  Eng- 
land in  1549.    He  died  at  Leipzig. 

ALESSANDRIA,  il'les-siln'dre-a.  The  caiiital 
of  the  Italian  [irovince  of  the  same  name  (lil.50 
square  miles;  pop.,  1000,  812,022),  and  a  strong 
fortress,  situated  in  a  marshy  region  on  the 
Tanaro,  47  miles  from  Genoa  by  rail  (Map:  Italy, 
0  3).  Its  chief  ecclesiastical  Inuldings  are  the 
cathedral,  built  in  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teeuth  century,  and  the  old  Church  of  Santa 
Maria  di  Castello.  There  are  a  royal  palace,  an 
old  eastle,  and  extensive  barracks.  Noteworthy  is 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  and  Arts,  founded  in 
1502.  Alessandria  has  cotton,  woolen,  and  linen 
mills,  hat  factories,  etc.  The  city  derives  con- 
siderable commercial  importance  from  its  position 
on  the  chief  railway  lines  of  Eastern  Italy.  Pop- 
ulation of  commune,  1881,  02,404:  1901,  71,293. 
Alessandria  was  founded  in  1108  by  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Cremona,  Milan,  and  Placentia,  as  a  bul- 
wark against  Frederick  Barbarossa.  and  was 
named  Alessandria  in  honor  of  Pope  Alexander 
III.  Frederick  tried  to  cajiture  it,  but  failed. 
As  it  was  a  fortress  to  guard  the  passage  of  the 
Bormida  and  Tanaro,  and  also  the  central  point 
of  communication  between  Genoa,  Milan,  and 
Turin,  the  town  was  often  a  scene  of  battle.  It 
was  taken  and  plundered  in  1522  by  Duke  Sforza ; 
besieged,  but  without  success,  by  the  French,  un- 
der tlie  Prince  of  Conti,  in  1057;  and  taken,  in 
spite  of  obstinate  resistance,  by  Prince  Eugene, 
in  1707.  After  the  prostration  of  Austria  at  the 
battle  of  Marengo,  inOSOO,  Bonaparte  concluded 
an  armistice  at  Alessandria,  in  accordance  with 
which  upper  Italy,  as  far  as  the  Mincio,  was 
ceded  to  the  French,  with  twelve  fortresses.  It 
was  the  principal  armory  of  the  Piedmontese 
during  the  insurrection  of  Lombardy  and  Venetia 
in  1848-49,  when  many  new  fortifications  were 
added. 

ALESSI,  a-les'se,  Galeazzo  (1512-72).  An 
Italian  architect  of  the  late  Renaissance,  born 
in  Perugia.  He  was  associated  with  Michelan- 
gelo at  Rome  in  1530,  but  followed  more  the 
manner  of  Vignola,  and  never  reached  the  fore- 
most rank.  Aside  from  a  few  works  at  Perugia, 
his  masterpieces  are  at  Genoa,  whose  famous 
palace  architecture  he  helped  develop,  especially 
in  the  Cambiaso,  Spinola,  and  Serra  palaces.  Of 
his  Genoese  villas,  the  most  beautiful  is  the  Palla- 
vicini.  His  influence  was  felt  throughout  Italy, 
and  in  France  apd  Portugal,  and  especially 
Flanders. 

AlESUND,  ale-sund,  or  AALESUND.  A 
town  in  the  Norwegian  province  of  Romsdal,  on 
two  islands  of  the  Skjiirgaard  Archipelago  (Map; 
Norway,  B  5).  It  has  an  excellent  harbor,  and 
is  an  important  triuling  centre,  getting  a  large 
revenue  from  cnd-lishing.  Pop.,  1900,  11,700. 
ALETJ'ROMAN'CY,  Sec  Sitperstitiox. 
ALETJRONE,  a-lfi'ron  (Gk.  HKevpov,  aleuron, 
wheaten  Hour).  The  stored  protcid  whicli  oc- 
curs as  minute  granules  in  the  food-bearing 
tissue  (endo.tperm)  and  embryos  of  many  seeds. 
The    granules    are    )nuch    smaller    than    starch 


grains,  with  which  they  often  occur.  Tliey  are 
usually  rounded  in  form  (though  the  so-called 
protcid  crystals  of  some  plant  tissues  are  angu- 


£ 


ALEUBONE. 

1.  A  cell  from  the  castor  bean,  as  Bepn  in  water,  showing 
roundish  aleurone  praina  imbedded  in  the  protoplasm.  In 
each,  one  or  more  crystals,  e.  and  usually  a  globoid,  ^. 

2.  Isolated  aleurone  grains  of  the  same,  as  seen  in  olive  oil. 

lar) ,  and  may  be  simple  or  complex  in  structure. 
The  more  complex  form  of  granule  consists,  in 
great  part,  of  amorphous  proteid  substance,  in 
\\hich  lie  imbedded  a  large  crystalloid  and  a  much 
smaller  globoid.  The  crystalloid  is  an  angular 
mass  of  proteid  material,  (littering  from  most 
true  crystals  by  swelling  in  water;  the  globoid  is 
a  nearly  spherical  mineral  concretion,  consisting 
mainly  of  a  double  phospliate  of  magnesium  and 
calcium.  Seeds  rich  in  aleurone  are  the  castor 
bean  (Ricinus),  the  Brazil  nut  (BerthoUetia), 
peas,  beans,  etc.    See  Proteins. 

ALEUTIAN  ISLANDS,  a-lu'shnn,also  called 
the  Catharine  Archipelago.  The  name  of  a 
group  of  islands,  numbering  above  150,  and  con- 
sisting of  several  clusters,  which  form  an  insular 
continuation  of  the  peninsula  of  Alaska  (q.v.) 
(Map:  Alaska,  A  5).  They  lie  on  both  sides  of 
tlie  parallel  of  55°  N.  lat.,  "separating  the  Sea  of 
Kamtchatka  from  the  Pacific,  and  naturally  sub- 
divide themselves  into  five  groups :  ( 1 )  the  Koman- 
dorski  Islands,  sometimes  not  regarded  as  belong- 
ing to  the  Aleutian  Islands :  (2)  the  Sasignan,  or 
"Nearest,"  Islands ;  ( 3 )  the  Rat  Islands ;  ( 4 )  the 
Andreianowsky,  very  small  and  little  frequented ; 

(5)  the  Fox  Islands,  among  which  is  Unimak,  the 
largest  in  the  archipelago.  The  islands  are  all 
eraggv',  and  have  a  desolate  appearance  from  the 
sea"  Several  volcanoes  are  periodically  active, 
and  warm  volcanic  springs  are  numerous.  Cool 
springs  are  frequent  and  form  liroad,  rapid 
streams,  which  empty  into  adjacent  bays  or  collect 
in  rocky  depressions  and  form  lakes  which  dis- 
charge their  water  into  the  sea  by  natural  chan- 
nels. The  whole  chain  or  group  forms  a  connect- 
ing link  between  tlu^  volcanic  range  of  the  west 
coast  of  America  and  Kamtchatka.  On  account 
of  numerous  rocks  they  are  not  very  accessible  to 
.ships.  There  are  many  low,  scrubby  bushes, 
grasses,  moss,  and  lichens,  but  no  strong  and 
stately  growth  of  trees.  Cultivated  plants  do  not 
succeed  well.  Tliere  are  foxes  and  reindeer,  and 
in  the  neighboring  waters  are  seal,  fish  and  otter. 
The  natives  are  known  collectively  as  "Aleut" 

("Aleuts,"  "Aleutians,"  or  ".-Vleutian  Island- 
ers"), from  the  Russian  designation  of  a  people 
or  tribe  of  Eskimoan  stock  calling  themselves 
Unungun.  They  are  closely  allied  in  physical 
cliar.ieteristics,  as  in  language,  to  the  Innuil,  or 

Eskimo  proper;  their  vocabulary  differs  eonsid- 


ALEUTIAN  ISLANDS. 


311 


ALEXANDER. 


erably  from  tliat  of  the  mainleuid  Eskimo,  though 
granuiiatic  structure  and  many  of  the  vocables 
are  similar.  They  formerly  occupied  nearly  all 
of  the  islands  of  the  Aleutian  chain,  and  were 
estimated  to  number  20.000  to  30,000;  in  1900 
the  population  was  barely  2000.  They  are  vaguely 
divided  into  two  tribes  or  sub-tribes,  known  re- 
spectively as  Unalaska  and  Atka.  They  are 
strong  and  agile,  capable  of  enduring  great  fa- 
tigue and  extrenjcs  of  heat  and  sold,  and  are 
peaceful  and  cheerful.  They  subsist  by  hunting 
and  fishing,  using  implements  of  wood,  ivory, 
bone,  and  stone,  with  the  two  types  of  Eskimo 
water  craft  (kayak  and  umiak)  ;  their  summer 
habitations  are  tents  or  huts  like  those  of  the 
mainland  Eskimo,  while  in  winter  they  occupy 
huts  of  stone,  snow,  or  other  material,  or  (espe- 
cially on  Fox  Island)  underground  dwellings. 
Originally  sharing  the  primitive  pantheism  of 
the  Eskimo,  they  were  Christianized  by  Russian 
missionaries,  and  are  now  nominally  connected 
Willi  tile  Greek  Church. 

ALE'WIFE  (either  aloofe.  the  Indian  name 
of  the  lish,  or  from  its  resemblance  to  a  corpu- 
lent woman  who  keeps  an  alehouse).  A  small 
clupeoid  fish  (Pomolohus  pscudoharenr/vs) ,  8  to 
10  inches  long,  closely  related  to  the  herring  and 
the  shad,  and  resembling  the  latter  in  form  and 
color.  It  is  very  abundant  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
the  United  .States,  where  it  enters  Chesapeake  Bay 
and  its  rivers,  the  Hudson,  and  other  streams  to 
spawn.  Their  time  of  arrival  depends  upon  the 
temperature,  but  usually  is  during  the  first  week 
of  April  in  the  Hudson,  somewliat  in  advance  of 
other  fishes.  "Their  eggs  are  adhesive,  like  those 
of  the  herring,  and  stick  to  the  bottom  in  shoal 
water,  or  to  an^'thing  thev  may  toucli,  from  GO,- 
000  to  100,000 'being  Iaid"by  each  female  fish  at 
once,  almost  all  of  which  are  devoured  by  count- 
less enemies  before  they  can  hatch."  They  have 
also  become  land-locked  in  several  lakes  of  west- 
ern New  York.  Though  inferior  to  the  shad  in 
quality,  they  arc  taken  in  vast  quantities  (62,- 
000,000  pounds  reported  in  1890).  and  are.  next 
to  the  shad,  the  most  important  American  ana- 
dromous  food-fish.  This  fish  is  called  gaspereau 
by  French  Canadian  fishermen,  and  branch-her- 
ring and  sawbelly  are  other  local  names.  See 
Plate  of  Herring  and  Shad. 

ALEXANDER  the  Great  (b.c.  3.56-323). 
King  of  ilacedonia  and  conqueror  of  the  Eastern 
world,  son  of  Philip  II.  of  ilacedon  and  of  Olyni- 
pias,  an  Epirot  princess.  At  Alexander's  birth, 
his  father  had  already  established  his  position  as 
King  of  Macedonia,  had  made  great  progress  in 
developing  his  army,  and  had  begun  the  extension 
of  his  kingdom  to  the  eastward,  so  that  he  pos- 
sessed the  rich  gold  mines  in  Mount  Pangaeus. 
The  yearly  revenue  of  1000  talents  made  feasible 
his  policy  of  expansion.  Though  a  thoroughgoing 
Macedonian  Phili])  was  still  possessed  of  genu- 
ine Greek  culture ;  doubtless,  while  a  hostage  at 
Thebes,  he  had  learned  much  besides  military  and 
political  wisdom.  He  chose  Aristotle  as  his  son's 
tutor.  How  far  the  teacher  influenced  the  pupil 
we  cannot  determine;  he  undoubtedly  gave  him  a 
thorough  training  in  rhetoric  and  literature — he 
may  have  inspired  that  love  for  the  Hellenic  past 
which  characterized  Alexander  later;  but  it  is 
improbable  that  Alexander's  far-rcacliing  ambi- 
tion for  conquest  gained  the  sympathy  of  Aris- 
totle.    In   the   summer   of  B.C.   336   Philip   was 


assassinated;  that  the  murder  was  instigated  by 
Olympias,  whom  Philip  had  put  away  in  favor  of 
the  niece  of  his  general  .\ttalus,  there  is  little 
doubt ;  and  it  is  jirobable  that  Alexander  was 
implicated  in  it.  Philip  had  gained  a  remarkable 
position  for  a  Greek  ruler.  He  had  extended  his 
empire  eastward,  had  made  Thrace  tributary,  and 
had  tried  to  capture  Byzantium.  Thessaly  was 
de|)cndent  on  him;  he  luul  gained  a  place  in  the 
Amiihictyonie  Council ;  and,  bj'  his  victory  at 
Cha'ronea  (August,  338),  he  had  made  himself 
the  head  of  all  Greece,  a  position  formally  recog- 
nized by  the  Congress  of  States  at  Corintli  in  the 
following  year.  The  greatest  legacy,  however, 
which  he  left  his  son  was  the  large  concejition  of 
a  Panhcllenic  empire. 

At  his  accession  Alexander  found  himself  sur- 
rounded by  enemies  at  home  and  threatened  by 
dangers  abroad.  The  subject  States  were  plan- 
ning to  revolt,  and  Greece  hated  the  Macedonian 
hegemony.  But  the  hands  of  assassins  cleared 
away  his  domestic  enemies.  With  the  greatest 
speed  he  descended  to  the  south  ;  before  the  sum- 
mer closed  he  had  reestablished  Macedon's  posi- 
tion in  lower  Greece  and  had  Ijeen  elected  by  the 
Congress  at  Corinth  to  his  father's  place  as  gen- 
eral against  the  Persians.  The  next  year  he 
speedily  carried  out  a  successful  campaign 
against  the  defecting  Thracians,  and  penetrated 
to  the  Danube.  On  his  return  he  crushed  in  a 
single  week  the  threatening  lUyrians,  and  then 
hurried  into  Greece,  for  certain  States  had  been 
negotiating  with  Persia.  In  September  he  razed 
Thebes  to  the  ground,  sparing  only  the  house  of 
the  poet  Pindar.  This  prompt  action  ended  all 
positive  resistance  in  Greece  and  left  Alexander 
free  to  enter  on  his  eastern  campaigns. 

At  the  beginning  of  334  he  crossed  to  Asia 
Minor,  where  his  generals  had  already  gained  a 
foothold.  To  secure  Macedonia  and  Greece  he 
had  been  forced  to  leave  behind  a  considerable 
portion  of  his  army;  only  30,000  foot  and  3000 
horse  followed  him,  yet  these  were  undoubtedly 
skilled  veterans.  His  ships  numbered  but  160, 
which  were  so  inadequate  to  combat  the  400  gal- 
leys of  the  Persians  that  he  soon  disbanded  them. 
After  visiting  the  site  of  ancient  Troy  and  mak- 
ing offerings  there,  he  advanced  in  early  summer 
to  meet  a  Persian  force  at  the  river  Granicus. 
He  was  victorious,  and  then  proceeded  to  the  con- 
quest of  Asia  Jlinor.  The  prompt  surrender  of 
Sardis  gave  him  the  satrapy  of  Lydia.  and  Mi- 
letus soon  fell.  Halicarnassus  resisted  stubbornly 
for  a  time ;  but  finally  the  defenders  withdrew 
after  firing  the  city.  At  the  close  of  the  sum- 
mer's campaign  Alexander  marched  into  Lycia, 
w'hich  yielded  at  once,  and  then  advanced  through 
Pamphylia  and  Pisidia  to  Cehena?  and  Gordion, 
where  with  a  stroke  of  his  sword  he  loosed  the 
famous  knot  and  entitled  himself  to  become  the 
lord  of  Asia. 

Gordion  was  the  mustering  point  for  the  year 
333.  Alexander  led  his  reassembled  army  first 
into  Cappadocia,  where  he  received  the  submis- 
sion of  Pa])hlagonia.  and  then  advanced  to  the 
'Cilician  Gates.'  By  a  ruse  he  caused  the  hostile 
force  here  to  retire  and  entered  Tarsus  unopposed. 
All  Cilicia  was  soon  secured.  Thus  in  less  than 
two  summers  the  greater  part  of  Asia  Minor  had 
been  won  and  the  first  step  taken  in  the  plan  of 
conquest.  The  next  was  to  advance  by  way  of 
Syria  to  the  subjugation  of  Kgj-pt ;  this  accom- 
plished, Alexander  could  proceed  against  Babylon. 


ALEXANDER. 


312 


ALEXANDER. 


and  Susa.  But  tlie  Great  King  had  assembled  a 
vast  host  to  check  tlie  invader.  Battle  was  joined 
in  the  little  plain  of  Issus,  where  the  enormous 
numbers  of  the  Orientals  could  not  be  employed 
to  advantage.  The  day  was  decided  by  Alexan- 
der's attack  on  that  part  of  the  line  where  Darius 
was  in  his  war-chariot.  The  Great  King  turned 
and  lied,  while  the  Greeks  drove  all  before  them. 
The  mother,  wife,  and  children  of  Darius  fell 
into  Alexander's  hands,  but  were  treated  by  him 
with  the  respect  due  royalty.  While  this  victory 
at  Issus  opened  the  way  to  Syria  and  Egypt,  it 
was  far  more  valuable  to  Alexander  in  the  pres- 
tige it  gave  him.  Darius  humbled  himself  to 
write,  begging  for  the  return  of  the  royal  cap- 
tives and  proposing  to  make  a  treaty  of  alliance. 
Alexander's  reply  was  a  stern  command  to  come 
to  him  and  offer  submission. 

Alexander  was  not  lured  aside  to  pursue  and 
crush  Darius,  but  moved  against  Syria.  Sidon 
had  been  reduced  l)y  Persia  a  few  years  before,  so 
that  she  welcomed  Persia's  new  foe,  who  accepted 
her  submission  and  restored  her  former  territory 
and  riglits.  The  Macedonian  army  reached  Tyre 
at  the  end  of  333;  when  this  city  declined  to  re- 
ceive Alexander,  it  was  at  once  invested.  The 
siege  lasted  from  January  to  the  end  of  July, 
332;  again  and  again  the  attackers  were  beaten 
back,  but  at  last  the  city  fell  to  a  concerted  on- 
slaught. Alexander  now  could  advance  on  Egypt, 
since  Syria  was  secure.  Gaza  alone  ofl'ered  stub- 
born resistance,  but  succumbed  after  a  siege  of 
some  weeks. 

About  November,  332,  Egypt  was  reached,  and 
the  Persian  satrap  promptly  yielded.  At  Mem- 
]diis,  Alexander  was  crowned  king;  he  then  sailed 
down  the  Nile  to  Canopus  and  founded  a  new  city 
bearing  his  name.  This  he  intended  to  become 
the  new  capital  of  Egypt  and  to  supplant  Tyre 
as  the  emporium  of  trade.  History  has  shown 
how  wisely  the  site  was  chosen  and  the  city 
])lanned,  but  the  most  significant  immediate  re- 
sult was  the  transfer  of  commerce  from  the 
Phoenicians  to  the  Greeks.  Presently  Gyrene  sent 
Alexander  her  submission,  so  that  his  inlluenee 
extended  to  Carthaginian  territory.  Early  in  33 1 
he  visited  the  shrine  of  Ammon-Re  in  the  Libyan 
desert,  where  tradition  says  the  god  acknowledged 
him  as  his  son,  thereby  giving  him  divine  title  to 
succeed  the  Pharaohs. 

The  following  sjiring  Alexander  returned  to 
Tyre,  where  he  was  occupied  with  questions  of 
organization.  Then  he  started  for  Babylon  with 
40,0(10  foot  and  7000  horse.  Early  in  August  he 
reached  the  Eu])lirates,  then  advanced  across 
Northern  Mesopotamia,  and  marched  down  the 
banks  of  the  Tigris.  At  last  he  heard  that  Darius 
was  encamped  in  a  plain  near  Gangamela  with 
an  enormous  host,  which  tradition  reports  num- 
bered 1.000.000  infantry  and  40,000  horse,  Octo- 
ber 1.  331.  the  armies  engaged.  At  certain  points 
the  Greeks  were  hard  pressed,  but  at  a  critical 
moment  Alexander  broke  the  Persian  centre, 
whereujinn  Darius  tle<l  as  he  had  done  at  Issus ; 
finally  the  ilacedonians  won  at  every  point.  Da- 
rius was  pursued  to  Arhela,  where  his  chariot 
and  weapons  were  found,  but  the  king  escaped  (m 
horse  to  the  Median  highlands.  Babylon  opened 
its  gates  to  the  victor,  and  there  the  army  rested. 
Susa,  with  its  enormous  treasures,  soon  fell  into 
Alexander's  hands. 

It  was  of  great  importance  that  Persis  and  its 
capital  be  secured  at  once,  so  that  although  the 


season  was  mid-winter  Alexander  pressed  on  over 
the  U.xian  Pass.  He  stormed  the  almost  impreg- 
nable 'Persian  Gates,'  and  soon  was  at  Persepolis 
and  the  royal  palaces,  whose  ruins  still  give  some 
idea  of  their  magniticence.  No  less  than  120,000 
talents  were  found  in  the  treasuries,  together 
with  other  spoil.  At  Pasargada^  also  much  treas- 
ure was  taken.  About  four  months,  apparently 
from  January  to  April,  330,  were  spent  at  the 
ancient  palace  of  the  Aehiemenian  kings.  During 
this  time  the  district  of  Caramania  yielded.  Then 
Alexander  started  in  pursuit  of  Darius,  who  he 
had  heard  was  at  Ecbatana  with  an  army;  but  on 
reaching  the  city  be  found  that  Darius  had  fled 
eastward.  Alexander  soon  pressed  on,  but  after 
great  efforts  secured  only  the  dead  body  of  his 
enemy,  wdio  had  been  treacherously  slain  by  his 
followers.  One  of  the  mvirderers  had  rted  to 
Hyrcania  on  tlie  south  shore  of  the  Caspian,  and 
Alexander  felt  it  necessary  to  secure  this  district 
before  following  the  other  chief  assassin  into  re- 
moter Bactria.  The  Persians  who  had  retreated 
into  Hyrcania  yielded  when  Alexander  appeared, 
and  left  him  free  to  advance  into  northern  Areia, 
where  the  Persian  satrap  promptly  surrendered. 
It  is  not  possible  here  to  give  in  detail  the  suc- 
cessive steps  of  Alexander's  new  advance ;  by  mid- 
summer, 328,  he  was  master  of  Drangiana,  Seis- 
tan,  Gedrosia,  and  Aracliosi.a,  satrapies  corre- 
sponding roughly  to  modern  Afghanistan  and 
Baluchistan;  he  had  annexed  Bactria  and  Sogdi- 
ana  at  the  north,  and  had  fixed  the  limits  of  his 
conquests  in  this  direction  bj'  founding  Alexan- 
dria Eschate  (Khodjend)  near  the  pass  over  the 
Tian-shan  Mountains.  The  following  year  was 
spent  in  putting  down  uprisings  and  in  firmly 
establishing  his  power. 

Alexander  then  turned  to  the  conquest  of  India. 
He  came  back  to  Afghanistan  and  at  Nicsea 
(Kabul?)  prepared  for  the  new  campaign.  The 
advance  must  have  been  made  by  the  Khyber 
Pass.  The  winter  of  327-26  was  spent  in  subdu- 
ing the  hill-men  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  river- 
valle.vs  along  the  western  base  of  the  Himalayas. 
In  the  spring  he  marched  to  the  Hydaspes,  receiv- 
ing the  submission  of  the  native  princes  on  the 
way.  At  the  river  he  was  opposed  by  King  Porus, 
but  by  stratagem  and  skill  the  Indian  monarch 
was  defeated.  Alexander  gave  him  back  his  king- 
dom much  increased,  thereby  securing  a  buffer 
State  on  his  own  borders,  for  apparently  he  in- 
tended the  Indus  to  be  the  eastern  boundary  of  his 
empire.  He  then  continued  to  the  southeast  \m- 
til  he  reached  the  river  Hyphasis.  Here  the 
Macedonians  refused  to  go  farther,  and  unwill- 
ingly Alexander  was  obliged  to  turn  back  when, 
as  he  thought,  he  was  near  the  end  of  the  world. 
He  returned  to  the  Hydaspes;  then  advanced 
southward,  subduing  the  tribes  of  the  lower  Pun- 
jab, and  finally  reached  the  Indian  Ocean  in  the 
early  summer  of  32.5.  Part  of  his  force  had  al- 
ready been  dispatched  to  reduce  a  revolt  in  Ara- 
chosia.  Alexander  himself  started  in  early  au- 
tumn to  return  to  Babylon  across  the  desert  of 
Mekran,  while  his  fleet  was  to  find  a  seaway 
between  the  East  and  West.  For  two  months  he 
and  his  army  sti'uggled  across  the  desert,  suffer- 
ing from  heat,  hunger,  and  thirst.  The  losses 
were  very  great,  so  that  only  a  portion  of  those 
who  started  reached  the  capital  of  Gedrosia.  Af- 
ter a  rest,  Alexander  pressed  on  to  Kirman.  where 
he  met  his  admiral,  who  in  spite  of  great  hard- 
ships had  made  the  voyage  from  India.     He  was 


ALEXANDER   THE   GREAT 

M/RCLE   BUST   IN   THE   BERLIN    MUSEUM 


ALEXANDER. 


313 


ALEXANDER. 


ordered  to  sail  along  tlie  Persian  (iulf  and  up  tlie 
river  Pasitigris  to  Susa,  wliitlier  Alexander  pro- 
ceeded overland.  Upon  his  arrival  hi.s  first  task 
was  the  correction  and  punishment  of  misrule  on 
the  part  of  his  satraps,  many  of  whom,  believing 
he  would  never  return,  had  oppressed  their  prov- 
inces and  had  planned  to  set  up  independent 
kingdoms.  \\  hen  the  abuses  had  Ijcen  corrected 
and  the  guilty  ]uuiished,  Alexander  set  about  the 
further  amalgamation  of  the  Greeks  and  Orien- 
tals. He  had  already  founded  Greek  cities  wher- 
ever he  had  been;  he  now  encouraged  intermar- 
riage and  set  the  example  himself  by  taking  to 
wife  Statira,  the  daughter  of  Darius.  He  had 
already  married  Ro.xana  (q.v.),  a  Bactrian  prin- 
cess. JIany  of  his  officers  chose  Persian  consorts. 
Furthermore  he  planned  to  admit  Orientals  and 
Greeks  to  equality  in  military  service,  and  estab- 
lished military  schools  in  the  various  provinces, 
much  against  his  veterans'  wishes. 

The  greater  part  of  the  year  324  was  spent  in  a 
survey  of  the  Persian  Gulf  and  in  general  organ- 
ization at  Ectabana.  In  the  winter  Alexander 
returned  to  Babylon,  where  embassies  from  the 
remotest  West  came  to  seek  his  friendship.  But 
his  mind  was  now  busy  with  plans  for  building 
up  a  great  sea  trade  with  India  by  way  of  the 
Red  Sea,  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  the  Indian  Ocean. 
Babylon  was  to  become  a  great  seaport.  With 
these  things  in  view  he  planned  a  naval  expedi- 
tion to  circumnavigate  and  conquer  Arabia.  Be- 
fore this  could  start,  Alexander  fell  ill  of  a  fever 
following  a  carouse,  and  in  twelve  days  he  lay 
dead   (June,  323). 

The  rapidity  and  brilliancy  of  Alexander's 
military  operations  have  generally  obscured  his 
preeminent  qualities  as  a  statesman.  He  inher- 
ited from  his  father  the  concept  of  a  great  empire, 
and  he  had  the  genius  to  lay  the  foundations  of  a 
unified  realm  surpassing  the  dreams  of  Philip. 
Throughout  the  course  of  his  conquest  he  organ- 
ized the  rule  of  his  satrapies  .so  that  the  ])ower 
was  divided  and  revolt  made  difficult.  Seeing 
that  the  ruler  of  the  vast  realm  which  he  was 
conquering  should  adopt  much  of  the  native  cus- 
tom, he  assumed  not  a  little  Oriental  state,  which 
undoubtedly  strengthened  his  position  in  spite  of 
the  disapproval  it  aroused  among  his  Greek  fol- 
lowers :  and  he  took  many  wise  measures  to  amal- 
gamate the  East  and  West.  His  plans  for  trade 
development  would  have  had  great  eft'ect  on  social 
and  economic  conditions  if  he  could  have  carried 
them  out.  The  unified  empire  which  he  had  cre- 
ated was  soon  divided  among  many  Macedonian 
rulers.  Yet  all  the  results  of  his  work  were  not 
lost.  The  small  Hellenic  State  had  disappeared 
forever  with  its  narrow  exclusiveness,  and  a  more 
tolerant  attitude  was  maintained  by  the  Greek 
world  after  him.  The  Romans  entered  into  the 
fruit  of  his  conquests,  and  the  spread  of  Christi- 
anity in  the  East  was  made  the  easier  by  them. 

Consult:  Droysen.  Geschiclite  Alexanders  des 
(Irosscii  (Gotha!  1S08)  ;  Grote,  Histor;/  of  Greece 
(Xew  York.  lS.53-.5fi)  ;  Holm.  Grierhh-chr  (le- 
schichte.  iii.  (Berlin,  1803)  :  B.  I.  Wheeler's  Life 
(Xew  York.  1000).    See  Alexander,  Lege.xd  of. 

ALEXANDER.  The  name  of  eight  Popes. 
ALEX.\xnER  I.,  Pope  about  100-117.— Alexander 
TI.  (Anselm.  Bishop  of  Lucca),  Pope  1001-73. 
He  was  one  of  those  raised  to  the  papal  see  by 
Hildebrand.  and  showed  the  latter's  zeal  in  abro- 
gating simony  and  clerical  marriages.  He  favored 
Vol.  I.— 22. 


William  the  Concpicror's  invasion  of  England. 
Through  the  first  part  of  his  reign  there  was  an 
anti-po])!',  Honorius  II. — Alexander  III.  (Roland 
of  Siena),  Pope  1150-81.  He  had  the  active 
opposition  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  I.,  who  set 
U])  three  anti-popes  in  succession.  But  he  finally 
overcame  all  his  rivals  and  the  Enqieror  himself. 
The  tragic  history  of  Thomas  A  Bccket  comes  in 
his  pontificate,  and  he  forced  the  unwitting  cause 
of  the  murder.  Henry  II.  of  England,  to  do  pen- 
ance for  the  deed  and  to  restore  the  church  prop- 
erty which  he  had  conti.scated.  His  works  are  in 
Migne,  Pat.  Lat.,  vol.  cc.  His  Siimma  was  sep- 
arately edited  by  F.  Thaner  (Innsbruck,  1874). 
For  his  life,  consult  H.  F.  Renter  (Leipzig,  1860- 
04). — Alexander  IV.  (Rinaldo  de  Conti ) ,  Pope 
1254-01,  Ho  had  a  controversy  with  the  Emperor 
Frederick  II..  and  in  the  last  year  of  his  pontifi- 
cate the  Flagellants  ajjpeared  in  Ronu'. — Alex- 
ander V.  (Pietro  Philargi),  Pope  1400-10.  He 
was  the  choice  of  the  Council  of  Pi.sa,  and  de- 
signed to  supersede  the  two  rival  claimants  to  the 
pai)al  succession.  But  his  rivals  would  not  retire, 
and  he  dismissed  the  council,  thus  really  making 
more  trouble.  He  conferred  upon  the  mendicant 
monks  the  right  to  hear  confession. — Alexander 
VI.  (Roderico  Lenzuoli  Borgia).  Pope  1402-1503 
(1431-1503).  The  most  celebrated  of  the  eight 
Popes  of  this  name,  and  the  most  notorious  prince 
of  his  age.  He  was  a  native  of  Valencia  in  Spain. 
He  was  handsome  and  gallant,  and  his  early  life 
was  flagrantly  dissolute;  but  he  was  made  a  car- 
dinal at  the  age  of  twenty-five  by  his  uncle.  Calix- 
tiis  III.,  and  on  the  death  of  Innocent  VIII.  as- 
cended the  ])apal  chair,  which  he  virtually  bought. 
The  long  absences  of  the  Popes  from  Italy  had 
weakened  their  authority  and  curtailed  their  rev- 
enues, and,  as  a  compensation,  Alexander  endeav- 
ored to  break  up  the  power  of  the  Italian  princes 
and  appropriate  their  possessions  for  the  benefit 
of  his  own  children,  Giovanni,  Duke  of  Gandia, 
Cesare,  Duke  of  Valentinois,  and  Lucrezia,  the 
Duchess  of  Ferrara,  borne  him  by  a  mistress  with 
whom  he  lived  publicly  even  during  his  occupa- 
tion of  the  papal  seat.  To  gain  his  end  he  em- 
ployed the  favorite  weapons  of  the  princes  of  the 
Renaissance,  perjury,  poison,  and  the  dagger. 
Jlodern  research  discredits  the  tradition  of  his 
death  by  poison,  and  ascribes  it  to  a  fever.  The 
most  memorable  events  of  his  pontificate  were  the 
burning  of  Savonarola  (q.v.)  the  partition  of  the 
New  \\'orld  between  Portugal  and  Spain,  and  the 
introdiu'tion  of  the  Index  Kxpurfiatorius  of  pro- 
hibited books.  Alexander  VI.  came  down  to  re- 
cent times  as  one  of  the  most  nefarious  men  in 
history,  laden  with  such  vices  and  crimes  as  mur- 
der, treason,  incest,  and  apostasy.  In  the  nine- 
teenth century,  however,  serious  attempts  were 
made,  if  not  to  rehabilitate  his  character,  at 
least  to  mitigate  the  charges  brought  against 
hiuL  For  the  older  view  in  its  extremest  form,  see 
the  Dinrhnn  of  Burehard,  master  of  ceremonies 
to  Alexander  VI.  (Paris,  1883),  and  Gordon, 
Alexander  17.  and  flif:  .Vo«  (London.  1720).  For 
a  more  cluiritalde  estimate,  see  Roscoe's  Life  and 
I'onlifieate  of  Leo  X.  (London.  1805),  and  for  a 
well  sustained  apology-,  Leonetti,  Papa  Ale.nsan- 
dro  VI.  (Bologna.  1880)  :  Gregorovius,  llisiory 
of  Rome  in  Ihe  Middle  Aijes  (vols.  vi.  and  vii., 
Eng.  translation.  London.  1000),  while  inclining 
to  the  generally  accepted  opinions,  deprives  Alex- 
ander of  the  qualities  of  sagacity  and  fearlessness 
which  no  one  else  denies  him,  and  depicts  him  as 


ALEXANDER. 


314 


ALEXANDER. 


the  weak  instruinent  of  liis  ambitious  son,  Cesare 
Borgia.  Other  biographies  are  1)V  F.  Kaiser  (Re- 
gensburg,  1878)  and  Clement  "(Paris,  1882).— 
Alexander  Vll.  (Fabio  Chigi),  Pope  10.55-67. 
He  confirmed  the  condemnation  of  Jansenism,  and 
had  the  satisfaction  of  receiving  tlie  Swedish 
Queen,  Giiristina.  tlie  daughter  of  Gustavus  Adol- 
phus.  into  the  Catholic  Church.  Consult  his  life, 
by  S.  Paliavicini  (Prato,  l-8.'i'J). — Alexander 
VIII.  (Pietro  Ottoboni),  Pope  1089-91.  He  pub- 
lislied  the  bull  "Inter  Multiplices"  against  Galli- 
canism. 

ALEXANDER  I.  (  ?-320  B.C. ) .  King  of  Epi- 
nis;  son  of  Xeoptolemus  and  brother  of  Olyra- 
pias,  the  motlier  of  Alexander  the  Great.  He  was 
made  King  of  Epirus  by  Philip  of  JIacedon,  and 
it  was  at  his  marriage  with  Philip's  daughter 
Cleopatra  (u.  c.  336)  that  Philip  was  assassi- 
nated. At  the  request  of  the  Tarentines,  Alexan- 
der went  to  Italy  (332),  to  aid  them  against  the 
Lucanians  and  Bruttii,  but,  after  considerable 
success,  was  slain  by  the  Lucanians  at  the  battle 
of  Pandosia,  in  Southern  Italy. 

ALEXANDER  II.  (  ?-c.242  B.C.).  King  of 
Epirus,  son  cjf  Pyrrhus  and  of  Lanassa,  daughter 
of  the  Sicilian  tyrant  Agathocles.  He  succeeded 
his  father  in  B.C.  272.  To  avenge  the  death  of 
Pyrrhus,  slain  while  fighting  against  Antigonus 
Gonatus,  he  seized  Macedonia,  the  latter's  king- 
dom. Soon  afterward,  however,  he  was  deprived 
of  both  Macedonia  and  his  own  dominions  by  De- 
metrius, son  of  Antigonus,  but  recovered  Epirus 
b_y  the  aid  of  the  Areanians  (Just,  xxvi:  3; 
xxxviii:  1  ;  and  Plut.,  Pi/rrh.  9). 

ALEXANDER  I.  (1857-1893).  Prince  of 
Bulgaria  from  1S79  to  18S0.  He  was  the  second 
son  of  Prince  Alexander  of  Hesse  by  a  morganatic 
marriage  with  Countess  .lulia  of  Hauck.  He 
served  in  the  Russo-Turkish  War  of  1877-78  on 
the  stafif  of  General  Gurko  and  in  the  personal 
suite  of  the  Czar.  After  the  erection  of  Bulgaria 
into  an  autonomous  prineiiiality.  he  was  elected 
hereditary  prince  April  29,  1870,  by  the  Bulgari- 
an Sobranje.  at  the  instance  of  Russia,  and  the 
choice  was  confirmed  by  those  jiowers  which  had 
participated  in  1878  in  the  Congress  of  Berlin. 
Tlie  principality  was  organized  under  Russian 
influence,  but  at  once  developed  political  parties. 
Alexander  began  his  administration  with  a  Con- 
servative ministry,  seeking  to  maintain  a  good 
understanding  with  Russia  and  to  establish  an 
ordei'ly  government.  He  then  tried  a  Xationalist 
ministry,  but  in  1881  dismissed  it.  convoked  the 
Sobranje,  and  secured  special  powers,  under 
which  he  appointed  a  Conservative  ministry, 
headed  by  two  Russian  generals,  Kaulbars  and 
SobolefT,  The  Conservative  party  was  but  a  small 
faction,  and  Alexander  now  allied  himself  with 
the  Nationalists,  who  were  enabled  to  assert 
theniselves  nuire  and  more  against  the  Russian 
inlhumce.  In  1885  Eastern  Runielia  revolted 
against  its  governor-general,  souglit  aid  from  Al- 
exander, who  assumed  the  title  of  Prince  of  the 
Two  Bulgarias,  and  ni'cnmplished  the  union  in 
spite  of  Russian  ojiposition.  sec\iring  recognition 
as  governor  from  the  Porte.  Tliis  lirought  on  a 
war  with  Servia,  in  which  Bulgaria  triumphed. 
Prince  Alexander  conducting  his  armv  with  cour- 
age and  skill.  In  the  night  of  August'20-21.  1886, 
a  conspiracy  hea<led  by  Zankoli'.  and  inspired  by 
Russian  niachinatimis,  forced  him  to  sign  his  ab- 
dication, and  lu'  was  kidiuipped   and  taken   into 


Russian  territory.  Popular  indignation  in  Bul- 
garia procured  his  release,  but  on  September  7  he 
formally  abdicated,  believing  that  it  was  for  the 
good  of  the  country  in  view  of  Russian  opposition. 
He  had  shown  a  courage,  ability,  and  loyalty  to 
Bulgaria  such  as  had  hardly  been  expected.  He 
died  on  his  estate  at  Gratz,  in  Styria. 

Consult:  Soboleff,  Der  erste  Fiirst  von  BuUja- 
rieii  (Leipzig,  1880),  trans,  from  Russian;  Drau- 
dar,  I'riiice  Ale.randrr  of  Batteiiherg  (1884)  ;  A. 
Koch,  Alexander's  chaplain,  I'rinz  Alexander  v. 
Batlenhrrg  (Darmstadt,  1887). 

ALEXANDER  I.,  Pavlovitcii  (1777-1825). 
Em])eror  of  Russia  from  1801  to  1825.  He  was 
born  December  23  (  12  Old  Style),  1777,  at  Saint 
Petersburg,  and  was  the  son  of  Paul  I.  and  Maria 
Feodorovna  (born  Dorothea  of  Wiirttemberg) . 
The  violent  and  arbitrary  reign  of  Alexander's 
predecessor  produced  a  conspiracy  to  force  his 
abdication  in  favor  of  his  son.  The  Polish  prince, 
Adam  Czartoryski,  a  friend  of  Alexander,  who 
gives  a  circumstantial  account  of  the  conspiracy, 
says  that  Alexander  was  jirivy  to  the  plan  of 
forced  abdication,  but  not  to  the  assassination. 
The  news  of  the  accession  of  Alexander  was  re- 
ceived, according  to  the  Russian  historian  Ka- 
ramsin,  as  "a  message  of  redemption."  Alexander 
had  been  educated  under  the  direction  of  his 
grandmother,  Catharine  II.,  by  eminent  instruc- 
tors, chief  among  whom  was  the  Swiss  Colonel 
Laliarpe,  whose  ability  and  liberal  views  made  a 
strong  impression  upon  the  imaginative  character 
of  his  pupil.  His  education,  however,  was  still 
incomplete  when  broken  ofl'  by  the  dismissal  of 
Laharpe,  on  account  of  his  s,vmpathy  with  the 
Freneli  Revolution.  Alexander  received  a  mili- 
tary training  which  was  equally  incomplete.  His 
defective  education,  his  experiences  in  the  courts 
of  his  great,  but  despotic  and  immoral  grand- 
mother and  of  his  half-insane  father  produced  a 
curious  mingling  of  characteristics  and  tenden- 
cies. Czartoryski  speaks  of  the  frank  avowal 
made  to  him  in  1796  by  Alexander  of  his  sympa- 
thy with  republicanism  and  his  belief  that  heredi- 
tar.v  power  was  unjust  and  absurd.  The  tragedy 
with  which  liis  reign  began  also  made  its  impres- 
sion. 

He  began  his  reign  with  sweeping  reforms.  He 
abolished  the  barbaric  and  excessive  punishments 
in  use  under  his  predecessors,  restrained  the  bru- 
tality of  the  police,  did  awa.v  with  the  secret 
tribunal,  pardoned  many  of  his  father's  victims, 
and  in  other  ways  reformed  tlie  laws  and  proced- 
ure. Restrictions  upon  literature,  art,  and  trade 
were  removed.  "I  would  not  place  myself  above 
the  law,  even  if  I  could,"  Alexander  wrote  to  the 
Princess  Galitzin,  "for  I  do  not  recognize  any 
legitimate  power  on  earth  that  does  not  emanate 
from  the  law.  .  .  .  The  law  should  be  the  same 
for  all."  He  was  aided  in  his  work  by  four  inti- 
mate friends,  young  men  of  liberal  views — Count 
Paul  Strogonoft',  Prince  Victor  Kotcluibei,  Nicho- 
las Xovossiltsoff,  and  Prince  Adam  Czartoryski. 
These  Alexander  called  his  "committee  of  public 
safety."  They  delilierated  the  duties  and  the  lim- 
itations of  the  ini|)erial  power — a  new  question  in 
Russia,  and  not  much  considered  since  that  time. 
In  1801  the  Senate  was  made  the  supreme  high 
court,  its  ukases  to  be  subject  only  to  the  imperial 
veto.  The  first  move  of  the  Senate  in  opposition 
to  the  Emperor,  however,  met  with  a  sharp  re- 
buke, and  Czartoryski  well  explains  the  attitude 


ALEXANDER. 


315 


ALEXANDER. 


of  Alexander:  "'J'lie  Eiii]k'10i'  liUecl  the  forms  of 
liberty  as  we  like  spectacles.  .  .  .  He  would  have 
willingly  consented  that  the  whole  world  should 
be  free  on  condition  that  the  whole  world  should 
submit  voluntarilj-  to  his  single  will."  The  Rus- 
sian Senate,  in  which  the  idle  nobility  were 
shelved,  was  not  the  body  with  which  to  experi- 
ment in  parliamentary  government.  Alexander 
and  his  associates  discussed  the  emancipation  of 
the  serfs;  but  the  time  seemed  hardly  ripe  for 
that  measure.  An  imperial  ukase  of  March  3, 
1804,  attempted  to  ameliorate  their  condition. 

The  real  administrative  achievement  of  Alex- 
ander was  the  creation  by  the  ukase  of  September 
8,  1802,  of  the  ministries,  eight  in  number:  Inte- 
rior and  Police,  Finance,  Justice,  Public  Instruc- 
tion, Commerce,  Foreign  Affairs,  JIarinc,  and 
War.  This  was  a  marked  step  toward  an  orderly 
government  from  the  semi-Asiatic  methods  bj' 
which  the  growing  Empire  had  been  nuinaged. 
Each  department  was  in  charge  of  a  minister  and 
an  adjunct.  Progress  was  made  toward  a  codifi- 
cation of  the  laws.  The  privilege  hitherto  held  by 
the  nobles  only,  that  their  patrimonial  estate 
should  not  be  confiscated  as  a  punishment,  was 
made  the  common  right  of  all  subjects.  An  im- 
perial bank  was  instituted,  Odessa  was  made  a 
free  port,  the  laws  regarding  debt  and  mortgages 
were  amended,  and  by  the  ukase  of  1S18  peasants 
were  permitted  to  carry  on  manufactures.  Alex- 
ander sent  expeditions  around  the  world,  and 
made  treaties  with  the  United  States,  Spain, 
Brazil,  and  Tui'ke.y.  Settlements  were  established 
on  the  northwestern  coast  of  America,  but  the 
enunciation  of  the  Jlonroe  Doctrine  in  182.3 
checked  the  Pvussian  advance  in  tlie  last  direction. 
The  new  Ministry  of  Public  Instruction  meant 
much  for  the  Empire.  There  had  been  but  three 
universities  in  Russia — Moscow,  Vilna,  and  Dor- 
pat.  These  were  strengthened,  and  three  others 
were  founded  at  St.  Petersburg,  Kharkov,  and 
Kazan.  Literary  and  scientific  bo<lies  were  estab- 
lished or  encouraged,  and  the  reign  became  noted 
for  the  aid  lent  to  the  sciences  and  arts  by  the 
Emperor  and  the  wealthy  nobility. 

The  foreign  policy  of  Alexander  was  marked, 
like  his  internal  policy,  by  plans  outrunning  per- 
formance. He  at  first  stood  as  an  advocate  of 
peace.  He  endeavored  to  obtain  from  Napoleon 
just  compensation  for  the  German  States :  but. 
becoming  convinced  of  Xapoleon's  bad  faith,  he 
joined  the  coalition  of  180.5.  He  was  the  ally  of 
Prussia  against  Napoleon  in  the  campaign  of 
1806,  carrying  on  wars  at  the  same  time  with 
Pei'sia  and  Turkey.  His  forces  fought  an  inde- 
cisive battle  at  Eylau  in  February,  1807.  and  were 
totallj'  defeated  at  Friedland  in  the  following 
June.  In  July,  1807,  Alexander  signed  the  Treaty 
of  Tilsit,  in  which  he  left  Prussia  to  her 
fate.  Dazzled  by  the  genius  of  Napoleon  and  by 
his  scheme  for  the  division  of  the  world  into  an 
Eastern  and  a  Western  Empire,  Ale.xander  joined 
the  Continental  System  (q.v.),  declared  war  on 
England  (1808),  and  wrested  Finland  from  Swe- 
den. At  Erfurt  in  the  autumn  of  1808  the  two 
emperors  met  with  great  pomp,  but  the  ill-assort- 
ed alliance  soon  lost  force.  The  pressure  of  the 
Continental  System  on  the  material  resources  of 
Russia,  the  growth  of  the  Napoleonic  despotism, 
the  existence  and  aggrandizement  of  the  Duchy  of 
Warsaw,  were  utterly  opposed  to  Alexander's 
theories  and  to  his  sense  of  sound  Russian  policy. 
At  length  in  1812  a  rupture  ensued,  and  Napo- 


leon's Grand  Armj-  entered  Russia,  only  to  be  de- 
stroyed in  tlie  retreat  from  .Moscow.  Alexander 
threw  himself  into  the  struggle  of  Europe  against 
the  French  Emperor,  and  raised  an  army  of 
nearly  i)00,000  men.  He  took  part  personallj'  in 
the  campaigns,  and  was  prominent  in  the  nego- 
tiations at  Vienmi. 

At  Paris,  in  1814.  Alexander,  who  by  nature 
had  always  been  inclined  toward  religious  mysti- 
cism, fell  under  the  inllucncc  of  iladame  Krii- 
dener  (q.v.) .  It  was  under  this  influence  that  he 
instituted  the  Holy  Alliance  (q.v.),  the  declared 
object  of  which  was  to  make  the  principles  of 
Christianity  recognized  in  the  political  arrange- 
ments of  the  world,  but  which  became  through 
Metternich  a  mere  means  for  the  reestablishment 
of  political  absolutism.  The  latter  part  of  Alex- 
ander's reign  presents  a  strong  contrast  to  the 
earlier.  The  ardent  young  reformer  was  drawn 
into  a  reactionary  course.  He  concurred  in  the 
Austrian  policy  of  Metternich,  and  by  repressing 
insurrection  in  Europe  assisted  in  crushing  the 
political  progress  of  the  nations.  The  spread  of 
education  ond  liberal  ideas,  and  the  disorder  of 
the  finances,  due  to  Russia's  active  part  in  the 
Napoleonic  wars,  aroused  popular  discontent, 
which  was  put  down  by  the  censorship  and  police 
espionage.  Alexander  became  morbid  and  embit- 
tered, and  sought  relief  alternately  in  dissipation 
and  in  religious  mysticism.  Personal  exposure 
during  the  inundation  of  St.  Petersburg  in  1824 
undermined  his  health;  the  death  of  a  favorite 
daughter  and  the  discovery  of  a  Russo-Polish 
conspiracy  against  the  House  of  Romanoff  aggra- 
vated his  illness.  With  the  Empress  he  sought 
rest  in  the  Crimea,  but  was  seizeil  by  an  illness  on 
the  journev,  and  died  at  Taganrog,  December  1 
(November  19,  Old  Style),  1825. 

BiBLiOGBAPiiT.  Schnitzler,  Uistoire  intimr  de 
la  Russie  sons  Ics  empercurs  Alexandre  I.  et  Nic- 
olas I.  (Paris,  1847);  Bogdanovitch,  History  of 
the  Itcif/n  of  Alexander  I.,  in  Russian  (St.  Peters- 
burg, 1860-71),  the  first  four  volumes  of  which 
are  translated  into  French ;  Rabbe,  Histoire 
d'Alexajidre  I.  (Paris,  182(i)  :  Countess  Choiseulr 
Gouftier,  Mcmoires  historiques  sur  I'einpereur 
Alexandre  et  la  cour  de  Rtissie  (Paris,  1829), 
English  translation  b}'  Patterson,  Historical  Me- 
moirs of  the  Emperor  Alexander  I.  and  the  Court 
of  Russia  (Chicago,  1000)  ;  C.  Joyneville  Alexaii- 
der  I.:  His  Life  and  Times  (London,  1875)  ; 
Mazade,  Mem  aires  du  prince  Adam  CMrtoryski 
et  sa  correspondanee  avec  I'empereur  Alexandre 
I.  (Paris,  I8S7)  :  Vandal,  Napoleon  et  Alexandre 
/.,  l.'alliance  russe  sons  le  premier  empire  (Paris, 
1890-!K))  ;  and  Bernhardi,  fleschichte  Russlands 
und  der  europiiischen  Politik  181'rl^-^l  (Leipzig, 
1863-77). 

ALEXANDER  IL,  Nikolayevitcii  (1818- 
81).  Emperor  of  Russia  from  1855  to  1881.  son 
of  Nicholas  I.  He  was  liorn  April  20.  1818.  and 
received  a  thorough  education  and  military  train- 
ing. He  traveled  in  Germany,  and  in  1841  mar- 
ried Princess  Maria  of  Hesse-Darmstadt.  He 
also  journeyed  through  Russia.  Siberia,  and  the 
Caucasus,  and  took  a  creditable  part  in  the  cam- 
paigns against  the  Tcherkesses.  On  succeeding 
to  the  throne  during  the  Crimean  War  (ilarch  2, 
1855),  he  assured  the  foreign  ambassadors  that 
he  would  adhere  to  the  policy  of  his  uncle  (Alex- 
ander I.)  and  his  father,  but  his  desire  was  for  an 
honorable  peace.     In  March,   1856,  he  was  com- 


ALEXANDER. 


316 


ALEXANDER. 


pelled  to  sign  the  humiliating  Treaty  of  Paris. 
Ale.xander  iiad  not  been  in  sympathy  witli  tlie 
reactionary  course  of  his  father.  \\'hile  not  a 
liberal,  or  an  idealist  like  the  first  Alexander, 
he  represented  the  intelligent  tliought  of  Russia, 
and  believed  that  a  transformation  was  needed  to 
place  it  in  the  first  rank  among  nations.  He  soon 
announced  his  intention  to  promote  reforms,  and 
he  was  encouraged  in  tliis  by  the  shock  which  the 
Crimean  War  had  given  to  the  old  corrupt  offi- 
cialism of  the  Em])ire.  Two  reform  parties  arose, 
one  a  liberal  constitutional  party,  having  its  cen- 
tre at  St.  Petersburg,  the  other  an  old  Russian 
nationalist  party,  centring  at  Moscow.  Tliey  were 
united  only  in  enmity  to  the  bureaucracy.  In  re- 
sponse to  their  wishes  and  his  own  convictions. 
Alexander  rela.xed  the  censorship  of  the  press, 
permitted  travel,  exercised  a  clo.^e  control  over 
officials,  recalled  many  who  had  been  exiled  to 
Siberia  during  the  previous  reign,  extended  edu- 
cation, and  without  institiiting  radical  changes 
in  the  machinery  of  the  government  greatly  wid- 
ened tlie  liberty  of  his  subjects. 

The  greatest  of  his  administrative  achieve- 
ments was  the  emancipation  of  the  serfs.  With 
this,  of  necessity,  went  a  reform  in  the  system  of 
land  tenure.  Xearly  all  of  Russia  was  held  in 
large  estates,  worked  by  serfs  who  were  nominally 
attached  to  the  land,  but  were  in  fact  almost  as 
much  at  the  disposal  of  their  masters  as  if  they 
had  been  slaves.  Nine-tenths  of  the  arable  land 
of  Russia  was  thus  held  by  the  imperial  family 
and  about  100,000  noble  families.  Naturally,  the 
landed  nobility  obstructed  the  Czar's  reform ;  but 
he  pressed  his  point  in  one  province  after  another, 
and  had  a  plan  for  emancipation  prepared.  Be- 
ginning in  1S.58  by  freeing  the  serfs  on  the  estates 
of  the  imperial  family,  the  Czar  completed  the 
emancipation  bv  the  ukase  of  March  3  (February 
19  Old  Style) ,  1801.  Serfs  who  had  been  domestic 
servants,  not  attached  to  the  land,  became  free 
without  right  to  property.  Those  who  had  been 
attached  to  the  land  were  enabled  by  a  State  loan, 
payable  six  per  cent,  annually  for  forty-nine 
years,  to  purchase  the  interest  of  the  former  land- 
lords in  a  certain  share  of  the  land.  Tlie  freedmen 
thus  became  peasant  proprietors,  the  land  being 
held  by  the  mirs,  or  village  communities,  whicli 
could  assign  it  to  the  members.  Police  authority 
was  put  in  the  hands  of  the  communal  assemblies, 
and  larger  powers  of  taxation,  administration, 
and  police  were  vested  in  district  and  provincial 
councils.  If  the  economic  results  of  this  arrange- 
ment have  been  slow  in  development,  and  not 
altogether  satisfactory,  the  social  transformation 
efl'ected  by  the  emancipation  of  23,000.000  people 
was  great  and  immediate.  In  carrying  out  his 
plan,  x\lexander  was  assisted  by  Nicholas  Miliu- 
tin.  The  Emperor  also  established  a  regular  sys- 
tem of  courts.  Public  schools  were  founded  after 
the  model  of  W'estern  Europe,  and  scientific 
schools  were  erected  in  addition  to  those  devoted 
to  the  regular  classical  training.  The  army, 
which  in  the  Crimean  War  had  so  disappointed 
Nicholas  I.,  was  reorganized  on  the  I'rus^ian 
plan.  While  Alexander  went  thus  far  with  the 
liberals,  the  Pan-Slavism  of  the  Nationalists 
found  equal  sympathy  with  him.  He  said  to  the 
Polish  deputies:  "Embrace  the  union  with  Russia 
and  abandon  all  thoughts  of  independence,  now 
and  for  evermore  impossible.  .All  that  my  father 
did  was  rightly  done.  My  reign  shall  lie  a  con- 
tinuation   of    his."      The   Polish    n.ational    move- 


ment, culminating  in  the  insurrection  of  1803, 
was  severely  repressed,  and  a  relentless  process 
of  Russification  was  instituted  under  Michael 
Muravieff.  Since  that  time  Poland  has  been  un- 
der what  is  practically  martial  law.  After  1863 
there  was  a  gradual  return  to  absolutism  in  Rus- 
sia, and  many  of  the  liberties  that  had  been 
granted  were  withdrawn  or  modified,  the  Czar 
falling  more  under  the  influence  of  the  conserva- 
tive Nationalist  party,  led  by  Katkoff,  the  Mos- 
cow editor.  For  a  few  years  the  liberals  contented 
themselves  with  criticism  of  the  conservative 
position  and  legal  attempts  to  restore  their  influ- 
ence. Then  began  the  revolutionary  movement, 
which  finally  developed  in  the  hands  of  a  few  vio- 
lent spirits  into  terrorism  after  1875.  (See  Ni- 
HiLi.sM.)  The  socialism  of  Marx  and  Proudhon 
had  by  this  time  been  brought  in  from  Western 
Europe. 

Between  1868  and  1881,  the  armies  of  Alexan- 
der were  advancing  the  Russian  frontiers  in  Cen- 
tral Asia.  In  1868  Samarkand  was  occupied :  in 
1873  the  Khan  of  Khiva  was  reduced  to  vassal- 
age; in  1876  Khokand  was  annexed;  and  in  1881, 
just  before  the  assassination  of  the  Emperor, 
Geok-Tepe,  the  stronghold  of  the  Teke  Turko- 
mans, was  taken.  The  vigorous  policy  adopted 
after  1870  broiight  on  a  war  with  Turkey  in  1877- 
78,  in  which  the  Russian  standards  were  carried 
almost  to  Constantinople.  This  war  appealed  to 
the  ehivalric  spirit  of  Alexander,  who  wi.shed  to 
be  known  as  the  Liberator  Czar,  because  it  was  in 
a  sense  a  ciiisade  in  behalf  of  the  oppressed 
Christian  peoples  of  the  Balkans.  The  hopes  of  a 
Russian  hegemony  in  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  en- 
tertained by  the  Pan-Slavists,  were  overthrown, 
however,  at  the  Congress  of  Berlin   (q.v. ). 

The  existence  of  the  liberal  and  reactionary 
parties  side  by  side  in  Russia  explains  some  of  the 
inconsistencies  in  Alexander's  character.  It  is 
because  of  these  opposing  influences,  both  patri- 
otic, that  progressive  and  oppressive  measures 
were  often  simultaneously  enacted.  Personally, 
Alexander  seems  to  have  tended  always  to  the 
liberal  side,  although  somewhat  embittered  by 
the  spread  of  the  revolutionary  agitation.  His 
life,  during  the  years  1870-81,  was  never  safe 
from  the  conspiracies  of  the  extreme  revolution- 
ists, who  pursued  him  with  a  remarkable  jiersist- 
ence  of  hatred.  After  the  terrible  explosion  of 
1880.  in  the  Winter  Palace,  .\lexander  gave  Gen- 
eral Loris-Melikoff.  a  distinguished  officer  of  lib- 
eral tendencies,  an  extraordinary  dictatorial 
commission  for  six  months,  and  it  is  said  that 
under  Loris-Melikofl'"s  advice,  he  was  considering 
the  question  of  the  promulgation  of  a  constitution 
by  ukase  when  he  was  assassinated  in  Saint 
Petersburg  by  the  explosion  of  a  bomb  while  driv- 
ing from  the  parade  to  the  Winter  Palace  on 
Sunday,  March  13.  1881.  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  son,  .\lexander  III. 

Consult :  Hauniant.  in  Lavisse  et  Rambaud, 
Uiufnire  rjfiiernle.  vol.  xi.  (Paris.  1900)  ;  Car- 
donne.  L'emperexir  Alexandre  II.  (Paris.  1883)  ; 
Golovin.  Ktisfthind  tinier  Alexander  [I.  (Leipzig. 
1870)  :  Laferte  (pseudonym  of  the  Princess  Dol- 
gorouki),  Alexandre  II..  Detaili  inMits  stir  sa 
rie  intime  et  .50  mort   (Basel.  1882). 

ALEXANDER  III.,  Ai.EXANnRoviTOii  (184.5- 
94).  Emperor  of  Russia  from  1881  to  1894.  He 
was  born  March  10.  184.5.  and  he  succeeded  his 
father.  iMarch  13.  1881.  but  was  not  crowned  un- 
til May  27,   1883.  after  the  panic  caused   by  the 


ALEXANDER. 


sn 


assassinntion  of  Alexander  II.  had  somewhat 
subsided.  Alexander  at  first  expressed  his  in- 
tention of  following  out  the  constitutional  re- 
forms of  Loris  Jlelikoff,  but  he  fell  under  the  in- 
ihience  of  the  leaders  of  the  old  Russian  Na- 
tionalist party,  KatkolT,  Pobiedonostseff.  and  Ig- 
natieff,  and  restored  the  autocratic  system  of 
Nicholas  so  far  as  internal  affairs  were  con- 
cerned. He  pursued  a  stern  policy  of  repression 
with  regard  to  the  political  agitation  which  had 
caused  the  violent  death  of  his  father.  The  Ter- 
rorists were  practically  suppressed,  a.  rigid  cen- 
sorship was  reestablished,  education  was  restrict- 
ed, and  dissenting  religions  were  persecuted. 
Among  the  sects  that  were  persecuted  were  the 
Jews;  and  as  a  result  of  the  persecution  great 
numbers  of  them  emigrated  from  the  country, 
cliielly  to  the  United  States  and  South  Africa. 
The  policy  of  the  Russification  of  the  non- 
Russian  provinces,  begun  by  Nicholas  I.  and  dis- 
continued for  a  time  by  .41exander  II.,  was  re- 
sumed with  new  vigor.  The  finances  of  the  Em- 
pire were  well  managed.  The  revenue  was 
largely  increased,  and  a  protective  tariff  was  used 
as  a  part  of  the  system  to  strengthen  Russian 
nationality. 

In  his  foreign  policy  Alexander  did  not  follow 
the  example  of  Nicholas.  His  influence  was  di- 
rected toward  the  preservation  of  peace.  Russia 
and  France  were  drawn  into  closer  and  closer 
connection  in  opposition  to  the  Triple  Alliance 
of  Germany,  Austria,  and  Italy.  Alexander  con- 
tinued the  policy  of  interference  in  the  afl'airs  of 
the  Balkan  Stales,  especially  Bulgaria,  bitterly 
resenting  that  spirit  of  nationalism  which  his 
father  had  regarded  as  ingratitude  toward  Rus- 
sia. He  endeavored,  not  very  successfully,  to 
counteract  Austrian  influence  among  the  Balkan 
))eoples.  In  Asia  he  continued  to  round  out  the 
frontier  and  strengthen  Russia's  hold  on  its 
])rovinces.  Several  attempts  were  made  to  assas- 
sinate him,  but  thejr  lacked  the  completeness  of 
preparation  and  the  venomous  persistence  which 
had  pursued  his  father.  Alexander  married 
Dagmar  (re-baptized  into  the  Greek  Church  as 
ilaria  Feodorovna ) ,  daughter  of  Christian  IX. 
of  Denmark,  No^-ember  9,  180.3.  He  died  Novem- 
ber 1,  1894.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  sou,  Nich- 
olas II. 

Consult:  Andrews,  Historical  Development  of 
Modern  Europe,  Volume  II.  (New  York,  1898)  ; 
Seigiiobos,  Political  History  of  Modern  Europe 
(New  York,  1900);  Samson  -  Himmelstierna, 
Russlnnd  miter  Alexander  III.  mit  Riicl'blicken 
(luf  die  jiingste  Vergangenheit  (Leipzig,  1891), 
translated  by  Morrison,  Russia  under  Alexander 
III.  and  in  the  Preceding  Period  (New  York, 
1893)  ;  Lowe,  C.  Alexander  III.  of  Russia  (Lon- 
don. 1895).  This  reign  has  claimed  very  little 
special   attention   from  historians. 

ALEXANDER  I.  (e.  1078-1124).  King  of 
Scotland,  the  fourth  son  of  Jlalcolm  Canmore. 
He  succeeded  his  brother  Edgar,  in  1107,  but  he 
ruled  over  only  the  old  kingdom  of  Scotland, 
north  of  the  Forth  and  Clyde,  Cumbria  having 
been  made  practically  an  independent  principal- 
ity by  Edgar  on  his  deathbed.  Alexander  was 
called  "the  Fierce,"  as  a  result  of  his  campaign 
against  some  northern  clans  who  had  rebelled  be- 
cause of  their  aversion  to  the  introduction  of 
English  customs.  Alexander  was  naturally  in- 
clined to  follow  English  ways,  for  his  mother  was 
Margaret,  grandniece  of  Edward  the  Confessor, 
his  wife  a  natural  daughter  of  Henry  I.  of  Eng- 


ALEXANDER. 

land,  and  he  himself  liad  been  educated  in  Eng- 
land. During  his  reign  there  was  peace  between 
England  and  Scotland.  Yet  he  worked  earnestly 
for  the  independence  of  Scotland,  and  especially 
to  free  the  Scottish  Church  from  its  subjection 
to  either  York  or  Canterbury.  He  bestowed  great 
gifts  on  the  Church,  and  founded  several  monas- 
teries, including  the  abbejs  of  Scone  and  Inch- 
colm.  He  died  April  27,  1124,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  brother  David. 

ALEXANDER  IL  (1198-1249).  King  of 
.Scotland.  He  succeeded  his  father,  William  the 
Lion,  in  1214.  He  early  displayed  that  wisdom 
and  strength  of  character  by  which  he  won  the 
appellation  of  "the  Peaceful,"  and  in  virtue  of 
which  he  holds  so  high  a  place  in  history  among 
Scottish  kings.  In  1214  he  joined  the  English 
barons  who  had  combined  to  resist  the  tyranny 
of  King  John,  and  who  secured  the  Magna 
Charta.  This  drew  down  upon  him  and  his 
kingdom  the  papal  excommunication;  but  sub- 
sequently the  ban  was  removed,  and  the  liber- 
ties of  the  Scottish  Church  were  confirmed.  On 
the  accession  of  Henry  III.  to  the  English 
throne,  Alexander  brought  the  feuds  of  the  two 
nations  to  a  temporary  close  by  a  treaty  of 
peace  (1217),  and,  in  1221,  he  married  Henry's 
eldest  sister,  the  Princess  Joan.  The  alliance 
thus  established  was  broken  after  the  death, 
without  issue,  of  Queen  Joan  (1238),  and  the 
second  marriage  of  Alexander  with  the  daughter 
of  a  nobleman  of  France.  In  1244  Henry 
marched  against  Scotland  to  coiiipel  Alexander's 
homage,  but  peace  was  concluded  without  an 
appeal  to  arms.  While  engaged  in  one  of  those 
warlike  expeditions  w-hieh  the  turbulence  of  his 
subjects  so  frequently  rendered  necessary,  Alex- 
ander died  of  fever  at  Kerrera,  a  small  island 
in  the  Bay  of  Oban. 

ALEXANDER  III.  (1241-85).  King  of 
Scotland.  He  succeeded  his  father,  Alexander 
II.,  in  1249,  and  two  years  afterward  he  mar- 
ried the  Princess  Margaret,  eldest  daughter  of 
Henry  III.  of  England.  Alexander's  minority 
enabled  Henry  to  prosecute  successfully  for 
some  time  his  schemes  for  obtaining  entire  con- 
trol over  the  Scottish  kingdom ;  but  long  before 
he  reached  manhood,  Ale.xander  displayed  so 
much  energy  and  wisdom  as  to  give  assurance 
that  when  the  administration  of  affairs  should 
come  under  his  personal  direction  it  would  be 
vain  to  think  of  reducing  him  to  submission. 
Very  shortly  after  he  had  come  of  age  his  ener- 
gies were  summoned  to  the  defense  of  his  king- 
dom against  the  formidable  invasion  of  Hakon, 
King  of  Norway  (12(53),  who  claimed  the  sov- 
ereignty of  the  Western  Isles.  In  attempting  a 
landing  at  Largs,  on  the  ooast  of  Ayr,  the  Nor- 
wegian prince  sustained  a  total  defeat,  and 
Alexander,  as  the  result  of  this  important  vic- 
tory, secured  the  allegiance  both  of  the  Hebrides 
and  of  the  Isle  of  Man.  An  alliance  was  formed 
between  Scotland  and  Norway,  and  strengthened 
in  1281  by  the  marriage  of  .Alexander's  only 
daughter,  Margaret,  to  Eric,  King  of  Norway. 
This  princess  died  in  1283.  leaving  an  infant 
daughter,  Margaret,  commonly  called  the  Maiden 
of  Norway,  whose  untimely  death,  on  her  way 
to  take  possession  of  her  throne,  was  the  occasion 
of  so  many  calainities  to  Scotland.  During  the 
concluding  years  of  Alexander's  reign  the  king- 
dom enjoyed  a  peace  and  prosperity  which  it  did 
not  taste  again  for  many  generations.     The  jus- 


ALEXANDER. 


318 


ALEXANDER. 


tice.  liberality,  and  wisdom  of  the  King  endeared 
his  memory  "to  his  subjects,  wliile  the  misfor- 
tunes that  "followed  his  death  heightened  the  na- 
tional sense  of  his  loss.  His  eldest  son,  Alexan- 
der, who  had  married  the  daughter  of  the  Count 
of  Flanders,  died  without  issue  in  1283.  Alexan- 
der contracted  a  second  marriage  in  12S4  with 
Joleta.  dauo-hter  of  the  Count  of  Dreux.  He 
was  killed  by  falling  from  a  precipice  in  12S.5. 

ALEXANDER  I.  (1S70-1003).  King  of 
8ervia.  The  son  of  King  Milan  and  Queen 
Natalie.  On  the  abdication  of  ililan,  in  1889, 
he  was  prochiimed  King,  under  a  regency.  In 
1893  he  assumed  personal  control  of  affairs,  and 
in  189.5  promulgated  a  new  constitution.  In  July, 
1900,  he  married  JIadame  Draga  Mashin,  a  widow 
much  older  than  himself.  He  and  his  consort 
were  assassinated,  .June  11,  1903.     See  Seevia. 

ALEXANDER,  Abr.\iiam  (1718-86).  An 
American  legislator.  He  was  born  in  North 
Carolina,  and  in  early  life  was  a  magistrate  of 
Mecklenburg  County,  which  he  represented  in 
the  Colonial  Legisla"ture  until  1775.  In  this  year 
he  served  as  chairman  of  the  county  convention, 
which,  on  Mav  31,  passed  a  series  of  resolutions, 
later  distorted  into  the  famous  "Mecklenburg 
Declaration  of  Independence"   (q.v.). 

ALEXANDER,  Akchibald  (1772-1851).    An 
American     Piesbyterian     clergj-man.      He     was 
born  in  Augusta '(now  Rockbridge)   County,  Va. 
He  was  self-educated,  and  was  led  to  religious 
study  in  the  revival  of   1789.     He  was   licensed 
to  p"reach   in   1791.   and  spent  several  years   as 
an   itinerant   missionary,   and   was   president   of 
Hampden-Sidney    College,    1790-1801.      In    1802 
he  married  the  daughter  of  Rev.  Dr.  Waddell, 
the  blind  preacher  whose  eloquence  was  eulogized 
by  William  \A'irt.    He  was  pastor  of  Pine  Street 
Presbyterian  Church,  Philadelphia,  from  1807  to 
1812, "and  was  at  the  organization  of  the  theo- 
logical seminary  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  at 
Princeton,   N.   -J.      He   w^as   unanimously   chosen 
professor    of    theology,    the    position    whieli    he 
maintained  with  eminent  success  until  his  death 
there,  October  22.  1851.     His  best-known  work  is 
A  Brief  Outline  of  the  Evidences  of  the  Christian 
HeUgion  (Princeton,  1823), which  has  been  trans- 
lated  into  many   languages   and  is   a  text-book 
in  colleges.    Ile'wrote  also  The  Canon  of  the  Old 
and  AVu'   Testaments  Aseertained    (1826);    The 
Log  College    (1845),  and  Moral  Science,   which 
was  published  after  his  death    (1852).     Consult, 
for  his  life,  .J.  W.  Alexander   (New  York,  1854). 
ALEXANDER,     B.arton    Stone     (1819-78). 
\n     Vmerican    soldier.      He    was    born    in    Ken- 
tucky.   He  graduated  at  West  Point  and  entered 
the  engineer  corjis  in  1842.     He  was  engaged  in 
engineering   work    from    1842    to    1859,    superin- 
tending the  construction  of  the  military  asylum 
at    Washington,    the   marine   hospital    at   Chel- 
sea, i\Iass.,  "and  the  Minot  Ledge  lighthouse,  and 
in    1860    was    employed    in    the    construction    of 
defenses    around    Washington.     Subsequently   he 
served  with  irallantry  in  the  Manassas  campaign 
and  in  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  was  consulting 
engineer     on     the     statT     of    General     Sheridan 
(1864).    and    in    March,     1865,    was    brevetted 
brigadier-general.     For  two  years   (lS65-C7),he 
was   in   diarge  of  iiublic  works  in  Maine.     He 
became  senior  engineer,  with   the  rank  of  lieu- 
tenant-colonel, in  1867.  and  he  was  a  member  of 
the  Pacific  board  of  engineers  for  fortifications 
from  that  time  until  his  death. 


ALEXANDER,  Edward  Porter  (1835—). 
An  American  soldier  and  engineer.  He  was  born 
at  Washington,  Ga.,  and  graduated  at  the  West 
Point  Military  Academy  in  1857.  After  serving  as 
an  engineer  in  the  United  States  Army,  he 
joined  the  Confederacy  in  1861,  and  advanced  to 
the  rank  of  chief  of  "ordnance  and  chief  signal 
officer  in  the  Array  of  Northern  Virginia  (1861- 
62).  In  February,  1864,  he  was  commissioned 
brigadier-general. "  He  was  also  chief  of  artillery 
in  General  Longstreet's  corps,  and  served  in  that 
capacity  in  the  battles  of  the  Wilderness  and 
Spottsvlvania,  and  at  the  siege  of  Petersburg. 
At  the"  close  of  the  war  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  and  engim^ering  at  the 
University  of  South  Carolina,  and  four  years 
afterward  began  his  career  as  general  manager 
and  president  of  various  Southern  railroads.  He 
was  a  government  director  of  the  Union  Pacific 
Railroad  Company  from  1885  to  1887,  and  in 
1901,  as  engineer  arbitrator,  took  charge  of 
the  boundary  survey  between  Costa  Rica  and 
Nicaragua. 

ALEXANDER,  George  (1858—).  An  Eng- 
lish actor  and  manager,  whose  full  name  is 
George  Alexander  Gibb  Saiuson.  He  was  born 
at  Reading.  .Tune  19,  1858,  and  was  educated  at 
Clifton.  Stirling,  and  Edinburgh.  Though  he 
studied  medicine  and  afterward  began  a  com- 
mercial career,  he  Avas  fond  of  amateur  acting, 
and  went  upon  the  professional  stage  in  1879. 
In  1881  he  joined  Irving's  company  at  the 
Lyceum,  where  later  he  won  particular  successes 
as  Faust  (1886)  and  Macduff  (1888).  In  the 
season  of  1884-85  he  accompanied  Jlr.  Irving 
to  America.  Mr.  Alexander  began  management 
in  1890  at  the  Avenue  Theatre,  but  took  the  St. 
James  Theatre  in  the  next  year.  He  has  brought 
out  a  number  of  well-known  plays,  among  them 
The  Idler  (1801),  Lady  Windermere's  Fan 
(1892),  The  Second  Mrs.  Tanqueray  (1893), 
The  Prisoner  of  Zenda  (1896),  and  In  Days  of 
Old  (1899),  besides  several  successful  Shake- 
spearean productions,  including  As  You  Like  It 
(1896),  and  Much  Ado  About  Nothing  (1898). 

ALEXANDER,  .James  (1690-1756).  A  colo- 
nial lawyer.  He  was  born  in  Scotland,  emi- 
grated to  New  Jersey  in  1715.  practiced  law,  and 
was  temporarily  disbarred  for  defending  John 
Peter  Zenger  (q.v.),  when  he  was  accused  of  se- 
dition in  1733.  He  held  many  responsilile  public 
offices,  and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Ameri- 
can Philosophical  Society.  He  was  the  father 
of  the  celebrated  revohitionary  soldier,  "Lord 
Stirling."   or   William  Alexander    (q.v.). 

ALEXANDER,  Sir  James  Edward  (1803- 
85).  A  Scotch  officer,  traveler,  and  author.  He 
served  in  the  war  against  Burma  (1825),  and  in 
various  other  campaigns.  He  traveled  in  Per- 
sia and  South  America,  and  in  1836-37  con- 
ducted an  exploring  expedition  into  Africa.  He 
was  appointed  general  in  1882.  His  works  in- 
clude: Travels  from  India  to  England  (1827), 
Travels  Throngh  Russia  and  the  Crimea  (1830), 
Transatlantic  Sketches  (1833),  Expedition  of 
Discovery  into  the  Interior  of  Africa  (1838), 
L'Acadie  (1849),  Ineidents  of  the  Last  Maori 
War  {'[^(<:^),  am\  Bnshfighting  (1873). 

ALEXANDER,  James  Waddell  (1804-59). 
\n  American  clergyman.  He  was  born  near 
GordonsviUe.  Louisa  County,  Va.,  March  13, 
1804,  a  son  of  Dr.  Archibald  Alexander 
He    graduated    at    Princeton    College    in    1820 


ALEXANDER. 


319 


ALEXANDER. 


■and  afterward  was  a  tutor  there.  He  was 
installed  i)astor  of  the  Presbyterian  church 
at  Charlotte  Court  House,  Va.,  in  1827,  and  of 
the  First  Church  of  Trenton,  N.  J.,  in 
1S2!».  He  was  professor  of  Belles  Lettres  and 
Latin  in  Princeton  College,  1S33  to  1844,  pas- 
tor of  the  Duaiie  Street  Church,  Xew  York,  1844 
to  1849,  and  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history, 
Church  government,  and  sacred  rhetoric  in 
Princeton  Seniinar.y,  1S41J-51.  When  the  Duane 
■Street  Church  in  New  York  \Yas  reorganized  as 
the  Pitth  Avenue  Church  at  the  corner  of  Nine- 
teenth Street,  he  again  became  its  pastor  and 
continued  to  be  until  his  death,  at  Red  Sweet 
Springs,  Va.,  July  31,  1859.  Among  liis  many 
works  are  volumes  of  sermons i  Plain  Words  to 
a  Young  C'oiiiinunicant  (18.54),  Thoughts  on 
Prciidiimj  (1804),  The  American  Mechanic  and 
Workingnian  (New  Y'ork,  1847,  2  volumes),  and 
a  biography  of  his  father   (1854). 

ALEXANDER,  .John  Henry  (1812-67). 
An  American  scientist,  born  at  Annapolis, 
Md.,  and  educated  at  St.  John's  College 
there.  He  was  connected  with  the  Maryland 
geological  survey,  and  did  nuich  toward  opening 
the  coal  fields  of  that  State.  He  published,  in 
1840,  a  History  of  the  iletalltirgi)  of  Iron.  He 
was  active  in  establishing  a  uniform  standard  of 
weights  and  measures  throughout  the  United 
States,  and  published  a  Vnirersal  Dietionarij  of 
Weights  and  Measures  (1850).  He  also  strove 
for  an  international  coinage  between  Great  Brit- 
ain and  the  United  States.  He  was  professor 
of  physics  for  two  years  in  St.  James  College, 
Md.,  and  lield  a  similar  position  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania.  Cbnsult:  Hilgard,  Bio- 
grit/ihieal  Memoir  of  John  H.  Alexander  (Wash- 
ington, 1877)  ;  National  Academy  of  Sciences,  Bio- 
grajjhical  J/e»iO'irs, Volume  I. ( Washington,  1866). 

ALEXANDER,  .John  White.  (1856—). 
An  American  portrait  and  figure  painter,  born 
in  Allegheny  City,  Pa.  He  was  a  pupil  at  the 
Royal  Academy  in  Munich,  and  also  studied 
under  Fraid<  Duveneck.  with  whom  lie  went  to 
Italy.  Returning  to  New  York  in  1881,  he  soon 
attained  the  highest  rank  as  a  figure  and  por- 
trait painter.  Besides  numerous  portraits  in 
European  and  American  collections,  his  works 
include  the  portrait  of  Walt  Whitman  (Met- 
ropolitan Museum,  New  Y'ork),  "The  Pot  of 
Basil"  (Boston  JIuseum),  "In  the  Caff"  (Phila- 
delphia Academy).  "La  Femme  Rose"  (Car- 
negie Gallery,  Pittsburg),  '"The  Green  Bow" 
(Luxembourg,  Paris),  and  six  large  mural  deco- 
rations in  the  Congressional  Library.  Washing- 
ton. It  is  the  decorative  quality  in  his  works 
which  first  arrests  attention;  they  have  a 
quality  of  distinction  and  a  marked  efi'ect  of 
chiaroscuro. 

ALEXANDER,  .Jo.seph  Addison  (1809-60). 
One  of  the  most  eminent  American  biblical 
scholars.  He  was  the  son  of  Dr.  Archibald 
Alexander,  and  was  born  in  Philadelphia,  April 
24,  1809.  He  was  a  pupil  of  his  father,  gradu- 
ated at  Princ?ton  College  in  1826,  was  adjunct 
professor  there  of  ancient  languages  and  litera- 
ture from  1830  to  1833,  instructor,  associate  pro- 
fessor, and  professor  of  Oriental  and  biblical  lit- 
eriiture  in  Princeton  Seminary  fioni  1833  to 
18.50 ;  of  Church  history  and  government  from 
1851  to  1860.  of  New  Testament  literature  and 
biblical   Greek   in    1859   and    1860.      Among  his 


published  writings  arc  conunentaries  on  TJm 
I'salms  (New  York,  1850,  3  volumes)  ;  Isaiah 
(1846-47,  2  volumes);  Matthew  (1800);  Mark 
(1858);  Aets  (1856);  all  drawn  largely  from 
German  sources.  He  was  an  admired  preacher 
(iiermous,  1800,  2  volumes).  He  died  at  Prince- 
ton, N.  J..  .Jan.  28.  1860.  Consult  his  Life  by 
H.  C.  Alexander  (New  York,  1869,  2  volumes). 
ALEXANDER,  Legend  of.  A  famous  but 
largely  fictitious  account  of  the  adventures  of 
Ale.xanilcr  the  Great,  Avhich  was  the  basis  of  many 
romantic  works  in  the  Middle  Ages.  It  origin- 
ated probaldy  at  Alexandria,  in  Egypt.  The  his- 
torical narrative  of  Callisthenes  (q.v. )  having 
been  lost,  there  appeared  about  200  a.d.  under  his 
name  (sometimes  referred  to  as  the  pseudo-Cal- 
listhenes)  a  Greek  story,  wliich  represented  Alex- 
ander as  really  the  son  of  Nectanebus,  the  last 
king  of  Egypt,  and  credited  him  with  a  fabulous 
series  of  exploits  in  connection  with  his  actual 
conquests.  This  was  translated  into  Latin  early 
in  the  fourth  century  by  Julius  Valerius.  His 
version  was  subsequently  abridged,  particularly 
in  tlie  account  called  Historia  de  Pro'.liis,  by 
Archbishop  Leo,  about  the  end  of  the  tenth  cen- 
tury. About  the  twelfth  century,  the  period  of 
the  Chansons  de  gestc  of  the  cycle  of  Charle- 
magne, several  French  poems  were  built  upon  the 
Alexander  Legend :  the  earliest  was  that  of  Al- 
beric  of  Besancon,  of  which  only  the  beginning  is 
extant ;  the  best  known  is  the  great  Chanson 
d'AIexandre,  by  Lambert  li  Cors  and  Alexandre 
de  Bernay.  The  twelve-syllable  lines  in  wliich 
this  was  written  gave  its  name  to  the  Alexan- 
drine verse.  The  Alexander  of  the  Middle  Ages 
was  essentially  a  mediipval  knight  depicted  in 
the  manner  of  the  romancer's  own  ideals.  He  be- 
came one  of  the  "nine  worthies,"  and  one  of  the 
four  "kings"  in  the  game  of  cards.  More  or  less 
original  versions  of  the  legend  appear  in  poems 
of  nearly  every  European  country,  and  even  in 
the  Orient,  where  the  story  of  the  pseudo-Callis- 
thenes  was  rendered  into  S3Tian  and  Armenian 
as  earl3'  as  the  fifth  century.  Some  of  the  Slavic 
forms  of  the  tale  go  bacic  through  Byzantium  to 
this  Eastern  version.  Of  those  in  Western  Europe, 
most  notable  after  the  French  poems  are  per- 
haps those  in  German  by  Lamprecht,  who  trans- 
lated that  of  Alberie,  aiid  by  Rudolph  of  Hohe- 
nems,  of  the  thirteenth  century.  An  old  English 
version  of  Julius  Valerius  is  the  poem  called 
King  Alisaunder.  Consult:  Paul  Meyer,  Alexan- 
dre le  Grand,  histoire  de  la  Ugende  d'AIexandre 
dans  les  pays  romains  (Paris,  1886)  ;  Spiegel,  Die 
Alexandersage  bei  den  Orientalen  (Leipzig,  1851). 

ALEXANDER,  Mr.s.     See  Hector,  Annie. 

ALEXANDER,  Samuel  (1859—).  An  Eng- 
lish philosopher  and  educator,  born  at  Syd- 
ney, N.  S.  W.  He  was  educated  at  the  University 
of  Melbourne  and  at  Balliol  College,  Oxford ;  was 
appointed  scholar  of  Balliol  in  1878  and  was 
Fellow  of  Lincoln  College  from  1882  to  1893.  In 
1893  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  philosophy 
in  Owens  College  (Victoria  University).  In  ad- 
dition to  frequent  important  contributions  to  the 
International  Journal  of  Ethies.  to  Mind,  and 
other  technical  periodicals,  he  has  written  Moral 
Order  and  Progress   (London,  1889). 

ALEXANDER,  Stephen  (1806-83).  An 
American  astronomer.  He  was  born  at  Schenec- 
tady, N.  Y..  and  was  educated  at  Union  College 
and    Princeton    Theological    Seminary.      He    re- 


ALEXANDER. 


320 


ALEXANDER  ARCHIPELAGO. 


mained  at  Princeton,  becoming  adjunct  profes.sor 
of  mathematics  (1834-45),  professor  of  mathe- 
matics (1845-54),  and  professor  of  astronomy 
from  1840  until  liis  retirement  in  1878  as  profes- 
sor emeritus.  During  a  part  of  this  time  he  was 
professor  of  natural  philosopliy.  In  1860  he  was 
at  the  head  of  tlie  expedition  to  Labrador  to  ob- 
serve the  solar  eclipse  of  July  18.  He  was  the 
autlior  of  many  scientific  papers,  chiefly  astro- 
nomical, such  as  Physical  Phenomena  Attendant 
Upon  Solar  Eclipses  ( 1843) ,  Origin  of  the  Forms 
and  Present  Ccndition  of  Some  of  the  Clusters  of 
Stars  (1850),  and  Harmonies  in  the  Arrange- 
ment of  the  Solar  System.  He  also  wrote  on  the 
runduniciital  Principles  of  Mathematics. 

ALEXANDER,  Sib  William,  Eakl  op  Stir- 
ling (c.  1508-1040).  A  Scottish  poet  and  states- 
man ;  born  probably  at  Menstrie.  He  was  educated 
at  Glasgow  University,  traveled  on  the  Continent, 
was  tutor  to  the  young  Earl  of  Argj'le,  anil  so 
foimd  access  to  the  court  of  James  I.  Ho  wrote 
soimets,  the  Four  Monuroliick  Tragedies,  Elegy 
on  the  Death  of  Prince  Henry.  Doomsday,  and 
many  minor  poems.  In  1021  he  received  the  larg- 
est gift  ever  bestowed  on  a  subject,  viz..  a  "gift 
and  grant"  of  Canada,  including  Nova  Scotia  and 
Newfoundland ;  a  striking  expression  of  royal 
ignorance  of  geographical  limits  in  America. 
Cliarles  I.  confirmed  the  grant.  Alexander  was 
made  Secretary  of  State  for  Scotland  in  1026, 
and  in  1030  was  created  a  peer  as  Lord  Alexan- 
der of  Tullibody  and  A'iscount  Stirling,  and  was 
made  judge  of  the  Sessions  in  1031.  The  next 
year  he  built  the  Argyle  House,  still  one  of  the 
sights  of  Stirling.  In  1033  he  was  made  Earl  of 
Stirling  and  Viscount  of  Canada,  and  in  1039 
Earl  of  Dovan.  Consult  Poetical  Works,  with 
memoir   (Glasgow,  1870-73). 

ALEXANDER,  William  (1720-83).  An 
American  soldier,  generally  called  "Lord  Stir- 
ling." He  was  born  in  New  York  City  and  was 
the  son  of  James  Alexander  (1690-1750),  a  colo- 
nial lawyer  and  attorney-general  of  New  York 
(1721-23)  who  took  an  active  part  in  the  defense 
of  Zenger  (q.v. ),  and  was  prominent  on  the  side 
of  the  colonists  in  the  early  disputes  witli  the 
British  ministry.  He  served  in  the  French 
and  Indian  War,  first  as  commissary  and  then 
as  aide-de-camp  to  General  Shirley:  but  went 
to  England  in  1756  to  defend  Shirley 
against  the  charge  of  neglect  of  duty  (see 
Shirley,  William),  and  to  urge  his  claim  be- 
fore the  House  of  Lords  to  the  earldom  of 
Stirling,  through  descent  from  Sir  William  Alex- 
ander. Earl  of  Stirling  ( 1.5SO-1640) .  This  claim 
was  not  allowed,  and  in  1701  he  returned  to 
America.  He  soon  became  surveyor-general  and 
a  member  of  the  Provincial  Council,  and  in  No- 
vember, 1775,  enlisted  as  colonel  in  a  New  Jersey 
regiment.  In  January,  1770,  he  was  promoted  to 
the  rank  of  biigadier-general,  and  on  August  27 
took  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  battle  of  Long 
Island  (q.v.i.  where  his  brigade  was  almost  an- 
nihilated and  he  himself  was  captured.  He  was 
exchanged  within  a  montli,  became  a  major-gen- 
eral in  February,  1777.  served  with  great  gal- 
lantry and  elliciency  in  the  battles  of  Brandy- 
wine.  Germantown.  and  Jlonmouth,  and  subse- 
quently was  in  command  at  .\lbany,  N.  Y.,  until 
his  death.  He  was  well  <'(lucated,  was  an  enthu- 
siastic student  of  mathematics  and  astronomy, 
and  was  one  of  the  founders  and  first  governor 


of  King's  College  (now  Columbia  University) .  He 
published  a  pamphlet  entitled  The  Conduct  of 
Major-Oeneral  Shirley,  Briefly  Stated  (1756), 
and  An  Account  of  the  Comet  of  June  and  July 
(1770).  Consult:  W.  A.  Duer,  Life  of  William 
Alexander,  Earl  of  Stirling,  in  the  collection  of 
the  New  Jersey  Historical  Society  for  1847,  and 
Charles  Rogers,  The  House  of  Alexander  (1877). 

ALEXANDER,  William  (1824—).  Arch- 
bishop of  Armagh  and  primate  of  all  Ireland.  He 
was  born  at  Londonderry  and  was  educated  at 
Tunbridge  School  and  at  Exeter  and  Brasenose 
Colleges,  Oxford.  After  entering  holy  orders  he 
first  served  a  curacy  in  the  north  of  Ireland, 
and  later  became  chaplain  to  the  JIarquis 
of  Abercorn,  Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland.  He 
then  successively  occupied  the  positions  of 
Dean  of  Emly  {1863)  and  Bishop  of  Derry  and 
Raphoe  (1867).  In  1896  he  was  enthroned  as 
Archbishop  of  Armagh.  The  Bishop,  who  has  been 
select  ])reaclier  before  the  Universities  of  Oxford 
(1870-72  and  1882),  Cambridge  (1872  and  1S92) 
and  Dublin  ( 1879) ,  is  the  author  of  the  following 
important  works:  Witness  of  the  Psalms  to 
Christ  ( Bampton  Lectures,  1874'  third  edition), 
Verbum  Crucis  (fifth  edition),  Discourses  on 
Ejiistles  of  St.  John  (sixth  edition) ,  Commentar- 
ies on  Epistles  to  Colossians.  Thrssaloniansi.  Phile- 
mon (Speakers'  Commentaries,  Volumes  IV.,  V.). 

ALEXANDER,  William  Lindsay  (1808-84) . 
A  Scotch  divine,  born  in  Edinburgh.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Edinburgh  and  St.  Andrews,  became  pas- 
tor in  Edinburgh,  1835,  and  professor  of  theology 
in  the  Congregational  Theological  Hall  in  that 
city,  1854.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment Company  of  the  Bible  Revision  Committee. 
His  publications  embrace.  The  Connection  and 
Harmony  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  (Lon- 
don. 1841;  second  edition,  1853);  The  Ancient 
British  Church  (1852;  edited  by  S.  G.  Cireen, 
1891)  ;  Christ  and  Christianifi/  (1854)  ;  Life  of 
Ralph  Wardlan:,  D.D.  (Edinburgh,  1856)  ;  Labor 
and  Adventure  in  Northern  Europe  and  Russia 
(edited  by  J.  Paterson,  D.D..  London.  1858); 
A  Commentary  on  Deuteronomy  (1881),  and  one 
on  Zechariah  (1885),  edited  with  a  life;  Charles 
Ferme's  Analysis  on  Romans  and  A.  Melville's 
Commentary  on  Romans,  both  translated  from 
Latin  (Edinburgh,  1800)  ;  and  the  third  edition 
of  Kitto's  Biblical  Eneyclopwdia  ( 1802-06,  3 
volumes),  translated,  Haevernick's  Introduction 
(1852),  and  part  of  Dorner's  Person  of  Christ 
(1801).  For  ills  biography,  consult  J.  Ross  (Ed- 
inburgh.   1886). 

ALEXANDER  ^TO'LUS  (Gk.  'A/f^'nwSpof 
6  A(7(.)/l(if,  Alexandras  ho  AitOlos) .  A  Greek 
poet  of  the  third  century  B.C.  He  was  born  in 
.Etolia,  but  lived  mainly  at  Alexandria,  where 
he  was  considered  one  of  the  seven  poets  of  the 
Alexandrian  tragic  pleiad.  He  also  wrote  short 
epics,  elegies,  and  epigrams,  of  which  fragments 
have  been  preserved.  These  fragments,  published 
in  Bcrgk's  Poetce  Lyrici,  attest  the  cultivated 
taste  of  the  writer,  and  prove  him  one  of  the  im- 
mediate predecessors  of  Callimachus.  See  C'ouat's 
La  poesie  alexandrine  (1882). 

ALEXANDER  ARCHIPELAGO.  A  group 
of  over  1100  islands  and  islets  off  the  west  coast 
of  Alaska.  United  States,  in  lat.  54°  40'  to  58° 
25'  N.  The  largest  are  Chiehagov,  Baranov, 
Kupreanov,  Kulu,  Admiralty,  and  Prince  of 
Wales.    The  town  of  Sitka  is  on  Baranov  Island. 


ALEXANDER  BALAS. 


321 


ALEXANDER  OF  HALES. 


ALEXANDER  BA'LAS.  A  man  of  lowly 
origin  whose  private  name  was  Balas  or  Baal, 
and  who  possessed  a  striking  resemblani-c  to 
Antioehus  V..  Eupator,  and  was  therefore  pre- 
sented by  Attains  of  Perganius  as  a  son  of 
Antioehus  IV.,  Epiphanes,  and  a  claimant  to  the 
8cleueid  throne.  He  was  successful  against 
Demetrius  Soter,  and  reigiied  as  King  of  Syria 
from  1.54  to  14.5  B.C.  His  first  official  act  was 
to  ajjpoint  Jonathan  the  Hasmon;ran  as  high 
priest,  an  office  wliieli  the  latter  publicly  assumed 
at  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  153  B.C.  In  158  B.C. 
Alexander  married  Cleopatra,  daughter  of  Ptol- 
emy VII.,  Philonietor,  and  on  that  occasion  con- 
ferred on  Jonathan  the  titles  of  military  and  civil 
governor.  In  147  B.C.  ApoUonius,  (iovernor  of 
Ccelc-Syria,  took  up  arms  for  Demetrius  II..  but 
was  defeated  by  Jonathan  at  Ashdod.  The  Has- 
mona'ans  had  every  reason  to  be  pleased  with  Al- 
exander Balas.  But  he  was  an  incapable  and  cor- 
rupt ruler  and  hated  by  his  soldiers,  who  de- 
serted him  in  145  B.C.  He  fled  to  Abbte,  in  Ara- 
bia, and  was  there  assassinated. 

ALEXANDER  COL'UMN  ( Russ.  Aleksan- 
drorftkai/a  KoIhiuki)  .  A  monument  to  Alexander 
I.  of  Russia.     See  St.  Petersburg. 

ALEXANDER  FALLS.     See  H.\T  River. 

ALEXANDER  JANN^'DS  (Lat.  form  of 
Heb.  Yiinnai,  Jonathan)  (  ?-78  B.C.) .  King  of  the 
Jews  from  104  to  78  B.C.  He  was  warlike  and  en- 
ergetic, and  during  his  reign  extended  the  fron- 
tiers of  the  kingdom  toward  the  west  and  the 
south.  Defeated  by  Ptolemy  Lathyrus  in  Galilee, 
he  formed  an  alliance  with  Cleopatra  of  Egypt, 
and  drove  the  invader  from  the  coiuitry. 
Wars  with  the  Jloabites,  the  Anunonites,  and 
the  .\rabians  engaged  his  attention  till  the  day 
of  his  death.  Internally  his  reign  was  marked 
by  bitter  conflicts  between  the  Saddvicees,  of 
which  party  the  King  was  the  head,  and  the  Phar- 
isees, who  comprised  the  vast  mass  of  the  people. 
It  is  estimated  that  50,000  people  perished  in  the 
civil  strife.  In  putting  down  a  revolt  at  .Jerusa- 
lem he  slaughtered  (iOOO  of  the  insurgents,  and 
in  the  year  8(i.  returning  triumphantly  from  ex- 
ile, where  he  had  been  driven  by  the  Pharisees, 
he  caused  800  rebels  to  be  crucified  in  his  pres- 
ence and  their  wives  and  children  to  be  butchered 
before  their  eyes.  Consult:  .Josephus,  Antii/uities 
of  the  Jctrs,  Book  xiii.  chaps.  12-15;  and  jeuish 
^^'nr,  Book  i.  c.  4. 

ALEXANDER  JOHN  L  (1820-73).  Prince  of 
Rumania  from  18511  to  ISOfi.  He  was  a  Molda- 
vian boyar.  by  name  .lohn  Cuza,  who,  when  5Iol- 
davia  and  \Vallachia  determined  to  form  a 
Rumanian  State,  was  elected  Prince  of  Ru- 
mania under  the  above  title  by  the  Assemblies. 
He  received  the  recognition  of  tlie  Sultan  in 
1861.  His  reign  was  arbitrary  and  unconstitu- 
tional, and  convinced  the  Rumanians  of  the  ini- 
praeticaliility  of  having  as  sovereign  one  of  their 
own  number.  He  followed  the  example  of  Na- 
poleon III.  in  his  methods,  endeavoring  to  mask 
arbitrar.v  government  under  plebiscites  and  uni- 
versal suft'rage.  He  became  exceedingly  unpop- 
ular, and  was  forced  to  abdicate  in  1801!. 

ALEXANDER  KARAGEORGEVITCH, 
ka'ra-ga-or'gu-vich  (1806-85).  Prince  of  Servia, 
born  at  Topola.  He  was  for  a  time  an  officer  in 
the  Russian  arm  .v.  and  was  chosen  prince  in  1842. 
Wholly  under  Austrian  influence,  he  angered  the 
National    party    by    his    neutrality    during    the 


Crimean  War,  and  iu  1858  was  deposed.  He 
was  accused  of  cons]jiracy  in  the  murder  of  the 
Prince  Michael  (1868),  and  was  sentenced  to  an 
imprisonment  of  twenty  years  in  contumaciam. 
The  few  reforms  accomplished  during  his  reign 
are  not  to  l)e  attributed  to  him. 

ALEXANDER  LAND.  A  land  area  in  the 
Antarctic  (lat.  68"  43'  S.,  long.  70°  to  75°  W.). 
discovered  liy  Itellingsliausen  in  1821. 

ALEXANDER  NEVSKI,  nef'ske  (1220-G3). 
A  Russian  hero  and  saint.  He  was  born  at  Vlad- 
imir, the  sou  of  Prince  Yaroslav  of  Novgorod. 
In  order  to  defend  the  country,  which  was 
attacked  on  all  sides,  but  especiall.y  by  the  Mon- 
gols, his  father  left  Novgorod,  intrusting  the 
government  to  his  sons,  Feodor  and  Alexander. 
Feodor  died  soon  after.  Alexander  vigorously  re- 
sisted the  enemy,  but  Russia  was  forced  to  sub- 
mit to  the  Mongol  dominion  in  1240  a.d.  Alex- 
ander now  fought  to  defend  the  western  frontier 
against  the  Danes,  the  Swedes,  and  the  Teutonic 
Knights.  He  received  the  surname  of  Nevski  from 
the  splendid  victory  over  the  Swedes,  which  he 
won  in  1240  on  the  Neva,  in  the  region  where 
St.  Petersburg  now  stands.  In  1242  on  the  ice 
of  Lake  Peipus  he  defeated  the  Livonian  Knights 
of  the  Sword,  who  had  been  instigated  by  the 
Pope  to  attack  the  Russian  heretics.  Upon 
the  death  of  his  father,  in  1246,  he  became 
Prince  of  Vladimir.  Pope  Innocent  IV.  made  a 
diplomatic  attempt  in  12.51  to  reunite  the  Greek 
and  Roman  Churches,  since  his  military  scheme 
had  failed,  and  with  this  end  in  view  sent  an 
embass.v  to  Alexander,  which,  however,  proved 
ineffectual.  To  the  end  of  his  life  Alexander  re- 
mained a  vassal  of  the  Tartars  or  Mongols. 
Thrice  he  had  to  renew  his  oath  of  fealt.v  to  the 
Asiatic  barbarians,  making  in  each  instance  a 
.journey  to  their  camp.  He  died  November  14, 
1263,  on  his  return  from  the  last  of  these  .jour- 
neys. The  gratitude  of  the  nation  perpetuated 
his  memorv  in  popular  songs,  and  even  canonized 
him.  Peter  the  Gireat  honored  his  memory  in 
1723  bv  building  a  magnificent  convent  on  the 
spot  where  he  had  fought  liis  great  battle,  and 
in  1725  founded  the  knightly  order  of  St.  Alex- 
ander Nevski. 

ALEXANDER  OF  APH'RODIS'IAS.  A 
Peripatetic  ]ihiloso]ilier,  who  was  born  at  Aphro- 
disias  in  Caria  and  lived  about  200  a.d.  He  w-as 
the  most  learned  and  intelligent  Greek  commen- 
tator of  Aristotle  (especially  on  the  metaphysics) 
and  was  known  as  "The  Exegetes,"  or  "The  Ex- 
pounder." His  works  were  early  translated  into 
Latin,  and  are  in  large  part  preserved.  He  also 
wrote  original  treatises,  the  most  important  of 
which  are  those  On  Fate  and  On  the  Sotil.  At  the 
time  of  the  Renaissance,  a  philosophic  school 
which  adopted  Aristotle's  views  on  immortality 
was  named  after  him  "the  Alexandrist"  (q.v.). 

ALEXANDER  OF  HALES,  h.alz  (Lat. 
Alcainirlrr  Ualciisis)  (?-1245).  A  famous  Eng- 
lish theologian,  known  as  "the  Irrefragable  Doc- 
tor.* He  was  born  in  Hales,  Gloucestershire,  but 
had  attended  the  schools  of  Paris,  had  taken  the 
de.grce  of  doctor,  and  had  become  a  noted  profess- 
or of  philosophy  and  theology  there,  when 
(1222)  he  suddenly  entered  tlie  Order  of  the 
Franciscans  and  became  a  lecturer  among  them. 
He  resigned  in  1238,  and  died  as  a  simple  monk 
in  Paris,  124.5.  His  chief  and  only  authentic 
work   is  the   l^umma   Universce  Theologke    (best 


ALEXANDER    OF    HALES.  3  J 

edition,  Venice.  157fi.  4  volumes),  written  at  tlie 
command  of  Pope  Innocent  IV.,  and  enjoined  by 
his  successor,  ^Mexander  IV.,  to  be  used  by  all 
professors  and  students  of  theology  in  Christen- 
dom. Alexander  gave  the  doctrines  of  the  Church 
a  more  rigorously  syllogistic  form  than  they  had 
previously  had,  and  may  thus  be  considered  as 
the  author  of  the  scholastic  theology.  Instead  of 
appealing  to  tradition  and  authority,  he  deduces 
with  great  subtlety,  from  assumed  premises,  the 
most  startling  doctrines  of  Catholicism,  especial- 
ly in  favor  of  the  prerogatives  of  the  papacy.  He 
refuses  any  toleration  to  heretics,  and  would  have 
them  deprived  of  all  property;  he  absolves  sub- 
jects from  all  obligation  to  obey  a  prince  who  is 
not  obedient  to  the  Church.  The  spiritual  power, 
which  blesses  and  consecrates  kings,  is,  by  that 
very  fact,  above  all  temporal  powers,  to  say  noth- 
ing of  the  essential  dignity  of  its  nature.  It  has 
the  right  to  appoint  and  to  judge  these  powers, 
while  tlie  Pope  has  no  judge  but  God.  In  ecclesi- 
astical affairs,  also,  he  maintains  the  Pope's  au- 
thority to  be  full,  absolute,  and  superior  to  all 
laws  and  customs.  The  points  on  wliich  Alexan- 
der exercises  his  dialectics  are  sometimes  simply 
ludicrous ;  as  when  he  discusses  the  question 
Avhether  a  mouse  that  should  nibble  a  consecrated 
wafer  would  thereby  eat  the  body  of  Christ. 

ALEXANDER  OF  THE  NORTH,  The. 
Charles  XII.  of  Sweden.  Sometimes  so  called 
from  his  warlike  exploits. 

ALEXANDER  POL'YHIS'TOR  ( Gk.  Holvta- 
Tup,  poliilihlor,  very  learned).  A  famous  his- 
torian of  the  first  century  B.C.,  who  was  a 
native  of  Cottyacum,  in  Phrygia,  but  was  edu- 
cated at  Miletus.  In  Sulla's  war  against  Mith- 
vidates  he  was  taken  captive  and  brought  to 
Rome,  where  Cornelius  Lentulus  gave  him  his 
fi'eedom.  Sulla  afterward  granted  him  Roman 
citizenship.  Alexander  gained  the  surname  Poly- 
histor  because  of  the  great  number  of  his  his- 
torical works :  but  he  also  wrote  on  geography, 
granunar.  science,  rhetoric,  and  philosophy.  All 
of  his  books  have  perished;  but  the.y  were  ex- 
tensively quoted  by  Pliny  the  Elder,  Diogenes 
Laertius,  and  particularly  Clement  of  Alexan- 
dria and  Eusebius.  These  excerpts  show  him  to 
have  been  a  rather  poor  compiler  without  marked 
literary  ability  or  historical  judgment.  But  he 
was  evidently  a  great  reader,  and  he  perused  .Jew- 
ish and  Samaritan  works  as  well  as  CJreek  au- 
thors. Thus  the  world  is  indebted  to  Alexander 
for  all  extant  information  concerning  such  .Jew- 
ish writers  as  Philo,  the  epic  poet;  Ezekiel,  the 
tragedian ;  Eupolemus,  the  historian ;  Demetrius 
or  Artapanus,  the  chronicler;  Aristeas,  the  his- 
torian, and  such  Samaritan  writers  as  Theodotus 
and  Molon.  The  genuineness  of  these  fragments 
has  been  doulited  by  Ranch  and  Cruice ;  but  the 
defense  by  Miiller,  Freudenthal,  and  Schiirer  is 
quite  convincing.  Alexander  refers  twice  to  the 
Bible,  and  gives  from  Berosus  the  story  of  the 
Deluge  and  possibly  also  the  legend  of  the  con- 
fusion of  tongues.  The  text  of  the  fragments ^will 
be  found  in  Eusebius,  I'rcrparalio  Enuiiriclira 
(London,  1.S42),  Clement,  fitromafa,  i.,  21,  130 
(Oxford,  l.SliO)  :  Miiller,  Fratimcnta.  iii..  211  flf., 
and  translated  in  I.  R.  Cory's  A}>cirnt  Fnitiments 
(London,  1S70),  J.  Freudenthal,  Ilcllcnifstische 
aiudien  (Breslau,  1875),  and  E.  Scliiirer's 
Geschichle  des  jiidischen  Volkcs,  iii.,  340  ff. 
(Leipzig.  18!t8),  discuss  e.xcellently  the  question 
■of  their  genuineness. 


2  ALEXANDRE    LE    GRAND. 

ALEXANDER  SEVE'RXJS  (c.  20.')-2.3.5) .  Em- 
peror of  Rome  from  222  to  23.5  and  cousin, adopted 
son,  and  successor  of  Elagabalus.  Tbe  excellent  ed- 
ucation which  he  received  from  his  mother,  Julia 
MammaM,  rendered  him  one  of  tlie  best  princes 
in  an  age  when  virtue  was  reckoned  nune  dan- 
gerous than  vice  in  a  monarch.  He  souglit  the 
society  of  the  learned;  Paulus  and  Ulpian  were 
his  counselors,  Plato  and  Cicero  were,  next  to 
Horace  and  Vergil,  his  favorite  authors.  Al- 
though a  pagan,  lie  reverenced  the  doctrines  of 
Christianity,  and  often  quoted  that  saying: 
"Whatsoever  ye  would  that  men  shoukl  do  to  you, 
do  ye  even  so  to  them."  Beloved  as  he  was  by 
the  citizens  on  account  of  his  equity,  he  soon  be- 
came an  object  of  hatred  to  the  unruly  Pra?torian 
Guards.  His  first  expedition,  against  Artaxerxes, 
King  of  Persia,  w'as  happily  terminated  by  a 
speedy  overthrow  of  the  enemy.  But  during  one 
which  he  undertook  against  the  Germans  on  the 
Rhine,  to  defend  the  frontiers  of  tlie  Empire  from 
their  incursions,  an  insurrection  broke  out 
among  his  troops,  headed  by  Maximinus,  in 
which  Alexander  was  murdered,  along  with  his 
mother,  not  far  from  Mainz.  The  grateful  peo- 
ple, however,  enrolled  him  among  the  gods. 
After  his  death,  military  despotism  obtained  the 
ascendency. 

ALEXANDER'S  FEAST,  or  the  Power  of 
Mr.sic.  An  ode  Avrittcn  liy  John  Dryden  for  St. 
Cecilia's  Day,  1697.  It  contains  a  number  of 
lines  now  familiar  from  quotation. 

ALEXANDER,  The  Papiilagonian.  A  cele- 
Ijrated  impostor  of  the  early  part  of  the  sec- 
ond century  a.d.,  of  whom  Lucian  gives  a 
description.  He  was  born  at  Abonouteichos,  in 
Asia  Minor,  and  after  being  for  some  time  asso- 
ciated with  another  charlatan  named  Cocconas, 
of  Byzantium,  returned  to  his  native  place  and 
established  a  pretended  oracle  of  .Esculapius. 
wliom  he  sliowed  in  the  form  of  a  serpent.  Here 
he  gained  great  reputation,  which  extended  even 
to  Ital,v.  He  was  especially  resorted  to  during 
the  plague  of  160  a.d. 

AL'EXAN'DRA,  Caroline  JIarie  Charlotte 
Louise  .Julie  (1844 — ).  Queen  of  England.  She 
is  the  daughter  of  Christian  IX..  King  of  Den- 
mark, and  was  born  at  Copenhagen,  December  1, 
1844.  She  was  married  to  Albert  Edward.  Prince 
of  Wales,  JIarch  10,  1S03.  and  has  had  three 
sons  (two  of  wliora  have  since  died)  and  tlirce 
daughters.  She  visited  Russia  at  tlie  time  of  the 
death  of  Alexander  III.,  and  has  also  made  sev- 
eral visits  to  Denmarlc.  She  is  interested  in 
many  benevolent  enterprises,  and  is  an  accom- 
plished musician,  holding  the  degree  of  honorary 
musical  doctor.  Upon  the  accession  of  Albert 
Edward  to  the  throne  (1901),  she  became  Queen 
of  England.    See  Edward  VII. 

ALEXANDRA,  Feodorovna.  Empress  of 
Russia.     See  Alexandeb  III. 

ALEXANDRE,  ii'laks-iin'dra.  Rabbi  Aaron 
(c.  1700-18.50).  A  German  chess-player,  liorn 
at  Hohenfeld,  Bavaria.  He  went  to  Strassburg 
in  1803  as  an  instructor  in  German,  and  subse- 
quently to  Paris  and  London.  He  published  an 
Fnciiclopedie  des  I'checs  (1837),  and  a  Collcclioii 
dcs  pins  hcdiix  prohUmes  d'^checs  (1846),  both 
still   valuable. 

ALEXANDRE  LE  GRAND,  a'lfiks'iiN'dr'  Ic 
griiN'.  The  name  of  a  tragedy  by  Racine,  pro- 
duced in   1005.     The  actress  who  played  Axiane 


ALEXANDRE    LE    GRAND. 


323 


ALEXANDRIA. 


in  this   piece   was   the  cause   of   a   l)itter   rivalry 
between  Rai.ine  and  ilolifre. 

AL'EXANDRET'TA,  ..r  ISKANDERUN, 
ts-lviin'de-ruon'.  A  seaport  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  in 
the  vilayet  of  Adana,  on  the  (Jiilf  of  Iskandenni, 
wliieli  forms  the  extreme  iiortlieast  nook  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  (Jlap:  Turkey  in  Asia,  (4  4) . 
It  is  surrounded  by  hills  in  a  very  picturesque 
locality.  The  harbor  is  naturally  one  of  tlie 
best  on  this  coast.  The  town  is  the  seat  of  an 
extensive  trade  in  silk  goods,  cloth,  and  some 
raw  products,  amounting  to  about  ,$.5,000,000 
annually.  The  population  is  estimated  all  the 
way  from  1500  to  7000.  Alexandrctta  is  the 
seat  of  a   United   States  vice-consul. 

ALEXANDRI,   ii'leks-iin'dre.     See  Alecsan- 

DRI. 

AL'EXAN'DRIA  (Ar.  Ishanderieh) .  A  city 
founded  by  Alexander  the  Great,  in  the  win- 
ter of  332  B.C.,  on  the  site  of  an  Egyptian 
town.  Rhacotis  (Map;  Africa,  O  1).  It  was 
situatefl  at  the  Canopic  mouth  of  the  Nile,  on 
the  low  ridge  separating  Lake  Mareotis  from  the 
Mediterranean,  and  was  laid  out  by  the  architect 
Dinocrates  of  Rhodes  in  the  form  of  a  parallelo- 
gram, with  two  main  streets,  crossing  at  right 
angles,  though  somewhat  to  the  north  and  east 
of  the  centre  lines.  The  other  streets  were 
also  at  right  angles  with  one  another,  and 
the  arrangement  seems  to  have  remained 
undisturbed  for  a  long  period,  although  the 
level  of  the  city  was  raised  and  new  streets 
laid  out  above  the  old  ones.  The  city  had  a  fine 
(builile  harbor,  formed  by  building  a  mole  {the 
llcptastadion) ,  seven  furlongs  in  length,  to  the 
island  of  Pharos,  on  the  northeast  end  of  w-hich 
was  a  lighthouse,  regarded  as  one  of  the  wonders 
of  the  world.  ( See  Pharos.  )  The  small  harbor, 
on  the  west,  was  open,  but  the  large  harbor  was 
entered  only  by  a  narrow  passage  between  the 
Pharos  and  a  mole  built  out  from  the  promon- 
tory Lochias  on  the  east  of  the  city.  Tlie  city 
grew  rapidly,  and  became  one  of  the  chief  centres 
of  the  trade  between  the  east  and  the  west,  while 
the  generous  policy  of  the  Ptolemies,  who  made  it 
their  capital,  attracted  a  large  foreign  popula- 
tion. 

KgjTJtians,  Greeks,  and  Jews  were  the  chief 
elements,  each  gathering  in  a  special  quarter 
I  of  the  city.  On  Lochias  was  the  royal  palace, 
I  and  the  neighboring  ])art  of  the  city  was  filled 
with  magnificent  buildings,  including  the  mu- 
seum and  the  famous  library  (see  Alexanori- 
AN  Library),  the  monument  of  Alexander, 
the  graves  of  the  Ptolemies,  the  temple  of 
Poseidon,  and  the  Csesareura — afterward  a 
cluirch,  and  once  marked  by  the  two  obelisks 
known  as  Cleopatra's  Needles,  of  which  one  was 
transported  to  the  Thames  Embankment  in  Lon- 
don in  1878,  and  the  other  to  Central  Park,  New 
York,  in  1881.  These  obelisks  were  originally 
erected  by  Thothmes  III.,  and  were  brought  to 
Alexandria  bj'  the  Romans.  Near  here  was  the 
great  emporium,  and  somewhat  to  the  south  lay 
the  Rruchion  (/3pi)v'OV  I,  a  residence  quarter.  The 
great  temple  of  Serapis  lay  in  the  southwest,  or 
Egyptian  quarter,  where  now  stands  a  solitary 
column,  the  so-called  Pompey's  Pillar,  a  mono- 
lith of  red  granite  73  feet  high,  erected  in  302  a.d. 
by  the  Roman  eparch,  Pompeius,  in  honor  of  Dio- 
cletian. Earthquakes  and  floods  have  changed 
the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  but  few  remains 
are  now   visible,   though   excavations   conducted 


for  Napoleon  III.  in  1800  by  Mahmond  Bey  re- 
vealed a  number  of  paved  streets,  and  those  of 
1S08-99  by  Dr.  Noaek  have  thrown  mucli  light 
upon  the  successive  periods  of  building  in  the 
city.  The  original  foundations  of  tlie  time  of 
Alexander  rest  on  the  natural  rock,  and  are  about 
14%  feet  below  the  paved  streets,  which  seem  to 
belong  to  an  extensive  rebuilding  of  the  city  by 
Antoninus  Pius,  and  are  now  covered  with  the 
earth  on  which  the  modern  city  stands.  The  pol- 
icy of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  and  his  immediate 
successors  drew  not  only  trsulers  but  learned 
men  to  the  city,  and  Alexandria  became  the  cen 
tre  of  Greek  intellectual  life  dining  the  third 
and  second  centuries  B.C.  (See  Alexandrian 
Age.)  The  city  also  developed  a  very  charac- 
teristic type  of  art,  which  vied  with  that  of  Per- 
gamus.  and  seems  to  have  had  great  influence  on 
the  west.  Alexandrian  influence  is  marked  at 
Pompeii  and  in  Provence.  Consult  Mahmoud 
Bey,  .1/c'moire  sur  V Antique  Alexandrie  (Copen- 
hagen,  1872). 

In  30  B.C.  Egypt  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
Romans  under  Octavius.  Lender  Roman  rule  Al- 
exandria lost  nnicli  of  its  former  (neeminence  as 
the  capital  of  the  Hellenistic  world ;  and  though 
for  many  centuries  it  contiiuied  to  be  one  of 
the  greatest  cities  of  the  Empire,  its  decline 
from  the  magnificent  prosperity  it  had  enjoyed 
under  the  Ptolemies  was  rapid  after  the  first 
century  of  the  Christian  era.  The  Jewish  inhab- 
itants of  Alexandria  joined  in  the  great  national 
revolt  of  IIG  A.n.,  and  in  the  desperate  struggle 
which  ensued  the  .Jewish  population  was  anni- 
hilated and  a  large  part  of  the  city  was  de- 
stroyed. The  excesses  of  the  Alexandrian  mob, 
famous  throughout  the  em])ire  for  its  fickleness 
and  its  violence,  plunged  the  city  into  misfortune 
twice  during  the  third  century.  In  21.5  the  se- 
ditious conduct  of  the  populace  led  to  a  general 
massacre  of  the  inhabitants  at  the  order  of  the 
Emperor  Caracalla.  Forty-fi\e  years  later  civil 
war  broke  out  among  the  difi'erent  quarters  of 
the  city,  lasting  for  twelve  years  and  resulting 
in  the  destruction  of  the  Rruchion,  the  richest 
district  of  .-Vlexandria.  with  its  ancient  palaces, 
temples,  and  public  buildings.  With  the  rise 
of  Alexandria  as  one  of  the  great  Christian  cap- 
itals of  the  empire,  religious  tumult  took  the 
place,  in  large  measure,  of  political  dissension, 
and  paganism  and  Christianity  fought  out  their 
battle  in  many  bloody  riots.  The  triumph  of 
the  new  faith  was  signalized  in  389  by  the 
destruction  of  the  Serapion,  the  last  refuge  of 
the  pagan  belief,  but  religious  peace  was  by  no 
means  secured.  Between  413  and  415  the  patri- 
arch CjTil  led  mobs  of  monks  against  the  heretics 
and  .Tews,  and  one  of  these  militant  bands  tore 
to  pieces  the  beautiful  pagan  priestess,  Hj'patia 
(q.v. ).  In  61G  Alexandria  was  taken  by  Chos- 
roes,  King  of  Persia.  In  December,  041,  it  fell 
into  the  hands  of  Amru,  the  Mohammedan  con- 
queror of  Egypt.  The  story  of  the  destruction 
of  the  famous  library  at  the  command  of  the 
Caliph  Omar  is  discredited.  With  the  Arabian 
conquest  a  period  of  swift  decay  set  in.  The 
commerce  of  the  city  was  almost  entirely  divert- 
ed to  other  cities,  the  last  remnants  of  its  pros'- 
perity  being  destroyed  by  the  discovery  of  the 
all-water  route  to  India.  Toward  the  end  of 
the  eighteenth  century  its  population  was  prob- 
ably less  than  7000.  "  On  July  2,  1708,  Alexan- 
dria was  taken  by  the  French,  who  held  it  until 
August  31,  1801.     In  the  nineteenth  century  the 


ALEXANDRIA. 


324 


ALEXANDRIA. 


city  entered  upon  a  new  era  of  prosperity  under 
the  wise  rule  of  Mehemet  Ali.  During  the  dis- 
turbances in  connection  with  the  rebellion  of 
Arabi  Pasha  (q.v. ),  Alexandria  was  bombarded 
by  the  English  fleet  under  Admiral  Seymour, 
July  11-12,  1882. 

Jlodern  Alexandria  is  divided  into  two  parts. 
The  peninsula  between  the  eastern  and  western 
harbors  is  inhabited  chiefly  by  Mohammedans. 
It  has  crooked  and  narrow  streets,  a  large  num- 
ber of  mosques,  and  with  the  exception  of  the 
palaces  of  the  wealthy  Turks,  few  buildings  wor- 
thy of  notice.  The  European  quarter  is  situ- 
ated on  the  mainland  south  of  the  eastern  har- 
bor. It  is  well  built,  and  has  many  of  the 
improvements  essential  to  a  modern  city.  The 
centre  of  the  European  eity  is  the  Mehemet  Ali 
Square,  containing  the  statue  of  Mehemet  Ali 
and  surrounded  by  the  official  buildings  and  the 
finest  residences  of  the  Europeans.  There  are 
three  theatres,  a  number  of  churches  of  dift'erent 
denominations,  and  the  nmseum  of  Gnneco-Roman 
antiquities.  Alexandria  has  two  harbors.  The 
eastern  is  accessible  only  for  vessels  of  very  light 
draught,  and  is  used  mostly  by  fishing  vessels. 
The  western  harbor  is  the  chief  shipping  centre, 
and  is  visited  annually  by  over  2800  vessels,  with 
a  total  tonnage  of"  about  2,500,000.  There 
is,  besides,  the  outer  harbor,  protected  by  a 
mole  nearly  two  miles  long.  Alexandria  is  at 
present  one  of  the  chief  commercial  ports  on 
the  Mediterranean  and  the  principal  port  of 
Egypt.  The  chief  articles  of  export  are 
grain,  cotton,  beans,  sugar,  and  rice.  With 
Cairo,  Alexandria  is  connected  by  rail  since  1855 
and  by  the  Mahmudieh  Canal.  Along  the  latter 
are  situated  tlie  .summer  residences  of  the  Euro- 
peans. It  is  also  connected  by  cable  lines  with 
Malta,  Cyprus,  Crete,  and  Port  Said.  The  pop- 
ulation was  320,000  in  1897.  It  consists  chiefly 
of  Mohammedans,  with  about  50,000  Europeans, 
mostly  Greeks  and  Italians.  Consult:  Sharpe, 
Alexandrian  Chronology  (London,  1857)  ;  Kings- 
ley,  Historical  Lectures  and  Essays  (New  York, 
1889).     See  Egypt. 

ALEXANDRIA,  ilTeks-an'dre-a.  The  princi- 
pal to\ra  of  the  district  of  the  same  name  in  the 
government  of  Kherson,  Russia,  situated  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Berezovka  and  Ingulets  rivers, 
216  miles  from  the  city  of  Kherson,  and  about 
950  miles  from  St.  Petersburg.  The  principal 
occupations  of  its  inhabitants  are  farming  and 
cattle-raising,  and  much  activity  is  displayed  in 
its  tanning,  soap,  and  candle-making  indus- 
tries. Population,  in  1885,  17,400;  in  1897, 
14,000. 

AL'EXAH'DRIA.  A  magnificent  villa  and 
country  seat  in  Pcterhoff,  one  of  the  summer 
residences  of  the  imperial  family  of  Russia. 
Planned  at  the  initiative  of  Alexander  I.,  the 
noble  structure  was  finished  and  the  splendid 
grounds  laid  out  only  in  1830,  during  the  reign 
of  Nicholas  I. 

ALEXANDRIA.  A  city  in  Madison  Co.,  In- 
diana, 48  miles  northeast  of  Indianapolis,  on  the 
Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago  and  St.  Louis,  and 
Lake  Erie  and  Western  railroads  (Map:  Indiana, 
D  2).  It  has  extensive  manufactures  of  glass, 
paper  mills,  and  iron  and  steel  works.  The  city 
owns  and  operates  its  own  water  works.  Alexan- 
dria was  first  settled  in  1834,  and  is  governed 
under  a  charter  of  1893,  which  provides  for  a 
city  council  of  six  members,  and  places  the  may- 


or's term  at  four  years.     Pop.,   1890,  715;   1900, 

ALEXANDRIA.  A  eity  and  county  seat  of 
Rapides  Parish,  La.,  19G  miles  northwest  of  New 
Orleans,  on  the  Red  River,  and  on  the  Southern 
Pacific,  the  Texas  and  Pacific,  the  Kansas  City, 
Watkins  and  C4ulf,  tlie  St.  Louis,  Iron  Moun- 
tain and  Southern,  and  other  railroads  (Map: 
Louisiana,  C  2).  It  has  fine  government,  high 
school,  and  bank  buildings,  and  is  across  the 
river  from  a  national  cemeterv  which  contains 
1308  gi-aves.  Until  the  Civil  War  the  State 
University  was  situated  two  miles  north  of  the 
city.  Alexandria  is  the  seat  of  important  com- 
mercial and  manufacturing  interests,  principally 
in  cotton,  cottonseed  oil  and  cake,  sugar,  mo- 
lasses, etc.  Settled  in  1820,  Alexandria  was  in- 
corporated twenty  years  later.  Under  a  charter 
of  1898  the  government  is  vested  in  a  mayor, 
elected  biennially,  and  a  city  council,  which  con- 
trols appointments  of  the  majority  of  adminis- 
trative officials.  The  water  works  and  electric 
light  plant  are  owned  and  operated  by  the  muni- 
cipality.    Pop.,  1890,  2861;  1900,  5648. 

ALEXANDRIA.  A  city  and  port  of  entry 
in  Alexandria  County,  Va.,  on  the  Potomac 
River,  about  six  miles  oelow  Washington,  and  on 
the  Southern,  the  Pennsylvania,  the  Baltimore 
and  Ohio,  and  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  rail- 
roads (Map:  Virginia,  G  3).  Alexandria  is 
100  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Potomac,  but 
the  stream  which  forms  its  harbor  is  a  mile 
wide.  The  city  is  accessible  to  large  vessels, 
and,  therefore,  is  able  to  control  an  exten- 
sive and  increasing  trade.  It  has  several  shoe 
factories,  flour  mills,  machine  shops,  plan- 
ing mills,  fertilizer  plants,  glass  works,  chemi- 
cal works,  brick  works,  and  breweries.  The 
city  owns  and  operates  its  gas  and  electric 
light  plants,  and  has  a  public  library,  and 
notably  good  schools.  Alexandria  was  first  in- 
corporated in  1749,  and  is  now  governed  by  a 
charter  of  1879,  as  revised  in  1895.  The  mayor 
is  elected  biennially,  and  the  city  council  is  a 
bicameral  body.  The  people  elect  "all  the  impor- 
tant officers,  such  as  treasurer,  auditor,  tax 
collector,  etc.,  the  city  council  electing  the  rest; 
the  mayor  has  no  power'  of  appointment.  At 
Alexandria,  originally  called  Belhaven,  Brad- 
dock  made  his  headquarters  before  marching 
against  the  French  in  1755,  and  here,  on  April 
13,  the  governors  of  New  York,  Massachusetts, 
Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and  Virginia  met  to 
concert  plans  for  the  expedition.  Alexandria  lay 
within  the  territory  ceded  by  Virginia  to  the 
United   States   in    1789,   but   was   retroceded   in 

1846,  and  again  became  a  part  of  Virginia  in 

1847.  In  1814,  the  inhabitants,  terrified  by  the 
approach  of  a  British  fleet,  secured  imnuinity 
from  attack  bv  paving  the  equivalent  of  about 
$100,000.  During  the  Civil  War  Alexandria  was 
occupied  by  Federal  troops,  and  was  the  capital 
of  that  part  of  Virginia  which  adhered  to  the 
Union  and  recognized  Pierrepont  as  governor. 
Washington  was  one  of  the  first  vestrvmen  of 
Old  Christ  Church  here.  Pop.,  1890, "  14,339; 
1900,  14,528.  Consult  Celebration  of  the  First 
Centennial  of  the  Municipal  Oovernment  of 
Alexandria    (Alexandria,   1880). 

ALEXANDRIA.  A  village  and  county  seat 
of  Douglas  Co.,  Minnesota.  130  miles  northwest 
of  Minneapolis,  on  the  Great  Northern  Railroad 
(Map:  Minnesota,  C  5).     It  is  admirably  situa- 


ALEXANDRIA. 


325 


ALEXANDRIAN  AGE. 


ted  in  a  lake  region  wliicli  is  popular  as  a  sum- 
mer lesoit,  is  the  centre  of  a  productive  wheat- 
growing  district,  and  manufactures  flour,  furni- 
ture, wagons,  sleighs,  plows,  cutlery,  beer,  etc. 
The  most  notable  building  is  the  county  court- 
house.    Pop..    ISnO.   2118;"  1000,  2081. 

ALEXANDRIA  BAY.  A  village  iu  Jeffer- 
son Co.,  New  York,  on  the  St.  Lawrence  River, 
30  miles  north  of  Watertown,  reached  by 
steamer  from  Clayton,  on  the  Rome,  \Vaterto\\ai, 
and  Ogdensburg  Railroad.  It  is  the  principal 
resort  among  the  Thousand  Islands,  whicli  lie 
opposite  and  below  the  village  in  the  St.  Law- 
lence.  Many  of  these  islands  are  occupied  by 
private  owners,  wlio  have  elegant  villas  and  cot- 
tages, and  the  whole  series,  not  long  ago  almost 
iinvisited,  forms  a  giand  natural,  though,  to  an 
extent,  also  artificially  imi)roved,  park.  Alex- 
andria Bay  was  settled  about  1830.  and  was  in- 
corporated first  in  1S79.  Pop.,  1890,  1123;  1900. 
loll. 

AL'EXAN'DRIAN  AGE.  With"^he  loss  of 
political  liberty  in  Greece  under  Macedonian 
domination,  creative  power  declined  also,  and 
Athens  ceased  to  occupy  the  preeminent  position 
in  literature  which  she  had  so  long  held.  During 
the  third  century  D.c  Alexandria  became  the  cen- 
tre of  science  and  literature  under  the  direction 
of  tlic  Ptolemies,  who  used  their  wealth  to  at- 
tract poets,  scholars,  and  ;.rtists  to  their  capital. 
Ptolemy  Soter  invited  to  his  court  the  learned 
Peripatetic  philosopher,  Demetrius  of  Phalerum, 
under  whose  advice  he  laid  the  foundations  of 
the  later  collections  and  libraries.  His  son, 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus  (285-247),  however,  by 
his  large  expenditures,  became  the  actual  foun- 
der of  the  museum  and  libraries;  his  successor, 
Ptolemy  Euergetes  (247-222),  fostered  espe- 
cially mathematical  and  geographical  investiga- 
tions ;  and  the  succeeding  rulers  continued  the 
support  of  learning  in  varying  degrees.  The  cen- 
tre of  intellectual  life  was  the  library  in  con- 
nection with  the  museum.  This  was  enriched  in 
every  possible  way;  the  total  number  of  books 
about  250  li.c.  is  put  by  Tzetzes  at  upward  of 
530,000.  The  museum  had  porticoes,  lecture 
halls,  and  rooms  in  which  scholars  lived  free  of 
cost;  some  of  the  most  eminent  among  these 
received  large  annuities  from  the  royal  purse. 
The  school  thus  established  resembled  in  many 
ways  a  university.  The  highest  honor  attain- 
able was  the  position  of  librarian;  this  was  held 
I>etween  285  and  150  B.C.  successively  by  Zenod- 
otus.  Callimachus,  Eratosthenes,  Apollonius, 
Aristophanes,  and  Aristarchus.  The  chief  ac- 
tivity of  these  grammarians  was  directed  to  es- 
tablishing standard  editions  of  authors  and  the 
publication  of  explanatory  comments  on  them. 
Lists  of  the  best  authors  (Canons)  were  also 
drawn  up,  as  of  the  five  tragedians,  the  nine 
Ivric  poets,  and  the  ten  orators.  Intellectual 
curiosity  ami  the  cosmopolitan  character  of  tlie 
population  led  to  translation  into  Greek  of 
works  in  the  Semitic  tongues;  the  so-called 
Septuagint  version  of  the  Old  Testament  was 
made   under    Ptolemy   Philadelphus. 

Creative  poetic  impulse  Mas  now  nearly  dead, 
although  bucolic  poetry,  epigram,  and  elegy 
still  show  originality.  Jlost  of  the  poets, 
however,  were  imitators  who  dejiended  on  art 
and  not  on  genius.  The  most  important  names 
are  Theocritus,  Apollonius  Rhodius,  Callimachus, 
Aratus,     Nicander,     Euphorion,     and      Lycoph- 


ron.  At  this  time  mathematics  and  astronomy 
also  flourished.  The  most  important  names  in 
the  pre-Christian  period  are  Euclid,  Apollonius, 
Eratosthenes,  Aristarchus,  Hipparchus,  and 
Plero,  with  whom  must  be  reckoned  also  Archi- 
medes, although  his  life  w.as  spent  at  Syracuse. 
Of  the  later  scholars,  Ptolemy  (Claudius  Ptole- 
ma>us)  (second  century  a.d. )  is  famous  for 
his  geograpliical  and  astronomical  works.  Even 
after  the  fall  of  the  Ptolemaic  dynasty,  the 
museum,  libraries,  and  schools  continued  to 
make  Alexandria  a  great  intellectual  centre  for 
many  centuries ;  the  schools  of  philosophy  in 
particular  enjoyed  great  prosperity,  but  lit- 
erary activit.y  had  centred  in  Rome.  Under 
Caesar  a  large  part  of  the  collection  of  books 
was  burned;  but  the  loss  was  repaired  in  some 
measure  by  tlie  removal  of  the  Pergamene  lib- 
rary to  Alexandria  and  by  acquisitions  else- 
where. During  the  fourth  century  a.d.  the  city 
suffered  severely  from  the  struggles  between 
Greeks  and  Christians,  and  finally  occidental 
learning  ceased  with  the  conquest  by  the  Arabs 
in  641. 

Alexakdrian  Philosophy.  The  Alexandrian 
philosophy  is  characterized  by  a  blending  of 
the  philosophies  of  the  East  and  of  the  West, 
and  by  a  general  tendency  to  eclecticism,  as  it  is 
called,  or  an  endeavor  to  patch  together,  without 
really  reconciling,  conflicting  systems  of  specu- 
lation, by  bringing  together  what  seemed  prefer- 
able in  each.  Not  that  the  Alexandrian  philos- 
ophers were  without  their  sects ;  the  most  fa- 
mous of  these  were  the  Neo-Platonists  (q.v.). 
Uniting  the  religious  notions  of  the  East  with 
Greek  dialectics,  they  represent  the  struggle  of 
ancient  civilization  with  Christianity;  and  thus 
their  system  was  not  without  infiuence  on  the 
form  that  Christian  dogmas  took  in  Egypt.  The 
amalgamation  of  Eastern  with  Christian  ideas 
gave  rise  to  the  system  of  the  Gnostics  (q.v.), 
which  was  elaborated  chiefly  in  Alexandria. 

On  the  museum  and  libraries,  consult: 
Ritschl,  Die  alcxamlrinisclien  BihUoiheken 
(Breslau,  1838)  and  Couat,  "Le  Musee  d'Alex- 
andrie,"  in  Annales  de  Bordeaux  (Paris,  1879)  ; 
also,  in  genei'al  matters,  Simon,  Histoire  de 
I'vcole  d'Alrxandrie (second  edition,  Paris,  1845)  ; 
Saint-Hilaire,  De  I'ccolc  d'Alexandrie  (Paris, 
1844-45),  and  Vaeherot,  Histoirc  eritique  de 
I'ecole  d'Alexandrie  (Paris,  1840-51). 

Alexaxdki.\n  -4rt.  The  style  of  art  inau- 
gurated in  the  time  of  Alexander,  centring  in 
the  city  of  Alexandria.  It  prevailed  through- 
out the  Gra-co-Oviental  States  up  to  the  time  of 
the  Roman  conquest,  and  even  then  continued  to 
exercise  great  influence  on  the  formation  of 
Roman  art.  Its  characteristics  were:  (1)  Regu- 
larity of  plan  in  laying  out  cities;  (2)  love  of 
the  colossal,  exaggerated,  and  picturesque  in  ar- 
chitecture and  sculpture;  (3)  invasion  of  the 
element  of  color  and  pictorial  effect  in  all  arts; 
(4)  love  of  the  comic  and  the  obscene;  (5)  rise 
of  portraiture  and  tjcnre.  The  old  Hellenic  poise 
had  departed  and  the  art  was  one  of  extremes; 
it  sought  its  models  in  everyday  life  and  did  not 
care  for  types  of  gods  or  men.  The  art  of  Pom- 
peii shows  how  this  art  permeated  Roman  civi- 
lization at  the  beginning  of  the  Empire.  Con- 
sult: G.  Schreiber,  Die  hellenisti/schen  Relief- 
bihlcr  (Leipzig,  1894)  :  Oollignon,  IJistoirc  de  la 
firiilpture  greeque  (Paris,  1892-97):  Gardner, 
TJnndhool:  of  Greek  Sculpture  (London,  1896- 
97)  ;   Mitchell,  A  History  of  Ancient  Sculpture 


ALEXANDRIAN  AGE. 


326 


ALEXANDROPOL. 


(New  York,  1883),  and  AVoltmaiin  and  Woer- 
mann,  Gcschichte  cler  Malerei  (English  transla- 
tion. New  York,  1880). 

ALEXANDRIAN  CO'DEX.     See  Bible. 

ALEXANDRIAN  LI'BRARY.  The  plan 
for  this,  the  most  famous  coUeotion  of  the  ancient 
world,  seems  to  liave  been  formed  by  Ptolemy  I., 
Soter  (died  283  B.C.),  perhaps  at  the  suggestion 
of  the  Athenian,  Demetrius  of  Phalerum.  The 
development  of  this  plan  and  the  connection  of 
tlie  library  with  the  nuiseum  was  the  work 
of  Ptolemy  II.,  Philadelphus.  about  275  B.C., 
who  collected  books  on  a  hitherto  unknown 
scale  and  placed  them  at  the  disposal  of  the 
learned  men  gathered  in  the  museum.  The  man- 
agement was  intrusted  to  a  series  of  scholars, 
whose  labors  led  them  to  a  careful  study  of 
Greek  literary  history  and  the  classification  of 
writers,  with  results  of  great  importance  for  the 
transmission  of  classical  te.xts  to  our  own  time. 
The  first  librarian  was  Zenodotus  of  Ephesus, 
under  wliom  the  poets  were  arranged.  The  first 
catalogue  seems  to  have  been  the  work  of  Calli- 
machus,  and  included  a  classification  of  the  au- 
thors, according  to  their  principal  themes,  as 
historians,  orators,  etc.  Under  each  author's 
name  was  given  a  brief  biographical  sketch,  a 
list  of  his  genuine  and  sjiurious  works,  the  open- 
ing words  of  eacli  work,  a  brief  table  of  contents, 
and  the  number  of  lines  occupied  in  the  standard 
MS.  Variations  in  names  or  titles  were  carefully 
noted.  In  the  time  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus.  the 
number  of  rolls  in  the  main  library  was  490,000, 
and  in  the  annex,  in  the  temple  of  Scrapis,  42,- 
800.  At  the  time  of  Casar's  visit,  in  47  B.C., 
the  number  had  risen  to  700,000,  of  which  a 
large  part  was  consumed  in  a  great  fire,  whicli 
spread  from  the  burning  fleet.  This  loss  was  in 
part  replaced  by  the  library  of  Perganius,  which 
Antony  gave  to  Cleopatra.  In  Roman  times, 
however,  the  chief  literary  centre  seems  to  have 
been  the  library  in  the  Serapeum  which  was 
destroved  when  "the  Christians  sacked  the  tem- 
ple (390  A.D.).  The  fate  of  the  rest  of  the  li- 
brary after  the  loss  of  its  most  valuable  part 
is  unknown,  but  it  seems  likely  that  much  of  it 
had  been  lost  before  the  surrender  of  the  city  to 
the  Arabs.  The  story  of  the  destruction  of  the 
books  by  order  of  the  Caliph  Omar  is  now  uni- 
versally discredited,  as  resting  on  very  unreli- 
able sources.  Consult:  Ritschl,  Die  nlrxnii- 
drini.irhen  Bibliothekcti,  in  his  Opuscula  Philolo- 
gica  I.  (Leipzig,  1867-79),  and  Susemihl,  Ocs- 
chichte  dcr  (jriecliischeii  Liitcratur  in  der  Alex- 
andri)ier~rit    (Leipzig,  1891-92). 

AL'EXAN'DRIANS,  Eplstle  to  the.  See 
ApociiYPii.\.  New  Testament. 

ALEXANDRIAN  SCHOOL.  A  school  of 
theology  founded  in  .Alexandria  by  Panta-nus 
(180-203) ,  taught  by  Clement  of  Alexandria  and 
by  Origen,  and  carried  on  until  the  end  of  the 
fourth  century.  It  presented  Christian  truth  as 
modified  bv  "philosophic  speculation.  It  was 
well  attended  and  very  influential.  ]\Iany  of  the 
great  loaders  of  orthodoxy  came  from  it,  as 
Athanasius,  Cyril,  the  two 'Oregories,  and  Basil. 
In  biblical  interpretation  it  stood  for  the  alle- 
gorical method.  Consult  Kingsley,  Alexandria 
und  Ilir  t<(h<i(ils   (London,  18.54). 

AL'EXAN'DRINES.  Rhyming  verses,  con- 
sisting each  of  twelve  syllables  of  six  measures. 
The  name  is  most  probably  derived  from  an  old 


French  poem  on  Alexander  the  Great,  belonging 
to  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  century,  in  which 
this  measure  was  first  used;  according  to  others, 
it  was  so  called  from  the  name  of  the  author  of 
that  poem.  The  Alexandrine  has  become  the 
regular  epic,  or  heroic,  verse  of  the  French, 
among  whom  each  line  is  divided  in  the  middle 
into  two  hemistichs,  the  sixth  syllable  always 
ending  a  word.  In  English,  this  rule  is  not  al- 
ways observed,  as  in  the  following  verse  from 
Spenser : 

That  all  the  woods  shall  anlBwer,  and  their  echo  ring. 

The  only  considerable  English  poem  wholly  WTit- 
ten  in  Alexandrines  is  Drayton's  Poh/olbinn : 
but  the  Spenserian  stanza  regularly  ends  in  an 
Alexandrine,  and  the  measure  occurs  occasion- 
alh'  in  blank  verse  and  in  our  common  heroic 
verse,  as  the  last  verse  of  a  couplet: 

When  both  are  full,  they  feed  our  bleat  abode. 

Like  those  that  watered  oncelthe  paradise  of  God. — Dfyden. 

AL'EXAN'DRISTS.  Those  Renaissance  fol- 
lowers of  Aristotle  who  attached  themselves 
with  much  zeal  to  the  interpretation  of  Aris- 
totle given  by  Ale.xander  of  Aphrodisias.  They 
stood  in  bitter  rivalry  with  the  Averroists 
and  the  Thomists.  The  dispute  concerned  it- 
self chiefly  with  the  relation  between  the 
individual  soul  and  the  universal  reason,  and 
with  the  consequences  of  this  relation  for 
personal  immortalit.y.  The  Thomists.  follow- 
ing Thomas  Aquinas,  held  that  Aristotle  re- 
garded reason  as  lielonging  to  the  individual 
sotil;  the  Alexandrists  maintained  that  Aris- 
totle considered  the  individual  soul  as  a  merely 
animal  and  mortal  function,  which  during 
the  earthly  life  alone  is  rationalized  by  the 
infoi'ming  power  of  universal  reason:  the  Aver- 
roists held  the  intermediate  view,  viz.,  that  the 
universal  reason  works  upon  the  soul  and  makes 
it  actual  intelligence,  and  then  incorporates  this 
actual  intelligence  with  its  own  eternal  nature. 
Accordingly,  the  Thomists  believed  in  individual 
imi*ortality,  the  Alexandrists  in  no  individual 
immortality,  and  the  Averroists  in  the  immor- 
tality of  wluit  has  been  the  individual,  but  has 
lost  its  individuality,  to  be  taken  up  as  a  per- 
manent element  in  the  life  of  God.  The  leading 
Averroists  were  Nicoletto  Vernias  (died  1499), 
Alessandro  Achillini  (died  l.ilS),  and  Agostino 
Nifo  (1473-1546);  the  leading  Alexandrists 
were  Ermolao  Barbaro  (1454-93)  and  Pietro 
Pomponazzi  (1462-1524),  the  leading  Aris- 
totelian of  his  time;  among  the  Thomists  of  the 
Renaissance  may  be  mentioned  Francis  Suarez 
(1548-1617).  Co'nsult:  Ueberweg-Heinze,  Gniiid- 
riss  der  Geschichte  dcr  Philosophie  (Berlin, 
1894-98;  English  translation  by  llorris.  New 
York.  1871)  ;  E.  Renan,  Averroes  et  FAverroisme 
(Paris,   1852). 

AL'EXAN'DRITE.    See  Curysoberyi.. 

ALEXANDROPOL,  ;i'leks-an-dr0'p61  (Alex- 
ander-\-Gk.  n-oAtf,  polis.  city),  formerly  Gumri. 
A  fortified  town  in  the  Caucasus.  85  miles 
southwest  of  Tiflis.  and  30  miles  from 
Kars  (Map:  Russia,  F  6).  It  is  an  important 
strategic  point  commanding  the  entrance  to  Ar- 
menia^ The  fort  is  300  feet  above  the  town  level, 
and  is  large  and  strong,  capal)le  of  accommo- 
dating 10,000  soldiers.  The  chief  industry  of  the 
town  is  the  manufacture  of  silk.  It  was  the 
scene  of  several  encounters  between  the  Russians 


ALEXANDROPOL. 


327 


ALEXIS. 


and  the  Turks  before  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
former  iu  ISoU.     Pop.,  1885,  22,600;  1897,  32,000. 

ALEXANDROV,  ii'leUsiin'drof.  A  town  in 
Russia  in  the  fjovcrnuient  of  Vhulimir,  on  an  af- 
fluent of  llie  Kliasnia.  a  branch  of  the  Volga,  72 
miles  east  of  Jloseow  { Map :  Russia,  E  3 ) .  It  was 
a  favorite  summer  residence  of  the  Czar  Ivan 
the  Terrible,  who  introduced  there  the  first  print- 
ing-press known  in  Russia,  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. It  has  ,1  magnificent  imperial  stud,  estab- 
lished by  the  Kmpress  Klizabeth  in  17til  and 
comjdeted  about  twenty  years  after.  It  is  note- 
worthy for  its  convent,  in  the  burial  grounds  of 
which  are  kept  the  remains  of  two  sisters  of 
Peter  the  Great.     Pop.,   188.5,  0700;    1S97,  C848. 

ALEXANDROVSK,  ii'leks-an'drofsk.  A  for- 
tified town  in  the  south  of  Russia,  in  the  gov- 
ernment cf  Ekaterinoslav,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Dnieper,  below  the  cataracts,  56  miles  south 
of  Ekaterinoslav  (Map:  Russia,  E  5).  Inland 
productions  are  shipped  here  for  the  Black  Sea, 
and  it  is  known  for  its  large  storage  houses  and 
other  storing  facilities,  but  it  has  no  considerable 
trade  of  its  own.  In  its  vicinity  there  are  many 
hillocks,  or  mounds,  which  are  in  all  probability 
the  graves  of  the  great  chiefs  of  the  ancient 
Scythians.  Opposite  the  town  is  the  Khortista 
Island,  the  chief  seat  of  the  famous  Dnieper 
Cossacks  in  the  seventeenth  centurv.  Pop.,  1885, 
6700;    1897,    10,.393. 

ALEXANDROVSK  -  GRUSHEVSKI,  gioo- 
shef'ske.  A  town  in  the  territory  of  the  Don 
Cossacks,  Russia,  situated  on  the  Siver  Grushev- 
ka,  about  20  miles  from  Xovo-Tcherkask.  It  is 
well  known  for  the  rich  coal  mines  in  its  vicinity, 
notably  along  the  banks  of  the  Grushevka.  The 
anthracite  coal  of  these,  deposits  is  of  remarkable 
purity,  containing  as  much  as  94  per  cent,  of 
carbon,  the  highest  percentage  found  anywhere. 
The  discovery  of  coal  in  this  region  dates  as  far 
back  as  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, but  the  exploitation  of  the  mines  was  not 
commenced  until  1839.  The  j'early  output  of  the 
mines  averages  over  half  a  million  tons,  and 
thev  employ  about  10,000  men.  Pop.,  in  1897, 
10,250. 

ALEXEI,  a'leks-ii',  Ai.exandrovitch  (1850- 
— ).  Grand  Duke  of  Russia.  He  is  the  fourth 
son  of  Alexander  II.,  and  was  born  on  January 
14,  1850.  In  1872  he  traveled  through  the 
United  States,  meeting  with  a  very  kind  recep- 
tion. He  is  commander-in-chief  of  the  fleet  and 
head  of  the  ministry  of  marine,  admiral-general, 
and  president  of  the  Admiralty  Council. 

ALEXEI  MIKHAILOVITCH,  me-ki'16-vech 
(1629-70).  Russian  Czar,  second  of  the  Roman- 
ofl's.  He  succeeded  his  father,  Michael  Feodoro- 
vitch,  in  1645.  The  young  Czar  yielded  himself 
to  the  control  of  his  Chancellor,  Plessoflf,  and  his 
tutor,  JIorosoflF,  and  the  avarice  of  these  two  ad- 
visers caused  an  insunection  in  1048,  in  which 
Plessoff  lost  his  life.  Popular  discontent  favored 
tlie  plans  of  two  pretenders  to  the  throne — 
Demetrius  III.  and  Ankudinofl.  The  latter, 
professing  to  be  a  son  of  the  Czar  Vasili 
Shuiski,  was  executed  at  Moscow  in  1053. 
Alexei  possessed  good  qualities,  which  appeared 
when  he  came  to  riper  years.  In  his  two  cam- 
paigns against  the  Poles  (1654-56  and  1660-67), 
he  took  Smolensk,  overran  and  devastated  al- 
most the  wliole  of  Lithuania,  and  even  se- 
cured for  himself  the  possession  of  several  prov- 


inces. He  also  gained  a  part  of  the  l]'l<raine; 
and  though  his  war  with  Sweden  (1056-58) 
was  unfortunate,  he  lost  nothing  by  the  follow- 
ing peace.  Alexei  conferred  gieat  benefits  on 
his  countrymen  by  the  introduction  of  various 
important  refinnis  into  the  Russian  laws;  he 
ordered  translations  of  numerous  scientific 
works,  chiefly  of  a  military  nature,  and  even 
ventured  on  some  ecclesiastical  changes.  In  his 
private  character  he  was  amiable,  temperate, 
and  pious.  By  his  second  wife,  the  beautiful 
Natalia  Narvshkin,  he  was  the  father  of  Peter 
the  (ircat. 

ALEXEI  PETROVITCH,  petro'vech 
(1690-1718).  The  eldest  son  of  Peter  the  Great 
of  Russia.  He  was  born  at  Moscow.  Because  he 
had  shown  himself  opposed  to  the  reforms  and 
innovations  made  by  the  Emperor,  Peter  threat- 
ened to  exclude  him  from  the  succession  to  the 
throne.  With  this  prospect  he  appeared  to  be  satis- 
fie<l,  and  declared  his  intention  of  siiending  the 
remainder  of  his  days  in  a  monastery.  But  when 
Peter  the  Great  undertook  his  second  tour  in 
Western  Europe,  Alexei,  under  the  pretense  of 
following  the  Czar,  escaped  in  1717  to  Vienna, 
and  thence  went  to  Naples.  He  was  induced  to  re- 
turn to  Russia,  where,  by  the  ukase  of  February 
14,  1718,  he  was  disinherited,  and  an  investigation 
was  ordered,  for  the  purpose  of  detecting  persons 
concerned  in  his  flight.  A  widespread  conspiracy 
to  undo  all  of  Peter's  reforms  was  discovered. 
Eudoxia,  the  mother  of  Alexei,  Maria  Alexeyevna, 
step-sister  of  the  Czar,  and  several  other  person- 
ages were  made  prisoners,  and  either  executed  or 
otherwise  punished,  Alexei  was  condemned  to 
death,  but  soon  afterward  received  a  pardon. 
Terror  and  agitation  of  the  trial,  however, 
and  the  actual  torture  to  which  he  was  subjected, 
so  affected  his  health  that  he  died  in  1718.  The 
Czar,  to  avoid  scandal,  ordered  the  trial  to  be 
published.  Other  accounts  assert  that  Alexei 
was  beheaded  in  prison.  By  his  wife.  Charlotte 
Christine  Sophie,  Princess  of  Brunswick- Wolfen- 
biittel,  Alexei  left  a  son,  who.  as  Peter  II.,  was 
elevated  to  the  throne  in  1727,  Consult  Bruck- 
ner, Dcr  Zoniiilch  Alexander  {}ieide\herg,\S80) . 

ALEX'IANS.     See  Alexiu.s. 

ALEX'IS.  In  Tlw  Faithful  Shephcrdcus 
(q.v. ),  by  .John  Fletcher,  the  name  of  a  shep- 
herd. 

ALEXIS  (c.  390-28S  B.C.).  A  Greek  drama- 
tist of  the  period  of  "Middle  Comedy"  at  Athens, 
whither  he  came  in  early  life  from  Thurii,  Italy, 
his  native  place.  He  is  said  to  have  written 
245  plays,  of  which  some  hundreds  of  lines  have 
come  down  to  us  in  fragments. 

ALEXIS,   or  ALEX'IUS  I.,   COMNE'NUS 

(1048-1118)  (Gk.  'Aac^wc  K6/iv,/mr,  Alc.rios  Koiii- 
nenos).  One  of  the  ablest  rulers  of  the  Byzan- 
tine Empire.  He  was  born  at  Constantinople,  the 
son  of  John  Comnenus,  brother  of  the  Emperor 
Isaac  Comnenus.  In  his  youth  Alexis  gave  bril- 
liant promise  of  the  vigorous  military  genius 
which  he  afterward  manifested,  and  at  length, 
after  a  series  of  anarchic  reigns  of  brief  dura- 
tion, his  soldiers  .succeeded  in  elevating  him  to 
the  thrAne,  wliile  the  old  and  feeble  Xicephorus 
Botani.ates,  his  predecessor,  was  obliged  to  retire 
to  a  monastery  (1081).  Gibbon  graphically 
paints  the  position  and  achievements  of  Alexis 
in  the  forty-eighth  chapter  of  his  Decline  and 
Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire.     Everywhere  he  waa^ 


ALEXIS 


328 


ALFALFA. 


encompassed  with  foes.  The  Scythians  and 
Turl<s  were  pouring  dcmi  from  the  north  and 
northeast,  the  fierce  Normans,  who  had  violently 
effected  a  lodgment  in  Italy  and  Sicily,  were 
menacing  his  western  provinces ;  and,  finally,  the 
myriad  warriors  of  the  First  Crusade  burst 
into  his  Empire  on  their  way  to  Palestine,  and 
encamped  around  the  gates  of  his  capital.  Yet 
he  contrived  to  avoid  all  perils  and  disgraces 
by  the  wisdom  of  his  policy,  the  mingled  pa- 
tience and  promptitude  of  his  character,  and  his 
discipline  in  the  camp.  He  reigned  for  thii-ty- 
seven  years,  and  if  it  had  been  possible  to  pre- 
serve the  Byzantine  Empire  in  its  integrity,  a 
ruler  like  Alexis  might  have  done  it. 

Undoubtedly,  the  great  interest  which  attaches 
to  Alexis  arises  from  his  relations  to  the  Cru- 
saders. Historians  differ  as  to  the  purity  and 
sincerity  of  his  conduct  toward  them.  His 
daughter  Anna  (q.v. ),  who  wTote  his  life,  de- 
fends his  "policy"  with  filial  piety;  but  it  is 
clear  that  he  entertained  a  profound  dread  and 
suspicion  of  the  half-civilized  Franks,  and,  know- 
ing the  weakness  of  his  own  Empire,  was  com- 
pelled to  dissimulate.  He  promised  them  help, 
and  persuaded  them  to  go  off  into  Asia :  but 
he  did  not  fulfill  his  promises,  and  simply  used 
them  as  his  instruments  to  reconquer  from  the 
Turks  the  islands  and  coasts  of  Asia  Minor. 
Perhaps,  however,  little  apology  is  needed  for  a 
monarch  who  "subdued  the  en\'y  of  his  equals, 
restored  the  laws  of  public  and  private  order, 
caused  the  arts  of  wealth  and  science  to  be  cul- 
tivated, and  transmitted  the  sceptre  to  his  chil- 
dren of  the  third  and  fourth  generations." 

ALEXIS,  or  ALEXIUS,  II.,   COMNENUS 

{c.1168-83).  Emperor  of  Constantinople.  He 
succeeded  his  father,  Manuel  I.,  about  1180,  and 
was  deposed  and  strangled  by  his  uncle,  An- 
dronicus    (1183). 

ALEXIS  III.,  ANGELTJS  (?-1210).  Brother 
of  Isaac  Angelus,  Emperor  of  Constantinople, 
whose  throne  he  usurped  in  1195.  In  ]20.'i  his 
capital  was  besieged  and  taken  by  the  Venetians 
and  an  army  of  French  Crusaders,  who  reinstated 
Isaac  II.  On  the  capture  of  the  city  Alexis  III. 
fled,  and  died  a  few  years  afterward  in  exile. 

ALEXIS  IV.,  ANGELtrS  (  ?-1204).  Byzan- 
tine emperor  in  12011-04,  son  of  Isaac  II.  (An- 
gelus). After  the  flight  of  his  uncle,  Alexis 
III.,  he  was  associated  with  his  father  in  the 
government.  After  reigning  onlj-  a  few  months, 
liowever,  he  was  deposed  and  put  to  death  by 
Alexis  V. 

ALEXIS  v.,  surnamed  Dukas  Mtjetzxiphlos 
(?-1204).  Byzantine  emperor  in  1204.  After 
the  murder  of  Alexis  IV.  (  1204),  he  usurped  the 
throne,  but  at  the  end  of  a  few  weeks  was  de- 
posed by  the  Crusaders,  who  had  resolved  on  a 
partition  of  the  Empire  of  the  East.  He  fled  to 
the  Morea,  where  he  was  seized  by  the  Latins, 
tried  for  the  murder  of  Alexis  IV.,  and  cast  from 
the  top  of  Thcodosius's  Pillar. 

ALEXIS,  or  ALEXIUS,  COMNENUS  (c. 
1180-1222).  A  grandson  of  Andronicu-s  I.  When 
Constantinople  was  captiired  by  the  Crusaders 
in  1204,  Alexis,  taking  advantage  of  the  situa- 
tion, captured  Trebizond  and  some  other  cities 
on  the  Black  Sea.  He  took  the  title  of  Em- 
peror of  Trebizond,  and  was  obliged  to  carry  on 
a  continuous  war  against  the  Turks. 

ALEX'IS   (Gk.  'Alilcfif)   of  Thurii.     A  Greek 


comic  poet  of  the  third  century  B.C.  He  was 
born  at  Thurii,  in  Magna  Groecia,  was  uncle  and 
instructor  of  Menander,  and  wrote  at  Athens, 
where,  according  to  Plutarch,  at  the  age  of  106, 
he  died  on  the  stage  while  being  crowned  as  vic- 
tor. Suidas  assigns  to  him  245  comedies,  of  which 
the  remaining  fragments  exhibit  elegance  and 
wit.  His  delineations  of  the  parasite  were 
skillful.  See  the  edition  by  Hirschig  (1840)  and 
Meiiiike,  in  his  Frngmcnta  Comicorum,  Volume  I. 

ALEXIS,  WiLLTBALD  (1797-1871).  The  as- 
sumed name  of  \\  ilhelm  Hiiring,  a  German  nov- 
elist. He  was  born  at  Breslau,  June  23,  1797, 
and  died  at  Arnstadt,  December  16,  1871.  He 
was  in  his  early  works,  an  imitator  of  Walter 
Scott,  from  whom  his  first  romance,  Wcdladmor 
(1823) ,  and  his  second,  Schloss  Avulon,  purport- 
ed to  be  translations.  Later  Alexis  took  Prussia 
for  his  scenes.  His  best  novels  are:  Cabnitis 
{ 1832) ,  Dcr  falschc  Waldcmar  ( 1842) ,  and  Ruhc 
ist  die  erste  Biir'jrr}>ficht  (1852).  Here  the  in- 
terest is  well  maintained,  the  characters  clearly 
seen  and  firmly  drawn,  but  the  novels  are  marred 
by  mannerisms  and  over-elaboration.  Through 
all  runs  a  vein  of  patriotic  feeling  that  still  sus- 
tains their  popularity.  Alexis's  poems,  though 
superficially  attractive,  lack  depth  and  fertility 
of  invention. 

ALEXISBAD,  a-leks'es-biid.  A  watering-place 
in  the  duchy  of  Anhalt,  Germany  (Map:  Ger- 
many. D  3).  It  has  two  kinds  of  springs.  The 
Selke  spring  is  used  for  bathing,  and  contains 
chloride  and  sulphate  of  iron,  while  the  Alexis 
spring  contains  carbonic  acid,  and  is  used  for 
drinking  purposes.  Alexisbad  was  established 
as  a  watering-place  by  the  Duke  of  Anhalt-Bern- 
burg  in  1810. 

ALEX'IUS.  A  Roman  saint  of  the  fifth 
century,  patron  of  the  society  of  Alexians  or 
Cellites.  lie  is  said  to  have  been  a  Roman 
senator,  but  gave  up  the  world  for  a  life  of  pov- 
erty and  celibacy.  His  relies  are  said  to  have 
accomplished  marvelous  cures.  Alexius  is  hon- 
ored in  the  calendars  of  the  Latins,  Greeks, 
Syrians,  Maronites,  and  Armenians.  His  fes- 
tival occurs  on  .July  17.  He  was  a  favorite  sub- 
ject among  the  poets  of  the  ]\Iiddle-High-German 
period.  Consult:  Massmann,  Hankt  Alexius  Lcbcn 
(Quedlinburg,  1843)  :  Paris  and  Pannier,  La  vie 
de  Saint  Alexia  (1872);  Blau,  Ziir  Alcxis- 
leqende,  in  the  Germania  (1888),  Volume 
XXXIII.,  and  A.  Amiaud,  La  legende  syriaque 
de  Saint  Alexis  (1880). 

AL'PA.  One  of  the  varieties  of  esparto 
(q.v.),  a  plant  which  grows  in  North  Africa. 
Its  filire  is  valuable  for  paper-making. 

ALFAL'FA  (Sp..  from  Ar.  al-farfaQah.  the 
best  feed),  also  callea  Lucerne.  A  legumi- 
nous plant,  widely  used  in  Europe  and  in  parts 
of  North  and  South  America  as  a  forage  and 
hay  crop  for  stock.  The  plant  (Medicago 
sativa)  is  a  native  of  the  valleys  of  central 
western  Asia.  It  has  been  cultivated  in  Europe 
for  more  than  2000  years,  and  was  introduced 
into  Mexico  and  South  America  at  the  time  of 
the  Spanish  conquests.  In  1854,  it  was  brought 
from  Chile  to  California,  whence  it  spread  rapid- 
ly over  the  arid  regions  of  the  Pacific  and  Rocky 
jilountain  States,  where  it  is  now  more  exten- 
sively grown  than  any  other  forage  crop.  The 
plant  is  an  upright,  branching  perennial,  one  to 
three   feet  high,   with  triple  parted  leaves  and 


ALFALFA. 


329 


AL-FARABI 


purple,    pea-like   flowers     which    grow    in   long, 
loose  clusters.     On    loose,   permeable   soils,   the 
top  root  frequently  descends  ten  to  twelve  feet, 
and  has  been  said  to  reach  even  fifty  feet.     Al- 
falfa has  been  raised  with  more  or  less  success  in 
different  parts  of  the  United  States  at  elevations 
from   sea   level   to   7000   feet.     It  grows  best  on 
rich,   sandy,   well-drained   loams  of   a  calcareous 
nature,  and  does  not  succeed  on  damp  soils  or 
tenacious  clays.     It  seems  cspeciall\'  adapted  to 
the  rich  soils  of  the  arid  West,  where  water  is 
supplied   chiefly    by    irrigation.     Young     alfalfa 
plants  are  relatively  tender,  and  two  years  are 
required    thorough!}'    to   establish     a    field;     but 
when    once    established,    the    plant    endures     for 
many  years.     In  the  United  States  it  is  seeded: 
in  the  North,  in  spring:   in  the  South,  in  either 
September   or   February;    and   in  California   and 
the    Southwest,    trom    August   to   the    middle   of 
December,  and  from  February  to  April.     Alfalfa 
is  giown  for  seed  to  a  considerable  extent  in  Ne- 
braska, Colorado,  and  Kansas.     The  crop  is  cut 
when    the    plants    are   coming   into   bloom,   and 
again   from   two   to   six   times,   according   to   the 
length  of  the  season.     The  ordinary  annual  yield 
varies  from  three  to  eight  tons  of  dry  hay  per 
acre,  and  sometimes  reaches  ten  or  twelve  tons. 
The  crop  is  seeded  either  broadcast  or  in  drills, 
at  the   rate   of   fifteen   to   twenty-five   pounds   of 
seed    per    acre.     Alfalfa,    like    other    leguminous 
plants,  takes  up  nitrogen  from  the  air.      It  also 
brings  up  from  the  subsoil  considerable  amounts 
of  potash,  phosphoric  acid,  lime,  and  other  min- 
eral matters.     It  is  therefore  valuable  for  green 
manuring.     The  roots  and  stublile  from  an  acre 
contain  about  twenty  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid, 
thirtv-eight  pounds  of  potash,  and  ninety  pounds 
of  nitrogen. 

A  variety  of  alfalfa  known  as  Turkestan  alfal- 
fa (Medicago  saliva  turkestanica) ,  is  the  chief 
forage  plant  grown  in  Central  Asia  and  Turkes- 
tan for  cattle.  It  has  been  widely  tested  in  the 
United  States.  In  the  States  west  of  the  Mississ- 
ippi River  and  north  of  Kansas  and  California,  it 
seems  to  endure  drought  better,  is  not  so  easily 
afi'ected  by  freezing,  and  gives  better  results  on 
strong,  alkali  .soils  than  the  alfalfa  commonly 
grown  (Mcdicoflu  satira).  Two  other  forms  of 
alfalfa,  sometimes  cultivated,  are  the  intermedi- 
ate alfalfa  (Medicago  media),  and  the  yellow  or 
■sand  lucerne  {Medicago  falcata).  the  seed  of 
which  are  sometimes  used  to  adulterate  that  of 
Medicago  sativa.  These  varieties  are  not  so  valu- 
able as  the  true  alfalfa. 

Feeding  Value.  Alfalfa  is  used  as  a  soiling 
crop,  as  pasturage,  aiid  in  the  form  of  silage  and 
hay.  Green  or  cured  as  hay,  it  is  relished  by 
all  farm  animals.  It  may  be  used  either  for 
fattening  stock  or  for  milk  production.  The 
green  product  has  the  following  percentage  com- 
position: water,  71.8;  protein,  4.8;  ether  e.v- 
tract,  1 ;  nitrogen  free  extract,  12. .S ;  crude  fibre, 
7.4;  and  ash,  2.7.  When  cured  as  hay,  alfalfa 
has  the  following  percentage  composition: 
water,  8.4;  protein,  14.3:  fat,  2.2;  nitrogen  free 
extract,  42.7 :  crude  fibre,  25,  and  ash,  7.4. 
Like  other  leguminous  crops,  alfalfa  is  compar- 
atively rich  in  nitrogen.  The  difl'erent  crops  and 
cuttings  do  not  vary  greatly  in  composition. 
When  alfalfa  flowers  begin  to  appear,  the  stalk' 
constitutes  about  50  or  60  per  cent.,  and  the 
leaves  40  or  50  per  cent,  of  the  whole  plant. 
At  the  usual  time  of  cutting,  alfalfa  leaves  con- 
tain one-third  more  of  the  total  dry  matter  of 
Vol.  I.— 2:J. 


the   crop.     The    leaves   contain    one-quarter     to 
one-third  as  much  crude  fibre  as  the  stalks,  and 
two   or   three   times   as    much    albuminoids.     As 
shown  bj'  experiments  with  cattle,  the  following 
percentage  amounts  of  the  ingredients  are  usual- 
ly digested:   60.7  per  cent,  of  the  total  organic 
matter,  72  per  cent,  of  ihe  protein,  and  69.2  per 
cent  of  the  nitrogen  free  extract.     Of  the  crude 
fibre  of  alfalfa  hay,  about  40  per  cent,  is  on  an 
average  digestible.     Chemical  analysis  and  diges- 
tion experiments  show  that  alfalfa  compares  very 
favorably  with  red  clover,  both  as  green  fodder 
and  as  hay.     When  fed  as  a  soiling  crop,  it  should 
be  partially  wilted  or  mixed  with  hay  or  straw. 
In  dry  regions  of  tlie  West  it  is  much  used  for 
pasturage,   especially   in   the  fall.     But   there   is 
always  more  or  less  danger  of  its  causing  the 
cattle  to  bloat  or  of  the  plants  being  killed  by 
too  close  pasturage.     Alfalfa  has  proved   a   sat- 
isfactory green  crop  for  pigs.     It  is  as  hay  that 
alfalfa    finds   perhaps     its    most     extended     use. 
Cattle,  sheep,  and  horses  seem  to  thrive  on  it. 
To  secure  a  well-balanced  and  economical  ration, 
alfalfa  hay,  which  contains  a  fairly  large  pro- 
portion   of     protein,   should   be    fed     with     corn, 
wheat,  oat  straw,  root  crops,  etc.,  which  contain 
comparatively   large    amounts   of   carbohydrates 
and    fat.     In    many    instances    farmers    might 
profitably  raise  alfalfa  as  a  substitute  for  the 
wheat-bran,  cottonseed  meal,  and  other  materials 
containing  large  amounts  of  protein,  which  they 
now  buy  in  order  to  utilize  by  combination,  in 
the  form  of  well-balanced  rations,  the  excess  of 
carbohydrates  produced  in  corn  and  other  crops. 
Alfalfa  Diseases.    The  principal  diseases  to 
whieli  alfalfa  is  subject  are  a  leaf  spot  and  a 
root-rot.    The  leaf  spot,  due  to  the  fungus  Pseu- 
dopeziza  medicaginis,  is  found  in  nearly  every 
locality    where    alfalfa    is    grown.       Sometimes 
seedling   plants    are   attacked,   but   usually   the 
fungus  occurs  on  the  leaves  of  older  plants.     It 
may  be  recognized  by  the  occurrence  of  minute 
brown  spots  of  irregular  shape  upon  the  green 
or  discolored  leaflets.     The  disease  readily  sur- 
vives tlie  winter,   and   in   severe  attacks  to   pre- 
\ent  spreading  the  plants  should  be  covered  with 
straw   and   burned.     The   root-rot   is   caused   by 
a   fungus,   Ozonium  auricomiim,    which    attacks 
the  plants  at  the  crown,  following  the  root  down- 
ward for  some  distance,  and  ultimately  killing 
the  plant.     The  disease  spreads  in  the"  field,  in 
almost  perfect  circles,  and  sometimes  causes,  in  a 
single  season,  bare  places  fifty  feet  or  more  in 
diameter.     Alfalfa  is  also  attacked  by  a  para- 
sitic flowering  plant  known  as  dodder   (q.v. ). 

BiCLioGRAPHY.  J.  G.  Smith,  "Alfalfa,  or  Lu- 
cerne," United  Slates  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, Farmers'  Bulletin,  31  (Washington,  1896)  ; 
Colorado  Experiment  Station  Bulletin,  35; 
Kansas  Experiment  Station  Bulletin,  So;  Wy- 
oming Experiment  Station  Bulletin,  33;  Utah 
Experiment  Station  Bulletin,  31;  New  Jersey 
Experiment  Station  Bulletin,  IJ/S.  See  also 
bibliography  of  Alkali  Soil. 

AL-FAEABI,  •il'fiirii'be,  Abu  Nasb  Moham- 
med IBN  Taekiian  ibn  Uzladj  al-Fakabi  ( ?-950 
A.D.).  One  of  the  earliest  of  Arabian  phi- 
losophers, who  lived  in  tlie  tenth  century. 
His  family  was  Turkish.  He  was  born  in  Farab, 
but  proceeded  to  Bagdad,  where  he  devoted  him- 
self to  the  study  of  medicine,  mathematics,  and 
philosophy.  p'rom  Bagdad  lie  went  to  Haleb 
(Aleppo),  where,  except  for  his  close  relations 
to  the  Saif  ed  Daula,  the  ruler  of  the  place,  he 


AL-FARABI 


330 


ALFIERI. 


lived  a  life  of  scholastic  retirement.  He  died 
in  Damascus,  while  on  a  visit  to  that  place,  in 
company  with  Saif  ed  Daula.  Although  a  pro- 
lific writer,  who  occupied  himself  with  philoso- 
phy, medicine,  natural  science,  mathematics,  and 
music,  Al-Farabi  never  worked  out  a  system  of 
philosophy,  and  since  only  part  of  his  works  have 
survived,  it  is  not  easy  to  get  a  comprehensive 
view  of  his  activity.  His  philosophy  is  largely 
influenced  by  Aristotle,  although  it  has  also  in 
it  a  Neo-Platonic  element.  He  was  distinguished 
for  the  clearness  of  his  thought  and  the  excellence 
of  his  style,  but  such  was  the  fame  acquired  by 
his  successor  Avicenna.  that  Al-Farabi  was  al- 
most completely  eclipsed.  Among  his  writings 
was  an  encyclopiedia  of  the  sciences.  Consult 
JI.  Steinschneider,  Al-Farabi  (St.  Petersburg, 
18G0)  :  F.  Dieterici,  Al-Farabi's  Philosophische 
Abliaiidlungcn   (Leyden,  1890) . 

ALFIER.!,  al-fya're,  Ce.sare,  Maequis  di  Sos- 
TEGNO  ( 170()-18(iU).  An  Italian  diplomat  and 
statesman,  a  kinsman  of  Vittorio  Alfieri,  the 
poet.  He  was  born  at  Turin,  August  13,  1796, 
and,  having  early  devoted  himself  to  affairs  of 
State,  was  successively  secretary  of  the  Sardin- 
ian legations  at  Paris,  The  Hague,  St.  Peters- 
burg, Berlin,  and  Florence.  Returning  to  Turin 
in  18.31,  he  was  associated  with  Cavour.  When 
the  Pveform  Commission  was  appointed,  Alfieri 
became  its  president,  and  accomplished  much  for 
tlie  elevation  of  universities  and  for  advanced 
study  in  general.  He  was  for  a  very  short  time 
in  1848  Prime  Minister,  then  Vice-President  of 
the  Senate,  and,  from  1856  to  1800,  its  president. 
He  died  at  Florence,  April  16,  1869. 

ALFIEKI,  Vittorio,  Count  (1749-1803). 
The  most  important  of  the  Italian  dramatic 
poets,  a  younger  contemporary  of  Metastasio  and 
Goldoni,  a  man  as  unique  in  his  personality  as 
in  his  writings,  and  held  in  honor  to-day  by  his 
countrymen  less  for  the  tragedies  which  first 
made  him  famous  than  as  the  reviver  of  a  nation- 
al spirit  in  modern  Italy.  The  salient  facts  of 
his  life  are  known  mainly  through  his  zliitobiog- 
raphy,  a  work  exceptional  in  its  class  for  its 
frank  sincerity  and  keen  personal  interest.  He 
was  born  January  17,  1749,  at  Asti,  in  Pied- 
mont, which  in  those  days  was  looked  upon  by 
the  mass  of  Italians  almost  as  alien  territory.  Of 
the  misspent  youth  which  he  afterward  so  keenly 
regretted,  eight  years  were  passed  in  the  Academy 
of  Turin — years  of  "uneducation,"  he  calls  them. 
Eight  years  more  were  equally  wasted  in  roving 
through  France,  England,  and  Holland,  and  in 
an  idle  and  dissolute  life  in  Turin.  It  was  not 
until  his  twenty-sixth  year  and  his  fourth  serious 
infatuation — this  time  for  a  certain  Marchesa 
Turinetti  di  Prie — that  he  felt  himself  inspired 
with  lofty  aims,  and  especially  with  a  desire  to 
make  a  name  for  himself  in  the  field  of  dramatic 
poetry.  Under  this  inspiration  he  made  his  fir.st 
draniati(^  essay,  some  scenes  of  a  Cleopatra,  re- 
sumed his  serious  studies,  and  removed  to  Flor- 
ence in  order  to  perfect  himself  in  the  correct 
Tuscan  idiom,  for  his  Italian  at  this  time  was 
scarcely  better  than  his  French.  In  Florence 
he  first  met  the  Countess  of  Albany,  the  unhappy 
wife  of  Charles  Edward  Stuart,  and  formed  for 
her  that  life- long  attachment  which  he  defined  as 
a  "degno  amore,"  and  which  has  become  historic. 
After  her  separation  from  her  husband  in  1780, 
Alfieri  joined  her  for  a  time  in  Rome,  and  after 
the  Pretender's  death,  was  seldom  separated  from 


her  during  the  remainder  of  his  own  life.  There 
is,  however,  no  gi-ound  for  believing  that  they 
were  secretly  married.  For  several  years  they 
lived  in  Paris,  but  narrowly  escaped  in  the  Reign 
of  Terror,  and  being  forced  to  flee,  took  refuge 
once  more  in  Florence.  Here  Alfieri  died  October 
8,  1803,  and  here,  in  the  church  of  Santa  Croee, 
the  Countess  caused  a  monument  to  be  erected  by 
Canova   to   his   memory. 

Besides  his  tragedies  and  autobiography,  Al- 
fieri's  literary  activity  produced  numerous  son- 
nets and  odes,  his  Misogallo,  a  fierce  denuncia- 
tion of  France,  in  mingled  prose  and  verse,  some 
unimportant   prose  writings,   and   six  comedies, 
four  of  which.  Who.  I  Pochi,  I  Troppi.  L'Anti- 
doto,  form  a  political  tetralogy  intended  to  show 
that  the  best  government  is  that  founded  upon 
the  will  of  the  people.     The  series   of  tragedies 
began  with  Cleopatra,  first  produced  at  Turin  in 
1775,  and  continued  until   1789.     The  most  im- 
portant are  Virginia,  Agamennoiie,  Oreste,  Timo- 
leone,   Maria  Htuarda,  and  Said,  which  is  still 
regarded  as  his  masterpiece.     They  are  all  ob- 
viously cast  in  one  and  the  same  mold,  and  that 
a  narrow  one;  all  classically  correct,  yet  full  of 
dignity   and     lofty   sentiments.     The    principles., 
whicli    he    laid    down    he    rigidly    followed.       Hef 
did  not  permit  himself  to  imitate  or  even  to  read* 
Shakespeare;  but  adhered  to  the  model  of  Greek 
and  Frencli  tragedy,  and  followed  to  a  large  ex- 
tent the  classic  unities.     A  tragic  subject,  in  his 
opinion,  was  one  which  permitted  a  powerful  ex- 
citation of  good  or  evil  passions;  his  own  themes.J 
were  regularly  drawn  from  some  stirring  event  off 
history  or  mythology.     His  highest  aim  was  to 
unite  "artistic  truth  with  moral  truth,  beauty! 
with    morality."     He   wished   the   theatre   to   be 
"a  school  in  wliich  men  might  learn  to  be  freej 
brave,  and  generous,  inspired  by  true  virtue,  in- 
tolerant of  violence,  full  of  love  tor  their  countryj 
with  a  true  knowledge  of  their  personal  rightsj 
and  in  all  their  passions  enthusiastic,  uprightJ 
and    magnanimous."     It     was    Matthew    Arnold! 
who    summed     up    Alfieri    as    "a     noble-minded, 
deeply-interested  man,  but  a  monotonous  poet;"l 
but  his  poetry  was  not  found  monotonous  by  his 
own  or  the  following  generation.     What  he  did 
for  tragedy  was  carried  on  by  Jlonti,  by  Foscolo,! 
by  Pellico,  and  others.     What  he  did  for  Italian 
unity  is  harder  to  measure.     An  entire  genera- 1 
tion  of  patriots  was  inspired  by  his  Virginia  and] 
Brutus    and    Timolconc,    and    drew    freely    upon} 
them  for  passages  with  which  to  inflame  theirj 
hearers.     His   persistence    in    regarding   himselfl 
primarily  a  native  of  Italy,  and  in  speaking  and 
writing  in  classic  Tuscan,  bore  special  fruit  in  his-l 
native   Piedmont.     In   the   words   of   his    fellow- 
countryman,  Gioberti,  "the  revival  of  civil  orderj 
throughout  the  peninsula,  the  creation  of  a  laic 
Italy,  is  due  to  Vittorio  Alfieri,  who,  like  a  newi 
Dante,  was  the  true  secularizer  of  the  spirit  ofl 
the  Italian  people,   and  gave  to   it  that  strong! 
impulse  which  still  lives  and  bears  fruit." 

The  complete  edition  of  Alfieri's  works  is  thatJ 
published  at  Pisa   (1805-15),  in  tw^enty-two  vol- 
umes.    The  first  edition  of  the  tragedies  is  that 
of  Siena    (1783),  containing  only  ten  tragedies.! 
Good  editions  of  selected  tragedies  are  those  ed-l 
ited  by  G.  Falorsi    (Florence,  Barbera)  ;   Pisan-j 
•eschi  (Turin,  Paravia)  ;  and  Trevisan  (Verona). 
For   biographical   and   critical   details,   consult: 
Autobiographii.  translated  by  Lestor   (New  YorkJ 
1845)  ;  Centofn.nt\.  Tragcdie  e  vita  d' Alfieri  (Flor-f 
ence,  1842)  ;  Copping,  Alfieri  and  Goldoni,  Theirt 


ALFIERI. 


331 


ALFONSO. 


Lives  and  Adventures  (London,  1857)  ;  Howells, 
Life  of  and  Essays  on  Al fieri  (Boston,  1877)  ; 
Antonini  and  Cognetti,  Vittorio  Alfieri  (Turin, 
1898);  G.  Carducei,  Primi  Saggi  (Bologna, 
1889)  ;  and  E.  Panzacchi,  Vita  ilaliana  nel  set- 
teccnto   (Milan,  1S9G). 

ALFILARIA,  al-fil'a-re'ji.    See  Geranium. 

ALFINGEE,  iil'flng-er,  Ambrosiode  (  ?-1532). 
A  German  soldier  of  fortune,  wlio  in  1528  be- 
came the  agent  of  the  Welser  family  of  Augs- 
burg, to  finish  for  them  the  conquest  of  Vene- 
zuela ;  this  being  the  condition  under  which  they 
held  title  to  the  country  from  Castile.  He  led 
out  a  company  of  Germans,  but  his  expedition  to 
the  neit,'lil>orhood  of  Lake  Maracaibo  and  to  New 
Granada  was  notorious  for  its  cruelties,  and  he 
was  killed  by  an  Indian. 

AL'FIO'NA  (Mex.  Sp.).  The  largest  of  the 
California  surf  fishes.     See  Surf  Fish. 

ALFONSINE,  al-fcin'sin,  or  ALPHONSINE 
TA'BLES.  Certain  astronomical  calculations 
made  by  the  ablest  men  of  the  period  for  Alfonso 
X.  of  Castile.  A  room  in  the  palace  at  Segovia 
is  still  shown  as  Alfonso's  observatory.  The, 
tables  were  completed  in  1252,  the  year  when 
Alfonso  came  to  the  throne,  and  first  published 
in  1483. 

ALFON'SO  I.  OF  Ca.stile  and  VI.  of  Leox, 
"the  Valiant"  (1030-1109).  He  was  the  son  of 
Ferdinand  the  Great,  King  of  Castile  and  Leon. 
Leon  was  given  to  him  by  his  father;  Saneho,  the 
eldest  son,  received  Castile;  Garcia,  j'oungest  of 
the  three,  a  part  of  Galicia  and  Portugal.  Al- 
fonso came  to  the  throne  in  1005.  War  soon  broke 
out  between  the  brothers,  and  in  1068  Saneho 
defeated  Alfonso  in  a  bloody  battle  on  the  Pisu- 
crga.  Three  years  later  Alfonso  defeated  Saneho 
on  the  Carrion;  but  Saneho,  reenforced,  it  is 
said,  by  the  renowned  Cid,  Roderigo  Diaz  de 
Bivar,  nearly  annihilated  the  Leonese  army, 
took  Alfonso  prisoner,  compelled  him  to  abdi- 
cate, and  shut  him  up  in  a  monastery.  Alfonso 
escaped  and  sought  shelterwith  tlieiloorish  King 
of  Toledo.  Saneho  took  possession  of  Leon  and 
immediately  attacked  Garcia,  defeating  and  cap- 
turing him  at  Santarem.  In  1072  Saneho  was 
assassinated  by  a  Castilian  knight,  and  Alfonso, 
upon  solemnly  declaring  himself  innocent  of  the 
murder,  was  reinstated  in  his  kingdom  of  Leon, 
to  which  was  added  Castile.  His  brother  Gar- 
cia, who  was  preparing  to  recover  the  throne  of 
Galicia,  was  treacherously  invited  to  his  court, 
made  a  prisoner,  and  died  in  confinement  ten 
years  later.  Alfonso  now  ruled  over  nearly  all 
of  his  father's  kingdom,  and  went  to  the  assist- 
ance of  the  Moorish  King,  who  had  befriended 
him  and  whose  kingdom  was  being  invaded  by 
Cordovans.  Alfonso's  gratitude  ended  with  the 
death  of  the  old  king;  he  did  not  scruple  to  at- 
tack his  son,  and  soon  captured  the  city  of  To- 
ledo, thus  adding  New  Castile  to  his  dominions. 
Alfonso  was  monarch  of  most  of  Christian  Spain, 
when  a  powerful  Almoravide  army  from  Africa, 
with  the  assistance  of  the  King  of  Seville,  in- 
flicted upon  him  a  terrible  defeat,  in  1086,  near 
Zalaca.  He  gradually  regained  strength,  but  in 
1108  the  Moors  destroyed  his  army  and  killed 
his  only  son.  The  next  year  Alfonso  died  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  daughter,  Urraea,  who  be- 
came the  wife  of  Alfonso  I.  of  Aragon.  His 
illegitimate  daughter,  Theresa,  married  Henry  of 
Burgundy,  and  gave  birth  to  the  first  King  of 
Portugal. 


ALFONSO  IIL,  surnamed  "the  Great"  (848- 
912).  King  of  Leon,  .\sturias,  and  Galicia.  He 
succeeded  his  father,  Ordouo  I.,  in  866,  but  had 
to  maintain  his  rights  by  force  of  arms  against 
Count  Fruela,  who  had  usurped  the  throne.  Hav- 
ing caused  the  latter  to  be  executed,  by  the  or- 
der of  the  Senate  of  Oviedo,  he  proceeded  sternly 
to  reduce  to  obedience  the  powerful  nobility  of 
the  kingdom,  who  did  not  wish  the  monarchy  to 
remain  in  one  family.  From  870  to  001  he  was 
constantly  at  war  with  the  Moors,  and  gained 
many  victories.  Crossing  the  Douro,  he  hum- 
bled Coimbra,  penetrated  to  the  Tagus  and  Es- 
tremadura,  enlarged  his  territories  by  a  portion 
of  Portugal  and  Old  Castile,  and  repeopled  the 
conquered  and  desolate  Burgos,  making  of  it  the 
first  town  in  Castile.  These  wars  entailed  great 
expense  and  misery  upon  the  nation.  As  a  con- 
sequence, in  888,  Garcia,  the  son  of  Alfonso, 
raised  the  standard  of  revolt.  Alfonso  collected 
his  forces,  conquered  his  son,  and  threw  him  into 
prison.  But  Gareia's  mother,  with  the  help  of 
several  of  the  grandees,  excited  a  new  conspiracy, 
which  resulted  in  the  abdication  of  the  monarch 
in  favor  of  his  imprisoned  son,  in  910.  In  order, 
however,  to  be  still  useful  to  his  country,  Al- 
fonso became  commander  of  Ciarcia's  forces  in 
an  expedition  against  the  Moors.  After  return- 
ing in  triumph,  he  died  at  Zamora,  December  20, 
912. 

ALFONSO  VI.  OF  Leon.    See  Alfonso  I.  of 

Castile. 

ALFONSO  X.  (1221-84).  King  of  Leon  and 
Castile,  surnamed  "the  Astronomer."  "the  Phil- 
osopher," or  "the  Wise"  (El  Sabio) .  He  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  Ferdinand  III.,  in  1252.  As 
early  as  the  storming  of  Seville,  in  1248,  he  had 
given  indications  of  his  courageous  spirit.  But 
instead  of  wisely  confining  his  eflforts  to  the  con- 
quest of  the  Jloors  and  the  repression  of  the 
nobility,  he  lavished  the  resources  of  his  kingdom 
in  efforts  to  secure  the  imperial  throne  of  Ger- 
many, to  which  he  was  elected  in  1257.  Richard 
of  Cornwall  was  chosen  in  opposition  to  him. 
Neither  could  succeed  in  securing  recognition, 
and  ultimately  the  imperial  crown  was  placed 
upon  the  head  of  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg  (1273). 
While  Alfonso  was  striving  for  the  crown  of  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire,  his  throne  was  threatened 
by  the  turbulence  of  the  nobility,  and  at  the 
same  time  he  had  to  contend  with  the  Moors. 
Tlie  latter,  however,  he  defeated,  in  1202,  in  a 
bloody  battle.  In  1270  an  insurrection  broke  out 
in  his  dominions,  at  the  head  of  which  was  his 
brother  Philip.  Later  his  son  Saneho  also  re- 
belled, and  in  1282  deprived  him  of  his  throne. 
He  now  sought  the  help  of  the  Moors,  but  after 
fruitless  efl'orts  to  recover  his  power,  he  died  at 
Seville,  April  4,  1284.  He  was  the  most  learned 
prince  of  his  time,  and  has  acquired  lasting  fame 
through  the  completion  of  the  code  of  laws  called 
the  Siete  Partidas,  which  200  years  later  became 
the  universal  law  of  the  land.  There  are  still 
extant  several  long  poems  of  his,  a  work  on 
chemistry.  El  libra  del  tesoro,  translated  later 
by  Brunetto  Latini  (q.v. ),  and  various  transla- 
tions of  Arabic  works.  He  labored  much  to  re- 
vive knowledge,  increasing  both  the  privileges 
and  professorships  of  the  University  of  Sala- 
manca. He  .sought  to  improve  the  Ptolemaic 
planetary  tables,  whose  anomalies  had  struck  ob- 
servers even  at  that  early  time.  For  this  pur- 
pose, in   1240,   he   assembled  at  Toledo   upward 


ALFONSO. 


332 


ALFONSO. 


of  50  of  tlie  most  celebrated  astronomers  of  that 
age.  His  improved  tables,  still  known  under  the 
name  of  the  Alfonsine  Tables,  were  completed  in 
1252.    See  Alfonsine  Table.s. 

ALFONSO  I.  OF  Naples  and  Sicily.  See  Al- 
fonso V.  of  Aragon. 

ALFONSO  I.  (?-1134).  Kin?  of  Xavarre 
and  Aragon,  who  succeeded  Pedro  I.,  in  1104. 
His  marriage  with  Urraca,  heir  of  Alfonso  VI., 
of  Leon  and  Castile,  brought  that  kingdom  un- 
der his  swajo  Misunderstandings  soon  arose  with 
Urraca,  and  a  divorce  was  granted.  Alfonso, 
however,  continued  to  fight  against  Castile,  thus 
prolonging  the  final  strife  with  the  Jloors.  He 
was  called  "emperor"  and  "fighter;"  the  latter 
name  he  won  by  Iiis  victories  over  the  Jloors.  In 
1114  he  began  the  siege  of  Saragossa.  which  he 
captured  tour  years  later.  In  1120  he  slew 
20,000  Moors  on  the  field  of  Daroca.  In  112.3  he 
invaded  A'alcncia,  and  two  years  later  he  went 
to  the  aid  of  the  Christian  Moors  in  Andalusia. 
In  1130  he  crossed  the  Pyrenees  and  captured 
Bordeaux  and  Bayonne.  "in  1133  he  besieged 
Fraga  on  the  Cinca.  The  contest  was  long  and 
severe,  bringing  from  Africa  10,000  Almoravides. 
Finally,  however,  the  Christians  were  defeated. 
Alfonso  died  in  1134. 

ALFONSO  (Vort.Affonso)  1.  f  1109-85).  Fir.st 
King  of  Portugal,  son  of  Henry  of  Burgundy, 
conqueror  and  Count  of  Portugal.  His  father 
died  when  he  was  about  two  years  old.  and 
the  management  of  affairs  fell  into  the  hands 
of  his  ambitious  and  dissolute  mother,  Theresa 
of  Castile,  from  whom  he  was  compelled  to  take 
it  by  force  on  attaining  his  majority.  He  was 
forced  into  war  with  Castile,  whose  supremacy 
he  did  not  recognize.  He  then  attacked  the 
Moors  and  won  a  brilliant  victory  on  the  plains 
of  Ourique  (1139) ,  Avhere,  according  to  the  legend, 
200,000  Moors  perished.  From  that  day  lie  took 
the  title  of  king.  He  was  crowned  by  itlie  abbot 
of  Larvao,  and  the  coronation  was  sanctioned  by 
the  Pope  in  1169.  On  October  23,  1147,  he  took 
Lisbon,  with  the  aid  of  some  English  crusaders 
under  William  Longsword,  on  their  way  to  the 
Holy  Land.  The  booty  was  so  rich  that  most  of 
the  Crusaders  returned  home.  In  1 158,  after  a 
two  months'  siege,  he  became  master  of  Alcazar 
de  Sal.  He  took  by  assault  the  fortress  of  San- 
tarem  from  the  Saracens,  in  1171,  and  annihil- 
ated the  garrison:  at  the  same  place  he  defeated 
the  Almohade  ruler,  Jusef-ben-Jakub,  in  1184. 
He  invited  to  his  land  the  Knights  Templars  and 
the  Knights  of  St.  John,  and  established  the  Or- 
ders of  Avis  and  of  St.  Michael.  He  died  at 
Coimbra,  December  6,  1185. 

ALFONSO  V.  (1432-Sl).  King  of  Portugal, 
surriamed  "(ho  African,"  in  honor  of  his  victo- 
ries over  the  Moors  in  .■\lgiers.  At  his  father's 
death,  in  1438,  there  was  a  fierce  struggle  for  the 
regency  between  the  Queen  Mother  and  the  uncles 
of  the  King.  Finally  the  Queen  was  defeated  and 
his  uncle  Pedro  became  regent.  In  1448  Alfonso 
assumed  the  government,  declared  his  uncle  a 
rebel,  and  defeated  him  in  battle.  After  a  cam- 
paign in  .Africa.  Alfonso  undertook  to  seize  upon 
Castile  and  Leon,  but  was  defeated  at  Toro.  Al- 
fonso endeavored  1o  get  assistance  from  the  King 
of  France,  but,  finding  that  he  was  being  de- 
ceived, he  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son,  .Tuan,  in 
1470.  He  was  forced,  liowcvcr.  to  ascend  tlie 
throne  again.  In  1479  he  signed  the  treaty  of 
Alcantara  with  Castile.    In  1481  he  died  of  the 


plague.  He  founded  the  Order  of  the  Tower  and 
Sword  under  the  invocation  of  San  Diego.  In 
his  reign  the  explorations  of  the  Portuguese 
along  the  western  coast  of  Africa  were  pushed 
beyond  the  equator.  As  a  patron  of  literature  lie 
was  tlie  first  Portuguese  king  to  collect  a  library, 
and  also  the  first  to  have  national  history 
treated  by  competent  writers. 

ALFONSO  V.  (1385-1458).  King  of  Aragon, 
Naples,  and  Sicily.  He  reigned  from  1416  to 
1458,  receiving  the  surname  "Jlagnanimous," 
because  on  his  accession  to  the  throne  he  de- 
stroyed a  document  containing  the  names  of  all 
the  grandees  who  were  hostile  to  him.  He 
is  renowned  chiefly  for  having  brought  southern 
Italy  under  the  dominion  of  Aragon.  In  1420  he 
attacked  Corsica,  but  speedily  hastened  to 
Naples  at  the  request  of  Queen  Joanna  II..  who 
in  return  for  his  assistance  against  Louis  of 
Anjou  named  him  as  her  heir.  For  some  time 
he  enjoyed  her  highest  favor;  but  in  1423,  hav- 
ing thrown  into  prison  her  minion,  Caraceiolo, 
who  was  his  enemy,  the  Queen  declared  for  his 
rival,  Louis.  At  her  death,  in  1435,  Alfonso  re- 
solved to  claim  the  kingdom ;  but  Rene  of  Anjou, 
whom  Joanna  had  appointed  her  successor  after 
the  death  of  Louis,  opposed  him.  Rome  and 
Genoa  sided  with  Rene.  The  Genoese  fleet  in- 
flicted a  most  serious  defeat  upon  the  Aragonese 
fleet,  and  Alfonso  was  captured.  He  was  sent  to 
the  Duke  of  Milan,  who.  charmed  by  his  man- 
ner and  talent,  set  him  at  liberty,  and  even  formed 
an  alliance  with  him.  After  several  battles  Al- 
fonso overthrew  his  adversary  and  entered  Naples 
in  triumph.  Having  once  firmly  established  his 
power,  he  proceeded  to  suppress  the  disorders 
which  had  sprung  up  during  the  reign  of  Joanna, 
and  honorably  distinguished  himself  bj'  his  p.at- 
ronage  of  letters.  He  died  at  Naples,  .Tune  27, 
1458,  while  his  troops  were  besieging  Genoa. 

ALFONSO  VI.  (1643-83).  King  of  Portugal. 
An  incapable  and  dissolute  prince,  who  drove  his 
mother,  the  regent,  from  court,  and  put  the  su- 
preme power  into  the  hands  of  a  worthless  favor- 
ite, Count  Castel-Mellior.  His  wife,  whom  he 
neglected,  conspired  with  his  brother,  Dom  Pedro, 
against  him.  Alfonso  was  dethroned  and  im- 
prisoned il668).  and  Dom  Pedro  took  his  place 
as  King  of  Portugal,  and,  after  the  death  of 
Alfonso,  as  husband  of  his  queen. 

ALFONSO  XIL  (1857-85).  King  of  Spain. 
The  son  of  the  deposed  Queen  Isabella  II.  He 
was  born  at  Madrid  and  was  proclaimed  king 
December  30,  1874.  On  January  23,  1878,  he 
married  Princess  Maria  de  las  Mercedes  (young- 
est daughter  of  the  Due  de  Montpensier) ,  who 
died  soon  after.  In  1879  he  married  Archduchess 
Maria  Christina  of  Austria,  by  whom  he  had 
three  children.  Returning  from  an  informal 
visit  to  Germany,  1883,  he  was  pulilicly  insulted 
in  Paris,  and  war  with  France  was  for  a  few  days 
thought  probable.  Alfonso  gave  Spain  a  just  and 
firm  government,  but  vainly  tried  to  reconcile 
the  numerous  factions  into  which  tlie  country 
was  divided.  His  posthumous  child,  Alfonso 
XIII..  succeeded  him. 

ALFONSO  Xin.  (1886—).  King  of  Spain. 
He  was  born  May  17,  1886,  the  postiiumous  son 
of  Alfonso  XII.  and  of  Maria  Christina,  Arch- 
duchess of  -Austria,  who  was  appointed  regent 
during  his  minority.  The  reign  of  the  young 
King  has  been  marked  by  mutinies  abroad,  while 
at  home  dissatisfaction  has  found  e.xpression  in 


ALFONSO. 


333 


ALFRED. 


cabinet  crises  and  military  insurrections,  labor 
riots,  and  Anarchistic  disturbances.  In  1S04  and 
18U5  insurrections  broke  out  in  the  Philippines 
and  in  Cuba.  In  ISilS  the  United  States  declared 
war  on  Spain,  and  bj-  the  treaty  of  Paris,  De- 
cember 10,  1898,  deprived  her  of  Cuba,  Porto 
Kico,  and  the  Philippines.     See  Spanish-Amebi- 

CAN    War;    PlIlLlPPl^'E   IsLAJ(l).S,   etc. 

ALFONSO  MARIA  DE  LIGUORI,  mare'a 
da  le-g\vO'rt'.     See  LiGUORI. 

ALFONSO  OF  BOTJB'BON  (1S49— ).  In- 
fanta of  Spain,  a  brother  of  the  pretender  to  the 
crown,  Charles  VII.,  nephew  of  the  former  pre- 
tender, Don  Carlos.  (See  Carlos,  Don.)  He 
participated  in  the  struggle  of  the  Carlists  (1873- 
74),  and  together  with  his  wife,  Maria  de  las 
Nievas,  became  notorious  by  reason  of  sangui- 
nar.y  <leeds  at  the  siege  of  Cuenca. 

ALFOED,  al'ferd,  Henry,  D.D.  (1810-71). 
An  English  biblical  critic  and  poet.  He  was  born 
in  London,  October  7,  1810,  and  educated  at  Trin- 
ity College,  Cambridge.  He  became  Fellow  of 
Trinity  in  1834,  Vicar  of  Wymeswold,  a  college 
living,  in  the  diocese  of  Peterborough,  1833 ; 
minister  of  Quebec  Chapel,  JIarylebonc,  London, 
1S53;  Dean  of  Canterbury,  18.57.  He  was  very 
versatile,  could  play  and  sing,  carve  and  paint. 
He  wrote  poetrj'  and  sermons.  He  was  a  literary 
critic  and  editor.  P>ut  his  reputation  rests  upon 
his  edition  of  the  Greek  New  Testament,  in  which 
for  the  first  time  the  treasures  of  German  lin- 
guistic and  exegetical  studies  were  introduced 
in  comprehensive  fashion  to  those  unfamiliar 
with  German.  It  «as  begun  in  1845  and  the 
fourth  and  last  volume  published  in  1801.  For 
the  day  it  was  a  great  service.  He  enabled  the 
mere  English  reader  to  reap  a  great  part  of  his 
harvest  by  his  Vcip  Testament  for  Enrilish  Read- 
ers (London,  1808,  4  volumes) .  Other  of  his  writ- 
ings have  had  much  vogue,  especially  his  poetrj'. 
The  School  of  the  Heart,  and  Other  Poems,  etc., 
which  is  characterized  not  so  much  by  depth  or 
originality  as  by  freedom  from  affectation,  ob- 
scurity or  bombast.  Among  his  latest  writings 
was  .1  Plea  for  the  Queen's  Enijlish  (sixth  edition. 
ISSO),  which  excited  considerable  discussion.  He 
also  published  several  volumes  of  sermons.  He  died 
at  Canterbury.  January  12,  1871.  Consult  The 
Life  of  Dean  Alford,  by  his  widow  ( London.  1873 ) . 

AL'FKED.  A  village  in  Allegany  County, 
N.  Y.,  12  miles  southwest  of  Hornellsville,  on  the 
Erie  Railroad  (Jlap:  New  York,  C  3).  Alfred 
was  settled  in  1807  and  was  incorporated  in 
1887 :  it  is  known  principally  as  the  site  of  Al- 
fred LTniversity,  a  Seventh  Day  Baptist  institu- 
tion, organized  in  1836.  The' New-  York  State 
School  of  Clay  Working  and  Ceramics  is  also 
situated  here.  '^  Pop.,  1800,  780;   1000,  7.50. 

ALFRED,  or  .ffiLFRED,  the  Great  (840- 
901).  King  of  Wessex  from  871  to  901.  He  was 
born  at  Wantage,  in  Berkshire,  in  849.  His 
father  was  .Ethelwulf,  King  of  the  West  Saxons. 
Alfred,  the  youngest  of  five  sons,  succeeded 
to  the  throne  in  871,  on  the  death  of  his 
brother  .-Ethelred.  His  reign,  which  lasted  more 
than  thirty  years,  is  noteworthy  first,  because 
of  the  wars  with  the  Danish  invaders ;  second, 
because  of  the  interest  which  the  King  took  in 
•  education.  Before  discussing  his  real  achieve- 
ments, however,  it  may  be  well  to  speak 
briefly  of  some  things  erroneously  attributed  to 
him.     In   the   popular  legends   he  has  been   re- 


garded as  the  author  of  many  reforms  and  in- 
stitutions which  were  in  no  waj'  due  to  him. 
His  real  and  great  merits  have  been  overlooked 
because  of  the  actions  incorrectly  credited  to  him. 
Except  for  the  false  statements  in  many  seconda- 
ry works,  it  would  be  unnecessary  to  say  that  he 
did  not  institute  trial  by  jury,  and  that  he  was 
not  the  founder  of  the  University  of  Oxford.  The 
picturesque  tales  of  liis  hiding  from  the  Danes,  of 
the  burned  cakes,  and  of  his  visit  to  the  Danish 
camp  disguised  as  a  harper,  are  inventions  of  a 
later  age. 

Alfred  became  king  in  the  midst  of  a  Danish 
invasion.  After  several  battles  he  was  able  to 
make  peace  with  the  enemy,  probably  by  paying 
them  money.  In  the  following  years  Danish  ma- 
rauding expeditions  were  frequent,  and  in  878 
there  was  a  great  invasion.  For  a  few  months 
the  Danes  Avere  successful  almost  everywhere,  and 
roet  with  no  general  resistance.  About  Easter, 
Alfred  established  himself  at  Athelney,  and 
gathered  there  all  the  forces  that  he  could. 
Seven  weeks  afterward  he  marched  to  Brixton, 
gathering  troops  as  he  went,  and  in  the  battle 
of  Ethandun,  probably  Edington  in  \\'iltshire, 
he  defeated  the  Danes  and  captured  their 
stronghold.  The  Danish  King  Guthrum  was 
baptized,  and  the  peace  of  Wedmore  followed. 
There  were  some  less  important  engagements  in 
the  following  years,  but  on  the  whole,  for  the 
next  fifteen  years  Alfred  was  able  to  give  his 
time  to  the  internal  affairs  of  his  kingdom.  In 
893  the  Danes,  who  had  l)een  driven  away  by  Ar- 
nulf  (q.v. ),  King  of  Germany,  made  a  descent 
upon  England.  For  more  than  four  years  the 
warfare  went  on  almost  continuously,  but  at  last 
the  Danes  were  driven  out.  These  Danish  inva- 
sions had  an  important  influence  on  the  history 
of  England.  By  crushing  the  individual  king- 
doms, they  worked,  unwittingly,  for  the  unity  of 
England.  Alfred,  by  withstanding  them  success- 
fully, made  his  kingdom  the  rallying  point  for 
all  the  Saxons,  and  prepared  the  way  for  the 
eventual  supremacy  of  his  descendants.  He  died 
October  28,  901. 

Alfred  was  an  enthusiastic  scholar  and  a 
zealous  patron  of  learning.  When  he  came  to 
the  throne,  as  he  himself  wrote,  he  found  little 
or  no  interest  in  education,  and  few  learned 
men.  He  invited  to  his  court  native  and  foreign 
scholars,  of  whom  the  best  known  are  Asser  and 
.John  Scotus  Erigena.  He  laljored  himself,  and 
encouraged  others  to  labor,  for  the  education  of 
his  people.  The  composition  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
Chronicle  may  have  been  due  to  his  initiative. 
He  himself  translated  works  whicli  ho  thought 
would  be  useful  to  his  people,  and  instead  of 
merely  translating  literally,  he  expanded  or 
omitted  portions  in  order  to  make  the  work  more 
serviceable.  His  principal  works  were  transla- 
tions of  the  following:  Boethius,  Consolation 
of  Philosophji :  Orosius.  Historii  of  the  World; 
and  Gregory  the  Great.  Pastoral  Care.  Of  the 
last  there  is  an  excellent  edition  in  the  publica- 
tions of  the  Early  English  Text  Society.  He  is  said 
to  have  translated,  or  to  have  had  translated,  the 
Soliloquies  of  St.  Au(iusfine.  It  was  believed 
formerly  that  Alfred  translated  Bede's  Ecclesias- 
tieal  Historii,  but  more  critical  study  has  shown 
that  the  translation  is  made  into  the  Anglian 
dialect  and  not  the  West  Saxon.  It  was  cer- 
tainly not  the  work  of  Alfred,  although  it  may 
have  been  made  under  his  direction.     See  Miller, 


ALFRED. 


334 


ALG^. 


The  Old  English  Version  of  Bede's  Ecclesiastical 
History,  Early  English  Text  Society  (Loudon, 
1890)  ;  Schipper,  Ktiitig  Alfreds  Vebersetzung  von 
liedas  Kirchengescliichte  (Leipzig,  1897). 

His  laws  show  no  striking  changes  from  the 
laws  of  earlier  kings;  in  fact,  he  disclaimed 
originality  and  spoke  of  his  work  as  mainly 
a  compilation  of  existing  laws.  But  they  are 
marked  by  two  characteristics  which  deserve 
uotice:  first,  they  are  intensely  religious;  sec- 
ond, they  make  no  distinction  between  English 
and  Welsh,  as  the  earlier  laws  had  done. 

The  millenary  of  King  Alfred  was  celebrated 
on  September  18,  1901,  at  Winchester,  the  for- 
mer capita!  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  kingdom.  The 
commemorative  exercises  were  participated  in 
by  many  distinguished  men  from  all  English- 
speaking  countries.  On  September  20,  the  day 
of  the  most  important  functions,  all  the  delegates 
joined  in  a  great  procession  and  marched  to  the 
site  where  the  colossal  statue  of  Alfred,  the  work 
of  Thornycroft,  was  unveiled,  and  the  oration 
was  delivered  by  Lord  Eosebery. 

In  the  United  States  the  Society  of  American 
Authors  encouraged  the  celebration  of  "the  one 
thousandth  anniversary  of  the  founder  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  race."  Exercises  were  held  on  Oc- 
tober 28  in  libraries  and  schools  in  various  cities. 
The  chief  celebration  was  in  New  York  City, 
where  Alfred  Bowker,  the  JMayor  of  Winchester, 
i^as  the  guest  of  honor. 

The  great  contemporary  sources  of  information 
for  Alfred's  life  are  Asser's  Life  of  Alfred  and  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle.  Of  each  of  these  there 
are  several  editions  in  the  original  Latin;  trans- 
lations can  be  found  in  the  Bolin  Library;  in  Ste- 
venson's Church  Historians  of  England,  and  else- 
where. The  genuineness  of  Asser's  work  has  been 
the  subject  of  much  controversy,  but  most  schol- 
ars now  believe  it  to  be  a  contemporary  work, 
with  some  later  interpolations.  Of  secondary 
works  Pauli's  Konig  Alfred,  edited  by  Thomas 
Wright,  is  still  deserving  of  mention. 

BiBLiOGRAPiiT.  The  constitutional  events  of 
the  reign  are  described  in  Stubbs,  Constitutional 
History,  Volume  I.  (Oxford,  1891).  The  mil- 
lenary celebration  caused  the  production  of 
many  books  and  articles.  Of  these  the  following 
may  be  mentioned:  Bowker,  Alfred  the  Great 
(London.  1899).  which  contains  seven  special 
studies  by  Sir  Walter  Besant,  Sir  Frederick  Pol- 
lock, Frederic  Harrison,  and  others ;  Conybeare, 
Alfred  in  the  Chroniclers  (London,  1900)  ; 
Draper,  Alfred  the  Great  (London,  1901)  ;  Har- 
rison, Writings  of  King  Alfred  (New  York, 
1901)  ;  Hughes,  Alfred  the  Great,  new  edition 
(London,  1901);  .JefTery,  A  Perfect  Prince,  The 
fit  org  of  the  England  of  Alfred  the  Great  (Lon- 
don. 1901);  Jla'cfayden,  Alfred  the  West  Saxon 
(London,  1901);  Wall.  Alfred  the  Great,  His 
Abbeys  of  Hi/de,  Athelney,  and  Shaftesbury 
(London,  1900).  Frederic  Perry  is  preparing  a 
volume,  Alfred  the  Truth  Teller,  for  the  Heroes 
of  the  Nations  Series.  Mr.  Slade.  of  the  Library 
of  Congress,  has  prepared  a  bibliography  of  Al- 
fred, which  aims  at  completeness. 

ALFRED  OF  BEVERLEY  (born  c.llOO). 
An  old  English  chronicler,  about  whom  little  is 
known.  He  describes  himself  as  treasurer  and 
sacrist  of  the  church  of  Beverley,  in  Yorkshire, 
■where  he  wrote  in  Latin  a  chronicle  history  of 
Britain,  from  the  fabulous  period  down  to  1129, 
called  the  Annalcs  (in  9  books).     It  is  mostly  a 


compilation.     An   inferior  MS.   was   printed  by 
T.  Hearne  (1710). 

ALFRED  U'NIVER'SITY.  An  American 
university,  situated  at  Alfred,  N.  Y.  It  wag 
organized  as  a  school  in  183(3  and  as  a  university 
in  1837.  Its  total  endowment,  including  equip- 
ment, etc.,  was  in  1901  about  .$445,000.  The 
library  has  13,000  volumes.  The  university  has 
collegiate,  industrial  mechanics,  fine  arts,  music, 
theological  and  preparatory  departments,  and  a 
State  school  of  clay  working  and  ceramics.  In- 
structors (1900)  20,  students  210.  President, 
Rev.  B.  C.  Davis,  Ph.D. 

ALFRETON,  nl'fer-ton.  A  market  town  of 
Derbyshire,  England,  about  12  miles  north  of 
Derby  (Map:  England,  E  3).  Its  foundation 
is  ascribed  to  Alfred  the  Great.  It  has  of  late 
become  a  flourishing  manufacturing  town. 
Among  its  industries  are  pottery  works,  col- 
lieries, and  iron  foundries.  Pop.,  1891,  15,400; 
1901,  17.500. 

ALFITRESE,  rd'fw-rez'  or  al'fUo-res',  ALFTT- 
Rir,  al-foo'roo,  or  ALFORA,  al-fO'ra    (Ar.  al, 
the  +  Portug.  fora,  outside,  thus  probably  mean- 
ing the  outsiders).     In  Celebes,   the   Moluecag,      M 
etc.,    a    term    applied    to    the    tribes,    of    the      W 
interior  especially,  who  seem  to  differ  from  the 
more  or   less   prevalent   Malay  type,  being  per- 
haps    pre-Malay    aboriginals.      Tiie    name    can 
hardly  have,  however,  any  strict  anthropological 
connotation.     In  Celebes  the  Alfurese  are  found      ^ 
chiefly    in   the   north,    in   Ciilolo   in   the   central     H 
regions,  while  in  Ceram  they  are  the  predomi-     ™ 
nant  race.     The  Alfurese  of  Celebes  are  probably 
not  so  different  from  the  Malayans  as  has  hith- 
erto   been   believed,    being   a    mixed    race.      The 
Alfurese   of   Gilolo   were   considered   by   Wallace 
the  true  aborigines  of  the  island,  and  those  of 
Ceram,   etc.,   to   be   of   Papuan   stock   at   bottom. 
There  are,   evidently,   several   kinds   of  Alfurese 
(the  word  has  somewhat  the  sense  of  our  "gen- 
tile,"  "pagan"),   some  Malays  doubtless,  others 
pre-Malay,  still  others  of  Papuan  affinities.     See 
Celebes;  Moi.rccAS. 

ALG.ffi,  al'je  (Lat.  nom.  pi.  of  aZ^a,  seaweed). 
A  group  of  chlorophyll-bearing  or  colored  thallo- 
phytes  containing  the  lowest  forms  of  plant  life. 
The  alg.'e  are  contrasted  with  the  fungi,  which 
latter  are  devoid  of  chlorophyll.  There  is  an 
obvious  relationship  between  the  algfe  and  the 
fungi  (q.v.),  the  latter  probably  having  been 
derived  from  the  former.  Consequently,  a  per- 
fectly natural  classification  should  combine  both 
groups;  but  botanists  are  hardly  ready  at  this 
time  to  attempt  so  difficult  a  problem.  Although 
the  fungi  have  come  from  algal  ancestry,  they 
have  undoubtedly  been  derived  from  two  or  more 
widely  separated  regions  of  the  algie.  Thus,  the 
Bacteria  lSchi::omycetes)  have  probably  come 
from  the  lowly  Blue-green  Algai  (Cyanophycece), 
while  the  Phycomycetes  (molds  of  various 
kinds)  have  their  origin  from  much  higher  levels. 
It  follows,  therefore,  that  the  Fungi  contain  sev- 
eral groups  with  no  generic  relation  except 
through  a  roundabout  algal  ancestry.  Conse- 
quently the  division  of  the  Thallophytes  into  the 
AlgiP  and  Fungi  is  largely  a  classification  of  con- 
venience, based  upon  the  physiological  character 
of  the  presence  or  absence  of  chlorophyll  (green 
pigment)  or  of  pigments  related  to  chlorophyll. 

Cl.^ssificatiox.  The  .\lgae  are  readily  divid- 
ed  into   four   groups,   which   have   the   rank   of 


ALG^. 


335 


ALG^. 


classes:  viz.,  the  Blue-green  AlgfE  {Ci/anophy- 
<:ew) ,  Green  Algte  (Chlorophyccw) ,  Brown  Algae 
{Phwophyccw) ,  and  Red  Algse  (lihodophycca:) . 
Under  the  seientific  names  there  will  be  found 
accounts  of  their  general  habits  and  most  strik- 
ing characteristics.  From  the  names  of  these 
classes  one  might  imagine  that  the  groups  are 
distinguished  by  color  marks;  but  in  reality 
fundamental  morphological  characters  form  the 
basis  of  the  classification.  Although  it  is  con- 
venient to  think  of  the  AlgiE  as  distinguished 
hy  their  color,  there  are  many  exceptions  to  the 
rule,  aim  color  should  never  be  regarded  as  the 
foundation  of  the  classification. 

CvAXOPiiYCE.E.  Blue-green  Algai  are  remark- 
able for  the  simplicity  of  their  cell  structure. 
There  are  probably  never  present  distinct  cell 
organs  (nucleus,  etc.),  the  blue-green  pigment 
being  diflfused  through  the  outer  regions  of  the 
protoplasm.  It  is  this  extreme  simplicity  of 
cell  structure  that  seems  to  unite  these  Algae 
with  the  Bacteria.  In  addition  to  the  vegetative 
cells,  there  are  in  the  filamentous  forms  peculiar 
empty  cells  called  Heterocysts  (q.v. ),  which  have 
an  important  relation  to  the  method  of  growth 
termed  ''false  branching."  (See  f'Y.\X0PllYCE.E.) 
At  the  approach  of  an  unfavorable  season,  as 
cold  or  drought,  certain  cells  take  on  thick  walls, 
becoming  reproductive  cells  or  spores.  There 
is  no  method  of  sexual  reproduction.  The  Cyano- 
ph_vce;c  comprise  two  orders:  the  Coecogonales, 
containing  the  unicellular  forms,  and  the  Hor- 
mogouales,  which  comprise  the  filamentous  types. 
Tile  latter  order  takes  its  name  from  the  peculiar 
method  of  vegetative  reproduction,  whereby  the 
filaments  break  up  into  segments  called  hormo- 
gonia.   which   separate   and   develop   new   plants. 

CnLOROPHYCE.i;.  The  Green  Alga:'  form  a  large 
assemblage,  varying  from  unicellular  forms  of 
very  simple  life  history  to  groups  with  highly 
dift'erentiated  vegetative  structure  and  methods 
of  sexual  reproduction.  It  is  perhaps  the  best 
group  of  plants  for  illustration  of  the  steps  and 
conditions  of  the  evolution  of  sex.  Sexual  cells 
or  Gametes  (q.v.)  are  unquestionably  derived 
from  the  asexual  reproductive  cells  called  zoo- 
spores or  swarm  spores,  which  are  the  common- 
est reproductive  elements  in  the  Chlorophyceae. 
The  zoospores,  after  taking  on  sexual  characters, 
are  further  differentiated  into  large  non-motile 
eggs  and  the  highly  specialized  sperms.  One 
may  find  in  the  Chlorophyceae  various  stages  in 
this  process  of  sexual  differentiation,  and  it  is 
interesting  to  note  that  sex  has  arisen  in  several 
groups  independently  of  one  another.  Further- 
more, the  production  by  many  Algie  of  asexual 
spores  on  the  one  hand,  or  sexual  cells  (gametes) 
on  the  other,  is  known  to  be  determined  by 
environmental  factors,  such  as  heat,  light,  and 
the  character  of  the  food.  The  same  plant  may 
be  made  to  produce  in  succession  non-sexual 
reproductive  cells,  or  sexual  elements,  by  merely 
modifying  the  life  conditions.  The  most  con- 
spicuous groups  of  the  Chlorophyceae  which  may 
be  ranked  as  orders  are  the  Protococcales.  Con- 
fervales.  Conjugales,  Diatomales,  Siphonales,  and 
Charales. 

The  Protoc8ccales  include  unicellular  forms 
and  the  cell-colonies  called  Cienobia  (q.v.), 
there  being  several  divergent  lines  of  develop- 
ment. One  of  the  simpler  types  is  Pleurocoecus, 
which  grows  thickly  upon  the  north  side  of  trees. 
This  plant,  contrary  to  many  statements,  never 
develops  spores,  and  reproduces  entirely  by  cell- 


division.  It  should  not  be  confused  with  Proto- 
coccus  (or  Chlorococcus ) ,  a  much  rarer  form, 
far  more  complicated  in  structure  and  life  his- 
tory. The  Protococcales  are  believed  to  repre- 
sent the  starting  point  of  the  main  line  of  ascent 
which  runs  through  the  C'onfervales  to  the  Bryo- 
phytes  (liverworts  and  mosses).  There  are  also 
represented  in  this  group  several  other  well- 
marked  lines,  which,  however,  ending  blindly, 
bear  no  relation  to  other  plants.  The  develop- 
ment of  these  lines  is  determined  by  the  degree 
of  emphasis  that  is  laid  upon  certain  phases  of 
the  varied  life  history  of  the  Protococcales. 
Tlius,  the  Volvocacea;  have  developed  especially 
the  motile  condition:  the  TTydrodictyace:p,  the 
colony  (coenobium)  condition;  and  the  Pleuro- 
coccacea",  the  life  of  vegetative  cells,  reproducing 
by  simple  division. 

The  C'onfervales  comprise  the  many-celled 
filamentous  and  membranous  forms  that  are 
nearest  to  the  theoretical  main  line  of  ascent 
to  the  Bryophytes  (liverworts  and  mosses). 
The  simpler  types,  such  as  Ulothrix  and  Ulva, 
have  similar  swimming  sexual  cells  (gametes), 
which  fuse  (conjugate)  in  pairs  in  the  water. 
Higher  members,  as  CEdogonium  and  Coleochaete, 
have  distiijct  eggs  and  sperms,  but  there  are  cer- 
tain forms  which  present  intermediate  conditions 
that  show  clearly  that  the  sexual  differentiation 
of  the  highest  types  (heterogamy)  has  developed 
from  the  simplicity  illustrated  by  Ulothrix, 
whose  gametes  cannot  be  distinguished  (isoga- 
niy).  In  Coleocluete  there  is  the  further  com- 
plication of  Alternation  of  generations  (q.v.). 
The  fertilized  egg,  instead  of  developing  directly 
into  a  new  Coleocluete  plant,  forms  a  small 
body  (sporophyte)  which  contains  spores,  each 
of  which  produces  a  new  sexual  Coleocha>te  plant 
(gametophyte) .  The  appearance  of  this  sexless 
generation  in  Coleocha>te  is  strikingly  like  the 
sporophyte  of  the  simpler  liverworts. 

The  Conjugales,  or  Pond  Scums  (see  Chloro- 
piiyce.e),  are  peculiar  by  reason  of  the  sexually 
formed  spore  that  results  from  the  union  of  non- 
motile  cells  whose  contents  fuse  directly,  never 
pre.senting  a  free  swimming  condition.  The 
order  contains  such  well-known  filamentous 
forms  as  Spirogyra  and  Zygnema,  and  the  large 
group  of  the  Desmids,  the  latter  mostly  unicellu- 
lar. The  Conjugales  are  chiefly  remarkable  for 
the  extreme  beauty  of  their  cell  contents,  the 
green  color  body  being  especially  well  developed. 
They  are  not  closely  related  to  any  other  group 
of  Algae,  and  their  origin  is  problematical.  The 
method  of  sexual  reproduction  is  unique,  having 
little  resemblance  in  manner  and  form  to  the 
sexual  processes  of  other  Chlorophyceie. 

The  Diatomales,  or  Diatomaceae  (q.v.).  have 
an  uncertain  position,  but  show  certain  affinities 
to  the  Desmids.  Their  color  body  is  generally 
brown,  but  is  green  in  some  species.  The  Siphon- 
ales  form  a  large  group,  chiefly  marine.  Certain 
members  (e.g.,  Caulerpa)  have  a  high  grade  of 
vegetative  organization,  presenting  a  stem-like 
axis  that  bears  leaf-like  expanded  lateral  out- 
growths, and  in  addition  colorless  root-like  pro- 
cesses (rhizoids)  which  grow  into  the  substra- 
tum. The  commonest  illustration  is  Vaucheria, 
the  only  member  of  the  order  with  distinct  eggs 
and  sperms  (heterogamy,  q.v.).  The  vegeta- 
tive body  of  the  Siphonales,  however  complex, 
has  no  partitions,  but  is  a  continuous  tube  or 
system  of  branching  tubes  through  which  the 
protoplasm  slowly  circulates.     Such  a  structure 


ALG^. 


336 


ALGARDI. 


is  called  Ccenoeyte  ( q.v. ) .  Another  interesting 
genus  is  Botrydium,  which  has  the  form  of  a 
green,  swollen  bladder  about  the  size  of  a  pin- 
head,  and  is  attached  to  moist  soil  by  a  system  of 
branching  root-like  filaments.  Botrydium  and 
Vaucheria  are  practically  the  only  terrestrial 
or  fresh  water  representatives  of  this  order. 

The  Charales  form  the  highest  group  of  the 
Chlorophyceae  in  respect  to  vegetative  structure. 
The  forms  are  remarkable  for  the  synnnetry  of 
their  parts,  a  condition  which  results  from  a 
well-defined  method  and  order  of  growth.  Tlie 
growth  is  dominated  by  a  terminal  cell,  whose  di- 
visions determine  with  matliematical  regularity 
the  position  and  structure  of  the  nodes  (joints) 
and  internodes.  The  system  of  growth  is  even 
followed  in  the  development  of  the  leaf-like 
branches,  ordinary  branches,  and  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  female  sex  organ  (oiigonium).  The 
sexual  organs  are  complex,  especially  the  male 
organ  (antheridium) ,  which  develops  thousands 
of  sperms.  The  eggs  are  large  and  are  protected 
by  a  set  of  enveloping  filaments,  the  whole  con- 
stituting a  complex  female  organ. 

Pn.isOPHYCE.TS.  The  Brown  Algfe  also  form  a 
very  large  group,  which  contains  diverse  lines 
of  development,  the  forms  ranging  from  simple 
filaments  to  the  gigantic  Kelp  or  Devil's 
Apron  (q.v.),  and  highly  specialized  rock  weeds. 
This  class  also  presents  excellent  illustrations 
of  the  principal  stages  in  the  evolution  of  sex. 
There  are  two  sub-classes :  the  Pha?osporefE, 
whose  reproductive  cells,  whether  sexual  or 
asexual,  are  swimming  spores,  and  the  Cyclo- 
sporefe,  whose  reproductive  cells  aie  large  eggs 
fertilized  by  highly  specialized  sperms.  The 
motile  reproductive  cells  of  the  group,  whether 
sexless  spores  or  gametes  (sexual  cells),  are 
peculiar  in  being  bean-  or  kidney-shaped,  with 
the  pair  of  cilia  inserted  laterally.  There  are 
a  dozen  or  more  orders  in  this  group,  the  largest 
being  the  Eetocarpales,  comprising  some  of  the 
simplest  filamentous  forms;  the  Laminariales  or 
kelps,  and  the  Fueales,  which  include  the  rock 
weeds  and  Sargassum.  In  vegetative  complexity 
some  of  the  Fueales  are  probably  the  highest  of 
all  the  Algie.    For  illustration  see  Ph.isgpjiyce.e. 

Rhouophyce^.  The  Red  Algfe  are  acknowl- 
edged to  be  the  most  beautiful  of  all  the  Algae, 
because  of  the  delicacy  of  their  structure  and 
brilliancy  of  color.  The  vegetative  structure  is 
not  so  highly  differentiated  as  in  some  of  the 
Brown  and  (Jreen  Alga?,  but  the  method  of  sex- 
ual reproduction  is  especially  complex.  As  the 
result  of  the  fertilization  of  the  female  cell  by 
the  fusion  of  a  sperm  with  the  Trichogyne  (a 
hair-like  process  of  the  female  cell,  q.v.),  there 
arises  a  growth  of  filaments  constituting  a  new 
generation  (sporophyte) ,  which  remains  at- 
tached to  the  parent  plant.  The  filaments  of  this 
sporophyte  sometimes  establish  secondary  con- 
nections with  the  sexual  plant  (gametophyte) 
for  purposes  of  nutrition.  Certain  cells  of  the 
sporophyte  become  spores  (carpospores) .  The 
masses  of  spores  constitute  the  fruit,  called  a 
cystocarp,  which  frequently  includes  a  highly 
developed  receptacle  formed  from  the  tissue  of 
the  parent  plant.  The  sperms  of  the  Red  Algae 
are  non-motile.  There. is  an  asexual  method  of 
reproduction  by  tetraspores,  so  called  because 
they  are  generally  formed  in  the  mother-cell  in 
groups  of  four.  For  illustration  see  HyokoI'iivtes. 

The  Alga;  furnish  especially  good  illustrations 
of  some  biological  phenomena  of  general  interest. 


Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  are  the  physiologi- 
cal conditions  surroimding  the  development  of 
the  reproductive  cells.  The  commonest  form  of 
reproductive  cell  is  the  swimming  spore,  which 
became  established  very  early  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Algoe,  as  far  back  as  the  Proto- 
coccales,  whose  members  frequently  pass  a  con- 
siderable part  of  their  life  history  in  a  motile 
condition,  essentiallj-  like  that  of  a  swimming 
spore.  Whenever  a  higher  alga  develops  swim- 
ming spores,  which  generally  happens  at  a  cer- 
tain period  of  its  life  history,  it  may  be  said 
to  return  to  one  of  the  conditions  of  its  early 
ancestors.  As  has  been  mentioned  before,  the 
simple  motile  sex  cells  (gametes)  which  fuse 
in  pairs  in  the  water  are  unquestionablj'  swim- 
ming spores  endowed  with  sexual  qualities,  or, 
stated  differently,  lacking  the  power  to  develop 
independently  into  new  plants.  It  has  been  thor- 
oughly established  by  many  experimental  studies 
that  these  peculiarities  are  determined  by  envi- 
ronmental factors.  As  an  example,  almost  all 
Hydrodictyon  plants  will  produce  sex  cells  after 
cultivation  in  a  solution  of  cane  sugar  and  under 
subdued  light.  Asexual  spores  will  be  devel- 
oped by  the  same  plants  when  cultivated  in  a 
nutrient  salt  solution  with  bright  illumination. 
As  would  be  expected  in  a  group  where  sex  begins, 
there  are  a  great  many  illustrations  of  partheno- 
genesis among  the  Algae:  that  is,  sex  cells  vei-y 
frequently  develop  new  plants  asexually  ( without 
fusing).  There  are  instances  of  parthenogenesis 
in  almost  all  large  groups  of  the  Algae,  and  the 
phenomenon  is  frequently  related  to  seasonal 
and  other  environmental   conditions.     See  Par- 

TTIEXOGENE.SIS. 

The  AlgiE,  as  a  whole,  must  be  considered  as 
a  complex  of  divergent  lines  of  development, 
very  few  of  the  living  tj'pes  being  near  the 
theoretical  main  line  of  ascent  to  the  Bryophytes 
(liverworts  and  mosses).  The  various  lines 
have  frequently  worked  out  similar  vegetative 
conditions,  and,  what  is  most  interesting,  several 
groups  have  arrived  independently  at  the  same 
condition  of  sexual  differentiation.  For  illus- 
trations, see  articles  Chlorophtce.?;  ;  Cya- 
NOPHYCE.E  ;   PlLEOPHYCE.*;,   and  Rhodophtcbls). 

For  general  description  of  Algie,  consult:  Eng- 
ler  and  Prantl,  Die  natilrlichcn  I'^Uinzenfamilien 
(Berlin,  1899,  et  seq.)  ;  Murray,  Introduction 
to  the  Htudy  of  Seaweeds  (Londou,  189.5)  :  Far- 
low,  .I/dcijip  Alffw  of  Neiv  Utii/land  (Salem,  1881)  ; 
Cook,  British  Fresh  ^yater  Algw  (London,  1881- 
83)  ;  Kirchner,  "Kryptogamen-flora  von  Schle- 
sien,"  in  Schlesische  Oesellschaft  fur  vaterliind- 
ische  Kiiltiir   (Breslau,  1870-89). 

ALGARDI,  al-giir'de,  Ales.sandeo  (1602-54). 
A  prominent  Italian  sculptor  and  architect  of 
the  Baroque  period.  He  was  born  at  Bologna, 
where  he  first  studied  painting  under  the  Car- 
racci,  but  afterwards  took  up  sculpture  with 
Conventui.  His  style,  however,  was  modelled 
upon  Bernini's  works  at  Rome,  which  was  the 
principal  seat  of  his  activity.  Like  other  sculp- 
tors of  the  Baroque  style,  of  which  he  was,  next 
to  Bernini,  the  most  prominent  representative  in 
Italy,  he  conceived  sculpture  iu  a  pictorial  sense. 
Though  his  works  are  of  high  tetlinical  ability, 
their  effect  is  marred  by  a  hollow  pathos  and 
exaggerated  dramatic  action.  The  most  impor- 
tant are  Saint  Philip  Ncri  in  Bologna,  the  tomb 
of  Leo  XL  in  Saint  Peter's,  Rome,  iind  (in  the 
same  church)  the  largest  alto-rilievo  in  the 
world,   representing  the   retreat  of  Attila   from 


ALGABDI. 


337 


ALGEBRA. 


Rome.     An   architect   of  note,   lio   (lesicjnoil   the 
Villa   Pamfili   and  the   facade   of   Sant'   Ifniazio 
in  Rome. 
AL'GARO'BA.     See  Mesquite  Tree. 
ALGAROTTI,  al'p-rot'te,  Fr.\ncesco,  Count 
(1712  (34).     An  Italian  author.     He  was  born  in 
Venice,  studied  at  Rome  and  Bologna,  and  when 
twenty-one  years  old  published  in  Paris  his  Xcu- 
toniaiiismo  per  le  doiinc    ("The  Newtonian  Phi- 
losophy for  Ladies"),  a  work  on  ojitics,  on  which 
his  reputation  was  founded.    Until  18.'!',.)he!ivedin 
France,  and  for  many  years  enjoyed  the  friend- 
ship of  Voltaire.     On  his  return  from  a  journey 
to  Russia  he  fust  met  Frederick  the  Great,  who 
bestowed  upon  him  the  title  of  count,  and  in  1747 
made  him  court  chamberlain.  He  also  enjoyed  the 
favor  of  Augu-^tus  111.  of  Poland,  and  lived  alter- 
nately  in   Berlin   and   Dresden   until   his   return 
to  Italy  in  1754.     He  died  at  Pisa,  where  Fred- 
erick tlie  Great  raised  a  monument  to  his  memory 
in  tlic  Campo   Santo.     He   was  a   versatile  man 
and  a  voluminous  writer.     In  his  day  he  was  con- 
sidered a  good  judge  of  painting  and  architecture, 
and    his   reputation   is   confirmed   by   his   Saggi 
sopra.la  hiilc  arti   ("Essays  on  the  Fine  Arts"), 
and  by  the  paintings  he  selected  for  the  Dresden 
Gallery.     His  chief  defect  of  style  was  the  strong 
Gallic  flavoring,  due  to  a  too  faithful  study  of 
Frencli    literature.      English    readers    are    most 
likely   to   think  of  him  as  Carlyle's   "young  Ve- 
netian gentleman  of  elegance  in  dusky  skin  and 
very    white    linen."     Algarotti's    collected    works 
appeared,     with     biography     by     D.     Michelessi, 
Venice,  1701-04. 

ALGAROVILLA,  al'ga-ro-vel'ya  (Sp.  algar- 
ruha.  from  Ar.  al-hJiarrubah,  the  carob  tree). 
An  astringent  product  of  the  Juga  marllue,  an 
acacia  growing  in  Colombia,  the  pods  of  which 
are  said  to  be  four  times  as  rich  in  tannin  as  the 
best  oak  bark.  Black  ink  is  made  from  it;  also 
a  yellow  dye ;   and  it  is  useful  in  medicine. 

ALGARVE,  al-giir'va.  The  smallest  and 
most  southerly  of  the  provinces  of  Portugal, 
situated  between  Andalusia  and  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  (Map:  Portugal,  A  4).  Its  area  is  1S73 
square  mile.s.  The  northern  part  of  the  province 
is  occupied  by  a  range  of  mountains  of  an  aver- 
age height  of  4000  feet,  which  form  the  continua- 
tion of  the  Sierra  Morena  of  Spain,  and  termi- 
nate in  Cape  St.  Vincent,  the  south-western  ex- 
tremity of  Europe.  The  highest  ridges  are  desti- 
tute of  vegetation,  and  the  mountainous  regions 
are  but  little  adapted  for  agi-icultural  purposes. 
From  the  main  ridge  the  country  slopes  south- 
ward in  jagged  terraces  and  low  lulls,  leaving  a 
level  tract  of  a  few  miles  along  the  coast.  The 
African  heat  of  the  climate  is  mitigated  by  the 
cool  sea  breeze.  The  only  river  of  importance  is 
the  Guadiana,  on  the  frontiers  of  Spain.  The  soil 
of  the  plain  is  but  indifferently  suited  for  the 
production  of  grain,  or  even  of  pasturage;  but  it 
produces  many  kinds  of  southern  fruit,  incUuling 
figs,  almonds,  olives,  and  grapes.  The  mineral 
wealth  is  considerable,  but  its  exploitation  is  in- 
significant. The  principal  occupations  of  the  in- 
habitants are  agriculture,  fisliing,  and  the  pro- 
duction of  sea  salt.  Population,  1890,  228,6.'i5. 
The  inhabitants  have  preserved  many  of  the 
characteristics  of  the  Moors.  The  chief  town  is 
Faro.  In  ancient  times  it  was  much  more  exten- 
sive. It  received  its  name  from  the  Arabs,  in 
whose  language  Algarve  signifies  "a  land  lying 
to  the  west."     It  was  a   Moorish   province  till 


125.'),  when  Alfonso  III.  united  it  to  the  crown 

of  Portugal  as  a  separate  kingdom. 

AL-GAZALI,  al'ga-za'le,  or  AL-GAZEL,  al' 
ga-zel',  Abu  Hamil>  Mohakmed  (1058-1111).  A 
celebrated  Arabian  theologian  and  philosopher, 
born  at  Tun,  in  the  province  of  Khorassan,  in 
eastern  Persia.  He  became  a  leader  of  the 
school  of  the  Aseharites,  or  Orthodox,  and  was 
for  a  time  professor  of  theology  in  the  university 
at  Bagdad.  Subsequently  he  assumed  the  rule  of 
the  Sufis  (see  SuFliSM) ,  or  Mystics,  and  thus  for 
the  most  part  continued  until  his  death.  His  elo- 
quence as  a  lecturer  won  for  him  the  title  of 
Zchi-cd-Dhi,  or  "Ornament  of  Religion,"  and  his 
Revivification  of  the  Sciences  of  Religion  was  so 
highly  esteemed  by  Mussulmans  that  the  saying 
arose  that  if  only  this  work  wore  preserved  the 
loss  of  all  the  rest  of  Islam  would  be  but  slight. 
He  wrote  also  The  Destruction  of  the  Philoso- 
phers, in  refutation  of  the  ancient  philosophic 
doctrine.  He  was  severely  attacked  by  Averroes 
(q.v.). 

AL'GAZEL  {Al  is  the  Ar.  article  the).  A  ga- 
zelle; ordinarily  the  doreas.     See  Gazelle. 

AL'GEBRA.  A  branch  of  pure  mathematics 
that  materially  simplifies  the  solution  of  arith- 
metical problems,  especially  through  the  use  of 
equations.  It  also  forms  the  introduction  to  all 
of  the  higher  branches  of  mathematical  science, 
except  pui'e  geometry. 

The  name  is  derived  from  the  title  of  the 
Arabic  work  by  AMvhuwarizmi  (q.v.),  Ilm  al- 
jabr  ica'l  muqubalah,  meaning  "the  science  of  re- 
dintegration and  equation;"  that  is,  the  science 
that  relates  to  the  reduction  of  equations  to  in- 
tegral form  and  to  the  transposition  of  terms. 
The  title  appeared  thereafter  in  various  forms, 
as  Indus  alfiehrw  almugrahalceqiie,  and  ali/icbar 
and  almachubel,  but  the  abbreviation  algebra  was 
finally  adopted.  The  science  also  went  under 
various  other  names  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth 
centiuies,  as  the  ars  magna  (Cardan,  1545),  the 
arte  maggiore,  the  rcgola  de  la  cosa  (because  the 
unknown  quantity  was  denominated  cosa.  the 
"thing"),  and  hence  in  early  English  the  cossike 
art,  and  in  German  the  Coss. 

The  exact  limitations  of  algebra  are  not  gener- 
ally agreed  upon  by  mathenurticians,  and  hence 
various  definitions  have  been  proposed  for  the 
science.  It  has  been  proposed  to  limit  it  to  the 
theory  of  equations,  as  the  etymology  of  the  word 
would  suggest;  but  this  has  beconie  a  separate 
branch  of  mathematics.  Perhaps  the  most  satis- 
factory definition,  especially  as  it  brings  out  the 
distinction  between  algebra  and  arithmetic,  is 
that  of  Comte:  "Algebra  is  the  calculus  of  func- 
tions, and  arithmetic  is  the  calculus  of  values." 
This  distinction  would  include  some  arithmetic 
in  ordinary  school  algebra  (e.  g.,  the  study  of 
surds),  and  some  algebra  in  common  arithmetic 
(e^g.,  the  formula  for  square  root). 

The  oldest  known  manuscript  in  which  al- 
gebra is  treated  is  that  of  Ahnies,  the  Egyptian 
scribe,  who,  about  1700  B.C.,  copied  a  treatise 
dating  perhaps  from  2500  B.C.  In  this  ap- 
pears the  simple  equation  in  the  form,  "Hau 
(literallyheap),  its  seventh,  its  whole,  it  makes 
19,"    which,    put    in    modern    symbols,    means 

--|-aj=19.      In  Euclid's  Elements    (about   300 

B.C. )  a  knowledge  of  certain  quadratic  equations 
is  shown.  It  was  Diophantus  of  Alexandria  (q.v.), 
however,    who   made   the   first   attempt    (fourth 


ALGEBRA. 


338 


ALGEB. 


century  a.d.  )  to  work  out  the  science.  In  the  fol- 
lowintj  century  Aryabhatta  (q.v.)  made  some 
contributions  to  tlie  subject.  Little  was  then 
done  until  about  SOO  a.d.,  when  Al-Khuwarizmi 
wrote.  His  efforts  were  followed  by  another 
period  of  comparative  repose,  until  the  Italian 
algebraists  of  the  sixteenth  century  undertook 
the  solution  of  the  cubic  equation.  (See  Equa- 
tion.) In  this,  building  upon  the  efforts  of 
Ferreo  and  Tartaglia,  Cardan  was  successful 
(1545),  although  there  is  reason  to  believe  that 
the  real  honor  belongs  to  Tartaglia.  Soon  after, 
Ferrari  and  Bombelli  (1570)  gave  the  solution  of 
the  biquadratic  equation. 

The  principal  improvements  in  the  succeeding 
■century  related  to  symbolism.  It  took  a  long 
time,  however,  to  pass  from  the  radical  sign  of 
Chuquet(1484),  IJ'.  10  through  various  forms,  as 
-/j^  10,  to  our  common  symbol  I'TO  and  to  the 
more  refined  IO14.  Similarly  it  was  only  by  slow 
stops  that  progress  was  made  from  Cardan's 
cubus  p  6  rebus  fequalis  20,  for  xf  -\-6x  =  20, 
through  Vieta's 

IC  —  SQ  +  IG.V  cequ.  40,  for  a;' —  8a;=  +  16a^  =  40 

and  Descartes' 

or  cc  ax  —  66,    for   or  ^  ax  —  6", 

and  Hudde's 

X  oc  qx.  r,  for  x^  =  qx  +  r. 

to  the  modern  notation.  To  the  Frenchman 
Vieta,  whose  first  book  on  algebra,  In  Artem 
Ancih/ticam  Isagoijc,  appeared  in  1591,  credit  is 
due  for  the  introduction  of  the  use  of  letters  to 
represent  known  as  well  as  unknown  quantities. 

The  next  step  led  to  the  recognition  of  the 
nature  of  the  various  number  systems  of  algebra. 
Tlie  meaning  of  the  negative  number  began  to  be 
really  appreciated  through  the  application  of 
algebra  to  geometry  by  Descartes  ( 1637 ) ,  and  the 
meaning  of  the  so-called  "imaginary,"  when  Wes- 
sel  (1797)  published  his  memoir  on  complex 
numbers,  or,  more  strictly,  when  Gauss  (q.v.) 
trought  the  matter  to  the  attention  of  mathema- 
ticians  (1832). 

The  effort  to  solve  the  quintie  equation,  seri- 
ously begun  in  the  sixteenth  centurj',  had  met 
with  failure.  It  was  only  after  the  opening  of  the 
nineteenth  century  that  Abel,  by  the  use  of  the 
theory  of  gi-oups  discovered  by  Galois,  gave  the 
first  satisfactory  proof  of  the  fact,  anticipated 
by  Gauss  and  announced  by  Rulfini,  that  it  is  im- 
possible to  express  the  roots  of  a  general  equation 
as  algebraic  functions  of  the  coefficients  when  the 
degree  exceeds  the  fourth. 

Among  the  later  additions  to  the  science  of 
algebra  may  be  mentioned  the  subjects  of  Deter- 
minants (q.v.).  Complex  Number  (q.v.).  Sub- 
stitutions and  Groups  (q.v.).  Form,  and  the 
modern  treatment  of  Equation  (q.v.).  Under 
these  heads  may  be  found  historical  sketches 
dealing  with  the  recent  developments  of  algebra. 

Bibliography.  For  the  modern  history,  con- 
sult: M.  Merriman  and  Woodward,  Hitjhcr  Math- 
ematics (New  York,  1890),  and  Fink,  History 
of  Mathematics  (Chicago,  1900).  For  elementary 
theory,  Smith,  Teaching  of  FAcmcntfir}!  Mathe- 
matics (New  York,  1900).  For  modern  higher 
algebra,  Netto,  Vorlesunr/en  iiber  Algebra  (Leip- 
zig. 1898-1900)  ;  Biermann,  Elemenic  der 
hoheren  Mafhematik :  H.  Weber,  Lehrhueh  der 
Algebra  (Leipzig,  1895),  and  Salmon,  Modern 
Higher    Algebra     (Dublin,    1885)  ;    for    a    com- 


pendium. Fund.  Algebra  mit  Einschluss  der 
elcmentaren  Zahlcutheorie  (Leipzig.  1899); 
Pierce,  Linear  Assoeiatire  Algebra    (New  York 


!). 

AL'GEBRA'IC  CURVE.     See  Curve. 

ALGECIRAS,  Til'jj-sl'ras,  Sp.  pron.  al'Ha- 
the'rag  (From  Ar.  al-jazirah,  the  island,  penin- 
sula). A  seaport  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of 
Cadiz,  six  miles  west  of  Gibraltar  (Map:  Spain, 
C  4).  Its  harbor  is  good,  and  protected  by  a' 
fort.  It  is  a  well-built  city,  with  fine  churches 
and  monasteries.  It  maintains  a  brisk  and  prof- 
itable coasting  trade.  Pop.,  1900,  13,131.  This 
was  the  Pontus  Novus  of  Roman  times,  and 
later  was  the  first  place  seized  by  the  Moors 
from  Africa  (711).  They  called  "it  Algeciras, 
the  green  island,  from  the  islet  at  the  har- 
bor's mouth,  still  known  as  Isla  Verde.  Alfonso 
XI.  besieged  it  for  twenty  months,  and  took  it 
after  his  victory  at  Rio  Salado.  1344.  The  Moors 
are  said  to  have  used  gunpowder  for  the  first 
time  at  this  siege,  at  which  all  Christendom  was 
represented  by  the  knights  and  crusaders  who 
mustered  under  Alfonso's  banner.  Consult:  Roure, 
"Bahia  de  Algeciras,"  in  Memorias  de  ingenieros 
del  ejercito,  Volume  XVI.   (Madrid,  1899). 

AL'GER,  Horatio   (1834-99).     An  American       _ 
writer   of  juvenile   literature.     He   was   born   at      ■ 
Revere,  Mass.,  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1852,  and      ^ 
afterward  at  the  Harvard  Divinity  School.     He 
became  pastor  of  the  Unitarian  church  at  Brew- 
ster.  Mass..   in   1804,   but   two   years   later   went     J 
to  New  York,  where  he  labored  for  the  improve-     fl 
ment  of  the  condition  of  street  boys.     He  wrote 
much   for  newspapers  and  periodicals,  and   pub- 
lished about  seventy  books,  of  which  nearly  800,- 
000     copies     have     been     sold.     These     writings 
include  the  popular  Ragged  Dick,  Tattered  Tom, 
and  Luck  and  Pluck  series. 

ALGER,  Russell  Alexander  (1836—).  An 
American  soldier  and  politician,  born  in  Lafay- 
ette, O.  Orphaned  at  eleven,  he  worked  on  a 
farm,  attended  Richfield  Academy  (Ohio)  for 
several  winters,  studied  law  at  Akron,  O.,  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1859.  and  began  practice 
at  Cleveland.  lie  removed  to  Jlichigan  in  Janu- 
ary, 1860,  and  in  September,  1861,  enlisted  in 
the  Union  Army  as  a  volunteer,  serving  succes- 
sively as  captain,  major,  and  lieutenant-colonel, 
and  being  brevetted  first  as  brigadier-general 
and  then  as  major-general  "for  gallant  and 
meritorious  services."  He  returned  to  Michigan 
in  1864,  and  engaged  in  the  lumber  business,  in 
which  he  soon  amassed  a  large  fortune.  He  took 
an  active  interest  in  both  local  and  national 
politics,  and  was  Governor  of  Michigan  from 
1885  to  1886.  He  was  chosen  Commander-in- 
Chief  of  the  G.  A.  R.  in  1889,  and  in  1897  became 
Secretary  of  War  in  President  McKinley's  cab- 
inet. His  administration  of  the  department  dur- 
ing the  Spanish-American  War  met  with  the  most 
vigorous  criticism.  He  was  cliargcd  with  being 
directly  or  indirectly  responsible  for  the  unsan- 
itary condition  of  camps,  the  overcrowding  and 
unfitness  of  transports,  the  insufficiency  of  phy- 
sicians and  medicines,  the  bad  quality  of  food, 
and  the  incompetence  of  subordinate  officers. 
An  investigating  committee,  appointed  by  the 
President,  in  the  main  exonerated  Alger.  He 
resigned  August  1.  1899.  He  wrote  The  Spanish- 
American  War  (New  York,  1901). 

ALGEB,  William  EouNSEViLLE  (1822 — ),  An 


ALGER. 


339 


ALGERIA. 


American  Unitarian  clergyman  and  ethical 
writer,  born  at  Freetown,  Mass.,  December  30, 
1822.  He  graduated  at  the  Harvard  Theological 
JSehool  in  1847,  held  pastorates  successively  at 
Roxbury.  Boston,  New  York,  Denver,  Chicago, 
and  Portland,  Jle.,  and  afterward  lived  in  Boston. 
He  wrote  Poetry  of  the  Orient  (18.50),  History 
of  the  Doctrine  of  a  Future  Life,  whicli  contains 
a  remarkable  bibliography  on  the  subject  by 
Ezra  Abbot  (ISfiS),  The  Genius  of  Solitude 
( 1 80.5 ) .  Life  of  Edwin  Forrest,  2  volumes  ( 1 878 ) , 
SymhoUe  History  of  the  Cross  (1881),  and  The 
Sehool  of  Life   (1881). 

ALGE'RIA  (Ar.  Al-jaztrah,  the  island:  Fr. 
AUii'rie).  A  French  colony  in  north  Africa,  sit- 
uated between  lat.  30°  and  37°  N.  and  long.  2° 
10'  W.  and  8°  50'  E.  (Map:  Africa,  E  1).  It  is 
about  O.50  miles  long  from  east  to  west,  and  ex- 
tends inland  from  320  to  380  miles.  Its  area, 
exclusive  of  the  Algerian  Sahara,  is  estimated 
at  184.000  square  -miles,  and  inclusive  of  the 
Sahara  region,  at  about  300.000.  Its  boundaries 
are  formed  by  the  Mediterranean  on  the  north, 
jNforocco  on  the  west,  Sahara  on  the  south,  and 
Tunis  on  the  east. 

PiiYsioGR.^PiiT.  The  entire  northern  part  is 
traversed  by  a  section  of  the  Atlas  Moun- 
tains, which  cover  the  northern  part  of  Africa 
from  the  .Atlantic  to  the  Gulf  of  Gabes.  The 
mountain  system  of  Algeria  may  be  divided  into 
two  principal  chains,  running  parallel  to  each 
other  and  connected  by  small  ridges.  The  north- 
ern chain,  called  Little  or  Maritime  Atlas,  runs 
along  the  coast. .  Of  its  several  ranges,  the  Jur- 
jura.  to  the  east  of  .Algiers,  rises  to  a  height  of 
about  7500  feet.  The  Great  Atlas  is  situated 
south  of  the  Little  Atlas,  and  contains  some  of 
the  highest  peaks  of  Algeria,  as  Monnt  Shelia 
(about  7600  feet)  in  the  .Jebel  Aures.  This 
range  presents  a  steep  wall  toward  the  Sahara, 
but  slopes  more  gradually  on  their  northern  side, 
where  the  mountains  are  covered  with  extensive 
forests.  Thc}^  are  furrowed  by  deep  and  tortuous 
defiles.  The  Algerian  Sahara  is  a  rocky  pla- 
teau, with  an  average  elevation  of  about  1500 
feet.  Some  geographers  distinguish  a  third 
chain,  the  Sahara  Border  Range,  situated  be- 
tween the  Great  Atlas  and  the  Sahara  Desert. 
The  coast  of  Algeria  is  much  broken,  and  forms 
numerous  bays,  the  principal  among  them  being 
the  Bay  of  Algiers  and  the  gulfs  of  Bougie  and 
Bona. 

The  surface  of  Algeria  represents  three  natural 
divisions  or  zones.  The  first,  known  as  the  Tell, 
is  the  most  northern  part  of  the  country,  extend- 
ing inland  for  about  fifty  miles,  and  taking  in 
the  northern  slope  of  the  Little  Atlas.  It  is  the 
most  prodiictive  and  best  watered  part  of  the 
country,  and  contains  most  of  the  European  set- 
tlements. The  second,  central  zone  includes  the 
elevated  steppes  south  of  the  Tell  and  the  Great 
Atlas  Mountains.  It  is  interspersed  with  nu- 
merous saline  lakes  or  shotts,  which  generally 
evaporate  during  the  dry  season,  leaving  a  thick 
stratum  of  salt  on  the  bottom.  In  this  section 
there  are  only  a  few  little  streams,  which  dry  up 
for  a  part  of  the  year.  The  third  zone  is  the 
Algerian  Sahara,  with  an  area  estimated  at  up- 
ward of  lOO.OOO  square  miles.  It  is  subdivided 
into  three  parts,  called  Fiafi.  Kifar,  and  Falat, 
respectively.  The  first  term  is  generally  applied 
to  the  oases  of  the  desert.  They  are  mostly  well 
watered  and  covered  with  vegetation,  and  contain 
numerous  thriving  villages  and  settlements.   The 


second  refers  to  those  parts  of  the  desert  which 
are  covered  with  grass  part  of  the  year.  They 
have  no  settled  population,  but  are  visited  by 
the  nomadic  tribes  on  account  of  the  grass.  The 
third  part  includes  the  rest  of  the  desert,  which 
is  utterly  devoid  of  vegetation,  and  unfit  for 
human  habitation.  A  reniarkal)le  feature  of  the 
Algerian  Sahara  is  the  dried  up  river  courses. 
At  present,  only  two  such  courses  are  known, 
called  the  Wady  Igharghar  and  Wady  Miya, 
respectively.  The  first  begins  south  of  Algerian 
Sahara  and  runs  due  north,  terminating  at  the 
Shott  Melghir.  Its  length  is  over  700  miles, 
and  its  breadth,  even  at  present,  is  about  four 
miles  in  some  parts.  Tlie  Wady  Miya  is  a 
branch  of  Igharghar,  which  it  joins  about  00 
miles  south  of  Shott  Melghir.  There  is  still 
some  water  running  beneath  its  bottom. 

-Algeria  is  rich  in  minerals.  Among  the 
metals  which  are  obtained  are  iron,  lead,  copper, 
and  quicksilver.  Sulphur  is  found,  and  there 
are  valuable  deposits  of  phosphates.  Salt  is  a 
most  important  product.  Onyx  and  beautiful 
white  and  red  marbles  are  quarried. 

The  most  important  river  of  Algeria  is  the 
Shelift',  which  has  in  the  main  a  westerly  course, 
and  empties  into  the  Mediterranean  near  Mosta- 
ganem.  Its  length  is  about  400  miles.  Among 
other  streams  are  the  Sej'bouse,  which  empties 
into  the  Gulf  of  Bona,  the  Wad}'  el  Koliir,  which 
flows  past  Constantine,  and  the  Tafna  in  the 
extreme  west.  None  of  these  rivers  is  navigable, 
but  they  all  contribute  considerably  to  the  fer- 
tility of  the  regions  through  which  they  How. 

The  climate  of  Algeria  is  generally  healthful, 
except  in  the  marshy  lowlands.  The  rainy  sea- 
son on  the  coast  lands  lasts  from  October  to 
March. 

The  mountain  forests  are  filled  with  cedars  and 
different  kinds  of  oak,  as  well  as  pines,  ashes, 
junipers,  aloes,  dwarf  palms,  and  cactuses,  but 
they  are  rapidly  disappearing,  giving  place  to 
pastures.  The  flora  of  the  central  zone  is  con- 
fined mainly  to  grasses  and  some  aromatic  herbs. 
Myrtles,  olives,  pistachias,  and  dwarf  palms  are 
among  the  characteristic  plants  of  the  northern 
zone.  The  fauna  of  Algeria  is  generally  African 
in  its  character.  The  lion  (now  getting  scarce) 
and  other  large  earnivora  are  found,  and  gazelles 
are  numerous. 

Products.  Algeria  is  chiefly  an  agricultural 
country,  and  its  importance  is  increasing  at  a 
steady  rate.  A  peculiar  feature  about  Algeria 
is  the  proportion  of  Europeans  engaged  in  agri- 
cultural pursuits.  In  1897  the  total  agricul- 
tural population  of  the  colony  was  given  as 
3,044,014  (of  a  total  population  of  4,479,000), 
of  which  207,310  were  Europeans,  mostly  French- 
men. The  greater  part  of  the  area  under  cultiva- 
tion is  devoted  to  grain  crops.  The  average  an- 
nual output  of  cereals  amounts  to  over  0,000,000 
quintals  of  wheat,  from  7.000,000  to  8,000.000 
quintals  of  barley,  and  about  7.000.000  quintals 
of  oats.  (The  quintal  is  equivalent  to  220.46 
pounds.)  The  cultivation  of  the  vine  has  grad- 
ually assumed  greater  importance,  so  that  at 
present  the  annual  production  of  wine  exceeds 
5,000,000  hectoliters.  The  cultivation  of  silk, 
olives,  dates,  and  other  fruits  is  also  becoming 
more  and  more  important,  and  is  participated  in 
to  a  considerable  extent  by  Europeans.  Pota- 
toes, carrots,  onions,  and  asparagus  constitute 
important  articles  of  export.  Alfa  grass  is  ex- 
ported in  large  quantities  to  England.     The  for- 


ALGERIA. 


340 


ALGEBIA. 


est  area  is  estimated  at  about  3,300,000  hectares, 
of  which  over  50  per  cent,  belongs  to  the  state. 
The  exploitation  of  the  forests  is  considerably 
hindered  by  their  inaccessil)ility,  a  large  part  of 
them  being  situated  in  uninhabitable  regions. 
Considerable  attention  is  given  to  mining,  which 
is  carried  on  chief!}'  by  English  firms.  Among 
other  industries  may  be  mentioned  pottery, 
leather  dressing,  weaving,  and  the  production  of 
esparto  goods. 

The  commerce  of  Algeria  is  constantly  on  the 
increase,  the  total  value  having  amounted  to 
nearly  650,000,000  francs  for  1890,  against  540,- 
000,000  francs  for  1895,  an  increase  of  over  20 
per  cent,  within  five  years.  By  far  the  most  im- 
portant article  of  export  is  wine,  of  which  France 
alone  imported  from  Algeria  in  1899  to  the  value 
of  over  140,000,000  francs.  Next  to  wine  the 
most  important  exports  are  cereals,  live  animals, 
alfa,  cork,  and  mineral  ores.  Imports  consist 
chiefly  of  textiles,  clothing,  furniture,  machinery, 
cofTec,  tobacco,  timber,  and  coal.  Out  of  a  total 
commerce  of  about  650,000,000  francs  in  1899, 
over  540,000,000  was  with  France,  not  including 
the  French  colonies.  Outside  of  France  the  com- 
mercial relations  of  .Algeria  are  chiefly  with  Great 
Britain,  Spain,  Italy,  and  Brazil.  The  total 
length  of  the  railway  lines  of  Algeria  is  over 
1800  miles.  Algeria  "has,  besides,  a  good  system 
of  national  roads,  and  about  100  miles  of  tram- 
way lines.  The  annual  entries  at  the  Algerian 
ports  amount  to  about  1,200,000  tons,  mostly 
in  French  bottoms. 

The  administration  of  Algeria  is  vested  in  a 
Governor-General,  who  is  assisted  by  a  council. 
All  the  laws  for  Algeria  are  framed  by  the  French 
National  Assembly.  A  part  of  the  territory 
is  still  under  military  rule,  supervised  by  the 
Governor.  The  three  departments  of  Algiers, 
Oran,  and  Constantine,  into  which  Algeria  is 
divided,  have  their  own  councils,  who  send  dele- 
gates to  the  Superior  Council,  meeting  once  a 
year  for  the  purpose  of  discussing  the  budget. 
Each  department  sends  one  senator  and  two 
deputies  to  the  National  Assembly.  Justice  is 
administered  by  courts  of  first  instance,  of  which 
there  are  sixteen.  Justices  of  the  peace,  commer- 
cial courts,  and  a  Court  of  Appeal,  situated  at 
Algiers.-  Criminal  justice  is  organized  on  the 
same  basis  as  in  France.  For  the  transaction  of 
aflfairs  between  the  natives  and  the  Europeans 
or  the  government  there  are  organized  so-called 
Bureaux  Arahcs,  which  also  supervise  the 
religious  aflfairs  of  the  natives.  The  military 
forces  of  Algeria  number  about  57,000  men,  and 
consist  of  the  Nineteenth  Army  Corps  and  the 
Territorial  Army.  The  financial  system  of  Al- 
geria closely  resembles  that  of  France.  The 
revenue  is  obtained  from  customs,  monopolies, 
and  direct  taxes,  the  latter  being  the  only  tax 
paid  by  the  natives.  The  budget;  for  1901,  ex- 
cluding the  departments  of  marine,  war.  and 
public  debt,  balanced  at  a  little  over  55,000.000 
francs.  The  military  forces  have  been  main- 
tained hitherto  by  the  French  Government,  and 
the  cost  is  included  in  the  French  budget.  By 
the  law  promulgated  December  19,  1900,  Algeria 
has  been  granted  financial  independence,  its 
budget  being  excluded  from  that  of  France, 
and  it  has  been  endowed  with  the  power 
of  gianting  railway  franchises,  awarding  public 
contracts,  etc.  Education  and  religion  are  sup- 
ported by  the  State.  The  elementary  schools,  of 
which  there  were  1160  in  1897,  are  either  French 


or  Arabic,  and  are  attended  chiefly  by  foreign- 
ers and  Jews,  the  Mussulman  children  forming 
only  about  19  per  cent,  of  the  total  attendance. 
The  latter  have  their  own  schools  for  secondary 
education.  Lyc^es  are  found  in  the  larger 
cities,  and  there  are  nine  commercial  schools  in 
the  city  of  Algiers,  as  well  as  an  institution  for 
higher  instruction  with  several  faculties.  No 
particular  religion  is  recognized  by  the  State, 
bvit  all  religions  represented  are  subsidized,  the 
total  amount  of  grants  for  religious  purposes  in 
the  budget  for  1900  amounting  to  1,263,700 
francs.  The  population  of  Algeria,  according  to 
the  census  of  1901,  was  4.774,042,  against  3,817.- 
000  in  1886  (not  including  the  military).  The 
native  population,  numbering  3,004,941,  consists 
chiefly  of  Berbers,  or  Kabyles,  and  Arabs.  The 
former  number  about  2,000,000,  and  are  the 
original  inhabitants  of  the  land.  In  their  com- 
plexion they  do  not  difl'er  much  from  white  men, 
and  have  a  higher  standard  of  morality  than  the 
Arabs.  They  are  Mussulmans,  but  do  not  prac- 
tice polygamy.  At  the  invasion  of  the  Arabs 
they  were  driven  into  the  mountains  and  the 
oases,  where  they  established  well-populated 
settlements.  The  Arabs  number  over  1.000,000, 
and  are  to  a  considerable  extent  intermixed 
with  the  Berbers.  They  inhabit  chiefly  the  Tell 
region  and  the  towns.  Part  of  them  are  orga-  j 
nized  in  tribes,  under  chiefs  who  are  not  reeog-  ' 
nized,  however,  by  the  French  Government.  In 
religion  they  are  Mohammedan,  and  practice  po-  , 
lygamy.  The  nomadic  part  of  the  Arab  popula- 
tion, among  whom  the  tribal  system  is  chiefly  de- 
veloped, hold  their  land  in  common,  each  tribe 
being  entitled  to  a  certain  territory  by  virtue  of 
tradition.  The  foreign  population  in  1896  num- 
bered 764,480,  of  whom  about  42  per  cent,  were 
French,  as  compared  with  422,000,  of  whom  51 
per  cent,  were  French,  in  1886.  The  foreign 
population  increased  from  3.228  in  1831  to 
131,283  in  1851,  245,117  iu  1872,  and  374,000  in 
1881.  The  number  of  Jews  was  47,564  in  1891. 
Negroes  and  Turks  are  found  only  in  very  small 
numbers.  The  capital,  Algiers,  had  a  popula- 
tion of  96,784  in  1899. 

History.  In  ancient  times  the  Numidians  oc- 
cupied Eastern  and  the  Moors  (or  Mauri)  West- • 
ern  Algeria.  Under  the  Romans  the  former  pos- 
sessed the  province  of  Numidia,  the  latter  that  of 
Mauretania  C'aesariensis.  Like  all  of  northern 
Africa,  these  provinces  enjoyed  a  high  degree  of 
prosperity  and  civilization  under  Roman  sway, 
which  was  checked  by  the  Vandal  conquest  about 
440  A.D.  The  settlement  of  Arabic  immigrants  in 
the  country  after  the  Mohammedan  conquest  in 
the  seventh  and  eighth  centuries  reared  an  Orien- 
tal civilization  in  place  of  that  of  Rome,  and 
Arab  princes  ruled  the  land  until  the  rise  of  the 
Almohades  (q.v.),  who  governed  until  1269, 
after  which  the  country  was  split  up  into  small 
states.  After  the  expulsion  of  the  Moors  from 
Spain  in  1492.  they  settled  in  Algeria,  and  began 
that  career  of  piracy  against  the  Christian  na- 
tions which  gave  the  country  its  evil  reputation 
through  many  centuries.  Hard  pressed  by 
Spain,  one  of  the  Algerine  chiefs,  the  Emir  of 
Metidja,  called  in  the  Turkish  corsair  Horuk, 
known  as  Barbarossa  (q.v.),  a  renegade  Greek, 
who  turned  against  the  Emir,  and  made  himself 
Sultan  of  Algiers.  He  was  overthrown  by  the 
Spaniards,  and  beheaded  in  151S  ;  but  his  brother, 
Khair-ed-Din,  also  known  to  the  Christians  as 
Barbarossa,  succeeded  him,   repulsed  the   Span- 


ALGEBIA. 


341 


ALGERIA. 


iards  with  the  assistance  of  a  Turkish  army,  and 
established  a  military  despotism  sustained  by 
piraiy.  which  lasted  until  the  French  conquest. 
Khair-ed-Din  placed  the  countrj'  under  the  su- 
zerainty of  the  Turkish  Sultan.  The  Emperor 
Charles'  V.,  in  1541,  led  a  great  expedition  against 
this  daring  corsair,  but  met  with  disaster.  In 
KiOO  the  soldiery  oi  Algiers  obtained  from  the 
Turkish  Sultan  the  privilege  of  setting  up  an 
olHeer,  called  the  Dey,  who  was  to  share  the 
authority  with  the  Turkish  Pasha.  The  history 
of  Algiers  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  cen- 
turies is  a  part  of  the  history  of  the  Barbary 
pirates,  and  of  the  fruitless  efforts  of  the  Chris- 
tian powers  to  suppress  them.  Spanish,  French, 
Knglish,  and  Dutch  were  equally  unsuccessful. 
Early  in  the  eighteenth  century  the  Dey  Ali  Baba 
eflTected  the  virtual  emancipation  of  the  country 
from  the  dominion  of  Constantinople.  He  ban- 
ished the  Turkish  Pasha,  who  had  heretofore 
represented  the  Sultan,  persuaded  the  latter  to 
leave  the  power  solely  in  his  hands,  and  paid  no 
more  tribute. 

Algeria  was  now  ruled  by  a  military  oligarchy, 
at  tlie  head  of  which  stood  the  Dey,  and  after 
him  the  powerful  Turkish  militia,  recruited  from 
Constantinople  and  Smyrna.  Besides  these, 
there  was  a  divan  or  Council  of  State,  chosen 
from  the  sixty  principal  civil  functionaries.  The 
internal  historj'  of  the  country  henceforth  pre- 
sents nothing  but  a  bloody  series  of  seraglio 
revolutions  caused  by  the  Janissaries,  who  per- 
mitted few  of  the  deys  to  die  a  natural  death. 
Algeria  continued  to  defy  the  greater  C'hristian 
powers,  and  to  enforce  tribute  from  the  lesser. 
A  final  Spanish  attack,  made  on  a  formidable 
scale  in  1775,  was  as  unfortunate  as  those  that 
had  preceded.  During  the  French  Kcvolution 
and  the  time  of  the  Empire,  its  aggressions  were 
much  diminished,  in  consequence  of  the  presence 
of  powerful  fleets  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea;  but 
at  the  close  of  the  Napoleonic  wars  they  were 
recommenced  vigorously.  The  first  substantial 
rebuke  was  administered  by  a  small  United 
States  squadron,  commanded  bj'  the  younger  De- 
catur, which  defeated  an  Algerine  squadron  oflf 
Cartagena,  .Tune  20,  1815,  and  compelled  the  Dey 
to  acknowledge  the  inviolability  of  the  American 
flag.  About  the  same  time.  Admiral  Lord  Ex- 
mouth,  with  a  strong  English  and  Dutch  fleet, 
bombarded  the  capital,  and  compelled  the  Dey 
to  conclude  a  treaty  (1816),  by  which  all  Chris- 
tian slaves  were  released  without  ransom,  and 
a  promise  was  given  that  both  piracy  and  Chris- 
tian slavery  should  cease  forever.  The  pledges 
were  not  kept.  As  early  as  1817,  Algerine 
pirates  ventured  as  far  as  the  North  Sea,  and 
seized  all  ships  in  their  course  not  belonging  to 
any  of  the  Powers  that  sent  them  tribute,  as  was 
done  by  Sweden,  Denmark,  Portugal,  Naples, 
Tuscany,  and  Sardinia.  Treaties  were  of  no 
avail.  The  Spanish,  the  Italian,  and  in  particu- 
lar the  German  shipping  sufl'ercd  severely.  In 
1817  the  Dey  Ali  greatly  curtailed  the  power 
of  the  Janissaries.  His  successor,  Hussein,  by 
his  rash  conduct,  brought  on  the  conflict  with 
France,  which  broke  the  Moslem  power  in  Al- 
geria and  made  it  a  French  province.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  standing  grievances  against  Algeria, 
there  was  a  dispute  regarding  the  payment  of  a 
debt  incurred  by  the  French  Government  to  two 
Jewish  merchants  of  Algiers  at  the  time  of  the 
expedition  to  Egypt.  This  matter  had  long  been 
pending  in  the  French  Courts,  and  as  the  Dey  was 


a  creditor  of  these  Jews,  he  took  a  personal  in- 
terest in  the  matter,  and  wTote  to  the  King  of 
France,  who  did  not  reply.  At  a  reception  of 
the  consuls,  he  taxed  the  French  consul  with  this, 
and  when  the  latter  replied  that  "a  King  of 
France  could  not  condescend  to  correspond  with 
a  Dey  of  Algiers."  Hussein  angrily  struck  him. 

This  high  crime  against  the  dignity  of  nations 
brought  the  retribution  which  had  not  followed 
years  of  barbarous  piracy.  In  1830  the  Dey  and 
the  Turks  were  expelled  by  a  French  fleet  and 
a  strong  army  under  Bourinont.  The  excesses  of 
the  French  soldiers  awoke  the  resentment  of  the 
native  population,  who  regarded  all  restraints 
as  removed  when  their  Turkish  masters  were 
driven  out.  For  seventeen  years  the  Arabs 
maintained  a  vigorous  resistance  to  the  French, 
and  after  them  the  Kabyles,  the  native  popula- 
tion of  the  original  Berber  stock,  still  continued 
the  struggle  in  a  desultory  manner.  The  drastic 
measures  of  the  French  military  government  did 
not  tend  to  pacify  the  people,  whose  antagonism 
was  inflamed  by  race  hatred  and  religious  fanati- 
cism. For  many  years  the  French  commanders 
were  men  trained  in  the  Napoleonic  school,  such 
as  Bourraont,  Clausel,  and  Bugeaud ;  and  mean- 
while a  new  set  of  younger  oliicers,  like  Changar- 
nier  and  Cavaignac,  who  were  to  become  known 
under  the  Second  Empire,  were  trained  in  the 
severe  school  of  Algerian  service.  Bourmont  was 
succeeded  by  Clausel,  Berthez6ne,  and  the  Duke 
of  Rovigo,  all  of  whom  failed  to  master  the  sit- 
uation. Abd-el-Kader,  a  young  Arab  emir  of 
marked  abilities  and  dauntless  spirit,  had  mean- 
while brought  together  and  organized  the  scat- 
tered forces  of  rebellion,  and  was  secretly  as- 
sisted by  the  Emperor  of  Morocco.  A  treaty  was 
concluded  with  him  during  the  provisional  ad- 
ministration of  General  Voirol,  and  an  attempt 
was  made  to  promote  the  material  interests  of 
the  country.  Toward  tlie  end  of  1834  there  was 
an  effort  to  organize  the  admini.stration  on  a 
permanent  civil  basis,  and  General  Drouet  d'Er- 
lon  was  made  Governor-General,  but  a  renewed 
outbreak  by  Abd-el-Kader  led  to  his  recall  and 
that  of  the  military  commandant.  Clausel,  now 
a  Marshal,  was  sent  back  to  the  Regency  in  1835, 
but  had  to  be  reenforced  by  Bugeaud,  who  made 
a  peace  with  the  Arab  chieftain,  May  20,  1837, 
by  which  Abd-el-Kader  recognized  the  sovereign- 
ty of  France,  but  received  in  return  several  val- 
uable provinces.  In  February,  1837,  Damremont 
succeeded  Clausel  as  Governor-General,  and  after 
the  former's  death,  at  the  storming  of  Constan- 
tine,  General  Valee  was  appointed  to  the  difficult 
post.  In  October,  1839,  Abd-el-Kader  violated 
his  last  treaty  on  an  insignificant  pretext,  and 
a  general  attack  was  made  upon  the  French  posi- 
tions. Bugeaud  supplanted  Vale«  in  1841,  and 
began  an  inexorable  and  unscrupulous  campaign 
against  the  Arabs  with  an  army  augmented  to 
nearly  100,000  men.  ,\bd-cl-Kader  kept  up  a 
determined  fight  against  odds  until  December, 
1847,  when  he  surrendered  to  General  Lamori- 
cidre.  (See  ABn-KL-KAi)Er.. )  An  irregular  war- 
fare against  French  authority  was  then  taken  up 
by  the  Kabyles,  thwarting  for  many  years  all 
attempts  to  e-stablish   civil   government. 

From  1858  to  1800  the  military  government  of 
Algeria  was  superseded  by  the  institution  of  a 
special  ministerial  department  for  Algeria  and 
the  colonies,  which  was  first  of  all  intrusted  to 
Prince  Napoleon.  In  December,  1800,  however, 
a   military    government    was    reinstituted,    and 


ALGEKIA. 


343 


ALGIERS. 


Marshal  P^lissier  made  Governor-General,  with 
a  vice-governor  under  him,  a  Director-General  for 
civil  affairs,  and  a  Council  of  thirty  members. 
In  18G3,  the  Emperor  Napoleon  announced  that 
he  was  willing  to  give  the  colony  a  new  con- 
stitution, with  a  chamber  of  representatives  for 
provincial  affairs;  he  ahso  addressed  a  letter  to 
the  Governor-General,  in  wliich  he  explained  that 
Algeria  was  no  colony  in  the  strict  sense  of  the 
word,  but  an  Arab  kingdom,  and  that  the 
natives  had  the  same  right  to  protection  as  the 
colonists.  In  1864,  however,  strife  again  arose 
between  the  colonists  and  the  Arabs;  and  it  was 
only  after  several  engagements,  during  the 
months  of  April  and  Jlay,  that  peace  was  re- 
stored by  the  suljmission  of  the  conquered  tribes. 
Pelissier  having  died  in  May,  1864,  Jlarshal 
MacMahon  was  appointed  to  succeed  him.  In 
the  following  ,year,  the  Emperor  himself  made  a 
journey  to  Algeria,  and  on  March  5th  issued  a 
proclamation,  in  which,  although  explaining  to 
the  Arabs  that  the  Regency  must  continue  to  be 
united  to  France,  he  promised  to  maintain  their 
nationality,  and  at  the  same  time  gave  tliem  as- 
surance that  they  should  always  remain  in  un- 
disturbed possession  of  their  territories.  Yet 
these  and  other  measures  for  conciliating  the 
Arabs  were  all  in  vain  ;  for,  shortly  after  the  Em- 
peror's return  to  France,  insurrections  broke  out 
in  the  province  of  Oran  and  elsewhere.  In  1867 
and  1868,  a  severe  and  general  famine  checked 
the  military  enterprises  of  the  Arabs;  and  there 
was  peace  till  1870,  when,  owing  to  the  Franco- 
Prussian  War,  tlie  Emperor  found  it  necessary  to 
withdraw  to  Europe  the  greater  part  of  the 
forces  in  Africa.  Macilahon's  place  was  tlien 
taken  by  General  Durieu,  as  interim  Governor- 
General,  and  the  natives  began  to  entertain  hopes 
of  freeing  themselves  from  the  yoke  of  France. 
The  last  serious  rebellion  was  suppressed  in  1871, 
and  a  civil  government  was  then  established. 
In  1881  France  declared  a  protectorate  over 
Tunis,  in  order  to  safeguard  its  interests  in 
Algeria.  Colonization  was  promoted  after  the 
Franco-Prussian  War,  by  the  oft'er  of  liomes  to 
those  French  Alsatians  who  did  not  care  to 
remain  under  German  rule.  Algeria  is  now  be- 
coming a  prosperous  and  valuable  possession, 
and  is  strategically  important  as  the  base  for 
the  extension  of  French  influence  in  Africa,  es- 
pecially across  the  Sahara  to  the  Sudan  and  the 
west  coast. 

There  is  considerable  literature  relating 
to  Algeria,  that  which  is  valuable  being  chiefly 
in  French.  For  history,  geography,  and  gen- 
eral description,  consult:  Gaffarel,  L'Alg{-rie, 
histoire,  conr/uctc,  colonisation  (Paris,  1883)  ; 
Paul  Lerov-Beaulieu,  L'Algcrie  et  la  Tunisin 
(Paris,  1887).;  Battandier  and  Trabut,  L'Al- 
gcrie  (Paris,  1898)  ;  Levasseur,  La  France  et 
se?  colonics  (Paris,  1893)  ;  Cat,  Petite  Jiixtoire 
(7c  I'Algerie,  Tnnisie,  Maroe  (Algiers,  1888-91)  ; 
Eousset,  Les  commencements  d'vne  conquite; 
I'Algerie  de  iS.iO  a  18!,()  (Paris,  1887),  and  La 
conqucte  de  I'AlgMe,  lSJ,l-lS5y  (Paris,  1889). 
Several  of  the  French  officers  who  commanded 
in  Algeria  wrote  memoirs  of  the  campaigns. 
English  works  that  may  be  consulted  are 
Wilkin,  Among  the  Berbers  of  Algeria  (New 
York,  1900)  ;  Morell,  Algeria  (London,  1854)  ; 
Nugent,  A  Land  of  Mosques  and  Mara- 
bouts  (London,  1894)  ;  Bridgman,  Winters 
in  Algeria  (New  York,  1890)  ;  Playfair,  The 
Scourge  of  Christendom  (London,  1884),  a  record 


of  piratical  Algiers,  based  mainly  on  consular 
archives;  also  a  Bihliographij  of  Algeria,  pub- 
lished by  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  Lon- 
don,  ISSS. 

ALGERINE  WAR,  al'je-rGn'.  See  Barbary 
Powers,  Wars  with  the. 

ALGHERO,  al-ga'ro,  or  ALGHERI,  al-ga'r^. 
An  episcopal  city  on  the  northwest  coast  of 
Sardinia,  21  miles  southwest  of  Sassari  (ilap: 
Italy,  C  7).  It  is  situated  on  a  high,  rocky 
shore,  and  the  harbor  is  fortified.  The  cathe- 
dral dates  from  1510;  many  of  the  houses 
are  mediseval  and  the  arsenal  'is  fully  equipped. 
The  country  produces  W'ine,  oil,  indigo,  and  fruit, 
while  from  the  sea  come  coral  and  shell-fish.  The 
commerce  has  declined  since  the  development  of 
Porto  Torres,  the  port  of  Sassari.  Alghcro  is 
connected  by  fortnightly  coasting  steamers  with 
the  Italian  peninsula  and  Cagliari ;  with  the  lat- 
ter also  by  rail.  West  of  the  harbor  are  the 
beautiful  grottoes  of  Neptune.  In  1541  Charles 
V.  landed  at  Alghero  on  his  way  to  Africa,  and 
spent  several  days  in  the  Casa  Albis,  which  is 
still  pointed  out  to  visitors. 

ALGIERS,  al-jerz'  (Ar.  AJ-/n^«'t/-,  the  islands, 
referring  to  an  island  in  its  bay;  Fr.  Alger, 
al'zha',  formerly  al'zhar') .  The  capital  and 
chief  seaport  of  Algeria,  situated  on  the  west 
shore  of  the  Bav  of  Algiers,  in  lat.  36°  47' 
N.,  and  long.  3°  3'  E.  (Map:  Africa,  E  1). 
It  is  located  on  the  slope  of  the  Sahel  chain, 
the  ricli  verdure  of  the  mountains  giving  a 
beautiful  background  to  tlie  dazzling  white 
of  the  city,  whicli  has  the  shape  of  a  triangle, 
while  over  all  towers  the  Moorish  citadel  or 
Kasbah,  over  400  feet  above  the  sea.  Algiers  is 
diviiled  into  two  parts.  The  lower  part  is  occu- 
pied by  the  modern  city,  which  has  been  brought 
into  existence  by  the  French,  and  whicli  differs 
in  no  respect  from  any  well-appointed  European 
city.  It  has  wide  and  well  sliaded  streets,  spa- 
cious squares  with  statues  and  parks,  and  five 
municipal  buildings,  mostly  located  in  the  Boule- 
vard de  la  Ri^publique.  The  city  is  lighted  by 
gas,  and  the  water  is  supplied  by  four  aqueducts, 
built  in  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
In  strong  contrast  to  t\\e  European  Algiers 
is  the  old  Moorish  part  of  the  city,  which 
rises  above  the  former,  and  which,  in  all  es- 
sentials, continues  to  be  what  it  was  during 
the  reign  of  the  Turkish  Deys.  The  streets 
are  narrow  and  crooked  and  often  impassable  for 
vehicles.  The  houses  are  very  plain  from  the 
outside,  but  their  interiors  bear  all  the  marks  of 
splendor  and  beauty  so  characteristic  of  iloorish 
architecture.  The  roofs  are  flat,  and  in  the 
evening  become  centres  of  gayety,  and  are  even 
used  occasionally  for  social  functions.  An  addi- 
tional picturcsqueness  is  given  to  the  Moorish 
part  of  the  town  by  the  motley  crowds  on  its 
streets,  including  tlie  elegantly  dressed  French- 
man, the  splendidly  arrayed  Moor,  as  well  as  the 
scantily  clad  native  from  the  interior.  The 
mosques  are  less  numerous  than  they  were  before 
the  French  occupation,  when  their  number  was 
estimated  at  about  one  hundred.  At  present 
there  are  only  four  mosques  used  as  regular 
places  of  worship,  but  there  are  numbers  of 
tombs  of  saints  or  "kubas,"  which  are  also  used 
occasionally  for  that  pvupose.  The  citadel  or 
Kasbah  was  constructed  in  the  beginning  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  and  was  the  scene  of  many  at- 


ALGIERS. 


343 


ALGONQTTIAN   STOCK. 


tacks.  At  present  it  is  used  as  barracks  for  the 
French  soldiers,  and  many  of  its  historical  fea- 
tures have  been  entirely  obliterated.  The  mod- 
ern city  has  several  splendid  churches,  including 
a  Roman  Catholic  cathedral.  Of  educational  in- 
stitutions the  citj'  has  schools  of  law,  medicine, 
science,  and  letters,  several  lyefes  for  the  natives, 
as  well  as  for  Frenchmen,  a  number  of  commercial 
colleges  and  higher  Mussulman  schools.  There 
are  also  a  library  and  niusoum,  two  theatres, 
and  a  number  of  .scientific  societies.  The 
harbor  is  very  spacious  and  well  fortified.  The 
commerce  of  Algiers  is  very  extensive,  and  its 
shipping  amounts  to  nearly  7,000,000  tons  an- 
nually. The  commerce  is  chiefly  with  France; 
but  tiiere  is  also  considerable  export  trade  with 
Great  Britain,  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Italy.  Al- 
giers is  also  one  of  tlie  most  important  coaling 
stations  on  the  Jlediterranean.  Owing  to  its 
mild  climate  and  the  fertile  as  well  as  pictur- 
esque country  in  which  it  is  situated,  Algiers  is 
rapidl}'  becoming  a  favorite  health  resort,  and 
its  transient  population  is  steadily  increasing. 
Algiers  is  connected  by  rail  witli  Oran  and  Con- 
stantine,  and  communicates  with  France  by 
steamer  and  cable.  Since  the  French  occupation, 
the  growth  of  Algiers  has  been  quite  rapid.  In 
1838,  it  had  a  population  of  30,000;  1881,  65,- 
000;  1891,  83,000;  ISUU,  00.784,  of  which  over  40 
per  cent,  were  Frencli,  about  24  per  cent.  Moors, 
and  a  great  number  Jews.  Tlie  percentage  of 
natives  is  steadily  declining,  while  the  foreign 
popuh^tion,  especially  the  French,  shows  a  steady 
increase.  Algiers  is  the  seat  of  the  Governor- 
General  and  of  the  superior  civil  and  mili- 
tary officials  of  Algeria  and  tlie  department  and 
arrondissement  of  Algiers.  The  city  is  supposed 
to  have  been  founded  in  the  first  half  of  the  tenth 
century,  and  fell  into  the  hands  of  France  in 
1830. 

ALGOA  BAY,  .il-go'a.  A  large  inlet  at  the 
southeastern  extremity  of  Cape  Colony  (Map: 
Africa,  G  8).  It  has  a  good  harbor,  and  re- 
ceives the  Sunday  and  Baasher  rivers.  The 
bay  is  of  considerable  commercial  importance, 
and  is  known  in  history  as  the  landing  place  of 
the  first  Britisli  immigrants  to  South  Africa. 
Port  Elizabeth  is  situated  on  the  w-estern  side 
of  the  bay. 

ALGOL,  al'gol  (Ar.  al-r/hill,  the  destroyer, 
demon ) .  A  remarkable  variable  star  in  the  con- 
stellation Perseus.  Its  period  is  known  with 
very  great  exactness,  and  amounts  to  2  days, 
20  hours,  48  minutes,  and  55.4  seconds.  This 
period  is  maintained  with  great  regularity.  Or- 
dinarily the  star  is  of  the  second  magnitude;  but 
it  suffers  periods  of  diminution,  lasting  four  and 
one  half  hours,  followed  by  constant  minima  of 
twenty  minutes,  and  a  return  in  tliree  and  one 
half  hours  to  the  original  brilliancy.  At  mini- 
mum it  is  of  the  fourth  magnitude,  and  gives 
only  one-sixth  as  much  light  as  it  does  in  the 
maximum  phase.  Algol  is  the  type  of  a  class 
of  variable  stars  whose  minimum  phase  is  very 
short.  This  phenomenon  is  ascribed  to  the  tem- 
porary partial  interposition  of  another  star  be- 
tween Algol  and  the  earth.  There  must  be  a 
comparatively  non-luminous  companion-star  be- 
longing to  the  Algol  system ;  and  mutual  orbital 
revolution  must  bring  this  in  line  between  Algol 
and  the  earth  at  regularly  recurring  intervals. 
That  the  visible  Algol  is  actually  subject  to 
orbital  motion,  has  become  certain  from  the  spec- 


troscopic observations  of  Vogel  (1889),  who 
found  that  the  visible  star  is  receding  from  the 
earth  about  twentj'-seven  miles  per  second  before 
the  minima,  and  approaching  us  at  about  the 
same  rate  after  the  minima.  His  approximate 
estimate  of  the  dimensions  of  the  system  assigns 
to  the  distance  between  Algol  and  the  dark  com- 
panion a  value  of  3,250,000  miles,  and  makes  the 
diameters  of  the  two  bodies  840,000  and  1,060,000 
miles.  The  orbit  is  supposed  to  be  seen  nearly 
edgewise  from  the  earth.  C'liandler's  suggestion 
that  there  exists  still  another  invisible  compo- 
nent rests  upon  less  reliable  evidence,  derived  from 
a  study  of  the  variations  in  Algol's  position  on 
the  sky,  as  observed  with  meridian  instruments 
by  several  successive  generations  of  astronomers. 

ALGOM'ETEB.  See  Psychological  Appara- 
tus. 

ALGO'NA.  A  city  and  county  seat  of  Kos- 
suth Co.,  Iowa,  125  miles  north  by  west  of 
Des  Moines,  on  the  east  fork  of  the  Des  Moines 
River,  and  on  tlie  Iowa  Central,  the  Chicago  and 
Northwestern,  and  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and 
St.  Paul  railroads  (Map:  Iowa,  CI).  It  is  the 
centre  of  an  agricultural,  dairying,  and  live 
stock  region,  and  has  manufactures  of  flour,  but- 
ter tubs,  foundry  and  machine  shop  products, 
planing  mill  products,  bricks,  tile,  wagons,  etc. 
The  city  contains  a  public  library,  opera  house, 
and  a  handsome  court  house.  Pop.  1890,  2068; 
1900,    2;tll. 

ALGON'KIAN  SYS'TEM.  In  geology,  that 
system,  consisting  chiefly  of  higlily  metamor- 
phosed clastic  rocks,  that  lies  uncomformably  be- 
tween the  Archfean  beneath  and  the  Cambrian 
above,  and  at  the  very  bottom  of  the  entire 
series  of  sedimentary  rocks  of  the  earth's  crust. 
The  name  Algonkian  was  proposed  by  Waleott 
in  1889,  and  has  been  quite  generally  accepted 
by  the  more  progressive  American  geologists. 
The  rocks  of  this  system  consist  of  crystalline 
marbles,  slates,  schists,  quartzites,  conglomer- 
ates, and  gneisses,  all  of  which  have,  through 
more  or  less  profound  regional  metamorphism, 
been  derived  from  original  sedimentary  rocks, 
such  as  limestones,  shales,  and  sandstones.  In 
certain  regions,  particularly  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  great  lakes  of  North  America,  the  Algonkian 
formations  have  undergone  still  further  contact 
metamorphism  through  the  intrusion  of  great 
masses  of  igneous  rocks,  and  in  this  association 
occur  some  of  the  most  important  iron  and  cop- 
per deposits  of  the  world.  The  known  fossils  of 
Algonkian  age  are  very  obscure  and  few  in  num- 
ber. Because  of  the  extensive  metamorphism 
suffered  by  the  rocks  of  both  the  Archaean  and 
Algonkian  systems,  rendering,  in  many  regions, 
their  separation  under  the  two  divisions  almost 
impossible,  it  is  thought  advisable  to  consider 
all  rocks  formed  before  the  Cambrian  period  un- 
der the  more  comprehensive  title  Pbe-Cambrian 
Formations. 

ALGON'QtriAN  STOCK.  The  most  widely 
extended  and  most  important  Indian  linguistic 
stock  of  North  America,  formerly  occupying 
nearly  the  whole  area  (with  the  exception  of 
that  occupied  by  the  Iroquoian  tribes)  stretching 
from  Labrador  to  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  the 
north,  and  extending  southward  to  Pamlico 
Sound  on  the  coast,  and  to  the  Cumberland  River 
in  the  interior.  It  included  several  hundred 
tribes    and    sub-tribes  speaking    probably  forty 


ALGONQUIAN   STOCK. 


344 


ALHAMBRA. 


distinct  laiigiinges,  besides  a  large  number  of  dia- 
lects. Both  linguistic  and  traditional  evidence 
point  to  the  north  Atlantic  coast,  from  the  St. 
John  to  the  Delaware  River,  as  the  region  from 
\xhich  the  various  cognate  tribes  migrated  west- 
ward and  southward.  From  the  fact  that  the 
earliest  settlements  in  Canada,  New  England, 
New  York,  New  Jersey,  and  Virginia  were  all 
made  within  the  Algonquian  area,  the  history  of 
these  tribes  is  better  known,  and  their  languages 
have  been  more  studied,  than  those  of  any  others 
north  of  Mexico.  For  full  two  centuries  they 
opposed  the  advance  of  the  white  man  step  by 
step,  under  such  leaders  as  Opechancano,  Pliilip, 
Pontiae,  and  Tecumseh,  with  the  final  and  inev- 
itable result  of  defeat,  suppression,  and  swift 
decay.  The  numljer  of  the  Algonquian  stock 
(1902)  is  about  82.000  souls,  of  whom  about 
43.000  are  in  the  United  States,  the  remainder 
being  in  Canada,  with  the  exception  of  a  few 
hundred  refugees  in  Mexico. 

The  principal  Algonquian  tribes  were  the  Al- 
gonquin, Amalecite,  Micmae.  Nascopi,  Cree,  Ab- 
naki,  Pennacook,  Jlassachuset,  Wampanoag,  Nar- 
raganset,  Mohegan,  Mahican,  Montauk.  Lenape 
or  Delaware,  Nanticoke,  Powhatan,  Paiulico. 
Shawano,  Ojibwa,  Ottawa.  Menominee,  Potawa- 
tami.  Sack,  Fox,  Kickapoo.  Blackfoot,  Cheyenne, 
and  Arapaho.     See  these  titles;  also  Indians. 

ALGON'QTJIIT.  An  important  Indian  tribe 
formerly  centring  about  Nipissing  Lake  and  the 
middle  Ottawa  River,  Ontario.  The  name  (more 
properly  Algomekin)  signifies  people  "on  the 
other  side"  of  the  river.  French  missionaries 
began  work  among  the  Algonquins  early  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  and  soon  discovered  their 
language  to  be  the  key  to  all  the  numerous  dia- 
lects now  included  by  philologists  under  the  Al- 
gonquian stock.  In  consequence  of  destructive 
wars  waged  against  them  by  the  Iroquois,  the 
tribe  rapidly  declined,  some  ileeing  to  the  Upper 
Lakes,  where,  with  other  refugees,  they  became 
known  later  as  Ottawas  (q.v.);  while  others, 
retaining  the  old  name,  were  gathered  into 
mission  villages  under  French  protection.  There 
are  now  about  900  Algonquins  settled  in  sev- 
eral villages  in  Quebec  and  Ontario,  exclusive  of 
those  confederated  with  Iroquois  at  the  Lake  of 
Two  Mountains,  in  Quebec,  and  at  Gibson,  On- 
tario, to  the  number  of  perhaps  250  more. 

AL'GORISM.  A  word  variously  used  in 
aritlnnetic.  Primarily  it  referred  to  the  system 
of  Hindu  numerals,  concerning  which  European 
scholars  received  nnich  of  their  early  information 
through  the  work  of  AlKhuwarizmi  (q.v.),  or 
Algoritmi,  as  the  name  appeared  in  the  medisEval 
Latin.  Those  scholars  who  adopted  the  Hindu 
numerals  were  called,  from  his  name,  Algorists, 
as  distinct  from  the  Abacists,  who  used  the 
abacus  in  their  computations.  The  word  appe.irs 
in  various  forms,  as  algorithmus,  algrim.  augrim 
(Chaucer).  At  present  the  word  is  generally 
used  to  designate  any  particular  arrangement  of 
numerical  work,  as  the  algorism  for  square  root 
or  the  algorism  for  division.  See  Arithmetic. 
ALGTJACIL,  al'gwathel',  or  ALGtTAZIL 
(Sp.  alguacil,  for  Ar.  aJ-iroffr,  the  vizier).  The 
general  name  in  Spain  of  the  officers  intrusted 
with  the  execution  of  justice.  There  are  al- 
gnaciles  maijorex,  who  either  inherit  the  office 
of  executing  justice  in  a  town  as  a  hereditary 
right  belonging  to  their  families,  or  are  chosen 
to  the  office  by  the  municipality;   formerly  the 


name  was  also  given  to  the  officers  that  executed 
the  sentences  or  orders  of  tribunals,  such  as  the 
tribunal  of  the  Inquisition,  and  of  the  various 
orders  of  knights.  But  usually,  under  the  name 
of  Alguacil,  IS  understood  the  alguaciles  me- 
norcs.  or  "ordinarios,"  that  is  to  say.  the  at- 
tendants or  officers  of  the  courts  of  justice,  gens- 
d'armes,  bailiti's — in  short,  all  the  inferior  officers 
of  justice  and  police  who  are  appointed  to  their 
office  by  the  judges,  alguaciles  mayorcs,  or  town 
council. 

ALHAGI,  al-haj'i.  See  Manna. 
ALHAMA,  al-a'ma  (Ar..  the  bath  ;  the  Roman 
Astigia  Juliensis).  A  town  of  Andalusia,  Spain, 
in  the  province  of  Granada,  25  miles  southwest  of 
Granada  (ilap:  Spain,  C  4) .  Its  situation  is  wild 
and  romantic  in  the  extreme.  The  town  is  built, 
terrace  above  terrace,  upon  a  hill  on  either  side 
of  which  rise  naked  limestone  crags,  while  the 
Sierra  Albania  towers  to  the  height  of  8000  feet 
in  the  background.  Albania  is  notable  for  its 
baths,  which  are  much  frequented  in  the  spring 
and  fall.  They  are  situated  in  the  valley  of  the 
Marchan,  and  are  of  a  sulphurous  character,  and 
reach  a  temperature  of  from  107°  to  113°  F.  The 
Baiia  de  la  Reina  is  a  Roman  building  of  great 
antiquity:  the  Baiio  Fuerte  is  a  Moorish  struc- 
ture. An  earthquake  in  1884  wrought  much  de- 
struction to  the  upper  town.  Albania  was  a 
watering-place  and  fortress  in  the  time  of  the 
Romans.  Its  name  in  .\rabic  means  "The  Bath," 
and  the  Moors  valued  highly  its  medicinal 
springs.  It  was,  however,  chiefly  as  a  fortress 
and  outpost  to  Granada  that  it  was  important 
to  them,  and  when  it  was  captured  by  the  Chris- 
tians, February  28,  1482,  it  caused  the  wide- 
spread mourning  expressed  in  the  famous  ballad, 
".•)i/  de  mi  Alhama!"  well  known  in  the  English 
translation.     Pop.,  1900,  7083. 

ALHAMA.  .A.  town  of  Murcia.  Spain,  situated 
at  the  foot  of  the  Sierra  de  Espaua,  on  the 
southern  slope,  13  miles  southwest  of  Murcia 
(Map:  Spain,  E  4.).  It  is  celebrated  for  its  sul- 
phur springs  and  warm  mineral  waters,  102° 
to  108°  F.,  and  is  a  favorite  resort  of  invalids 
and  holiday-seekers  in  spring  and  early  summer. 
It  has  a  ruined  castle.  Alhama  figured  in  the 
Moorish   wars.     Pop.,   1900,   8410. 

ALHAM'BBA  (Ar.  al,  the  +  hamra,  red). 
The  fortified  palace  citadel  of  the  lloorish  kings 
of  Granada.  As  early  as  the  Ninth  Centui-y  a 
citadel  was  located  here  with  the  name  al-Hamra, 
which  was  rebuilt  when  Granada  became  the  cap- 
ital of  what  was  left  of  the  iloorish  dominions 
in  Spain,  by  King  Mohammed  Ibn-el-Ahmar  and 
his  successors  (1248,  1270,  1300,  1354).  The  cit- 
adel stands  on  a  hill  north  of  Granada,  on  a  ter- 
race about  2500  by  075  feet,  and  is  surrounded 
by  a  wall  with  is'square  towers,  over  a  mile  in 
circuit,  built  of  the  red  brick  which  gave  it  the 
name  of  KaTnt  el-Bainra.  "The  Red  Castle."  In- 
side the  citadel  were  beautiful  gardens,  a  don- 
jon citadel,  a  gate  of  justice,  a  watch  tower,  and, 
finally,  the  palace  itself,  as  sombre  and  plain  on 
the  outside  as  it  was  smiling  and  decorative 
within.  Charles  V.  destroyed  a  large  part  of  it 
(especially  the  Winter  Palace)  to  make  room 
for  a  tasteless  Renaissance  building,  and  Philip 
V.  still  further  mutilated  it.  Mutilated  as  it  is, 
it  remains  the  best  proof  of  the  artistic  character 
of  the  Moorish  dominion  in  Spain,  even  though 
in  details  the  work  may  not  be  so  exquisite  as 
earlier  work  in  Egypt  and  the  East.     What  re- 


< 

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m 

< 

I 


ALHAHBBA. 


345 


ALI  BABA. 


mains  is  grouped  around  two  principal  oblong 
courts,  the  Court  of  the  Blessing  (140x74  feet), 
and  the  Court  of  the  Lions  (110x60  feet).  There 
are  porticoes,  pillared  halls,  small  gardens,  and  a. 
mosque.  Tlie  Court  of  the  Lions  is  surrounded 
by  arcades  supported  by  124  white  nuirble  col- 
umns, wliile  similar  arcades  frame  the  ends  of 
the  other  court.  The  main  reception-hall,  called 
the  Hall  of  the  Ambassadors,  is  a  square  (37 
feet),  surmounted  by  a  beautiful  dome  75  feet 
high,  with  stalactite  pendentives.  Connected  with 
the  Court  of  the  Lions  are  two  smaller,  but  equal- 
ly cx(iuisite,  halls,  the  Hall  of  the  Abencerrages, 
with  a  dome  and  exquisite  columns,  used  as  a 
banquet-hall,  and  the  Hall  of  the  Two  Sisters,  a 
pleasure-room  communicating  with  the  baths. 
There  is  a  network  of  smaller  apartments.  All 
the  surfaces  are  decorated  with  a  bewildering 
mass  of  color  and  design  in  tiles,  stucco,  and 
painting.  Red,  blue,  black,  and  gold  are  the 
principal  colors;  the  ornamentation  comprises 
not  only  the  plain  geometrical  patterns,  but  also 
a  profusion  of  C'uiic  mottoes  and  of  heraldic 
floral  designs  and  arabesques.  The  most  charac- 
teristic parts  were  reproduced  in  the  Alhambra 
Court  of  the  Crystal  Palace,  at  Sydenham,  and 
the  palace  has  served  as  a  model  for  innumer- 
able modern  imitations  of  iloorish  art.  The  Al- 
haml)ra  was  partly  restored  by  Queen  Isabella 
IL.  but  was  damaged  by  fire  in  1890.     See  Mo- 

UAMMEDAN  ART. 

Consult:  Washington  Irving,  The  Alhambra 
(New  York,  1S32)  ;  Goury  and  Jones,  Finns, 
aicratioiis,  Sections  and  Details  of  The  Alham- 
bra  (London,  1842)  ;  Ji.  Junghandel,  Die  Bau- 
kunst  Sjianiens  (Dresden,  1889)  ;  Girault  de 
Prangey,  Monuments  arabes  et  moresques  d'Es- 
payne  (Paris,  1839)  ;  Bisson,  Choix  d'ornements 
moresques  de  I'Alhambra    (Paris,   1855). 

ALHAMBRA,  The.  A  famous  collection  of 
tales  and  leifcnds  of  the  Alhambra,  by  Washing- 
ton Irving    (1812). 

ALHAZEN,  al-hli'zen,  El-Hasan  ibn  el- 
IIasax  ii!X  el-Haitam,  Abu  'Ali  (c.965-c.l039). 
An  Arabian  mathematician  and  pliysicist.  From 
his  native  city,  Basra,  he  went  to  Egypt,  and 
died  in  Cairo.  A  man  of  remarkable  intelli- 
gence and  productiveness,  he  wrote  commenta- 
ries on  Aristotle,  Galen,  Ptolemy,  Euclid,  and 
Archimedes,  and  also  made  numerous  original  con- 
tributions to  science.  His  Optics,  the  most  inqior- 
tant  Arabic  work  on  the  subject,  was  translated 
into  Latin,  pruliably  by  tJcrard  of  Cremona,  and 
not  by  \'itcllius.  who  wrote  an  original  work 
on  optics,  and  was  published  at  Basel  in  1572 
luider  the  title,  Optica;  Thesaurus  Alhazcni  Ara- 
bis  Libri  Septem,  nunc  primum  editi,  eiusdem 
Liher  de  Ere/iuscUlis  et  Xubium  Asecnsionibui, 
etc.,  a  Fed.  Risnern.  Various  other  of  his  works 
have  been  translated  in  whole  or  in  part  by 
AVoepeke,  Sfdillot,  Suter,  and  Baarmann.  He  is 
now  known  chiefly  from  the  problem  bearing  his 
name:  From  two  given  points  within  a  circle 
to  draw  to  a  point  on  the  circumference  two 
lines  which  shall  make  equal  angles  with  the  tan- 
gent at  that  point.  For  bibliography  of  this 
problem,  consult  the  American  Journal  of  Mathe- 
matics, Volume  IV.,  327. 

AL-HEN'NA.     See  Hexxa. 

ALHONDIGA  DE  GE.ANADITAS,  al-on'- 
de-gii  da  gra'n:i-iie'tas.  A  fortified  public  store- 
house near  Guanajuato,  Mexico,  where,  in  1810, 
in  the  beginning  of  the  revolution  against  Spain, 
Vol-  I._24 


the  local  government  officials  took  refuge  and  de- 
fended themselves  vigorously,  being  captured 
only  after  severe  fighting  by  the  insurgents  un- 
der Hidalgo.  Local  tradition  of  the  fight  de- 
clares that  when  the  Spaniards  in  the  granary 
had  exhausted  their  stock  of  cannon  balls,  they 
used  bags  of  silver  coins,  fresh  from  the  mint, 
and  also  quicksilver  flasks,  which  were  stored 
there  for  use  in  connection  with  the  great  silver 
mines  of  the  place.  Hidalgo  was  subsequently 
defeated  and  executed  at  Chihuahua,  and  his 
head  was  suspended  from  a  spike  on  the  wall  of 
the  Alhondiga,  now'  the  local  prison, 

ALI,  iBxN  Abu  Talib,  il'le  ib-nii'boo  taleb  (c. 
000-001).  Fourth  caliph,  cousin  of  Mohammed, 
and  one  of  his  first  converts,  Ali  became  a 
staunch  adherent  of  Mohammed,  and  fought 
bravely  and  vigorously  for  him.  On  the  death  of 
Mohammed  it  was  expected  that  -■\li,  who  had 
married  Fatima,  the  daughter  of  the  Prophet, 
would  succeed  to  the  caliphate,  but  he  only 
reached  that  office  on  the  murder  of  Othman,  the 
third  caliph,  in  650.  His  caliphate  was  very 
stormy  and  full  of  wars,  due  to  the  opposition 
of  Aisha,  the  young  widow  of  Moliamracd,  and 
her  jiarty,  cliief  among  whom  stood  Muawiyali, 
tha  commander  of  Syria.  At  the  battle  of  the 
Camel,  fought  at  Basra  in  056,  Aisha  was  cap- 
tured, and  later  Muawivah  was  met  at  the  battle 
at  Silfin.  On  the  22d  of  January,  661,  Ali  was 
attacked  by  three  members  of  the  Kharijite  sect, 
and  nuirdcrcd  at  Kufa.  Near  this  city  he  was 
buried,  and  when  later  a  monument  was  raised 
to  his  memory,  so  many  pilgi'ims  came  that  it 
became  the  centre  of  a  city,  jNIasjid  Ali.  After 
his  death  his  followers  formed  themselves  into 
a  sect  called  the  Shiite,  which  numbers  about 
fifteen  millions,  scattered  in  Irak,  Syria,  Afghanis- 
tan, India,  and  in  the  neighborhood  of  Medina. 
Persia  is  a  decidedly  Shiite  country,  while  Tur- 
key is  Sunnite.  The  Fatimides,  who  reigned  in 
Egj'pt,  were  believed  to  be  the  descendants  of 
Ali  and  Fatima.  Ali  was  noted  for  his  great 
knowledge  and  wisdom.  Fleisclier  published  All's 
Hundcrt  Hpriiche  ("Hundred  Maxims")  in  the 
Arabic  and  Persian  texts,  with  a  translation 
(Leipzig,  1837).  The  Diican  was  published  by 
Kuypcrs  (Leyden,  1745),  and  later  at  Bulak  in 
1840.  Some  of  the  maxims  and  poems  attributed 
to  Ali,  of  course,  may  be  genuine,  but  the  ma- 
jority of  them  bear  traces  of  later  composition. 
Consult  Brockelmann,  Geschichte  der  arahischen 
Litteratur,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  43-44   (Weimar,  1898). 

A'LIAS.  A  name  other  than  his  true  and  prop- 
er name  by  which  a  person  passes  or  is  known. 
The  ])hrase  (Lat.  alias  dictus.  otlicrwise  called) 
from  which  the  term  is  derived  was  formerly  em- 
ployed in  indictments  and  pleadings  to  render 
absolutely  certain  the  description  of  the  individ- 
ual intended  by  adding  his  fictitious  or  assumed 
name.  In  order  to  constitute  an  alias,  the  name 
so  described  need  not  be  assumed  for  purposes 
of  deception  or  from  any  improper  motive. 
Stage  names,  pseudonj'ms,  and  even  nicknames, 
are  properly  comjirehendcd  under  the  term.  But 
a  name  which  has,  by  legal  process,  been  assumed 
in  lieu  of  one's  original  name,  is  not  an  alias. 
See  Name. 

ALI  BABA,  a'le  b-i'ba.  Tlie  hero  of  the  story 
of  Ali  Bahn  and  the  Forty  Thieves,  in  the  Ara- 
hian  Ni<jhts'  Fntertainments.  He  is  a  poor 
forester,  who  accidentally  learns  the  magic  for- 
nuila  whicli  opens  the  door  to  a  robbers'  cave.  In 


ALI  BABA. 


346 


ALIEN. 


their  absence  he  repeats  the  "open  sesame" 
(which  has  thus  become  pi'overbial ) ,  enters  the 
cavern,  and  loads  his  ass  with  their  treasures. 
His  brother,  Kasim,  tries  to  imitate  his  success 
in  carrying  off  their  wealth,  but  after  entering 
the  cave,  forgets  the  word  "sesame,"  and  so  is  en- 
trapped and  slain  by  the  robbers.  These  then 
come  to  Ali  Baba's  house  concealed  in  oil  jars. 
Tliey  are  discovered,  however,  by  the  ingenious 
slave  girl,  Morgiana,  who  kills  them  with  boil- 
ing oil. 

ALIBAUD,  a'le'bo',  Louis  (1810-36).  A 
French  soldier  and  radical  Republican,  who  at- 
tempted to  kill  King  Louis  Philippe  at  the  gate 
of  the  Tuileries,  June  2.5,  1836.  He  was  guillo- 
tined July  11  of  the  same  year. 

ALIBERT,  a'le'bar',  Jean  Louis  (1766- 
1837).  Physician  to  Louis  XVIIL,  of  France. 
As  chief  physician  of  the  hospital  of  St.  Louis 
he  devoted  himself  especially  to  a  study  of 
diseases  of  the  skin.  His  chief  work  was  Traiti 
complet  des  maladies  de  la  peaii   (1806-27). 

ALI-BEY,  a'la-ba'  (1728-73).  Mameluke 
ruler  of  Egypt.  He  was  born  in  Abkhasia  in  the 
Caucasus,  and  when  a  boy  was  sold  as  a  slave 
into  Egypt.  He  gained  the  favor  of  his  master, 
and  rose  to  be  one  of  the  Mameluke  beys.  In 
1760  he  seized  the  Government,  freed  himself 
from  the  power  of  the  Sultan,  coined  money,  and 
assumed  the  rank  of  Sultan  of  Egypt.  Soon 
afterward  he  captured  and  plundered  Mecca,  and 
undertook  to  conquer  all  Syria,  in  alliance  with 
Daher,  Pasha  of  Acre.  xVt ,  Damascus,  June  6, 
1771,  he  routed  the  Turks  with  great  slaughter 
and  took  possession  of  the  city  through  his  gen- 
eral, Mohammed;  but  the  latter  turned  against 
him  and,  proceeding  to  Egypt,  put  an  end  to 
Ali-Bey's  power  at  Cairo.  Returning  with  an 
army  from  Syria,  Ali-Bey  was  defeated  at  the 
battle  of  Salaiiieh,  and  perished  a  few  days  later. 

AL'IBI  (Lat.  elsewhere) .  A  defense  resorted 
to  in  criminal  prosecutions,  when  the  party  ac- 
cused, in  order  to  prove  that  he  could  not  have 
committed  the  crime  with  which  he  is  charged, 
tenders  evidence  to  the  effect  that  he  was  in  a 
different  place  at  the  time  the  offense  was  com- 
mitted. When  true,  there  can  be  no  better  proof 
of  innocence;  but,  as  ofi'ering  the  readiest  and 
most  obvious  opportunity  for  false  evidence,  it 
is  always  regarded  with  suspicion.  Consult 
Wharton,  Criminal  Law   (Philadelphia,  1896). 

ALICANTE,  a'ls-kiin'ta.  The  chief  town  of 
a  province  of  the  same  name  in  Spain  (Map: 
Spain,  E  3).  It  is  picturesquely  situated  on  a 
steep  hill,  at  the  bottom  of  which  it  extends 
along  a  level  strip  of  land.  This  latter  por- 
tion of  the  city  is  comparatively  modern,  well 
built,  and  convenient,  with  fine  squares  and 
promenades.  The  upper  city  is  a  jumble  of  nar- 
row crowded  streets.  It  possesses  a  collegiate 
church,  two  parish  churches,  two  nunneries,  a 
library,  a  bishop's  palace,  and  a  picture  gallery. 
The  town  is  overlooked  by  the  castle  of  Santa 
Barbara  from  an  eminence  850  feet  above  the 
sea.  The  town,  which  is,  with  the  exception  of 
Cadiz  and  Barcelona,  the  most  important  sea- 
port of  Spain,  is  strongly  fortified.  Alicante  de- 
rives considerable  revenue  as  a  seaside  resort ; 
but  its  main  source  of  wealth  is  the  export  trade, 
for  it  is  the  port  of  Valencia,  and  the  oil  and 
wine,  silk  and  grain  of  that  fertile  province  pass 
through    this    seaport   to   foreign   countries.     It 


has  also  a  large  tobacco  factory,  in  which  6000 
girls  are  employed.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  United 
States  consulate.  Population,  1900,  50,495.  Ali- 
cante (Lucentum)  was  an  important  town  under 
the  Romans,  and  its  citizens  had  the  Latin  fran- 
chise. It  was  captured  by  the  Moors  in  713, 
and  recaptured  by  Ferdinand  III. 
ALICATA,  ii'le-kii'ta.     See  Licata. 

AL'ICE.  ( 1 )  The  name  of  the  Wife  of  Bath,, 
in  Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales. 

(2)  In  Shakespeare's  Henry  V.,  one  of  the 
Princess   Katherine's   ladies   in   waiting. 

(3)  The  heroine  of  an  Elizabethan  tragedy, 
Arden  of  Feversham  (q.v.). 

(4)  In  Meyerbeer's  opera  Robert  le  Diable, 
the  foster  sister  of  Robert,  who  saves  his  soul 
from  ruin. 

ALICE  MAXJD  MA'EY,  Princess,  Grand 
Duchess  OF  Hesse-Darmstadt  (1843-78).  The 
second  daughter  of  Queen  Victoria,  born  April 
25,  1843.  She  was  much  beloved  by  the  English 
people  for  her  amiability,  gracious  disposition, 
and  domestic  virtues.  On  July  1,  1862,  she  mar- 
ried Prince  Ludwig  of  Hesse-Darmstadt.  She 
died  at  Darmstadt,  December  14,  1878,  of  diph- 
theria, a  few  days  after  tlie  death  of  her  youngest 
daughter  from  the  same  disease.  Consult:  Sell,, 
Letters  icith  Memoirs  of  Alice,  Orand  Duchess 
of  Hesse  (London,  1884)  ;  Helena  (Princess 
Christian) ,  Letters  trith  Memoirs  of  Alice,  Grand 
Duchess  of  Hesse    (London,  1897). 

ALICE,  OR  THE  MYS'TERIES.  A  novel 
by  Bulwer,  published  in  1838. 

ALICE'S  ADVEN'TTJRES  IN  WON'DER- 
LAND.  A  storv  for  children,  by  Lewis  Carroll 
(C.  L.  Dodgson),  published  in  1869.  It  is  the 
narrative  of  a  little  girl's  dream.  A  sequel  to 
it  is  Through  the  Looking-Olass  (1871). 

ALICIA,  a-lishl-a.  (I)  In  Rowe's  tragedy 
Jane  tiliore  (q.v.),  a  mischief-making  lady  who 
ruins  the  heroine,  through  jealousy,  and  goes 
mad  herself. 

(2)  In  Lillo's  Arden  of  Feversham,  the  same 
character  as  Alice  Arden,  in  the  original  Eliza- 
bethan tragedy  of  the  same  name. 

ALICXTLtTF,  ii'le-koo-loof.  A  tribe  occupy- 
ing the  central  region  of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  South 
America,  and  perhaps  representing  a  distinct 
linguistic  stock,  although  future  investigation 
may  establish  a  connection  with  the  Yahgan  or 
the  Tehuelche  ( q.v. ) .  Although  they  go  almost 
naked  in  the  coldest  weather,  and  huddle  in  shel- 
ters hardly  deserving  the  name,  they  show  great 
skill  in  tlie  making  of  weapons,  fishing  utensils, 
and  canoes,  while  the  women  weave  water-tight 
baskets  of  reeds.  They  have  also  trained  a  na- 
tive  dog  to  hunting. 

AL'IDADE  (Ar.  al-'idadah,  the  revolving 
arm).  A  radius  bearing  a  vernier  (q.v.),  which 
travels  around  a  graduated  circumference. 
When  an  angle  is  to  be  measured,  the  alidade 
takes  first  the  position  of  one  arm  of  the  angle 
and  then  of  the  other,  and  the  arcs  are  "read" 
by  the  vernier ;  the  difference  of  the  two  readings 
is  the  measure  of  the  angle.     See  Compass. 

AL'IEN  (Lat.  alienus,  strange,  foreign).  One 
recognized  by  the  State  in  which  he  sojourns  as 
owing  primary  allegiance  to  a  foreign  sovereign. 
It  is  used  ordinarily  in  contradistinction  to  cit- 
izen (q.v.).  An  alien  may  become  a  citizen  by 
naturalization    (q.v.).     Alien  friend    and   alien 


ALIEN. 


3-ir 


ALIENIST. 


enemy  denote,  respectively,  an  alien  whose  coun- 
try is  at  peace,  or  is  at  war,  with  the  country 
where  he  is  sojourning.  In  Great  Britain  the 
rtatus  of  aliens  is  regulated  by  the  Naturalization 
Act  of  1870  (3,3  and  34  Vict.  e.  14).  In  this  coun- 
try their  status  is  determined  generally  by  State 
laws,  although  these  are  subject  to  some  modi- 
lication  by  treaties  between  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment and  that  of  a  foreign  country.  An  alien 
does  not  possess  political  rights,  nor  is  he  subject 
to  the  political  duties  of  a  citizen,  and  yet  he 
may  be  required  to  serve  in  the  militia  or  police 
of  the  country  where  he  is  residing,  and  to  con- 
tribute to  the  support  of  such  establishments. 
At  common  law  an  alien  could  not  become  an 
owner  of  real  ])roperty,  although  a  distinction 
was  made  between  a  case  of  title  by  purchase 
(q.v. )  and  by  descent  (q.v. ).  If  an  alien 
acquired  title  by  purchase,  as  by  a  grant  (q.v.), 
or  devise  (q.v.),  he  was  allowed  to  hold  it  until 
office  found  (q.v.),  that  is,  until  his  alienage 
was  duly  established,  upon  inquiry  instituted  by 
the  proper  ollicial.  while  apparent  title  by  de- 
scent was  a'bsolutely  invalid.  This  connnon  law 
disability  has  been  removed  in  England,  as  well 
as  in  many  of  our  States;  and  aliens  may  now 
acquire,  convey,  and  transmit  title  to  real  and 
personal  property  in  the  same  manner  as  citi- 
zens. An  alien  friend  may  contract,  sue,  and 
he  sued  as  though  he  were  a  citizen  while  he 
is  allowed  to  remain  in  the  country;  but  he  may 
be  expelled  or  deported  at  any  time,  subject  to 
treaty  stipulations;  his  immigration  may  be  pre- 
vented, or  may  be  permitted,  subject  to  imposed 
conditions.  An  alien  enemy  is  not  allowed  to 
maintain  an  action  in  the  courts  of  this  country, 
unless  he  can  show  some  special  authority  or 
license  therefor ;  but  he  may  be  sued  here.  Nor 
can  he  enter  into  valid  contracts  with  citizens 
which  are  inconsistent  with  a  state  of  war.  The 
tendency  of  modern  law  is  to  accord  to  alien 
enemies,  who  are  permitted  to  remain  in  a  coun- 
try, all  the  rights  and  privileges  of  alien  friends. 
Consult:  Nelson,  ticlcct  Cases,  tilatiitcs,  and 
Orders  Illustralive  of  the  Principles  of  Private 
International  Law  (London,  1889)  ;  Cockburn, 
'Nationaliti/    (London,   ISfiO). 

ALIEN  AND  SEDI'TION  ACTS.  A  series 
of  statutes  enacted  during  the  administration  of 
John  Adams  (q.v.),  occasioned  largely  by  the 
desire  of  the  party  in  power  to  stille  the  more 
virulent  forms  of  political  opposition  then  preva- 
lent, and  to  check  the  activities  of  those  who 
sympathized  with  France.  There  were  four  stat- 
utes passed  in  execution  of  the  policy  of  the 
Federalists  (q.v.),  of  which  two  became  espe- 
cially notorious.  The  Alien  Act,  passed  June  25, 
1798,  to  remain  in  force  two  years,  gave  the 
President  power  to  order  the  removal  from  the 
country  of  aliens  jvidged  to  be  dangerous,  and 
provided  that  if  those  so  notified  did  not  leave 
the  country  or  secure  from  the  President  a 
license  to  renuiin,  they  w'ould  be  subject  to  im- 
prisonment for  not  over  three  years,  and  be  dis- 
qualified from  ever  becoming  citizens  of  the 
United  States.  The  President  also  might  order 
the  removal  from  the  country  of  any  alien  thus 
imprisoned,  and  if  such  alien  should  thereafter 
be  found  in  the  country  he  might  be  imprisoned 
for  as  long  a  period  as  the  President  should  deem 
the  public  safety  required.  The  Sedition  Act, 
passed  July  14,  1798,  to  be  in  force  until  March 
3,  1801,  imposed  penalties  not  exceeding  a  fine 
of  $5000  and  five  years'  imprisonment  for  con- 


spiring against  the  government  and  its  measures, 
and  for  interfering  with  the  operations  of  the 
government.  It  imposed  a  penalty  of  imprison- 
ment for  not  over  two  years  and  a  fine  of  not 
over  $2000  for  printing  scandalous  material 
concerning  the  Fedeial  Government,  the  President 
or  Congress.  There  were  also  passed  the  Alien 
Enemies  Act,  July  6,  1798,  providing  for  the 
treatment  of  aliens  with  whose  government  the 
United  States  might  be  at  war,  and  the  Natural- 
ization Act,  June  18,  1798,  fixing  fourteen  years' 
residence  as  a  qualification  for  the  acquisition  by 
foreigners  of  citizenship.  The  extreme  charac- 
ter of  these  statutes  and  the  partisan  spirit 
which  produced  them  caused  an  immediate  and 
violent  reaction,  which  was  expressed  in  such 
forms  as  in  the  Virginia  and  Kentucky  Resolu- 
tions (q.v.),  and  which  hastened  the  overthrow 
of  the  Federalist  party.  See  historical  section 
under  Uxited  States. 

AL'IENA'TION  (Lat.  alienatio,  the  trans- 
ferring of  the  possession  of  a  thing  to  another, 
from  alienus,  another's,  foreign).  A  legal  term 
to  describe  the  transfer  of  title  to  land,  or  of  any 
interest  therein.  The  modes  in  which  alienation 
is  effected  are  numerous,  ranging  in  our  legal 
system  from  the  feoffment  (q.v.),  or  livery  of 
seisin  (q.v.),  of  old  English  law,  to  the  modern 
transfer  by  deed  (q.v.)  or  will  (q.v.).  (See 
Conveyance.)  The  right  of  alienation  is  one  of 
the  two  great  incidents  of  the  ownership  of  prop- 
erty, as  now  understood  (tlie  other  being  the 
right  of  inheritance)  ;  but  this  is  a  distinctly 
modern  notion,  and  ownership  may  well  exist, 
and  has  often  existed,  without  the  right  to  alien- 
ate the  property  owned.  In  English  law  tlie 
right  of  a  freehold  tenant  to  alienate  his  lands 
was  long  restricted  by  rules  derived  from  the 
feudal  system.  Most  of  these  restrictions 
were  swept  away  by  the  third  statute  of  West- 
minster ( 18  Edw.  1.,  1290) ,  known  as  the  Statute 
Quia  Emptores  (q.v.),  which  declared  that  from 
thenceforth  "it  should  be  lawful  to  every  free- 
man to  sell  at  his  own  pleasure  his  lands  and 
tenements,  or  part  of  them,"  and  the  few  that  re- 
mained, by  the  statute  of  Military  Tenures, 
passed  in'lOGO  (12  Car.  II.,  c.  24),"  which  de- 
prived the  crown  of  the  right  to  exact  of  its  ten- 
ants in  capite  the  obnoxious  fines  on  alienation. 
But  it  was  not  until  the  thirty-second  year  of 
Henry  VIII.  (1527),  that  the  right  to  alienate 
lands  by  will  was  finally  conceded  b_y  Parliament. 
Now,  however,  the  principle  of  the  alienability  of 
real  property  has  become  so  firmly  established, 
that  we  cannot  conceive  of  absolute  ownership 
without  that  quality,  and  it  has  long  been  a  rule 
of  our  law,  that  a  condition  attached  to  the  grant 
of  a  fee,  forbidding  or  restraining  its  alienation, 
is  void,  as  being  repugnant  to  the  estate  granted. 
It  should  be  said,  however,  that  such  conditions 
annexed  to  life  estates  and  leaseholds  are  per- 
fectly good  and  of  frequent  occurrence. 

Alienation  may  be  either  voluntary  or  invol- 
untary. The  former  comprehends  the  usual 
modes  of  conveyance,  including  transfers  by  will. 
The  latter  refers  to  the  acquisition  of  title  by 
judgment,  execution,  bankruptcy,  and  the  other 
modes  in  which  creditors  have  at  different  times 
and  in  different  jurisdictions  been  permitted  to 
satisfy  their  claims  by  legal  process  out  of  the 
real  property  of  the  debtor.  See  the  authorities 
referred  to  under  the  title  Real  Property. 

AL'IENIST.     See  Psychiatry. 


ALT    FERROTJGH    BEY. 


348 


ALIMENTARY  SYSTEM. 


ALI  FERROUGH  BEY,  li'lo  fer'io  ba  (1865 
— ).  JMinisler  Plenipotentiary  and  Envoy  Extra- 
ordinary of  Tnrkey  to  the  United  States.  He 
was  born  at  Constantinople,  and  has  been  succes- 
Bively  secretary  of  embassy  at  Paris,  London, 
and  Bucharest,  and  councilor  of  embassy  at  St. 
Petersburg.  He  has  published  Public  and  Pri- 
vate International  Law,  and  histories  of  Arabia 
and  Turkey.  He  was  recalled  from  his  post  at 
W'asliington  in  I'JOl. 

ALIGARH,  a'le-giir'.  The  capital  of  the  dis- 
ti'ict  of  the  saine  name,  in  the  North-West  Prov- 
inces of  India,  the  native  name  of  which,  Koil, 
has  been  replaced  by  that  of  tlie  adjoining  fort, 
famous  for  its  commanding  situation  and  historic 
associations.  Tlie  fort,  at  an  altitude  of  740 
feet,  stands  in  lat.  27°  56'  N.,  long.  78°  8'  E.,  47 
miles  north  of  Agra  and  74  miles  south  of  Del- 
hi (Map:  India,  C  3).  Its  capture  from  the 
IMahrattas  in  ISO."?  by  General  Lake  assured  Brit- 
ish supremacy  in  the  Upper  Doab,  and  it  was 
tile  scene  of  exciting  incidents  during  the  mutiny 
of  .18.57.  The  town  on  the  railway  route  from 
Calcutta  to  Peshawar  is  a  thriving  municipalitv, 
with  a  population  in  1891  of  61,48.5;  1901,  70,127. 
Aligarh  is  the  seat  of  the  Mohammedan  Anglo- 
Oriental  College,  which  is  connetted  with  the 
University  of  Allahabad. 

ALIGN'MENT.  A  term  used  in  military 
tactics,  equivalent  to  "in  line."  Thus,  the  align- 
ment of  a  battalion  is  effected  when  the  men 
are  drawn  up  in  line;  the  alignment  of  a  camp 
is  a  rectilinear  arrangement  of  the  tents,  accord- 
ing to  some  prearranged  plan. 

ALIMA,  a-le'm.i.  A  tributary  of  the  lower 
Congo,  rising  in  French  Congo,  and  after  a  short 
course  westward  emptying  at  Ibaka  (Map: 
Congo  Free  State,  C  3 ) .  In  its  lower  course  it 
is  navigable  for  light  vessels.  It  was  discovered 
bv  Brazza  in  1878,  and  thoroughly  explored  by 
Bailey  in,  1883. 

AL'IMEN'TARY  SYS'TEM  (from  Lat.  ali- 
mcntum,  food).  In  mammalia,  that  portion  of 
the  digestive  apparatus  through  which  the  food 
passes  from  the  time  of  its  entrance  until  its 
exit  from  the  l)ody.  It  is  lined  by  a  mucous 
membrane,  whieli  extends  from  the  lips  to  the 
anus,  being  modified  in  each  region.  (See  Mu- 
cous Memuhane.)  The  alimentary  canal  begins 
at  the  mouth,  and  is  continued  into  the  space 
called  the  pharynx,  which  communicates  with 
the  nostrils  above,  and  the  gullet  or  oesophagus 
below,  and  witli  the  mouth  in  front.  The  phar- 
ynx is  surrounded  by  three  muscles,  the  constric- 
tors, which  grasp  tlie  food,  and  force  it  into  the 
next  portion  of  the  alimentary  canal,  the  cesoph- 
agus.  This  is  a  tube  composed  of  an  outer  layer 
of  longitudinal  muscular  fibres,  and  an  inner  of 
circular,  which  extend  down  to  and  spread  out 
upon  the  stomach.  These  fibres,  by  a  series  of 
peristaltic  contractions,  carry  the  morsel  of  food 
along  into  the  stomach.  In  vomiting,  there  is  a 
reversal  of  these  actions,  wliich  ruminating 
animals  can  accomplish  at  will.  The  oesophagus 
passes  through  an  opening  in  the  dinphragm, 
and  joins  the  stomach,  which  is  a  poucli  curved 
with  the  concavity  upward,  expanded  into  a 
cul  de  sac  on  the  left  side  (tlie  cardiac  extrem- 
ity), and  gradually  narrowed  to  the  right  or 
pyloric  end.  It  consists  of  muscular  fibres  con- 
tinuous with  those  of  the  oesophagus,  whicli 
become  thicker  toward  the  pylorus.     Its  external 


Ton^i 


surfaces  are  covered  by  peritoneum,  and  its  thick, 
-soft  mucous  lining,  when  the  stomacli  is  empty, 
lies  in  folds.  Between  the  muscular  and  mucous 
layers  is  a  fibrous  layer,  in  which  the  blood- 
vessels lie  before  they  pass  into  the  mucous  layer. 
(See  Stomach.)  At  its  pyloric  or  right  e.x- 
tremity  the  stomach 
communicates  with 
the  small  intestine, 
whicli  is  about  22 
feet  in  length,  be- 
coming  gradually 
narrower  toward  its 
lower  end,  and  ar- 
ranged in  convolu- 
tions, which  occupy 
the  middle  portion 
of  the  abdominal 
cavity,  and  are  kept 
in  position  by  the 
mesentery,  which  at- 
taches them  to  the 
posterior  wall  of  the 
abdomen. 

The  small  intes- 
tine is  subdivided 
into  three  parts.  The 
first  ten  inches  from 
the  stomach  consti- 
tute the  duodenum. 
Into  it  open  the  duct 
of  the  pancreas  and 
the  common  bile 
duct.  Of  the  remain- 
ing portion,  the  jeju- 
iimii  includes  about 
two-fifths  and  ileum 
three-fifths.  The  dif- 
f  e  r  e  n  c  e  s  between 
these  last  two  con- 
sist in  modifications 
of  their  internal  structure.  The  tube  consists  of 
three  layers  and  the  whole  is  surrounded  by  peri- 
toneum.    See  Intestine. 

The  ileum  ends  at  the  right  iliac  region  in 
the  large  intestine,  which  is  from  five  to  six  feet 
in  length.  It  begins  at  the  pouch  called  the  blind 
gut  or  cul  de  sac  { see  C.ECUJI ) ,  which  has  a 
small,  worm-like  appendage  (appendix  vermifor- 
mis)  ;  a  double  valve  guards  the  opening  of  the 
small  into  the  large  intestine.  The  colon  passes 
upward  on  the  right  side  to  below  the  liver 
( ascending  colon ) ,  then  crosses  from  the  right 
hypochondrium  aci'oss  the  upper  umbilical  to  the 
left  hypochondrium  (transverse  colon),  then 
descends  to  the  left  iliac  fossa  (descending 
colon ) ,  when  it  bends  like  an  S  ( sigmoid  flex- 
ure), and  then  joins  the  rectum  at  the  left 
margin  of  tlie  true  pelvis.  The  colon  is  distin- 
guished by  its  pouched  or  sacculated  appearance 
and  the  presence  of  an  exterior  of  tliree  flat  bands 
of  longitudinal  muscular  fibres.  The  peritoneum 
covers  it  only  in  parts.  (  See  Colon.  )  The  rectum 
is  not  sacculated,  but  its  muscular  coat  becomes 
much  thicker;  at  its  lower  end  tlie  longitudinal 
muscular  fibres  sto]),  but  the  circular  fibres 
become  greatly  increased,  forming  the  internal 
sphincter  muscle.  (See  Anus.)  The  rectum  is 
not  straight,  but  takes  a  curved  course. 

The  alimentary  canal  thus  consists  of  a  con- 
tinuous pa.ssage  lined  by  mucous  membrane, 
which  rests  on  a  fibrous  and  muscular  basement. 
Its  length  is  generally  about  five  or  six  times 
the  length  of  the  body,  or,  in  otlier  words,  about 


Fundus  of  "' 

Urinary  bladder 


ALIMENTARY  TRACT  IN  MAN. 


ALIMENTARY  SYSTEM. 


349 


ALIMENTABY  SYSTEM. 


30  feet.  It  begins  below  the  base  of  the  skull, 
and  passes  through  the  thorax,  abdomen,  and 
pelvis,  and  eonsists,  in  brief,  of  the  mouth,  phar- 
ynx, oesophagus,  stomach,  small  intestine  and 
large  intestine.  The  above  description  refers  to 
the  alimentary  canal  in  human  anatomy;  its 
parts  are  variously  modified  in  dilferent  animals, 
as  will  be  found  in  the  articles  on  its  several 
subdivisions.  The  process  of  carrying  the  digest- 
ed food  to  the  tissues  of  the  body  is  discussed 
under  Cir.crL.\Tio.\. 

ALIMENTARY  SYSTEM,  Evolution  of 
THE.  An  alimentary  system  as  defined  above  is 
almost  Avanting  among  plants,  which,  practically 
without  exception,  use  only  fluid  or  gaseous 
food,  or  else  render  solid  substances  fluid  before 
ingestion.  This  difference  between  animals  and 
plants  is  one  of  the  best  distinguishing  charac- 
ters. 

Types  of  Alimentary  Tracts.  The  simplest 
may  be  designated  the  temporary  type — that 
exhibited  by  Amoeba.  This  jelly-like,  amorphous 
organism,  when  it  conies  upon  a  solid  particle 
in  the  water,  simply  engulfs  it  at  any  point  by 
flo'O'ing  around  it.  The  engulfed  particle  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  sphere  of  water.  From  the  plasma 
of  the  Amoeba  an  acid  is  secreted  into  the  sphere 
of  water,  and  this  dilute  acid  gradually  dissolves 
the  solid  particle:  the  solution  is  then  absorbed 
by  the  protoplasm.  In  the  case  of  the  Amipba 
there  is  no  definite,  permanent  alimentai-y 
tract.  The  same  is  true  of  all  the  rhizopodous 
Protozoa,  and  of  the  parasitic  ones,  which  do 
not  feed  on  solids.  Many  of  the  ciliate  and 
flagellate  Infusoria,  on  the  other  hand,  ingest 
solid  particles  through  a  permanent  mouth  and 
gullet  into  the  general  protoplasmic  spaces.  The 
surface  around  the  mouth  opening  may  bo  pro- 
vided with  cilia  to  carry  food  into  the  mouth. 

Tlie  second  t^'pe  of  alimentary  tract  is  perma- 
nent but  diffuse.  This  is  the  type  exhilnted  by 
sponges.  There  is  not  one  digestive  region,  but 
hundreds  of  them,  as  many,  indeed,  as  there  are 
pores  and  canals  passing  through  the  body  wall. 
The  solid  food  passes  into  these  canals;  the 
canals  are  lined  by  curiously  modified  "col- 
lared" cells.  These  pick  up  the  particles  and 
engulf  them,  as  a  flagellate  infusorian  does. 
The  whole  sponge,  indeed,  behaves  like  a  colony 
of  Protozoa,  specialized  in  different  directions 
in  different  regions   of  the  sponge  body. 

The  third  type  of  alimentary  tract  is  perma- 
nent, and  concentrated  in  one  cavity,  and  that 
cavity  is  a  sac,  having  only  one  external  open- 
ing. This  type  is  characteristic  of  all  the 
Cnidaria.  and  is  found  in  certain  flatworms.  It 
is  typically  illustrated  by  Hydra.  Hydra  con- 
sists of  a  body  wall  surrounding  a  central  cavity 
that  has  one  opening  at  the  upper  pole,  sur- 
rounded by  a  circlet  of  tentacles.  The  opening 
serves  both  as  mouth  and  anus.  The  body  wall 
is  two-layered;  the  outer  layer  is  the  sensory 
one ;  the  inner  layer  is  digestive.  T!ie  origin 
of  this  type  is  uncertain;  it  seems  quite  likely 
that  it  has  not  developed  from  the  sponge  type, 
but  that  it  represents  an  altogether  new  line 
of  evolution,  in  which  the  body  is  not  to  be 
considered  as  a  colony  of  infusoria-like  cells, 
but  as  a  greatly  enlarged  protozoan,  with  many 
nuclei  and  hence  with  many  cells.  On  this  last 
hypothesis  the  digestion  cavity  of  Hydra  would 
be  homologous  with  that  of  an  infusorian.  In 
the  sea  anemones  the  digestive  sac  is  more  com- 
plicated than  in  Hydrozoa,  in  that  it  is  divided 


into  a  number  of  alcoves  opening  into  one  cen- 
tral chamber.  The  alcoves  arise  in  consequence 
of  a  series  of  radial  partitions  (called  mesen- 
teries) arranged  in  a  plan  of  four  and  its  mul- 
tiples or  six  and  its  multiples,  that  pass  from  the 
outer  body  wall  toward  the  .-entre.  In  the  sea 
anemones  the  entrance  to  the  digestive  sac  is 
an  elongated  slit  that  serves  both  as  mouth  and 
anus.  According  to  one  theory,  the  separate 
mouth  and  anus  of  higher  forms  arise  from 
opposite  extremities  of  this  slit,  while  in  the 
middle  part  of  the  slit  the  lips  are  fused 
together.  In  the  lower  flatworms,  the  planarians 
and  trematodes,  the  body  is  elongated,  and  the 
digestive  sac  is  elongated  likewise ;  but  it  is  still 
a  sac  with  a  single  opening.  The  cestodes, 
being  abject  parasites  living  in  the  digestive 
juices  of  the  host,  need  no  digestive  tract  and 
have  none.  In  the  higher  flatworms,  nemathel- 
niinths,  Nemertinea,  Bryozoa,  and  Brachiopoda, 
as  well  as  in  mollusks,  mouth  and  anus  have 
become  distinct,  and  the  digestive  sac  has  become 
a  digestive  tube  or  canal,  as  in  higher  groups. 
With  the  formation  of  a  digestive  tube  three 
portions  may  be  distinguished,  namely;  fore 
gut,  mid  gut,  and  hind  gut.  The  first  and 
last  are  usually  of  ectodermal  origin.  The  mid 
gut  is  usually  lined  by  entoderm.  These  three 
parts  of  the  alimentary  tract  undergo  special 
modifications.  The  beginning  of  the  fore  gut, 
or  mouth,  becomes  fitted  with  grasping  and 
sensory  organs ;  and  lower  down  in  the  oesopha- 
gus there  is  frequently  found  a  crushing  organ, 
the  gizzard.  The  mid  gut  is  very  glandular.  In 
many  species  the  glands  have  enlarged  to  per- 
form their  work  better,  and  appear  as  appendages 
of  the  mid  gut ;  e.g.,  the  pancreas  or  hepatopan- 
creas.  The  hind  gut  is  the  rectum.  These  con- 
ditions are  shown  in  their  simplest  form  in  the 
annelids.  The  sandworm  of  the  sea  coast  has 
great  jaws  in  the  cesophagus.  which  is  protru- 
sible.  Behind,  a  pair  of  digestive  glands  open 
into  the  food  canal.  In  the  earthworm,  the 
oesophagus  leads  into  a  crop,  and  this  in  turn 
into  a  muscular  gizzard.  In  the  intestine  two 
dorsal  grooves  add  to  the  glandular  surface. 
Passing  to  arthropods,  we  find  the  mid  gut 
occasionally  coiled,  and  frequently  bearing  diges- 
tive glands,  that  gain  a  great  size  in  the  Deca- 
poda.  A  gastric  mill  is  present  in  the  Mala- 
eostraea.  In  both  annelids  and  arthropods  the 
mouth  is  on  the  same  side  of  the  body  as  the 
great  nerve  cord,  and  the  anus  is  placed  in  the 
last  metamere  of  the  body. 

In  the  Chordata  the  alimentary  tract  has  very 
different  relations  from  those  found  in  the  Anne- 
lida and  Arthropoda.  In  the  latter  groups  the 
alimentary  tract  lies  dorsal  to  tbe  main  nerve 
and  ventral  to  the  heart;  in  the  .chorda tes  the 
tract  is  dorsal  to  the  heart  and  ventral  to  the 
spinal  cord.  The  question  how  the  vertebrate 
condition  is  derived  from  the  invertebrate  con- 
dition is  a  diflicult  one  to  answer.  It  has  even 
led  some  to  deny  that  vertebrates  are  related 
to  Annelida  or  Arthropoda,  as  it  is  impossible 
to  think  of  an  animal  adapted  to  traveling  on 
one  surface  turning  over  and  traveling  on  its 
back  and  tran.smitting  this  tendency  to  its  de- 
scendants. It  is  more  likely  that  the  intermedi- 
ate form  was  one  that,  like  many  of  the  lowest 
Chordata — the  tunicates — was  sessile  in  a  vent- 
ral position  at  some  time  of  life,  and  conse- 
quently had  neither  dorsal  nor  ventral  surface. 

Kmbryologic\l  History,     The  history  of  the 


ALIMENTARY  SYSTEM. 


350 


ALIMENTARY  SYSTEM. 


alimentary  tract  in  vertebrates  is  as  follows: 
Part  of  the  outer  layer  of  the  germ  becomes 
infolded  as  a  pocket  to  form  the  lining  of  the 
archenteron  or  primitive  gut.  ( See  Embeyology. ) 
By  the  continued  growth  of  the  mesoderm  and 
body  cavity  the  archenteron  comes  to  lie  as  a 
canal,  closed  at  the  anterior  end  and  communi- 
cating posteriorly  through  the  "neurenteric 
canal''  with  the  neural  tube.  Later,  an  infolding 
of  ectoderm  occurs  on  the  ventral  surface  of  the 
embryo  to  form  the  proctodeum  and  anus.  The 
neurenteric  canal  closes  and  the  post-anal  gut 
degenerates.  Finally  the  ectoderm  is  inpocketed 
at  the  anterior  end  of  the  archenteron,  forming 
the  stomodeum,  and  the  two  cavities  become  con- 
fluent by  the  breaking  away  of  the  opposed  walls. 
Thus,  the  completed  alimentary  tract  is  composed 
of  an  ectodermal  anterior  and  posterior  end 
and  of  an  entodermal  middle  portion.  It  is 
enveloped  by  a  mesodermal  layer. 

Phylogenetically,  two  quite  distinct  parts  in 
the  alimentary  tract  of  vertebrates  can  be  dis- 
tinguished, and  these  do  not  coincide  with  the 
embryological  divisions.  In  Amphioxus  more 
than  the  first  half  of  the  length  of  the  alimentary 
tract  is  devoted  to  the  purpose  of  respiration, 
since  its  walls  are  provided  with  gill-slits.  This 
may  be  called  the  respiratory  part  of  the  ali- 
mentary tract  in  contradistinction  to  the  remain- 
ing hinder  portion — the  digestive  part.  The 
first  is  also  known  as  the  prosenteron.  The 
hinder  part  is  often  divided  into  two — its  ento- 
dermal part  (mesenteron)  and  its  proctodeal 
portion  (metenteron) .  It  will  be  convenient  to 
treat  of  the  alimentary  tract  under  the  three 
heads  of  prosenteron,  mesenteron,  and  meten- 
teron. Before  going  on  to  this  analytical  treat- 
ment of  the  tract  and  its  appendages,  a  few 
words  may  be  said  concerning  the  general  his- 
tology of  the  entire  tract.  As  already  stated, 
two  germ-layers  are  involved :  entoderm  { or 
ectoderm)  and  mesoderm,  and  to  these  must  be 
added  mesench;\aue.  The  entoderm  is  always  a 
single  layer  and  forms  the  so-called  mucosa :  it 
gives  rise  to  the  digestive  and  glandular  epi- 
thelium. Next  outside  lies  the  mesenchyraatous 
mass,  with  its  blood-vessels  and  nerves — the  sub- 
mucosn.  Outside  of  this  is  the  muscular  layer 
derived  from  mesoderm  and  containing  within 
circular  muscle  fibres  and  without  longitudinal 
ones.  Lastly,  outside  of  all  and  continuous  with 
the  lining  of  the  body  cavity  in  all  its  parts, 
is  the  layer  of  flat  epithelial  cells,  constituting 
part   of    the    peritoneal    membrane. 

The  Prosenteron. — This  region  is  character- 
ized, in  the  lower  forms,  by  gills.  In  Balano- 
glossus  and  in  Tunicata  such  a  gill-bearing  region 
is  well  developed,  and  in  the  Tunicata  becomes 
extremely  complex,  in  adaptation  to  their  sessile 
habit,  which  requires  large  respiratory  surface, 
since  a  change  of  water  cannot  be  got  by  travel- 
ing. In  Amphioxus  the  gill-slits  are  simple  but 
very  numerous — a  hundred  or  more.  The  varia- 
bility in  number  arises  from  the  fact  that  the 
slits  continue  to  increase  in  number  as  the 
animal  grows  older,  new  ones  being  formed  at 
the  posterior  end  of  the  series.  Thus  the  pros- 
enteron grows  at  the  expense  of  the  mesenteron. 
In  embryologic  history  a  single  row  of  fourteen 
slits  first  arises  as  ventro-dextral  organs:  next, 
a  second  row  of  nine  slits  is  formed  at  the  right 
of  the  first,  which,  as  it  grows  larger,  piishes  the 
first  row  to  the  left  side,  where  it  lies  pei'ma- 
nently.     The  cause  of  the  development  of  the  left 


series  on  the  right  side  is  that  the  large  mouth 
at  first  occupies  the  left  side,  and  its  movement 
yentrally  is  accompanied  by  profound  changes 
in  the  surrounding  parts.  It  has  been  suggested 
that  the  mouth  of  the  ancestors  of  vertebrates 
was  placed  in  the  mid-dorsal  line  in  front  of  the 
notoehord;  but  that,  the  support  of  the  noto- 
chord  being  needed  for  the  snout  in  the  animal's 
journeys  through  the  sand,  it  pushed  forward 
and  thrust  the  mouth  to  one  side.  The  mouth 
is  dorsal,  or,  better,  neural,  in  young  tunieates 
and  in  adult  annelids;  and  the  embrj'onic 
changes  in  the  position  of  the  mouth  in  Amphi- 
oxus apparently  recapitulate  the  phylogenetic 
changes.  The  gill-slits  of  the  young  Amphioxus 
open  from  the  gut  cavity  directly  to  the  exterior, 
but  later  the}'  open  into  a  common  atrium  on  the 
ventral  side,  which  functions  somewhat  as  an 
operculum.  The  details  of  the  gill  system  of 
higher  vertebrates  will  be  discussed  under  Res- 
PIBATORY  Sy'Stem.  It  is  here  merely  necessary 
to  say  that  the  number  of  gill-slits  becomes 
much  reduced,  usually  to  five  or  si.x  pairs  of  slits. 

The  Mouth. — The  beginning  of  the  alimentary 
tract  is  enlarged  to  form  an  oral  or  buccal  cavity, 
provided  with  teeth  and  glands.  The  glands 
are  modified  skin  glands,  as  would  be  expected 
from  their  ectodermal  origin.  The  glands  de- 
velop by  a  depression  of  the  epidermis,  and 
come  to  lie  imbedded  deeply  in  the  cutis  of 
mesenchymatous  origin.  The  function  of  the 
glands  is  to  keep  the  mouth  moist,  consequently 
they  are  found  only  in  land  vertebrates.  The 
poison  glands  of  serpents  are  modified  oral 
glands.  Salivary  glands  find  their  highest  de- 
velopment in  mammals.  They  are  probably  im- 
mensely developed  skin  glands  or  groups  of  such. 
They  secrete  a  thick,  glairy  fluid,  whose  chief 
function  is  to  moisten  the  food  and  thus  to  assist 
in  its  mastication  and  deglutition.  On  this 
account  these  glands  are  most  highly  developed 
in  the  Herbivora  and  are  absent  in  Cetacea. 
Saliva  also  acts  upon  starchy  food,  converting 
it   into  sugar. 

The  tonffue  is  a  mass  of  intertwined  muscles, 
having  various  functions,  as  of  tasting,  grasp- 
ing, touching,  and  speaking.  In  fishes  it  is 
little  developed,  being  represented  by  a  thicken- 
ing of  the  mucosa  covering  the  ventral  part  of 
the  hyoid  bone.  In  Amphibia  and  reptiles  it 
shows  a  great  advance  in  size  and  complexity, 
being  capable  of  extrusion  to  a  great  extent 
(especially  in  lizards),  both  through  the  elon- 
gating action  of  its  intrinsic  muscles  and  the 
forward  movement  of  the  base  of  the  hj'oid  bone. 

The  thii'DUs  f/fancl  arises  in  fishes  by  the 
budding  ofi'  of  epithelial  masses  from  the  ante- 
rior four  or  five  gill  pockets ;  it  is  thus  of  multi- 
plex origin.  Usually  these  independently  aris- 
ing masses  fuse  into  a  pair  of  spindle-shaped 
bodies,  but  in  the  Gymnophiona  the  components 
persist  as  distinct  bodies.  In  the  land  verte- 
brates, with  fewer  gill-slits,  the  points  of  origin 
are  reduced  in  number.  Into  the  paired  masses 
connective  tissue  and  blood  vessels  gi'ow,  eventu- 
ally constituting  the  greater  part  of  the  organs. 
The  function  of  the  thymus  is  still  unknown. 
It  attains  its  largest  size  in  reptiles  and  birds. 
In  man  it  reaches  its  maximum  development 
in  the  second  year  and  then  gradually  degen- 
erates. 

The  thyroid  gland  arises  directly  from  the  ali- 
mentary tract.  It  has  a  double  origin.  First, 
it  arises  as  an  unpaired  pocket  of  the  ventral 


ALIMENTARY  SYSTEM. 


351 


ALIMENTARY  SYSTEM. 


■wall  of  the  pharynx  behind  the  last  gill-slit: 
the  paired  masses  are  called  "accessory  thj'roid 
glands."  The  median  part  is  morphologically 
the  most  important.  It  is  the  only  part  found  in 
Amphioxus  and  Cyclostonii.  In  these  groups  it 
exists  as  a  groove  in  the  ventral  wall  of  the 
pharynx,  called  the  •■hypobrancliial  groove."  A 
similar  groove  is  found  iu  all  tunicates  (the 
"endosty le" ) ,  and  is  glandular  in  function.  In 
the  lower  true  vertebrates,  where  the  paired 
components  first  arise,  they  remain  distinct;  in 
mammals  all  components  fuse. 

Esophagus  and  Stojiacii.  These  parts  of  the 
alimentary  tract  constitute  the  fore  gut  in  the 
more  restricted  sense.  They  are  limited  ante- 
riorly by  the  oral  cavity;  the  limitation  is  a 
sharp  one.  however,  onl}'  in  mammals,  which 
possess  a  soft  palate  that  curtains  off  the  mouth 
from  the  respiratory  passage.  This  soft  palate 
makes  its  first  appearance  in  the  crocodiles,  but 
withoTit  the  uvula.  The  posterior  limit  of  the 
fore  gut  is  not  always  easy  to  fix,  since  not  all 
vertebrates  have  a  specialized  stomach  with  a 
pj'lorie  valve.  The  opening  of  the  bile  duet  may 
be  taken  as  the  lower  limit.  The  post-pharyn- 
geal  prosenteron  is  extremely  short  in  Amphi- 
oxus and  the  lowest  vertebrates,  and  is  of  rela- 
tively slight  importance;  it  gains  size  and  impor- 
tance as  we  ascend  in  vertebrate  series.  The 
digestive  function  is,  in  the  higher  groups,  trans- 
ferred to  a  more  anterior  region  of  the  enteron, 
and,  coincidently,  the  entire  alimentary  tract, 
whicli  is  primitiveh'  straight,  undergoes  a  great 
increase  in  length  and  becomes  strongly  folded. 
A  differentiation  of  the  prosenteron  into  oesoph- 
agus and  stomach  is  first  indicated  in  selachians, 
and  becomes  pronounced  in  Amphibia.  The  two 
organs  differ  not  onl\'  in  their  diameter,  but  also 
in  the  cliaractcr  of  the  mucous  membrane,  which 
is  smooth  and  forms  a  ciliated  epithelium  on  the 
oesophagus  and  folded  and  nonciliated  in  the 
stomach.  In  birds  the  oesophagus  is  specialized, 
in  that  it  is  greatly  enlarged  at  one  point,  form- 
ing the  crop.  The  crop  is  best  developed  in  gran- 
ivorous  birds;  in  it  grain  is  acted  upon  chemi- 
cally. Certain  fish-eating  birds  have  a  reservoir 
(false  crop)  for  excess  of  food.  Insectivorous  and 
frugivorous  birds  have  no  sign  of  a  crop.  The 
stomach,  likewise,  is  very  complex  in  birds. 
There  is  first  a  highly  glandular  chemically 
active  provoitriciiliis,  and,  below,  a  mechanic- 
ally acting  muscular  stomach  or  gizzard.  In 
mammals  the  stomach  is  the  most  distended 
and  one  of  the  most  functional  parts  of 
the  alimentary  system.  An  anterior  or  cardiac 
portion  can  be  distinguished  from  a  posterior 
pyloric  part.  The  stomach  is  larger  and  more 
coni])lex  in  herbivores  than  in  carnivores.  In 
the  herbivores  the  cardiac  and  pyloric  parts  are 
each  divided  into  two  parts.  The  first  is  a  large 
sac  called  the  pouch  or  rumen.  It  communicates 
broadly  with  the  second  chamber,  the  reticulum, 
so  called  from  its  network  of  folds.  Next  comes 
the  psdltrritim.  whose  walls  are  raised  into  high, 
thick-set  folds,  so  that  under  most  circumstances 
nothing  but  semi-fluid  materials  can  pass  between 
the  folds.  The  last  part  is  the  abomq,sum,  with 
highly  vascular  and  glandular  walls.  This  com- 
plex stomach  seems  to  have  arisen  by  natural 
selection  as  an  adaptation  to  the  peculiar  habits 
possessed  by  the  ruminants.  They  are  all  weak, 
defenseless  mammals,  and  their  herbivorous 
habits  require  that  they  shall  feed  in  open  fields 
where  the  danger  of  detection  by  the  larger  car- 


nivores is  very  great.  The  shorter  the  time  they 
are  e.\posed  in  the  open  field  the  less  will  be  the 
chance  of  their  destruction.  It  has  therefm-e 
been  of  advantage  that  they  have  become  able 
to  crop  a  large  amount  of  grass  rapidly  without 
masticating  it,  the  mastication  being  first  done 
after  the  ruminant  has  retired  from  the  field  to 
the  secluded  forest.  The  food  thus  taken  into 
the  stomach  fills  the  rumen  and  reticulum,  and 
is  mingled  with  and  partly  macerated  by  the 
saliva.  By  the  action  of  the  abdominal  muscles 
anil  diaphragm,  as  in  hiccoughing,  the  food  is 
returned  to  the  mouth  and  is  there  masticated. 
Finally,  divided  and  mixed  with  saliva,  it  passes 
down  the  oesophagus  and  is  led  b_v  means  of  a 
special  fold  directly  to  the  psalterium,  through 
the  leaves  of  which  the  finely  triturated  mass  can 
pass.  In  the  fourth  part,  or  abomasum,  true 
gastric  digestion  now  occurs. 

Inte.stin.\l  Region.  The  mesenteron  is,  in 
the  higher  vertel)ratcs.  separated  from  the  prosen- 
teron by  a  circular  fold  of  the  intestinal  wall,  the 
pyloric  valve.  The  function  of  the  tract  is,  on  the 
one  hand,  to  secure  fluids  that  will  finish  the  work 
of  digesting  the  food  which  was  begun  in  the 
stomach,  and  on  the  other  to  absorb  the  products 
of  digestion.  Tlie  variations  in  form  of  the 
mesenteroii  are  all  to  enable  it  to  perform  the 
processes  to  better  advantage.  Some  of  the  vari- 
ations are  readily  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  such 
as  the  foldings  of  the  gut  or  out-pocketings  from 
it ;  others  are  microscopic,  and  due  to  foldings  in 
the  lining  of  the  alimentary  tract. 

LiVEK  AND  Pancreas.  The  largest  of  these 
out-pocketings  is  the  liver.  It  is  phylogenetic- 
ally  an  old  organ,  as  it  occurs  in  all  the  verte- 
brates, even  in  Amphioxus.  The  form  of  the 
liver  is  always  closely  adapted  to  tliat  of  the 
cavity  in  which  it  lies.  In  mj'xinoids  it  consists 
of  two  lobes,  and  this  is  probably  the  "ground- 
form"  of  the  organ  in  all  vertebrates.  In.  many 
cases  it  is  further  subdivided  into  (dog,  weasel) 
six  or  seven  lobes  even.  The  right  lobe  is  the 
larger,  and  in  it  the  gall-bladder,  when  present, 
lies  imbedded.  The  liver  arises  as  an  evagination 
of  the  epithelial  lining  of  the  ventral  wall  of 
the  anterior  portion  of  the  intestine.  In  Amphi- 
oxus it  is  located  just  behind  the  gill  region.  The 
hepatic  fundaments  are  soon  transformed  into 
glands  made  up  of  branching  tubules.  The  net- 
work of  tubules  early  differentiates  into  excre- 
tory and  secretory  parts.  In  amphibians  and 
reptiles  the  tubular  nature  of  the  gland  is  easily 
recognizable,  but  in  higher  vertebrates  (birds, 
mammals,  man)  the  tubular  structure  is  incon- 
spicuous. Simultaneously  with  the  development 
of  the  tubules  a  mesh  work  of  blood  vessels  ap- 
pears in  the  liver.  In  birds  and  mammals  at 
the  point  at  which  the  primary  bile  ducts  open 
into  the  duodenum  a  small  evagination  is  formed. 
This  evagination  elongates  to  form  the  bile  duct. 
The  gall-bladder  is  a  reservoir  for  storing  the 
gall.  It  develops  as  an  evagination  of  the  bile 
duct  or  from  the  hepatic  ducts.  The  liver  serves 
as  a  storehouse  in  Avhich  the  sugar  not  needed  by 
the  system  for  immediate  consumption  is  stored 
up  in  the  form  of  glycogen;  it  destroys  the  old 
red  blood  corpuscles  and  oxidizes  nitrogenous 
materials  into  urea.  Its  function  in  digestion  is 
less  clearly  understood.  Fats,  however,  more 
easily  pass  through  a  membrane  moistened  with 
bile,  and  a  greater  proportion  of  fat  passes  unab- 
sorbed  through  the  intestine  of  a  dog  when  the 
bile  duet  k  stopped;  hence  bile  probably  aids  in 


ALIMENTARY  SYSTEM. 


353 


ALIMENTARY  SYSTEM. 


some  way  in  tlie  absorption  of  fats.  The  alka- 
linity of  tlie  bile  also  aids  the  pancreatic  juice 
in  overcoming  the  acidity  of  the  gastric  juice. 
Bile  also  aids  in  stimulating  the  action  of  the 
muscles  of  the  intestine.  Its  absence  leads  to 
biliousness  and  even  jaundice,  and  finally  the 
bile  acts  as  a  preservative  when  deficient  putre- 
faction of  the  contents  of  the  alimentary 
canal  results.  The  pancreas  also  arises  as  an 
evagination  of  the  alimentary  tract,  but  from 
the  dorsal  side  of  the  duodenum,  and  usually 
opposite  the  origin  of  the  liver.  Except  in 
cyclostomes  and  some  telcosts,  the  pancreas  is 
always  present  in  vertebrates.  Its  size  and 
form  varies,  and  it  is  not  infrequently  lo- 
bate.  In  structure  it  is  a  racemose  gland. 
Its  secretion  is  either  poured  directly  into  the 
intestine  (as  in  birds,  crocodiles,  Emydida>,  and 
some  mammals ) ,  or  as  development  proceeds  its 
outlets  move  nearer  and  nearer  tlie  bile  duct, 
and  finally  tlie  secretions  of  the  liver  and  pan- 
creas are  poured  into  the  intestine  through  a 
common  duct.  Tlie  pancreatic  secretion  is  alka- 
line. Its  role  in  digestion  is  very  great.  Its 
action  on  starch  is  like  that  of  the  saliva,  only 
much  more  energetic.  Through  the  agency  of  the 
ferment  trypsin  it  eft'ects  jiroteids,  and  by  an- 
other ferment,  steapsin,  fats  are  split  up  into 
fatty  acids  and  glycerine.  The  soap  and  glycer- 
ine are  both  soluble  in  water  and  hence  are  easily 
absorbed.  Much  of  the  fat,  however,  is  emulsi- 
fied by  the  albumen,  that  is  to  say,  it  is  broken 
up  into  fine  drops,  which  are  prevented  from 
fusing  by  the  presence  of  a  coating  of  albumen. 
The  fat  in  the  emulsion  is  probably  capable  of 
absorption  as  it  is. 

The  Pyloric  Tract.  The  straight  tube  of  Am- 
phioxus  is  chiefly  an  absorbing  organ,  the  diges- 
tive secretions  being  poured  into  the  cavity  from 
the  liver.  In  the  earth-inhabiting  Gymnophiona 
and  AniphisbseniE  and  the  elongated  snakes,  the 
alimentary  tract  is  little  convoluted,  since  here 
either  the  process  of  absorption  is  not  very  rapid, 
or  the  area  of  the  mid  gut  is,  even  when  straight, 
considerable,  relative  to  the  total  volume  of  the 
body  (snakes).  The  mesenteron  is  also  straight 
in  Petromj-zon  and  some  of  the  sharks  which  lead 
an  active  carnivorous  life,  1)ut  the  shortness  is 
fully  compensated  for  by  an  extensive  folding  of 
the  inner  absorbing  surface  through  the  forma- 
tion of  the  so-called  spiral  fold,  or  spiral  valve. 
The  method  of  origin  of  the  fold  is  seen  in  Petro- 
myzon,  where  it  is  first  represented  by  a  strong, 
spirally  twisted  artery  lying  on  the  internal  wall. 
This  gradually  sinks  deeper  and  deeper  toward 
the  lumen  of  the  gut,  carrying  tlic  wall  of  the  gut 
before  it.  As  a  result  of  this  process  we  find  a 
long,  spirally  twisted  fold  projecting  far  inward 
from  the  wall  of  the  gut.  The  fold  itself  is 
richly  vascular,  from  the  ramifications  of  the 
small  blood-vessels  from  the  artery.  Such  a 
spiral  valve  is  found  best  developed  in  Sela- 
chians, but  it  exists  also  in  (ianoids.  Teleosts 
lack  such  a  spiral  valve,  but  the  absorbing  sur- 
face is  increased  by  another  means — namely,  by 
out  -  pocketings,  so  -  called  piiloiic  appendages. 
That  these  are  primarily  not  glands,  but  have  an 
absorbing  function,  is  indicated  by  two  facts:  (1) 
They  are  sometimes  found  slutTed  with  food,  and 
(2)  their  presence  seems  to  be  correlated  with  the 
absence  of  the  spiral  valve  and  rire  versa,  even 
in  closely  allied  species  having  similar  habits; 
and  therefore  it  is  probable  that  they  fulfill  the 
same  office  in  the  economy  of  the  organism.  Thus, 


Polypterus  possesses  a  well-developed  spiral  fold, 
but  only  a  few  pyloric  appendages,  while  Lepi- 
dosteus,  which  is  provided  with  only  a  slight 
fold,  is  superabundantly  provided  with  pyloric 
appendages.  All  of  this  evidence  is  not  quite 
satisfactory,  and  it  seems  probable  that  in  soiiie 
cases  the  pyloric  appendages  are  indeed  gland- 
ular— as,  for  instance,  when  several  open  into  the 
mesenteron  by  a  common  duct.  Histological 
studies  are  needed  to  settle  this  question. 

The  Mesenteron. — From  the  Amphibia  on,  with 
exceptions,  the  mesenteron  becomes  more  and 
more  convoluted  externally,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  absorbing  surface  is  increased  by 
folds.  I'hus,  in  the  frog,  the  anterior  part  of  the 
mesenteron  is  covered  by  a  fine  network  of  folds. 
Further  posteriorly'  tliesc  arrange  themselves  into 
structures  like  the  semi-lunar  valves  of  the  heart, 
opening  backward.  Similar  contrivances  for  in- 
creasing the  internal  absorbing  surface  are  found 
also  in  reptiles  and  birds.  In  birds  and  mam- 
mals, when  the  longitudinal  folds  of  the  mesen- 
teron are  poorly  developed,  we  find  finger-like 
processes — riUi — produced  into  the  lumen  of  the 
gut.  Into  these  folds  of  the  mucous  epithelium 
are  continued  the  connective  tissue  of  the  sub- 
inucosa.  together  with  blood  vessels,  lymph  ves- 
sels, and  nerves.  Food  in  solution  is  taken  up 
by  the  epithelial  cells  just  as  an  amceba  takes 
it  up  by  tlirowing  out  pscudopodia.  A  large 
share  of  the  absorptive  process  is  probablv  to  be 
assigned  to  the  lymjih  cells,  which  wander  about 
in  tlie  submucosa  and  even  make  their  way 
through  the  mucosa  into  the  lumen  of  the  gut. 

Mctenteron. — Like  the  other  parts  of  the  ali- 
mentary tract,  this  becomes  differentiated  from 
the  common  entercn  only  in  the  higher  verte- 
brates. In  the  higher  fishes  it  is  indicated  by 
an  enlargement  of  the  intestine.  This  enlarge- 
ment is  directly  continuous  posteriorly  with  the 
cloaca,  into  which  also  the  urogenital  ducts  open. 
In  Amphibia  and  reptiles  the  ventral  wall  of  the 
hinder  part  of  the  mctenteron' is  enlarged  to  form 
a  (functional)  urinary  bladder.  In  Amniota  the 
mctenteron  is  separated  from  the  mesenteron  by 
an  ileo-ciccal  valve  (q.v. ).  In  nearly  all  verte- 
brates the  metentcron — in  contradistinction  to 
mesenteron — has  a  straight  course,  hence  it  is 
often  called  rectum.  In  many  mammals,  as  in 
man,  it  is  gi'e.atly  elongated,  forming  a  colon 
ascendens,  transversus,  and  deseendens.  A  blind 
pocket  etecum  is  often  formed  in  connection  with 
the  mctenteron.  This  is  a  mere  swelling  in  the 
wall  in  reptiles,  but  attains  an  enormous  devel- 
opment in  many  birds,  in  which  group  it  is 
usually  paired.  In  mammals  it  is  never  so  long 
as  in  birds,  but  is  variable  in  extent.  Thus,  in 
herbivores  it  may  even  be  as  long  as  the  body  of 
tlie  animal  possessing  it,  and  in  some  rodents 
it  contains  a  spiral  valve.  In  carnivores,  on  the 
contrary,  it  is  poorly  dcAeloped.  It  would  stem 
to  be  somewhat  compensatory  with  relation  to 
the  rest  of  the  metentcron.  for  it  is  much  better 
developed  in  the  horse  and  allies  which  have  a 
simple  stomach  than  in  the  ruminants  with  a 
complicated  one.  Among  certain  mammals  (e.g., 
man)  the  distal  part  of  the  coccum  is  gi-eatly 
reduced,  forming  the  vermiform  process.  In 
man  the  c^cum  is  at  first  of  nearly  uniform  char- 
acter— the  vermiform  process  arises  by  a  degen- 
eration of  its  distal  end — a  process  which  occurs 
relatively  late.  This  indicates  that  in  man  the 
ctecuin  was  quite  recently  of  relatively  greater 
importance,    and    indicates    further    that   man's 


ALIMENTARY  SYSTEM. 


353 


ALI  PASHA. 


aiK'Ostors  were  lierbivorous — a  fact  which  the 
presence  of  the  now  degenerating  third  (hinder- 
most)  molar  likewise  confirms. 

There  are  certain  other  appendages  of  the  me- 
tcnteron  to  wliich  we  can  only  refer.  Sueh  are 
tlie  unpaired  finger-shaped  gland  of  the  dorsal 
roof  of  the  rectum  in  sharks,  the  paired  dorsal 
pockets  of  Chclonia,  and  the  luipaired  bursa 
Fahricii  of  birds.  The  function  of  the  last  two 
organs  is  doubtful.  We  will  digress  to  describe 
tlie  l)ursa  Fabricii.  This  is  a  spherical  or  elub- 
sliaped  organ  lying  ventrad  to  the  vertebral  col- 
umn and  dorso-caudad  to  the  rectum,  to  which 
it  is  attached  posterio-ventrad  to  the  urogenital 
opening.  It  arises  as  a  solid  mass,  in  which  sec- 
ondarily cavities  appear,  lined  by  epithelium 
from  the  mucosa  of  the  mctenteron.  They  are, 
therefore,  not  to  be  regarded  as  lymph  spaces, 
nor  the  organ  as  a  lymph  organ.  Its  develop- 
ment is,  therefore,  much  like  tliat  of  the  thymus 
gland.  The  organ  degenerates  toward  the  end 
of  the  first  year,  but  persists  throughout  life  in 
some  species  as  an  organ  covered  with  a  connec- 
tive tissue  coat,  and  possessing  many  elongated 
follicles  lined  by  epithelium  within.  The  func- 
tion and  phylogenetie  significance  of  this  organ 
are  botli  unclear.  Possibly  it  is  homologous  with 
the  paired  pockets  of  Chelonia;  the  ontogeny  of 
these  latter  organs  is,  however,  yet  quite  un- 
knowTi. 

AL'IMONY  (Lat.  nlimonia,  alimoniuin,  nour- 
ishment, sustenance,  from  alere,  to  feed,  nour- 
ish). In  English  and  American  law,  the  allow- 
ance wliich  a  married  woman  is  entitled  to  re- 
ceive out  of  her  husliand's  estate  by  decree  or  or- 
der of  the  court  on  judicial  separation  or  divorce 
fl  mcnsa  et  thoro.  By  Scotch  legal  writers  the 
term  is  sometimes  used  as  synonymous  with 
aliment.  In  the  United  States  ,iurisdiction 
with  regard  to  alimony  is  conferred,  in  gen- 
eral, by  statute  on  courts  of  equity.  Ali- 
mony is  of  two  sorts:  pendente  lite,  and  per- 
manent. The  object  of  the  first  is  to  en- 
able a  wife  to  carry  on  litigation  with  her  hus- 
band, by  securing  her  support  during  the  pen- 
denc.v  of  suit.  Should  she  have  sufficient  means 
of  her  own.  no  allowance  would  be  made :  the 
amount  is  fixed  at  the  discretion  of  the  court, 
and  may  be  changed  by  the  same  authorit,y.  Per- 
manent alimony  is  a  periodical  allowance  from  a 
liusband  decreed  to  a  wife  as  the  result  of  litiga- 
tion in  her  favor.  If  the  result  be  against  her, 
no  allowance  is  made.  The  amount  varies  with 
the  means  of  the  husband  and  the  needs  and 
position  of  the  wife,  but  is  usually  from  a  third 
to  one-half  of  his  income,  and  is  subject  to 
change  from  time  to  time,  as  the  court  finds  cir- 
cumstances to  warrant.  The  court  may  enforce 
its  decree  by  contempt  proceedings,  and  can  pre- 
vent a  husband  from  leaving  the  State  if  he 
means  thereby  to  avoid  payment.  In  some  States 
alimony  becomes  a  lien  on  the  husband's  real 
estate,  or  the  court  may  compel  him  to  give  se- 
curity for  its  prompt  payment ;  or,  in  proper 
cases,  the  husband  may  be  restrained  by  injunc- 
tion from  so  disposing  of  his  property  as  to  place 
it  beyond  the  reach  of  the  court.    See  Divorce. 

ALI  PASHA,  ii'le  pa-shii'  (1741-1822).  An 
Albanian  ruler,  notorious  for  cruelty,  and  known 
as  "the  Lion  of  .Janina."  He  was  born  at  Tepeleni, 
in  the  .Albanian  province  of  .Janina.  His  father, 
one  of  the  Albanian  beys,  died  in  All's  boyhood, 
and  the  rearing  of  the  child  was  thus  left  to  his 


mother,  a  vindictive  and  merciless  woman,  who 
apparently  instilled  into  liim  her  own  spirit. 
His  yontli  was  passed  in  peril  and  hardship,  seek- 
ing to  recover  the  possessions  of  which  tlie  neigh- 
boring pashas  had  robbed  his  father.  Young  Ali 
at  last  had  to  betake  himself  to  the  mountains, 
and  even  to  pledge  his  sword  to  save  himself 
from  dying  of  hunger.  At  length  a  change  came 
in  his  fortunes,  and  he  returned  to  Tepeleni  in 
triumph.  On  the  very  day  of  his  reluru,  he  mur- 
dered his  brother,  and  then  imprisoned  his 
mother  on  the  charge  of  poisoning  him.  He 
helped  the  Porte  to  subdue  the  Pasha  of  Scutari 
and  thereby  obtained  the  lands  taken  from  his 
father  and  several  Greek  cities.  He  also  at- 
tacked and  slew  (with  the  permission  of  the  Sul- 
tan) Selim,  Pasha  of  Delvino,  and,  as  a  reward, 
was  appointed  lieutenant  to  the  new  Pasha  of 
Dervent.  He  used  this  office  to  enrich  himself 
by  sharing  the  profits  of  brigandage.  For  this 
he  was  deposed,  but  he  bought  his  way  back  into 
favor.  For  his  services  in  the  Turkish  military 
service  in  the  war  of  1787  he  was  named  Pasha  of 
Trikala  in  Thessaly;  at  the  same  time  he  seized 
Janina  and  had  himself  appointed  pasha  of  that 
province.  Having  thus  won  a  position  of  power 
by  the  most  unscrupulous  means,  he  displayed 
marked  administrative  ability.  He  swept  his  old 
friends,  the  robbers,  from  the  mountain  roads, 
incorporated  them  into  military  troops,  quelled 
the  wretched  factions  that  prevailed,  and  every- 
where introduced  order  in  the  place  of  anarchy 
by  the  vigor  and  vigilance  of  his  administration. 
Ali  formed  an  alliance  with  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte, who  sent  him  engineers.  On  the  collapse 
of  the  French  expedition  to  F.gypt,  he  seized  the 
places  which  the  French  held  in  Albania.  For  sub- 
duing theSuliotes  he  was  in  1804  made  a  governor 
of  Rumelia.  About  this  time,  he  reveng'ed  upon 
the  inhabitants  of  Gardiki  an  injury  done  to  his 
mother  forty  j-ears  before,  by  the  murder  of  739 
male  descendants  of  the  original  ofl'enders,  who 
themselves  were  all  dead.  In  the  interior  of  his 
dominions  Ali  maintained  order  and  justice. 
Security  and  peace  reigned,  high  roads  were  con- 
structed, and  industry  flourished,  so  that  the 
European  travelers,  with  whom  he  willingly  held 
intercourse,  considered  him  an  active  and  intelli- 
gent go\"ernor.  From  the  year  1807,  when  he  once 
more  entered  into  an  alliance  with  Napoleon,  the 
dependence  of  Ali  on  the  Porte  was  merely  nom- 
inal. Having  failed,  however,  to  obtain  through 
the  influence  of  Napoleon,  Parga,  on  the  coast 
of  Albania,  and  the  Ionian  Islands,  he  now  en- 
tered into  an  alliance  with  the  English,  to  whom 
he  made  many  concessions.  In  return  for  these, 
they  granted  Parga,  nominally  to  the  Sultan, 
but  really  to  Ali.  As  he  now  considered  his  pow- 
er to  be  securely  established,  he  caused  the  com- 
manders of  the  CJreek  armatole  (or  Greek  mili- 
tia), who  had  hitherto  given  him  assistance,  to 
be  privately  assassinated  one  by  one,  while  at 
the  same  time  he  put  to  death  the  assassins,  to 
save  himself  from  the  suspicion  of  having  been 
their  instigator.  The  Porte  at  length  determined 
to  put  an  end  to  the  power  of  this  daring  rebel ; 
and  in  1820  Sultan  Malunud  sentenced  him  to 
be  deposed.  Ali  resisted  for  a  time  several 
pashas  that  were  sent  against  him:  but  at  last 
surrendered,  on  the  security  of  an  oath  that  his 
life  and  property  would  be  granted  him.  Re- 
gardless of  this,  he  was  put  to  death  February 
5,  1822.  Ali,  like  many  other  half-civilized  mon- 
archs  and  chiefs  who  have  lived  within  the  sphere 


ALI  PASHA. 


354 


ALIZAKIN. 


of  European  influence,  was  keenly  alive  to 
whatever  occurred  among  the  powers  of  Christen- 
dom. Though  utterly  illiterate  himself,  he  had 
all  the  foreign  journals  translated  and  read  to 
him.  He  watched  every  political  change,  as  if 
conscious  that  the  interests  of  his  little  region 
depended  for  their  futuie  prosperity  on  the  west, 
and  not  on  the  east,  and  made  friendly  advances 
to  both  the  French  and  English.  Consult:  Ibrahim 
]Manzour  Effendi,  Memoires  sur  la  Grece  et  iAl- 
banie  pendant  le  gouvernement  d'Ali  Pacha 
(Paris,  1827)  ;  Pencker,  Die  SuHoten  und  Hire 
Kriege  mit  Ali  Pascha  von  Janina  (Breslau, 
1834")  :  Davenport,  The  Life  of  Ali  Pasha  (Lon- 
don, 1837). 

AL'IQUOT  PART  (Lat.  aliquot,  some,  sev- 
eral). One  quantity  or  number  is  said  to  be  an 
aliquot  part  of  another  when  the  quotient  of  the 
latter  divided  by  the  former  is  an  integer:  e.g., 
2,  4,  5.  10,  121/0,  are  aliquot  parts  of  lOO" 

ALISCANS.  ii'l*'skaN'.  ALESCHANS,  or 
LES  ALYSCAMPS,  la  za'Io'skax'  (From  Lat. 
Elysii  Campi,  Elysian  Fields).  A  mediieval  cem- 
etery near  Aries,  in  the  south  of  France,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  consecrated  by  an  apparition 
of  Christ  himself.  Hence  the  name  of  a  rhaiison 
de  geste,  of  the  twelfth  century,  describing  two 
battles  fought  in  this  place  by  William.  Count  of 
Orange,  against  the  Saracens.  Defeated  in  the 
first  fight,  he  raised  a  new  army  and  renewed  the 
combat  with  success.  The  same  Christian  hero 
appears  in  various  other  chansons  of  the  period. 

AL'ISON,  Rev.  Archibald  (1757-1839).  An 
Englisli  philosophical  writer.  He  was  born  in 
Edinburgh  and  studied  at  the  University  of  Glas- 
gow, and  afterward  at  Oxford.  He  took  orders 
in  the  Church  of  England,  and  subsequently  held 
several  preferments,  among  others  a  prebendal 
stall  in  Salisbury,  and  the  perpetual  curacy  of 
Kenley,  in  Shrop.shire.  From  1800  he  officiated 
in  a  chapel  in  his  native  city,  where  he  remained 
till  his  deatli.  Alison  is  principallj-  known  by  his 
Essays  on  the  Xatiire  and  Principles  of  Taste, 
first  published  at  Edinburgh  in  1790.  The  Es- 
says advocate  what  is  called  the  "association" 
theory  of  the  sublime  and  beautiful.  Two  vol- 
umes of  his  sermons,  first  published  at  Edin- 
burgh in  1814,  were  very  popular  in  their  day, 
and  reached  the  sixth  edition  in  1816.  See  -Es- 
thetics. 

ALISON,  Sir  Archibald  (1792-1807).  A 
British  lawyer,  historian,  and  writer.  He  was 
born  at  Kenley,  Shropshire,  December  29,  17i)2. 
In  1805  he  entered  Edinburgh  University,  where 
he  obtained  higliest  honors  in  Greek  and  mathe- 
matics. He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1814,  and, 
owing  to  friendly  influence,  presently  made  a 
handsome  income,  which  enabled  him  to  travel  on 
the  Continent,  then  sought  by  man}'  young  men 
who  desired  to  visit  the  scenes  of  the  wars 
against  Napoleon.  From  1822-30  he  was  advo- 
cate-deput}'.  and  made  his  appearance  as  a  writer 
on  law,  polities,  and  literature.  In  1835  he  set- 
tled near  Glasgow,  as  sheriif  of  Lanarkshire,  an 
office  conferred  on  him  the  preceding  year,  and 
began  systematic  and  unremitting  public  and  lit- 
erary work.  His  History  of  Europe,  a  popular 
rather  than  a  profound  book  ( 10  volumes) ,  begun 
in  1829,  finished  in  1842.  achieved  a  great  suc- 
cess. For  the  sixth  edition,  published  in  1844, 
the  author  received  2000  guineas.  By  1S48.  100,- 
000  copies  had  been  sold  in  the  United  States. 
It  was  translated  into  several  languages,  includ- 
ing French,  German,  and  even  Arabic.    A  contin- 


uation of  the  History  for  the  period  1815-52,  9 
volumes,  was  completed  in  1859.  His  other 
works,  Life  of  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  (1845), 
The  Principles  of  Population  ( 1840) ,  etc.,  though 
less  successful,  attracted  wide  notice.  In  1845 
he  was  elected  Lord  Rector  of  llarischal  College, 
and  in  1851  of  Glasgow  University.  He  was 
made  D.C.L.  of  Oxford  University,  and  in  1852 
received  a  baronetcy.  In  politics  he  was  an  arch- 
Tory.  He  continued  his  labors,  in  health  and 
strength,  almost  to  the  day  of  his  death.  May 
23,  1807.  Over  one  hundred  thousand  persons 
attended  his  funeral.  Consult  his  Autobiography, 
edited  by  his  daughter-in-law  (Edinburgh,  1883). 

ALISON,  Siu  Akchibald,  .Jr.,K.C.B.  ( 1826—) . 
A  British  general.  He  was  born  in  Edinburgh,  the 
son  of  the  historian,  and  educated  at  Edinburgh 
and  Glasgow  Universities.  He  entered  the  army 
in  1846:  served  in  the  Crimean  War  at  the  siege 
of  Sebastopol,  and  in  India,  where  lie  lost  an  arm 
at  the  relief  of  Lucknow ;  and  in  the  Ashanti  ex- 
pedition of  1873-74  he  commanded  tlie  European 
brigade.  He  held  an  active  command  in  the 
Egyptian  expedition  of  1882-83,  and  was  promo- 
ted to  be  lieutenant-general  for  gallantry.  On 
his  return  from  Egypt  he  commanded  at  Alder- 
shot,  and  in  1889  was  promoted  to  be  general. 
He  has  published  a  valuable  treatise  on  Army 
Organization    ( 1809 ) . 

ALISON.  William  Pi-ltexey,  M.D.  (1790- 
1859).  A  Scotch  political  economist,  physician, 
and  professor  of  tlie  practice  of  medicine  in  the 
University  of  Edinburgh  from  1822  to  1856.  He 
was  an  elder  brother  of  the  historian,  and  was 
extremely  popular  with  all  classes  of  the  com- 
munity, because  of  his  efforts  to  alleviate  the  suf- 
ferings of  the  poor.  A  pamphlet  published  by 
him  in  1840  had  the  effect  of  bringing  about  an 
improved  poor-law  for  Scotland.  He  published 
a  work  entitled,  A  Dissertation  on  the  Reclama- 
tion of  Waste  Lands  (1850),  recommending  the 
colonization  of  such  lands  by  paupers  and  crim- 
inals, and  several  books  upon  medical  subjects, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  his  complete 
treatises  on  general  pathology  entitled.  Outlines 
of  Physiology  (third  edition.  1839),  and 
Outlines  of  Pathology  and  Practice  of  Medicine 
(1848). 

A'LITHE'A.  Tlie  name  of  a  character  in 
Wycherley's  play,  The  Country  Wife,  and  in  Gar- 
rick's  Country  Girl.  She  is  a  self-possessed  and 
witty  woman  of  the  world. 

ALIZ'ARIN  (probably  from  Ar.  al,  the 
-|-  'asOrah,  juice  extracted  from  a  plant),  some- 
times called  madder  extract.  An  exceedingly 
valuable  coloring  matter.  With  the  oxides  of 
aluminium,  iron,  and  most  other  metals,  it  gives 
a  series  of  beautifully  colored  insoluble  salts  or 
lakes.  It  was  first  obtained  from  madder  (the 
root  of  rubia  tinctorum)  by  heating  with  strong 
sulphuric  acid.  In  1868  Graebe  and  Liebermann 
discovered  a  process  by  which  it  could  be  manu- 
factured from  anthracene,  thus  for  the  first  time 
artificially  producing  a  natural  coloring  sub- 
stance. Their  method,  since  modified  with  view 
to  economy,  consists  in  the  following  operations: 
(1)  Anthracene,  a  hydro-carbon  contained  in  the 
refuse  coal-tar  of  gas  works,  is  oxidized  with 
potassium  bichromate  to  yield  the  compound 
unthraquinoiic ;  (2)  wlien  antliraquinone  is 
heated  with  fuming  sulphuric  acid,  antltra- 
guinone-sul phonic  acids  are  produced;  (3)  if  the 
sodium  salts  of  these  acids  are  kept  for  forty- 


ALIZAKIN. 


355 


ALKALI  SOILS. 


eight  hours,  in  closed  cylinders,  with  caustic 
soda  and  potassium  chlorate,  at  a  temperature 
of  180°  C,  the  sodium  salts  of  alizarin  and  sim- 
ilar compounds,  called  purpurins,  are  obtained; 
(4)  the  sodium  salts  of  alizarin  and  purpurin 
are  then  dissolved  in  water,  and.  by  addition  of 
liydrochloric  acid,  alizarin  itself  and  the  pur- 
piirins  are  set  free  and  precipitated  in  crystal- 
line form.  The  precipitate  is  collected  in  filter- 
])resses,  thoroughly  washed  with  water,  and 
brought  into  the  market  in  the  form  of  a  rather 
thin  paste  usually  containing  either  10  or  20 
per  cent,  of  alizarin.  Pure  alizarin  can  be  read- 
ily obtained  from  this  paste  by  sublimation. 
Alizarin  was  first  made  on  an  industrial  scale 
by  Perkin  in  1809. 

Alizarin  is  to  some  extent  soluble  in  hot 
■water.  In  the  dyeing  processes,  fabrics  are  first 
soaked  in  a  solution  of  the  retjuired  mordant, 
and  after  the  latter  has  been  decomposed  by 
steam  or  with  alkali,  leaving  an  insoluble 
metallic  hj-droxide  in  the  fibre,  alizarin  solution 
is  applied  to  produce  the  desired  "lake." 

Chemically,  alizarin  is  a  dioxy-anthraqui- 
none,  having  the  structural  formula 

Kitro-alizarin  (commercial  alizarin  orange), 
which  is  itself  a  coloring  matter,  yields,  when 
heated  with  glycerin  and  sulphuric  acid,  an- 
other color,  alizarin  blue,  usea  in  calico  printing. 
Alizarin,  carmine  is  another  important  alizarin 
color:  it  is  much  used  as  a  substitute  for 
cochineal. 

Tlie  artificial  production  of  alizarin  on  a  large 
industrial  scale  has  naturally  brought  about  im- 
portant changes  in  the  agriculture  of  the  coun- 
tries where  madder  used  to  be  extensively  cul- 
tivated. Consult  Gnehm,  Die  Anthracen- 
farhsloffe    (Brunswick,   1897). 

AL'KAHEST,  or  ALCAHEST  (a  word  arbi- 
trarily formed  by  Paracelsus  after  Arabic  fash- 
ion). The  universal  solvent  of  the  alchemists. 
See  Alchemy. 

AL'KALIES.    See  Antidotes. 

ALKALIES  (Fr.  alkali,  ultimately  from  Ar. 
al.  the  H-  kcily,  ashes  of  saltwort).  A  term  ap- 
plied to  the  compounds  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen 
with  the  metals  lithium,  sodium,  potassium, 
rubidium,  cesium,  and  the  radical  ammonium. 
The  alkalies  are  all  soluble  in  water,  and  have  the 
property  of  neutralizing  acids  as  well  as  of  turn- 
ing solutions  of  blue  litnuis  red.  The  word  al- 
kal,  which  is  derived  from  the  Arabic,  and 
means  ash,  was  orginally  given  to  the  ashes  of 
sea-plants,  and  was  applied  first  to  potash,  called 
the  vegetable  alkali,  and  then  to  soda,  which 
was  derived  from  rock  salt,  and  called  mineral 
alkali.  These  two  became  known  as  the  fixed 
alkdlicfs.  in  distinction  from  ammonia,  which  was 
called  the  rolntile  alkali.  The  alkalies  are  ex- 
ceedingly caustic,  and  act  as  powerful  corrosive 
poisons.  They  show  great  avidity  for  acids,  and 
combine  with  them,  forming  salts,  in  which  the 
special  properties  of  both  acid  and  alkali  are 
generally  destroyed;  hence,  they  are  said  to  neu- 
tralize one  another.  (See  AciDS.)  The  alkalies 
find  extensive  use  in  the  arts,  as  in  the  manu- 
facture of  soap  and  of  baking  powders,  and  in 
dyeing.  The  alkaline  eartlis,  lime,  magnesia, 
Ijaryta,  and  strontia,  form  a  group  of  substances 
closely  allied  to  the  alkalies,  but  differing  from 


the  latter  in  being  less  soluble  and  by  the  fact 
that  their  carbonates  are  insoluble  in  water. 
Consult:  G.  Lunge,  A  Theoretical  and  Practical 
Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of  tiulphiiric  Acid 
and  Alkali  (London,  1891);  and  The  Alkali- 
Makcr:s'  Handbook    (London,  1891). 

AL'KALI  FLAT.     See  Plata. 

AL'KALIM'ETER  {alkali  +  Gk.  fieT,)ov, 
met  ran.  measure).  An  instrument  used  for  the 
determination  of  the  amount  of  alkali  contained 
in  commercial  alkalies.  It  is  usually  a  glass 
tube  graduated  into  parts  of  100,  and  called  a 
burette.  To  make  a  determination,  a  given 
weight  of  alkali  is  dissolved  in  water  and  an 
acid  of  known  strength  is  poured  from  the  al- 
kalimeter  into  the  solution  until  the  latter  is 
just  neutralized.  The  exact  point  of  neutraliza- 
tion is  determined  by  means  of  a  substance 
called  an  indicator,  which  changes  its  color  when 
a  slight  excess  of  the  acid  is  added.  The  amount 
of  acid  used  determines  the  percentage  of  al- 
kali. Consult:  Hart,  A  Handbook  of  Volu- 
metric Analysis  (New  York,  1878);  Sutton,  A 
Systematic  Handbook  of  Volumetric  Analysis 
(London,  1890). 

AL'KALI  SOILS.  A  term  applied  to  soils 
occurring  in  regions  of  deficient  or  irregular 
rainfall,  which  contain  unusually  large  amounts 
of  soluble  salts  concentrated  in  or  near  the  sur- 
face. Under  certain  conditions  of  moisture  these 
salts  appear  on  the  surface  of  the  soil  in  the  form 
of  a  crust  or  powder  known  as  relt  in  India, 
sabach  in  Egypt,  and  alkali  in  America.  The 
main  constituents  of  this  saline  ettlorescence  are 
sodium  sul])hate,  sodium  carbonate,  and  sodium 
chloride,  mixed  in  varying  proportions.  There 
are  present  besides,  according  to  Hilgard,  salts 
of  calcium  and  magnesium  and  smaller  amounts 
of  potassium  sulphate,  sodium  pliosphate,  and 
sodium  nitrate,  these  salts  furnishing  the  most 
important  elements  of  plant  food.  Two  main 
classes  of  alkali  are  distinguished:  "black"  al- 
kali, in  which  sodium  carbonate  predominates, 
and  which  is  on  this  account  highly  corrosive 
and  injurious  to  vegetation;  and  "white"  alkali, 
the  predominant  constituent  of  which  is  sodium 
sulpliate,  and  which  is  nnich  less  harmful  to 
plant  growth  than  is  the  black  form.  A  saline 
form  in  which  sodium  chloride  predominates  is 
also  frequently  met  with.  Black  alkali  derives 
its  name  from  the  dark-colored  spots  and  water- 
puddles  observed  where  it  abounds,  which  owe 
their  color  to  the  organic  matter  dissolved  from 
the  soil  by  the  sodium  carbonate. 

Practically  the  same  soluble  (alkali)  salts  oc- 
cur in  all  soils,  but  in  humid  regions  the  abun- 
dant rainfall  prevents  their  accumulation  on  or 
near  the  surface,  carrying  away  in  the  drainage 
those  salts  for  which  the  soil  has  not  a  strong 
absorptive  power.  In  regions  of  deficient  rain- 
fall, on  the  other  hand,  the  scanty  moisture 
which  reaches  the  soil  merely  serves  to  dissolve 
the  salts  and  carry  them  down  a  short  distance 
into  the  ground,  whence  they  are  rapidly  drawn 
up  bj'  the  capillary  rise  of  the  water.  The  mois- 
ture, evaporating  at  the  surface,  leaves  the  salts 
accumulated  there.  Such  accumulations  of  alkali 
are  also  found  in  regions  which  have  a  rainy 
and  a  dry  season  (as  in  parts  of  India),  and 
where  the  rains  occur  commonly  in  sudden  and 
violent  downpours,  which  quickly  pass  without 
wetting  the  soil  to  any  considerable  depth. 


ALKALI  SOILS. 


356 


ALKALI  SOILS. 


In  irrigated  regions  alkali  frequently  appears 
at  the  surface  of  the  soil  as  a  result  of  excessive 
application  of  water  combined  with  defective 
drainage.  Irrigation  water,  carried  by  canals 
running  through  porous,  sandy  soils,  or  applied 
in  excessive  amounts  on  the  higher  lands,  seeps 
through  to  the  lower-lying  lands,  carrying  with 
it  the  soluble  salts.  Conditions  are  sometimes 
aggravated  by  the  use  of  irrigation  water  rich  in 
soluble  salts. 

Alkali  soils  generally  occur  in  circumscribed 
areas  ("spots"),  but  sometimes  as  broad 
stretches  of  "alkali  deserts."  Such  soils  are 
common  in  arid  regions,  i.e.,  where  the  average 
annual  rainfall  is  less  than  20  inches  (500 
millimetres).  According  to  Hilgard,  "the  arid 
region  thus  defined,  includes,  in  North  America, 
most  of  the  country  lying  west  of  the  one  hun- 
dredth meridian,  up  to  the  Cascade  Mountains, 
and  northward  beyond  the  line  of  the  United 
States;  southward,  it  reaches  far  into  Mexico, 
including  especially  the  Mexican  plateau.  In 
South  America  it  includes  nearly  all  the  Pacific 
Slope  (Peru  and  Chile)  south  to  Araueania; 
and  eastward  of  the  Andes  the  greater  portion  of 
the  plains  of  western  Brazil  and  Argentina.  In 
Europe  only  a  small  portion  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean border  is  included ;  but  the  entire  African 
coast  belt  opjjosite,  with  the  Saharan  and  Lib- 
yan deserts.  Eg\-pt,  and  Arabia  are  included 
therein,  as  well  as  a  considerable  portion  of 
South  Africa.  In  Asia,  Asia  Minor,  Syria  (with 
Palestine),  Mesopotamia,  Persia,  and  north- 
western India  up  to  the  C4anges,  and  northward, 
the  great  plains  or  steppes  of  Central  Asia  east- 
ward to  Jlongolia  and  western  China,  fall  into 
the  same  category,  as  does  also  a  large  portion 
of  the  Australian  continent."  There  are  exten- 
sive regions,  especially  in  European  Russia, 
^^■hich  are  not  strictly  arid  according  to  this 
delinition,  but  in  which  alkali  soils  are  of  fre- 
quent occurrence. 

Alkali  injures  plants  by  its  corrosive  action 
(in  the  ease  of  black  alkali)  on  the  root  crown, 
and  by  interference  with  osmotic  action,  by 
which  seeds  and  ]ilants  take  up  the  moisture  and 
soil  solutions,  and  thus  prevents  or  seriously  re- 
tards germination  and  gi'owth.  The  latter  effect 
results  only  when  the  soluble  salts  are  present  in 
considerable  amount:  on  the  other  hand,  a  small 
amount  of  alkali  appears  to  have  a  beneficial 
eflect.  Alkali,  especially  the  black  variety,  also 
renders  soils  pasty  and  difficult  to  till  and  drain, 
and  tends  to  form  a  tough  hardpan  impervious  to 
water.  Alkali  soils  are,  as  a  rule,  more  moist 
than  those  free  from  a  localized  excess  of  soluble 
salts.  This  is  due  to  the  strong  absorptive  power 
of  the  salts  for  water  and  their  retarding  effect 
on  evaporation. 

Alkali  soils  are  generally  so  fertile  when  freed 
from  excess  of  noxious  salts  and  their  area  is 
so  rapidly  increasing  under  careless  methods  of 
irrigation  that  the  reclamation  of  alkali  lands 
is  a  matter  of  the  greatest  agricultural  im- 
portance. Alkali  soils  may  be  improved  by 
(1)  reducing  surface  evaporation,  which  may 
be  effected  by  maintaining  a  loose  tilth  in  the 
surface  soil,  by  mulching,  and  by  the  growth  of 
plants  which  root  deeply  and  shade  the  soil,  or 
which  take  up  large  amounts  of  soluble  salts  in 
their  growth;  (2)  deep  and  thorough  tillage; 
(3)  the  use  of  chemical  correctives,  siich  as 
gypsum,  which  in  case  of  black  alkali  converts 
the  corrosive  carbonate  into  the  comparatively 


harmless  sulphate;  and  (4)  leaching  out  the 
excess  of  salts  by  irrigation  in  connection  with 
underdraining.  The  first  two  methods  of  treat- 
ment are  merely  temporary  expedients,  and  are 
of  value  only  when  the  amount  of  alkali  is 
small.  The  third  also  affords  only  temporary 
relief,  and  is  of  value  mainly  when  the  amount 
of  alkali  is  small  and  of  the  black  variet.y.  it 
is,  however,  very  effective  when  employed  in 
connection  with  the  fourth  method,  for  it  im- 
proves the  drainage,  and  tends  to  fix  in  the  soil 
certain  of  the  valuable  fertilizing  constituents, 
especially  alkaline  phosphates  and  humus, 
which  would  otherwise  be  lost  in  the  subsequent 
leaching;  for  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that,  al- 
though the  leaching  process  is  effective  in  re- 
moving the  noxious  salts,  it  is  likely  to  carry 
away  with  them  a.  large  part  of  those  ingre- 
dients upon  which  the  productiveness  of  the  soil 
depends.  The  California  experiment  station  has 
found  that  from  two  and  a  half  to  three  times 
as  much  gypsum  as  there  is  sodium  carbonate 
present  in  the  soil  is  required  in  order  to  con- 
vert black  alkali  into  white. 

Alkali  lands  ai'e  commonly  either  entii'ely  de- 
void of  vegetation,  or  else  jnoduce  plants  of  little 
or  no  value  to  man.  Plants  differ  widely  as 
regards  tolerance  of  alkali  in  the  soil,  the  toler- 
ance depending  much  upon  the  kind  and  propor- 
tion of  the  salts  jjrescnt,  as  well  as  upon  the  na- 
ture of  the  plant  itself.  Hilgard  proposes  to  uti- 
lize the  natural  vegetation  as  an  index  of  the 
kind  of  salts  predominating  in  a  soil.  Thus,  un- 
der California  conditions,  the  Samphires  (Sali- 
cornia  stiiterminalis  and  Allenrolfea  occidcn- 
talis) ,  Alkali-heath  {Frankenia  grandifoHa  cam- 
pestris),  and  Crcssa  cretica'  truxillensis  are 
especially  indicative  of  excessive  araovmts  of 
salts  of  any  kind ;  Tussock  grass  ( tii)orobolus 
airoides)  and  Greasewood  {Snrcobatuf:  vermictt- 
latus)  of  the  presence  of  large  amounts  of  black 
alkali ;  •  and  Samphires  and  Saltworts  ( Sua'da 
torrcyana  and  Smrda  suffrutescens)  of  white  al- 
kali. The  natural  vegetation  also  furnishes,  ac- 
cording to  Hilgard,  a  means  of  determining  the 
reclaimability  of  alkali  soils.  Thus,  when  tus- 
sock grass,  greasewood,  the  Samjihires.  Saltworts, 
Alkali-heath,  and  Cressa  occupy  the  ground  as  an 
abundant  and  luxuriant  growth,  such  land  is 
considered  irreclaimable  for  ordinary  crops  un- 
less under-drained  for  the  purpose  of  washing 
out  surplus  salts,  as  explained  above.  The  more 
important  and  valuable  of  the  plants  which  can 
withstand  large  amounts  of  alkali  are  the  Aus- 
tralian salt-bushes  (Atriplex  spp.),  Modiola  dc- 
cumhcns.  Tussock  grass  (Sporobohis  airoides). 
Wild  IMillet  ( Beck inannia  curcceformis) .  and 
Barnyard  grass  {Panicum  crus-galU) .  Of  ordi- 
nary farm  crops  which  show  a  marked  tolerance 
of  alkali  may  be  mentioned  rice,  the  millets, 
beets,  English  rape,  sunflowers,  asparagus,  cel- 
ery, spinach,  onion,  alfalfa,  Bokhara,  clover, 
gi'apes.  The  Austr.ilian  salt-bushes,  especially 
Atriplex  semibaccata,  have  recently  come  into 
considerable  prominence  as  a  useful  crop  for 
alkali  soils.  They  are  highlj'  tolerant  of  alkali, 
taking  up  large  amounts  of  the  soluble  salts  in 
their  growth  (nearly  twenty  per  cent,  of  the  dry 
matter  of  salt-bushes  is  ash) ,  and  they  produce  a 
forage  of  considerable  value. 

Bibliography.     E.  W.  Hilgard,  "Alkali  Lands, 
Irrigation  and  Drainage,"  Appendix  to  Report  of 
California    Experiment    Station,    1890     (Saera 
mento,   1892)  ;    "The  Eelations  of   Soil   to  CV 


ALKALI  SOILS. 


357 


ALKALOIDS. 


mate,"  United  States  Dcpurtinciit  of  Agricul- 
ture. Vt'eathcr  Bureau  Bulletin  :i  (Washington, 
1892)  ;  "Origin,  Value  and  Reclamation  of  Al- 
kali Lands,"  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
eulturc  Year-book,  1893  (Washington,  189f;)  ; 
"Xatuie,  \'ahie,  and  Utilization  of  Alkali  Lands," 
California  E.cperitnent  Station,  Bulletin  12S 
(Sacramento.  1900)  ;  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Soils.  Bulletins  1-i, 
17.  IS,  and  Jicports  of  Field  Operations  for  1899, 
190(1  (Washington,  1900-01);  Reports  of  Wy- 
oming Experiment  Station  ( Laramie,  1890-1900)  ; 
T.  H.  Means,  "The  Soluble  Mineral  Matter  of 
Soils,"  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
Yrar-book.  J89S  (Washington,  1899)  :  J.  G. 
Smith.  "Forage  Plants  for  Cultivation  on  Alkali 
Soils."  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
Year-book,  1898  (Washington,  1899);  G.  P. 
Merrill,  A  Treatise  on  Rocks,  Rock  Weathering 
and  Soils   (New  York.  1897). 

AL'KALOIDS  (Literally,  resembling  alkali). 
A  term  ajjplied  to  all  nitrogenous  basic  com- 
pounds found  in  plants.  The  alkaloids  are  as  a 
rule  the  most  important  medicinal  principles  of 
the  plants  from  which  they  are  derived,  and  in 
moderate  doses  constitute  therapeutic  agents  of 
the  highest  value.  In  larger  quantities,  how- 
ever, they  are  extremely  poisonous.  Most  alkaloids 
are  chemically  composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen, 
nitrogen,  and  oxygen.  A  very  few.  including  the 
well-known  nicotine  of  tobacco,  and  coniine,  eon- 
tain  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  nitrogen,  but  no 
oxygen.  The  alkaloids  that  contain  oxygen  are 
non-volatile  solids,  and  can  mostly  be  obtained 
in  the  form  of  colorless  crystals.  Those  that 
contnin  no  oxygen  arc  volatile  liquids.  The  sep- 
aration of  the  two  groups  of  alkaloids  can  there- 
fore be  readily  effected  by  simply  subjecting  the 
given  mi.xture  to  a  process  of  distillation. 

Many  alkaloids  are  chemically  related  to  the 
organic  bases  called  pyridine  and  quinoline 
(qq.v.).  Thus  coniine,  nicotine,  piperine,  atro- 
pine, cocaine,  and  others  have  been  shown  to  be 
derivatives  of  pyridine:  quinine,  cinchonine, 
strychnine,  brueine,  etc.,  have  been  shown  to  be 
derivatives  of  quinoline.  Other  alkaloids,  in- 
cluding caffeine,  or  theine,  and  theobromine,  are 
related  to  uric  acid.  In  contradistinction  to 
these  true,  or  natural  alkaloids,  a  certain 
number  of  substances  not  found  ready-formed 
in  nature,  but  prepared  artifleially  in  the  chemi- 
cal laboratory,  have  been  termed  artificial  alka- 
loids. Antipyrine,  kairine.  thalline,  and  the 
ordinary  acet-anilide,  or  antifebrine,  are  ex- 
amples of  artificial  alkaloids,  which  resemble 
the  natural  alkaloids  both  in  their  chemical  con- 
stitulion  and  physiological  action.  Of  the  natu- 
ral alkaloids  but  very  few  have  as  yet  been 
reiuoduccd  artificially.  Another  few,  including 
atropine  and  cocaine,  have  been  reconstructed 
from  their  decomposition  products. 

The  separation  and  detection  of  the  several 
alkaloids  is  often  a  matter  of  great  importance 
in  medico-legal  examinations.  The  analytical 
metliod  usually  employed  (the  so-called  Stas- 
Otto  method)  consists  in  partially  separating 
the  given  mixture  by  the  use  of  water,  alcohol, 
ether,  chloroform,  benzine,  and  amyl  alcohol, 
then  applying  tests  depending  upon  the  char- 
acteristic reactions  of  the  various  constituents. 
Tannic,  picric,  and  phospho-molybdic  acids,  potas- 
sium-mercuric iodide,  and  a  few  other  reagents 
form  insoluble  precipitates  with  the  alkaloids. 

The  following  are  the  more  important  natural 


alkaloids,  their  characteristic  properties,  and 
the  sources  from  which  they  are  obtained: 

Aeonitinc,  C33H43NO,,;  melting  point,  184°  C; 
insoluble  in  water;  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  and 
chloroform :  a  violet  coloration  is  produced 
when  its  solution  in  phosphoric  acid  is  cautiously 
evaiMirated.  It  is  found  in  aconite,  the  tuber  of 
Aconitum  nnpellus  Linne. 

Atropine,  or  Daturine,  Ci,Hj,NO, ;  melting 
point,  115°  C. ;  soluble  in  alcohol  and  chloro- 
form ;  sparingly  solul)le  in  hot  water  and  in 
ether.  It  does  not  exist  ready-formed  in  nature, 
but  is  produced  by  the  transformation  of  the 
alkaloid  hyoscyamine. 

Berberine,  C,„H„NO,+4..5H.O;  melting  point, 
120°  C. ;  soluble  in  hot  water  or  alcohol;  its 
aqueous  solution  is  colored  red  by  chlorine.  It 
is  found  in  yellow  puccoon,  the  rhizome  and 
roots  of  Hydrastis  canadensis  Linng;  also,  in 
Canadian  moonseed,  the  rhizome  and  roots  of 
Menispermum  canaden-se  Linng,  and  in  other 
plants. 

Brucinc,  C.,HmN.04+4H,0  ;  melting  point, 
100°  C;  soluble  in  alcohol  and  in  chlorofi-om. 
It  imparts  to  strong  nitric  acid  a  red  coloration 
that  gradually  changes  to  yellow;  the  coloration 
becomes  violet  on  addition  of  stannous  chloride. 
It  is  found,  along  with  strychnine,  in  nirx  vomica. 

Caffeine,  or  Theine,  CsHi„N40,;  melting  point, 
2,30.5°  C ;  .soluble  in  hot  water  and  in  chloro- 
form ;  sparingly  soluble  in  hot  alcohol.  If  ita 
solution  in  chlorine  water  is  evaporated  and  am- 
monia added  to  the  residue,  the  latter  turns  pur- 
ple. It  is  found  in  many  plants  and  is  con- 
tained in  considerable  quantities  in  tea  and. 
coflFee. 

Cinchonidine,  CisHi^NjO:  melting  point,  200.5° 
C. ;  soluble  in  chloroform  and  in  alcohol.  It  is 
laevo-rotatory  (i.e.,  its  solutions  turn  the  plane 
of  polarized  light  to  the  left).  It  is  found  along 
with  quinine  in  cinchona  bark. 

Cinchonine,  C,9H~.N;0  (hence,  isomeric  with 
cinchonidine)  ;  melting  point,  about  240°  C. ; 
sparingly  soluble  in  chloroform  and  in  hot  alco- 
hol. It  is  dextro-rotatory  and  is  found  in  cin- 
chona bark. 

Cocaine,  CtH^'NO, ;  melting  point,  98°  C; 
soluble  in  alcohol  and  in  ether;  sparingly  soluble 
in  water.  It  produces  local  anaesthesia  when  in- 
jected subeutaneously  or  applied  to  mucous 
membranes.  It  is  found  in  coca,  or  cuca,  the 
leaves  of  Erythroxylon  coca  Lamarck. 

Codeine,  C|,H^N0;;:  melting  point,  155°  C; 
soluble  in  alcohol,  chloroform  and  ether.  W^ith 
strong  suljihuric  acid  and  chloride  of  iron  it 
gives  a  blue  coloration.  It  is  one  of  the  alka- 
loids contained  in  opium. 

Colchicine,  C,;H.,NO„:  melting  point,  145°  C; 
soluble  in  water,  alcohol  and  chloroform.  It  im- 
parts to  strong  nitric  acid  a  violet  color  which 
gradually  turns  brown.  It  is  the  active  prin- 
ciple of  colchicum  root,  the  corm  of  Colchicum 
aul7imnale  Linne. 

Coniine,  C,H,;N;  boiling  point,  108.5°  C;  solu- 
ble in  alcohol,  ether,  and  chloroform  ;  spiiringly 
soluble  in  water.  Its  aqueous  solution  gives  a 
brown  precipitate  with  a  solution  of  iodine. 
Coniine  has  dextro-rotatory  power.  It  is  the 
active  principle  of  hemlock,  the  fruit  of  Conium 
macnlatum  Linn^. 

Curarine.  CisH^^N  (or  C,„H,jN  ?)  ;  a  yellow 
powder,  soluble  in  water  and  in  alcohol ;  turns 
purple  if  treated  with  strong  hydrochloric  acid. 
It  is  the  active  principle  of  the  South  American 


ALKALOIDS. 


358 


ALKALOIDS. 


arrow  poison  curare,  which  is  made  from  cer- 
tain plants,  including  species  of  Strychnos. 

Datuyine,  sec  xVtropine,  above. 

Emetine,  C,„Hj„N05  (or  G-^H^^'N.O^  ?)  ;  melting 
point,  62° — 65°  C.;  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  and 
chloroform ;  gives  with  a  solution  of  sodium 
moljbdate  in  strong  sulphuric  acid  a  brown 
coloration  which  turns  blue  on  addition  of  hy- 
drochloric acid.  It  is  the  active  principle  of 
ipecac,  the  root  of  Cephaelis  ipecamunha. 

Eserine,  or  Physostigmine,  CuHj^NjO, ;  melt- 
ing point,  40° — 45°  C;  soluble  in  alcoho'l,  ether, 
and  chloroform ;  bleaching  powder  colors  its 
solution  red,  but  the  color  disappears  again  on 
addition  of  an  excess  of  bleaching  powder.  It  is 
the  active  principle  of  Calabar  bean,  the  seed  of 
Physostif/ma  venenosum  Balfour. 

Hyoscyamine,  CnHjaNOj;  melting  point,  108.5° 
C. ;  soluble  in  water,  alcohol,  ether,  and  chloro- 
form; gives  a  purple  color  with  strong  nitric 
acid.  By  the  action  of  caustic  alkalies  it  is 
readily  transformed  into  the  alkaloid  atropine 
(see  above).  Hyoscyamine  is  found  in  many 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Solanacew ;  e.g.,  in 
henbane,  the  leaves  and  flowering  tops  of  Hyos- 
cynmus  niger  Linne,  and  in  the  leaves  of  Atropa 
belladonna  Linne. 

Morphine,  CnHuNO,;  melting  point,  230°  C; 
It  may  be  extracted  from  alkaline  solutions  by 
means  of  chloroform.  With  strong  nitric  acid 
it  gives  a  blood-red  coloration  that  gi-adually 
turns  yellow.  It  is  one  of  the  constituents  of 
opium. 

Mitscarine,  CoHisNOa;  a  liquid  soluble  in 
■water  and  in  alcohol;  insohible  in  ether  and 
chloroform.  It  is  found  in  the  fly  fungus,  Am,' 
anita  mnscnria. 

Xarceine,  C^HkNOs;  melting  point,  145.2°  C. ; 
sparingly  soluble  in  the  ordinary  solvents.  A 
solution  of  sodium  molybdate  in  strong  sul- 
phuric acid  gives  a  gi'een  coloration  that  turns 
dark-red.  It  is  one  of  the  constituents  of  opium, 
and  resembles  morphine  in  its  physiological  ac- 
tion. 

Varcotine,  C2;H,,N0, ;  melting  point,  176°; 
soluble  in  chloroform,  less  soluble  in  hot  alco- 
hol and  ether.  Its  solutions  are  l^vo-rotatory, 
but  when  acidified  turn  the  plane  of  polarized 
light  to  the  right.  It  is  one  of  the  constituents 
of  opium. 

'Nicotine,  Ci„Hi,N,;  boiling  point,  241°  C. ; 
soluble  in  water,  alcohol,  and  ether;  its  smell 
and  taste  are  like  those  of  tobacco.  With  hydro- 
chloric acid  it  gives  a  violet  coloration  that 
turns  orange  on  addition  of  nitric  acid;  with 
iodine  solutions  it  gives  a  yellow  precipitate.  It 
is  the  active  principle  of  tobacco,  the  dried 
leaves  of  Nicotiana  tabacum;  tobacco  smoke, 
however,  contains  no  nicotine. 

Papaverine,  C.-oHniXO^;  melting  point,  147° 
C. ;  soluble  in  hot  alcohol  and  in  chloroform; 
gives  a  violet  coloration  with  .strong  sulphuric 
acid.     It  is  found  in  opium. 

Physostigmine,  see  Eserine,  above. 

Piloearpine,  C„H„,NjO.;  a  semifluid  alkaloid 
soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  and  chloroform  ;  gives 
a  green  coloration  with  strong  sulphuric  acid 
and  potassium  bi-chromate.  It  is  one  of  the 
active  principles  of  pilocarpus,  or  jaborandi,  the 
leaflets  of  Pilocarpus  selloumts  Engler,  or  of 
Pilocarpus  jaborandi  Holmes. 

Piperidine,  C..H„N;  a  liquid  alkaloid  produced 
by  the  decomposition  of  piperine,  a  substance 
found  in  pepper. 


Piperine,  CuHioNO^;  melting  point,  128°  C; 
soluble  in  hot  water  and  in  chloroform;  with 
strong  sulphuric  acid  it  gives  a  j-ellow  color 
that  changes  to  brown,  then  to  a  greenish  brown. 
It  is  found  in  plants  of  the  natural  order  Piper- 
aeece,  and  is  one  of  the  chief  constituents  of 
ordinary  black  pepper. 

Quinidine,  CioHo.NjO,;  melting  point,  168°  C; 
soluble  in  chloroform^  less  so  in  alcohol  and 
ether;  sparingly  soluble  in  water;  its  solution 
turns  the  plane  of  polarized  light  to  the 
right.     It  is  found  in  cinchona  bark. 

Quinine,  C'mHoiN.O;  -f  SH-O ;  melts  in  its  water 
of  crystallization  at  57°  C,  loses  its  water  at 
100°,  then  melts  again  at  177°  C. ;  soluble  in 
alcohol,  ether  and  chloroform,  sparingly  soluble 
in  water;  its  solutions  turn  the  plane  of  polar- 
ized light  to  the  left.  It  is  found  in  cinchona 
bark. 

Solanine,  C^H^NO,,;  melting  point,  235°  C; 
it  may  be  extracted  from  its  alkaline  solutions 
by  means  of  chloroform ;  with  strong  sulphuric 
acid  it  gives  an  orange  coloration  that  turns  a 
brownish  red.  It  is  found  in  bittersweet  (woody 
nightshade),  the  young  branches  of  Solanum 
dulcamara  Linne. 

Strychnine.  CiiH.^NjO, ;  melting  point,  about 
264°  C. ;  soluble  in  chloroform  and  in  hot  alco- 
hol; sparingly  soluble  in  water  and  in  ether.  It 
gives  a  pretty  display  of  colors  with  strong  sul- 
phuric acid  and  a  grain  of  potassium  bi-chro- 
mate. It  is  found  in  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Loganiacew,  and  is  usually  obtained  from  nux 
vomica. 

Thebaine,  or  Paramorphine,  CmHjiNOj;  melt- 
ing point,  193°  C. ;  soluble  in  alcohol  and  chlo- 
roform; gives,  with  strong  sulphuric  acid,  a 
dark-red  coloration  which  turns  yellow.  It  is 
found  in  opium. 

Theine,  see  Caffeine,  above. 

Theobromine,  CjHsX^O;;  sublimes  without 
melting  at  290°  C. ;  sparingly  soluble  in  the  or- 
dinary solvents;  may  be  extracted  from  an  alka- 
line solution  by  means  of  chloroform.  On  eva- 
poration with  chlorine-water  a  brown  residue  is 
obtained  that  turns  purple  if  a  little  ammonia 
is  added.     It  is  found  in  cacao  beans. 

Vcratrine,  C3„H„N„0,, ;  a  mixture  of  two  iso- 
meric alkaloids;  melting  point.  155°  C. ;  soluble 
in  alcohol,  ether,  and  chloroform ;  gives  a  red 
coloration  if  heated  with  strong  sulpliuric  or 
with  fuming  hydrochloric  acid.  It  is  found  in 
the  seed  of  Asagrwa  o/licinalis  Lindley. 

The  extraction  of  an  alkaloid  from  the  plant 
in  which  it  occurs  is  often  a  matter  of  consid- 
erable difficulty.  The  volatile  alkaloids  may  be 
obtained  by  distilling  the  plant  or  vegetable 
product  with  water  and  lime  (or  caustic  soda)  ; 
the  liquid  distilling  over  is  neutralized  with  sul- 
phuric acid  and  evaporated  to  dryness;  the  sul- 
phate of  the  alkaloid  may  then  be  dissolved  out 
of  the  residue  by  means  of  a  mixture  of  alcohol 
and  ether.  To  extract  a  non-volatile  alkaloid, 
the  plant  is  macerated  and  treated  with  a  dilute 
solution  of  some  acid  in  ordinary  alcohol ;  the 
solution  thus  obtained  is  rendered  alkaline  by 
the  addition  of  soda,  and  the  alkaloid  set  free  is 
either  directly  obtained  in  the  form  of  a  pre- 
cipitate, or  else  may  be  extracted  from  the  alka- 
line solution  by  means  of  ether,  chloroform,  or 
some  other  solvent  that  docs  not  mix  with 
water.  Such  processes,  however,  usually  yield 
not  one  single,  but  mi.xtures  of  two  or  more  al- 
kaloids,   and    those    contaminated    with    large 


ALKALOIDS. 


359 


ALKMAAB. 


quantities  of  othei'  organie  substances,  which 
often  I'ender  the  isolation  of  a  single  alkaloid  in 
the  pure  state  very  ililKcult. 

As  to  the  chemical  constitution  of  alkaloids, 
very  little  is  as  yet  known.  It  has  been  found, 
however,  tliat  most  of  these  substances  are  ter- 
tiary aromatic  bases,  and  that  by  far  the  greater 
number  of  them  contain  one  or  more  metlioxy- 
groups,  OCH;,,  linked  to  a  benzene  nucleus.  The 
chemical  relationship  of  the  alkaloids  to  pyri- 
dine, quinoline,  and  uric  acid,  has  been  mentioned 
above.  Most  alkaloids  have  a  powerful  physio- 
logical action  even  if  employed  in  very  small 
<|uantities.  The  action  of  certain  alkaloids  is, 
however,  at  least  partly  antagonistic  to  the  ac- 
tion of  certain  others.  For  this  reason  one  alka- 
loid may  sometimes  be  employed  to  relieve  the 
poisonous  effect  of  another  alkaloid,  though  it 
may  itself  be  a  violent  poison.  The  antagonism 
of  morphine  and  atropine  is  of  considerable 
value  in  cases  in  which  a  subcutaneous  injection 
of  morphine  is  indicated:  the  cardiac  depression, 
indigestion,  and  constipation,  usuallj'  caused  by 
morphine,  may  be  prevented  by  injecting  sim- 
ultaneously a  trace  of  atropine. 

,  The  alkaloids  are  sometimes  spoken  of  as 
vegetable  bases,  natural  organic  bases,  or  veg- 
etable alkaloids.  The  latter  name  is  applied  to 
them  in  contradistinction  to  the  animal  alka- 
loids, or  ptomaines,  that  are  formed  during  the 
putrefaction  of  animal  products.  Like  the 
vegetable  alkaloids,  the  ptomaines  are  highly 
])oisonous  nitrogenous  bases,  and  they  resemble 
the  vegetable  alkaloids  both  in  their  chemical 
properties  and  in  their  physiological  action.  See 
Ptomaines. 

BiBLiOGRAPiiv.  Pictet,  La  constitution  chim- 
ique  des  ulculo'idcs  tcgctaux  (second  edition, 
Paris,  1897;  German  translation,  Berlin,  ISOl)  ; 
Dupuy,  Alcalo'ides  (Brussels,  1887-89)  ;  Schmidt, 
Vehcr  die  Erforschuiig  der  Konstitiition  mid  die 
Versuche  ziir  Synthese  ii-ichtiqcr  Pfliin::cnal- 
knloide  (Stuttgart,  1000)  ;  Bruhl,  Die  Pflanzcn- 
aU^nloide  (Brunswick,  1900).  The  most  impor- 
tant alkaloids  are  described  in  some  detail  under 
their  special  names. 

AL'KANET  (dim.  of  Sp.  alcana,  alhena, 
from  Ar.  «/,  the  -f-  hinnd) ,  Anchusa.  A  genus  of 
plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Boragi- 
nacece.  The  species  are  herbaceous  plants,  rough 
with  stiff  hairs,  and  having  lanceolate  or  ovate 
leaves,  and  spike-like,  bracteated,  lateral,  and  ter- 
minal racemes  of  flowers,  which  very  much  resem- 
ble those  of  the  species  of  Myosotis,  or  forget-me- 
not.  The  common  alkanet  {Anchusa  officinalis) 
grows  in  dry  and  sandy  places,  and  bj'  waysides, 
in  the  middle  and  north  of  Europe.  It  is  rare 
and  a  very  doubtful  native  in  Great  Britain. 
The  tlow'ers  are  of  a  deep  purple  color.  The 
roots,  leaves,  and  flowers  were  formerly  used  in 
medicine  as  an  emollient,  cooling,  and  soothing 
application.  The  Evergreen  Alkanet  (Anchusa 
sempcrvirens)  is  also  a  native  of  Europe,  and  a 
doubtful  native  of  Great  Britain,  although  not 
uncommon  in  situations  to  which  it  may  have 
escaped  from  gardens,  being  often  cultivated  for 
the  sake  of  its  beautiful  blue  flowers,  which  ap- 
pear early  in  the  season,  and  for  its  leaves, 
which  retain  a  pleasing  verdure  all  winter.  It 
is  a  plant  of  humble  growth,  rising  only  a  few 
inches  above  the  gi-ound.  A  number  of  other 
species  are  occasionally  seen  in  our  flower  bor- 
ders. Anchusa  tinctoria,  to  which  the  name 
Alkanet    or    Alkanna     (Ar.    al-chenneh)     more 


strictly  belongs,  is  a  native  of  the  Levant  and 
of  the  south  of  Europe,  extending  as  far  north 
as  Hungary.  The  root  is  sold  under  the  name 
of  alkanet  or  alkanna  root ;  it  is  sometimes  cul- 
tivated in  England ;  but  the  greater  part  is  im- 
ported from  the  Levant  or.  the  south  of  France. 
It  appears  in  commerce  in  pieces  of  the  thick- 
ness of  a  quill  or  of  the  finger,  the  rind  blackish 
externally,  but  internally  of  a  beautiful  dark- 
red  color,  and  adhering  rather  loosely  to  the 
whitish  heart.  It  contains  chiefly  a  resinous  red 
coloring  matter,  to  which  the  name  alkanet  is 
often  applied.  (See  Alkanet  below.)  Vir- 
ginian alkanet  is  probably  a  species  of  the  genus 
Lithospcrmum. 

ALKANET.  A  beautiful  red  coloring  mat- 
ter obtained  from  the  roots  of  the  alkanet  or 
orchanet  herb  (Anchusa  tinctoria,  Tausch.)  and 
largely  used  for  imparting  a,  red  color  to  var- 
nishes, cosmetics,  etc.  It  is  extracted  from  the 
roots  by  means  of  benzine,  and,  on  evaporating 
the  latter,  is  obtained  in  the  form  of  a  thick 
paste  thatr  is  insoluble  in  water,  but  readily 
soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  benzine,  various  oils, 
and  other  oi'ganic  liquids.  Alkanet  should  not 
be  confounded  with  the  red  coloring  matter  con- 
tained in  the  roots  of  the  henna,  or  alcanna, 
plant  (Lau'sonia  incrmis  L.).  The  chemical 
composition  of  purified  alkanet  seems  to  corre- 
spond to  the  formula  CsHuO,. 
AL'KEKEN'GI.  See  Piitsali.s. 
AL  -  KHUWARIZMI,  al-Ku'wariz'me,  Abu 
'Abd  Allah  JIoiiajimed  ibn  Mdsa,  of  Khuwar- 
ism,  a  province  in  wliich  Khiva  is  now  located. 
(  ?-c.831).  A  Moslem  philosopher,  and  the  most 
celebrated  algebraist  of  his  time.  He  was  one  of  the 
savants  who  went  to  Bagdad  in  Al-Mamun's  reign. 
He  worked  in  the  ob-servatoiy  there,  computed  a 
set  of  astronomical  tables  and  wrote  several  works 
on  mathematics.  Among  these  works  were  trea- 
tises on  the  Hindu  arithmetic  (transl.  Gerard  of 
Cremona,  or  Adelard  of  Batli ;  published  bj'  Bon- 
compagni,  Rome,  1857),  tlie  sun-dial,  the  astro- 
labe (an  instrument  used  to  take  the  altitude  of 
the  sun),  on  chronology,  geometiy,  and  algebra. 
His  Al-jubr  ica'l  muqahalah,  i.e.  the  redintegra- 
tion and  the  comparison,  gave  the  name  to  alge- 
bra (q.v.).  His  discussion  of  the  quadratic 
equation,  in  which  he  called  to  his  assistance 
geometric  diagrams,  is  quite  complete.  His  name 
appeared  in  Latin  in  the  form  Algoritmi,  from 
which  we  have  our  word  algorism  (q.v.).  His 
algebra  was  translated  into  Latin  by  Gerard  of 
Cremona,  and  into  English  by  F.  Eosen  (London, 
1831).  Consult  Brockelmann,  Gcschichte  der 
arahischcn  Litteratur  (Weimar,  1898,  part  i., 
p.  il.-.). 

AL-KINDI,  alken'de,  or  ALCHINDIUS, 
al-kin'di-us,  Anu  YusUF  Ya'kub  ibx  Isiiak  al- 
KlNDi.  An  Arabian  philosopher,  who  flourished 
in  the  ninth  ccnturj-.  He  wrote  more  than  two 
hundred  treatises  on  almost  everything  within 
the  range  of  the  philosophy  and  science  of  his 
time.  By  the  Arabs  themselves  he  is  viewed  as- 
the  Peripatetic  philosopher  in  Islam.  Of  his 
many  works,  but  a  few  on  medicine  and  astrology 
remain.  Consult  the  study  by  Fliigel  (Leipzig, 
18o7),  and  A.  Nagy.  Die  philosophischen  Ab- 
hundlungen  des  al-Kindi  (Munster,  1897). 

ALKMAAR,  alkniiir'.  An  old  town  in  the 
priiviuci'  (if  North  Holland,  in  the  Netherlands, 
situateil  on  the  North  Holland  Canal,  20  miles 
nortlnvest    of    Amsterdam     (Map:     Netherlands, 


ALKMAAK. 


360 


ALLAHABAD. 


C  2) .  It  is  well  built,  has  very  clean  streets,  and 
is  intersected  by  broad  canals.  It  possesses  a 
town-house,  ornamented  with  curious  Gothic 
carving,  with  a  tower,  a  museum  of  antiquities, 
and  a  library,  and  the  church  of  St.  Laurence, 
which  dates  from  the  fifteenth  century.  The 
inhabitants  su])port  themselves  by  important 
manufactures  of  sail-cloth,  sea- salt,  etc.,  as  well 
as  by  trade  in  grain,  butter,  and  cheese.  Alk- 
maar  exports  great  quantities  of  the  last  men- 
tioned commodity,  more  than  .5000  tons  being 
brought  into  the  town  yearly,  or  over  one-half 
the  output  of  the  province.  It  is  the  birthplace 
of  Henry  of  Alkmaar.  (See  Alkmaah,  Hein- 
KiCll  vox.)  Alkmaar,  first  of  all  the  Nether- 
land  cities,  successfully  resisted  the  Spanish  in 
1573.  and  the  anniversary  of  that  siege  was  com- 
memorated in  1873  by  the  erection  of  a  statue 
of  Victory,  by  Stracke.  Here,  on  October  18, 
1799,  the  Duke  of  York  signed  a  not  very  hon- 
orable capitulation,  after  his  Russo-British  army 
had  been  twice  defeated  by  tlie  French  general 
Brune.     Pop.,   1890,   15,803;    1900,   18,275. 

ALKMAAR,  Heikrich  vox.  A  Low  German 
translator  or  adapter  of  an  animal  epic,  Keynard 
the  Foxiq.v.) , printed  in  1498.  Alkmaar  is  said  to 
have  been  a  tutor  of  the  Dulce  of  Lorraine  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  century. 

ALKOREM'ML  In  William  Beckford's 
romance  of  Vatluk  (q.v.),  the  name  of  Vathek's 
palace,  to  which  he  had  added  five  parts,  corre- 
sponding to  his  five  senses. 

AL'LA,  or  EL'LA.  In  Chaucer's  Man  of 
Law's  Tale,  the  name  of  the  king  who  marries 
Constance. 

ALLA  BREVE,  al'la  bra'va  (It.  according 
to  the  hrcvc).  In  music,  a  species  of  common 
time  with  a  quick  movement.  In  early  ecclesi- 
astical music,  we  find  no  terms  indicating  the 
tempo  or  rate  of  movement,  until,  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  tlie  expressions  augtnentatioti  and  dim- 
inution were  introduced  to  indicate  that  note- 
values  were  to  be  changed  by  lengtliening  or 
shortening.  Tlie  sign  of  diminution  was  a  verti- 
cal line  drawn  through  the  time  signature;  (j> 
for  triple  and  (t  for  duple  time.  With  this 
diminution,  breves  (q.v.)  were  to  be  taken  in  the 
time  of  semi-breves,  thus  quickening  the  move- 
ment. At  that  time  the  unit  of  count  was  a 
semi-breve.  ^Vhen  the  breve  was  "diminished," 
it  meant  that  one  must  count  "by  the  breve," 
hence  the  name  Alia  Breve, 

In  modern  music  Alia  Breve  measure   (some- 

o 
times  called  Alia  Cappella)  is  marked  4.  or  J  and 

calls  for  two  coimts  to  the  bar,  with  half  notes 
taken  in  tlie  time  usually  given  to  quarter  notes. 

AL'LAH.  The  IMohammedan  name  for  God, 
contrncli'd  from  the  Arabic  al  ilah,  the  God. 

ALLAHABAD,  al'la-ha-bad'.  A  district  and 
a  division  of  the  North-West  Provinces,  British 
India. 

ALLAHABAD  (Ar.  Allah,  God  +  Hind,  ahnd, 
city,  dwelling).  The  seat  of  the  government  of 
the  North-West  Provinces  of  British  India  ( Map : 
India,  D  3).  It  occupies  the  fork  of  the  Ganges 
and  Jumna  which  forms  the  lowest  extremity 
of  tlie  extensive  region  distinguished  as  the 
Doab,  or  the  Country  of  Two  Hivcrs,  lying  be- 
tween those  natural  Imundaries.  Its  position  at 
the  confinenec  of  the  holy  rivers,  whicli  lias  long 
made  it  a  centre  of  superstitious  reverence  and 


worship,  and  a  much  frequented  place  of  pilgrim- 
age for  the  purposes  of  ablution,  also  rendered 
it  a  natural  centre  of  commerce  and  civili- 
zation, an  advantage  which  has  been  fully  appre- 
ciated by  the  British  Government.  It  commands 
tlie  navigation  botli  of  the  Ganges  and  of  the 
Jumna.  It  is  on  the  direct  water  route  between 
Calcutta  and  the  Upper  Provinces,  and  is  a  main 
station  on  the  Grand  Trunk  Road,  and  also  on 
the  East  Indian  Railway.  Allahabad  stands  72 
miles  west  of  Benares;  is  distant  from  Calcutta, 
by  land,  496  miles;  by  water,  80S  miles  in  the 
lainy  season,  985  miles  in  the  dry  season.  From 
Delhi  it  is  distant  386  miles,  and  from  Bombay, 
by  the  .Jabalpur  branch  of  the  East  Indian 
Railway,  840  miles.  The  cotton,  sugar,  and  indigo 
produce  of  the  fertile  district  of  Allahabad  is 
brought  in  large  quantities  into  the  city,  to  be 
transported  thence  to  Calcutta  and  elsewhere. 
Steamers  sail  to  Calcutta  and  barges  to  Delhi. 
In  point  of  appearance,  Allahabad  is  scarcely 
worthy  of  its  character  and  renowni.  With  the 
exception  of  a  few  ancient  monuments  of  costly, 
elaborate,  and  tasteful  workmanship,  the  native 
part  of  the  city  consists  of  mean  houses  and 
narrow  streets.  The  most  noteworthy  buildings 
are  the  .Tumma  JIusjid.  or  the  great  mosque,  and 
the  Sultan  Khossor's  caravansary — a  fine  clois- 
tered quadrangle.  The  fort  is  of  red  stone,  and 
is  approached  by  a  very  handsome  gate ;  it  con- 
tains the  jialace  or  residency,  and  the  famous 
Asoka  or  Gada  Pillar,  the  cliib  of  Bhin  Sen,  240 
B.C.  Below  the  fort,  built  over  "the  undying 
banyan  tree,"  is  the  subterranean  Chali  Satum 
temple,  which  is  said  to  commimicate  with  Ben- 
ares by  an  umlerground  passage,  through  which 
flows  a  third  holy  river,  the  Sereswati,  visible 
only  to  the  eye  of  faith,  the  dropping  moisture 
on  the  rocky  walls  pointed  out  as  the  river 
scarcely  justifying  the  presumption.  Allahabad 
possesses  a  hospital,  theatres,  bazaars,  etc..  and 
the  Jluir  Central  College,  the  chief  educational 
institution  in  the  Xorth-West  Provinces.  ( See 
the  article  Ixdia.)  As  generally  in  the  to^ms 
of  India,  the  European  quarter  is  vastly  superior. 
Its  nucleus  appears  to  have  been  the  native  fort, 
which  on  the  east  and  south  rises  directly  from 
the  banks  of  both  rivers,  while  toward  the  land 
its  artificial  defenses,  of  great  strength  in  them- 
selves, are  not  commanded  from  the  neighborluiod 
by  any  higher  ground.  This  citadel,  described  by 
Heber  as  having  been  at  one  time  "a  very  noble 
castle."  has  lost  much  of  its  romance  by  having 
had  its  lofty  towers  pruned  down  to  bastions  and 
cavaliers.  The  Europeans  of  the  garrison  occupy 
well-constructed  barracks.  Beyond  the  fort  are 
the  cantonments  for  the  native  troops.  In  con- 
nection with  these  are  numerous  villas  and  bun- 
galows, few  other  spots  in  India  boasting  such 
handsome  buildings  of  this  kind,  which  are  ren- 
dered still  more  attractive  and  agreeable  by 
avenues  of  trees  winding  between  them  and  con- 
necting them  with  the  fort,  the  city,  and  several 
of  the  adjacent  localities.  Two  boat  bridges  cross 
the  Ganges,  and  the  East  Indian  railway-bridge 
spans  the  Jumna  at  Allahabad.  So  many  poor 
pilgrims  throng  the  city,  especially  at  the  time 
of  the  great  annual  religious  fair,  that  instead 
of  Allahabad,  the  natives  call  it  "Fakirabad."  or 
the  city  of  beggars.  From  the  octroi,  professional 
and  carriage  taxes,  rents  and  proceeds  of  the 
Hindu  fair,  a  considerable  municipal  revenue 
accrues,  which  is  expended  on  police,  lighting, 
street     sprinkling,     water     works,    maintenance 


ALLAHABAD. 


361 


ALLANTOIN. 


of  parks,  medical  assistance,  and  charities. 
Allahabad  was  founded  by  Akbar  in  157.5, 
on  the  site  of  an  ancient  fort.  From  1765 
to  ISOl  it  underwent  three  changes  of  rulers, 
finally  coming  under  British  domination.  The 
mutiny  of  1S.")7  brought  disaster  to  Allahabad. 
On  the  Gth  of  .June  of  that  .year,  the  insurrection, 
which  had  begun  at  Meerut  on  the  10th  of  May, 
extended  itself  to  Allahabad.  Though  the  Euro- 
peans held  the  fort,  the  mutineer.s  were  for  some 
days  undisputed  masters  of  all  beyond:  and 
between  the  ravages  of  the  marauders  and  the 
fire  of  the  garrison,  the  city  became  little  better 
than  a  heap  of  blackened  ruins.  New  buildings 
began  to  spring  up  as  soon  as  order  had  been 
restored,  and  most  of  the  city  has  been  rebuilt 
since  that  date,  with  the  exception  of  the  few 
monuments  of  ancient  native  architecture  de- 
scribed above.  Pop.,  1891,  175,250;  1901,  175,- 
750, 

ALLAIN-TAEGE,  aiax'  tar'zha',  Francois 
Henri  Rene  (18.32-1902).  A  French  politician, 
born  at  Angers.  He  studied  law  at  Poitiers,  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1853,  and  from  1801  to 
1864  was  substitute  imperial  procurator  at 
Angers.  From  1864  to  1806  he  was  an  editor  of 
the  Courricr  ilu  Diinanche.  He  joined  the  staff 
of  the  Avenir  National  in  18GS,  and  in  the  same 
year  founded  the  Revue  Politique.  Upon  the 
fall  of  the  Empire,  he  was  appointed  by  the  Gov- 
ernment for  national  defense  prefect  of  the 
department  of  Maine-et-Loire.  He  was  subse- 
quently an  army  commissary,  and  resigned  with 
Gambetta  upon  the  conclusion  of  peace.  He  was 
a  municipal  councillor  of  Paris  in  1871  and 
1874,  deputy  in  187(;,  1877,  and  1881,  and  Minis- 
ter of  Finance  in  Gambetta's  cabinet.  In  1885- 
86  he  was  Minister  of  the  Interior  in  the  cabinet 
of  Brisson. 

AL'LAMAN'DA  (Named  after  the  Swiss 
scientist  Allamand.  who  died  in  1787).  A  genus 
of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Apocynaeeae.  It  is 
distinguished  by  a  quinque-partite  calyx  without 
glands,  by  a  funnel-shaped  corolla,  and  by  the 
prickly  capsular  fruit  pod.  Allamanda  cathar- 
tica,  a  native  of  the  West  Indies,  is  a  climber 
with  whorled  or  opposite  oblong  leaves,  and 
golden-yellow  flowers,  white  marked  in  the 
throat.  It  has  violently  emetic  and  purgative 
properties:  but  in  small  doses  an  infusion  of  the 
leaves  is  esteemed  a  valuable  cathartic  medicine, 
especially  in  the  cure  of  painters'  colic.  All 
the  species,  of  which  there  are  about  twelve, 
are  natives  of  the  tropical  parts  of  America, 
Specimens  of  Allamanda  are  often  seen  in  green- 
houses, where  it  is  a  showy  plant  both  in  leaf 
and  in  flower.  Among  the  shrubliy  species  are 
Allamanda  neriifolia  and  Allamanda  grandiflora. 
while  Allamanda  schottii,  Allamanda  nobilis,  and 
-Allamanda  cathartica  are  the  best  known  climb- 
ers. 

ALLAN,  :-il'lan,  DA\aD  (1744-96).  A  distin- 
guished Scottish  painter  of  domestic  subjects, 
in  which  he  was  the  forerunner  of  Wilkie.  He 
was  born  at  Alloa,  February  13,  1744.  In  1755, 
he  entered  the  academy  for  drawing,  painting, 
and  engraving  established  in  Glasgow  by  the 
celebrated  printer  Foulis,  where  he  studied  for 
seven  years.  The  liberality  _  of  friends  enabled 
him,  in  1764,  to  go  to  Rome,  where  he  resided 
for  thirteen  years.  In  1773,  he  gained  the  gold 
medal  given  by  the  Academy  of  St.  Luke  for  the 
best  historical  composition.  The  subject  was  the 
Vol.  I.— 25. 


"Origin  of  Painting."  the  old  legend  of  the  Corin- 
thian maid  who  drew  her  lover's  profile  from 
the  shadow.  This  picture,  the  highest  effort 
of  .Allan's  powers,  was  engraved  by  Cunego.  Of 
his  other  pictures  executed  at  Rome,  the  best 
known  are  four  humorous  pieces  illustrating  the 
carnival,  which  were  engraved  by  Paul  Sandby. 
In  177",  Allan  came  to  London,  where  he  painted 
portraits;  three  years  later,  he  removed  to 
Edinburgh;  and  in  1780,  succeeded  Ruuciman 
at  the  head  of  the  Trustees'  Academy.  His 
works  after  this  were  chiertj'  of  a  humorous 
descrii)tion,  and  illustrative  of  Scottish  domestic 
life.  His  illustrations  of  Allan  Ramsay's  Gentle 
Shepherd  became  very  popular,  but  are  of  no 
great  merit.  Allan  died  at  Edinburgh,  August 
6,  1796.  "His  merits,"  says  Allan  Cunningham, 
"are  of  a  limited  nature;  he  neither  excelled  in 
fine  drawing,  nor  in  harmonious  coloring;  and 
grace  and  grandeur  were  beyond  his  reach.  His 
genius  lay  in  expression,  especially  in  grave 
humor  and  open  drollery." 

ALLAN,  Sir  Hugh  (1810-82).  A  Canadian 
ship-owner.  He  went  from  Scotland  to  Canada 
as  a  clerk  in  1826,  and  in  1835  became  a  ship- 
builder and  commission  merchant.  During  the 
Canadian  rebellion  of  1837-38,  he  served  in  the 
army  as  a  volunteer,  and  reached  the  rank  of 
captain.  He  helped  establish,  after  many  dis- 
asters, the  Allan  Line  of  screw  steamships,  and 
was  one  of  the  projectors  of  the  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway,  and  obtained  prominence  in  the  scandal 
connected  with  that  road.  Many  transportation, 
manufacturing,  and  mining  companies  owed  their 
success  largely  to  his  enterprise.  He  received 
the  honor  of  knighthood  in  1871.  for  his  service 
to  commerce.  He  was  one  of  the  wealthiest  men 
in  Canada. 

ALLAN,  Sir  William  ( 1782-1850) .  A  Scotch 
painter.  He  was  born  in  Edinljurgh,  and  studied 
art  in  the  Trustees'  Academy  there,  and  in  the 
schools  of  the  Roj-al  Academy,  London.  In 
1805  he  went  to  Saint  Petersburg,  and  spent 
several  years  in  various  parts  of  Russia  and 
Turkey,  where  lie  acquired  material  for  his  first 
successful  pictures.  Returning  to  Scotland  in 
1814,  he  devoted  liimself  to  Scottish  historical 
painting.  This  part  of  his  work  includes  ".John 
Knox  Admonishing  Queen  ilary"  (1823),  "Queen 
Mary  signing  her  Abdication"  (1824),  and 
the  ""Death  of  the  Regent  Murray"  (1825), 
which  made  him  an  A.R.A.  In  1S34  he  re- 
turned to  his  earlier  subjects,  and  his  "Polish 
Exiles  on  their  Way  to  Siberia"  and  "The 
iloorish  Love-Letter"  won  him  a  seat  in  the 
Roval  Academy.  Later  pictures  were  "A  Slave- 
MaVket  in  Constantinople"  (1837),  "The  Battle 
of  Prestonpaus"  (1842),  "Waterloo,"  from  the 
English  side  (  1844,  bought  by  the  Duke  of  Wel- 
lington), "Peter  the  Great  teaching  Shipbuilding 
to  his  Subjects"  (ordered  by  the  Czar,  1845). 
Allan  became  president  of  the  Royal  Scottish 
Academy  in  1838,  in  1841  succeeded  Wilkie  as 
limner  to  the  Queen  in  Scotland,  and  was 
knighted  in  1842.  His  reputation  rests  on  his 
skill  in  composition  and  dramatic  representa- 
tion. 

ALLAN'TOIN  (Ultimately  derived  from 
o//((Hfoi.<t)  .C.H.iN.Oj.  An  organic  substance  found 
in  the  allantoic  and  amniotic  fluids,  in  fcetal 
urine,  and  in  the  urine  of  many  animals  during  a 
short  time  after  birth.  It  is  a  crystalline,  solid 
substance,  sparingly  soluble  in  cold  water,  but 


ALLANTOIN. 


303 


ALLEGANY. 


dissolving  readily  in  hot  water  or  alfoliol.  and  in 
solutions  of  alkaline  carbonates.  It  may  be 
obtained  from  the  urine  of  calves  by  evaporating 
and  letting  stand,  at  ordinary  temperatures, 
until  the  substance  crystallizes  out.  Chemically, 
allantoin  is  the  di-ureide  of  glyoxylie  acid.  It 
is  one  of  the  most  important  products  of  the 
oxidation  of  uric  acid  (allantoin  is  found  in 
urine  after  uric  acid  has  been  taken  internally), 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  readily  made 
from  urea  by  prolonged  heating  with  glyoxylie 
acid.  When  luic  acid  is  oxidized  with  potas- 
sium permanganate,  allantoin  is  formed,  accord- 
ing to  the  following  chemical  equation; 

NH— C— NH\ 

CO 
-NH/      +  O  +  H,0= 


NH— CO 


Uric  acid 


NH- 

I 

NH— CO     NH, 


CH— NH 

CO  -f  CO, 


Allantoin 

Allantoin  was  first  discovered  in  1790  by 
Vauquelin.     See  Uric  Acid. 

ALLAN'TOiS  (Gk.  a'AAdc,  alias,  a  sausage, 
and  f W(jf,  eidos,  shape ) .  A  delicate  membra- 
nous bag,  which  makes  its  appearance  in  the 
eggs  of  birds  during  incubation,  and  is  a  provision 
chiefly  for  the  aeration  of  the  blood  of  the 
embryo  or  chick.  It  sprouts  from  the  lower 
part  of  the  intestine  of  the  chick,  and  rapidly 
enlarges,  so  as  almost  completely  to  inclose  it, 
lining  nearly  the  whole  extent  of  the  membrana 
putaminis — the  double  membrane  which  is  imme- 
diately within  the  egg-shell.  It  is  covered  with 
a  network  of  arteries  and  veins,  corresponding 
to  the  umbilical  artery  and  vein  of  mammalia  ; 
and  the  aeration  of  the  blood  is  accomplished 
by  the  air  which  enters  through  the  pores  of  the 
shell :  but  as  the  lungs  become  capable  of  their 
function,  the  circulation  in  the  allantois  dimin- 
ishes, and  its  footstalk  contracts,  and  at  last 
divides,  leaving  only  a  ligamentous  remnant. 
The  allantois  is  never  developed  in  the  eggs  of 
fishes  and  amphibians,  hence  these  are  called 
anallantoid  vertebrates ;  while  reptiles,  birds, 
and  mammalia,  in  which  it  is  present,  are  called 
allantoid.  In  the  mammalia,  it  is  superseded 
at  an  early  period  of  fcetal  life  by  other  contri- 
vances, but  continues  to  exist  in  the  lower  ani- 
mals for  receiving  the  urinary  secretion  through 
the  nrachus,  a  purpose  which  it  serves  in  birds 
and  reptiles  likewise.  In  the  human  species,  it 
disappears  very  early,  only  a  minute  vesicle 
remaining.     See   EMiiiiyOLOGY. 

ALLAR,  a'lar',  Andr^  Joseph  (184.5 — ).  A 
French  sculptor,  born  at  Toulon.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Dantan,  Guillaume,  and  Cavelier  at 
Paris,  where  he  obtained  the  Grand  Prix  de  Rome 
in  1889.  He  is  a  frequent  exhibitor  at  the  Salon, 
among  his  most  celebrated  productions  being: 
"Ileciibe  et  Polydore"  (1873),  "Sainte  Ceeile"' 
(1874),  "La  Tentation"  (1S7G),  "L':filoquence" 
(1878,  executed  for  the  church  of  Sorbonne), 
and  ".Teanne  d'Arc  a  Domremy"  (1884).  The 
statues  of  .lean  Bullant  and  Jean  Goujon  for  the 
facade  of  the  Hotel  de  Ville  at  Paris  were  also 
executed   by  him. 


ALLARD,  a'liir',  Jeax  Fr.\ncois  ( 1783-1839) . 
Generalissimo  of  the  arni.y  of  Lahore,  and  previ- 
ously adjutant  to  Marshal  Brune  under  Napo- 
leon. After  the  murder  of  Marshal  Brune  (q.v.), 
Allard  left  France  (1815),  intending  to  emigrate 
to  America,  but  changed  his  plan,  entered  into 
the  service  of  Abbas-JIirza  of  Persia,  and  after- 
ward went  to  Lahore  (1820),  where  he  engaged 
in  the  service  of  Ranjit  Singh  (q.v.),  by  whom 
he  was  made  generalissimo,  and  whose  forces  he^ 
organized  and  trained  in  the  European  modes  of 
warfare.  He  married  a  native  of  Lahore,  and 
identified  himself  with  the  interests  of  his  adopt- 
ed country,  but  could  not  entirely  forget  France. 
The  changed  political  situation  after  the  revolu- 
tion of  1830  brouglit  him  back  to  Paris  (1830). 
where  he  was  received  with  distinction,  and  was 
made  French  charge  d'affaires  in  Lahore.  He 
presented  to  the  royal  library  of  Paris  a  valuable 
collection  of  coins,  and  returned  to  Lahore,  leav- 
ing his  wife  and  children  in  Paris.  He  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  Sikh  campaigns  against 
the  Afghans,  and  died  at  Peshawar,  January  23, 
1839.  His  remains  were,  according  to  his  own 
wish,  buried  with  military  honors  at  Lahore. 

ALLA'TIUS,  Leo  (l'386-1669).  A  Greek 
ecclesiastic  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  He 
was  born  on  the  Island  of  Chios,  removed  in 
1600  to  Rome,  and  studied  at  the  Greek  College 
there.  He  was  appointed  grand-vicar  to  the 
Bishop  of  Anglona,  and  was  sent  in  1622  by 
Gregory  XV.  to  bring  to  Rome  the  Palatinate, 
or  Heidelberg,  library.  In  1061  he  was  ap- 
pointed by  Alexander  VII.  librarian  of  the  Vat- 
ican. He  tried  to  reconcile  the  Western  and 
Eastern  Churches,  writing  such  treatises  as  De 
Ecclesiw  Occidentalis  atqiie  Orientalist  Perpetua 
C'onsensione  (1648),  and  De  Vtriusque  Ecclesi(B- 
in  Dogmate  de  Piirgatorio  C'onsensione  (1655). 
His  further  works  include  De  Libris  Ecclesiasti- 
cis  Grwcorum  1 1 64-5 ) ,  and  Qrcecice  Orthodoxw' 
Scriptores    (1052). 

ALL^E  VERTE,  a'la'vart'(Fr., green  walk). 
A  famous  promenade  at  Brussels  ( q.v. ) ,  formed 
by  an  avenue  of  lime  trees. 

AL'LEGAN.  A  village  and  county  seat  of 
Allegan  Co.,  Mich..  33  miles  south  of  Grand 
Rapids,  on  the  Kalamazoo  River,  and  on  the  Lake- 
Shore  and  Micliigan  Southern,  the  Pere  Mar- 
quette, and  the  Cincinnati  Northern  railroads 
(Map:  Michigan,  H  0^.  It  contains  a  public  ■ 
library,  Pingree  Park,  and  fine  court  house,  city  % 
hall,  and  public  school  buildings.  The  village  is 
in  a  fertile  agricultural  and  fruit-growing  re- 
gion, and  has  valuable  natural  advantages  in 
good  water  power,  derived  by  means  of  a  huge 
dam  on  the  river,  three  miles  above  the  village. 
Its  industries  includ*^  naper.  planing,  and  flour 
mills,  furniture  factories,  carriage  works,  casket 
factories,  foundry  and  machine  shop,  etc.  An 
interesting  commercial  feature  is  a  cooperative 
grange  store,  which  is  in  successful  operation. 
Alleg'an  was  settled  in  1835,  and  was  first  incor- 
porated in  1838  and  reincorporated  in  1858.  The 
water  works  are  owned  and  operated  by  the  vil- 
lage.    Pop..  1890.  2009:   1900,  2667. 

AL'LEGA'NY.  A  town  in  Cattaraugus  Co., 
N.  v.,  70  miles  southeast  of  Buffalo,  on  the 
Allegheny  River  and  the  Erie  Railroad  (Map: 
New  York,  B  3).  The  town  is  engaged  in  the 
oil  industry,  and  has  a  tannery,  a  canning  fac- 
tory, and  saw  mills,  and  is  the  site  of  St.  Bona- 
venture's  College,  a  Roman  Catholic  institution. 


ALLEGANY. 


363 


ALLEGIANCE. 


org.Tiiized  in  18.50.  The  govermiu'iit  is  adminis- 
tered liy  town  meetings,  whieh  eunvene  liiennially 
til  eleet  officers  and  make  approiiriations.  Poi)., 
1S!H),  .-illll  ;   moo,  3092. 

ALLEGHANIES.  A  name  applied  to  a 
mountain  range  of  Pennsylvania,  Maryland, West 
Virginia,  and  Virginia,  lying  west  of  the  Blue 
and  Blue  Ridge  ranges,  and  having  the  same  gen- 
eral direction,  northeast  to  southwest  {Map: 
United  States.  Eastern  Part,  K  3).  Rich  mines 
of  coal  and  iron  of  varied  character  have  been  so 
highly  developed  as  to  make  the  adjoining  regions 
the  greatest  in  the  world  in  coal  mining  and  in 
the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel  products.  The 
term  Alleghanies  is  sometimes  incorrectly  ex- 
tended to  include  the  whole  Appalachian  system, 
of  which  it  IS  a  part.     See  .Appalachians. 

ALLEGHANY  SPRINGS.  .-V  popular  liealth 
resort  in  .Montgomery  Co.,  Va.,  three  miles  south 
of  Shawsville,  on  the  Norfolk  and  Western  Rail- 
road;  noted  for  its  medicinal  sjirings  (Map: 
Virginia,  D  4).  There  are  also  in  this  locality 
several  mineral  springs  other  tlian  those  men- 
tioned, of  which  the  principal  are  the  Montgom- 
ery White  Sulphur  and  the  Yellow  Sulphur 
Springs. 

ALLEGHENY.  An  important  manufactur- 
ing city,  in  Allegheny  Co.,  Pa,,  on  the  north  bank 
of  the  Allegheny  and  Ohio  rivers,  opposite  Pitts- 
burg (Map:  Pennsylvania,  A3),  The  Allegheny 
River  is  crossed  by  several  large  bridges,  aflfoid- 
ing  ample  facilities  for  communication  between 
the  two  cities,  which  form  one  industrial  and 
social  community.  The  most  important  indus- 
trial establishments  are  the  extensive  iron  and 
steel  rolling  mills,  and  car  and  locomotive  works; 
liut  there  are  also  manufactures  of  textile  goods, 
(lour,  salt,  sanitary  plumbing  supplies,  white 
lead,  leather,  stoves,  ranges,  and  pickles  and 
preserves.  The  river  traffic,  which  is  very  im- 
portant, is  controlled  by  Pittsburg.  ( See  Pitts- 
nuRU.)  .\llegheny  is  the  terminus  of  the  West- 
ern Pennsylvania,  the  Pittsburg  and  Western, 
and  the  Buffalo.  Rochester,  and  Pittsburg;  and 
is  on  the  Pittsburg,  Fort  Wayne,  and  Chicago, 
the  Cleveland  and  Pittsburg,  the  Pittsburg  and 
lirie,  and  the  Pittsburg  and  New  Castle,  all  of 
which  belong  to  the  western  division  of  the  Penn- 
fcvlvania  system.  Electric  street  railways  give 
additional'  transit  facilities  to  Pittsburg  and 
neighboring  ti^wns. 

The  city  h  located  on  hilly  ground,  and  covers 
an  area  of  about  twelve  square  miles.  Tlie  two 
most  prominent  buildings  are  the  city  hall  and 
the  public  library,  facing  each  other  at  the  cross- 
ing of  Ohio  and  Federal  streets,  while  the  public 
market  is  at  a  third  corner.  The  Western  (State) 
Penitentiary  is  located  here.  The  Liberty  Monu- 
nient,  situated  on  an  eminence  in  West  Park, 
and  others  of  local  interest  are  prominent  fea- 
tures. In  the  centre  of  the  city  is  a  public  park 
of  100  acres,  with  fountains,  lakes,  and  a  monu- 
ment to  Humboldt;  and  in  the  northern  out- 
skirts Is  Riverview  Park.  Allegheny  Park 
and  the  Washington  Monument  are  additional 
points  of  interest.  The  Allegheny  Cieneral,  Pres- 
byterian, and  St.  .John  General  hospitals,  the 
colored  Orphan  Home,  Ridge  Avenue  Orphans' 
Home,  the  Home  of  the  Friendless,  the  Gusky 
Orphanage,  the  United  Presbyterian  Children's 
Home,  and  the  Allegheny  Industrial  School  are 
among  the  benevolent  institutions  of  the  city. 
Of  important  educational  institutions  there  are 
three  theological  seminaries,  connected  with  dif- 


ferent branches  of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  and 
the  Western  University  of  Pennsylvania.  The 
latter  was  established  in  1819,  and  now  has 
aljout  700  students,  over  500  of  whom  are  in  the 
professional  departments.  The  university  and 
Allegheny  Observatory  occupy  a  high  hill  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  city.  In  connection  with 
the  public  schools  there  is  a  library  of  17,000 
volumes,  but  the  Carnegie  Public  Library  of 
42.000  volumes  is  much  more  important.  The 
university  and  seminary  libraries  are  not  acces- 
sible to  the  public. 

Allegheny  is  a  city  of  the  second  class.  The 
administration  is  vested  in  a  recorder,  elected 
every  three  years,  and  a  bicameral  council.  The 
recorder,  with  the  consent  of  the  select  council, 
appoints  the  treasurer,  assessors,  department  of 
law,  the  directors  of  public  works,  public  safety, 
and  public  charities,  recorder's  clerk,  and  police 
magistrates.  The  council  elects  the  city  clerk. 
The  comptroller  is  chosen  by  popular  vote.  The  an- 
nual income  and  expenditures  of  the  city  amount 
to  about  .$2,830,000  and  .$2,570,000,  respectively, 
the  principal  items  of  expense  being  $130,000  for 
the  police  department.  .$130,000  for  the  fire  de- 
partment, .$350,000  for  schools,  $180,000  for  the 
operation  of  the  water  works,  and  $80,000  for 
street  lighting. 

Allegheny  was  laid  out  in  1788,  and  was  incor- 
porated as  a  borough  in  1828,  and  in  1840  as  a 
city.  On  July  4,  1874,  occurred  a  disastrous  fire, 
in  which  199  buildings  were  consumed  or  badly 
damaged,  and  three  weeks  later  a  local  flood, 
resulting  from  an  abnormal  rainfall,  destroyed 
a  great  amount  of  property  and  caused  124 
deaths.  The  city"s  growth  since  1870  has  been 
remarkable.  Pop.,  1870,  .53,180;  1880,  78,682; 
1890,  105,287;  1900,  129,890,  including  30,200 
persons  of  foreign  birth  and  3300  of  negro 
descent.  Consult:  T.  Gushing,  History  of  Alle- 
gheny County  (Chicago,  1889)  ;  and  Lambing 
and  White.  Allegheny  County:  Its  Early  His- 
ton/  and  Subsequent  Development  (Pittsburg, 
1888). 

ALLEGHENY  COL'LEGE.  An  American 
college,  situated  at  Meadville,  Pa.  It  was  found- 
ed in  1815  as  a  Presbyterian  institution,  but 
passed  in  1833  to  the  control  of  the  Methodist 
Church.  The  value  of  the  buildings,  grounds, 
and  apparatus  is  estimated  at  $325,000,  and  the 
productive  endowment  is  $445,000.  There  are  a 
civil  engineering,  a  scientific,  a  classical,  and 
a  Latin  and  modern  languages  course.  In  1900 
the  number  of  professors  and  tutors  was  17,  and 
there  were  191  students  in  the  college  and  132  in 
the  preparatory  school.  The  library  contains 
15,000  volumes. 

ALLEGHENY  RIVER.  A  river  of  Penn- 
sylvania and  New  York,  rising  in  Potter  Co., 
Pa.,  nearly  2000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  uniting 
with  the  Jlonongahela  at  Pittsburg  to  form  the 
Ohio  (Map:  Pennsylvania,  B  2).  Although 
flowing  through  a  hilly  region,  it  is  navigable 
for  nearly  200  miles  above  Pittsburg,  whence, 
via  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi,  the  navigation  ex- 
tends to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  river  is  325 
miles  long,  and  drains  an  area  of  11,000  square 
miles. 

ALLE'GIANCE  (Lat.  ad,  to -f  O.  F.  and 
Engl,  licfic  but  the  formation  was  influenced 
by  Lat.  allifiare,  to  bind  to,  and  also  by  leon, 
law),  ".'\llegiance,"  saj-s  Blackstone,  "is  the 
tie,  or  ligamcn.  which  binds  the  subject  to 
the    sovereign,    in    return    for    that    protection 


ALLEGIANCE 


3G4 


ALLEGORY. 


which  the  sovereign  affords  the  subject."  Alle- 
giance is  the  highest  legal  duty  of  the  sub- 
ject, and  consequently  its  violation,  treason 
(q.v.),  is  the  highest  legal  offense.  Allegiance 
is  of  three  kinds :  { 1 )  Natural  or  implied 
allegiance  is  that  which  every  native  or  natu- 
ralized citizen  owes  to  the  State  to  which 
he  belongs  and  whose  protection  he  enjoys. 
Independently  of  any  express  promise,  every 
man.  by  availing  himself  of  the  benefits  which 
an  organized  political  society  affords,  comes 
under  an  implied  obligation  to  defend  it,  and 
this  equally  whether  the  attack  be  from  without 
or  from  within.  This  conception  of  allegiance 
as  a  political  obligation,  involved  in  the  notion 
of  citizenship,  is  comparatively  modern,  and  has 
gradually  supplanted  the  feudal  conception  of 
allegiance  as  a  duty  voluntarily  assumed  as  an 
incident  of  the  feudal  tenure  of  land.  (2)  Ex- 
press allegiance  is  that  obligation  which  arises 
from  an  express  promise  or  oath  of  allegiance. 
The  old  English  oath  of  allegiance  corresponded 
in  the  case  of  the  sovereign,  as  lord  paramount 
of  all  the  lands  in  England,  to  the  oath  of 
fealty,  which,  by  the  feudal  law,  all  freehold 
tenants  were  required  to  take  to  their  landlords. 
As  administered  for  upward  of  000  years,  it  con- 
tained a  promise  "to  be  true  and  faithful  to 
the  king  and  his  heirs,  and  truth  and  faith  to 
bear  of  life  and  limb  and  terrene  honor,  and  not 
to  know  or  hear  of  any  ill  or  damage  intended 
him.  without  defending  him  therefrom." 

With  the  substitution  of  the  political  for  the 
feudal  motive  for  allegiance  and  its  consequent 
general  obligation,  the  importance  of  the  oath 
of  allegiance  has  greatly  diminished.  It  is  com- 
monly exacted  of  aliens  acquiring  naturalization, 
of  persons  lately  in  rebellion  on  resuming  the 
status  of  citizens,  and  of  public  officers  of  all 
grades,  and  members  of  the  bar.  The  form  com- 
monly employed  in  this  country  is  a  simple  oath 
to  support  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States. 
(See  Oath.)  (3)  Local  or  temporary  allegiance 
is  that  obedience  and  temporary  aid  due  from 
an  alien  (q.v.)  to  the  State  or  community  in 
which  he  resides,  by  virtue  of  which  he  becomes 
subject  to  its  laws",  and  liable  for  duty  in  the 
maintenance  of  social   order. 

It  is  but  recently  that  the  principal  govern- 
ments of  Europe  have  come  to  recognize  the  right 
of  persons  voluntarily  to  change  their  allegiance 
as  well  as  their  residence,  and  such  recognition 
is  still  grudging  and  imperfect.  The  United 
States  has  always  held  it  to  be  a  natural  right, 
and  our  legislation  so  recognizes  it.  This  dif- 
ference of  view  has  sometimes  brought  ovir  gov- 
ernment into  sharp  diplomatic  conflict  with  the 
States  of  Europe,  especially  in  the  effort  to  pro- 
tect from  military  conscription  former  subjects 
of  those  States  who  had  renounced  their  alle- 
giance and  become  naturalized  citizens  of  the 
United  States.  These  efforts  have  generally 
proved  successful,  but  the  principle  contended  for 
by  our  government,  though  accepted  (so  far,  at 
least,  as  the  naturalization  of  their  subjects  in 
the  United  States  is  concerned)  by  England, 
France, Germany. and  Austria-Hungary, is  repudi- 
ated by  Russia.  Turkey,  and  some  other  States. 
This  principle  is  plainly  declared  in  the  act  of 
Congress  relating  to  naturalization  (q.v.) ,  passed 
in  July,  1808.  The  preamble  states  that  the 
right  of  expatriation  is  natural  and  inherent 
in  all  people,  and  indispensable  to  the  enjoy- 
ment of  the  rights  to  life,  liberty,  and  the  pur- 


suit of  happiness ;  that,  recognizing  this  right, 
our  government  has  received  emigrants  from  all 
nations  and  given  them  citizenship  and  protec- 
tion ;  that  it  is  necessary  for  the  maintenance 
of  public  peace  that  the  claim  of  foreign  alle- 
giance as  to  such  adopted  citizens  should  be 
promptly  and  finally  disavowed :  and  therefore 
it  was  enacted  that  any  declaration,  opinion, 
order,  or  decision  of  any  officer  of  this  govern- 
ment which  denies,  impairs,  restricts,  or  ques- 
tions the  right  of  expatriation,  is  inconsistent 
with  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  govern- 
ment; that  all  naturalized  citizens  of  the  United 
States,  while  in  foreign  States,  are  entitled  to, 
and  shall  receive  from  this  government,  the  same 
protection  of  person  and  property  that  is  accorded 
to  native-born  citizens  in  like  circumstances.  This 
broad  declaration  of  rights  and  duties  was  fol- 
lowed in  May,  1870,  by  the  British  Parliament 
in  an  act  revising  all  British  laws  on  alienage, 
expatriation,  and  naturalization  —  the  govern- 
ment for  the  first  time  recognizing  the  right  of 
subjects  to  renounce  allegiance  to  the  crown. 

Allegiance  of  the  population  of  a  State  or 
district  is  often  transferred  en  masse,  as  an  inci- 
dent of  territorial  conquest  or  as  the  result  of 
the  cession  of  territory,  as  in  the  successive 
purchases  of  Louisiana  from  France,  of  Florida 
and  the  Philippine  Islands  from  Spain,  and  of 
Alaska  from  Russia,  as  well  as  in  the  enforced 
cession  to  the  United  States  of  Texas  and  Porto 
Rico,  and  to  Germany  of  Alsace-Lorraine  as 
the  result  of  successful  war.  The  right  of  a 
State  to  claim  the  allegiance  of  the  inhabitants 
of  territory  so  acquired  is  undoubted,  and  it  is 
only  as  a  humane  concession  to  the  sentiment  of 
loyalty  of  such  a  population  that  the  right  to 
choose  between  the  old  and  the  new  allegiance  is 
sometimes  reserved  by  the  treaty  of  cession. 
This  permission  has,  in  modern  times,  usually 
been  granted,  the  inhabitants  of  the  ceded  terri- 
tory being  permitted  to  retain  their  nationality 
by  withdrawing  within  a  specified  period  from 
the  ceded  district. 

In  military  usage,  allegiance  is  the  oath  de- 
manded of  officers  and  men  to  the  sovereign  or 
president,  as  supreme  commander-in-chief  of  the 
army.  In  the  German  Empire,  the  troops  of 
Bavaria  do  not  recognize  the  absolute  control  of 
the  King  of  Prussia,  except  in  time  of  war, 
when  the  full  oath  of  allegiance  and  implicit 
obedience  to  the  orders  of  the  German  Emperor 
is  taken.  Consult:  Blackstone,  Commentaries 
on  the  JjCiirs  of  Ennland,  Book  I.,  ch.  x. ;  Pollock 
and  Jlaitland,  History  of  Enr/lisk  Law  (second 
edition.  Boston,  1899)',  Volume  I.,  pages  290-307, 
4.5S-407,  Volume  II.,  pages  502-.')ll;  Salmond. 
"Citizenship  and  Allegiance."  in  Laic  Qtiarterh/ 
Review.  Volume  XVIII..  numbers  07,  09  (London, 
July,  1901,  and  -January,  1902)  ;  Kent.  Oommen- 
tnries  on  American  Laic,  Volume  II.,  section  xxv. 
See  also  Citizen  ;  Subject. 

AL'LEGOKY  (Gk.aX^jjYnpia,  allcrioria,  speak- 
ing otherwise,  allegory,  from  aX/lof,  alios,  other  -\- 
ayopeveiv,  agoreuein,  to  speak).  The  allegory  as 
a  literary  manner  is  a  narrative  in  which  the 
incidents  and  the  characters  really  refer  to  a 
complete  and  logical  scheme  of  underlying 
thought.  To  be  successful,  the  narrative  must 
be  not  only  interesting  for  it.self.  but  also  in 
perfect  harmony  with  the  veiled  course  of 
alistract  reasoning.  Such  is  Bunyan's  Pilgrim's 
Pror/ress,   where,   under   the  guise   of   a   journey 


ALLEGORY. 


365 


ALLEINE. 


from  tho  City  of  Destniction  to  tlip  Cele?;tial 
C'itv.  arc  jiortrayed  the  spiritual  conflicts  ami 
tlic  ultimate  victory  of  the  faithful  Christian. 
Allegory,  like  other  kiiuhed  figurative  ways  of 
speech,  such  as  metaphor  and  personification, 
appears  in  all  literatures.  The  Eastern  people 
from  the  earliest  times  have  been  fond  of  it. 
Witness  the  beast  fables  which  pass  under  the 
name  of  Pilpay.  where  moral  observations  are 
enforced  by  tales  about  animals;  also  tlie  com- 
parison of  Israel  to  a  vine  in  the  eightieth 
Psalm.  Though  the  Greeks  had  the  allegorical 
habit  earlier,  the  first  definite  mention  of  an 
allegory  among  them  occurs  in  Plato's  Phwilnis. 
In  this  dialogue,  Socrates  remarks  on  the  ten- 
dency toward  the  rationalistic  explanation  of 
myths.  This  and  other  dialogues  of  Plato  con- 
tain very  beautiful  allegories,  among  which  may 
be  cited  the  comparison  of  the  soul  to  a  char- 
ioteer drawn  by  two  horses,  one  white  and  the 
other  black.  For  Latin  literature  may  be  men- 
tioned the  story  of  Cupid  and  Psyche,  whicli, 
though  Greek  in  origin,  survives  only  in  the 
Golden  Ass  of  Apuleius.  Vergil's  well-known 
description  of  Fame  in  the  fourth  book  of  the 
.Eiicid.  and  Ovid's  splendid  picture  of  the  abode 
of  that  goddess  in  the  twelfth  book  of  the  Meta- 
morphoses. To  a  later  time  belongs  Boethius's 
De  Consolatione  Philosophiw  (sixth  century 
A.n. ),  which  was  one  of  the  widest  read  books  in 
the  Jliddle  -Ages.  The  most  flourishing  period  for 
the  allegory  in  Western  Europe  was  from  1300 
to  IGOO.  In  the  long  list  of  works  are  Dante's 
Divine  Comedy,  The  Romance  of  the  Rose.  Lang- 
land's  Piers  Plowman,  Chaucer's  House  of  Fame, 
the  writings  of  a  whole  school  of  Scotch  poets, 
Hawes's  Pastime  of  Pleasure,  Barclay's  Ship  of 
Fools,  and  Spenser's  Faerie  Queene.  Set  allegory 
has  now  gone  out  of  fashion,  but  we  have  in  its 
place  a  vaguer  symbolism,  as  in  Tennyson's 
IdiiUs  of  the  King. 

The  form  of  allegory  thus  defined  and  illus- 
trated is  often  called  moral  or  spiritual,  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  the  historical  allegory:  i.e., 
the  representation  of  historical  characters  under 
fictitious  names.  Thus  Lucifera  in  the  Faerie 
Queene  stands  not  only  for  pride,  btit  also  for 
Mary,  Queen  of  Scots.  The  historical  allegory 
became  in  the  seventeenth  century  a  favorite 
device  of  romancers,  who  described  contemporary 
events  in  the  terms  of  recent  history.  Of  this 
style,  an  admirable  example  is  Jladame  de  Lafa- 
yette's Princesse  de  Cleres.  Moreover,  allegory 
is  not  confined  to  literature;  it  appears  ecjually 
in  painting,  and  sometimes  in  sculpture. 

Ai.i.EGORKWi.  IxTERPRETATiox.  That  kind  of 
interpretation  whereby  the  literal  meaning  of  a 
passage  or  work  is  set  aside  for  a  more  spiritual 
and  profound  import.  St.  Paul  allegorizes 
when  he  interprets  the  history  of  the  free-born 
Isaac  and  the  slave-born  Ishmael  (Galatians 
iv:24).  At  Alexandria,  where  met  the  Cireek 
and  the  Jew,  allegorical  intrepretation  of  the 
Old  Testament  was  practiced  as  a  critical  niethod. 
Philo  .Iuda>us  (B.C.,  20),  for  example,  applied 
the  principles  of  Plato's  philosophy  to  Hebrew 
theology.  He  was  followed  by  many  Christian 
theologians,  the  ■  most  famous  of  whom  were 
Clement  of  Alexandria  and  Origen.  The  latter 
went  so  far  as  to  sav  that  ''the  Scriptures  are  of 
little  use  to  those  who  understand  them  as  they 
are  written.''  As  a  specimen  of  his  procedure 
may  be  taken  his  interpretation  of  the  Mosaic 
account   of  the  Garden  of  Eden.     According  to 


him,  Paradise  syndudizcd  a  high  primeval  spir- 
ituality: the  Fall  consisted  in  the  loss  of  this 
state  through  spiritual  and  not  material  tempta- 
tion; and  the  expulsion  from  the  Garden  lay  in 
the  soul's  being  driven  out  of  its  region  of  orig- 
inal purity.  This  allegorical  method  also  gained 
foothold  among  the  critics  of  Greek  literature. 
I'or])hyry  (  d.  c.  30.t  ) ,  for  example,  explained  the 
grotto  of  the  nymphs  in  Homer's  Odyssey  (Book 
XII [. )  as  an  allegory  of  tlic  W(uld.  For  a  succinct 
account  of  the  progress  of  allegory  with  special 
reference  to  English  literature,  consult  W.  J. 
Courthope.  A  History  of  Enylish  Poetry  (Lon- 
don. 1805). 

ALLEGRI,  al-la'gre,  AxTOXio.     See  Correg- 

GIO. 

ALLEGRI,  Gregorio  (c.  1584-1G52).  An  Ita- 
lian composer.  He  was  born  in  Home,  probably 
of  the  Correggio  family.  He  studied  under  Nan- 
ini,  and  was  a  friend  of  Palestrina.  Appointed 
to  the  choir  of  the  Sistine  Chapel,  Rome,  by  Ur- 
ban VIII.,  he  retained  the  position  until  his 
death.  He  was  one  of  the  earliest  composers  for 
stringed  instruments.  His  most  celebrated  work, 
however,  is  the  Miserere,  for  two  choirs  (of 
four  and  five  parts),  still  annually  rendered  in 
the  Sistine  Chapel  on  Good  Friday.  Mozart,  at 
the  age  of  fourteen,  performed  the  wonderful 
feat  of  writing  the  entire  work  from  memory 
after  having  heard  it  but  twice.  Allegri  is  re- 
garded as  a  link  between  the  Roman  and  Nea- 
politan periods  of  Italian  music. 

ALLEGRO,  al-lfi'gro  (It.,  from  Lat.  alacer, 
alaeritous,  lively).  One  of  the  five  principal 
tempos  ( q.v. )  in  music,  implying  that  the  piece 
is  to  be  performed  in  a  quick  or  lively  style. 
Allegro,  like  all  the  other  degrees  of  movement, 
is  often  modified  by  other  terms,  such  as  Alleijro 
non  tanto.  Allegro  ma  non  troppo,  Allegro  mod- 
erato,  maestoso,  giusto,  commodo,  vivace,  assai, 
di  molto,  con  brio,  etc.  As  a  substantive,  Alle- 
gio  is  used  as  the  name  of  a  whole  piece  of 
music,  or  a  movement  of  a  symphony,  sonata,  or 
quartet.  Allegretto,  a  diminutive  of  Allegro, 
somewhat  slower  than  the  latter  and  faster  than 
Andante. 

ALLEINE,  nl'lcn,  Jo.seph  (1634-68).  An 
English  nonconformist  divine,  author  of  An 
Alarm  to  the  Unconverted.  He  was  born  at 
Devizes,  86  miles  west  of  London,  was  educated 
in  Corpus  Christi  College,  O.xford,  and  became  a 
tutor  there  (16.53).  He  was  offered  a  political 
place,  which  he  declined,  but  gladly  took  the 
office  of  assistant  to  George  Newton,  rector  of 
the  church  of  St.  Mary  Magdalene.  Taiinton 
(1654).  About  this  time  he  married  Theodosia, 
daughter  of  Richard  Alleine.  He  was  not  only 
constant  in  religious  work,  but  deeply  learned  in 
various  sciences,  and  on  intimate  terms  with  the 
patriarchs  of  the  Royal  Society.  When  the  perse- 
cution of  nonconformists  came,  he  and  his  senior 
pastor  were  ejected,  and  Alleine  became  an 
itinerant  preacher  of  the  Gospel  wherever  he 
could  find  opportunity.  For  this  he  was  im- 
prisoned, but  released  in  May,  1664;  yet  in  spite 
of  the  Conventicle  Act  or  Five-mile  Act,  he  pur- 
sued his  work,  and  was  again  imprisoned.  His 
later  .years  were  full  of  persecution  and  suffer- 
ing. No  Puritan  nonconformist  name  is  more 
affectionately  cherished  than  his.  He  died  at 
Taunton,  November  17,  1CG8.  For  his  life,  con- 
sult Stanford  (London,  1861). 


ALLEINE. 


366 


ALLEN. 


AL'LEINE,  or  ALLEIN,  Richard  (IGU- 
81).  An' English  writer  and  theologian,  author 
of  Vindiciw  Pictulis,  or  A  VincUcation  of  Godli- 
ness (London,  1()63).  He  was  born  at  Ditcheat, 
Somersetshire,  educated  at  Oxford;  became  as- 
sistant in  the  ministry  to  his  father,  Richard 
Alleine,  and  was  noted  for  his  eloquence.  He 
declared  for  the  Puritans,  Init  continued  for 
twenty  years  (1641-C2)  rector  of  Batcombe  in 
Somerset.  On  the  passage  of  the  act  of  uni- 
formity he  .rent  with  the  ejected,  and,  after  the 
five-mile  act,  preached  where  he  could  find 
occasion.  His  Vindication  of  Godli)iess  was  re- 
fused license, and  Roger  Norton,  the  King's  print- 
er, caused  a  large  part  of  the  first  edition  to 
be  seized  and  sent  to  the  royal  kitchen  for  kin- 
dling; but,  on  reading  it,  he  brought  back  the 
sheets  and  sold  the  work  from  his  own  shop,  for 
which  he  had  to  beg  pardon  on  his  knees  at  the 
council  table.  Alleine  died  at  Frome  Selwood, 
December    22,    1081. 

ALLEMAINE,  al-man'.  An  old  name  for 
Germany   (cf.  Fr.  Allemagne).     See  Alemanni. 

ALLEMANDE,  al'le-mand'  (Fr.,  feminine  of 
aUcmuml,  German).  A  French  dance,  said  to 
have  been  invented  in  the  time  of  Louis  XIV., 
which  again  became  popular  at  the  Parisian 
theatres  during  the  reign  of  Napoleon  I. 
It  has  a  slow  waltz  kind  of  tempo,  and  consists 
of  three  steps  {pas  marches)  made  in  a  sliding 
manner,  backward  and  forward,  but  seldom 
waltzing  or  turning  round.  The  whole  charm 
of  the  dance  lies  in  the  graceful  manner  of  en- 
twining and  detaching  the  arms  in  the  different 
steps.  In  England  it  was  called  Almain.  and  is 
mentioned  in  Ben  Jonson's  play.  The  Devil  is  an 
Ass,  acted  in  1610,  which  proves  it  of  earlier 
origin.  The  name  has  also  reference  to  a  Ger- 
man dance  of  Swabia,  of  which  Beethoven's 
twelve  Deutsche  Tanze  for  orchestra  are  speci- 
mens. The  Allemande  is  also  the  name  of  a 
movement  in  the  Huite  (q.v.),  having  no  rela- 
tion to  the  dance  of  the  same  name.  It  usually 
consists  of  a  figurative  melody  which  has  a 
simple   accompaniment. 

AL'LEMAN'NI.     See  Alemanni. 

AL'LEN.  Alexandee  Viets  Gbiswold,  D.D. 
(1841 — ).  A  Protestant  Episcopal  theologian, 
born  at  Otis,  Mass.  He  graduated  at  Kenyon 
College  in  1802,  and  at  Andover  Theological  Sem- 
inary in  1805.  In  18G7  he  became  professor  of 
church  history  in  the  Episcopal  Theological 
School  at  Cambridge,  Mass.  His  publications 
include  Continuity  of  Christian  Thought  (Bos- 
ton, 1884,  eleventh  edition,  189.5),  Life  of  Jona- 
than Edwards  (1889),  Religious  Progress 
(1894),  Christian  Institutions  (New  York, 
(1897),  Life  and  Letters  of  Phillips  Brooks 
(1901,  two  volumes). 

ALLEN,  Arabella.  A  character  in  Dick- 
ens's Piekn-ick  Papers.  She  becomes  Mrs.  Nathan- 
iel  Winkle. 

ALLEN,  Charles  Grant  Blairfindie  ( 1848- 
99).  An  English  author,  better  known  as 
Grant  Allen.  He  was  born  in  Kingston,  Canada, 
of  Irish  descent,  and  was  educated  at  Merton 
College,  Oxford,  where  he  giaduated  in  1871. 
He  then  spent  a  few  years  as  principal  of  a 
colonial  college  in  Jamaica.  He  is  best  known 
by  his  popular  scientific  works,  his  expositions 
of  the  theory  of  evolution  being  particularly 
clear  and  readable.     He  spent  most  of  his  life 


in  London,  where  he  died.  Among  his  scientific 
books  the  following  may  be  mentioned:  Physio- 
logical J!:sthetics  (1877),  probably  his  best 
work;  The  Color  Sense  (1879),  The  Evolutionist 
at  Large  (1881),  Vignettes  from  Nature 
(1881),  Co/i(i  Clout's  Calendar  (1883),  Flowers 
and  their  Pedigrees  (1884),  The  Utory  of  the 
Plants  (1895),  and  Evolution  of  the  Idea  of  God 
(1897).  He  also  wrote  a  life  of  Charles  Dar- 
win (1885),  and  a  number  of  novels,  among 
them:  Philistia  (1884),  The  Devil's  Die 
(1888),  The  Woman  Who  Did  (1895),  A 
Bride  from  the  Desert  (1896).  Historical 
studies  also  attracted  him,  and  he  pub- 
lished Anglo-Saxon  Britain  (1881),  and  a  series 
of  historical  guide  books  to  Paris,  Florence,  and 
Belgium. 

ALLEN,.  Charles  Herbert  (1848 — ).  An 
American  politician.  He  was  born  at  Lowell, 
JSIass.,  graduated  in  1869  at  Amherst  College, 
and  for  a  time  was  in  the  lumber  industry  at 
Lowell.  In  18S1-S2  he  served  in  tlie  Lower  House 
of  the  Massachusetts  State  Legislature,  and  in 
1883  in  the  State  vSenate.  He  was  subsequently 
elected  to  the  Forty-ninth  and  Fiftieth  (1885-89) 
Congresses.  In  1898  he  succeeded  Theodore 
Roosevelt  as  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Navy, 
and  in  1900-01  was  the  first  civil  governor  of 
Puerto  Rico.  His  administration  of  the  affairs 
of  the  island  did  much  to  promote  trade  and 
internal  prosperity. 

ALLEN,  David  Oliver  (1800-63).  An  Amer- 
ican missionary,  boin  at  Barre,  Mass.  He  grad- 
uated in  1823  at  Amherst  College,  studied  at  An- 
dover Theological  Seminary,  and  in  1827  went 
to  Bombay  as  a  niissionary.  He  traveled  widely 
in  western  India,  established  .schools,  directed 
a  new  translation  of  the  Bible  into  Mahratta, 
and  in  1853  returned,  much  broken  in  health,  to 
America.  His  History  of  India  was  published 
at  Boston  in   1856. 

ALLEN,  Ebenezer  (1743-1806).  An  Ameri- 
can  soldier.  He  was  born  in  Northampton, 
Mass.,  and  removed  to  Vermont  in  1771.  He 
became  a  lieutenant  in  a  company  of  Green 
Mountain  Boys,  and  during  the  Revolution 
served  first  as  captain  in  and  then  as  major  of 
a  battalion  of  New  Hampshire  rangers.  He  was 
conspicuous  for  gallantry  at  the  battle  of  Ben- 
nington, and  in  September,  1777,  forced  the  evac- 
uation of  Ticonderoga  by  his  cajiture  of  Mount  De- 
fiance. 

ALLEN,  Edward  Patrick  (18.53—).  A 
Roman  Catholic  bishop  of  Mobile,  Ala.,  appointed 
in  1897.  He  was  born  at  Lowell,  Mass.,  and 
after  completing  a  theological  course  at  Mount 
St.  Mary's  College,  Emmitsburg,  Md.,  was  or- 
dained a  priest  in  1881.  Afterward  he  held 
a  professorship  at  Mount  St.  Mary's,  and  was 
its  president  from  1884  until  he  was  consecrated 
bishop  by  Cardinal  Gibbons.  During  his  admin- 
istration he  relieved  the  college  of  its  heavy 
indebtedness,  increased  its  equipment,  and  en- 
larged its  faculty. 

ALLEN,  Elisha  Hunt  (1804-83).  An  Amer- 
ican  politician  and  Hawaiian  justice,  born  at 
New  Salem,  Mass.  He  graduated  at  Williams 
College,  was  called  to  the^Massachusetts  I)ar,  and 
was  a  member  of  the  State  Legislature  of  Maine 
from  1836  to  1841,  and  in  1846.  In  1849  he 
was  elected  to  the  Massachusetts  Legislature, 
and  from  1852  to  1856  was  United  States  consul 


ALIiEN. 


obi 


ALLEN. 


at  Honolulu,  Hawaii.  In  ISoT-Td  he  was  Chan- 
cellor and  Chief  Justice  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands, 
and  from  that  time  was  Minister  of  the  Hawai- 
ian Islands  to  the  United  States. 

ALLEN,  Eliz.^betii  Akers  (1832 — ).  An 
American  author,  born  at  Strong,  Me.  Her 
verses,  entitled  "Rock  Jle  to  Sleep,  Mother," 
became  widely  known,  and  were  frequently  set 
to  music.  This  poem  had  previously  appeared 
in  the  Philadelphia  Haturdiiij  Ereiiiii;/  Post,  the 
manuscript  having  been  sent  to  that  paper  by  the 
authoress  in  ISUU  while  on  a  visit  to  Italy.  Mrs. 
Allen  began  to  write  under  the  pen-name  Flor- 
ence Percy.  She  has  produced  several  volumes 
of  ])ootry  and  some  prose. 

ALLEN,  Ethan  (1737-89).  An  American 
soldier.  He  was  born  at  Litchfield,  Conn.,  and 
about  1760  removed  to  Vermont,  settling  first 
at  Bennington,  where  he  became  conspicuous  in 
the  contest  between  New  Hampshire  and  New- 
York  for  jurisdiction  over  the  "New  Hampshire 
Grants,"  now  Vermont.  He  represented  his  fel- 
low settlers  in  a  suit  at  Albany  in  1771,  but  their 
claims  being  disregarded,  he  organized  a  force  of 
Green  Mountain  Boys  for  the  eviction  of  New- 
York  settlers.  Governor  Tryon,  of  New-  York, 
thereupon  declared  him  an  outlaw,  and  offered 
.$1.50  for  his  arrest.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Rev- 
olution, Allen  and  his  associates  offered  "their 
services  to  the  patriot  party,  and  organized  an- 
expedition  against  Tieonderoga  (q.v. ).  On  the 
morning  of  May  10,  177.5,  be  surprised  the  gar- 
rison and  forced  its  commander  to  surrender  "in 
the  name  of  the  great  Jehovah  and  the  Contin- 
ental Congress."  Allen  soon  afterward  joined 
General  Schuyler's  army,  was  employed  in  secret 
missions  to  Canada,  and  rendered  valuable  aid 
in  Montgomery's  expedition.  He  was  taken 
prisoner,  September  25,  1775,  near  Montreal, 
and  was  sent  to  England.  Some  months  later  he 
was  sent  back  to  this  country  and  was  kept  as  a 
prisoner  in  Halifax  and  New  York  until  May 
3.  1778,  when  he  was  exchanged.  After  his  re- 
lease, he  returned  to  Vermont,  was  put  in  com- 
mand of  the  militia,  and  soon  afterward 
became  a  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  Contin- 
ental army;  though  he  devoted  his  attention 
chiefly  to  the  old  territorial  dispute,  and,  inci- 
dentally, carried  on  a  correspondence  with  the 
enemy,  upon  which  a  charge  of  treason  was  sub- 
sequently based.  No  satisfactory  expl.ination 
has  ever  been  given  of  his  conduct,  but  tlie  charge 
of  treason  is  at  least  not  fully  substantiated. 
He  moved  to  Burlington  in  1787,  and  died  there 
two  years  later.  Though  a  blusterer,  he  was  as 
full  of  action  as  he  was  of  talk,  and  had  very 
great  ability  as  a  leader  both  in  politics  and  in 
war.  He  wrote  a  Xarrativv  of  Colonel  Ethan 
Allen's  Captivity  (1779),  which  went  into 
numerous  editions;  a  Vindication  of  the  Opposi- 
tion of  Vermont  to  the  Government  of  Nein  York 

(1779),  and  Jfeason.  the  Only  Oracle  of  Man.  or 
A  Compendious  System  of  Natural  Reliijion. 
Consult  Henry  Hall,   Ethan  Allen    (New  York, 

1892). 

ALLEN,  FiiEDERic  DE  Forest  (1854-97). 
An  American  classical  scholar.  He  was  born 
at  Obcrlin,  Ohio,  and  graduated  at  Oberlin 
College  in  1803.  He  was'at  Leipzig  in  1808-70, 
and  took  his  Ph.D.  with  his  thesis  De  Pinlccto 
Locrensium,  which  is  still  an  important  mono- 
graph. In  1885-86  he  was  director  of  the  Ameri- 
can School  of  Classical  Studies  at  Athens.     In  ad- 


dition to  numerous  articles  in  clas>ical  journals 
he  published  an  edition  of  the  Medea  of  Euripides 
(  1876)  ;  Remnants  of  Early  Latin  (1880)  ;  a  re- 
vision of  Hadley's  iirecl:  (Irammar  (1884),  and 
(heek   Versifieation  in  Inscriptions    (1888). 

ALLEN,  Fkei)  Hovey  (1845 — ).  An  Ameri- 
can Congregational  clergynuin  and  author.  Born 
at  Lyme,  N.  H.  He  graduated  at  the  Hartford 
Theological  Seminary,  studied  at  Boston  Univer- 
sity and  tlie  Universities  of  Berlin.  Vienna,  and 
Paris,  and  held  pastorates  in  Boston,  Wollaston, 
Abington,  and  Rockland.  He  fovinded  and  for 
some  time  edited  the  Lawrence  (Mass.)  Eagle, 
but  is  best  known  as  the  inventor  of  the  first 
photogravure  plates  for  art  reproduction  made 
in  America.  His  writings  include  Masterpieces 
of  Modern  German  Art  (1884).  Recent  German 
Art  (1885),  and  Grand  Modern  Paintings  (1888). 

ALLEN.  Gb.\n-t.  See  Allen,  Ciiahles  Gr.\nt 
Blairfindie. 

ALLEN,  Harrlson  (1841-97).  An  American 
physician  and  anatomist.  He  was  born  in  Phil- 
adelphia, and  graduated  in  me<iicine  at  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1861.  In  18C2  he 
became  a  surgeon  in  the  United  States  army, 
and  served  until  the  conclusion  of  the  Civil  War. 
In  1865  he  was  made  professor  of  comparative 
anatomy  and  medical  zoology  at  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania,  and  was  transferred  in  1878 
to  the  chair  of  physiology,  which  he  occupied 
until  1895.  Dr.  Allen  was  professor  of  anatomy 
and  surgery  at  the  Philadelphia  Dental  College, 
and  surgeon  to  the  Philadelphia  Hospital.  He 
was  president  of  the  American  Laryngological 
Society  in  1880  and  of  the  American  Anatomical 
Society  from  1891  to  1893.  In  addition  to  many 
papers  contributed  to  medical  journals,  he  was 
the  author  of  Outlines  of  Comparative  A>iatomy 
and  Medical  Zoology  (1867),  Studies  in  the 
Facial  Region  (1874),  An  Analysis  of  the  Life 
Form  in  Art  ( 1875) ,  and  System  of  Human  Anat- 
omy  (1880). 

ALLEN,  Hexrt  (1748-84).  An  American 
religious  enthusiast.  He  was  born  at  Newport, 
R.  I.,  but  afterward  settled  in  Nova  Scotia,  where 
he  taught  that  the  souls  of  all  men  are  emana- 
tions from  the  same  Spirit;  that  they  were 
present  with  our  first  parents  in  Eden;  that 
Adam  and  Eve  in  iimocency  were  pure  spirits 
without  material  bodies:  that  there  will  be  no 
resurrection  of  the  body;  that  men  are  not  bound 
to  obey  the  ordinances  of  the  Gospel,  and  that 
the  Scriptures  are  not  to  be  interpreted  literally, 
but  in  a  spiritual  sense.  He  published  a  volume 
of  hymns  and  several  treatises  and  sermons. 
Tliough  he  made  many  converts  to  his  religious 
ideas,  the  Allenites  dwindled  after  his  death. 

ALLEN,  Henry  Watkins  (1820-60).  An 
American  soldier  and  politician.  He  was  born 
in  Prince  Edward  Co.,  Va. ;  taught  school  and 
practiced  law.  In  1842  he  raised  a  company, 
and  served  in  the  Texan  war  against  Mexico. 
He  removed  to  Louisiana  in  1850,  and  was  subse- 
quently a  member  of  the  State  Legislature.  After 
studying  law  at  Harvard  and  traveling  in 
Europe,  he  entered  the  Confederate  service  in 
1861  as  lieutenant-colonel.  He  was  wounded  at 
Baton  Rouge  and  at  Shiloh,  became  a  brigadier- 
general  in  1864,  and  in  the  same  year  was  elected 
Governor  of  Louisiana,  in  which  capacity  he 
rendered  valuable  services  to  the  Confederate  gov- 
ernment. After  the  war  he  removed  to  the 
City  of  Mexico,  and  edited  the  Mexican   Times. 


ALLEN. 


368 


ALLEN. 


He  wrote  a  readable  book  entitled   Tiurcls  of  a 
Snr;(ir  I'bintcr. 

ALLEN,  Horace  N.  (1S5S— ).  United  States 
minister  in  Korea.  He  was  born  April  23,  1858, 
in  Delaware,  0.,  graduated  in  the  Ohio  Wesleyan 
University,  studied  medicine,  and  went  as  med- 
ical missionary  (Presbyterian)  to  China.  In 
1884,  at  the  time  of  the  couij  d'etat  of  Kim  Ok 
Kiun,  he  was  at  Seoul,  Korea,  and  saved  the  life 
of  a  relative  of  Queen  Jling.  He  was  made  court 
Iihysician,  and  established  a  hospital  under  gov- 
ernment control.  When  the  first  Korean  lega- 
tion went  to  Washington  in  1887,  he  acted  as 
interpreter  and  secretary.  Returning  to  Korea 
in  1890,  he  soon  became  noted  for  his  knowledge 
of  Korean  alTairs,  and  in  1897  was  made  United 
States  minister  plenipotentiary  to  the  Korean 
Empire.  Publications:  Korean  Tales :  A  Chron- 
oloijical  Index  of  the  Chief  Events  in  the  Foreign 
Iniereourse  of  Korea,  and  many  learned  articles 
in  The  Korean  Repository  and  the  Transaetions 
of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Korea. 

ALLEN,  H0R.4.TI0,  LL.D.  (1802-89) .  An  Amer- 
ican civil  engineer.  He  was  born  at  Schenectady, 
N.  Y.,  graduated  in  1823  at  Columbia,  and  in 
1826  was  appointed  resident  engineer  of  the 
summit  level  of  the  Delaware  and  Hudson  Canal. 
He  was  sent  to  England  in  1828  to  buy  locomo- 
tives for  the  canal  company's  projected  railway, 
and  in  1829,  at  Honesdale,"Pa.,  the  initial  point 
of  the  railway,  operated  the  "Stourbridge  Lion" 
in  the  first  trip  made  by  a  locomotive  on  this 
continent.  From  1829  to  1834  he  was  the  chief 
engineer  of  the  South  Carolina  Railway,  at  that 
time  the  longest  railway  in  the  world,  and  from 
1838  to  1842  was  principal  assistant  engineer 
of  the  Croton  aqueduct  for  supplying  water  to 
New  York  City.  He  was  at  various  times  chief 
engineer  and  president  of  the  Erie  Railway,  and 
consulting  engineer  for  the  Panama  Railway  and 
the  Brooklyn^Bridge.  In  1872  and  1873  he  was 
president  of  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engi- 
neers. He  was  the  inventor  of  the  so-called 
"swiveling  truck"  for  railway  cars. 

ALLEN,  Ir.\  (1751-1814).  One  of  the  found- 
ers of  Vermont.  He  was  born  in  Cornwall, 
Conn.,  and  in  1772  removed  to  Vermont,  where 
he  served  as  a  lieutenant  under  his  brother, 
Ethan,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the  boundary 
dispute  between  New  Y'ork  and  New  Hampshire. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Vermont  Legislature 
(1770-77),  and  of  the  State  Constitutional  Con- 
vention (1778),  and  in  1780-81  was  a  commis- 
sioner to  Congress.  He  went  to  France  in  1795 
and  bought  20,000  muskets  and  24  cannon,  in- 
tending to  sell  them  to  Vermont:  but  he  was 
captured  at  sea,  and  taken  to  England  on  a 
charge  of  furnishing  arms  to  Irish  rebels.  He 
was  acquitted  after  a  lawsuit  that  lasted  eight 
years.  He  published  The  yatural  and  Political 
'History  of  Vermont  (London,  1798),  and  fijatc- 
mrnts  Appended  to  the  Olive  Branch    (1807). 

ALLEN,  .James  Laxe  (1849—).  An  Amer- 
ican novelist.  He  was  born  in  Kentucky,  and 
graduated  at  Transylvania  University.  He 
taught  first  in  Kentucky  University,  and  after- 
ward at  Bethany  College,  West  Virginia,  but 
after  ISSfi  devoted  himself  entirely  to  literature, 
publishing  successively  Flute  and  Violin  (1891), 
The  l:luc  Grass  Hegion.  and  Other  f^ketehes 
(1892),  John  Gray:  a  yorel  (1893),  The  Ken- 
tucky Cardinal  (1894),  Aftermath  (1895),  .1 
Summer  in  Arcady  (1896),  The  Choir  InvisiUe 


(a  rewriting  of  John  (hay,  1897).  and  The 
Reign  of  Law  (1900).  His  stories  deal  mainly 
with  life  and  nature  in  Kentucky,  and  are  elab- 
orate in  stylistic  art.  His  short  stories,  such 
as  The  White  Cowl  and  Sister  Dolorosa,  were  the 
first,  and  are  among  the  best  fruits  of  his  genius. 
His  later  works,  however,  show  more  conscious 
artistic  elaboration. 

ALLEN,  Jerome  (1830-94).  An  American 
educator.  He  was  born  at  Westminster  West, 
Vt.,  and  graduated  at  Amherst  College  in  1851. 
He  was  at  the  head  of  several  educational  in- 
stitutions in  the  West  from  1851  to  1885,  and 
professor  of  pedagogy  at  the  University  of 
New  Y'ork  from  1887  to  1893.  To  his  ef- 
forts more  than  to  any  other  agency  was 
due  the  founding  of  the  New  York  School  of 
Pedagogy,  of  whicli  he  liecame  dean  in  1889. 
Professor  Allen's  publications  inclmlc  a  Hand- 
hook  of  Experimental  Chemistry.  Methods  for 
Teachers  in  Grammar,  Hind  Studies  for  Young 
Teachers,  and  Temperament  in  Education. 

ALLEN,  Joel  Asaph    (1838—).     An  Ameri- 
can   naturalist.      He    was    born    at    Springfield, 
Mass..  July  19,   1838.     Between  1865  and   1869, 
and  again  "in  1873,  he  took  part  in  various  scien- 
tific expeditions  to  Brazil  and  Florida,  and  to  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  gathering  material   and_  con- 
tributing studies  of  it  to   scientific  periodicals, 
,  especially  the  Proceedings  of  the  Boston  Society 
of  Xatu'ral  History.     In   1870  he  became  an  as- 
sistant in  the  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology 
at  Harvard  University,  and  later  its  curator  of 
birds  and  mammals.     In  1886  he  was  appointed 
to  a  similar  office  in  the  .:^merican  Museum  of 
Natural  History  in  New  Y'ork.     He  w-as  one  of 
the  founders  and  early  presidents  of  the  Ameri- 
can Ornithologists'   Union   and   the  editor  of  its 
quarterly  publication,   The  Auk.  and  one  of  the 
early   members   of   the   National    Academy.     Dr. 
Allen  has  won  rank  as  one  of  the  foremost  sys- 
temists   of  American    mammals    and    birds,   in 
which  work  he  has  made  minute  subdivisions; 
and  has  made  fruitful  researches  into  the  prin- 
ciples  of  geographical    distribution,   and    those 
governing    climatic    and    seasonal     variation     in 
color,  size,  and  other  details.     In  addition  to  a 
gi-eat  number  of  scientific  papers,  he  is  author 
of     The    American    Bisons     (Cambridge.    1876)  : 
Monographs  of  Xorth  American  Rodcntia    (with 
E.  Coues)    (Washington,  1877)  ;  and  History  of 
Xorth  American  Pinnipedia  (Washington,  1880). 
ALLEN,  Joseph  Henry    (1820-98).     A  Uni- 
tarian    scholar.     He  was  born  at  Northborough, 
Mass.,  August  21,  1820;   graduated  at  Harvard 
College,    1840,    and    at   the   Divinity    School    in 
1843.     He  was  pastor  at  different  places:  editor 
of    The    Christian    Examiner,    1857-69:     lecturer 
upon  ecclesiastical  history   in   Harvard   Univer- 
sity, 1878-82;  joint  editor  (with  J.  B.  Greenough) 
of    a   series   of   classical    text-books;    author   of 
Hehrew  Men  and  Times   [to  the  Christian  era] 
(Boston.   1861);   Christian  History  in  its  Three 
Great     Periods.      (1)   Early     Christianity,     (2) 
The  Middle   Age,    (3)     Modern    Phases     (1882- 
83,    3     volumes)  ;     Our    Liberal    Movement    in 
Theology.  Chiefly  as  Shown   in  Recollections  of 
the  nistori/  of   Vnitarianisni  in    Xew    England 
(1882),     Historical     Sketch    of     the    Unitarian 
Movement    since    the    Reformation     (New    York. 
1 894 ) .     His  works  show  independent  study  and 
acquaintance   with   the   sources,   and   his   denom- 
inational histories   rest  upon  personal   acquam- 


ALLEN. 


369 


ALLEN. 


tance  with  the  leaders.  He  died  in  Cambridge, 
Mass.,    .March   29,    1898. 

ALLEN,  Karl  Fekdinand  (1811-71).  A. 
Danish  historian,  born  at  Copenhagen.  He 
studied  at  the  university  there,  and  in  184.5  to 
1848  made  e.xaniinations  of  various  European 
archives.  He  was  appointed  an  instructor  and 
titular  professor  at  Copenhagen  in  1851,  and 
professor  of  history  anil  northern  archaeology  in 
1862.  His  principal  work  is  his  De  Tre  Xordishc 
i;ir/ers  Historic,  IJiin'-Jj.ilJ  (The  History  of  the 
Three  Northern  Kingdoms,  141)7-1536,  5  vol- 
umes, 1864-72),  one  of  the  most  important 
contributions  to  the  history  of  northern  Europe. 

ALLEN,  Ralph  (1694-1704).  An  English 
pliilantliropist.  He  was  known  for  his  numer- 
ous benefactions,  and  as  a  friend  of  Fielding 
(who  represents  him  as  Squire  Alhvorthy  in  Tom 
Jones),  of  Pitt,  and  of  Pope,  who  in  the  epilogut 
to  the  Satires  of  Horace,  says  of  him: 

*'  Let  humble  Allen,  w  ith  nn  a«  k\\  jird  shame. 
Do  good  by  stealth,  and  blush  to  find  it  fame." 

ALLEN,  EiCHAKD  (1700-1831).  A  colored 
Metliodist  preacher.  He  was  born  in  slavery, 
but  bouglit  his  freedom,  and  afterward  acquired 
considerable  wealth.  He  became  a  local  Jletho- 
dist  preaclier  in  1782,  and  organized  the  first 
church  for  colored  people  in  the  United  States, 
in  Philadelphia,  in  17i)3.  He  was  the  first  col- 
ored minister  ordained  by  Bishop  Asbury,  a 
deacon  (1799),  and  was  elected  a  bishop  of  the 
African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  on  its  for- 
mation in   1810.     He  died  in  Philadelphia. 

ALLEN,  Robert  (1815-80).  An  American 
soldier.  He  was  born  in  Ohio,  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1830,  served  with  distinction  in 
the  second  Seminole  \\'ar  and  in  the  Jlexican 
War,  and  was  subsequently  chief  quartermaster 
of  the  Pacific  division  until  1861,  when  he  be- 
came quartermaster  of  the  Department  of  ilis- 
souii.  In  this  capacity,  and  afterward  (1863- 
00),  as  chief  quartermaster  of  the  Missouri  Val- 
ley, he  rendered  valuable  services  to  the  Federal 
armies  in  the  West,  and  by  successive  promotions 
became  brevet  major-general  in  1865.  After  the 
war  he  was  again  chief  quartermaster  of  the 
Pacific  division,  until  retii'ed  in  1878. 

ALLEN,  Thomas  (1849—).  An  American 
landsca])e  and  animal  painter.  He  was  born  at 
St.  Louis,  Mo.,  studied  at  the  Diisseldorf  Acad- 
emy, and  has  his  studio  in  Boston.  He  became 
a  member  of  the  Society  of  American  Artists 
(1880),  and  an  associate  member  of  the  National 
Academy  of  Design  (1884),  and  was  one  of  the 
international  board  of  judges  at  Chicago  in 
1893.  His  most  successful  works  are  chielly 
lindsca])e  and  animal  s»ibjects,  and  include  "O'er 
-Ml  the  Hilltops  is  Rest,"  "Maplehurst  at  Noon," 
and  "Toilers  of  the  Plain." 

ALLEN,  Viola  (1867 — ).  An  -American  ac- 
tress who  in  1898  made  a  wide  reputation  as 
Glory  (Juayle  in  Hall  Caine's  dramatized 
novel,  71ic  Christiait,  in  which  she  starred  with 
great  popular  success.  She  is  the  daughter  of  an 
actor,  C.  Leslie  Allen,  and  appeared  on  the  stage 
when  fifteen  years  old,  in  Esmeralda,  at  the  Mad- 
ison Square  Theatre,  New  York  (1882).  Later 
she  played  in  the  company  of  John  McCullough 
and  with  Tommaso  Salvini,  Lawrence  Barrett, 
Joseph  .Jeflerson,  and  W.  J.  Florence.  .  In  1893, 
she  was  at  the  Empire  Theatre,  New  York,  where 
she  remained  four  years.     Among  the  pieces  in 


which  she  there  appeared  were  The  Masqiicrad- 
ers  and  Under  the  lied  Robe.  After  her  seasons 
in  The  Christian,  she  starred  with  In  the 
Falaee  of  the  King  (1900),  by  F.  Marion  Craw- 
ford and  Lorimer  Stoddard.  Consult:  L.  C. 
Strang,  Famous  Actresses  of  the  Dai/  in  Amer- 
ica (Boston,  1899)  ;  J.  B.  Clapp  and  E.  F.  Ed- 
gett,  Players  of  the  Present  (New  Y'ork,  1899). 

ALLEN,  William  (1532-94).  An  English 
cardinal.  Born  at  Rossall,  he  studied  in  Oriel 
College,  Oxford,  and  became  principal  of  St. 
Mary's  Hall  in  1550.  He  opposed  the  Reforma- 
tion, and  after  Elizabeth's  accession  he  went  to 
Louvain  (1561).  He  returned  to  England 
(1502),  but  his  proselytizing  zeal  made  another 
flight  necessary,  and  he  went  to  Holland  (1505), 
and  never  revisited  England.  He  was  ordained 
priest  at  Mechlin,  was  more  prominent  in  or- 
ganizing in  the  University  of  Douai  (1568) 
a  college  for  English  Roman  Catholics,  whence 
he  sent  Jesuit  priests  to  his  native  land,  the  aim 
of  his  life  being  to  restore  Papal  supremacy  in 
England.  In  1570  he  became  regius  professor 
of  divinity,  in  1587  a  cardinal,  in  1589  he  was- 
offered  the  archbishopric  of  Malines,  but  de- 
clined the  honor.  He  died  at  Rome,  October  16. 
1594.  Consult  his  Letters  and  Memorials,  with 
introduction  by  T.  F.  Knox  (London,  1882). 
He  made  vigorous  efforts  to  check  tlie  progress  of 
the  Protestant  Reformation  in  England  and  en- 
gaged in  polemical  writing.  Several  violent  libels 
of  the  time  are  attributed  to  his  pen,  but  his  au- 
thorship of  these  has  been  disputed.  Among  the 
Jesuit  priests  he  sent  to  England  was  the  cele- 
brated Father  Campion,  put  to  death  by  Eliza- 
beth. He  published  ten  volumes,  among  them 
Certain  Brief  Reasons  Concerning  Catholic  Faith 
(1564),  and  aided  in  revising  the  English  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible  known  as  the  Douai  Bible. 

ALLEN,  William  (1770-1843).  An  English 
philanthropist.  He  was  lecturer  on  chemistry  in 
Gu}''s  Hospital,  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Pharmaceutical  So- 
ciety. Jointly  with  Samuel  Pepys,  he  established 
the  chemical  composition  of  carbonic  acid.  He 
belonged  to  Sir  Humphry  Davy's  circle  of 
friends,  and  at  his  request  he  lectured  on  physics 
at  the  Royal  Institution.  He  was  a  prominent 
member  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  and  bore  an 
active  part  in  the  philanthropic  movements  of 
his  time.  Wilberforce  and  Clarkson  were  his  in- 
timate friends,  and  he  shared  in  the  anti-slavery 
agitation.  He  was  an  active  supporter  of  Lan- 
caster and  Bell  in  their  educational  movement, 
championing  their  side  of  the  controversy  in  his 
journal.  The  Philanthropist :  and  he  was  associ- 
ated with  Robert  Owen  in  his  schemes  for  social 
improvement.  He  also  founded  industrial  schools, 
and  advocated  the  abolition  of  capital  punish- 
ment. He  contributed  papers  to  the  Philosophi- 
cal Transactions.  Consult  Life  of  William  Al- 
len, with  fielcctions  from  His  Correspondence  (2 
volumes.  1847 ) . 

ALLEN,  William  (1784-1868).  An  Amer- 
ican educator  and  author.  He  was  born  at 
Pittsfield.  Mass.:  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1802, 
and  after  a  few  years  spent  in  pastoral  work  be- 
came assistant  librarian  at  Harvard.  There  he 
prepared  his  American  Biographical  and  Histor- 
ical Dictionar//  (1809).  the  first  work  of  general 
biography  published  in  the  United  States.  The 
third  edition  (1857)  has  notices  of  nearly  7000 
Americans,  while  the  fir.st  has  only  700.    In  1810, 


ALLEN". 


370 


ALLEPPI. 


he  became  his  father's  successor  in  tlie  pulpit  in 
Pittsfield.  In  1817  he  was  elected  president  of 
Dartmouth  College,  and  from  1820  to  1830  he 
was  president  of  Bowdoiii  College.  Allen's  me- 
moir was  published  in  1847. 

ALLEN,  William  (1806-79).  An  American 
statesman.  He  was  born  in  North  Carolina,  but 
at  an  early  age  went  to  Ohio,  where  he  practiced 
law.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1832  by  the 
Democrats,  but  was  defeated  on  a  second  trial.  He 
was  twice  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate, 
and  served  from  1837  to  1849.  In  1848  he  was 
offered  the  nomination  for  President,  but  de- 
clined it  on  the  ground  that  he  was  pledged  to 
General  Lewis  Cass.  In  1873  he  was  elected  Gov- 
ernor of  Ohio.  Two  years  afterward  lie  was  a 
candidate  for  reelection,  but  as  he  made  his  can- 
vas on  the  greenback  issue,  of  which  cause  he 
had  become  the  foremost  advocate,  he  was  de- 
feated by  R.  B.  Hayes.  He  is  said  to  be  the  au- 
thor of  the  famous  alliterative  slogan  of  the 
campaign  of  1844,  '"Fifty-four  forty,  or  fight." 

ALLEN,  William  Fkancis  (1830-89).  An 
American  educator  and  historian,  joint  editor  of 
Allen  and  Greenough's  series  of  school  books.  He 
was  born  at  Northborough,  Mass.,  and  graduated 
at  Harvard  in  1851.  He  studied  history  and  an- 
tiquities in  Germany  and  Italy  for  two  years, 
and  afterward  became  professor  of  Latin  and  Ro- 
man history  at  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  a 
position  which  he  filled  from  18(i7  until  his  death. 
In  addition  to  his  text  books,  he  published  many 
works  of  standard  merit,  including  Outline  Stud- 
ies in  the  History  of  Ireland  ( 1887). 

ALLEN.  William  Henry  (1784-1813).  An 
American  naval  officer.  He  was  born  in  Provi- 
dence, R.  I.,  and  entered  the  navy  in  1800.  He 
was  a  lieutenant  on  tlie  frigate  United  States  in 
the  action  with  the  Macedonian,  October  2.5,  1812, 
in  which  the  latter  was  captured.  Afterward  he 
commanded  the  brig  Argus,  cruising  off  England 
in  1813.  After  having  captured  $2,000,000  worth 
of  property,  he  encountered  the  British  brig  Pel- 
ican, August  14,  and  lost  his  own  vessel,  and 
died  the  next  day  of  wounds  received  in  the  fight. 

ALLEN,  William  Henry,  LL.D.  (1808-82). 
An  American  educator.  He  was  born  at  Man- 
chester, Me.,  and  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College 
in  1833.  He  was  profesor  of  Latin  and  Greek  at 
Cazenovia  (N.  Y.)  Seminary  from  1833  to  183G: 
of  natural  philosophy  and  chemistry  in  Dickin- 
son College,  183<!-40;  of  philosophy  and  English 
literature  there  from  1840  to  1849;  president  of 
Girard  College,  Philadelphia,  1849-62  and  1807- 
82.  In  1872  he  was  chosen  president  of  the  Amer- 
ican Bible  Society. 

ALLEN,  Z.\cnARiAir  (179.5-1882).  An  Amer- 
ican scientist  and  inventor.  He  was  born  in 
Providence,  R.  I.,  graduated  at  Brown  LTniversity 
in  1S13,  studied  law  in  the  office  of  James  Burrili, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1815.  Subse- 
quently he  became  a  manufacturer,  and  in  1825 
visited  Europe  for  the  study  of  mechanical  meth- 
ods in  England,  Holland,  and  France.  He  con- 
structed (1821)  the  first  hot-air  furnace  for  the 
heating  of  dwelling-houses,  was  the  first  to  cal- 
culate the  motive  power  of  Niagara  Falls  {Silli- 
nian's  Journal,  April.  1844),  devised  the  system 
of  mutual  insurance  of  mill  property,  and  framed 
new  laws  for  regulating  the  sale  of  explosive  oils. 
In  1833  he  patented  his  best-known  invention, 
the  automatic  cut-off  valve  for  steam  engines, 
still  in  use  with  improvements.     He  was  from 


1822  a  member,  and  from  ISSO  president,  of  the 
Rhode  Island  Historical  Society.  His  publica- 
tions include  The  Science  of  Mechanics  (1829), 
Philosophy  of  the  Mechanics  of  Nature  (1851), 
The  Rhode  Island  System  of  Treatment  of  the 
Indintfj,  and  of  Establishing  Civil  and  Religious 
Liberty  (1876;  address  at  the  bi-centennial  anni- 
versary of  the  burning  of  Providence),  and 
Solar  Light  and  Heat,  the  Source  and  Supply 
(1879).  Consult  Perrv.  Monorial  of  Zachariah 
Allen,  l'i93-lSS2   (Cambridge,  18S3). 

ALLENDE,  a-yan'dfl,  or  SAN  MIG"U"EL  DE 
ALLENDE.  An  historic  city  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  state  of  Guanajuato,  Mexico,  situated 
on  the  Lara  River,  40  miles  nortli  of  Celaya 
(Map:  Mexico,  H  3).  It  figured  prominently  in 
the  first  period  of  the  revolution  against  Spain, 
taking  its  modern  name  from  one  of  the  great 
patriot  leaders,  Ignacio  de  Allende.  The  town's 
principal  industries  are  blanket-making  and  the 
manufacture  of  liorse  equipments.     Pop.,  15,000. 

AL'LENITES.     See  Allen,  Henry. 

ALLENSTEIN,  iil'len-stln.  A  town  of  East 
Prussia,  capital  of  the  circle  of  Allenstein,  situ- 
ated about  32  miles  from  the  Russian  frontier, 
on  the  river  Alle  (Map:  Prussia,  J  2).  It  is  a 
well-built  and  neat-looking  town,  with  several 
churches,  a  gymnasium,  and  an  agricultural 
school,  a  hospital,  gas  works,  and  a  number  of 
markets ;  of  industrial  establishments  it  has 
saw  mills,  machine  shops,  breweries,  and  a  match 
factory.     Pop.  1895, ,21,579;  1900,24.207. 

AL'LENTO"WN.  A  city  and  the  county  seat 
of  Lehigh  County,  Pa..  00  miles  northwest  of 
Philadelphia,  on  the  Lehigh  River,  and  on  the 
Lehigh  Valley,  Central  of  New  Jersey,  and  Phil- 
adelphia and  Reading  railroads  (Map:  Pennsyl- 
vania, F  3 ) .  It  is  one  of  the  largest  producers 
of  furniture  in  the  United  States,  is  second  to 
Paterson  in  the  production  of  American  silks, 
and  has  extensive  manufactures  of  iron  and  steel, 
cement,  cigars,  and  thread.  The  city  owns  and 
operates  its  water  works,  and  has  a  fine  hospital ; 
it  is  the  seat  of  Muhlenberg  College  (Lutheran), 
established  1867,  and  of  the  Allentown  College 
for  Women.  Allentown  was  laid  out  about  1752 
bj'  William  Allen,  then  Chief  Justice  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  was  known  by  its  present  name  until, 
in  1811,  it  became  the  seat  of  justice  of  Lehigh 
County,  and  was  incorporated  as  the  borough  of 
Northampton.  In  1838  its  first  name  was  re- 
stored, and  in  1867  Allentown  was  incorporated 
by  special  charter.  Lender  the  charter  of  1889, 
now  in  operation,  the  ma_yor  is  elected  for  three 
j'ears,  and  the  city  council  is  composed  of  two 
bodies,  an  upper  house  of  11  members  and  a  low- 
er house  of  22.  The  annual  income  of  the  city 
amounts  to  about  $450,000;  expenditures  to 
$300,000,  of  which  $105,000  is  spent  in  construc- 
tion and  other  capital  outlay,  and  $255,000  in 
maintenance  and  operation.  The  principal  items 
of  expense  include  $10,000  for  tlie  police  depart- 
ment, $15,000  for  the  fire  department,  and  $95,- 
000  for  schools.  Pop.  1890.  25.228;  1900,  35,- 
416.  See  Matthews  and  Hungerford,  History  of 
the  Counties  of  Lehiqh  and  Carbon  (Philadel- 
phia, 1884). 

ALLEP'PI,  or  ALLAPPALI.  A  seaport  on 
the  western  coast  of  the  native  State  of  Tra- 
vancore.  in  the  southern  part  of  Madras,  British 
India  (Map:  India,  C  7).  It  has  a  sheltered 
roadstead,  and  carries  on  a  considerable  trade 
in  coffee,  pepper,  and  cardamoms.     By  means  of 


ALLEPPI. 


371 


ALLIANCE. 


canals  and  lagoons  along  the  coast,  Alleppi  ooni- 
municates  with  Cochin  on  the  north  and  Trivan- 
drum  on  the  south.  Population  estimated  at 
from  24,000  to  30,000. 

ALLER,  al'er.  A  river  of  Germany,  rising 
about  20  miles  west  of  Magdeburg.  It  Hows 
northwestward,  joining  the  \Veser  near  Verden. 
Of  its  course  of  l.'i.')  miles,  the  greater  part  across 
Hanover,  the  portion  which  lies  below  Calle  is 
navigalile. 

AL'LERTON,  Lsaac  (c.  1583-1659).  One  of 
the  Pilgrim  Fathers  who  came  to  America  in 
the  first  voyage  of  the  Mayflower.  He  was  one 
of  the  energetic  and  wealthy  members  of  Ply- 
mouth colony,  and  was  sent  to  Europe  several 
times  as  its  agent.  A  disagreement  with  the 
colony  in  16.31  resulted  in  his  removal  to  New 
Amsterdam,  where  he  became  a  member  of  the 
council  in  1043.  He  spent  the  latter  years  of 
his  life  in  New  Haven.  His  daughter,  Mary,  was 
the   last   survivor   of   the   Mayflower  company. 

ALLEVARD-LES- BAINS,  ari'-viir'la-baN'. 
A  town  of  the  department  of  Isere,  France,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Breda,  15  miles  southeast 
of  Chambery.  It  has  iron  and  steel  manufac- 
tures, and  is  greatly  resorted  to  for  its  valuable 
medicinal  springs  and  the  picturesque  scenery 
of  its  valley.     Pop.,  ISOO,  2726, 

ALLEYN,  al'lcn,  Edward  (1566-1626).  An 
English  actor,  theatre  manager,  and  the  founder 
of  Dulwich  College.  Born  in  the  parish  of 
St.  Botolph,  .just  out  of  London,  he  went  upon 
the  stage  shortly  before  Shakespeare  eame  from 
Stratford.  AllevTi  won  rapid  success,  especially 
in  tragedy,  playing  among  other  roles  the  Jew 
in  Marlowe's  Jew  of  Malta,  and  also  Tambur- 
laine  and  Faustus.  He  ow-ned  several  play- 
houses, and  in  1592  married  the  step-daughter  of 
Philip  Henslowe  (q.v.),  with  whom  he  was  asso- 
ciated in  building  the  Fortune  Theatre  and  in 
various  other  enterprises,  including  the  profit- 
able business  of  bear-baiting.  As  his  wealth  in- 
creased, he  ceased  acting  and  became  a  manager. 
But  though  he  seems  to  have  been  so  much  the 
favorite  actor  of  his  time  that,  as  was  said,  "The 
name  of  Ned  Allen  on  the  common  stage  was  able 
to  make  an  ill  matter  good,"  his  chief  claim  to 
remembrance  is  as  the  munificent  founder  of  the 
College  of  God's  Gift,  at  Dulwich.  His  motive 
in  this  benefaction  has  been  ascribed  by  tradi- 
tion to  an  apparition  of  the  devil,  who  ap- 
peared to  him  as  he  was  playing  that  character 
in  a  theatre,  but  his  well-known  liberality  and 
the  fact  that  he  was  childless  are  more  to  the 
point.  The  cfdlege  was  l)egun  in  1613,  and  in 
1619,  after  some  obstruction  on  the  part  of  Lord 
Chancellor'  Bacon,  who  wished  the  King  to  prefer 
the  foundation  of  two  lectureships  at  Oxford  and 
Cambridge,  it  obtained  the  royal  charter.  Here 
for  several  years  Alleyn  resided,  and  managed 
the  affairs  of  the  institution.  Alle.yn  was  a 
friend  of  Shakespeare  and  Ben  Jonson,  and  a 
patron  of  Dckker  (q.v.)  and  other  writers. 
He  was  buried  in  the  chapel  of  the  college  he 
had  founded,  and  among  its  possessions  are  his 
portrait  and  a  collection,  in  part,  however,  spuri- 
ous, of  his  business  papers.  Consult :  J.  P. 
Collier,  Memoirs  of  Edward  Alleyn  (London, 
1841)  :  J.  P,  Collier,  Annals  of  the  Stage  (Lon- 
don, 1819);  Warner,  Catalogue  of  the  Manu- 
scripts and  Muniments  at  Dulwich  College  (Lon- 
don, 1881)  ;  and  Thomas  Fuller,  Worthies  of 
England  (London,  1662). 


ALLEYNE,  Ellen.  A  pseudonym  under 
whicli  Christina  Georgina  Rossetti  wrote  for 
The  Germ. 

ALL  FOR  LOVE,  OR  THE  WORLD  WELL 
LOST.  <Jmc  of  Dryden's  best-known  tragedies, 
produced  in  167S.  It  is  unrhjnned.  and  in  some 
respects  is  an  imitation  of  .Shakespeare's  Antony 
and  Cleopatra. 

ALLGAU,  al'goi.  A  subdivision  of  the  Euro- 
pean Alps  (q.v.)  in  its  widest  sense,  surround- 
ing the  basin  of  the  Iller  River  in  southwestern  * 
Bavaria,  Germany.  The  name  is  also  applied  to 
the  Bavarian  districts  of  Sonthofen  and  Immen- 
stadt. 

ALLGEMEINE  ZEITUNG,  al'ge-ml'ne  tsS'- 
tung  (Ger.,  "general  newspaper") .  The  first  Ger- 
man newspaper  of  a  high  class.  It  succeeded  in 
1798  the  'Neueste  Weltkunde,  and  was  published 
by  Gotta  (q.v.),  who  had  sought  Sell  iller  as  edi- 
tor. The  journal  became  the  organ  of  states- 
men and  publicists,  and  has  always  commanded 
the  services  of  distinguished  literary  men  as 
critics  and  correspondents.  For  more  than  a  cen- 
tury it  has  maintained  its  founder's  ideal  of  a 
newspaper,  as  a  record  of  German  thought,  and 
a  trustworthy  storehouse  of  materials  for  the 
future  historian.  First  published  at  Stuttgart, 
it  was  successively  transferred  to  Ulm  and  Augs- 
burg, and  is  now  published  at  Munich. 

ALL  HAL 'LOWS.     See  All  Saints'  Day. 

AL'LIA.  In  ancient  geography,  a  small 
stream  which  flowed  into  the  Tiber  about  eleven 
miles  north  of  Rome.  It  is  celebrated  as  the 
scene  of  the  defeat  of  the  Roman  army  by  the 
Gauls,  under  Brennus,  about  390  B.C.  Immedi- 
ately afterward,  Rome  was  taken,  plundered,  and 
burned.  It  is  diflieult  to  identify  the  Allia  with 
any  of  the  modern  streams;  but  the  evidence 
seems  in  favor  of  the  Fosso  del  la  Bettina. 

AL'LIA'CEOUS  PLANTS.  Plants  of  the 
genus  Allium  (q.v.),  or  others  nearly  allied  to 
it.  The  term  is  generally  employed  to  denote 
not  only  the  possession  of  certain  botanical  char- 
acters, but  also  of  a  certain  smell  and  taste,  \\el\ 
known  by  the  term  alliaceous,  of  which  ex- 
amples are  readily  found  in  the  onion,  leek,  gar- 
lie,  and  other  familiar  species  of  Allium,  much 
employed  for  culinary  purposes.  These  plants 
contain  free  phosphoric  acid,  and  a  sulphuretted 
oil,  which  is  partly  dissipated  in  boiling  or  roast- 
ing. The  alliaceous  flavor  is,  however,  found 
also,  although  in  comparatively  rare  instances, 
in  plants  of  entirely  dift'erent  botanical  affinities 
— for  example,  in  Sisymbrium  alliaria,  of  the 
natural  order  Cruciferoe  (see  Alliaria)  ;  in  the 
young  shoots  of  Cedrela  angustifolia,  a  tropical 
American  tree  allied  to  nurhogany ;  and  in  cer- 
tain species  of  Dyso.xylum,  of  the  kindred  order 
Meliaccne,  the  fruit  of  which  is  used  instead  of 
garlic  by  the  mountaineers  of  Java. 

ALLI'ANCE.  See  Holt  Alliance  ;  Treaty  ; 
Triple  Alliance. 

ALLIANCE,  E'vanqel'ical.  See  Evangeli- 
cal Alliance. 

ALLIANCE.  Farmers'.  See  Farmers'  Al- 
liance. 

ALLIANCE.  A  city  and  railroad  junction 
in  Stark  Co.,  Ohio,  fifty-seven  miles  south-south- 
east of  Cleveland,  on  the  Mahoning  River,  and 
on  the  Lake  Erie,  Pittsburg,  Fort  Wayne,  and 
Chicago,   and   several    other    railroads      (Map: 


ALLIANCE. 


373 


ALLIBONE. 


Ohio,  H  4).  It  has  a  larjip  steel  plant,  and  ex- 
tensive manufaoturea  of  heavy  machinery,  includ- 
ing gun  carriages,  traveling  cranes,  structural 
iron  work,  boilers,  etc.  Alliance  owns  and  oper- 
ates its  water  works.  Mount  Union  College 
(Jlethodist  Episcopal),  organized  1846,  is 
located  here.  Alliance  was  settled  in  1838, 
and  was  called  Freedom,  until  in  1850 
its  present  name  was  adopted.  In  1854  it  was 
incorporated  under  its  present  charter,  which 
provides  for  a  mayor  elected  biennially,  and  a 
city  council  of  twelve  members.  Pop.,  1890, 
7(1(17:    inOO,  Sn74. 

ALLIANCE  ISRAELITE  ITNIVEESELLE, 
al'yans'  es'ra'a'let'  u'ne'var'sel'.  An  association 
founded  at  Paris  in  18(i0  for  the  amelioration  of 
the  condition  of  the  Jews  throughout  the  world. 
Tlie  original  meiulicrs  of  the  society  were  Jews, 
and  by  far  the  largest  niniiber  of  its  members 
at  present  belong  to  that  faitli:  but  the  associa- 
tion has  enjoyed  at  all  times  the  sympathy  and 
cooperation  of  many  prominent  Christians.  As 
outlined  in  its  pros])ectus,  the  programme  of  the 
society  included  the  emancipation  of  the  Jews 
from  oppressive  and  discriminating  laws,  po- 
litical disabilities,  and  defense  of  them  in 
those  countries  where  they  were  subjected  to 
persecution.  For  the  attainment  of  this  object 
the  society  purposed  to  carry  on  a  campaign  of 
education  through  the  press  and  by  the  publica- 
tion of  works  on  the  history  and  life  of  the  Jews. 
In  the  beginning,  however,  the  course  of  action 
adopted  by  the  society  for  bringing  relief  to 
their  oppressed  brethren  in  other  countries  was 
to  secure  the  intercession  of  friendly  govern- 
ments in  their  behalf.  Thus,  as  early  as  1867 
the  governments  of  France.  Italy.  Belgium,  and 
Holland  made  the  renewal  of  existing  treaties 
with  Switzerland  conditional  upon  that  country's 
granting  full  civil  and  political  rights  to  the 
Jews.  In  1878,  representatives  of  the  Alliance 
laid  the  condition  of  the  .Jews  in  the  Balkan  Pen- 
insula before  the  Congress  of  Berlin,  as  a  result 
of  which  the  Treaty  of  Berlin  stipulated  tliat 
in  Rumania,  Servia,  and  Bulgaria  no  discrinn- 
nation  should  be  made  against  any  religion  in 
the  distribution  of  civil  rights.  Of  late  years 
the  activity  of  the  Alliance  has  tended  to  become 
more  educational  tlian  political,  and  the  chief 
problem  with  wliich  it  was  occupied  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  twentieth  century  was  the  im- 
]iro\cment  of  the  condition  of  the  .Jews  in  the 
Orient.  Schools  have  been  established  in  Bulga- 
ria. European  and  .Vsiatic  Turkey,  Persia,  Tunis, 
and  Morocco.  I71  1890  the  number  of  such 
schools  was  95,  with  a  teaching  staff  of  400  and 
an  attendance  of  '24,000.  Instruction  is  carried 
on  in  the  language  of  the  country  or  in  the  dia- 
lect employed  by  the  majority  of  pupils.  In 
addition  to  the  cultural  schools,  32  manual 
training  workshops  have  been  established  for 
boys,  and  18  schools  of  domestic  science  for  girls, 
the  encouragement  of  handicrafts  among  the 
.Tews  being  one  of  the  chief  aims  of  the  Alliance. 
Two  farm-schools  have  been  established,  one 
near  Jaffa  in  Palestine,  the  other  at  Djedeida. 
near  Tunis;  the  former  of  these  has  supplied  the 
Jewish  colonies  in  Palestine  with  skilled  agricul- 
turists and  supervisors.  At  Paris  there  is  a 
normal  school  for  the  education  of  teachers  who 
are  exclusively  drawn  from  the  schools  of  the 
.Alliance,  and  are  sent  back  after  a  thorough 
training  to  carry  on  in  their  turn  the  work  of 
instruction  in  their  native  countries.     In   1899 


the  Alliance  numbered  32,400  members.  The- 
central  body  of  the  Alliance  is  a  committee  of 
sixty-two  members,  with  its  seat  at  Paris.  Only 
twenty-nine,  however,  are  resident,  the  rest  be- 
ing scattered  all  over  the  world,  six  of  them 
residing  in  the  United  States.  The  central  com- 
mittee stands  in  constant  communication  with 
the  regional  and  local  committees,  of  which  there 
are  a  number  in  the  United  States,  the  principal 
ones  being  at  New  York  and  Philadelphia.  The 
Alliance  publishes  monthly  bulletins  and  a  semi- 
annual report  in  French  and  German,  and  at  in- 
tervals issues  reports  in  English,  Hebrew,  Hun- 
garian, and  .Judeo-Spanish.  These  bulletins  are 
the  chief  authorities  for  the  history  of  the  Alli- 
ance.   See  Ck]6mieux,  Isaac  Adolphe. 

ALLIANCE  OF  the  Reformed  Churches 
HOLDING  the  PRESBYTERIAN  SYSTEM.  An  alli- 
ance formed  in  London  in  1875.  It  holds  coun- 
cils, which  have  no  legislative  authority  but 
great  moral  weight.  In  them  the  various 
Augustinian  non-prelatieal  and  in  general 
presbj'terial  bodies  tind  representation.  They 
are  upward  of  ninety  in  number,  scattered  all 
over  the  world,  with '25,000,000  adherents.  The 
published  reports  of  the  proceedings  of  these 
councils  contain  nuieh  valuable  matter  of  all 
kinds,  as  papers  are  read,  statistics  presented, 
and  many  speeches  made.  The  councils  have 
been  held  at  London,  1875;  Edinburgh,  1877; 
Philadelphia,  1880;  Belfast,  1884;  London,  1888; 
Toronto,  1892;  Glasgow,  1896;  Washington, 
1899. 

AL'LIA'RIA.  A  genus  of  plants  of  thc- 
natural  order  Cruciferse,  closelj'  allied  to 
Sisymbrium  and  Erysimum,  and  ranked  by  some 
botanists  in  the  genus  Sisymbrium.  It  is  known 
b}-  the  popular  names  of  sauce-alone  and  jack- 
by-the-hedge.  The  best  known  species,  Alliaria 
oilicinalis,  or,  as  often  commonly"  called,  Sisj-m- 
brium  alliaria,  is  a  native  of  Great  Britain, 'not 
unfrequently  found  on  hedge-banks  and  in  waste 
places  in  dry,  ricli  soils,  and  is  common  in  most 
parts  of  Europe.  It  has  also  become  introduced 
in  a  number  of  places  in  the  United  States.  It 
is  a  biennial,  with  a  stem  two  to  three  feet  high; 
large,  stalked,  heart-shaped  leaves,  white  flow- 
ers, and  pods  much  longer  than  their  stalks, 
which  are  somewhat  spreading.  It  seems  more 
deserving  of  cultivation  than  many  other  plants 
which  have  long  received  tlie  constant  care  of  the 
gardener,  being  wholesome,  nutritious,  and  to 
most  persons  pleasant.  The  powdered  seeds 
were  formerly  employed  as  a  sternutatory. 

AL'LIBONE,  Samuel  Au.stin  (1S16-89). 
•An  American  author.  He  was  born  at  Philadel- 
phia, and  although  engaged  in  commercial  pur- 
suits, devoted  considerable  time  to  literature. 
It  was  therefore  as  an  amateur  that  he  began  the 
literary  work  to  which  the  best  part  of  his  life 
was  devoted.  This  work,  the  Critical  Dictionary 
of  English  Literature  and  British  and  American 
Authors,  contains  notices  of  46,599  writers.  The 
first  volume  apjioared  in  1854.  Allibone  was 
book  editor  and  corresponding  secretary  of  the 
-American  Sunday-school  Union,  from  1867  to 
1S73.  In  1879  he  was  appointed  librarian  of  the 
Lenox  Library  in  Xew  York,  and  held  this  position 
until  1888.  He  died  at  Lucerne,  Switzerland,  Sept. 
2.  1889.  Besides  the  Critical  Dictiotiari/.  he  com- 
piled the  following  works:  Poetical  Quotations 
from  Chaucer  to  Tcmii/soii,  containing  13,600  pas- 
sages, taken  from  550  authors;  Prose  Quotations, 


ALLIBONE. 


373 


ALLIGATOR. 


fiom  Socrates  to Macauloi/, withindexes  to  tiieSSlO 
quotations,  containini;  tlie  names  of  544  authors 
*  and  571  subjects  (1870)  ;  Explanatory  Qurstions 
OH  till:  Oosi'jcis  and  the  Acts  (1860),  An  Alpha- 
betical Index  to  the  yew  Testament  (IStiS),  In- 
dexes to  Edward  Everett's  Orations  and  Speeches 
(1850-5U). 

AL'LICE,  or  AL^LIS  (Fr.  alosr,  from  Lat. 
alausa).  A  Kuropcaii  shad  (Alosa  riihiaris) 
about  twenty  inclies  long,  caught  for  food  when 
ascending  the  rivers  to  spawn.  It  is  the  larger, 
and  considered  the  better  of  the  two  species  of 
European  shad,  of  which  the  other  is  called  the 
twaite.  These  are  the  maifisch  of  the  Rhine  Valley. 
ALLIEB,  a'lya'.  A  department  in  central 
France  (Jlap:  France,  K  5).  It  is  formed  mainly 
out  of  the  old  province  of  Bourbonnais.  Area, 
2848  square  miles;  population,  in  I'JOl,  422,024. 
Capital,  Jloulins. 

ALLIES.  A  tributary  of  the  Loire,  which 
has  its  source  in  the  water-shed  in  the  east  of  the 
department  of  Loz&re,  France  (Map:  France, 
K  6).  It  flows  in  a  northerly  direction,  through 
Haute-Loire,  Puy-de-Drmie,  and  Allier,  and  after 
a  course  of  more  than  200  miles  falls  into  the 
Loire  below  the  town  of  Nevers.  It  is  navigable 
for  140  miles. 

AL'LIGA'TION  (Lat.  aUigare,  to  bind  to.  tie 
up).  A  form  of  proportion  of  eastern  origin, 
which  appears  in  the  early  works  of  Arabian  and 
Hindu  writers,  notably  in  tlie  Lilavati  of  Bhas- 
kara  Aeharya  (e.  1150).  The  process  was  for 
several  centuries  confined  to  problems  concern- 
ing the  combination  of  metals.  Two  forms  of  al- 
ligation were  recognized:  viz.,  alligation  medial 
and  alligation  alternate.  Alligation  medial 
teaches  tlie  method  of  finding  the  price  or  quality 
of  a  mixture  of  several  simple  ingredients  whose 
prices  or  qualities  are  known;  e.g..  What  is  the 
fineness  of  gold  produced  by  mixing  6  ounces 
of  gold  22  carats  fine  with  4  ounces  of  gold 
17  carats  fine?  Alligation  alternate  teaches 
wliat  amount  of  each  of  several  simple  ingredi- 
ents, whose  prices  or  qualities  are  known,  nnist 
be  taken  to  form  a  mixture  of  any  required  price 
or  quality:  e.g.,  How  much  gold  700  fine  and 
900  fine  nuist  lie  melted  togetlier  to  produce  gold 
800  fine?  Problems  of  this  kind  are  indetermi- 
nate; that  is,  they  have  more  than  one  solution, 
and  are  best  treated  by  algebraic  equations.  Al- 
ligation in  its  arithmetic  form  has  practically 
disappeared  from  recent  text-books,  and  may  be 
regarded  as  obsolete. 

AL'LIGATOR  (Sp.  el  lagarto.  the  lizard, 
Lat.  hiccrfns,  lizard) .  A  genus  of  reptiles  of  the 
family  Crocodilidoe.  True  alligators  difTer  from 
crocodiles  in  tlie  following  respects:  The  feet 
are  less  webbed,  the  head  is  sliorter  and  flatter, 
tlie  long  first  and  fourth  teeth  of  the  under  jaw  fit 
into  pits  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  not  into  notches 
between  the  teeth,  and  this  causes  the  whole 
head  to  be  broader  and  the  snout  more  obtuse 
than  in  crocodiles.  There  are  only  three  species 
of  alligators,  according  to  Professor  E.  D.  Cope, 
— the  jacare  and  cayman  (q.v.)  of  Central  and 
South  America  being  classified  in  a  distinct 
genus.  These  species  are:  Allit/ator  helo'is 
(habitat  unknown).  Alligator  Sinensis,  of  China, 
and  Allifiator  Mississippiensis,  of  the  southern 
United  States.  Among  the  Neocene  fossils  of  the 
south  of  England  are  remains  of  an  alligator, 
or  of  a  form  that  approaches  very  near  to  it; 


but  this  single  species  comprises  all  extinct 
species  known,  showing  that  the  genus  is  of  very 
modern  origin.  Their  characteristics  are  large- 
ly those  of  the  other  crocodilians  (sec  Croco- 
dile) :  activity  at  night,  ollensive  and  defensive 
swinging  of  the  tail,  bellowing,  cgg-laj'ing,  etc.; 
but  they  are  less  aquatic  than  tlie  typical  croco- 
diles, and  spend  much  of  their  time  basking  in 
the  sun  on  land.  The  alligator  of  the  United 
States  originally  ranged  from  North  Carolina  to 
the  Rio  Grande  along  the  coast,  and  up  the  larger 
rivers,  ascending  the  Jlissi.ssippi  as  far  as  Jef- 
ferson Count}',  Sliss.,  about  latitude  32°  ;  and  in 
favorable  places  it  used  to  be  enormously  abun- 
dant. It  is  now  rarely  seen  north  of  Florida  or 
the  coast  swamps  of  Louisiana;  and  the  constant 
2iersecution  of  it  for  sport,  its  hide,  ivory,  or 
eggs  is  fast  leading  toward  its  extermination. 
It  is  estimated  by  the  Linited  States  Fish  Com- 
mission that  3,000,000  alligators  were  killed  in 
Florida  alone  between  1880  and  1!)00.  This  alli- 
gator reaches  about  sixteen  feet  in  length  when 
fully  grown,  and  then  is  greenish  black  above, 
having  lost  the  yellowish  color-bands  that  belong 
to  its  earlier  years.  It  sjiends  most  of  tlie  day 
asleep  in  the  sun  on  a  mud  bank  or  log,  slipping 
into  the  refuge  of  the  water  when  disturbed.  It 
is  timid  and  quick  to  retreat,  rarely  showing  any 
dispo.sition  to  attack  a  man,  though  boats  are 
sometimes  followed.  When  cornered,  or  caught 
upon  the  hook  and  hauled  ashore,  or,  as  is  some- 
times done,  captured  and  bound  with  a  rope 
when  asleep,  the  animal  proves  an  ugly  customer, 
rushing  with  formidable  ojien  jaws  at  its  ene- 
mies, and  striking  from  siile  to  side  with  its 
powerful  tail.  They  are  strong  and  active  swim- 
mers, and  always  on  the  lookout  for  swimming 
animals  like  muskrats  or  dogs,  and  sportsmen 
have  often  lost  in  this  manner  dogs  that  have 
ventured  or  been  sent  into  the  water  after  game. 
Alligators  lie  in  wait  in  shallows,  or  close  to  the 
shore,  for  such  prey  also,  yet  their  main  fare  is 
fish,  salamanders,  and  the  like.  Like  other 
crocodilians,  it  carries  its  prey  to  the  bottom  to 
be  devoured,  and  then  its  windpipe  and  ears  are 
closed  against  admission  of  water.  The  body  of 
the  alligator  emits  a  fetid  odor,  and  its  flesh, 
which  is  white  and  tender,  has  a  musky  taste, 
yet  is  eaten  by  the  Indians  and  some  others. 
During  the  colder  months  it  burrows  into  the 
swamp  mud  and  hibernates,  the  depth  and  length 
of  this  torpidity  being  greater,  of  course,  in  the 
more  northerly  parts  of  its  habitat.  Consult  Belt, 
Xaturalist  in  Xicarar/ua    (London,   1888). 

The  breeding  of  the  alligator  is  thus  de- 
scribed by  Dr.  Hugh  M.  Smith  {Bulletin 
United  States  Fish  Commission,  XL,  1891): 
"The  maternal  alligator  in  April  or  JMay 
seeks  a  sheltered  spot  on  a  bank,  and 
there  builds  a  small  mound.  The  foundation 
of  the  mound  is  of  mud  and  grass,  and  on  this 
she  lays  some  eggs.  She  covers  the  eggs  with 
another  stratum  of  grass  and  mud,  upon  which 
she  dejiosits  some  more  eggs.  Thus  she  proceeds 
until  she  has  laid  from  100  to  200  eggs.  The 
eggs  in  the  course  of  time  are  hatched  by  the 
sun.  assisted  by  the  heat  which  the  decomposition 
of  the  vegetable  material  generates.  As  soon  as 
they  have  'chipped  the  shell'  the  baby  alligators 
are  led  to  the  water  by  the  mother,  who  provides 
them  with  food  which  she  disgorges,  showing 
much  anxiety  for  their  safety.  At  this  early 
period  of  their  existence  they  are  exposed  to 
many  dangers,  being  a  favorite  prey  of  fishes  and 


AI/LIGATOR. 


374 


ALLITERATION. 


turtles.  Alligators  grow  very  slowlj'.  At  fif- 
teen years  of  age  they  are  only  two  fe?t  long. 
A  twelve-footer  may  reasonably  be  supposed  to 
be  seventy-five  years  old."  Alligators  are  exten- 
sively utilized.  Their  hides  can  be  tanned  into 
an  excellent  leather,  which  has  become  expensive. 
The  teeth,  obtained  by  rotting  the  skulls  in  the 
ground,  are  of  fine  ivory,  and  valued  for  carving 
into  ornaments.  They  are  worth  about  $2  a 
pound  (of  50  to  75  teeth).  Both  flesh  and  eggs 
are  eaten  by  some  persons,  and  the  eggs  are  val- 
ued because  they  can  be  hatched  in  bo.xes  of  warm 
sand,  yielding  young  alligators  to  be  sold  as  pets, 
or  killed  and  made  into  curious  ornaments. 
See  C'.WMAX. 

ALLIGATOR  AP'PLE.    See  Cu.st.\rd  Apple. 

ALLIGATOR  FISH.  A  fish  of  the  family 
Agonidic,  whose  members  have  an  elongated  an- 
gular body  covered  with  large  bony  plates  that 
form  a  coat  of  mail.  The  best  known  one  is 
Podothecus  acipenserinus,  a  species  twelve  inches 
long,  found  on  the  northern  Pacific  coast. 

ALLIGATOR  GAR.  The  great  gar,  Litho- 
lejiis  tristoechus,  of  the  rivers  of  the  Southern 
United  States,  Cuba,  Mexico,  and  Central  Amer- 
ica, which  is  greenish  in  color  and  sometimes 
reaches  a  length  of  ten  feet.     See  Gab. 

ALLIGATOR  LIZ'ARD.  Any  lizard  of  the 
iguannl  genus  Sceloporus,  which  contains  a  great 
number  of  small  species  whose  heads  are  not 
spiny  and  which  have  flat  scales  and  no  gular 
fold.  They  vary  in  color,  but  are  generally  dull 
above,  with  one  or  two  light  lines  along  each 
side  and  black  cross  lines  or  blotches  on  the  back. 
The  inferior  surfaces,  however,  are  likely  to  be 
brilliantly  colored.  "The  throat  and  sides  of  the 
belly  are  usually  of  some  shade  of  blue  (some- 
times purple).  When  the  animal  raises  the  head, 
as  it  habitually  does,  the  brilliant  colors  of  the 
throat  are  visible,  but  those  of  the  sides  are 
much  less  apparent.  All  these  colors  are  most 
conspicuous  in  the  males."  (Cope.)  These  lizards 
are  conspicuous  objects  everywhere  in  the  south- 
western United  States  and  Mexico,  running  up 
trees  and  dodging  about  the  branches,  scamper- 
ing over  rocks,  hiding  in  their  fissures,  or  scaling 
the  sides  of  stone  walls  and  adobe  houses.  One 
small  species,  very  variable  in  color,  Sceloporus 
nndulatiis,  is  the  common  "fence  lizard"  of  the 
eastern  and  central  States.  They  are  exceedingly 
swift  and  spry,  but  perfectly  harmless,  and  in- 
crease by  means  of  eggs  laid  in  the  sand  and  left 
to  hatch  by  the  warmth  of  the  sun. 

ALLIGATOR  PEAR.    See  Avocado  Pear. 

ALLIGATOR  TER'RAPIN,  Toktoise,  or 
Turtle.  A  snapping  turtle,  especially  the  long- 
necked,  long-tailed,  very  large  species  {Macroch- 
ch/s  Uiccrtina )  of  the  southern  Mississippi  Val- 
ley, which  may  weigh  50  or  60  pounds,  and  is 
valued  as  food.     See  Turtle. 

AL'LINGHAM,  Willi.vm  (1824-80).  An 
Anglo-Irish  poet,  born  at  Ballyshannon.  Done- 
gal" He  won  attention  by  Poems  (1850).  some 
of  which  had  pieviously  appeared  in  English 
periodicals.  In  the  same  year  he  came  to  Lon- 
don and  was  appointed  to  a  subordinate  post  in 
the  customs.  He  received  a  civil  pension  of  £00 
in  consideration  of  his  services  to  literature  in 
1804;  married  Helen  Patterson,  a  well-known 
water-color  painter,  in  1874.  and  in  the  same 
year  became  editor  of  Fraser's  Magazine.  He 
died  at  Hampstead.    His  first  collection  of  poems 


was  followed  by  Day  and  Sifiht  Songs  ( 1854) ,  a, 
new  edition  of  which  ( 1855)  was  illustrated  with 
woodcuts  from  designs  by  Arthur  Hughes,  Ros- 
setti,  and  Millais.  Among  subsequent  volumes- 
were  Laurence  Bloomfield  in-  Ireland,  an  am- 
bitious but  unsuccessful  narrative  poem  (1804)  ; 
hi  Fairy  Land,  illustrated  by  Richard  Doyle 
(1870),  Songs,  Ballads  and  Stories  (1877),  The 
Fairies  (1883),  Flower  Pieces,  and  Other  Poems, 
with  designs  by  Rossetti  (1888).  Mary  Donnelly 
is  perhaps  the  best  known  of  Allingham's  many 
natural  and  graceful  lyrics. 

ALLIOLI,  al'ls-O'le,  Joseph  Franz  ( 179.3- 
187.3).  A  Roman  Catholic  biblical  scholar.  In 
1830-30  he  issued  at  Nuremberg,  in  six  volumes, 
Braun's  annotated  German  translation  of  the 
Bible  from  the  Vulgate,  but  so  revised  as  to  be 
practically  .a  new  work.  It  was  the  first  of  its 
kind  to  receive  Papal  approbation. 

AL'LISOW,  William  Boyd  (1829—).  An. 
American  legislator.  He  was  born  at  Perry,  0., 
attended  Allegheny  and  Western  Reserve  col- 
leges; studied  law  and  practiced  in  Ohio  until 
1857,  when  he  removed  to  Iowa.  During  the  Civil 
War  he  was  a  member  of  the  Governor's  staff. 
Elected  as  a  Republican,  he  served  in  the  House 
of  Representatives  from  1863  to  1871;  was- 
eleeted  to  the  United  States  Senate,  in  1872, 
and  has  been  reelected  five  times.  He  has 
been  an  active  member  of  the  Senate,  serving 
on  many  commissions.  The  essential  feature  of 
the  coinage  act  of  1878,  known  as  the  Bland- 
Allison  Act,  or  more  properly  the  Allison 
Act,  was  due  to  him.  He  was  one  of  the 
representatives  of  the  United  States  at  the  Brus- 
sels Monetary  Conference,  in  1892.  He  has  sev- 
eral times  been  a  prominent  candidate  in  Repub- 
lican national  conventions  for  the  Presidential 
nomination.  Both  President  Garfield  and  Presi- 
dent Harrison  offered  him  the  Treasury  portfolio. 

ALLIT'ERATION  (Lat.  ad,  to  -f  littera, 
letter).  The  frequent  occurrence  of  the  same 
or  similar  letters  or  sounds.  In  old  German,. 
Anglo-Saxon,  and  Scandinavian  poetry,  allitera- 
tion took  the  place  of  rhyme.  This  kind  of  verse, 
in  its  strict  form,  required  that  two  stressed  syl- 
lables in  the  first  hemistich  and  one  in  the  sec- 
ond hemistich  should  have  the  same  sound,  if 
consonantal,  as  in  the  following  Anglo-Saxon 
line: 

Flota  ^Smig  heals  ^ugle  gelicost. 
(The  doat'with  *o\v  of  toam  likest  a  bivi.) 

Alliterative  poems  continued  to  be  written  in 
J^nglish  after  it  had  assumed  its  modern  form. 
The  most  remarkable  is  Piers  Plowman,  a  poem 
of  the  fourteenth  century,  of  which  the  follow- 
ing is  a  specimen: 

In  a  corner  seson  whan  soft  was  the  sonnc. 
Even  after  the   introduction  of  rhyme,   allitera- 
tion continued  to  be  largely  used  as  an  embellish- 
ment of  poetry,  and  is  so,  though  to  a  less  ex- 
tent, to  this  day: 

The  fair  fireeze  &lew,  the  white  /oam  /lew, 
The  /urrow  /ollowed  fKe.— Coleridge. 

Alliteration  is  not  confined  to  verse ;  the  charm 
that  lies  in  it  exercises  great  influence  on  hu- 
man speech  generally,  as  may  be  seen  in  many 
current  phrases  and  proverbs  in  all  languages: 
example,  "life  and  limb,"  "house  and  home," 
"wide  wears,"  "tight  tears,"  etc.  It  often  con- 
stitutes part  of  the  point  and  piquancy  of  witty 
writing.     Among  modern  writers  this  use  of  al- 


ALLITERATION". 


375 


ALLOA. 


litpiation  is  well  illustratod  by  Syilnoy  Smith; 
for  example,  when  contrasting  the  conditions  of 
a  diftnitary  of  the  English  Church  and  of  a  poor 
curate,  he  speaks  of  them  as  "the  right  reverend 
Dives  in  the  palace,  and  Lazarus-in-orders  at  the 
gate,,  doctored  by  dogs  and  comforted  with 
crumbs." 

in  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century 
the  fashion  of  hunting  after  alliterations  was 
carried  to  an  extreme;  even  from  the  pulpit,  the 
chosen  people  of  God  were  addressed  as  "the 
chickens  of  the  Church,  the  sparrows  of  the  spir- 
it, and  the  sweet  swallows  of  salvation."  Ane 
Neic-Yeur  Gift,  or  address,  presented  to  Mary, 
Queen  of  Scots,  by  the  poet  Alexander  Scott, 
concludes  with  a  stanza  running  thus : 

Fre?h,  fulgent,  flonrist,  fragrant  flower  formose, 

Lantern  to  love,  of  ladies  lamp  and  lot. 

Cherry  maist  chaste,  chief  carbuncle  and  chose,  etc. 

In  the  following  piece  of  elaborate  trifling,  given 
(but  without  naming  the  author)  in  H.  South- 
gate's  Many  Thoughts  on  Muni/  Things,  allitera- 
tion is  combined  with  acrosticism: 

A  n  Anstrian  armv,  awfully  arrayed. 

B  oldly  by  battery  besieged  Belgrade  ; 

C   ossack  "commanders  cannonading  come, 

D  ealing  destruction's  devastating  doom  ; 

E  very  endeavor  engineers  essay 

F  or  fame,  for  fortune,  forming  furious  fray. 

(i  aunt  gunners  grapple,  giving  gashes  good  ; 

H  eaves  high  his  head  heroic  hardihood  ; 

1    braham,  Islam.  Ismael.  imps  in  ill, 

J   oslle  .John  .Jarovlitz.  .lem,  Joe.  Jack,  JUl  : 

K  ick  kindling  Kntusoff,  kings'  kinsmen  kill 

L  abor  low  levels  loftiest,  longest  lines  ; 

M  en  march  'mid  moles,  'mid  nioumis.'miil  mnrd'rous  mines. 

N  o\v  nightfall's  near,  now  ne'-ilfiil  nature  nods, 

O  pposed,  opposing,  overcoming  odds. 

P   oor  peasants,  partly  purchased,  partly  pressed, 

(^  uile  quaking,  "Qiuirterl  quarler!"  quickly  quest. 

R  eason  returns,  recalls  redundant  rage, 

S    aves  sinking  soldiers,  softens  signiors  sage. 

T   ruce.  Turkey,  trucel  truce,  treach'rous  Tartar  traini 

U  nwise,  unjust,  unmerciful  Ukraine, 

V  anish,  vile  vengeancel  vanish,  victory  vain! 

W  isdom  wails  war— walls  warring  words.    What  were 
X  erxes,  Xantippe,  Ximenes,  Xavier? 

Y  et  Yassy's  youth,  ye  yield  your  youthful  yest. 
Z  ealously,  zanies,  zealously,  zeal's  zest. 

While  recent  poets,  as  Tennyson  and  Swin- 
burne, employ  alliteration  combined  with  vowel 
distribution,  for  beautiful  sound  etl'ects,  yet  prose 
writers  seem  to  avoid  it,  or  at  least  to  keep  it 
from  becoming  obvious.  Observe  from  the  Pass- 
ing of  Arthur:  "And  on  a  sudden,  lo!  the  level 
lake,  and  the  long  glories  of  the  winter  moon." 
Consult:  Guest,  English  Hhi/fhms  (London, 
1882)  ;  and  J.  Schipper,  Grundriss  der  Eng- 
Hschen  Metrik    (Leipzig,   1895).     See  English 

LlTEBATURE. 

AL'LIUM  (Lat.,  garlic).  A  genus  of  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Liliaeeae  containing  about 
250  species  of  perennial — more  rarely  biennial — 
herbaceous  plants,  with  more  or  less  decidedly 
bulbous  roots,  natives  chiell,y  of  the  temperate 
and  colder  regions  of  the  northern  hemisphere. 
The  flowers  are  umbellate,  with  the  umbel  often 
bearing  also  small  bulbs  along  with  its  flowers. 
The  leaves  are  generally  narrow,  although  in 
some  species,  as  Allium  ursinum,  they  are  rather 
broad,  and  in  many  species  they  are  rounded  and 
fistulose.  Garlic,  Allium  satirum.  Onion  (q.v.), 
Allium  cepa.  Leek  (q.v.).  Allium  porruin.  Shal- 
lot (q.v.).  Allium  ascolonicum,  Chive  (q.v.), 
Allium  scha-noprasum,  and  l\ocaml)ole  (q.v.), 
are  species  of  this  genus  in  connnon  cultiva- 
tion. The  first  four  are  cultivated  in  the  gar- 
dens of  India  as  well  as  Europe,  along  with 
.\llium  tuberosum ;  and  the  hill-people  of  India 


eat  the  bulbs  of  Allium  leptophyllum,  and  dry 
the  leaves,  and  preserve  them  as  a  condiment.  A 
number  of  other  species  are  oeeasionallj'  used  in 
different  countries.  Eight  or  nine  species  are 
natives  of  Britain,  of  which  the  most  common 
is  Ramsons  (Allium  ursinum),  a  species  with 
much  broader  leaves  than  most  of  its  congeners. 
It  is  most  frequently  found  in  moist  woods  and 
hedge-banks,  but  occasionally  in  pastures,  in 
which  it  proves  a  troublesome  weed,  communi- 
cating its  powerful  odor  of  garlic  to  the  whole 
dairy  produce.  Crow  garlic,  or  Wild  Onion 
{Allium  vinealc),  another  British  species,  is 
sometimes  ver,y  troublesome  in  the  same  way 
in  drier  pastures.  Both  are  perennial,  and  to 
get  rid  of  them  their  bulbs  must  be  perseveringly 
rooted  ovit  when  the  leaves  begin  to  appear  in 
spring.  This  species  has  been  introduced  into 
the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States,  where  it 
is  troublesome  in  lawns,  parks,  and  pastures. 
A  small  quantity  of  carbolic  acid  injected  into 
the  cluster  is  said  to  destroy  them.  A  large 
number  of  species  are  indigenotis  to  the  United 
States,  the  more  common  being  Allitnn  Cana- 
dense.  Allium  cernuum.  Allium  tricoccum  ;  which 
latter  has  flat  leaves  one  to  two  inches  broad,  and 
five  to  nine  inches  long;  Allium  reticulatum, 
which  has  its  bulbs  covered  with  a  dense  fibrous 
coat,  etc.  A  number  of  species  are  grown  in- 
doors or  as  ornamental  plants  in  gardens. 
Among  these  Allium  Neapolitanum  is  one  of  the 
best.  If  grown  out-doors  it  needs  protection  in 
most  localities  in  the  United  States. 

ALLMAN,  nl'man,  George  James  (1812-98). 
A  Scotch  zoologist.  He  was  born  in  Ireland, 
graduated  in  1844  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and 
was  in  the  same  year  appointed  regius  professor 
of  botany  in  Dublin  LTniversity.  In  185.5  he  was 
appointed  regius  professor  of  natural  history  in 
Edinburgh  University,  and  having  resigned  in 
1870,  was  chosen  president  of  the  Linnaean  Soci- 
ety in  1874,  and  president  of  the  British  Asso- 
ciation in  1879.  He  received  numerous  medals 
from  the  scientific  societies,  and  published  Mono- 
graph of  the  Eresh  Water  Polyzoa  (185G),  and 
Monograph  of  the  Gymnohlastic  Hydroids 
(1871-72). 

ALLMEBS,  al'mers,  Hermann  Ludwig 
( 1821-1902) .  A  German  author,  born  at  Rechten- 
fleth.  He  studied  at  Berlin,  Slunich,  and  Nurem- 
berg, and  made  his  first  appearance  in  literature 
in  his  J/arsc/ien?;uc/i(  1858) .  This  was  followed  b,y 
Dichtungen  (1800),  and  Riimischc  Schlcndertage 
(1869),  containing  observations  on  Italian  life. 
His  drama,  Elektra  (1872),  with  music  by 
A.  Dietrichs,  was  very  successful.  His  further 
works  include  Fromm  und  Frei  ( 1889) ,  a  volume 
of  verse.  His  complete  works  appeared  in  1891- 
03.  Consult  L.  Britutigam,  Der  M arsehendich- 
ter  Hermann   Allmers    (Oldenburg,   1891). 

ALL'MO"D"TH.  The  angler  or  goosefish.  See 
Angler. 

ALLOA,  al'16-a.  A  sea])ort  and  the  county 
town  of  Clackmannanshire,  Scotland,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Forth,  about  0  miles  east  of  Stirling 
(ilap:  Scotland,  E  3).  It  is  a  town  of  consid- 
erable antiquity,  and  is  an  active  centre  of  trade 
and  manufactures.  The  principal  articles  man- 
ufactured are  whisky,  ale,  cotton,  woolen 
goods,  glass  and  iron.  Considerable  coal  is  ob- 
tained from  the  neighboring  collieries.  Alloa 
has  an  excellent  harbor,  with  floating  and  dry 
docks.     There  is  regular  steamer  communication 


ALLOA. 


376 


ALLOBI. 


hy  river  with  Edinburgh  and  Stirling.  In  the 
neighborhood  is  Alloa  House,  supposed  to  have 
been  built  in  the  thirteenth  century,  the  home 
of  the  Earls  of  Mar  and  the  Erskines,  and  many 
.Scottish  princes.  Population  of  jjolice  burgh, 
1901.  11.417. 

ALLOB'ROGES  (Lat.  pi.).  A  people  of 
Gaul  whose  territory  is  now  Savoy  and  Dau- 
phine.  Vienna  (the  modern  Vienne)  was  their 
chief  town.  They  were  subjected  to  Rome  121 
B.C.,  by  Fabius  ilaximus,  and  remained  loyal. 

AL'LOCTJ'TION  (Lat.  aUocutio,  a  speaking 
to.  from  (1(1.  to  + /of/in',  to  speak).  A  term  ap- 
plied, in  the  language  of  the  Vatican,  to  denote 
specially  the  address  delivered  by  the  Pope  at  the 
College  of  Cardinals  on  any  ecclesiastical  or  poli- 
tical circumstance.  It  ma}'  be  considered  as 
corresponding  in  some  measure  to  the  olRcial 
explanations  which  constitutional  ministers  give 
when  questions  are  asked  in  the  British  Parlia- 
ment. They  are  published  by  being  put  up  on 
the  doors  of  St.  Peter's,  Rome. 

ALLO'DITJM,  or  Allodial  Tenure  (Med.  Lat. 
probably  from  0.  H.  G.  al,  all  +  I'lt,  od,  prop- 
erty, estate).  The  free  and  absolute  right  of 
property  in  land,  properly  opposed  to  feudal  ten- 
ure (q.v.),  or  the  holding  of  land  in  subordina- 
tion to  a  superior  owner.  Blackstone  is  responsi- 
ble for  the  view,  which  has  been  generally  taken 
by  legal  writers  of  the  last  century,  that  a  con- 
dition of  allodial  land  holding  prevailed  in  Eng- 
land prior  to  the  Norman  Conquest,  and  that 
tills  was  rapidly  superseded  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  feudal  system  of  land  tenure  by  the 
Conqueror  and  his  immediate  successors,  whence 
Lord  Coke's  statement  that  there  "is  no  land  in 
England  in  the  hands  of  any  subject  but  it  is 
held  of  some  lord  by  some  kind  of  service." 
There  can  be  no  question  as  to  the  universality 
of  feudal  tenure,  as  described  by  Coke;  but  it 
may  be  doubted  whether,  in  our  legal  system,  the 
free  and  unqualified  ownership  of  land — corre- 
sponding to  the  title  by  which  goods  and  chattels 
are  held — has  ever  been  generally  recognized.  It 
is  more  than  probable  that  from  the  first  the 
idea  of  o\vnership  underwent  a  change  when  it 
"Was  transferred  from  cattle  and  other  personal 
propert}-  to  land,  and  that  the  owner  of  land 
was  generally  conceived  of  as  having  a  more  or 
less  temporary  interest,  as  holding  in  subordina- 
tion to  the  superior  rights  of  the  comnumity, 
^^'hich  was  somehow  regarded  as  the  ultimate  and 
permanent  owner.  However  this  may  be.  we  do 
not  fi)Kl  in  the  books  any  general  recognition  of 
allodial  ownership,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the 
term,  anywhere  in  Europe;  and  the  rapidity  with 
which  the  feudal  system  spread  over  England 
after  the  Conquest  would  seem  to  indicate  that 
among  the  Anglo-Saxons  such  absolute  ownership 
<if  land  was  the  exception  rather  than  the  rule. 
The  terms  alod  and  aUotlium  do,  indeed,  occur 
\\itli  some  frequency,  but  usually  in  a  derivative 
sense,  to  describe  lands  which,  though  held 
in  some  form  of  dependent  tenure,  are  in- 
heritable and  thus  similar  to  the  modern 
estate  in  fee  simple.  Since  the  decay  of  the 
feudal  system  in  England  and  its  general 
abolition  in  the  United  States,  the  term  "allo- 
dial" has  come  to  be  applied  to  the  common 
form  of  land  tenure  in  subordination  to  the  para- 
mount title  of  the  State,  which  now  commonly 
])revails,  and  which,  though  not  entirely  free  and 
absolute,  has  been  divesteil  of  all  the  burdensome 
incidents    which    were    characteristic    of    feudal 


tenure.  Some  of  our  State  constitutions  and 
many  of  our  statutes  have  expresslj-  declared  all 
tenures  to  be  allodial,  in  this  sense  of  the  term, 
and  in  most  of  the  States  they  are,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  legislation  on  the  subject,  deemed  to  be 
so.  In  several  of  the  States,  however,  tenures 
partaking  more  or  less  of  the  feudal  character 
still  survive.  Consult  the  authorities  referred  to 
under  Real  Pkopebty. 

ALLOG'AMY  ( Gk.  aUnc,  alios,  other  +  ya/joc, 
<iam(js,  a  wedding)  or  Cross-Pollination.  A 
transfer  of  the  pollen  of  one  flower  to  the  pistil 
of  another.  Allogamy  is  subdivided  into  geitonog- 
amy,  in  which  the  pollinated  flower  is  on  the 
same  plant,  and  xenogamy,  in  which  it  is  on  a 
difi'erent  plant.  The  opposite  of  allogamy  is 
autogamy,  or  self-pollination.  See  the  article 
Pollination. 

ALLON,  al'lon,  Henry,  D.D.  (1818-92).  An 
English  Congregational  leailer,  born  at  Welton, 
near  Hull.  He  graduated  at  Chestnut  College, 
184.3,  and  was  pastor  of  Union  Chapel,  Islington, 
London,  from  1844  until  his  death.  He  edited 
tlie  British  Qiiarlerhj  Ilecicw  from  180.5  to  1887. 
He  published,  besides  sermons,  the  life  of  Rev. 
•  lames  Sherman  (London,  1863),  and  that  of 
Thomas  Binuey,  prefixed  to  his  edition  of  Bin- 
ney's  sermons  (1S75),  and  Land  and  the  Puri- 
tans (1882).  He  compiled  The  Congregation- 
alist  Psalmist.    Consult  his  memorial   (1892). 

ALLONG:^,  a'loN'zha'.  Augu.ste  (1833—). 
A  French  landscape  artist.  He  was  born  in 
Paris  and  studied  with  L^on  Cogniet.  He  is 
chiefly  noted  for  his  charming  use  of  charcoal  in 
landscape  work,  but  his  oil  paintings,  as  well, 
have  won  approval.  His  method  of  using  char- 
coal has  almost  created  a  "school"  for  workers 
in  that  material,  and  his  drawings  are  much 
sought  and  highly  prized  by  connoisseurs.  His 
subjects  are  landscapes  of  a  placid  and  sylvan 
kind,  and  these  he  reproduces  vividly  by  a  deli- 
cate and  skillful  use  of  the  fine  gi'ays  produced 
by  charcoal.  Among  his  works  in  oil  are  views 
on  the  Somme;  among  those  in  charcoal  are  such 
landscapes  as  his  "Moulin  de  Gi\Ty."  He  ex- 
hiliited  very  regularly  after  1855.  His  writ- 
ings on  his  favorite  medium  include  Le  fiisain 
(1873)  and  his  later  Grand  eours  de  fusain  (54 
plates ) . 

ALLOP'ATHY.     See  Homceopatht. 

AL'LOPHAN'IC    ACID.      See    Ureas,    the 

COMPOUKD. 

ALLOKI,  al-hVrc.  The  name  of  two  Italian 
painters,  of  the  later  Florentine  school.  Ales- 
SANDRO  (1535-1007),  a  pupil  of  his  uncle  Broii- 
zino,  afterwards  adopted  a  mannered  imitation 
of  ilichelangelo.  He  was  chiefly  employed  in 
the  public  buildings  of  Tuscany,  and  wrote  for 
artists  a  treatise  on  anatomy. — His  son  and  pupil 
Cristofano  (1577-1621)  forsook  Alessandro's 
manner  for  that  of  Pagani.  A  more  important 
artist  than  his  father,  although  his  style  is 
mannered,  he  shows  delicacj'  of  execution.  His 
most  celebrated  work  is  ".Judith  with  the  Head 
of  Holofernes"  in  the  Pitti  Palace,  Florence,  with 
replicas  in  Vienna  and  the  Uffizi.  In  its  person- 
ages. Judith  especiallj'  portrayed  with  fine  pose 
and  expression,  it  is  supposed  to  symbolize  an 
unfortunate  love  aff'air  of  the  artist.  The  Pitti 
collection  also  has  a  fine  "Saint  Julian."  the 
Louvre  "Isabella  of  Aragon  pleading  with 
Charles  VIII." 


ALLOTROPY. 


377 


ALLOY. 


ALLOT'BOPY     {]■><;].    Gk.   nnrTimTrla,    alio- 
trofiiu,  variety,  from  aA?.of,  a/Zos,  other -)- rpoTrof, 
triijios.  turn,  way,  guise),  or  Allotropism.     A 
term    used    in    chemistry   to    denote    tlie    exist- 
<'nce    of    an    element    in    several    forms    difi'er- 
injf  from   eacli   other   in   their   pliysical    proper- 
ties.     By    the    silent    discharge    of    electricity 
in   an   atmosphere   containing  ordinary   oxygen, 
the    latter    is    transformed    into   ozone.      Ozone 
can     be     readily     shown     to     be    made    up     of 
nothing   but    the    element    oxygen :    yet    oxygen 
gas    and    ozone    exhibit    imjiortant    differences 
in     their     properties;     thus     ozone     (Gk.      bCuv, 
smelling)  has  a  peculiar  and  characteristic  odor, 
while  oxj'gen  gas  is  odorless;  ozone  reacts  much 
more    readily    with    various    substances;    it    has 
bleaching   and    disinfectant    properties    not    pos- 
sessed by  oxygen  gas,  and  it  is  much  denser  than 
oxygen.     Phosphorus     affords    another    example 
of  allotropism.     In  ordinary  circumstances,  and 
when    freshlj'    prepared,    phosphorus    is    a    pale 
yellow   solid   of   the   consistence   and   aspect   of 
wax,  and  to  some  extent  flexible  and  translucent. 
It  requires  to  be  placed  in  a  vessel  with   water 
to  keep  it  from  taking  fire  spontaneously,  and  it 
is    ver}'     poisonous.     The     same     element,    when 
dried   and   kept   for  some   time   at   a   moderately 
high   temperature,   passes,    weight    for    weight — 
without  addition  or  subtraction  of  matter — into 
a  substance   known    to  chemists    as    amorphous 
phosphorus.     The  color  of  this  new    variety    is 
brownish  red;   and  it  exists  as  a  powder,  which 
has  no  odor,  does  not  take  fire,  and  is  not  known 
to  be  poisonous  at  all.     Three  allotropic  modifica- 
tions of  the  element  carbon  are  known:  diamond, 
graphite,   and   amorphous   carbon     (pure    lamp- 
black).    The    different     varieties    of     sulphur, 
boron,   silicon,  etc.,  furnish  other    examples    of 
allotropism.     Though     comparatively     few     ele- 
ments have  been  obtained  in  more  than  one  form, 
there  seems  to  be  no  reason  why,  in  general,  any 
other   chemical   element   should   be    incapable   of 
existing  in  two  or  more  allotropic  modifications. 
The  existence  of  allotropic  varieties  brings  to  the 
mind  the  polymorphism  of  crystalline  substances 
and  the  isomerism  of  organic  compounds.     From 
the  point  of  view  of  the  atomic  theory,  the  differ- 
ent  allotropic   modifications   of   an   element   are, 
probably,  made  up  of  molecules  containing  differ- 
ent numbers  of  atoms,  or  else  of  atoms  differently 
combined :   thus  a  molecule  of  ordinary  oxygen 
contains   two   oxygen    atoms,   and    its    c''emical 
symbol  is  0,;  a  molecule  of  ozone  cont:iin>  three 
o.xygen  atoms,  and  its  cheiuical  symbol  is  0.,.     A 
similar  explanation  of  the  nature  of  allotropy  in 
solid  elements  is,  however,  purely  hj'pothetical ; 
for  nothing  at    all   is    known    of    the    ultimate 
structure    of    solids.       Consult:       T).    Berthehit, 
/''-  Vallotropie  des  corps  simples   (Paris,  IS94)  ; 
and     Ouvrard,    Etals    allolropiqucs    des    corps 
simples    (Paris,  1894). 

ALLOTTAVA.  iil'lot-tU'va  (It.,  at  the  oc- 
tave I.  A  mark  (ill.  Sro.,  or  Sra.,  placed  over  the 
notes  in  pianoforte  music,  signifies  that  tliev 
are  to  be  played  an  octave  higher  than  written, 
or,  if  placed  below  the  notes,  an  octave  hjwer. 
Its  duration  is  indicated  by  a  dotted  line.  In 
orchestral  scores,  ull.  Sva.  signifies  that  one  in- 
strument plays  in  octaves  with  another ;  in 
figured  bass,  that  no  harmonies  are  to  be  em- 
ployed, the  upper  parts  simply  doubling  the  bass 
in  octaves. 

ALLOTJEZ.  a'looa',  Claude  Jean   (1620-90). 

ViiL.   I.— 26. 


Gne  of  the  early  French  Jesuits  who  visited  the 
Great  Lakes.  He  founded  the  Mission  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  on  Lake  Superior  in  1605,  explored 
Green  Bay,  and  establislied  missions  among  the 
Illinois  Indians,  settling  at  Kaskaskia  (q.v.), 
and  continuing  there  the  mission  begun  by  Mar- 
quette. He  retired  in  1679  on  the  approach  of 
La  Salle,  an  enemy  of  the  Jesuits,  and  died 
among  the  Miamis  on  St.  Joseph's  River.  An 
autobiographic  account  of  his  work  can  be  found 
in  the  Jesuit  Relations,  published  at  Cleveland, 
O.,  in  1900. 

ALLOWANCE.  In  military  usage,  nione}' 
allowed  in  lieu  of  forage,  food,  horses,  clothing, 
or  quarters ;  or  for  any  extra  work  or  duties  that 
may  have  been  performed.  Such  allowance  con- 
stitutes extra  pay.  See  P.\Y  AND  Allow.^^nces, 
Military. 

ALLOWANCE  OF  QUAR'TERS.     See  Pay 

AND  Ai.lowan('E.s,  .Militauv. 

AL'LOWAY  KIRK.  An  old  ruined  church 
in  the  parish  of  Ayr.  .Scotland,  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Doon.  celebrated  in  Burns's  Tarn  o'  Shanter. 
At  very  short  distances  from  it  are  tlie  cottage  in 
which  the  poet  was  born,  the  monument  erected 
to  his  memory  in  1823,  and  the  Auld  Brig  o' 
Doon,  over  which  Tarn  o'  Shanter  made  his 
escape. 

ALLOY'  (Fr.  aloi,  from  Lat.  alligare.  to  l)ind 
to,  from  ad,  to  +  ligarc,  to  tie).  A  mixture  of 
two  or  more  metals,  usually  produced  artificially 
by  fusion,  although  sometimes  found  native.  Al- 
loys are  characterized  by  certain  definite  prop- 
erties, which,  according  to  Sir  William  C.  Rob- 
erts-Austen, include:  Liquation,  which  is  shown 
by  the  separation  of  that  constituent  which  has 
the  lowest  melting  point  when  the  alloy  is 
heated;  density,  which  seldom  corresponds  to  the 
mean  of  those  of  the  constituents  of  the  alloy, 
being  usually  either  more  or  less  than  that 
shown  by  the  percentage  composition ;  tenac- 
ity, which  is  usually  greater  than  that  of  the 
<'onstituents  of  the  alloy,  although  it  is  .some- 
times diminished;  hardness,  which  is  almost  al- 
ways increased;  extensibility,  which  is  almost 
always  diminished;  and  fusibility,  the  melting 
])oint  being  generally  lower  than  the  mean  of  the 
melting  points  of  the  constituent  metals.  Mat- 
thiessen.  who  studied  the  subject  of  alloys  very 
thoroughly,  divided  the  constituents  of  alloys  in- 
to two  classes:  Those  metals  which  impart  to 
their  alloys  their  phy.sical  properties  in  the  pro- 
portion in  which  they  themselves  exist  in  the 
alloy,  and  those  which  do  not  impart  to  their 
alloys  their  physical  properties  in  the  proportion 
in  which  they  themselves  exist  in  the  alloy.  In 
the  first  class  he  places  lead,  tin,  zinc,  and  cad- 
mium, and  in  the  second  class,  in  all  probability, 
the  rest  of  the  metals.  He  divided  the  physical 
properties  of  alloys  into  three  classes:  (1)  Those 
which  in  all  eases  are  imparted  to  the  alloy  ap- 
proximately in  the  ratio  in  which  they  are  pos- 
sessed by  the  component  metals;  (2)  those 
which  in  all  cases  are  not  imparted  to  the  alloy 
in  the  ratio  in  which  they  are  possessed  by  the 
component  metals;  (3)  "those  which  in  some 
cases  are.  and  in  others  are  not,  imparted  to  the 
alloy  in  the  ratio  in  which  they  are  possessed  by 
tlie  component  metals.  As  types  of  the  first 
class,  specific  gravity,  specific  heat,  and  expan- 
sion due  to  heat,  may  be  taken ;  as  types  of  the 
second  class,  the  fusing  points  and  crystalline 
form;  and  as  types  of  the  third  class,  the  con- 


ALLOY. 


378 


ALLOY. 


ducting  power  for  heat  and  clectiieity,  sound, 
elastieity.  and  tenacity.  Veiy  few  of  the  metal- 
lic elements  are  found  pure  in  nature,  but  for  the 
most  part  they  are  found  alloyed  with  some 
other  metallic  element:  thus  gold  usually  con- 
tains traces  of  silver ;  copper  is  alloyed  with  sil- 
ver or  bismuth ;  lead  almost  always  contains  sil- 
ver and  frequently  antimony;  platinum  occurs 
as  an  alloy  with  iron,  iridium,  osmium,  and 
other  metals.  The  great  value  of  alloys  in  com- 
merce is  due  to  the  fact  that  certain  properties 
which  are  desirable  for  practical  purposes  may 
he  imparted  to  many  metals  by  a  suitable  addi- 
tion of  other  metals.  For  instance,  gold  and 
silver  are  too  soft  for  use  as  coins  when  pure, 
but  may  be  rendered  sufficiently  hard  by  the  ad- 
mixture of  small  proportions  of  copper.  Simi- 
larly the  hardness  of  copper  is  greatly  increased 
by  the  addition  of  zinc,  yielding  brass.  In  mak- 
ing alloys,  the  least  fusible  metal  is  melted 
fust,  after  which  the  others  are  added.  When 
three  metals  are  used  to  form  the  alloy,  they  are 
melted  in  pairs  and  afterward  together.  The 
fused  mass  must  be  kept  well  stirred  until  the 
mixture  is  complete,  otherwise  the  tendency 
would  be  for  the  heavier  metal  to  sink  to  the 
bottom  and  the  alloy  would  not  be  of  iiniform 
composition.  The  more  important  alloys,  which 
are  included  among  the  materials  of  constructive 
engineering,  are  the  bronzes,  the  brasses,  the  coin 
alloys,  and  a  few  alloys  of  tin.  lead,  zinc,  anti- 
mony, and  bismuth.  All  the  other  alloys  are  of 
use  for  a  few  special  purposes  only.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  principal  alloys,  their  composi- 
tion  and   uses: 

Bronze  is  an  alloy  of  copper  and  tin.  The 
knowledge  of  bronze  is  very  old,  it  being 
used  by  the  ancients  for  making  coins,  weapons, 
tools,  and  ornaments.  Many  of  these  ancient 
peoples  were  very  skillful  bronze  founders.  The 
principal  bronzes  are  those  used  in  coinage,  in 
ordnance,  in  statuary,  in  bells  and  musical  in- 
struments, and  in  mirrors  and  the  specula  of  tel- 
escopes. Coin  hronze  as  made  by  the  Greeks  and 
■Romans  consisted  of  from  96%  copper  and  4% 
tin.  to  US"  copper  and  2%  tin.  Modern  inves- 
tigations have  shown  the  range  of  good  alloys 
for  this  purpose  to  be  quite  large,  varying  from 
!lfi%  copper  and  4%  tin  to  80%  copper  and  14% 
tin,  the  best  falling  near  the  middle  of  this 
range.  Gun  bronze  has  different  compositions  in 
different  countries,  but  the  most  common  pro- 
portion would  seem  to  be  90%  copper  and  10% 
tin,  or  89%  copper  and  11%  tin.  When  well 
made  it  is  solid,  yellowish  in  color,  denser  than 
the  mean  of  its  constituents,  and  much  harder, 
stronger,  and  move  fusible  than  C07nmercial  cop- 
per; it  is  somewhat  malleable  when  hot  and 
nuich  less  so  when  cold.  fftattiarif  hronze  is 
nearly  the  same  composition  as  gun  bronze.  It 
should  be  rapidly  melted,  poured  at  a  high 
temperature,  and  quickly  cooled  to  get  the  best 
results.  /{(■//  ntitdl  is  richer  in  tin  than  the  pre- 
ceding, and  varies  in  composition  somewhat  with 
the  size  of  the  bell,  the  proportion  of  tin  being 
the  larger  in  the  case  of  small  bells.  The  range 
of  good  practice  in  bell  metal  is  from  18%  to 
30%  tin  and  from  82%  to  70%  copper.  Chinese 
gongs  are  made  from  78%  to  80%  copper  and  22% 
to  20%  tin,  and  are  beaten  into  shape  with  the 
hammer,  being  tempered  at  intervals  during  the 
process.  ( See  Annealing.  )  Bell  metal  is  dense 
and  homogeneous,  fine  ground,  malleable  if 
quickly  cooled  in  the  mold,  rather  more  fusible 


than  gun  bronze,  but  otlierwise  similar,  excelling,, 
however,  in  hardness,  elasticity,  and  sonority.. 
Hpcculum  metal  contains  often  as  much  as  33% 
tin ;  it  is  almost  silvery  white,  extremely  hard 
and  brittle,  and  capable  of  taking  a  very  perfect 
polish.  Bronze  for  bearings  and  other  friction 
surfaces  in  machinery  is  made  of  many  proi)or- 
tions,  var^'ing  from  88%  to  96%  copper,  as  more 
or  less  hardness  is  required.  PhospJwr  bronze 
is  a  triple  alloy  of  copper,  zinc,  and  tin,  which 
has  been  given  exceptional  purity  by  fiuxing  with, 
phosphoius.  It  is  very  tough  and  hard,  and  is 
used  for  piston  rings  and  valve  covers,  pinions, 
cog  wheels,  screw  propellers,  etc.  Tobin  bronze 
is  an  alloy  of  copper  and  zinc  in  the  proportion 
of  about  59  to  38,  with  small  percentages  of  tin,, 
iron,  and  lead.  It  has  great  tensile  strength,  and 
corrodes  with  great  difficulty.  Aluininnm  bronze 
consists  of  90%  copper  and  10%  aluminum,  and 
is  an  exceedingly  tenacious  material.  Mangan- 
ese bronze  is  an  alloy  consisting  of  about  88  % 
copper,  11,2%  tin,  8.7%  zinc,  and  smaller  per- 
centages of  iron,  lead,  and  phosphorus ;  it  is  muck 
used  for  making  screw  propellers.  Both  Tobin 
bronze  and  manganese  bronze  are  in  reality  more 
nearly  brasses,  since  the  zinc  percentage  is 
greater  than  the  tin  percentage. 

Brass  is  an  alloy  of  copper  and  zinc  in  about 
the  proportions  of  copper  66%%  and  zine 
33%%.  Brass  is  extensively  employed  in  the 
arts  in  the  manufacture  of  scientific  apparatus 
and  mathematical  instruments,  the  small  parts 
of  machinery,  and  many  sorts  of  hardware.  It 
is  also  drawn  into  wire,  and  rolled  into  sheets, 
and  rods,  which  are  used  for  a  multitude  of  pur- 
poses. Brass  is  harder  than  copper,  verj'  malle- 
able and  ductile,  and  can  be  "struck"  in  dies, 
formed  in  molds,  or  "'spun"  in  lathes  into  vessels, 
of  a  wide  varietj'  of  forms.  It  is  a  much  poorer 
conductor  of  electricity  and  heat  than  copper, 
and  is  more  fusible.  Aluminum  brass  is  made  of 
equal  weight  of  aluminum  bronze,  copper,  and 
zinc.  It  has  a  very  high  tensile  strength,  and 
has  been  used  for  screw  propellers. 

Other  alloys  than  bronzes  and  brasses  exist  in 
an  immense  variety,  and  have  numerous  applica- 
tions in  the  arts  and  sciences,  although  they  are- 
much  less  used  than  the  bronzes  and  brasses. 
Only  a  few  of  these  alloys  can  be  mentioned 
here.  German  silver  is  an  alloy  of  copper,  zinc, 
and  nickel  in  the  respective  proportions  of  about 
60//,  20%  and  20%.  It  is  used  for  table  utensils, 
ornaments,  and  in  the  form  of  sheets,  and  is-  one 
of  the  most  difficult  alloys  to  handle  in  the  foun- 
dry and  rolling  mill.  I'rirter  is  an  alloy  of  tin  and 
copper  often  mixed  with  lead.  Britannia  metal 
is  an  alloy  of  tin,  antimony,  copper,  and  brass. 
It  and  pewter  are  much  used  in  making  table 
utensils.  Stereotype  metal  is  an  alloy  of  16% 
antimony,  17%  tin  and  67%  lead.  (See  Print- 
ing.) Babbitt  metal  is  an  alloy  of  4  part* 
copper,  12  parts  tin,  8  parts  regains  of  antimony 
melted  together,  and  12  parts  tin  added  after 
fusion.  It  is  used  for  lining  bearings  for  jour- 
nals. Holders  are  alloys  used  for  joining  metal- 
lic surfaces  and  parts,  and  have  a  wide  range  of 
composition.  The  soft  solders  arc  made  of  tin 
and  lead;  the  hard  solders  are  usually  made  of 
brass,  and  special  solders  are  composed  of  vari- 
ous alloys  of  copper,  zinc,  lead,  tin,  bismuth, 
gold,  and  silver.  In  making  solders,  great  care 
has  to  be  taken  to  secure  uniformity  of  composi- 
tion. For  this  reason,  they  are  often  granulated 
by  pouring  from  a  height  into  water,  or  by  re- 


ALLOY. 


379 


ALLSTON. 


(lucing  tlie  cast  ingots  into  powder  and  then  re- 
melting  the  granuhited  or  powdered  material. 
Tlie  soft  solders  are  usiiall}-  sold  in  sticks,  and 
silver  and  gold  solder  in  sheets.  Platinum  is  sol- 
dered with  gold,  and  German  silver  with  a  solder 
of  equal  parts  of  silver,  hrass,  and  zinc.  The  es- 
sentials of  a  good  solder  are  that  it  shall  have 
an  affinity  for  the  metals  to  be  united,  shall 
)nelt  at  a  considerably  lower  temperature,  shall 
lie  strong,  tough,  uniform  in  composition,  and 
not  readily  oxidized.  Type  metal  is  an  alloy 
of  lead  and  antimony  in  the  proportions  of  4  to 
1.  It  is  a  hard  alloy  capable  of  being  cast  in 
molds,  and  taking  form  very  perfectly.  Gold 
coin  consists  of  an  alloy  of  900  parts  gold,  75 
parts  copper,  and  2.5  parts  silver.  Iron  forms 
oomjiounds  with  many  elements  that  are  used 
in  metallurgical  processes,  as  ferro-manganese, 
ferro-titanium,  and  ferro-tungsten,  which  will  be 
considered  under  Ikon  and  Steel.  Mercury  com- 
bines with  many  metals  to  form  amalgams(q.v. ) . 
During  the  years  1S75-78,  a  board  for  testing 
iron,  steel,  and  other  metals  met  at  the  Water- 
town  Arsenal,  Mass.,  and  very  thoroughly  consid- 
ered the  properties  of  various  alloys,  including  a 
series  of  experiments  on  the  characteristics  of 
metallic  alloys,  and  investigation  of  the  laws  of 
combination.  Their  report,  published  in  1881, 
contains  much  information  on  the  subject,  to- 
gether with  a  bibliogiaphy.  Consult:  Guet- 
tier,  .4  Practical  Guide  for  the  Manufacture  of 
Metallic  Alloys,  translated  by  Fesquet  (Phila- 
delphia, 1872)  :  Larkin,  The  Brass  and  Iron 
Founders'  Guide  (Philadelphia,  1878)  ;  Graham, 
The  Brassfoiinders'  Manual  (London,  1879)  ; 
Erannt,  Metallic  Alloys  (London,  1889)  ; 
Hiorns,  Mixed  Metals,  or  Metallic  Alloys  (New 
York,  1890)  ;  and  Thurston,  A  Treatise  on 
Brasses,  Bronzes,  and  Other  Alloys  and  Their 
Constituent  Metals  (New  York,  1897). 

ALL-SAINTS'  BAY.  A  bay  in  the  province 
of  Bahia.  Brazil,  in  12°  to  13°'  S.  lat,  and  38° 
to  39°  \V.  long.  (Map:  Brazil.  K  6).  It  forms 
a  superb  natural  harbor,  37  miles  long  and  27 
miles  broad,  with  an  easy  entrance.  It  con- 
tains several  islands,  the  largest  of  which, 
Itapasica,  is  18  miles  long  and  3  miles  broad. 
The  town  of  Bahia  (q.v.)  lies  just  within  it,  on 
the  right, 

ALL-SAINTS'  DAY.  In  old  English,  All- 
Hallows.  All-Hallowmas,  or  simply  Hallowmas, 
a  festival  of  the  ancient  Christian  Church,  intro- 
duced because  of  the  impossibility  of  keeping 
a  separate  day  for  every  saint.  As  early  as  the 
fourth  century,  on  the  cessation  of  the  persecu- 
tion of  the  Christians,  the  Sunday  after  Easter 
was  appointed  by  the  Greek  Church  for  com- 
memorating the  martyrs  generally:  and  in  the 
Church  of  Rome  a  similar  festival  was  introduced 
about  610  .\.D.,  when  the  old  heathen  Pantheon 
(the  present  Piotunda,  or  Santa  Maria  de'  Mar- 
tiril  was  consecrated,  on  ilarch  13.  to  Mary  and 
all  the  martyrs.  But  the  real  festival  of  All 
Saints  was  first  regularly  instituted  by  Gregory 
IV.,  in  83.5,  and  appointed  to  be  celebrated  on 
Novembe''  1st.  It  was  admitted  into  England 
about  870,  and  is  now  a  well -recognized  day 
there  and  wherever  the  Church  calendar  is  closely 
followed.  The  choice  of  the  day  was  doubtless 
determined  by  the  fact  that  a  chapel  in  Saint 
Peter's  Church  in  honor  of  all  the  saints  was  con- 
secrated by  Gregory  III.,  in  731,  on  November 
1st,  which  established  the  date  of  the  Roman  ob- 


servance. In  conformity  with  this  local  custom 
Gregory  IV.  ordered  tlie  first  of  November  to 
be  tuiiversally  observed  for  the  commemoration. 

ALL  SOULS  COL'LEGE.  A  college  of  the 
Iiniversity  of  Oxford,  founded  in  1437-38  by 
Archbishop  Chiehele,  partly  as  a  chantry  where 
prayers  should  be  made  for  the  souls  of  all  Chris- 
tians (especially  such  as  fell  in  the  war  for  the 
crown  of  France,  of  which  Chiehele  had  been 
the  adviser),  and  partly  as  a  society  of  fellows 
free  from  the  charge  of  undergraduate  students. 
The  college  has  been  noted  for  the  devotion  of 
its  members  to  history  and  law,  subjects  in 
^whieh  the  founder  was  distinguished.  In  late 
years,  the  number  of  fellowships  has  been  in- 
creased from  forty  to  fifty,  and  two  Chiehele 
Professorships  have  been  instituted,  one  in  inter- 
national law  and  diplomacy,  with  one  in  modern 
history.  The  fellows  are  selected  because  of 
their  distinction  in  the  study  of  law  and  history. 
Among  the  ecclesiastics  who  have  here  been  en- 
rolled are  Sheldon,  Jeremy  Taylor,  and  Reginald 
Heher:  among  lawyers  and  statesmen.  Black- 
stone,  Gladstone,  Salisbury,  and  Curzon.  The 
Codrington  Library  contains  over  seventy  thou- 
sand volumes,  and  is  noted  as  one  of  the  finest 
law  libraries  in  England. 

ALL-SOULS'  DAY.  A  holy  day  of  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Churcli,  which  falls  on  November 
2d.  The  object  of  it  is  by  prayers  and  almsgiving 
to  alleviate  the  sufl'erings  of  souls  in  purgatory. 
For  long  no  especial  day  was  appointed  for  the 
commemoi-ation  of  all  the  departed  who  have  not 
attained  to  perfect  life.  Among  the  early  Chris- 
tians the  names  of  the  departed  were  entered  on 
the  diptj-chs,  or  lists,  used  at  the  altar,  from 
which  the  priest  read  the  names  of  those  for  whom 
he  was  required  !o  pray  that  God  might  give 
them  "a  place  of  refreshment,  light,  and  peace." 
In  the  si.xth  century  it  was  customary  in  Bene- 
dictine monasteries  for  a  commemoration  of  all 
the  departed  brethren  to  be  held  at  Whitsuntide. 
•In  Spain  the  memorial  of  All  Souls  was  celebrat- 
ed in  the  time  of  Saint  Isidore  on  the  octave  of 
Pentecost:  this  seems  a  Western  echo  of  the 
Oriental  custom  of  commemorating  All  Saint,s 
on  that  day,  and  All  Souls  on  the  Saturday  be- 
fore Whitsunday.  Saint  Odilo  of  Clugny,  in  998, 
ordered  that  in  all  monasteries  affiliated  to 
Clugny  the  commemoration  of  All  Souls  should 
follow  on  the  morrow  of  the  Feast  of  All  Saints. 
Thence  the  observance  of  November  2nd  as  All 
Souls'  day  spread  throughout  the  West  as  a 
universal  custom. 

ALL'SPICE  {all  -j-  spice).  A  name  given  to 
the  dry  berry  of  the  pimento  (Pimenta  offici- 
nalis), a  small  evergreen  tree.  The  berry  is 
supposed  to  combine  the  flavor  of  several  spices, 
especially  cinnamon,  nutmeg,  and  cloves;  hence 
the  name.  The  tree  is  cultivated  in  the  West 
Indies,  especially  in  Jamaica,  for  its  aromatic 
leaves  and  berries.  The  berries  grow  in  clusters. 
They  are  about  the  size  of  peas,  and  are  used 
as  a  spice  for  seasoning  food.  The  word  allspice 
is  also  applied  to  the  aromatic  bark  of  various 
other  plants,  particularly  Calycanthus  fioridus 
(q.v.).   For  illustration,  see  Plat-e  of  Abutilon. 

ALL'STON,    THEonosiA    Burr.      See    Burr, 

TlIKoiiosi.v. 

ALLSTON,  Washington  (1779-1843).  A  dis- 
tinguished American  painter  and  author.  He  was 
born  at  Waccamaw,  S.  C,  on  his  father's  planta- 


ALLSTON. 


380 


ALLWOKTHY. 


tion,  November  T).  1779,  but  passed  his  childhood 
and  received  his  education  and  early  instruction 
in  art  at  Newport,  Boston,  and  Cambridge.  Mal- 
bone,  the  miniature  paijiter,  was  an  early  friend 
and  adviser,  and  the  portraits  of  Pine  a  val- 
uable influence.  After  graduating  from  Har- 
vard in  1800,  Allston  went  to  Charleston,  S.  C, 
where  he  began  his  art  career.  In  1801  he  went 
with  Malbone  to  London,  and  became  a  student 
of  the  Royal  Academy,  which  was  at  that  time 
under  the  presidency  of  his  fellow  countryman, 
Benjamin  West.  In  1804  he  visited  Paris  in 
company  with  the  afterward  celebrated  painter 
Vanderlyn.  Here,  before  going  to  Italy,  he 
studied  in  the  Louvre  the  masterpieces  of  the 
various  schools,  and  showed  a  decided  preference 
for  the  rich,  glowing  color  of  the  Venetians. 
This  influence  held  more  or  less  through  life, 
and  his  natural  affinity  with  those  masters  of 
color  gave  him  later  the  sobriquet  of  "The 
American  Titian,"  He  passed  four  years  in 
Rome,  the  companion  of  Thorwaldsen  and  Cole- 
ridge, studying  the  great  masters  and  acquiring 
their  dignified  and  lofty  style,  for  which  he  was 
peculiarly  fitted  by  temperament.  He  returned 
to  America  in  1809,  married  a  sister  of  Dr.  Wil- 
liam Ellery  Channing,  and  went  again  to  London, 
where  he  painted  and  exhibited  with  marked 
success  for  seven  years.  Failing  in  health,  he 
came  home  in  1818,  and  settled  first  in  Boston, 
afterward  in  Cambridge,  where  he  passed  the 
remainder  of  his  life  in  comparative  seclusion 
on  account  of  enfeebled  health.  He  attracted 
to  him  always  a  refined  and  cultivated  circle  of 
friends  and  admirers;  for  Allston  was  a  man 
of  scholarly  tastes,  a  rare  talker,  and  a  writer 
of  much  charm.  His  temperament  was  nervous 
and  high-strung.  His  cast  of  mind  was  emi- 
nently artistic,  imaginative,  and  of  a  noble  tenor. 
One  of  the  earliest  of  his  important  canvases, 
"The  Dead  Man  Revived."  he  painted  and  ex- 
hibited in  London  about  1810.  This  obtained 
a  prize  of  200  guineas,  and  was  soon  after  pur- 
chased by  the  Pennsylvania  Academy  of  tlie  Fine 
Arts.  Then  followed  a  number  of  historical  and 
imaginative  works:  "St.  Peter  Liberated  by  the 
Angel,"  "Uriel  in  the  Sun,"  for  which  the 
British  Institution  aw-arded  him  a  gratuity  of 
150  guineas.  In  America,  after  his  final  return, 
he  painted  "The  Prophet  .leremiah,"  now  at 
Yale  College,  his  large  unfinished  "Belshazzar"s 
Feast,"  now  in  Boston,  and  several  smaller  works, 
including  "Dante's  Beatrice,"  and  "Spalatro's 
Vision  of  the  Bloody  Hand,"  a  powerfully  dra- 
matic work.  His  poem.  The  Sylphs  of  the  Sea- 
son, was  delivered  before  the  Phi  Beta  Kappa 
Society  at  Cambridge,  and  suljsequently  pub- 
lished in  London  (181.3).  He  wrote  also  a  novel, 
Monaldi  (Bo.ston,  1841).  His  Lectvres  on  Art 
appeared  after  his  death.  He  died  at  Cambridge, 
July  9,  1843,  and  his  burial  took  place  by  torch- 
light. For  his  biography  consult  the  volume  on 
him  in  Sweetser's  "Artist  Biographies"  (Bos- 
ton, 1879),  and  the  Life  and  Letters  publislied 
by  his  relative,  J.  B,  Flagg  (New  York, 
1802). 

ALL'S  WELL  THAT  ENDS  "WELL.  A 
comedy  by  Shakespeare,  produced  in  KiOl,  but 
probablv  largely  written  as  early  as  l.^O.'i.  It 
was  included  in  the  folio  of  1023.  The  plot  is 
based  upon  a  story  in  Boccaccio's  Dcrameron, 
which  had  been  already  borrowed  in  Painter's 
Pnlace  of  Pleasure.  Shakespeare,  however,  add- 
ed the  comic  characters  of  Lafcu,  Parolles,  and 


the  clown,  though  without  transforming  the 
pathos  of  the  original  tale. 

ALL-THE-TALrEISTTS     MIN'ISTEY.       A 

complimentary  designation  l)estowed  by  its 
friends  on  the  English  ministry  formed  by  Lord 
Grenville  in  1800.  L'sed  in  derision  by  its  oppo- 
nents, it  has  passed  into  history  as  an  ironical 
appellation. 

ALLU'VION  (Lat.  alluvio,  a  washing  upon, 
from  ad.  to  +  luere,  to  wash).  The  legal  term 
for  land  gained  from  the  sea  or  other  waters, 
public  or  private,  by  the  imperceptible  relic- 
tion of  the  water  boundary  or  the  gradual  wash- 
ing up  of  silt  and  earth,  the  scientific  and  pop- 
ular term  for  which  is  alluinuin.  Alluvion  is  an 
accretion  (q.v. )  to  the  upland,  and  becomes  part 
and  parcel  of  the  land  to  which  it  is  annexed, 
and  the  property  of  the  owner  of  the  latter. 
When  the  change  cfTccted  by  the  water  is  sudden, 
or  so  rapid  as  to  be  perceptible  from  day  to  day, 
as  where  the  line  of  the  seashore  is  altered  by 
a  storm,  or  a  river  suddenly  changes  its  course, 
or  where  the  deposit,  however  gradual,  is  the 
intentional  result  of  artificial  causes,  it  is  not 
an  alluvion  or  accretion,  and  the  title  to  the 
land  so  covered  or  uncovered  is  not  affected. 
Thus,  if  the  sea  suddenly  engulfs  a  tract  of 
upland,  the  land  continues  to  be  the  property 
of  its  former  owner,  even  though  it  remain  per- 
manently sidmierged.  The  division  of  alluvion 
between  adjoining  riparian  proprietors,  whose 
division  line,  if  projected,  would  cut  it,  is  a 
matter  of  some  difficulty.  Among  several  rules 
which  have  been  adopted,  the  simplest  is  that 
which  on  private  streams  prolongs  the  division 
line  at  right  angles  with  the  middle  line  or 
thread  of  the  stream.  As  such  middle  line  is  the 
boundary  between  opposite  riparian  proprietors, 
an  island  formed  in  the  stream  belongs  to  the 
proprietor  on  whose  side  of  the  line  it  lies.  If 
this  line  cuts  the  island,  the  latter  is  divided  by 
the  line.  Consult:  Angell.  Treatise  on  the  Law 
of  Watereourses  (Boston,  1877)  ;  Gould,  Treatise 
oil  the  Law  of  ^Voters  (Chicago,  1900).  See 
Avulsion ;  Riparian  Rights;  Seashore;  Wa- 
ter Rights. 

ALLU'VIUM  (From  Lat.  ad.  to -\- lucre,  to 
wash).  A  term  applied  to  the  sediment  trans- 
ported by  rivers  and  spread  over  submerged  low- 
lands during  periods  of  flood.  This  alluvium 
sometimes  forms  "flood  plains"  bordering  rivers, 
or  builds  up  conical  heaps,  "alluvial  cones,"  at 
points  where  rivers  debouch  from  narrow  valleys 
on  to  lower  areas,  or  constitutes  deltas  at  river 
mouths.  Alluvial  soils  are  among  the  most  pro- 
ductive known,  because  of  the  additional  fresh 
material  applied  to  their  surfaces  during  periods 
of  high  water.  The  flood  plains  of  the  Nile, 
Ganges,  and  Mississippi  are  illustrations.  See 
Delta;    FLoon-PLAix;    River;    Soil. 

ALL'WORTH,  Lady.  In  Massinger's  play, 
A  Nrir  ^^'ay  to  I'll;/  Old  Debts  (q.v.),  a  wealthy 
widow. 

ALL'WORTH,  Tom.  In  Massinger's  A  AVio 
Wni/  to  Pay  Old  Debts,  the  stepson  of  Lady 
Allworth,  and  lover  of  Margaret  Overreach, 

ALL'^WOBTHY,  Thomas.  The  ftenerous 
squire  in  Fielding's  Tom  Jones:  foster-father  of 
the  hero.  He  is  a  philanthropic  gentleman,  an 
admirable  character,  understood  to  be  patterned 
after  Fielding's  own  benefactor  and  friend,  Ralph 
Allen   (q.v.). 


ALMA. 


381 


ALMAGRO. 


ALMA,  iil'in;i.  A  livpr  in  the  Crimea,  rising 
on  llic  northern  woody  slope  of  the  Yile,  south  of 
the  Tcliatir-Dajjh.  It  flows  at  first  in  a  north- 
erly direction,  then  turns  to  the  west,  and  emp- 
ties into  a  small  bay  on  the  Black  Sea,  about 
20  miles  north  of  Sebastopol.  It  is  about  4(! 
miles  long.  The  vale  of  the  Alma  is  renowned 
for  the  beauty  of  its  scenery  and  its  many  mag- 
nificent fruit  gardens.  On  the  steep  banks  of 
this  stream,  through  the  channel  of  which  the 
British  troops  waded  amidst  a  shower  of  bullets, 
a  Inilliaht  victory  was  won  on  September  20. 
lS.j4,  by  the  armies  of  Britain,  France,  and 
Turkey,  under  Loid  Raglan  and  itarshal  St.  Ar- 
nand.  over  the  Russian  army,  conunanded  by 
Prince  Mentchikoft'.  After  five  hours  of  stubborn 
fighting,  the  Russians  were  forced  to  retreat  in 
disorder  upon  Sebastopol,  17  per  cent,  of  the 
Russians  ( numbering  3.3,000,  against  (i2,000  of 
the  allies)  having  been  killed  and  wounded.  The 
Turks  took  no  active  part  in  the  battle. 

AL'MA.  A  city  and  county  seat  of  Wa- 
baunsee Co.,  Kan,,  35  miles  west  of  Topeka,  on 
Mill  Creek,  and  on  the  Atchison.  Topeka  and 
Santa  Fe  and  the  Chicago.  Roi'k  Island  and 
Pacific  railroads  (Jlap:  Kansas,  F  2).  It  is 
the  centre  of  an  agricultural  and  stock-raising 
district,  and  has  good  water  power  and  a  large 
flouring  mill.     Pop.,  ISOO,  112.3;   1900,  966, 

ALMA.  A  village  in  Oratiot  Co.,  Mich.,  36 
miles  west  of  Saginaw,  on  Pine  River,  and  on  the 
Ann  Arbor  and  Pere  Marcjuette  railroads  (Map: 
Michigan,  J  .5).  The  most  important  manufac- 
tures are  beet  sugar,  flour,  and  products  of  lum- 
ber. Alma  owns  and  operates  its  water  works 
and  is  lighted  by  electricity.  It  is  the  seat  of 
Alma  College  (Presbyterian),  founded  18S7,  and 
of  the  Alma  Sanitarium,  an  institution  which 
has  more  than  local  reputation.  Alma  was 
settled  in  1853,  incorporated  in  1872,  and  is 
governed  under  a  State  law  of  1883.  The  mayor 
is  elected  annually,  and  the  council  is  com- 
posed of  six  memtJcrs.  Pop,,  1880,  456;  1890, 
1655:    inOO,   2047. 

ALMA.  A  city  and  county  seat  of  Buffalo 
Co.,  Wis,,  25  miles  northwest  of  Winona,  Minn., 
on  the  Mississippi  River  and  on  the  Chicago, 
Burlington  and  Quincy  Railroad  (Map:  Wiscon- 
sin. B  4).  It  is  in  an  agricultural  region,  is 
connected  by  steamboat  with  ports  on  the  river, 
and  has  some  manufactures.  Pop.,  1890,  1428; 
1900,    1201. 

ALMA.  In  Spenser's  Faerie  Queene,  the  per- 
sonification of  the  human  soul,  the  queen  of 
"I'.oily  Castle." 

ALMA.     A    pseudonym   of   Charlotte   Yonge, 

the  novelist. 

ALMACK'S,  al'maks.  A  suite  of  assembly 
rooms  in  King  Street.  Loudon,  built  in  1765. 
They  took  tlieir  name  from  that  of  their  builder, 
or,  rather,  that  assumed  by  him.  It  is  said  he 
was  originally  a  poor  Scottish  Highlander  named 
McCall,  and  that  as  a  preparatory  step  to  rising 
^nto  importance  in  London,  he  inverted  the 
syllables  of  his  patronymic.  The  name  of 
Almack's  is  chiefly  associated  with  the  balls 
which  were  held  there  for  many  years  under  the 
management  of  a  committee  of  ladies  of  high 
rank.  The  glory  of  Almack's  belongs  to  a  period 
earlier  than  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
but  the  name  has  become  synonymous  with  aris- 
tocratic   exclusiveness.     The    London    club    now 


known  as  Brooks's,  formerly  Almack's,  was 
started  by  Almack  in  Pall  ilall  some  time  before 
1763.  Consult:  Timbs,  Clubs  anil  Club  Life  in 
London  (London,  1873)  ;  Walford,  Greater  Lon- 
don   (London,  1883-84). 

ALMADA,  I'llniii'di.  A  seajjort  town  of  Por- 
tugal, in  the  province  of  Estremadura,  on  the 
south  bank  of  the  Tagus,  opposite  Lisbon,  and 
distant  from  it  less  than  two  miles  (Map:  Por- 
tugal. A  3).  It  is  picturesquely  built  at  the  foot 
of  a  height,  on  the  summit  of  which  is  a  strong 
castle.  It  is  a  great  wine  depot,  and  has  long 
been  celebrated  for  its  figs.  Near  it  is  the  gold 
mine  of  Adissa.     Pop.,  about  7000. 

ALMADEN,  or  ALMADEN  DEL  AZOGUE, 

al'ma-Dan'  del  a-thd'gA  (Ar.,  mine  of  quicksil- 
ver). A  town  in  Spain,  5U  miles  southwest  of 
Ciudad  Real,  situated  between  two  mountains  in 
the  chain  of  the  Sierra  Morena  (Map:  Spain, 
C  3).  It  is  famous  for  its  exceedingly  rich  quick- 
silver mines.  It  is  a  pretty,  bustling  town,  with  a 
ruined  Jloorish  castle  and  a  sehoolof  mines.  It 
owes  all  its  importance  to  the  quicksilver  depos- 
its, which  belong  to  the  Spanish  government. 
In  the  sixteenth  century  they  were  leased  to  the 
Fuggers  of  Augsburg.  In  1645  they  reverted 
to  the  crown.  During  part  of  the  nineteenth 
century  they  were  worked  by  the  Rothschilds  of 
London.  They  consist  of  five  stages  or  galleries, 
the  lowest  being  1150  feet  beneath  the  surface. 
The  mercury  is  found  in  many  combinations,  but 
about  10,000  tons  of  ore  are  annually  raised,  10 
per  cent,  of  which  is  pure  metal.  Employment 
is  given  to  4000  miners.     Pop.,   1000,    74.59. 

ALMADEN,  iil'ma-den'.  A  township  in  Santa 
Clara  Co.,  Cal.  Population,  1890,  1932;  1900, 
1599  (Map:  California,  C  3).  It  is  noted  for 
rich  deposits  of  quicksilver,  which  were  discov- 
ered at  an  early  d:ite  by  the  Indians,  who  used 
the  crude  cinnabar  for  paint.  The  mines  began 
to  be  worked  before  1850,  and  for  several  years 
ranked  first  among  American  mines  in  the 
amount  of  production.  The  greatest  amount, 
47,194  flasks,  was  obtained  in  1865;  since  that 
date  there  has  been  a  decline. 

ALMAGEST,  al'raa-jest.  The  greatest  work 
of  Claudius  Ptolemseus  (see  Ptoleiiy)  bore  the 
title  Meyu.?.?i  ^vvra^t^,  Megale  Syntaxis  (great 
system).  The  admirers  of  Ptolemy  changed 
fieyMri,  megale,  gi-eat,  to  neyiari],  meg'iste,  gi-eat- 
est,  and  the  Arabian  translators  added  the 
Arabic  article  al.  producing  al-majisti,  whence 
«as  derived  the  common  media'val  title  almagest. 
The  work  contains  Ptolemy's  important  contriliu- 
tions  to  trigonometry  and  mathematical  astron- 
omy. 

ALMAGRO,  al-mii'gro.  A  town  of  New  Cas- 
tile, Spain,  in  the  province  of  Ciudad  Real,  12 
miles  east-southeast  of  Ciudad  Real  (Map: 
Spain,  D  3).  It  is  situated  in  a  high,  arid  plain, 
but  is  very  well  built,  with  wide  paved  streets 
and  a  fine  square.  Brandy,  soap,  and  earthen- 
ware are  manufactured,  and  lace-making  gives 
employment  to  a  large  number  of  women  in  Al- 
magro  and  the  neighboring  villages.  The  sur- 
rounding country  is  celebrated  for  its  beautiful 
vineyards  and  olives.  The  vine  of  this  region 
yields  the  well-known  red  wine  Valdepenas. 
Pop.,   inoO,  8015. 

ALMAGRO,  DiEoo  DE  (1475-1538).  A  Span- 
ish adventurer,  said  to  have  been  a  foundling  in 
tlie  Spanish  town  whose  name  he  bore.    He  came 


ALMAGBO. 


382 


ALMANAC. 


to  America  with  Pedro  Arias  de  Avila  in  1514 
and  settled  at  Darien,  wlienee  he  removed  to 
Panama  in  1519,  when  that  town  was  founded. 
In  1524  he  formed  a  partnership  with  Pizarro 
for  the  conquest  of  a  region  on  the  Pacific  coast 
to  tlie  south,  wliich  was  reported  to  contain  gold. 
Tlie  first  voyage  was  a  failure.  The  second  voy- 
age, undertaken  in  1526,  began  with  a  succession 
of  reverses  and  Pizarro  wislied  to  al)andon  the 
enterprise,  but  Almagro  persuaded  him  to  con- 
tiinie,  and  eventually  they  were  rewarded  with 
the  wealth  of  the  Incas'  Empire.  Pizarro  secured 
to  himself  and  his  brothers  most  of  the  fruits  of 
victory,  and  deprived  Almagro  of  his  fair  share  of 
plunder  and  power.  In  1535  Almagio  obtained 
from  Charles  V.  the  title  of  Adelantado,  or  Gover- 
nor, of  "New  Toledo,"  a  territory  extending  200 
leagues  along  the  coast,  beginning  at  the  soutliern 
limit  of  Pizarro's  giant.  A  dispute  immediately 
arose  as  to  the  boundary  between  the  two  grants, 
Almagro  claiming  that  Cuzco  lay  within  his  ter- 
ritory. He  returned  from  an  expedition  which 
he  had  undertaken,  without  much  success,  into 
the  snowy  plateau  region  of  the  southern  Andes, 
to  enforce  this  claim,  and  entered  Cuzco,  assert- 
ing that  he  was  its  legitimate  governor.  The 
Marquis  Pizzaro  at  once  dispatched  Espinosa  to 
effect,  if  possible,  an  amicable  settlement;  but 
Almagro  was  elated  by  his  recent  successes  and 
refused  to  entertain  any  compromises.  Further 
negotiations  led  to  a  personal  conference  between 
Pizarro  and  Almagro,  November  1.3,  1537,  wdiieh 
ended  in  an  altercation,  and  the  two  old 
friends  parted,  for  the  last  time,  in  very  angiy 
mood.  Pizarro's  forces  gradually  forced  Al- 
magro back  toward  Cuzco,  near  which  place  he 
made  a  stand.  A  furious  battle  was  fought, 
April  26,  1538.  Almagro  was  captured,  and  gar- 
roted  in  the  following  July. 

Almagro's  son,  Diego  (1520-42),  whose 
mother  was  an  Indian  girl  of  Panama,  was  at 
first  treated  kindly  by  Pizarro ;  but  he  soon  came 
under  the  influence  of  some  of  his  father's 
friends,  who  had  formed  a  conspiracy  to  over- 
throw Pizarro.  The  marquis  was  murdered  on 
June  26,  1541:  the  conspirators  proclaimed  the 
lad  Almagro,  who  was  about  twenty-one  years 
old,  Governor  of  Peru,  and  then  promptly  quar- 
reled among  tliemselves.  When  all  but  one  of 
the  leaders  had  been  murdered  or  had  died  from 
fever  and  exposure,  Almagro  took  matters  into 
his  own  hands  and  ordered  the  execution  of  the 
only  remaining  man  of  consequence  among  them. 
Meanwhile,  Vaca  de  Castro,  who  had  been  sent 
from  Spain  by  the  Government  to  end  the  civil 
^\•ar  in  Peru,  arrived  and  assumed  the  govern- 
ment. Almagi-o  refused  to  submit  and  was  at- 
tacked by  the  royal  forces,  who  defeated  him  in  a 
desperate  battle  on  September  IG,  1542.  Al- 
magro fled  to  Cuzco,  but  was  arrested,  immedi- 
ately condemned  to  death,  and  executed  in  the 
great  square  of  the  city. 

ALMAIN.  An  old  name  for  Germany,  derived 
from  that  of  the  Alemanni   (q.v.). 

ALMALEE,  al-male.     See  Elmalu. 

AL'MA  MA'TEB  (Lat.  nourishing  mother). 
A  name  applied  to  a  university  or  college,  and 
expressing  the  relation  between  the  institution 
and  the  students  who  have  been  educated  in  it. 
The  term  is  one  of  affection,  and  suggests  a 
nmtual  dependence  of  university  and  alumnus 
one   upon   the   othsr.     The   term    matriculation 


(q.v.),    applied    to   entrance    into   a    university, 
carries  the  same  meaning. 

AL-MAMTJN,  iil'mii-moon',  Abu  Abbas  Ab- 
DALLAH  (783-833).  A  caliph  of  the  line  of 
the  Abbassides  (q.v.),  distinguished  for  Ills 
intellectual  qualities.  He  was  the  son  of 
Harun  -  al  -  Rashid.  When  Harun  died,  his 
brother  Amin  succeeded  to  the  Caliphate;  but 
his  treatment  of  Al-Mamun  led  to  war,  and  after 
five  years  of  fighting  Amin  was  slain  and  Al-Ma- 
num  took  his  place  (813).  The  early  part  of  his 
reign  was  disturbed  by  revolts  and  heresies;  but 
when  aff'airs  settled  down  he  fostered  the  culti- 
vation of  literature  and  science  throughout  his 
Empire,  and  Bagdad  became  the  seat  of  academ- 
ical instruction  and  the  centre  of  intelligence. 
He  had  books  translated  from  old  and  living 
languages,  founded  astronomical  observatories, 
determined  the  inclination  of  the  ecliptic,  had 
a  degree  of  the  meridian  measured  on  the  plain 
of  Shinar,  and  constructed  astronomical  tables 
of  remarkable  accuracy.  He  paid  more  respect 
to  science  than  to  orthodoxy,  and  drew  his  serv- 
apts  from  all  countries  and  all  creeds.  In  827 
he  favored  the  heretical  doctrines  of  the  Mutazil- 
ites,  who  asserted  the  free  will  of  man  and  de- 
nied the  finality  of  the  Koran.  In  the  latter 
years  of  his  reign  he  was  involved  in  war  with 
the  Greek  Emperor  Theophilus,  and  revolts  broke 
out  in  various  parts  of  his  Empire.  In  833,  af- 
ter quelling  a  disturbance  in  Egypt,  he  marched 
into  Cilicia  against  the  Greeks,  but  died  sud- 
denly near  Tarsus,  leaving  his  crown  to  Mutasim, 
a  younger  brother.  Al-Mamun  was  the  author  of 
Inqviries  into  the  Koran,  a  tract  on  Signs  of 
Prophect/,  and  one  on  The  Rhetoric  of  the  Priests 
and  Panegyrists  of  the  Caliphs.  Consult  Muir, 
The  Caliphate   (London,  1891). 

Ali'MANAC  (Of  disputed  origin).  A  book 
or  table  containing  a  calendar  of  the  civil  divi- 
sions of  the  year,  the  times  of  the  various  astro- 
nomical phenomena,  and  other  useful  or  enter- 
taining information.  Till  a  comparatively  mod- 
ern date,  this  additional  matter  consisted  of 
astrological  predictions  and  other  analogous  ab- 
surdities; it  now  embraces,  in  the  best  almanacs, 
a  wide  variety  of  useful  notes  and  information, 
chronological,  statistical,  political,  agricultural, 
etc. 

The  history  of  almanacs,  like  all  early'history 
of  astronomy,  goes  back  to  very  ancient  times. 
The  Alexandrian  Greeks  certainly  had  almanacs, 
though  the  time  when  they  first  appeared  in 
Europe  is  not  precisely  known.  The  oldest  of  the 
copies  (manuscript)  existing  are  of  the  thir- 
teenth and  fourteenth  centuries;  there  are  speci- 
mens in  the  libraries  of  the  British  Museum 
and  of  Corpus  Christi  College,  Cambridge.  The 
earliest  known  printed  European  almanac  was 
compiled  by  the  celebrated  astronomer  Purbach, 
and  appeared  between  the  years  1450  and  1401  ; 
but  the  first  almanac  of  importance  was  that 
compiled  bj'  his  pupil,  Regiomontanus,  for  the 
fifty-seven  years  from  1475  to  1531,  for  which 
he  received  a  munificent  donation  from  Matthias 
Corvinus,  King  of  Hungary.  Bernardo  de  Grano- 
lachs  of  Barcelona  commenced  the  publication  of 
an  almanac  in  14S7  :  the  printer  Engel  of  Vienna, 
in  1491;  and  Stdffler  of  Tiibingen,  in  1.524. 
Copies  of  these  are  now  very  rare.  In  1533 
Rabelais  published  at  Lyons  his  almanac  for  that 
year,  and  renewed  the  publication  in  1535,  1548, 
and  1550.     The  fame  and  popularity  of  <,he  as- 


ALMANAC. 


383 


ALMANAC. 


trologer  Nostradamus,  who  prophesied  the  death 
of  Henry  II.  of  France,  gave  such  an  impulse 
to  the  puhlication  of  predictions,  that  in  1.579 
Henry  III.  of  France  prohibited  the  insertion 
of  any  political  prophecies  in  almanacs — a  pro- 
hibition renewed  by  Louis  XIII.  in  1028.  Before 
this,  in  the  reign  of  Charles  IX.,  a  royal  ordon- 
nance  required  every  almanac  to  be  stamped  with 
the  approval  of  the  diocesan  bishop. 

Prophetic  almanacs  have  circulated  very  large- 
ly in  France  in  the  rural  districts  and  among 
the  uneducated.  The  most  interesting  of  these 
is  jierhaps  the  old  .1  Imnnach  Lieyeois,  a  venerable 
remnant  of  superstition.  It  was  first  published 
at  Lifge — according  to  the  invariable  title-page 
which  takes  no  note  of  time — in  1030,  by  one 
Matthieu  Laensbergh,  whose  existence,  however, 
at  any  time  seems  very  problematical.  The 
Alinanarh  Lieffcois  is  a  most  convenient  one  for 
those  who  are  unable  to  read,  for  by  certain 
symbols  attached  to  certain  dates  the  most  unlet- 
tered persons  can  follow  its  instructions;  thus, 
the  rude  re]nescntation  of  a  vial  announces  the 
proper  phase  of  the  moon  under  which  a  draught 
of  medicine  should  be  taken ;  a  pill-box  desig- 
nates the  planet  most  propitious  for  pills :  a 
pair  of  scissors  points  out  the  proper  period  for 
cutting  hair,  a  lancet  for  letting  blood.  Of 
■course,  amid  innumerable  predictions,  some  may 
naturally  be  expected  to  come  to  pass.  So  in 
1774  this  almanac  predicted  that  in  April  of 
that  year  a  royal  favorite  would  play  her  last 
part.  Madame  du  Barry  took  the  prediction  to 
herself,  and  repeatedly  exclaimed:  "I  wish  this 
villaintms  month  of  April  were  over."  In  May 
Louis XV.  died,  and  Madame  du  Barry's  last  part 
was  really  played.  The  credit  of  old  Matthieu 
was  established  more  firmly  than  ever.  In  18.52, 
a  commission  having  examined  between  7000  and 
8000  of  the  national  chapbooks,  which  included  a 
great  number  of  almanacs,  pronounced  them  so 
deleterious,  that  it  became  necessary  forcibly  to 
check  their  circulation.  Although  still  in  vogue 
amongst  the  ignorant,  their  popularity  is  greatly 
on  the  wane. 

In  England,  so  far  was  any  restraint  from 
being  put  upon  the  publication  of  prophetic 
almanacs,  or  "prognostications,"  as  they  were 
usually  called,  that  royal  letters  patent  gave  a 
monopoly  of  the  trade  to  the  two  universities 
and  the  Stationers'  Company,  under  whose  pat- 
ronage, and  with  the  imprimiitur  of  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  such  productions  as 
Moore's  Almanac  and  Poor  Robin's  Almanac 
flourished  vigorously;  although  "it  would  be 
dillicult  to  find,  in  so  small  a  compass,  an  equal 
quantity  of  ignorance,  profligacy,  and  imposture 
as  was  condensed  in  these  pidilications."  The 
memory  of  Partridge,  long  employed  as  the 
]irophet  of  the  Stationers'  Company,  is  preserved 
in  the  lively  diatribe  of  Swift,  writing  under  the 
name  of  BickerstaflF.  There  is  a  legal  decision 
on  record  in  the  year  177.5,  in  favor  of  a  book- 
seller named  Carnan,  abolishing  the  monopoly  of 
the  Stationers'  Company.  In  1770  Lord  North 
brought  in  a  bill  renewing  their  privileges. 
After  a  powerful  speech  against  the  measure  by 
Erskine,  who  exposed  the  pernicious  influence 
of  the  productions  published  under  the  monopoly, 
it  was  rejected.  The  Stationers'  Company,  how- 
ever, still  maintained  their  ground  by  buying  up 
all  rival  almanacs;  and  it  was  not  until  the  pub- 
lication, in  1828,  of  the  British  Almanac,  by  the 
Society  for  the  DitTusion  of  Useful  Knowledge, 


that  the  eyes  of  the  English  public  became 
opened  to  the  irrational  and  deleterious  nature 
of  the  commodity  which  their  own  iiulifference 
or  folly,  as  mucli  as  the  selfishness  of  their  pur- 
veyors, had  hitherto  maintained  in  existence. 
In  Scotland  the  earliest  almanacs  seem  to 
have  been  produced  about  the  beginning  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  Shortly  after  the  beginning  of 
the  seventeenth  century  the  almanacs,  or  "prog- 
nostications," published  at  Aberdeen  had  begun 
'  to  acquire  a  great  reputation.  About  the  year 
It)77  they  were  sold  for  a  ptack  each;  and  the 
annual  circulation  amounted,  on  an  average,  to 
50,000  copies.  In  1083  appeared  a  rival  publica- 
tion, under  the  title  of  Edinburgh's  True  Alma- 
nack, or  a  True  Prognoslication.  For  a  long  time 
Scottish  almanacs  continued,  like  all  others  of 
that  age,  to  contain  little  besides  a  calendar,  with 
a  list  of  fairs,  and — what  constituted  the  great 
attraction — predictions  of  the  weather.  But 
something  more  instructive  and  comprehensive 
became  requisite,  and  the  Edinburgh  Almanac 
seems  to  have  been  among  the  first  to  respond  to 
this  i;equirenient  of  advancing  civilization;  for, 
by  various  additions,  such  as  a  list  of  Scottish 
members  of  parliament,  it  had,  in  1745,  been 
extended  from  the  original  16  pages  to  30.  In 
twelve  3'ears  from  that  date  it  had  swelled  to 
72  pages;  in  1779  it  had  I'eachcd  252  pages. 
After  1837  it  was  published  under  the  title  of 
Olircr  and  Boyd's  Xeir  Edinburgh  Almanac,  and 
e.vtended  to  above  1000  pages. 
.  Almanacs  containing  astrological  and  other 
predictions  are  still  published  in  Great  Britain; 
but  their  influence  is  extremel}'  limited,  even 
among  the  most  ignorant  portion  of  the  com- 
munity, and  their  contents  are  fitted  to  excite 
amusement  rather  than  any  stronger  emotion. 
In  America,  the  publication  of  almanacs  for 
popular  use  is  confined  very  largely  to  the 
vendors  of  proprietary  or  patent  nostrums  and 
medicines.  These  persons  distribute  the  alma- 
nacs gratuitously,  judging  rightly  that  they  con- 
stitute a  most  excellent  advertisement  of  their 
wares.  This  is  due  principally  to  the  fact  that 
people  keep  their  almanacs  at  hand  throughout 
the  year,  and  thus  the  advertisements  printed  in 
them  are  ever  present  to  the  public  eye.  Among 
the  almanacs  in  America  that  are  sold  for  a 
small  price,  the  most  important  are  probably 
the  Old  Farmers',  issued  in  New  England,  and 
those  coming  from  several  great  newspaper 
oflices.  It  is  believed  that  the  first  conunon 
almanac  in  this  country  was  for  1087,  from 
Bradford's  press  in  Philadelphia.  Franklin's 
Poor  Tfirliard's  Almanac,  begun  in  1732,  was 
kc])t  up  by  him  about  twenty-five  years,  and  was 
widely  known  l)oth  at  home  and  abroad  for  its 
wise  and  witty  sayings.  The  American  Almanac 
and  li'epository  of  Useful  Knowledge  was  issued 
in  Boston  from  1828  to  1801 ;  a  continuation. 
The  yational  Almanac,  came  out  for  two  .years 
only,  1803  and  1804.  Nearly  every  religious  de- 
nomination has  its  special  annual,  either  almanac 
or  year-book ;  and  many  trades,  professions,  and 
enterprises  have  similar  publications. 

There  arc  also  important  astronomical  alma- 
nacs. The  yautieal  Almanac,  published  in  Eng- 
land, was  projected  by  Nevil  Jlaskelyne,  As- 
triinonuu-  Royal  from  1705  to  1811,  who  urged  its 
value  in  connection  with  the  use  of  lunar  dis- 
tances for  the  determination  of  longitude.  The 
first  edition  of  this  work  was  published  with 
the    autboritv   of   Government    in    17i>7.      After 


ALMANAC. 


Dr.  Maskelyne's  death  it  gradu.illy  lni?t  its  char- 
acter, and  in  IS.SO.  in  consequence  of  the  numer- 
ous complaints  made  against  it,  the  Government 
requested  the  Astronomical  Society  to  pronounce 
upon  the  subject.  The  suggestions  of  the  soci- 
ety were  adopted,  and  in  1834  the  first  number 
of'  the  new  series  appeared,  with  such  additions 
and  improvements  as  the  advanced  state  of 
astronomical  science  rendered  necessary.  Still 
older  than  this  almanac  is  the  French  Coiiiwis- 
sance  des  Temps,  commenced  in  1G79  by  Pieard, 
and  now  published  under  the  authority  of  the 
Uiireau  des  Longitudes.  Its  plan  is  similar  to 
that  of  the  Xautieal  Almanac,  but  it  has  con- 
tained a  larger  amount  of  original  memoirs, 
many  of  them  of  great  value.  Equally  cele- 
brated is  the  Berlin  Astronomlsches  Jahrhuch, 
issued  from  the  Berlin  Observatory.  In  the 
United  States  the  American  yaiitical  Almanac 
was  begun^in  1849  by  Charles  Henry  Davis, 
United  States  Navy,  and  the  first  volume  (for 
1855)  was  published  in  1853.  The  publication 
is  issued  from  the  office  of  the  Nautical  Almanac 
and  American  Ephemeris,  United  States  Navy 
Department,  in  Washington,  and  contains  tables 
of  the  predicted  positions  of  the  sun,  moon,  and 
planets,  and  of  all  the  fixed  stars  used  in  naviga- 
tion. It  is  published  three  years  in  advance, 
for  the  convenience  of  navigators  bound  on  long 
voyages.  The  Xautieal  Alnxmac  or  Astronomical 
Ephemeris  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to 
astronomers,  as  it  contains  collections  of  numer- 
ical data  required  in  the  computation  of  their 
celestial  observations,  which  are  equally  neces- 
sary to  enable  navigators  to  tind  their  way  across 
the  sea  by  tlie  aid  of  tlie  sextant. 

The  preparation  and  publication  of  these  alma- 
nacs, though  most  important,  are  so  costl.y,  that 
they  are  possible  only  to  the  gi-eat  financial  re- 
sources of  governments,  and  it  is  largely  for 
this  purpose  that  governmental  astronomical  ob- 
servatories are  maintained. 

Congress  in  1849  provided  for  the  publication 
of  such  a  work,  in  which  "the  meridian  of  the 
observatory  at  Washington  sliall  be  adopted  and 
used  as  the  American  meridian  for  astronomical 
purposes,  and  the  meridian  of  C4reenwich  shall 
be  adopted  for  all  nautical  purposes."  This  law 
caused  the  division  of  the  work  into  the  Ameri- 
ca7i  Ephemeris  and  Nautical  Almanac.  The 
first-named  part  is  chiefly  for  the  use  of  astron- 
omers; the  second  is  adapted  to  the  use  of  na^'i- 
gators. 

ALMANACK  DE  GOTHA,  al'ma'na'  de  go'- 
ti'.     See  KuTiiA,  Almanacii  de. 

AL'MANDINE  (Fr.  almandinc,  from  I.at. 
alabandina) .  The  red,  transparent,  precious 
variety  of  Garnet  (q.v.) ,  so  called  from  .\labanda, 
a  town  in  Caria,  where  it  was  found.  This  name 
is  also  given  to  a  violet  colored  variety  of  Spinel 
ruby. 

ALMANSA,  al-miin'sa.  A  town  of  Murcia, 
Spain,  in  tlic  ])rovince  of  Albacete,  43  miles  east 
by  south  of  Albacete,  on  the  JIadrid  and  Alicante 
liailway  (Map:  Spain,  E  3).  It  is  two  thousand 
feet  above  sea  level,  and  stands  on  a  fertile  pla- 
teau. Almansa  carries  on  manufactures  of  linen, 
hempen,  and  cotton  fabrics,  the  materials  of 
wliicli  arc  supplied  from  the  neighborhood;  also 
nf  bi-andy,  leather,  and  soap.  Population.  1000, 
11.117.  Xear  Almansa  the  French,  under  the 
Duke  of  Berwick,  natural  son  of  Janus  II.  of 
England,   gained   a   victory   on  April   25,    1707, 


3S4  ALMEH. 

over  an  army  of  Spanish  and  English  troops 
commanded  by  Henry  de  Euvigny,  Earl  of  Gal- 
way.  The  battle  of  Almansa  was,  in  its  results, 
one  of  the  most  important  in  the  war  of  the 
Spanish  succession. 

AL-MANSTTB,  al'man-soor'  (Ar.,  The  Vic- 
torious), Abu  .I.\'far  Abdallah  ibx  Mohammed 
(712-775).  The  second  caliph  of  the  house  of 
the  Abbassides  (754-775).  He  regulated  the 
finances  and  the  post  in  the  kingdom  and  patron- 
ized learning.  One  of  his  great  achievements 
was  to  found  Bagdad.  He  died  during  a  pilgrim- 
age to  Jlecca,  at  the  age  of  sixty-three.  See 
ABCA.ssinES. 

ALMA-TADEMA,  iil'ma  tii'dem.a.  Sir  Lau- 
rence (1830 — ).  A  well-known  painter,  of  Dutch 
origin  and  Belgian  training  but  English  resi- 
dence for  more  than  half  his  life.  He  was  born 
in  West  Friesland  .January  8,  1836,  and  while 
still  a  boy  showed  so  decided  a  vocation  for  art 
that  he  was  sent  to  Antwerp  to  study  under 
Wappers  and  for  a  longer  period  under  Leys, 
who  was  making  the  mediteval  and  Renaissance 
periods  live  again  as  his  pupil  was  to  do  with 
earlier  ages.  Pictures  of  Frankish  and  ancient 
Egyptian  life  occupied  him  between  1860  and 
1875,  by  which  time  he  had  begun  to  devote  him- 
self mainly  to  depicting  the  life  of  the  Greeks 
and  Romans.  Early  essays  in  this  style  were  the 
"Roman  Amateur"  and  "Pyrrhic  Dance."  which 
he  sent  o^•er  to  the  Royal  Academy  in  1869.  In 
the  following  year  he  went  to  live  in  London. 
His  success  was  recognized  by  membership  in 
the  Academy  in  1879  and  knighthood  in  1899. 
Among  important  later  pictures  are  "The  Roses 
of  Heliogabalus"  ( 1888),  "Spring"  (1894),  "The 
Conversion  of  Paula"  (1898),  and  "Thermae 
Antoninianoe"  (1899).  His  work  is  remarkable 
for  its  careful  arclL-eoIogical  research.  He  is 
peculiarly  successful  in  defining  the  textures  of 
marble  and  bronze,  which  he  does  with  great 
realism  and  judgment.  In  composition  he  is 
scholarly;  the  various  parts  or  quantities  of  his 
scenes  are  balanced  with  true  artistic  instinct. 
His  drawing  is  good,  his  coloring  faithful,  but 
he  is  at  times  charged,  and  not  without  reason, 
with  a  lack  of  sentiment.  It  is  a  visual  pleasure 
of  coloring,  intelligent  groiiping,  fine  differentia- 
tion of  textures  and  of  stuffs  that  his  pictures 
afford;  they  are  solid  and  competent  in  execu- 
tion and  they  have  the  value  of  trustworthy 
records  of  the  past :  but  they  rarely  move  more 
than  the  intellect  and  the  sight.  Consult  Zini- 
mern,  L.  Alma-Tadcma,  His  Life  and  Work  (Lon- 
don. 1880)  ;  Georg  Ebers,  L.  Alma-Tadema  (Eng. 
trans..  New  York,  1886). 

ALMA  VIVA,  jil'ma-ve'va,  CotmT.  A  char- 
acter in  Beaumarchais's  comedies  Le  barbier  de 
8^-villc,  Le  mariage  de  Figaro,  and  La  mire 
coupablc,  appearing  successively  as  .a  fascinat- 
ing young  nobleman,  a  disillusioned  husband,  and 
an  old  gallant. 

ALMEH,  al'mo,  or  ALMAI  (Ar.  'alimah, 
learned  woman,  from  'alama,  to  know).  A  class 
of  singing  girls  in  Egypt.  To  enter  the  almeh  one 
must  have  a  good  voice,  know  tlie  rules  of  verse, 
and  be  able  to  improvise  couplets  adapted  to  cir- 
cumstances. They  are  in  demand  at  all  enter- 
tainments and  festivals,  and  at  funerals  as  hired 
mourners.  They  are  distinct  from  the  ghawdzi, 
or  dancing  girls,  who  are  of  a  lower  order  and 
perform  in  the  streets. 


ALMEIDA. 


ALMEIDA,  !il-ma'e-da.  One  of  the  strong- 
est fortified  places  in  Portugal,  situated  on  the 
River  C'oa.  on  the  Spanish  frontier,  in  tlie  prov- 
ince of  Beira  (Map:  Portugal,  B  2).  In  17()2 
it  was  captured  by  the  Spaniards,  who  soon  after- 
ward surrendered  it.  In  tlieir  retreat  from 
Portnga!,  1811,  the  French,  under  General 
llrenier,  destroyed  a  great  portion  of  the  fortifi- 
cations of  Almeida,  which,  however,  were  speed- 
ily repaired  by  the  English.     Pop.,  about  3000. 

ALMEIDA.  A  town  situated  on  the  east 
coast  i)f  Brazil,  in  the  State  of  Espirito  Santo, 
near  tlie  mouth  of  the  Reis  JIagos  River,  20  miles 
nortli  of  Victoria.  It  was  founded  in  1580.  Pop., 
4000. 

ALMEIDA,  Francisco  de  (I4.50?-1.510).  A 
Portuf^nese  warrior  and  empire  builder.  He  was 
born  in  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century.  For 
his  services  against  the  Moors  he  was  made,  in 
1505,  viceroy  of  the  Portuguese  possessions  in  the 
East  Indies.  At  Cannanore,  Cochin,  and  Quilon, 
and  in  Ceylon  and  Sumatra  he  either  built 
fortresses  to  protect  the  Portuguese  factories 
or  founded  new  trading  posts.  His  attempt  to 
establish  the  supremacy  of  Portugal  in  the 
Indian  seas  brought  him  into  conflict  with  the 
Venetians  and  the  Egyptians.  In  a  great  battle 
fought  between  Lorenzo  de  Almeida,  son  of  Fran- 
cisco, and  a  combined  Venetian  and  Egyptian 
fleet,  in  the  harbor  of  Chaul,  in  1507,  j'oung 
Lorenzo  fell.  To  avenge  his  death,  Francisco 
sacked  the  ports  of  Goa  and  Dabul,  and  refusing 
to  acknowledge  Albuquerque,  who  had  been  sent 
out  to  supersede  him,  destroyed  the  Egyptian 
fleet  at  Din  in  1508.  Then  he  resigned  his  com- 
mand and  sailed  for  home,  but  perished  in  a 
skirmish  with  African  savages  near  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope. 

ALMEIDA  -  GARRETT,  al-ma'e-da-gar-ret', 
Jo.to  Baptista  de  Silva  Leitao,  Viscount  d' 
(1709-1854).  A  distinguished  Portuguese  states- 
man and  author,  leader  of  the  romantic  move- 
ment in  his  country,  and  its  most  important  poet 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  He  was  born  at 
Oporto  and  died  at  Lisbon.  After  a  boyhood 
spent  in  the  Azores,  under  the  tutelage  of  a 
highly  gifted  uncle,  Rishop  of  Angra.  he  attended 
the  University  of  t'oimbra,  and  there  imbibed 
the  revolutionary  ideas  which  led  him  to  partici- 
pate in  the  revolt  of  1820,  and  three  v'ears  later 
resulted  in  his  expatriation.  Hitherto,  his  writ- 
ings, such  as  the  dramas  Mcro/ie  and  Catao,  and 
the  didactic  poem  on  painting,  0  Retrato  de 
^'enlls,  reflected  the  spirit  of  French  classicism 
and  the  native  "Arcadian"  school.  In  Engl.and 
and  France,  however,  he  came  under  the  influ- 
ence of  Scott  and  the  French  romanticists,  and 
this  influence  is  reflected  in  his  epic,  Camocs 
1 1825) ,  the  burden  of  which  is  the  poet's  longing 
for  his  home;  and  in  his  equally  well  known 
Dona  Branca  (1820),  a  long  poem,  half  epic, 
half  lyric,  and  aimed  especially  against  monastic 
life.  He  returned  to  Portugal  in  1826,  and  suf- 
fered a  brief  imprisonment  owing  to  some  politi- 
cal articles.  Two  years  later  he  was  again  forced 
to  seek  safety  in  exile:  bnt  when,  in  1832,  Dom 
Pedro  returned  from  Brazil  for  the  purpose  of 
contesting  the  throne  with  his  brother,  Dom  Mi- 
guel, Almeida-Garrett  joined  his  forces,  and  after 
the  victory  of  1833  was  rewarded  with  a  place  in 
the  cabinet  as  minister  of  the  interior.  His  life 
henceforth  was  one  of  remarkable  activity.  As 
a  member  of  the  national  Cortes,  he  showed  him- 


385  ALMIQUI. 

self  an  uncompromising  supporter  of  democratic 
principles,  and  instituted  many  reforms.  He  in- 
terested himself  especially  in  the  founding  of  a 
national  theatre  and  a  conservatory  of  dramatic 
art,  and  wrote  a  long  series  of  prose  dramas,  the 
central  figure  in  each  case  being  some  typical 
national  character,  such  as  Auto  de  Oil  Vicento 
(1838),  D.  Filippa  de  Vilhcna  (\fiiO),  and  Frei 
Liiiz  de  Sousa  (1844).  One  of  his  most  impor- 
tant contributions  to  literature  is  his  lioman- 
ceiro  (1851-53),  a  collection  of  thirty-two  early 
Portuguese  ballads  and  romances,  the  text  of 
\\hich  he  freely  restored  and  emended.  His  last 
work  is  a  poem,  Folhas  cahidas  ("Fallen 
Leaves"),  a  dramatic  record  of  a  love  that  came 
in  the  autumn  of  life,  which  for  pathos  and  emo- 
tional power  is  hardly  equaled  in  Portuguese 
literature.  An  edition  of  his  collected  works 
appeared  after  his  death  (Lisbon,  1854-77). 
The  best  biography  is  that  of  Gomes  de  Amorim, 
Garrett.  Jlemorias  biographieas,  3  volumes  (Lis- 
bon, 1881-88). 

ALMELO,  arma-lo'.  A  town  in  the  Nether- 
lands, 19  miles  by  rail  northeast  of  Deventer 
(Map:  Xetherlands.  E  2) .  The  town  possesses  a 
church  witli  the  family  vault  of  the  Von  Recht- 
eren,  whose  fine  castle  is  also  here,  and  manu- 
factures linen  and  cotton  goods.  Pop.,  1889, 
8354;   1900,  10,018. 

ALMERIA,  iil'm.a-re'a  (Ar.  The  Conspicu- 
ous). The  capital  of  the  province  of  Almeria 
in  Spain,  GO  miles  southeast  of  Granada.  Alme- 
ria is  the  seat  of  a  bishop  (Jlap:  Spain,  D  4). 
It  stands  at  the  head  of  Almeria  Bay,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river  of  the  same  name ;  behind 
it  rises  a  lofty  mountain  ridge,  on  which  is  an 
ancient  Moorish  castle.  The  flat-roofed  houses 
are  Oriental  in  character,  and  the  appearance  of 
the  place  evidences  its  antiquity.  The  Gothic 
cathedral,  begun  in  1524,  is  essentially  Spanish 
in  its  fortress-like  outline  and  battlemented 
walls.  The  church  of  San  Pedro  occupies  the 
site  of  a  mosque.  There  are  a  normal  school, 
several  monasteries,  and  some  ruined  castles 
in  the  town,  but  no  signs  of  much  intellectual 
interest  or  activity.  There  are  manufactures  of 
sugar,  white  lead,  macaroni,  etc.,  but  the  most 
important  commercial  interest  in  Almeria  is  its 
exportation  of  fruit,  grapes,  oranges,  almonds, 
pomegranates,  etc..  and  of  iron  ore.  It  is  a  win- 
ter resort  for  invalids,  as  its  climate  rivals  that 
of  Nice.  Population,  1900.  47,202.  Almeria  is 
one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  of  Spain,  and  was 
founded  by  the  Phoenicians.  The  Romans  called 
it  Unci,  and  Magnus  Pontus,  the  gi'eat  harbor. 
It  flourished  under  the  Moors,  when,  as  the  prov- 
erb says,  "Granada  was  no  more  than  its  farm." 
When  it  passed  into  Christian  hands  (1489)  its 
prosperity  languished,  and  only  within  recent 
years  have  railway  facilities  brought  back  some- 
thing of  its  former  activity. 

ALMERIA.  In  Congi-eve's  Mouniinr/  Bride 
(q.v. ),  the  heroine,  bride  of  Prince  Al[)honso, 
whom  slie  mourns  until  his  unexpected  return. 
Her  role  is  famous  for  the  lines,  "Music  hath 
charms,"  etc. 

AL'MERI'CIANS.  The  followers  of  Amalric 
of  Bene   (q.v. ) . 

ALMIQUI,  al-me'ke  (native  name).  A  Cu- 
ban insectivore.  See  AgoCta;  and  plate  of 
Cavies  accompanying  article  Cavt. 


ALMISSA. 


386 


ALMOND. 


ALMISSA,  al-me'sa.  A  port  of  the  Austrian 
crownland  of  Dalmatia,  14  miles  southeast  of 
Spalato,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Cetina.  Almissa 
is  famous  as  the  rendezvous  of  the  pirates  once 
infesting  the  Adriatic.  Pop.,  1890,  13,200; 
1900,   15,100. 

ALMODOVAR  DEL  CAMPO,  al'md-Do'viir 
del  kam'po.  A  town  of  New  Castile,  Spain,  in 
the  province  of  Ciudad  Real,  22  miles  southwest 
of  Ciudad  Real  (Map:  Spain,  C  3).  It  stands 
on  the  summit  of  a  ridge,  near  the  Vega,  a 
branch  of  the  Guadiana.  The  streets  are  toler- 
ably clean  but  ill  paved.  There  are  ruins  of  an 
ancient  castle.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  em- 
ployed in  agriculture,  and  the  only  manufactures 
are  domestic.     Pop.,    1900,    11,015. 

ALMOHADES,  fil'mo-hfidz  (Ar.  Al-Muwah- 
hidi'iH.  "who  ]aiichiim  the  Unity  of  God").  The 
name  of  a  dynasty  that  ruknl  in  northwestern 
Africa  and  Spain  during  tlic  twelftli  and  thir- 
teenth centuries.  In  the  reign  of  Ali,  second  of 
the  Almoravides  (q.v.).  a  religious  teacher.  Mo- 
hammed ibn  Allah,  calling  himself  El  Mahdi 
(the  guided),  founded  the  sect  of  the  Almohades 
in  Africa.  They  were  opposed  to  the  realistic 
anthropomorphism  of  orthodox  Islam.  Theirleader 
exercised  great  influence  over  the  Arabs  and  Ber- 
bers throughout  Northern  Africa.  Mohammed  im- 
posed on  his  disciples  new  ceremonies,  and  com- 
posed for  their  benefit  a  special  treatise  entitled 
On  the  Unit II  of  God.  Mohammed  found  a  suc- 
cessor in  Abd-al-Mumin,  under  whom  the  Almo- 
hades rose  to  great  power.  They  extended  their 
conquests  into  Spain  in  1140,  subjugating  Anda- 
lusia, Valencia,  and  a  part  of  Aragon.  and  Por- 
tugal as  far  as  the  Tagus.  Under  Yusuf  and 
Yakub-al-Mansur  (see  Abu  Yusuf  Yakuh),  the 
dynasty  of  Almohades  continued  to  flourish  in 
great  splendor.  But  in  1235  they  were  complete- 
ly defeated  by  Christians  in  the  battle  of 
Novas  de  Tolosa,  the  result  of  which  was  a  gen- 
eral collapse  of  their  power  in  Spain.  The  power 
of  the  Almohades  in  Spain  terminated  in  1257 
and  in  Africa  in  1209.  Consult:  Freeman,  His- 
torti  and  Conquests  of  the  •■inraccns  (Oxford, 
1856)  ;  Coppee,  Conquest  of  Siniin  by  the  Arab- 
Moors  (Boston,  1881);  Fagnan,  "Histoire  des 
Almohades,"  in  La  Revue  Africaine  (Algiers, 
1892).     See  Abd-al-Mumin. 

AL-MOKANNA,  •ll'mo-kiin'na,  or  MOKEN- 
NA.     See  iloiiAM.MEnAN  Sects. 

ALMON,  ril'mon,  John  (1737-1805).  An 
English  journalist  and  bookseller,  born  in  Liver- 
])ool.  He  attended  school  for  a  short  time  at 
Warrington,  was  apprenticed  to  a  printer  and 
bookseller,  and  in  1759  settled  in  London  as  a 
journeyman  printer.  He  soon  took  to  pamphlet- 
eering, became  a  member  of  the  staff  of  The  Lon- 
don Gazetteer,  and  by  a  pamphlet  entitled  .4. 
Itcvieni  of  Mr.  Pitt's  Admi)iistrntion  won  the 
favor  of  Burke  and  others  of  the  opposition  party 
at  the  time  of  Pitt's  resignation  (1701).  He 
then  became  a  publisher  and  bookseller  on  his 
own  account,  and  was  patronized  largely  by  the 
members  of  the  opposition.  He  was  a  close 
friend  and  ardent  supporter  of  John  Wilkes 
(q.v.),  and  in  1870  was  fined  for  selling  a  paper 
containing  one  of  the  letters  of  .Junius.  In  1784 
lie  became  proprietor  and  editor  of  the  General 
Advertiser,  but  two  years  later  was  driven  by  a 
libel  trial  to  relinquish  this  undertaking.  He 
rendered  an  inqxirtant  service  to  students  of 
American    history    by    publishing    The    Remem- 


brancer,  a  monthly  collection  of  contemporary 
documents  bearing  on  the  Revolutionary  War, 
especially  of  such  documents  "as  serve  to  display 
the  injustice  of  the  design  and  the  folly  of  the 
councils  of  Great  Britain."  He  also  published  a 
valuable  Collection  of  all  the  Treaties  of  Peace, 
Alliance,  and  Commerce  between  Great  Britain 
and  Other  Powers  from  lliSS  to  1771;  Biograph- 
ical, Literary,  and  Political  Anecdotes  (1797); 
and  Correspondence  of  John  Wilkes,  with  a 
Memoir  of  his  Life    (1805). 

ALMONACID  DE  TOLEDO,  -il'mo-na-theD' 
da  t6-l:"i'D6.  A  little  town  of  Spain  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Toledo,  connected  with  Toledo  by  rail. 
It  contains  an  old  Moorish  castle,  and  is  famous 
chiefly  as  the  place  of  a  battle  between  Spanish 
and  French  forces  on  August  11,  1809,  in  which 
the  Spanish  forces,  numbering  about  30,000,  were 
defeated.     Pop.,   1900.    1574. 

ALMOND,  ii'mund  (Lat.  amygdala,  Gk.  d/avy- 
lili],  amygdale) ,  Ami/gdahis.  A  genus  of  the 
natural  order  Rosacefe,  consisting  of  trees 
and  shrubs.  The  almond  tree  {Amygdalus  com- 
munis) grows  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet  high, 
closely  resembles  the  peach  in  general  appear- 
ance and  bloom,  and  furnishes  the  almond  nuts 
of  commerce.  It  is  native  to  the  ilediterranean 
basin  and  southwestern  Asia,  and  has  been  in 
cultivation  from  remote  times.  The  fruit  is  a 
drupe  with  a  thin,  hard  covering,  which  splits 
open  when  ripe.  Almonds  are  of  two  kinds — 
bitter  and  sweet.  The  bitter  almond  is  culti- 
vated to  a  limited  extent  in  Mediterranean 
countries,  and  the  nuts  are  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  flavoring  extracts  and  of  prussie  acid. 
The  sweet,  or  edible,  almond  is  grown  on  a  com- 
mercial scale  in  the  south  of  Europe,  in  Cali- 
fornia, and  in  some  other  countries  of  similar 
climate.  The  nuts  contain  a  large  quantity  of 
a  bland,  fixed  oil ;  they  have  an  agreeable  flavor, 
and  are  rised  for  desserts,  in  confectionery,  and 
medicinally  in  an  emulsion  which  forms  a  pleas- 
ant, cooling,  diluent  drink.  There  are  two  classes 
of  sweet  almonds — the  hard  shell  and  the  soft 
shell  almond.  The  latter  only  is  important  com- 
mercially. Of  foreign  varieties,  the  long  almond 
of  Malaga,  known  as  the  Jordan  almond,  and  the 
broad  almond  of  Valencia,  are  most  valued  in 
the  trade.  In  California,  success  in  almond- 
growing  came  only  with  the  improvement  of 
selected  seedlings  of  local  origin.  Ne  Plus  Ultra, 
Nonpareil.  IXL,  and  Languedoc  are  the  best- 
known  of  these.  In  1897,  California  produced 
218  carloads  of  nuts.  In  addition  to  the  home 
production,  the  United  States  imports,  annually, 
about  a  million  dollars'  worth  of  nuts.  In  Syria 
and  northern  Africa,  almonds  are  grown  on  dry 
and  stony  soils.  They  are  believed  to  withstand 
drought  better  than  any  other  fruit.  In  Califor- 
nia, good-paying  crops  are  secured  only  on  fertile, 
well-drained  soils,  preferably  warm  loams;  and 
in  the  arid  regions  water  for  irrigation  must  be 
abundant. 

The  almond  is  propagated  mainly  by  budding 
on  seedling  bitter  almond  stocks.  Trees  come 
into  bearing  in  from  two  to  four  years  from 
budding,  and  reach  mature  fruitage  in  from 
seven  to  ten  years.  On  strong  land  the  trees  are 
set  at  least  twenty-f(Mir  feet  apart  each  way. 
The  tree  is  shaped  during  the  first  three  years' 
growth,  after  which  little  pruning  is  required. 
Varieties  should  be  mixed  in  orchard  planting, 
to  insure  cross-pollination. 


ALMOND. 


387 


ALMONTE. 


The  almond  is  also  widely  grown  as  an  orna- 
mental in  localities  where  it  seldom  if  ever  pro- 
duces fruit.  It  is  a  favorite  flowering  shrub  in 
England,  northern  Europe,  and  parts  of  the 
eastern  and  southern  United  States.  It  is  one 
of  the  earliest  fruits  to  bloom.  The  peach-like 
blossoms  appear  before  the  leaves,  and  are  very 
ornamental. 

The  dwarf  almond  (Amyrjdalus  nana)  is  a  low 
shrub,  seldom  more  than  two  or  three  feet  in 
height.  It  is  common  in  the  south  of  Russia, 
and  is  frequently  planted  as  an  ornamental 
shrub.  Another  species  (Ainytidalus  andersonii) 
— as  yet  of  no  agricultural  importance — is  found 
among  the  rocky  hills  of  southern  California, 
about  the  Colorado  desert.  It  is  a  bushy  shrub, 
barely  six  feet  high.  The  fruit  is  a  small,  vel- 
vety drupe,  little  more  than  half  an  inch  long. 
Other  species  not  well  known  but  similar  to  these 
are  found  in  the  east.  Fossil  forms  of  the  almond 
are  known  in  the  Miocene  Tertiary  beds  of  Oenin- 
gen,  Germany.     See  Plate  of  Acanthus. 

ALMOND  DISEASE.  The  principal  disease 
to  which  the  almond  is  subject  is  that  known  as 
the  leaf-blight.  It  is  caused  by  the  fungus  Cer- 
cospora  circumcissa,  which  attacks  the  leaves 
and  twigs,  often  to  sucli  an  extent  as  to  defoliate 
the  trees  by  midsummer.  Upon  the  leaves  small 
distinct  yellow  spots  are  formed,  from  which  the 
leaf  tissue  falls,  leaving  the  leaf  appearing  as 
though  pierced  by  numerous  shot.  The  disease 
may  be  prevented  by  spraying  the  trees  before 
blooming,  and  about  twice  after  blooming,  with 
the  ammoniacal  copper  carbonate  solution.  (See 
FiTNGiciDE. )  The  second  spraying  should  be  ap- 
plied when  the  trees  are  in  full  leaf,  and  the 
third  two  to  four  weeks  later. 

ALMONDE,  al-mon'da,  Philippus  van  (1646- 
1711).  A  Dutch  vice-admiral,  who  served  under 
De  Ruyter  in  the  fights  of  1076,  and  after  the 
admiral's  death  commanded  the  Dutch  Mediter- 
ranean fleet.  He  was  with  Tromp  in  sub- 
duing the  naval  power  of  Sweden  in  1677.  He 
commanded  in  1688  the  fleet  which  conducted 
William  III.  to  England,  and  four  years  after- 
ward gained  fame  by  his  defeat  of  the  French  at 
La  Hogue.  In  1702,  with  the  English  admiral. 
Sir  George  Rooke,  he  commanded  the  allies  which 
destroyed  the  Spanish  fleet  in  the  Bay  of  Vigo. 

ALMONDS,  a'mundz.  Expressed  Oil  of.  A 
fixed  oil  expressed  from  bitter  or  sweet  almonds, 
and  sometimes  used  in  medicine.  It  has  a  pale 
yellow  color,  and  a  mild,  rather  agreeable  taste. 
It  consists  largely  of  olein. 

ALMONDS,  Volatile  Oil  of.  better  known 
as  Be.xzalueuyde  or  Oil  of  Bitter  Almonds, 
CHjCHO.  Tlie  cake  which  is  left  after  the 
expression  of  the  fixed  oil  from  bitter  almonds 
contains,  among  other  matters,  two  substances 
called,  respectively,  amygdalin,  and  emulsin  or 
synaptase.  When  the  cake  is  bruised  and  made 
into  a  paste  with  water,  the  synaptase  acts  as  a 
ferment  upon  the  amygdalin,  splitting  it  up  into 
the  volatile  oil  of  almonds,  hydrocyanic  (prussic) 
acid,  and  grape-sugar.  The  oil  is  not  originally 
present  in  the  bitter  almonds ;  in  fact,  the  latter 
do  not  contain  a  trace  of  the  oil  ready  formed, 
so  that  the  oil  is  purely  the  product  of  the  fer- 
mentation of  amygdalin.  This  action  takes 
place  very  rapidly,  and  is  complete  in  twenty-four 
hours.  The  paste  having  been  placed  in  a  retort, 
heat  is  very  cautiously  applied,  to  prevent  the 
lumping  and  frothing  to  which  the  almond  infu- 


sion is  liable.  In  tlie  distillation,  the  liydrocy- 
anic  acid  and  the  volatile  oil  unite  in  an  unstable 
compound  which  passes  over  into  the  receiver, 
along  with  much  water.  The  crude  oil  thus 
obtained  decomposes  gradually,  the  prussic  acid 
being  set  free,  and  on  this  account  it  is  very 
poisonous,  many  fatal  cases  having  occurred 
from  its  willful,  accidental,  or  careless  use.  The 
crude  oil  may  be  purified  and  freed  from  prussic 
acid  by  means  of  ferrous  chloride  and  lime.  The 
volatile  oil  (C„H,CHO)  is  the  aldehyde  of  ben- 
zoic acid  (C„HjCOOH),  into  which  substance  it 
gradually  changes  when  exposed  to  the  air  in  a 
moist  state.  It  is  colorless,  has  an  agreeable 
odor,  and  an  acrid,  bitter  taste.  It  is  soluble 
in  water  to  the  extent  of  1  part  in  300  parts  of 
water,  but  mixes  in  all  proportions  with  alcohol 
and  ether.  It  is  a  higlily  refractive  liquid,  of 
specific  gravity  1.0.5  at  15°'  C. ;  it  boils  at  179°  C. 
At  present  it  is  usually  prepared  by  boiling  ben- 
zyl chloride  with  an  aqueous  solution  of  lead 
niti-ate.  The  crude  product  thus  obtained  is 
shaken  w-ith  a  solution  of  acid  sodium  sulphite, 
which  forms  a  crystalline  compound  with  ben- 
zaldehyde.  while  the  impurities  remain  in  solu- 
tion. Pure  benzaldehyde  is  obtained  from  the 
crystalline  compound  by  the  action  of  dilute 
acids.  The  oil  is  used  by  the  confectioner  and 
the  perfumer,  and  is  employed  on  a  large  scale  in 
the  manufacture  of  benzoic  and  cinnamic  acids 
and  of  various  dyes. 

ALMONER,  al'mun-er  (O.  F.  almosne,  alms, 
from  Lat.  eleemosyna,  Gk.  e^eT/finaOvr/,  elevmosyne, 
mercy,  alms).  The  name  given  originally  to 
that  member  of  a  religious  order  who  had  the 
distribution  of  the  money  and  other  things  set 
apart  for  alms,  which  by  canonical  law  was 
to  amount  to  at  least  a  tenth  of  the  revenues  of 
the  establishment.  Afterward  those  ecclesias- 
tics also  received  this  name  who  were  appointed 
by  princes  to  the  same  office  in  their  households. 
The  Grand  Almoner  of  France  was  one  of  the 
principal  oflicers  of  the  court  and  of  the  kingdom, 
usually  a  cardinal,  and,  in  right  of  his  office, 
commander  of  all  the  orders,  and  also  chief 
director  of  the  great  hospital  for  the  blind. 
Queens,  princes,  and  princesses  had  also  their 
almoners,  and  bishops  were  usually  appointed  to 
this  oflice.  In  England,  the  office  of  Hereditary 
Grand  Almoner  is  now  a  sinecure,  his  onlj'  duty 
being  to  distribute  the  coronation  medals  among 
the  assembled  spectators.  The  Lord  High  Almon- 
er, who  is  usually  a  bishop,  distributes  twice  a 
year  the  sovereign's  bounty,  which  consists  in 
giving  a  silver  penny  each  to  as  many  poor  per- 
sons as  the  sovereign  is  years  of  age. 

ALMONTE,  al-mon'tft,  Don  Juan  Nepomu- 
CENO  (1803-69).  A  Mexican  general  and  diplo- 
mat. He  was  the  reputed  son  of  Morelos  (q.v.), 
the  patriot  priest.  As  a  mere  child  he  took  part 
in  the  war  of  liberation,  and  in  1815  was  sent 
to  the  United  States  to  be  educated.  His  diplo- 
matic career  began  at  an  early  age,  and  he  liad 
filled  responsible  positions  in  London  and  South 
America  before  he  joined  the  staff  of  Santa  Anna 
in  1836,  in  which  year  he  was  made  prisoner  at 
San  .lacinto.  Under  Bustamante  he  was  minis- 
ter of  war,  and  from  1841  to  1846  was  minister 
to  the  United  States,  retiring  when  the  annex- 
ation of  Texas  had  become  a  certainty.  In  1853 
he  was  again  minister  to  the  United  States;  in 
1857  he  was  minister  to  France;  he  had  been 
twice  an   unsuccessful   candidate    for   the   presi- 


ALMONTE.  388 

dency,  and  party  spirit  led  him  to  participate 
in  the  French  invasion  of  Mexico  and  the 
election  of  Maximilian.  Almonte  was  proclaimed 
dictator  of  Mexico  in  1862,  but  was  distrusted  by 
all  parties,  and  was  removed  the  same  year. 
The  next  year  he  was  president  of  a  junta  styled 
the  "Regency  of  the  Mexican  Empire."  In  1804 
Maximilian  made  him  regent  of  the  realm  and 
Grand  Marshal,  and  in  18(i(i  he  was  sent  as  min- 
ister to  Paris,  where  he  died. 

ALMOBA,  al-mo'ra.  The  capital  of  the  Ku- 
mann  division,  North-Western  Provinces.  British 
India.  It  is  situated  on  the  crest  of  a  mountain 
ridge,  5337  feet  above  the  sea,  and  on  the  head 
waters  of  the  Kosila,  a  branch  of  the  Ramgunga, 
87  miles  north  of  Bareilly.  It  gives  its  name  to 
a  district,  has  a  cantonment  for  two  battalions 
of  Ghurkas,  and  is  a  health  resort  for  invalids 
and   consumptives.     Pop.,   7500. 

ALMOKAVIDES,  al-mO'ra-vidz  (Ar.  al-Mu- 
robitiin,  "pickets  who  have  hobbled  their  horses 
on  the  enemies'  frontier.")  The  Christian  suc- 
cesses in  Spain  and  the  weakness  of  tlie  Moslem 
powers  in  the  Jlediterrancan  in  the  elevpntli  cen- 
tury excited  a  JIohamme<lan  revival  among  the 
Berbers  of  Northern  Africa.  The  holy  war  was 
preached  by  Abdallah  ibn  Tashfin,  of  the  Lam- 
tuna  tribe.  Together  with  the  Masmuda,  and  led 
by  Abu  Bekr  and  his  second  cousin,  Yusuf  ibn 
Tashfin,  they  quickly  spre,ad  over  a  part  of  Al- 
geria and  Morocco,  founding  the  city  of  that 
name.  Called  in  1080  to  Spain  by  the  Abadides 
to  crush  the  power  of  the  Aragonese,  and  espe- 
cially of  the'  Cid,  Yusuf  defeated  the  Spaniards 
at  Saeralias  (October  23),  but  returned  to  Afri- 
ca, leaving  3000  Berbers  in  Spain.  In  1090  he 
was  again  called  over  (by  the  King  of  Seville), 
and  conquered  the  whole  of  Moorish  Spain,  except 
Toledo  and  Saragossa.  By  1147  the  power  of  the 
Almoravides  in  Northern  -Africa  and  Spain  was 
overthrown  by  the  Almohades  (q.v.).  Their  name 
is  preserved  in  the  Maravedi  (a  coin)  and  the 
MaraboTits    ( devotees ) . 

ALMQVIST,  iilm'k\1st,  Kaiji,  .Jonas  Ludwig 
( 17n3-lS0(i) .  A  Swedish  writer  of  unusual  versa- 
tility but  very  unstable  genius.  He  was  born  at 
.Stockholm.  At  twenty,  he  left  a  good  post  in 
the  civil  service  and  founded  a  sort  of  Brook 
Farm  in  the  forests  of  Vermland,  where  the 
'■come-outers"  lived  imder  turf,  wore  homespun, 
and  ate  porridge.  Tlie  experiment  failed,  and 
Almqvist  resorted  to  school-teaching  and  the 
composition  of  text-books,  at  Stockholm,  until 
the  publication  of  a  group  of  romances  under 
the  title.  The  Book  of  the  Thorn  Rose  (begun 
in  1832),  brought  him  sudden  fame.  This  work 
shows  great  power  of  language  and  richness  of 
color:  and  the  dramas  which  followed,  though 
erratic  in  plan,  are  masterly  in  dialogue  and  of 
great  tragic  force.  Almqvist  now  gave  himself 
wholly  to  literature  and  jiublished  a  great  num- 
ber of  books  a7id  pamphlets  on  history,  religion, 
ethics,  iBsthetics,  .and  pedagogy:  as  well  as  lyrics, 
dramas,  and  novels,  chieily  socialistic  in  tone, 
and  often  contradictory  in  teaching.  His  moral 
instability  apparently  led  him  to  crime,  for  in 
1S51  he  was  charged  with  forgery  and  murder, 
and  fled  from  Sweden  to  America,  where  he 
earned  a  precarious  living  under  an  assumed 
name  until  180(1,  when  he  returned  to  Bremen, 
wliere  he  lived  under  the  name  of  C.  West- 
ermann.  and  where  he  died,  September  26, 
1866.    The  novels  and  tales  on  which  his  literary 


ALNWICK. 


fame  will  rest  are  of  the  romantic  type.  The 
best  of  the  tales  are  Tlie  Mill  at  Skiillnora,  Ara- 
minta  May,  and  Grimstahamn's  Settlement.  Of 
the  novels.  The  Palaee  is  typically  romantic  in  its 
poetic  humor.  A  later  work,  It's  All  Right,  is 
in  another  key,  more  like  the  problem  novel  of 
our  day,  and  is  a  grim  picture  of  the  evils  of 
conventional  marriage,  indicating  the  degeneracy 
of  his  misused  genius. 

ALMS'HOUSE.  The  place  where  the  pub- 
licly supported  poor  are  cared  for,  sometimes 
called  the  poorhouse,  the  infirmary,  etc.,  and  in 
England,  the  workhouse.  Wherever  indoor  relief 
is  provided,  the  almshouse  is  the  central  local 
institution  throughout  the  United  States  for  the 
eare  of  the  aged  and  infirm  poor,  and  also  for 
able-bodied  poor  who  are  not  committed  as  va- 
grants to  a  correctional  institution.  It  is  fre- 
quently located  on  a  farm,  known  as  the  poor- 
farm,  where  light  \vork  is  given  the  inmates,  the 
results  being  utilized  to  contribute  toward  their 
support.  The  census  of  1890  gave  73,045  inmates 
of  almshouses  in  the  United  States.  Consult: 
A.  G.  Warner,  American  Charities,  chapter  vi. 
(Boston,  1894);  Mary  V.  Clark,  "The  Alms- 
house," a  good  descriptive  paper  in  the  Ticenty- 
Seventh  Annual  Report  (1900)  of  the  National 
Conference  of  Charities  and  Correction  (Boston, 
1901).    See  Pauperism  ;  Poor  Laws. 

ALMUCANTAR,  armu-kan'ter  (Ar.  al-ma- 
kavtarijt,  pi.  of  al-miikantar,  sun-dial).  In  as- 
tronomj-,  a  small  circle  of  the  celestial  sphere 
parallel  to  the  horizon.  The  word  had  fallen 
rather  into  disuse  among  astronomers,  but  has 
been  used  of  late  years  as  a  name  for  an  instru- 
ment invented  by  Cliandler.  The  instrument 
consists  of  a  telescope  supported  on  a  metal  float 
placed  in  a  basin  of  mercury.  This  arrangement 
assures  the  perfect  horizontality  of  the  float, 
and  the  telescope  can  be  used  to  observe  heavenly 
bodies  situated  at  exactly  equal  latitudes  in  the 
celestial  hemisphere.  Astronomical  investiga- 
tions of  considerable  importance  have  been  car- 
ried out  by  the  use  of  the  almucantar. 

AL'MY,  John  Jay  (1814-95).  An  American 
naval  otiieer.  He  was  born  in  Rhode  Island,  and 
entered  the  navy  as  a  midshipman  in  1829.  He 
engaged  in  the  suppression  of  the  African  slave 
trade  in  1843-45,  and  took  part  in  the  capture 
of  Vera  Cruz  and  Tuspan  in  the  Mexican  War. 
He  was  in  tlie  blockade  service  during  the  Civil 
War,  and  ended  his  career  as  commander  of  the 
Pacific  squadron.  He  became  a  rear-admiral  in 
1873.  and  was  retired  in  1877. 

ALNASCH'AR.  In  the  Arabian  ^^ights,  the 
barber's  fifth  brother,  proverbial  as  a  dreamer. 
Having  put  his  money  into  a  stock  of  glassware 
with  which  to  engage  in  trade,  he  falls  to  imag- 
ining what  he  will  do  with  the  wealth  he  is  to 
gain  from  it.  and  inadvertently  kicking  over  the 
basket,  smashes  all  his  wares.  The  name  was 
humorouslj'  applied  to  S.  T.  Coleridge  from  his 
having  dreamed  tlie  fragment  of  Kubla  Kahn, 
which  he  wrote  after  waking. 

ALNTJS,  ril'nus.     See  Alder. 

ALNWICK,  an'ik.  The  capital  of  the  county 
of  Nortliumberland.  England,  on  the  Alne,  about 
32  miles  north  of  Newcastle  (Map:  England,  E 
1 ) .  The  streets  are  broad,  well  paved,  and  well 
lighted;  the  houses  modern,  built  of  stone,  and 
in  some  instances  handsome.  A  large  market- 
place occupies  the  centre  of  the  town.     Alnwick 


ALNWICK. 


389 


A.  L.  O.  E. 


•was  at  an  early  period  a  fortified  town,  and  some 
fragments  of  the  ancient  walls  even  yet  remain. 
Alnwick  C'astlo,  the  residence  of  the  dukes  of 
Northumberland,  stands  at  the  north  entrance 
of  the  town,  and  is  considered  one  of  the  most 
magnificent  baronial  structures  in  England. 
During  the  Jliddle  Ages  it  was  a  bulwark  against 
the  invasions  of  the  .Scots,  who  thrice  besieged 
it.  Population,  including  Canongate,  in  1891, 
about  6700;  1901,  (5700.  Consult:  F.  G.  Hal- 
leck,  Ahnrick  Castle,  and  Other  Poems  (New 
York,  1836)  :  O.  H.  Hartshorne,  Alnwick,  etc. 
(London.  ISfiO). 

ALO'ADiE,  or  ALO'ID^ffi  (Gk.  AZurito, 
Aloadai,  or  'A?^uet6ai,  Aloeidai) ,  Otus  and  Eph- 
lALTES.  The  sons  of  Aloeus,  or  of  Poseidon,  and 
Ipliimedea,  wife  of  Aloeus.  They  were  celebrated 
for  their  great  size  and  extraordinary  strength. 
Every  year  they  grew  an  ell  in  breadth  and  a 
fathom  in  height,  and  at  the  end  of  nine  years 
were   thirty-six   feet   broad   and   fifty-four   feet 


.30  feet.  They  have  permanent  succulent  leaves. 
The  negroes  of  the  west  coast  of  Africa  make 
cords  and  nets  of  the  fibres  of  their  leaves,  and 
stockings  are  woven  from  the  fibres  of  a  species 
found  in  Jamaica.  Aloes  are  chiefly  valuable  for 
their  medicinal  properties,  which  are  laxative, 
drastic,  emmenagogue,  and  vermifuge.  The  well- 
known  drug  called  Aloes  (q.v. )  is  the  in- 
spissated juice  of  tlie  leaves  of  several  almost 
tree-like  species,  and  particularly  of  Aloe  soco- 
trina,  a  native  of  the  island  of  Socotra;  Aloe 
purpurescens.  Aloe  spicata.  and  Aloe  arbores- 
cens,  which  principally  yield  the  Cape  aloes; 
Aloe  arabiea.  Aloe  linguiformis,  Aloe  mitrifor- 
mis,  and  Aloe  vera ;  which  latter,  found  in  the 
East  and  West  Indies,  in  Italy,  and  in  some  of 
the  islands  of  the  Mediterranean,  is  the  only 
species  which  can  be  reckoned  European,  al- 
though it  also  is  probably  an  introduced  plant. 
The  extract  prepared  from .  its  leaves  is  known 
as   Hepatic   aloes,   or  as   Barbadoes   aloes.     The 


COMMON  ALOES. 


high.  They  are  fabled  to  have  chained  the  god 
Ares,  and  to  have  kept  him  in  a  bronze  cask  for 
thirteen  months.  They  also  threatened  the 
Olympian  gods  with  war,  and  would  have  piled 
I'elion  and  Ossa  on  Olympus  had  they  not  been 
destroyed  by  Apollo  before  their  beards  were 
gi'own.  It  is  further  said  that  they  fell  in  love, 
the  one  with  Hera  and  the  other  with  Artemis; 
but  Artemis  appearing  to  them  in  the  form  of  a 
hind  and  running  between  them,  they  shot  at 
the  supposed  animal  and  killed  each  other.  They 
were  worshiped  as  heroes  in  some  places. 

AL'OE,  Lat.  pron.  al'o-e;  Engl.  pron.  al'6  (Gk. 
aXoji,  aloe).  A  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the 
natural  order  Liliacea>.  The  species  are  numer- 
ous, natives  of  warm  countries,  especially  of  the 
southern  parts  of  Africa.  About  50  miles  from 
Cape  Town  is  a  mountainous  tract  completely 
covered  with  aloes,  and  the  hills  on  tlie  west  side 
of  Socotra  exhibit  them  in  similar  profusion. 
The  species  vary  in  height  from  a  few  inches  to 


Socotrine  or  Zanzibar  aloes  is  the  product  of 
Aloe  Perryi.  The  bitter  principle  of  aloes  has 
been  called  aloin.  With  oxygen  aloin  forms 
several  compounds  that  possess  acid  properties. 
The  juice  of  aloes  was  anciently  used  in  embalm- 
ing, to  preserve  dead  bodies  from  putrefaction. 
In  the  East  Indies  it  is  eniplo3'ed  as  a  varnish 
to  prevent  the  attacks  of  insects;  and  has  even 
been  applied  to  bottoms  of  ships  to  protect  them 
from  marine  worms.  A  beautiful  violet  color 
which  does  not  require  a  mordant  to  fix  it,  is 
obtained  from  the  leaves  of  the  Socotrine  aloe. 
It  also  affords  a  fine  transparent  color  for  minia- 
ture painting.  Mohammedan  pilgrims  suspend 
an  aloe  over  their  doors  on  their  return  from 
Mecca,  to  signify  that  they  have  performed  the 
pilgrimage.  The  American  aloe  is  a  different 
plant.     See  Agave,  and  Plate  of  Acacia. 

A.  L.  0.  E.  The  initials  of  "A  Lady  of 
England,"  the  pseudonym  of  Charlotte  Maria 
Tucker. 


ALOES. 


390 


ALOST. 


ALOES,  al'oz.  A  drug  of  great  antiquitr,  for 
we  find  Dioscoride?.  a  writer  on  materia  medica 
of  the  first  or  second  century,  making  mention  of 
aloe  as  a  substance  obtained  from  a  plant  and 
possessing  cathartic  properties.  It  is  obtained 
from  numerous  sources,  including  Bombay.  Ara- 
bia. Socotra,  Madagascar,  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
and  the  West  Indies.  The  drug  is  the  in- 
spissated juice  of  various  species  of  Aloe  (q.v.). 
All  these  are  characterized  more  or  less  by  pro- 
ducing large,  thick,  fleshy  leaves,  stiff  and  brittle, 
pointed,  and  generally  terminating  in  a  strong 
spine,  filled  with  a  mucilaginous  pulp  internally, 
and  containing  in  the  proper  vessels  of  their  ex- 
terior portion  an  intensely  bitter  juice,  which 
yields  the  medicinal  substance  of  aloe.  It  is  ob- 
tained, sometimes  in  the  form  of  tears,  by  in- 
cision, spontaneous  exudation,  and  inspissation 
upon  the  plant;  sometimes  by  spontaneous  evap- 
oration of  the  juice,  which  drops  or  exudes  by 
pressure  from  the  leaves  when  cut  away  near  the 
base;  sometimes  by  evaporating  the  same  juice 
with  the  aid  of  heat ;  and  lastly,  bj'  evaporating 
the  juice  and  the  decoction  of  the  leaves.  Owing 
to  the  great  difficulty  of  determining  the  true 
botanical  source  of  any  given  sample,  the  follow- 
ing names  are  made  use  of  in  commerce  to  denote 
the  various  kinds  of  aloes  found  in  the  market: 
Socotrine,  Clear,  Cape,  East  Indian.  Barbadoes, 
and  Caballine  aloes.  The  only  varieties  officially 
recognized  by  the  Pharmacopoeia  of  the  United 
States  are:  (I)  Socotrine  aloes  [Aloe  soco- 
trina ) ,  so  called  from  its  supposed  source, 
the  island  of  Socotra,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Arabian  Gulf.  This  is  the  most  esteemed  of  all 
the  varieties  used  in  medical  practice.  It  is  a 
product  of  Aloe  Perrvi,  a  plant  from  the  east 
coast  of  Africa,  the  island  of  Socotra,  and  Ara- 
bia. (2)  Barbadoes  aloes  {Aloe  Barbadensis)  is 
prepared  in  the  West  Indies  from  Aloes  vera  and 
other  varieties  of  aloes.  Browne's  Natural  His- 
lory  of  Jamaica  states  that  the  largest  and  most 
succulent  leaves  are  placed  upright  in  tubs,  that 
the  juice  may  dribble  out.  This,  evaporated,  is 
sold  as  Socotrine  aloes;  but  the  common  aloes  is 
obtained  bv  expressing  the  juice  of  the  leav:is, 
boiling  it  with  water,  evaporating,  and  pouring  it 
into  gourds ;  whence  this  kind  is  often  called 
gourd  aloes.  All  kinds  of  aloes  have  a  bitter 
taste.  Aloes  is  in  a  gi'eat  measure  soluble  in 
water,  and  more  so  in  hot  than  cold  water. 
Aloes  contains  an  active  principle,  aloTn.  and 
a  resin.  The  varieties  of  alo'in.  named  barbaloin, 
socaloin,  and  nataloin,  are  obtained  respectively 
from  Barbadoes,  Socotrine,  and  Xatal  aloes. 
When  employed  in  small  doses,  aloes  exerts  a 
tonic,  and  in  larger  doses  a  cathartic  action.  It 
is  considered  by  some  authorities  to  stimulate 
the  liver,  increasing  the  flow  of  bile.  Others 
bold  that  it  acts  chiefly  upon  the  large  intestine. 
whose  contractions  it  stimulates.  It  also  causes 
congestion  of  the  pelvic  organs.  Its  action  upon 
the  Ijowels  is  slow,  requiring  ten  to  twelve  hours. 
Both  taken  singly,  and  also  in  combination  wiili 
other  cathartics,  aloes  is  perhaps  the  most  impor- 
tant and  the  most  exten-iively  used  of  vegetable 
remedies  of  its  class.  Aloes  is  an  ingredient  of  a 
number  of  laxative  pills  mentioned  in  the  United 
States  Pharmacopceia,  and  is  the  important  con- 
stituent in  most  of  the  much  advertised  patent 
medicines.  When  given  to  a  nursing  woman  it 
is  usually  believed  to  purge  the  child  at  the 
breast.      Kor   illustration  see  AcACIA. 

AL'OES    WOOD,    also    Agila    wood,  Eagle 


WOOD,  or  AoALLOCHist.  Tlie  inner  part  of  the 
trunk  of  Aquilaria  ovata  and  Aquilaria  agallo- 
cha.  trees  native  of  the  tropical  parts  of  Asia,  and 
supposed  to  be  the  aloes  or  lign  aloes  of  the  Bible, 
They  are  large  spreading  trees,  with  simple  alter- 
nate leaves.  Aloes  wood  contains  a  dark-colored, 
fragrant,  resinous  substance,  and  is  much  prized 
in  the  East  as  a  medicine,  and  for  the  pleasant 
odor  which  it  diffuses  in  burning.  The  resinous 
substance  is  found  only  in  the  inner  part  of  the 
trunk  and  branches,  the  younger  wood  being 
white,  and  almost  scentless.  The  trees  abound 
in  the  eastern  part  of  Asia,  especially  in  Cochin 
China,  the  Moluccas,  and  neighboring  islands. 
Aloes  wood  is  not  only  much  prized  in  the  East 
as  a  perfume,  but  many  medicinal  virtues  are 
ascribed  to  it.  The  ancients  ascribed  to  it  simi- 
lar virtues,  and  so  valued  it  for  these  and  its 
fragrance,  that  Herodotus  says  it  once  sold  for 
more  than  its  weight  in  gold.  It  was  regarded 
almost  as  a  universal  medicine.  Its  very  fra- 
grance was  supposed  to  have  a  beneficial  influ- 
ence, and  it  was  therefore  worn  about  the  per- 
son. As  it  admits  of  a  high  polish  and  exhibits 
a  beautiful  graining,  precious  gems  were  set  in 
it;  and  it  was  cut  into  fantastic  forms  and  worn 
in  head-dresses,  etc.  There  seems  to  be  allusion 
to  a  similar  use  of  it  in  Psalm  xlv.  8,  "All  thy 
garments  smell  of  myrrh  and  aloes  and  cassia." 
Or  perhaps  this  merely  refers  to  its  being  em- 
ployed to  perfume  clothing.  It  was  also,  from  a 
very  early  period,  much  used  to  perfume  the 
apartments  of  the  gi-eat.  The  fragrance  con- 
tinues undiminished  for  years.  Lign  aloes  is  a 
corruption  of  lignum  aloes   (aloes  wood). 

ALO'GIANS,  or  AL'OGI  (Med.  Lat.  alogiaiii. 
alogi,  from  Gk.  a,  a,  priv.  -f-  2.6yo^,  logos,  word, 
reason).  A  small  and  obscure  sect  of  heretics  in 
the  second  century  who  opposed  the  Montanists 
(q.v.).  denying  that  Christ  was  the  Logos  and 
ascribing  the  Gospel  of  St.  John  and  the  Apoca- 
lypse to  the  Gnostic  Cerinthus. 

ALON'ZO  THE  BRAVE  AND  THE  FAIR 
IM'OGENE.  A  ballad  by  M.  G.  Lewis  (q.v.), 
known  as  "Monk"  Lewis. 

AL'OPE'CIA  (Gk.  qXuttj;!,  alopex,  a  fox, 
because  bald  patches  are  supposed  to  be  common 
among  foxes).  A  disease  which  causes  a  falling 
oft'  of  the  hair  from  any  part  of  the  body.  See 
Baldness. 

AL'OPECtT'RTJS.    See  Meadow  Grass. 

ALORA,  a'16-ra.  A  town  of  Andalusia,  Spain, 
in  ^Malaga  province,  18  miles  northwest  of 
Malaga.  It  stands  on  an  elevated  site  near  the 
right  bank  of  the  Guadalhorce.  at  the  foot  of  the 
Sierra  Hocha,  and  in  the  midst  of  a  fertile  coun- 
try rich  in  wine,  oil,  and  various  fruits  (Map: 
Spain,  C  4).  Some  of  the  streets  are  well  built 
and  well  paved:  some  are  very  steep  and  irregu- 
lar. There  are  some  strikingly  picturesque  ruins 
of  an  ancient  castle.  The  inhabitants  are  mostly 
employed  in  agriculture.  The  medicinal  and 
mineral  springs  of  Alora  are  highly  valued  by 
citizens  of  Malaga,  who  resort  in  large  numbers 
to  this  place.     Pop.,  1900,    10,20ti. 

ALOST,  ji'lost  (Literally,  to  the  east,  from 
Ger.  Ost,  east,  it  being  near  the  eastern  fron- 
tier), or  AALST,  illst.  A  town  in  Belgium,  the 
old  capital  of  the  province  of  East  Flanders, 
situated  on  a  tributary  of  the  Scheldt,  called  the 
Dender,  which  is  here  converted  into  a  canal 
(Map:  Belgium,  C  4).     It  is  a  walled  city  with 


ALOST. 


391 


ALPENA. 


five  gates,  whose  finest  buildiiif;  is  the  church  of 
St.  Jliutin,  an  imfinished  edifice,  in  late  Gothic 
style,  one  of  the  grandest  in  Belgium,  and  con- 
taining a  famous  painting  b}'  Rubens,  "St.  Roch 
Beseeching  Our  Saviour  to  Stay  the  Plague  of 
Alost,"  and  also  the  mausoleum  of  Thierry  Mar- 
tens, who  was  born  here,  and  who  introduced  the 
art  of  printing  into  Belgium  in  1475.  Alost 
has  a  town  hall  (built  about  1200),  a  col- 
lege, a  hospital,  the  royal  school  for  450  sons  of 
military  men,  and  an  academy  of  design,  etc.  Its 
industries  are  weaving  in  silk,  wool,  and  cotton, 
fiax-spinning,  lace-making,  and  it  has  a  thriving 
trade  in  hops  and  grain.    Pop.,  1900,  30,100. 

ALOY'SIA.     See  LipriA. 

ALP,  iilp;  ALB,  alb  (Swabian)  (Lat.  alpes, 
perhaps  of  Celtic  origin;  Gael,  ulp,  rock,  cliff), 
also  called  the  Rauhe  Alb  or  Swabian  .Jura.  A 
chain  of  mountains  about  70  miles  in  length, 
and  from  12  to  15  miles  in  breadth,  extending 
northeast  and  southwest,  and  forming  a  water- 
shed between  the  Xeckar  and  the  Danube.  It  lies 
almost  entirely  within  the  kingdom  of  Wiirttem- 
berg,  but  crosses  Hohenzollern,  and  is  situated 
from  50  to  100  miles  east  of  the  Black  Forest; 
but  presents  a  totally  different  appearance  from 
the  latter  region,  on  account  of  its  being  clothed 
with  forests  of  hard  wood  instead  of  pine.  It 
forms  a  table-land  intersected  by  a  few  narrow, 
deep  valleys.  The  average  height  of  the  system 
is  rather  more  than  2000  feet.  On  the  north  it 
descends  to  the  Neckar  in  ridges  of  rocky  cliffs 
and  abrupt  pointed  headlands,  but  on  the  south 
it  gradually  slopes  away  to  the  level  of  the  valley 
of  the  Danube.  The  scenery  is  often  very  pic- 
turesque, for  the  sharp,  precipitous  crags  are 
frequently  crowned  witli  the  riiins  of  the  strong- 
holds of  some  of  the  famous  old  German  fami- 
lies, such  as  the  Hohenzollerns,  Hohenstaufens, 
etc.  The  geological  formations  of  the  Swabian 
Alps  are  limestones  of  ilesozoic  age,  which, 
though  regularly  stratified,  have  been  folded  to  a 
considerable  extent.  Caverns  of  a  very  remark- 
able character  abound.  The  valleys  at  the  base 
of  the  hills  are  fertile,  and  produce  abundance  of 
wine  and  fruit,  but  the  high  tableland  lias  an  ex- 
tremely poor  and  barren  soil.  The  word  Alp  is 
sometimes  applied  to  the  green  pasture  lands 
on  the  slopes  of  the  mountains  in  Switzerland. 

ALPACA,  or  PA'CO  (Ar.  al,  the  +  Peruv. 
■jidcd ) .  One  of  the  four  cameloid  mammals  of 
the  Andean  region,  known  zoologically  as  Lanm 
pacos.  It  is  smaller  than  the  llama,  and  more 
nearly  resembles  the  vicuna,  although  now  con- 
sidered to  have  been,  like  the  llama,  derived  from 
theguanaco.  (SeeLLAMA.)  Its  form  is  very  sheep- 
like,  except  for  the  long,  erectly  carried  head; 
and,  although  wild  ones  exist,  it  is  mainly  known 
in  great,  semi-domesticated  flocks  kept  by  the 
Peruvian  mountain  Indians  for  the  sake  of  the 
wool.  These  flocks  graze  on  the  pastures  of  the 
loftiest  valleys,  almost  at  the  snow-line,  which 
seem  to  be  the  natural  home  of  the  animal,  and 
where  they  have  formed  interesting  instincts  and 
habits  of  vigilance  and  protection  against  sudden 
storms  and  snowfalls.  These  flocks  are  said  to 
be  so  careful  to  keep  together  that  it  is  impos- 
sible to  separate  a  full-grown  individual,  so  that 
none  can  be  truly  tamed  which  is  not  taken  when 
vcrj'  young.  Once  a  j'ear  the  Indians  drive  their 
flocks  to  stone  inclosures  or  huts,  and  shear  the 
wool,  after  which  the  flocks  are  again  turned 
loose.     This  custom   is   prehistoric,   and   Squier 


says  that  many  of  the  shearing  huts  about  Lake 
Titicaca  have  stood  there  since  long  before  the 
Spanish  conquest.  The  alpaca  is  known  from  the 
equator  to  Tierra  del  Fuego,  but  is  most  com- 
mon in  Peru  and  Chile;  its  flesh  is  well  liked  as 
food,  and  the  animal  is  occasionally  used  as  a 
beast  of  burden.  The  alpaca's  coat  consists  of  a 
thick  growth  of  woolly  hair,  varying  from  black 
to  gray  oryellowish,  and  reaching,  when  unshorn, 
a  length  of  some  two  feet.  The  annually  shorn 
fleece  is  about  eight  inches  in  length.  The  fibre 
is  small  but  strong,  elastic,  very  lustrous  and 
silky,  and  highly  valued  for  weaving  warm  and 
fine  cloth.  The  natives  of  the  Andes  have  made 
use  of  it  from  time  immemorial  for  their  pon- 
chos or  blankets,  remains  of  which  have  been 
found  in  the  oldest  graves  of  the  period  of  the 
Incas;  but  it  was  not  until  1830  that  the  wool 
began  to  be  exported  to  Europe  and  the  manufac- 
ture of  alpaca  shawls,  cloth,  etc.,  regularly  be- 
gan. This  was  due  to  the  sagacity  and  energy  of 
Sir  Titus  Salt,  whose  mills  at  Saltaire,  England, 
are  regarded  as  the  foremost  in  Great  Britain. 
Now  the  imports  of  alpaca  wool  into  Europe  and 
America  number  many  millions  of  pounds  an- 
nually; but  not  all  of  the  so-called  alpaca  cloth 
is  really  manufactured  from  that  wool  alone,  or 
even  in  part.  See  Guanaco;  Llama;  and  Vi- 
cuna, and  plate  of  Camels  and  Llamas. 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  introduce  the 
alpaca  into  Europe,  but  not  with  satisfactory 
results.  The  considerable  flock  formerly  exist- 
ing in  the  Pyrenees  seems  to  have  disappeared. 
Similarly,  the  costly  trial  of  acclimatizing  them 
in  Australia  has  failed.  An  attempt  was  made 
in  1S21  to  introduce  the  alpaca  into  the  United 
States;  a  fund  was  raised,  and  in  1857  a  cargo 
of  them  was  shipped  to  Baltimore;  but  the  result 
showed  that  they  could  not  be  acclimatized. 

ALP-ARSLAN,  illp'iir-slan'  (Strong  Lion) 
(1028-72).  A  Seljuk  sultan.  He  was  born  in 
Turkestan  about  1028,  and  succeeded  Togrul  Beg 
as  ruler  of  the  Seljuk  realm  in  1003.  His  flrst 
act  was  to  unite  the  whole  of  his  dominions  in 
one  kingdom.  He  embraced  Mohammedanism, 
and  took  the  surname  of  Alp-Arslan  (Strong 
I. ion),  his  real  name  being  Muliammad  Ghiyath- 
ijd-Din  abu  Khvajah.  The  Caliph  of  Bagdad 
gave  him  the  title  of  Adhad-ud-Din  (Defender  of 
the  Faith),  and  decreed  that  prayer  might  be 
made  in  his  name.  He  had  an  excellent  vizier, 
Nizam-ul-Mulk,  who  was  the  founder  of  all  the 
colleges  and  academies  in  the  kingdom.  From 
1064  to  1071  Alp-Arslan  pursued  the  course  of 
his  conquests,  and  ruled  from  the  Tigris  to  the 
Oxus.  In  10G5  and  1008  he  invaded  Armenia  and 
Georgia,  at  that  time  Christian  kingdoms.  He 
next  proceeded  against  the  Greeks,  who,  under 
their  brave  Emperor,  Romanus  IV.,  had  thrice 
driven  the  Turks  beyond  the  Euphrates.  In 
August,  1071,  a  bloody  battle  was  fought  near  the- 
fortress  of  Malaskerd.  between  the  towns  of  Van 
and  Erzerum.  Alp-Arslan  gained  the  victory. 
The  Greek  Emperor  was  taken  prisoner,  and  ob- 
tained his  liberty  only  by  the  payment  of  an 
enormous  ransom.  In  th3  following  year,  .\lp- 
Arslan  invaded  Turkestan,  but  he  perished  at 
Berzem,  in  Turkestan,  by  the  poniard  of  Yussuf 
Kothual,  whom  he  had  condemned  to  death.  He 
was  buried  at  Merv. 

ALPEIIA.  A  city  and  the  county  seat  of 
Alpena  Co.,  Mich.,  110  miles  north  of  Bay  City, 
on  Thunder  Bay,  and  the  Detroit  and  Mackinaw 


ALPENA. 

Railroad  (Map:  Michigan.  K  3).  It  exports 
large  quantities  of  lumber  in  various  products, 
and  has  fisheries,  quarries,  tanneries,  and  manu- 
factures of  cement,  excelsior,  machinery,  etc. 
Alpena  has  a  public  library,  parks,  and  a  well- 
equipped  high  school.  It  was  settled  in  1835, 
and  incorporated  in  1871;  its  charter,  as  revised 
in  1897,  limits  the  mayor's  term  to  two  years, 
and  provides  for  a  city  council  of  twelve  mem- 
l)eis,  ^^■ho  elect  the  police  commissioners  and  the 
board  of  health,  the  mavor  iiaving  no  power  of 
appointment.     Pop.,  1890,  11,283;   1900,  11,802. 

AL'PENHOBN,  or  ALP'HORIT.  A  simple 
conical,  somewhat  curved  wind-instrument,  aliout 
three  feet  long,  and  made  of  wooden  strips. 
It  has  a  hard-wood  cupped  mouthpiece  and  a 
bell.  The  notes  are  the  open  harmonics  of  the 
tube,  the  quality  of  tone  being  modified  by  the 
material,  and  by  the  smallness  of  the  bore  in  re- 
lation to  the  le"ngth  of  the  tube.  It  is  used  by 
the  Swiss  to  convey  signals.  The  melody  usually 
played  on  this  instrument  is  called  the  Kanz  des 
Vaches  (q.v.).  The  alpenhorn  is  usually  repre- 
sented in  the  orchestra  by  the  oboe,  English  horn, 
or  bassoon.  For  illustration,  see  Musical 
Instrumekts. 

AXPES,  Basse.?.     See  Basses-Alpes. 

ALPES  MAK.ITIMES,  alp  ma're'tem'.  A 
department  of  France  (q.v.),  in  the  extreme 
southeast,  on  the  shores  of  the  Jlediterranean 
and  confines  of  Italy.  It  is  formed  mainly  of  the 
territory  of  Nice,  ceded  by  Italy  to  France  in 
1800.     The  capital  is  Nice. 

AL'PETRA'GIUS.  See  Nub-ed-Din  El- 
Betbuji. 

Ali'PHA  AND  OME'GA  {a  [u?4a]  and  u 
[ufitya]  the  first  and  last  letters  of  the  Greek  al- 
])habet).  A  term  employed  to  convey  the  idea 
of  completeness.  The  phrase  occurs  in  the  New 
Testament  (Revelation  i  :  8.  xxi  :  6,  xxii  :  13) 
to  denote  the  immeasurable  fullness  of  God  and 
of  Jesus  Christ;  in  Revelation  i  :  8  it  is  applied 
to  God;  in  the  other  passages,  to  Christ.  The  He- 
brews similarly  employed  the  phrase  Aleph  and 
Tau,  the  first  "and  the'last  letter  of  their  alpha- 
bet, to  denote  a  thing  in  its  entirety.  See  e.g., 
Jalkut  Rubcni  xvii  :  4,  xlviii  :  4.  cxxviii  :  3.  A 
somewhat  similar  phrase  is  found  in  Isaiah 
xliv  :  6,  "I  am  the  first  and  I  am  the  last," 
which,  applied  to  God,  is  intended  to  express 
both  eternity  and  universal  sway. 

AL'PHABET  (Late  Gk.  a^^d/3i?Tof,  alphalefos. 
from  M<pa,  alpha  +  ih]ra,  hcfa,  the  names  of  the 
first  two  letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet;  compare 
the  Late  Lat.  ahecedarium,  the  English  A  B  C. 
,tik1  Russ.  a-biila,  from  azii  +  biiki.  the  names 
of  the  first  two  letters).  An  alphabet  may  be 
defined  as  the  series  of  characters,  usually  having 
a  fixed  order,  employed  to  represent  the  single 
sounds  of  a  language.  The  word  is  sometimes 
loosely  but  improperly  ein;>loyed  to  denote  a  se- 
ries of  characters  denoting  syllables  or  combina- 
tions of  elementary  sounds.  For  the  various 
modes  employed  'o  represent  language,  see  WniT- 
ixG;  Hieroglyphics;  Cixeiform  Ikscbiptioxs. 
For  the  variations  in  the  style  of  writing  at 
difTerent  periods,  see  Paleography. 

The  alphabets  of  modern  Europe  are  derived 
from  the  Greek,  either  directly,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  Russian,  or  through  the  medium  of  the 
Latin.  The  Greek  alphabet,  in  turn,  is  derived 
from  the  Phoenician.     This  was  the  view  of  the 


392  ALPHABET. 

Greeks  themselves,  as  appears  from  tiie  state- 
ments of  Herodotus  and  other  ancient  writers, 
and  from  the  word,  <poiviK7/ta,  phoinilcria,  \yhich 
denotes  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  and  occurs 
in  an  inscription  of  Teos  iu  Asia  Minor  belonging 
to  the  first  half  of  the  fifth  century  B.C.  It  is 
true  that  other  tr.idilions  were  also  current, 
which  attributed  the  invention  of  the  alphabet 
to  such  uiythical  characters  as  Prometheus, 
Musa>us  and  Palamedes,  while  the  addition  of 
certain  letters  was  assigned  to  Epicharmus 
and  Simonides.  We  are  not,  however,  depend- 
ent on  the  very  doubtful  authority  of  tradition 
for  the  Phflenician  origin  <. !  the  Greek  alpha- 
bet. As  may  easily  be  seen  from  the  accom- 
panying table,  the  forms  of  the  earliest  Greek 
letters  bear  a  close  resemblance  to  those  of 
Phc^nicia,  and  the  Cireek  names  are  for  the  most 
part  obviously  derived  from  the  Semitic.  More- 
over, the  order  of  the  letters  in  the  North  Sem- 
itic alphabets,  as  shown  '  y  their  numerical  val- 
ues and  their  use  in  acrostic  compositions,  is  the 
same  as  that  proved  for  the  Greek  by  similar 
evidence,  and  by  the  so-called  ahecedaria.  or 
alphabets  found  on  early  vases. 

The  North  Semitic  alphabets,  Phoenician,  He- 
brew, Aramaic,  and  their  branches,  while  differ- 
ing somewhat  in  the  forms  of  the  letters,  are 
obviously  of  u  common  origin,  and  even  in  the 
earliest  inscriptions  show  a  complete  adaptation 
to  the  needs  of  the  language.  The  Him.yaritic 
inscriptions  of  southern  Arabia,  and,  therefore, 
the  later  alphabets  of  the  southern  Semites,  show 
a  clearly  cognate  system ;  but  until  the  age  of 
these  early  inscriptions  is  determined,  the  exact 
relation  of  the  North  and  South  Semitic  alpha- 
bets cannot  be  definitely  settled.  If  Glaser's 
view,  that  the  Himyaritic  monuments  belong  in 
part  to  the  second  pre-Christian  millennium, 
should  prove  correct,  it  might  be  necessary  to 
regard  this  as  the  earliest  form  of  the  Semitic 
alphabet.  Even  in  the  present  state  of  our 
knowledge,  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  southern 
Semites  derived  their  alphabet  from  their  north- 
ern brethren,  as  there  is  much  that  seems  to 
indicate  that  both  branches  are  indebted  to  a 
common  source.  Whatever  be  the  relation  of  the 
Semitic  alphabets  to  one  another,  the  present 
evidence  points  to  the  conclusion  that  the  con- 
sistent employment  of  a  small  number  of  signs 
to  denote,  not  words  nor  syllables,  but  the  ele- 
mentary sounds  of  a  language,  originated  among 
the  Semites,  and  that  through  the  trading  branch 
of  this  family,  the  Phoenicians,  this  system  of 
writing  was  carried  to  the  Greeks  and  the  west. 
Though  the  attempts  to  assign  meanings  to  all 
the  Semitic  names  of  the  letters  has  not 
proved  successful,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  at 
least  twelve  are  significant:  e.g., Aleph  means  ox; 
Beth,  house;  Ualeth,  door:  Koph,  hollow  of  the 
hand:  Mem,  water;  Ayin,  eye:  Resh,  head. 
This  leads  naturally  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
characters  were  originally  representations  of 
these  objects,  or  at  least  showed  some  resem- 
blance to  them.  Inquiry  in  this  direction  leads, 
however,  to  no  satisfactory  result  as  to  the  origin 
of  the  letters,  though  it  may  throw  light  on 
that  part  of  the  Semitic  world  where  the  names 
arose.  As  both  Phitnicians  and  Hebrews  had 
intimate  connections  with  Egypt,  and  as  the 
hieroglyphic  and  hieratic  systems  had  been  in 
use  there  for  centuries  before  the  earliest  known 
Phoenician  inscriptions,  it  was  natural  to  look 
to  the  valley  of  the  Nile  for  the  symbols  from 


ALPHABETS 

HEBREW 
NAMES 

GREEK 
NAMES 

HEBREW 

PHCENICIAN 

EARLIEST 
GREEK 

east  greek 

(militas) 

WEST 
GREEK 

LATER 
GREEK 

EARLY 
LATIN 

LATER 
LATIN 

ALEPH 

ALPHA 

^S 

< 

A 

AA 

A 

A 

AA 

A 

BETH 

BETA 

D 

S 

B 

B 

B 

B 

[^] 

B 

GIMEL 

GAMMA 

:i 

■1 

/\r 

FA 

AC 

r 

C 

C 

DALETH 

DELTA 

1 

A 

A 

A 

A[>D 

A 

> 

D 

HE 

EPSILON 

n 

^ 

^E 

y^E 

^E 

E 

F 

E 

VAU 

(OIGAMMA) 

1 

V 

rp 

(F) 

CF 

[F] 

P 

:ain 

ETA 

T 

:3^ 

I 

I 

I 

Z 

(G) 

CHETH 

ETA 

n 

:d 

B 

BH 

BH 

H 

a 

H 

TETH 

TMETA 

D 

^ 

© 

©O 

©O 

0 

100 

IOTA 

1 

^ 

s\ 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

CAPH 

KAPPA 

D 

^ 

/-K 

K 

K 

K 

K 

K 

\VIED 

LAMBDA 

b 

c 

r 

AV 

M 

A 

^ 

F 

MEM 

MU 

^ 

vy 

rn 

A\ 

rN\ 

M 

rw 

M 

NUN 

NU 

: 

y 

A' 

N 

r/v 

N 

K 

N 

3AMECH 

Xl» 

D 

^ 

T 

.^- 

.,. 

OMICRON 

V 

O 

o 

o 

o 

O 

O 

O 

PE 

Pl 

D 

:; 

rr^ 

r 

rv 

n 

r 

P 

TZADE 

i: 

N 

/v\ 

H 

KCPH 

(kcfpa) 

P 

9 

9 

9 

Q 

p 

Q 

HESH 

HO 

-1 

^ 

f>p 

P-PP 

/>p 

p 

p 

R 

SHIN 

SIGMA 

r; 

W 

C 

5^ 

s^ 

2 

5 

5 

TAU 

TAU 

n 

X 

T 

T 

T 

T 

T 

T 

U-PSILON 

YV 

YV 

YV 

Y 

VY 

V 

PHI 

ocp 

[-PX=^] 

0 

+ 

X 

CHI 

X 

[®(l)-?l 

X 

FSI 

si/Y 

[YV=x] 

H^ 

OMEGA 

n 

n 

ALPHABET. 


393 


ALPHABET. 


wliicli  the  letters  li:iJ  lieon  derived.  Early 
attempts  to  identify  the  Plioenician  letters  with 
Egyptian  hieroglyphics  led  to  no  satisfactory 
result:  but  in  ISoO  Emmanuel  de  RougC  read 
before  the  French  Academie  des  Inscriptions  et 
Belles  Lettres  a  paper  in  which  he  sought  to 
prove  that  the  source  of  the  alphabet  was  to  be 
found  in  the  hieratic  characters,  as  shown  in 
the  Papyrus  Prisse.  an  Egyptian  document  which 
cannot  be  later  than  the  eleventh  dynasty,  or 
aliout  2000  B.C.,  and  may  well  be  much  earlier. 
Pe  Rouge's  arguments  were  first  published  in 
detail  after  his  death  by  his  son,  in  Mcmoirc  sur 
I'nrigine  egi/ptienne  dc  Valiihahet  phcniclen 
(Paris,  1874),  and  were  for  a  time  generally 
accepted.  Thev  were  ado)it,ed  by  ('anon  Isaac 
Taylor  in  his  book.  The  Alphabet  ('London,  1883) , 
and  have  been  retained  in  the  second  edition 
(180!)). 

An  altogether  new  turn  to  the  discussion  was 
given  by  the  discovery  of  the  Tel-el-Amarna  tab- 
lets containing  a  series  of  letters  written  in 
Syria  about  1379-60  b.c.,  which  showed  that  at 
that  time  the  cuneiform  characters  were  used 
by  the  Phoenicians  and  other  Semites  even  for 
correspondence  with  the  Egyptian  coui-t,  and 
that  the  Babylonian  was  evidently  the  lan- 
guage of  international  relatioTis.  Even  before 
this  time.  Doecke,  Peters,  and  Homnicl  bad  at- 
tempted to  show  a  connection  between  the  Phteni- 
cian  alphabet  and  the  cuneiform  of  Assyria  or 
Babylonia,  and  recently  Delitzsch.  Die  Entsfch- 
iiiifi  des  (iltesten  Schriftsystems  (Leipzig,  1897), 
and  Peiser,  Stitdien  ^ur  orientaliKchen  Altei-fiims- 
liinde  (1900),  have  developed  the  Babylonian 
theory,  though  with  differences  in  detail.  This 
theory,  however,  labors  under  one  serious  diffi- 
culty. The  early  Babylonian  cliaracters  which 
are  supposed  to  throw  light  vipon  the  Phcenician 
prototypes  are  at  least  1000  and  probably  2000 
years  or  more  earlier  than  the  earliest  Phoeni- 
cian inscriptions,  and  differ  decidedly  from  the 
cuneiform  characters  in  use  in  Syria  within  250 
or  300  years  of  the  time  when  the  alphabet  must 
have  been  developed.  A  similar  objection  may 
be  brought  against  De  Rouge's  derivation  from- 
the  earlier  hieratic.  Neither  the  Egyptian  nor  the 
Babylonian  origin  can,  therefore,  be  regarded  as 
proved,  though  neither  has  been  shown  to  be 
impossible. 

But  Babylon  and  Egypt  were  not  the  only 
pi'eat  powers  of  the  early  civilization  of  the  East. 
Tlie  Hittites  (q.v. )  had  a  hieroglyphic  system  of 
their  own.  which  might  easily  liave  influenced 
the  Phienicians.  though  no  systematic  attempt 
at  direct  derivation  of  the  alplialict  from  this 
source  has  yet  appeared.  The  Cypriote  Greeks 
down  to  the  fourth  century  B.C.  made  use  of  a 
syllabic  system  which  in  some  of  its  signs  shows 
a  strong  resemblance  to  the  Hittite.  Even  more 
imjiortant  is  the  discovery  of  at  least  two  early 
systems  of  writing  on  the  island  of  (^rcte.  One 
of  these  is  distinctly  ])ictoriaI  or  hieroglyphic, 
the  other,  and  later,  is  linear,  and  contains  a 
nuuiUer  of  forms  closely  analogous  to  the  Plioeni- 
cian and  early  Greek  characters.  Moreover,  sim- 
ilar linear  or  geometric  signs  have  been  found 
on  pottery  in  tombs  of  the  first  dynasty  at 
Abydos  in  Egypt,  and  likewise  at  Kahun 
(twelfth  dynasty)  and  Gurob;  they  have  also 
appeared  in  Palestine  at  Tel-el-Hesy,  and  many 
of  tliem  are  found  in  the  Carian  and  Ccltibcrian 
alphabets  of  later  times.  From  these  facts  Pro- 
fessor W.  M.  Flinders  Petrie  has  suggested  that 
Vol.  1.— 27. 


a  signary,  or  scries  of  signs  (whether  hiero- 
glyphic, syllabic,  or  alphabetic  is  unknown),  was 
in  use  around  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean 
from  a  very  early  date  (perhaps  ."lOnO  B.C.). 
These  signs  increased  in  number  and  variety, 
and  from  them  has  been  selected  the  later  alpha- 
bet. The  selection  and  grouping  are  due  to  the 
Phtenieians,  who  assigned  commercial  values  to 
certain  characters,  and  tlnis  transmilled  them  to 
the  Greeks.  The  value  of  this  .Egeau  element 
in  the  discussion  cannot  be  fairly  estimated  until 
the  Cretan  linear  and  liieroglyphie  systems  are 
at  least  partially  vtnderstood,  for  as  yet  none  of 
the  values  of  the  signs  is  known ;  and  although 
the  resemblance  in  form  between  the  early  signs 
and  the  late  letters  is  undeniable,  the  same  thing 
is  true  of  many  early  Babylonian  and  Egyptian 
characters.  It  is  indeed  obvious  (hat  mere  ex- 
ternal likeness  is  insuni<'ient  to  j)r(ne  a  common 
origin :  there  must  be  sufficient  resemblance  in 
sound  or  meaning  to  account  in  some  degree  for 
the  choice  of  that  particular  sign  by  the  borrower 
to  serve  as  a  letter  in  the  new  al])hal>et. 

When  the  Greeks  adopted  the  Phoenician  alpha- 
bet is  uncertain.  It  can  scarcely  have  been 
earlier  than  1000  B.C.,  nor  later  than  the  eighth 
century,  as  it  evidently  succeeded  tlie  Dorian 
invasion,  but  preceded  the  great  colonizing  move- 
ment, since  the  colonies  regularly  use  the  same 
alphabet  as  the  mother  city.  While  adopting  the 
characters,  with  their  names  and  order,  from  the 
Phn?nicians,  the  Greeks  found  some  changes  in 
values  necessary.  The  Semites  did  not  write  the 
vowels,  and  the  Greeks  ap|)ropriated  for  this  pur- 
pose four  of  the  breathings,  which  were  not  need- 
ed in  theSemitic  system  of  phonetics.  For  the  fifth 
vow'el  (u),  they  verj'  early  .adopted  a  differenti- 
ation of  the  spirant  (vau),  and  placed  it  at  the 
end  of  the  Phoenician  series.  Among  the  wealth 
of  sibilants  offered,  Zain  was  universally  appro- 
priated for  the  double  consonant  Zeta  (prob- 
ably dz)  ;  as  between  Samech,  Tsade,  and  Shin 
there  is  great  diversity  of  usage  among  the  early 
local  alphabets,  and  no  general  agreement  among 
epigraphists  as  to  the  exact  course  of  the  devel- 
opment. In  the  Ionian  alphabet,  which  ulti- 
mately came  into  general  use.  the  place  of  Sam- 
ech was  filled  by  Xi  (x),  Tsade  was  dropped,  and 
Shin  used  for  the  simple  (s)  sound.  A  history  of 
the  numerous  loral  variations  in  the  Greek  alpha- 
bet lies  outside  the  scope  of  this  article.  It  is 
enough  to  mention  the  chief  varieties,  which 
were  influential  in  the  development  of  borrowed 
alphabets.  The  primitive  al])liabet,  omitting  Xi 
and  ending  with  Upsilon,  is  found  in  early  in- 
scriptions of  Thera.  Mclos,  and  Crete.  To  this 
alphabet  were  added  three  supplementary  signs, 
and  in  the  method  of  this  change  the  Greek 
alphabets  after  the  seventh  century  fall  into  two 
great  groups,  the  Eastern  and  Western.  The 
former  includes  Asia  Minor,  the  islands  of  the 
,^5gean,  and  some  points  on  the  Greek  mainland; 
the  latter  includes  Euboea,  most  of  the  States 
of  Greece  proper,  Sicily,  and  Italy.  It  is  to  be 
noted  that  the  lines  of  demarkation  are  not  those 
of  the  dialects  nor  of  the  races,  tliough  the  East- 
ern group  is  largely  Ionian,  and  tlie  Western 
Dorian.  Attica  occupies  a  middle  position. 
The  Eastern  alphabet  adopted  H  =  f  ^  x,  and 
added  *  =(^  :=  ph.  X  =;x  =  <'h,  and  *  =  ^=ps. 
The  Western  alphabet  shows  X  ^  i  =:  x,  *  = 
pb,  ^■=;t-=ch,  ps  was  expressed  by  ttct  or  ij)C!.,  or 
in  some  cases  by  a  new  sign  >t: .  The  origin  of 
these  signs,  and  especially  the  curious  diversity 


ALPHABET. 


394 


ALPHONSINE  TABLES. 


in  their  use,  still  lacks  a  satisfactory  explana- 
tion. Among  tlie  East  Greeks  also  arose  the  dif- 
ferentiation of  the  e  and  o  sounds,  which,  after 
some  variations,  settled  into  denoting  the  short 
e  by  E,  while  for  the  long  e  was  chosen  the 
original  aspirate  (H)  ;  O  was  appropriated  for 
short  0,  and  for  long  o  a  new  symbol  (B)  was 
invented.  Vau  or  Digamma  {/:)  was  disused, 
as  the  sound  had  been  early  lost  among  the 
lonians.  In  adopting  the  alphabet,  the  Greeks 
seem  at  first  to  have  adopted  also  the  direction 
of  the  Phienician  writing,  from  right  to  loft, 
but  very  early  to  have  become  more  independent 
and  adopted  the  form  where  the  lines  run  alter- 
nately from  right  to  left  and  left  to  right,  like 
the  course  of  the  oxen  in  ploughing,  whence  the 
name  l3ovarpo<p7j(^6i,  bowttruphrdon.  But  the  di- 
rection was  unimportant,  and  the  early  inscrip- 
tions show  many  strange  variations.  It  was  not 
until  the  fifth  century  that  the  habit  of  writing 
from  left  to  right  supplanted  the  earlier  forms. 

Through  the  Greeks  the  alphabet  was  brought 
to  Italy,  and  naturally  in  the  Western  form, 
since  Chalcidians  of  Cuma'  seem  to  have  been  the 
intermediaries.  Here  also  developed  many  local 
variations:  but  most  of  the  Italian  alphalicts 
preserved  throughout  their  history  the  original 
direction  of  the  writing.  The  Latins,  however, 
probably  because  of  growing  intimacy  with  the 
Greeks,  adopted  the  later  Greek  method.  The 
Greek  alphabet  was  not  adopted  in  its  entirety. 
The  aspirates  (th,  ph,  cli)  were  not  needed,  and 
Z,  though  perhaps  existing  in  early  times,  was 
soon  dropped,  and  its  place  later  taken  by  6,  a 
differentiation  of  C,  which  seems  for  a  time  to 
have  done  duty  for  both  the  k  and  g  sounds, 
as  K  earlj-  fell  into  disuse,  if  it  did  not  actually 
disappear.  About  the  time  of  Cicero,  for  the 
transcription  of  Greek  names,  the  characters  Y 
(U)  and  Z  were  introduced  at  the  end  of  the  al- 
phabet. This  Latin  alphaljet,  as  spread  by  the 
Roman  conquests,  became  the  alphabet  of  the 
modern  European  languages,  with  the  exception 
of  Russian,  which  is  derived  from  the  Byzantine 
Greek  of  the  ninth  century  a.d.,  and  in  its  early 
ecclesiastical  form  was  the  invention  of  the  mis- 
sionary Cyril,  who  found  it  necessary  to  add 
twelve  signs  to  express  the  Slavonic  sounds.  The 
number  was  afterward  increased  to  forty- 
eight,  and  in  the  reign  of  Peter  the  Great  again 
reduced  and  the  alphabet  modified  into  the  pres- 
ent Russian  alphabet  of  thirty-five  letters.  See 
RuxE.s  and  Og.^m  for  primitive  Germanic  and 
Irish  \\Titing,  and  Gl.\golitsa  and  Kirillitsa 
for  the  Slavic  alphabets. 

Bibliography.  Isaac  Taylor,  The  Alphabet 
(London,  1899).  This  is  the  most  complete 
treatment  in  English,  but  must  be  used  with 
caution.  A  convenient  but  rather  popular  sum- 
mary, with  nui)ierous  illustrations,  may  be  found 
in  E.  Clodd,  Tlic  Story  of  llie  Alphabet  (London. 
1900).  Consult  also:  licrgcr,  Histoirc  dc  I'ccri- 
iurc  dans  Vanli<iui1c  (Paris,  1891);  Peters, 
"Recent  Theories  of  the  Alphabet."  Journal  of 
the  Amrrican  Oriental  Societi/.  XXII.  (New 
Haven,  1901);  Evans,  Cretan  Pietographs  and 
Pre-Phoenician  Script  (Ixindon,  1895)  ;  Evans, 
Further  Discoveries  of  Cretan  and  .ISgean  Script 
(London.  1898).  On  the  origin  of  the  Phtenician 
alphabet,  see  the  books  citeil  above,  and  comjiare 
Lidzbar.ski.  Handbueh  dcr  nordsemitisrhcn  Epi- 
graphil-  (Weimar.  1898).  which  contains  a  full 
bibliography.  For  the  Greek  alphabet,  see 
Kirchofr,  Studien  ziir  Oeschichte  des  griechisch- 


en  Alphahels  (Giilersloh,  1887)  ;  Roberts,  Intro- 
duction to  Greek  Epigraphy  (Cambridge,  Eng., 
1887);  Reinach.  Truitc  d'cpii/niphie  grecque 
(Paris,  188.5)  ;  Larfeld,  in  Mailer's  Handbueh 
der  l:lassisehen  Altertuinswissenschaft,  Volume 
I.  (Munich.  1892).  For  the  Latin  alphabet,  con- 
sult: Ritschl,  Prisew  Lotinitatis  Monument<i 
Epigraphiea  (Berlin,  1802);  Hiibner,  Exempla 
Scriptiirw  Latinw  Epigraphiea  a  Cwsaris  Morte, 
etc.  (Berlin.  1885);  'also  Hiibner  in  Mtiller's 
Handbueh,  Volume  I. 

ALPHAND,  al'fax',  .Iean  Charles  Adolpiie 
(1817-911.  A  French  civil  engineer.  He  was 
born  at  Grenoble,  studied  at  the  Eeole  Polytech- 
nique,  and  was  appointed  an  engineer  at  Bor- 
deaux. He  was  a])pointed  chief  engineer  of  the 
improvements  of  Paris  in  1854,  director  of  works 
in  1871.  and  in  1878  director  of  water  supply 
and  drainage.  In  1857  he  was  chief  engineer  of 
roads  and  bridges,  and  in  the  Franco-Prussian 
War  was  colonel  of  an  engineer  corps  charged 
with  the  task  of  strengthening  the  fortifications 
of  the  capital.  He  divides  with  Baron  Hauss- 
mann  the  honor  of  having  reconstructed  Paris. 

ALPHE'US  (Gk.  'A/^c/oc,  .l?;)/iC!'os) .  The 
chief  river  of  the  Peloponnesus  (  Morea) ,  rising 
in  tlie  southeast  of  Arcadia,  and  flowing  west 
through  Elis  and  past  the  famous  Olympia,  into 
the  Ionian  Sea.  This  river  is  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  in  ancient  song,  and  is  connected  with 
a  beautiful  and  characteristic  Greek  legend. 
The  upper  course  of  the  Alpheus  was  of  a  charac- 
ter likely  to  afl'eet  strongly  the  imagination  of 
the  Greeks.  In  its  passage  through  Arcadia,  a 
country  consisting  of  cavernous  limestone,  and 
abounding  in  shut-in  basins  and  valleys,  it  twice 
disappears  under  ground  and  rises  again.  After 
these  feats  it  was  deemed  capable  of  anything — 
even  of  flowing  under  the  sea — and  the  Greek 
colonists  of  Sicily  thought  they  recognized  it  in 
their  new  country.  Close  on  the  margin  of  the 
sea  in  the  island  of  Ortygia  (the  site  of  Syra- 
cuse), was  the  beautiful  and  copious  fountain  of 
Arethusa.  and  its  fresh  water  was  believed  to  be 
that  of  tlie  Aljibcus.  As  evidence  it  was  asserted 
that  when  the  river  overflowed  its  banks,  the 
refuse  of  Ol.ympia  polluted  the  fountain,  and 
that  a  golden  cup,  thrown  into  the  Alplieus  at 
Olympia,  reappeared  in  Arethusa.  This  popu- 
lar belief  was  reflected  in  a  favorite  story  pf 
the  later  classical  times.  The  river-god  Alpheus 
became  enamored  of  the  nymph  Arethusa  A\hile 
she  was  bathing  in  his  stream.  To  escape  him. 
she  prayed  to  Diana,  who  changed  her  into  a 
fountain,  and  opened  up  an  underground  passage 
for  her  to  Ortygia.  The  river  still  pursued,  and 
passing  from  Greece  to  Sicily  below  the  sea.  with- 
out mingling  his  waters  with  it,  united  with  his 
love  in  Die  fountain. 

ALPHONSE,  al'foN-s'  (1220-71).  Count  of 
Poitiers  and  Toulouse,  son  of  Louis  VIII.  of 
France.  He  took  part  in  the  Sixth  Crusade 
(1249-50),  led  by  his  brother.  Louis  IX.  (St. 
Louis),  with  whom  he  was  taken  prisoner  at 
Mansurah.  He  also  accompanied  King  Louis  in 
the  Seventh  Crusade  (1270).  against  Tunis, 
where  he  fell  fatally  ill.  His  administration  of 
the  affairs  of  his  domains  was  prudent  and  just, 
and  made  in  general  toward  increased  autonomy 
and   cpiitraliz;>timi. 


ALPHON'SINE     TA'BLES. 

SINE. 


See     Alfon- 


ALPHONSO. 


395 


ALPINE  PLANT. 


ALPHON'SO.      See   Alfonso. 
ALPHON'SXJS  MARIA  DI  LIGT70RI.    See 

LicroRi. 

AL'PINE  CLTJBS.  Societies  for  the  promo- 
tinn  of  mountain  exploration  and  adventure. 
Tlip  most  noted  mountain  club  is  the  Alpine 
Club,  of  England,  organized  in  18.57.  In  1863 
it  began  to  publish  the  Alpine  Journal.  This 
organization  was  followed  by  others  in  Europe. 
The  clubs  have  encouraged  geographical  explora- 
tion, not  only  of  European  mountains,  but  of  the 
Himalayas  and  other  Asiatic  ranges,  the  .Andes, 
the  Xew  Zealand  .\lps,  etc.  There  is  an  exten- 
sive Alpine  literature,  which  began  in  18.59  with 
the  .\lpine  Club's  Peaks,  Passes,  and  Glaciers. 
In  the  United  States  there  exist  the  Sierra  Club 
and  the  Mazamas,  on  the  Pacific  coast,  and  the 
Appalachian  Jlountain  Club   (q.v. ). 

AL'PINE  PLANT.  A  plant  whose  natural 
habitat  is  in  high  altitudes.  These  plants  form  one 
of  the  three  great  climatic  groups  of  xeruphytes 
(q.v.),  and  have  in  general  the  ordinary  xerophy- 
tic  adaptations.    Among  the  leading  peculiarities 


of  Alpine  vegetation  theie  may  be  noted  (1) 
The  gnarled  and  twisted  aspect  of  the  shrubs 
and  trees;  so  characteristic  is  this  habit  in  the 
mountain  pine  of  Europe  that  the  tree  has  been 
called  by  the  Germans  Krummholz,  i.e.,  "crooked 
wood."  (2)  The  vegetation  is  notably  dwarfed. 
(3)  The  plant  axes  are  commonly  horizontal 
rather  than  vertical,  and  as  a  result  there  is  a 
great  number  of  creeping  plants.  (4)  The 
"cushion  (Ger.  Polstcr)  habit,"  so  common  else- 
where in  mosses,  is  found  in  many  seed  plants, 
wliich  sometimes  resemble  a  brain  coral  in  gen- 
eral effect.  (5)  The  rosette  habit  is  frequent. 
(6)  The  flowers  and  roots  of  Alpine  plants,  in 
striking  contrast  to  the  stems  and  leaves,  are  not 
reduced ;  they  may  even  be  increased.  This  com- 
bination makes  the  roots  and  flowers  appear 
gigantic,  and  travelers,  as  a  consequence,  are 
always  struck  with  the  relatively  large  floral 
development.  (7)  .\lpine  leaves  show  decidedly 
xerophytic  structures,  man}-  plants  having  thick- 


Spring  buauties  (daijtonia)  from  the  eastern  lowlnnds  (a) 
and  Alpine  diBtricts  of  the  Kooky  Mountains  (b).  Not«  that 
the  Alpine  form  shows  great  stem  reduction,  moderate  leaf 
reduction,  llowers  relatively  unchanged,  and  increased  root 
system. 


Cross-section  of  leaf  of  Germander  {Teucriiiin)  from  the 
Aliiine  legions  (a)  and  the  lowlands  (b).  Note  the  greatly- 
increased  feaf  thickness  and  palisade  development  in  tlie  \1- 
pine  leaf.    After  Bonnier. 

skinned,  leathery  evergreen  leaves,  as  the  pines 
and  rhododendrons,  while  others  have  hairy 
leaves,  as  the  edelweiss.  Kerner,  Die  Abhiin- 
gif/keit  der  Pflanzcngestalt  von  Klima  and  Boden 
(1869),  and  Bonnier,  Cultures  experimentales 
dansles  hautrs  altitudes  ( 1888  to  date) , have  car- 
ried on  some  remarkably  interesting  experiments 
to  determine  the  influence  that  Alpine  climates 
exert  upon  i)lants.  Lowland  plants  were  taken 
into  Alpine  regions  and  were  found  to  assume 
structural  adaptations  similar  to  those  normally 
found  in  Alpine  plants  but  not  normally  found 
under  lowland  conditions.  In  particular,  sub- 
terranean organs  were  found  to  increase  in  size, 
while  aerial  stems  became  reduced  and  tended 
toward  horizontality.  The  leaves  became  small- 
er and  thicker  and  often  more  hairy:  sometimes 
the  leaves  showed  more  red  coloration.  The 
flowers  became  relativelv,  and  in  some  cases 
absolutely,  larger  and  more  highly  colored,  and 
blossoming  often  took  place  earlier  than  in  the 
lowlands.  Structurally  the  leaves  showed  a 
thicker  cuticle  and  increased  development  of 
palisade  cells.  Bonnier  found  that  these  plants 
increased  in  Alpine  characters  year  by  year,  and 


ALPINE   PLANT. 


396 


ALPS. 


tliat,  -when  taken  again  to  tlie  lowlands,  the  Al- 
jiiiic  features  were  not  lost  for  a  long  time.  In 
general,  the  adaptations  of  Alpine  plants  are  sim- 
ilar to  those  of  Arctic  plants,  but  it  has 
been  noticed  that  the  leaves  are  thinner  and 
show  more  differentiation,  intercellular  spaces 
are  fewer,  and  palisade  cells  better  developed. 
Hairy  ])lants  are  perhaps  more  characteristic 
of  Alpine  than  of  Arctic  regions.  The  Alpine 
conditions  are  peculiar  and  are  chiefly  due 
in  the  last  analysis  to  the  rarefied  air.  The 
consequent  decrease  in  pressure  has  probably  a 
direct  effect  on  vegetation,  but  experiments 
have  not  yet  made  this  clear.  In  any  event, 
the  thin  air  causes  a  greatly  increased  in- 
tensity of  heat  and  light  by  day,  and  a  great- 
ly increased  radiation  of  heat  by  night.  Tlius 
gi'eat  extremes  of  temperature  are  the  rule. 
The  rarity  of  the  air  also  prevents  great  rain- 
fall. These  conditions,  together  with  exposure 
to  wind,  work  in  harmony  toward  the  develop- 
ment of  a  highly  xerophytie  flora,  as  has  been 
previously  mentioned,  and  it  is  easy  to  see  how 
none  but  xerophytes  can  survive  in  such  a  loca- 
tion. The  differences  between  Arctic  and  Alpine 
conditions  may  be  summed  up  thus:  Arctic 
light  is  more  constant,  but  less  intense,  and  this 
perhaps  accounts  for  the  differences  in  leaf 
structure  and  color  intensity  in  Arctic  and  Alpine 
regions,  as  stated  above.  The  changes  of  temper- 
ature are  more  rapid  in  Alpine  districts.  The 
xerophytie  structures  of  Alpine  plants  are  per- 
haps due  to  causes  set  in  operation  by  thin  air, 
■while  in  Arctic  plants  the  causes  may  be  set  in 
operation  rather  by  the  cold  or  even  frozen  soil. 
See  also  Mountain  Plant,  and  the  plate  sliowing 
Alpine  Vegetation,  accompanying  this  article. 

ALPINI,  al-pe'ne,  Prospero  (1553-1617).  A 
Venetian  botanist  and  physician.  He  antici- 
pated Linna!us  in  determining  the  sexual  differ- 
ences of  plants,  and  one  of  his  papers  gave 
Europe  the  first  notice  of  the  cofl'ee  shrub.  He 
filled  the  chair  of  botany  in  the  University  of 
Padua  for  many  years.  His  best  known  work  is 
De  Plantis  .Jigyp'ti  (Venice,  1592;  Padua,  1G40). 
The  genus  Alpinia  is  named  after  him. 

ALPINIA.    See  Galangale. 

ALPS.  The  word  Alp  is  of  Celtic  origin, 
and  signifies,  according  to  some  authorities, 
"white,"  and  according  to  others,  "high."  Thus 
the  Alps  may  be  simply  the  White  Mountains,  or 
the  High  Mountains.  The  name  is  applied  to  a 
mountain  system  of  Southern  Europe,  which  in- 
cludes most  of  Switzerland,  and  extends  into 
France  on  the  west,  Austria  on  the  cast,  Italy  on 
the  south,  and  Germany  on  the  north,  and  covers 
ahxigether  an  area  of  some  80,000  to  90,000 
square  miles   (Map:  Europe,  D  4). 

The  system  rises  from  the  shore  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean west  of  the  Gulf  of  Genoa,  and  at  first 
trends  northward  to  the  west  of  the  plain  of 
Lombardy ;  then  swinging  to  the  east,  it  stretches 
with  an  east  and  west  trend  through  Switzer- 
land and  across  the  north  of  Italy  into  .\ustria. 
Tlie  total  length  of  the  system  is  upward  of 
600  miles,  and  its  breadth  ranges  from  about 
75  to  about  150  miles.  It  contains  hundreds  of 
peaks  exceeding  10,000  feet,  and  its  crowning 
summit,  Mont  Blanc,  has  an  altitude  of  15,781 
feet.  In  the  extreme  northeast,  where  the  Al- 
pine system  reaches  the  Danube,  it  is  met  by  a 
range  belonging  to  the  great  system  of  the  Car- 
patiiian   and   Sudetic  Mountains.     On   the  west 


the  Alps  are  connected  with  the  Jura  Mountains. 
In  the  soutli  the  Apennines  form  a  great  con- 
tinuation, extending  as  far  south  as  Sicily.  The 
Cevennes  in  southeastern  France  constitute  in  a 
measure  a  connecting  link  with  the  Pj-renees. 
The  range  of  mountains  known  as  the  Dinarie 
Alps,  on  the  borders  of  Dalmatia  and  Bos- 
nia, are  a  connecting  link  between  the  Alpine 
system  and  the  Balkan  Mountains.  Tlie  slopes 
upon  tlie  south,  to  the  plains  of  Lombardy, 
are  much  more  abiiipt  than  those  on  the  north 
to  the  lower  lands  of  Switzerland  and  Aus- 
tria. This  bi-oad,  complex  mountain  region  is 
the  source  of  many  of  the  great  rivers  of  Europe.. 
The  western  slope  of  that  part  of  the  range 
which  trends  north  from  the  Mediterranean 
shore  is  drained  into  that  sea  by  the  Rhone, 
while  the  east  slope  of  this  part,  together  with 
the  southern  slope  throughout  Italy,  is  drained 
into  the  Adriatic  mainly  liy  the  River  Po.  The 
north  slope  is  drained  into  the  North  Sea  by  the 
Rhine,  and  into  the  Black  Sea  by  the  Danube, 
which  flows  around  the  eastern  end  of  the  moun- 
tain system.  The  head  branches  of  these  rivers, 
aided  by  the  glaciers  at  their  sources,  have  erod- 
ed this  mountain  mass  into  a  complex  of  short 
ranges  and  ridges,  many  of  which  have  received 
distinctive  names. 

Subdivisions.  The  Alps  are  commonly,  but 
rather  arbitrarily,  divided  into  three  port.ions. 
The  Western  Alps  comprise  that  portion  having 
a  north  and  south  trend,  and  extending  north- 
ward to  the  Great  St.  Bernard  Pass;  the  Central 
Alps  extend  thence  eastward  to  the  Brenner 
Pass,  while  the  Eastern  Alps  include  the  remain- 
der. In  the  Western  Alps  the  ranges  and  ridges 
are  broken  and  irregular,  while  in  the  other 
parts  of  tlie  system  the  secondary  ranges  trend 
more  commonly  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  sys- 
tem. The  system  is  still  further  subdivided  into 
groups  or  ranges  separated  from  one  another 
more  or  less  completely  by  stream  gorges.  The 
following  groups  are  comprised  in  the  Western 
Alps:  The  Maritime  Alps,  near  the  Slediterra- 
nean  coast:  the  Cottian  Alps,  stretching  from 
Slont  Chameb,\Ton.  11,155  feet,  to  the  Col  de 
Frejus.  It  contains  several  peaks  exceeding  12,- 
000  feet  in  height.  West  of  it  is  the  small  group 
known  as  Oisans,  with  Mont  Pelvoux,  12,970 
feet,  and  Les  Ecrins,  13,462  feet,  the  highest 
peak  of  Dauphine.  The  Graian  Alps  are  the 
northernmost  group  of  the  Western  Alps ;  here 
are  Grand  Paradis,  13,324  feet;  Mont  Pourri, 
12,428  feet;  La  Grivola,  13.028  feet:  the  Grands 
Coulvirs,  12,567  feet;  the  Grande  Sassi&re,  12,- 
430  feet;  and,  at  the  turning  point  of  the  range, 
Mont  Blanc,   15,781  feet. 

The  Central  Alps  are  subdivided  into  many 
groups,  of  which  only  the  principal  ones  can  be 
mentioned.  The  Bernese  Alps  separate  the  up- 
per valley  of  the  Rhone  from  the  Aar,  and  com- 
prise many  well  known  peaks,  among  them  the 
Jungfrau,  13,672  feet:  Finsteraarhorn,  14,026 
feet;  Aletschhorn,  13,720  feet;  Miinch,  13,465 
feet:  Eiger,  13,040  feet:  Schreckorn,  13.385 
feet,  and  Wetterhorn,  12,150  feet.  This  is  one  of 
the  most  rugged  groups  of  the  system,  contain- 
ing many  peaks  exceeding  12,000  feet  in  height, 
and  having  many  glaciers,  one  of  which,  the 
Aletsch,  is  the  longest  in  the  Alps.  On  the 
op])osite  side  of  the  Rhone  valley  is  another 
splendid  range,  the  Pennine  Alps,  in  which, 
grouped  about  Zermatt,  are  the  Matterhorn  or 
Mont  Cervin,  14,780    (14,705)    feet;    Weisshorn, 


ALPS. 


397 


ALPS. 


14,S0:J  feet:  Gnind  e()iiil)iii,  14,1(14  feet;  Lvs- 
kamiii,  14,889  feet;  Miscliabel,  14,941  feet;  and 
iiouti-  Kosa,  15,217  feet.  Tlie  St.  Gothard 
lanye  stands  at  the  sourees  of  the  Reuss,  Rhine, 
and  Tieini),  separated  on  all  sides  by  compara- 
tively low  passes.  To  the  south  and  east  of  it, 
and  to  tlie  northeast  of  the  Pennine  Alps,  are  the 
Lepontine  Alps,  through  wliieli  from  northwest 
to  southeast  extends  the  vallej'  of  the  Ticino. 
IJetween  the  Aar  and  Reuss  are  the  Emnienthal 
Alps,  separated  from  the  Alps  of  Uri  on  the  east 
by  tlie  Uriinig  Pass.  The  Tijdi  chain  continues 
the  line  of  Bernese  Alps  northeastward,  with 
TOdi,  11,887  feet.  Tlie  Rha-tian  Alps  stand 
about  the  head-waters  of  the  Inn  River,  and 
contain  many  fine  peaks,  exceeding  11,000  feet 
in  height,  while  south  of  them  is  the  splendid 
Bernina  group,  with  Mont  Bernina,  13,294  feet. 
Still  further  south,  on  the  south  flank  of  the 
system  and  east  of  Lake  Como.  are  the  Alps  of 
Bergamo.  East  of  the  Rhietian  Alps  are  the 
Otzthal  and  Ortler  Alps,  with  peaks  rising  above 
12.000  feet,  the  Ortlerspitze  being  12,800  feet. 

The  Eastern  Alps  are  of  less  height  than  the 
other  two  groups,  and  are  broken  into  a  great 
number  of  semidetached  groups  and  ranges; 
the  North  and  South  Tyrolese,  Sarnthal,  Dolo- 
mite, Venetian,  C'arnic,  and  .Julian  Alps,  Hohe 
Tauern,  Niedere  Tauern,  and  the  Salzburg,  Sty- 
rian.  and  Austrian  Limestone  Alps.  The  East- 
ern Alps  culminate  in  the  Gross-Glockner,  in  the 
Hohe  Tauern,  on  the  borders  of  Tyrol,  Carin- 
thi^a,  and  Salzl>urg,  which  rises  to  a  height  of 
12,457  feet,  and  fiom  which  descend  glaciers  al- 
most rivaling  those  of  the  Swiss  Alps. 

The  highest  part  of  the  Alpine  system,  as  ex- 
pressed by  the  altitude  of  its  sunmiits,  is  in  the 
western  part  of  the  Central  Alps,  in  the  Bernese 
and  Pennine  groups,  and  about  Mont  Blanc. 
From  this  region  the  altitudes  diminish  east- 
ward and  southward.  Owing  to  the  broken  char- 
acter of  the  system,  passes  are  numerous ;  many 
of  them  are  comparatively  low,  and  are  utilized 
as  routes  for  roads  and  railroads.  Some  of  them 
have  been  used  as  routes  of  travel  for  many  cen- 
turies. 

P.'.ssES  AND  Routes.  The  passage  of  the 
Western  Alps  is  made  by  five  principal  roads: 
(1)  The  military  road.  La  Corniche,  a  coast  road 
at  the  foot  of  the  Alps  from  Nice  to  Genoa, 
parallel  to  which  a  railway  now  runs.  (2) 
The  road  over  the  Col-di-Tenda,  between  Nice 
and  Cuneo,  made  in  1778;  highest  point,  0150 
feet.  (3)  The  high  road  over  Mont  Genfevre, 
connecting  Provence  and  Dauphing  with  Turin; 
higliest  point,  filOO  feet.  (,4)  The  carriage 
road  made  by  Napoleon  in  1S05,  over  Mont 
Cenis,  connecting  Savoy  with  Piedmont;  high- 
est point,  6850  feet.  Near  this  the  chain  is 
pierced  by  the  railway  tunnel  of  ilont  Cenis. 
(5)  The  pass  of  the  Little  St.  Bernard,  con- 
necting Savoy  and  Piedmont;  highest  point 
7180  feet.  The  passage  of  the  Central  Aljis  is 
made  by  eight  principal  roads:  (1)  That  of  the 
Great  St.  Bernard,  connecting  the  valley  of  the 
Rhone  with  Piedmont;  highest  point,  8120  feet. 
It  was  crossed  by  Napoleon  in  1800.  (2)  The 
magnificent  road  over  the  Simplon,  which  moun- 
tain is  pierced  by  the  Simplon  railway  tunnel  at 
a  level  below  that  of  the  St.  Gothard  tunnel,  was 
constructed  by  Napoleon,  ISOl-Oli,  and  connects 
Valais  with  the  confines  of  Piedmont  and  Lom- 
bardy;  highest  point,  0590  feet.  (3)  The  pass 
of  St.   Gothard,   connecting  Lucerne  with  Lago 


Maggiore;  highest  iioint,  (j!):it)  feet.  One  of  the 
great  Alpine  railway  tunnels  is  the  St.  Gothard. 
(.See  St.  Gotuahu.)  (4)  The  San  Bernardino 
Pass:  highest  point,  6770  feet.  (5)  The  Splii- 
gen  l^ass,  connecting  the  sourees  of  the  Rhine 
with  the  Adda,  highest  point,  6945  feet.  This 
pass  was  the  one  used  by  the  Romans  in 
their  intercourse  with  the  countries  bordering 
on  the  Danube  and  the  Rhine,  and  also  by  the 
tierman  armies  on  their  marches  into  Italy  in 
the  Middle  Ages.  (U)  The  Furka  Pass,  separat- 
ing the  heads  of  the  Rhine  and  Rhone,  and 
crossed  by  a  wagon  road  at  an  altitude  of  7992 
feet.  (7)  The  Stelvio  Pass  (Stilfser  Joch),  on 
the  frontiers  of  Tyrol  and  Lonibardy,  traversed 
by  the  most  elevated  carriage  road  in  Europe; 
its  highest  point,  9855  feet.  (8)  The  Brenner 
Pass  known  to  the  Romans,  on  the  road  from 
Innsbruck  to  Trent  and  Verona,  highest  point 
4409  feet.  It  is  now  crossed  by  a  railway.  Be- 
sides these  great  roads,  leading  south  into  Italy, 
there  are  two  which  lead  north  from  the  valley  of 
the  Rhone,  and  cross  the  Bernese  Alps,  over'the 
Grimsel  Pass,  7103  feet  high,  and  the  Gemmi 
Pass,  7640  feet  high.  The  roads  over  the  Eastern 
Alps  are  much  lower  and  also  much  more  numer- 
ous than  those  in  the  Aliddle  or  Western  Alps. 
The  principal  are:  (1)  The  road  from  Venice 
to  Salzburg,  crossing  the  Noric  Alps  at  an  ele- 
vation of  rather  more  than  5000  feet.  (2)  The 
road  over  the  Carnic  Alps,  which  divides  into 
three  branches — the  first  leading  to  Laibach, 
the  second  to  the  valley  of  the  Isonzo,  and  the 
third  to  the  valley  of  the  Tagliamento.  ( 3 )  The 
roads  from  the  Danube  at  Linz  to  Laibach. 

There  are  four  railways  crossing  the  Western 
and  Central  Alps:  The  Jlont  Cenis,  connecting 
France  with  Italy;  the  St.  Gothard,  connecting 
Lake  Lucerne  with  Lago  Maggiore;  the  Sim- 
plon, from  the  upper  Rhone  Valley  to  Lago 
Alaggiore,  and  the  Brenner,  from  Jlunich  and 
Innsbruck  to  'Verona  and  Venice.  The  Arlberg 
railway,  which  pierces  the  Alps  in  the  Arlberg 
Tunnel,  is  the  great  highway  between  Switzer- 
land and  Austria.  Besides  these  through  lines, 
there  are  many  extending  into  the  heart  of  the 
mountains.  From  the  upper  valley  of  the  Aar 
many  lines  extend  southward  into"  the  Bernese, 
irrner,  and  Glarner  Alps  to  Interlakcn,  Lauter- 
brunnen,  and  Grindelwald,  and  to  Brienz,  Jleir- 
ingen.  Lucerne,  and  Linthal.  A  railway  passes 
up  the  Rhone  Valley,  with  a  branch  to  Zermatt, 
in  the  Pennine  Alps.  On  the  Italian  side  several 
raihvays  penetrate  the  mountains  to  considerable 
distances.  The  Eastern  Alps  are  crossed  by 
several  railway  lines,  which  subdivide  and  join, 
sending  off  many  branches  within  the  mountain 
area.  Many  of  the  points  affording  the  grand- 
est views  in  the  Alps  are  now  reached  by  moun- 
tain railways:  the  Gorncgrat  Railway,  the 
highest  railway  in  Europe,  in  the  vicinity"  of  the 
Matterhorn,  climbing  up  to  an  elevation  of  9908 
feet.  The  most  extensive  panorama  to  be  had 
from  any  easily  accessible  point  is  that  obtained 
from  the  summit  of  the  Rigi.  a  peak  near  Lu- 
cerne, less  than  6000  feet  high.  As  a  pleas- 
ure ground  for  the  lovers  of  grand  scenery  and 
adventurous  mountain  climbers,  the  Alps  are 
the  most  attractive  region  on  the  earth.  It  is  a 
truism  that  the  most  valuable  of  Switzerland's 
assets  is  the  scenery  of  the  Alps.  Not  that  these 
are  the  finest  mountains  on  the  face  of  the  globe, 
but  there  are  no  others  comparable  Avith  them 
which  are  so  accessible,  and  in  which  living  and 


ALPS. 


398 


ALPS. 


travel  are  so  pleasant  and  easy.  Railwaj-s  and 
carriage  roads  traverse  these  mountains  in  all 
directions.  At  the  best  scenic  points  are  excel- 
lent hotels,  and  guides  are  provided  for  conduct- 
ing visitors  to  all  points.  Hence  every  year  tens 
of  thousands  of  travelers  visit  the  Alps  from  all 
parts  of  the  civilized  world. 

Glaciers.  As  the  Alps  rise  to  heights  of  12,- 
000  to  nearly  1(3,000  feet  above  the  sea,  in  a  re- 
gion of  ample  rainfall,  the  precipitation  on  these 
mountains  is  great,  and  gives  rise  to  extensive 
glaciers,  which  originate  near  the  summits  and 
descend  to  ditt'erent  levels,  the  longest  reaching 
\\itliin  four  or  five  thousand  feet  of  sea  level,  and 
one  of  them,  the  Lower  Grindehvald,  having  its 
termination  at  an  elevation  of  only  35.50  feet. 
The  principal  glaciers  are  found  in  the  Bernese 
and  Pennine  Alps,  and  the  group  about  Mont 
Blanc,  although  numerous  smaller  ones  exist 
in  many  other  parts  of  the  system.  The  total 
ntimber  is  estimated  at  1200,  of  which  471  are  in 
f^witzerland  and  402  in  Austria,  those  in  the 
former  country  lieing  by  far  tlie  largest,  covering 
an  area  of  710  square  miles;  the  total  area  of 
snow  and  ice  in  the  Alps  is  about  1000  square 
miles.  The  largest  and  longest  of  the  Swiss 
glaciers  is  the  Aletsch,  in  the  Bernese  Alps,  with 
a  length  of  10  miles  (area,  .50  square  miles), 
and  a  breadth  of  ice  of  more  than  a  mile. 
In  length  the  Unteraar  is  next,  with  a  length  of 
10.4  miles,  followed  by  the  Gorner  in  the  Pennine 
Alps  and  the  Viesch  in  the  Bernese  Alps,  each 
of  which  is  9.4  miles  in  length.  Other  well- 
known  glaciers  are  the  Mer  de  Glace,  above  the 
Valley  of  Chamoni.x,  Miage  Glacier,  which  has 
its  source  on  Mont  Blanc,  the  Oberaar  and  the 
Unteraar,  in  the  Bernese  Alps,  and  the  Rhone 
Ghicier  in  the  same  group,  near  the  Furka  Pass. 

Our  present  knowledge  of  glaciers,  tlieir  origin, 
structure,  flow,  advance,  recession,  and  tlie  phe- 
nomena of  erosion,  has  been  mainly  derived  from 
a  study  of  tlie^^e  Alpine  glaciers.  The  present 
glacial  system  is  but  the  last  dying  remnant  of 
great  ice  sheets  which  once  covered  both  flanks 
of  the  mountain  system,  descending  to  the  plains 
and  valleys  on  either  side.  As  it  shrank,  it 
developed  great  rivers  of  ice,  which  carved 
mountain  gorges  and  lake  basins.  The  lake 
scenery  of  the  Alps  is  unrivaled  for  beauty, 
grandeur,  and  diversity.  Tlie  largest  lakes  in- 
clude Geneva,  draining  into  the  River  Rhone, 
Neuchfitel,  Bienne,  Thun.  Brienz,  Lucerne,  Zug, 
Ziirieh,  Constance,  Como.  Lugano,  Garda,  and 
Maggiore.  Tn  the  high  mountains  are  cirques  at 
the  heads  of  all  gorges  not  now  occupied  by  ice, 
with  little  lakelets  surrounded  by  frowning  semi- 
circular s\\cc]is  of  cliffs,  hanging  valleys,  and 
smooth-sided.  U-shaped  gorges,  planed  and  pol- 
ished, all  bearing  mute  evidence  of  tlieir  glacial 
origin.  Since  the  recession  of  the  glaciers,  the 
rivers  in  their  turn  have  done  a  vast  deal  of 
erosion,  but  have  not  yet  by  any  means  effaced 
from  the  land  the  hand-writing  of  the  ice.  The 
main  Alpine  region  is  drained  on  the  north 
by  the  upper  system  of  the  Rhine,  inilud- 
ing  the  Reuss,  Aar,  and  Thur,  and  by  south 
branches  of  the  Danube,  including  the  Iller, 
Lccli.  Isar.  Inn,  and  Enns;  on  tlie  east  by  west 
branches  of  the  middle  Danube,  including 
the  Drave  and  Save:  on  tlie  south  by  the  upper 
Adriatic  coast  streams,  including  the  Taglia- 
inento.  PiaVe.  Brenta.  and  Adige.  and  by  the 
northern  branches  of  the  Po.  including  the 
Mincio,    Oglio,    Adda,    Ticino,    Sesia,    and    Dora 


Baltia ;  and  on  the  west  by  the  eastern  tributar- 
ies of  the  lower  Rlione,  the  Durance,  Isere,  and 
the  upper  Rhone  itself. 

Geology.  The  Alps  are  the  result  of  intense 
folding  and  faulting  of  the  strata,  carried  on  for 
a  long  time,  the  folds  and  faults  mainly  trending 
northeast  and  southwest,  accompanied  and  fol- 
lowed by  long  continued  and  intense  erosion  by 
ice  and  water.  The  net  result  of  the  earth  move- 
ments was  greatly  to  elevate  the  surface  in  a 
broad  anticline,  composed  of  many  sharp  anti- 
clines, synclines,  and  monoclines.  Krosion  has 
planed  these  off  to  a  comparatively  smooth  curve, 
has  removed  the  stratified  beds  in  great  part 
from  the  higher  portions  of  the  system,  leaving 
only  fragments  of  the  older  beds  "in  limited  lo- 
calities, and  has  laid  bare  vast  areas  of  the  un- 
derlying gneissic  rocks.  Hence  the  higher  parts 
of  the  system  are  composed  almost  entirely  of 
gneissic  and  allied  rocks,  while  upon  the  flanks 
are  found  stratified  beds,  lying  in  various  posi- 
tions with  regard  to  the  system,  liere  lying  up 
against  it,  there  dipping  away  from  it.  The 
folding  and  faulting  occurred  in  various  geologic 
epochs,  from  Paleozoic  times  down,  but  was  ap- 
parently most  intense  in  relatively  recent  times, 
in  the  Mesozoic.  They  occurred  at  different 
times  in  different  parts  of  the  system,  and  not 
always  or  everywhere  in  the  same  direction,  so 
that  the  result,  in  detail,  is  exceedingly  compli- 
cated. The  ])rinci])al  field  of  these  movements, 
where  the  folding  and  faulting  is  most  complica- 
ted and  greatest,  is  north  of  the  higher  parts  of 
the  range,  in  other  words,  on  the  northern  slope; 
here  are  found  stratified  beds  succeeding  each 
other  in  bewildering  fashion.  The  southern  or 
Italian  slope  is  much  simpler  in  structure. 

Climate.  The  Alpine  region  is  at  the  meeting 
place  (if  the  high  middle-latitude  marine  climate 
of  Western  Europe,  the  continental  climate  of 
Central  Europe,  and  the  low-latitude  marine 
climate  of  the  Mediterranean  regions.  While  it 
does  not  lie  directly  in  the  main  path  of  the 
cyclonic  disturbances  which  sweep  across  North- 
ern Europe  from  west  to  east,  yet  it  does  lie 
within  the  sphere  of  influence  of  these  storm 
centres.  Jloreover,  during  the  spring,  numerous 
extended  c.vclones  pass  over  the  Al])ine  region; 
but  they  are  less  frequent  in  the  winter  and  fall, 
and  are  almost  totally  lacking  in  the  summer. 
This  is  the  chief  reason  for  tlie  stcad.v  cold  of 
the  Alpine  winter,  with  but  few  intensely  cold 
waves,  the  serenity  of  its  summer  climate,  and 
the  harshness  of  its  spring  weather.  The  aver- 
age annual  temperature  on  the  northern  Alpine 
boundary  at  altitudes  of  1500  feet  is  about 
4S°  F.,  while  the  seasonal  averages  range  from 
about  30°  F.  in  winter  to  fl.5°  F.  in  summer.  In 
winter  temperatures  usuallv  descend  as  low  as 
zero  F.,  and  in  summer  rise  as  high  as  90°  F. 
On  the  southern  Alpine  boundarv.  at  altitudes 
of  about  800  feet,  the  average  temperature  for 
the  year  is  about  54°  F.,  the  variations  ranging 
from  35°  F.  in  winter  to  72°  F.  in  summer;  but 
in  winter  the  temperature  usually  does  not  de- 
scend below  15°  F..  and  in  summer  may  reach 
even  05°  F.  With  increase  of  altitude  ;ibove  these 
regions  there  is  on  the  average  for  the  year  a 
decrease  in  temperature  of  about  1°  F.  for  each 
330  feet  of  altitude;  but  the  rate  of  decrease  is 
much  more  rapid  in  summer  than  in  winter. 
The  average  daily  temperature  is  remarkably 
uniform  in  the  Alps;  but  the  temperature 
changes    from    day   to    night    are    excessive,    on 


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ALPS. 


399 


ALPS. 


accouTit  of  the  intenf^p  action  of  the  sun  In- 
day  and  tlie  rapid  cooling  by  radiation  by  night, 
as  in  all  elevated  regions.  The  absohite  hnniid- 
ity  decreases  with  the  altitude,  and  is  greater 
in  summer  than  in  winter.  The  relative  lunnid- 
ity,  and,  consequently,  the  degree  of  cloudiness, 
is  least  in  winter  in  the  Alps,  while  in  the  sur- 
rounding region  the  relative  humidity  and  cloud- 
iness  are  usually  greatest  in  winter. 

On  the  north  side  tlie  annual  rainfall  is  from 
25  to  40  inches;  but  this  increases  irregularly 
to  about  90  inches  on  the  southern  side, 
where  the  steep  slopes  deflect  upward  the  mois- 
ture-laden warm  winds  from  the  Mediterranean 
Sea.  The  average  annual  rainfall  for  the  whole 
region  cannot  be  far  from  GO  inches,  while  that 
of  the  surrounding  lowlands  is  less  than  35 
inches.  Where  the  high  mountains  have  a 
copious  rainfall  on  the  windward  side,  the  val- 
leys on  the  leeward  side  experience  a  deficiency; 
so  that  on  one  side  of  a  mountain  range  the  rain- 
fall may  be  many  times  that  on  the  other  side. 
Of  the  total  annual  rainfall  throughout  the 
Alps  about  18  per  cent,  occurs  in  the  spring  and 
about  25  per  cent,  in  winter.  In  summer  the  pro- 
portion decreases  from  37  per  cent,  in  the  north- 
ern part  to  25  per  cent,  in  the  south ;  but  in  the 
fall,  on  the  contrary,  the  proportion  increases 
from  20  per  cent,  in  the  north  to  33  per  cent.  In 
tlie  south.  In  the  higher  .\lps  much  of  the  pre- 
cipitation is  of  course  in  the  form  of  snow,  which 
is  carried  down  to  lower  levels  by  glaciers  and  is 
there  melted.  The  snow  line  in  the  Alpine  moun- 
tains undergoes  an  aiuiual  variation,  reaching 
its  lowest  altitude,  about  2000  feet,  toward  the 
end  of  .Janiuary,  and  its  highest  altitude,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  0500  feet,  about  the  middle  of 
August.  The  limit  differs  for  the  northern  and 
southern  exposures,  the  snow  line  on  the  south- 
ern slopes  lying  over  150  feet  higlier  in  mid- 
winter, and  about  1300  feet  higher  in  the  early 
fall.  At  low  altitudes  of  2000  to  3000  feet,  the 
snowy  days  much  exceed  the  number  of  days  on 
which  the  groimd  remains  snow-covered,  but  at 
iiltitudes  of  8000  feet,  the  first  snow  commonly 
remains  throughout  the  season  of  snow.  The 
lower  limit  of  perpetual  snow  is  at  an  altitude 
ranging  from  S500  feet  to  9500  feet. 

The  general  winds  of  the  Alps  follow  the 
cyclonic  and  anti-eyclonie  laws,  which  give  a 
veering  through  the  south  when  the  cyclones  pass 
to  the  north,  as  they  usually  do,  and  through 
the  north  when  the  cyclones  pass  to  the  south. 
Local  winds  are  very  prevalent;  among  these  the 
mountain  and  valley  winds,  blowing  upward 
from  the  valleys  by  day  and  downward  from 
the  mountains  by  night,  are  the  most  charac- 
teristic. In  the  Central  and  Xorthcrn  Alps  occur 
these  hot,  dry  winds  called  the  fiihn.  These 
are  the  result  of  descending  air  on  the  leeward 
side  of  the  mountains  after  much  of  the  mois- 
ture has  been  condensed  by  the  cold  high  up  on 
the  windward  side.  These  fohn  winds,  while 
a  source  of  discomfort  to  the  inhabitants,  are 
welcomed  in  the  spring,  for  they  clear  the  ground 
of  snow  much  more  rapidly  than  the  sun  can  ac- 
cf)mplish  it.  Such  is  the  evaporating  power  of 
the  fiihn  winds  that  it  may  cause  two  feet  of 
snow  to  disappear  in  half  a  day. 

FArx.\.  The  large  native  animals  of  the  Alps 
are  becoming  scarcer  and  scarcer,  by  reason 
of  the  increasing  number  of  sportsmen  and  the 
fact  that  the  exploration  habit,  wliich  is  here 
practiced  by  tourists  as  in  no  other  part  of  the 


world,  has  left  scarcely  a  valley  in  untrodden 
seclusion.  The  wild  cat,  the  brown  bear,  and 
the  wolf  have  been  driven  into  the  more  remote 
recesses,  and  are  gradually  becoming  rare.  The 
chamois  and  the  ibex  are  found  among  the 
higher  mountains,  the  haunts  of  the  latter  being 
among  the  inaccessible  rocky  solitudes  bordering 
on  the  snow  line.  The  pursuit  of  these  animals 
is  the  most  exciting  and  dangerous  of  European 
hunting  sports.  Foxes,  weasels,  and  Alpine 
hares  are  plentiful,  while  otters  and  ermines  are 
less  numerous.  The  badger  is  conmion  in  the 
lower  Alps,  but  the  marmot  is  more  distinctively 
an  Alpine  habitant,  and  it  seems  to  maintain 
its  numbers,  and  flourishes  along  with  some 
smaller  rodents  in  the  higher  altitudes  even  up 
to  the  snow  line,  the  Alpine  snow  mouse  having 
been  found  up  to  an  altitude  of  12,000  feet. 
The  birds  of  the  lower  Alps  are  very  numerous, 
consisting  of  the  adjoining  European  species,  and 
among  the  higher  mountains  are  to  be  found 
eagles,  hawks,  and  owls,  and  the  smaller  birds, 
choughs,  snow  finches,  and  larks.  The  great  1am- 
niergeyer,  once  quite  common  in  the  higher  Alps, 
has  now  become  almost  extinct.  Game  birds, 
such  as  woodcock,  grouse,  and  partridges,  are 
fairly  abundant.  Reptiles  are  not  numerous. 
The  lakes  of  the  Alpine  region  contain  a  large 
variety  of  fishes;  trout,  salmon,  and  in  some 
localities  species  of  whitefish  being  the  most 
important.  Insects  of  all  kinds  flourish  in  the 
Alps.  Buttertlies  and  beetles  are  nvimerous, 
and  extend  up  to  snow  altitudes.  With  increase 
of  elevation,  however,  their  colors  become  more 
and  more  subdued,  and  they  become  more  and 
more  deficient  in  wing  jjower,  thus  necessitating 
a  closer  contact  with  the  ground  than  prevails 
in  like  species  below. 

Flora.  The  f(u-ms  of  plant  life  of  the  Alps 
differ  with  the  altitude,  ranging  from  those  com- 
mon in  Europe,  at  lat.  40°,  to  those  typical  of 
the  arctic  regions.  The  main  subdivision  of  the 
Alpine  plant  growth  is  therefore  into  altitudinal 
zones:  with  increase  of  altitude  there  is  a  corres- 
ponding poleward  change  in  the  flora.  The  Alpine 
slopes  are  noted  for  their  verdure  up  to  the  limits 
of  vegetation :  at  low  altitudes  are  the  forests  and 
meadows,  while  above  these  are  the  shrub  and 
llowcr-decked  pastures,  which  are  such  an  im- 
portant feature  both  in  the  landscape  and  in 
local  life.  At  the  base  of  the  Alps  on  the  south 
side,  the  lemon  and  olive  flourish ;  but  on  the 
whole  the  prosperous  growth  of  the  vine  may 
be  taken  as  the  most  significant  indication  of 
plant  life.  With  the  grape  occur  the  hardy 
plants  of  Central  Europe,  grains,  and  the  princi- 
pal deciduous  trees,  oak,  beech,  ash.  sycamore, 
maple,  chestnut,  and  walnut.  These  latter  are  to 
be  found  up  to  an  altitude  of  4000  or  5000  feet, 
when  they  give  way  to  the  coniferous  trees, 
which,  while  ])lentiful  only  up  to  an  altitude  of 
0000  to  7000  feet,  are  in  places  found  at  still 
gi'eater  elevations,  where  the  fir,  the  larch,  and 
the  creeping  pine  are  the  chief  species  seen, 
together  with  shrubs  of  Central  and  Northern 
Europe.  The  Alpine  roses  and  violets  are  cele- 
brated for  their  beauty.  The  typical  Alpine 
plants,  those  which  grow  above  the  tree  line,  in 
some  instances  up  to  the  region  of  eternal  snow, 
are  characterized  by  a  low,  clumpy  growth  which 
sends  forth  at  the  proper  season  flower  stalks 
which  bear  beautifully  colored  flowers.  The 
blossoms  of  many  species  have  peculiar  hairy  or 
woolly  coatings.     Gentians,  violets,  Alpine  bells, 


ALPS. 


400 


ALSACE-LORRAINE. 


edeli'ne,  and  the  world  famed  edelweiss  are 
among  the  beautiful  flowering  plants  of  the  re- 
gion. Shrubs,  such  as  the  juniper,  dwarf  willow, 
and  dwarf  rhododendron,  also  occur  in  some 
places  in  profusion.  Above  the  highest  altitude 
of  flowering  plants  and  stunted  shrub  growth, 
from  10,000  to  12,000  feet,  algte,  mosses,  and  lich- 
ens are  the  only  vegetable  life.  There  is  not.  how- 
ever, a  uniform  flora  at  the  same  altitude  in  all 
parts  of  the  Alpine  region.  Some  species  are  in- 
deed common  in  the  appi'opriate  climatic  zone 
throughout  the  whole  region;  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  some  species  are  limited  to  the  west  Alps, 
while  others  are  peculiar  to  the  north,  south,  or 
east  Alps.  Some  of  the  arctic  plants  are  so  nar- 
rowly limited  in  distribution  as  to  be  found 
only  on  certain  mountain  groups. 

Bibliography.  The  list  of  writings  relating 
to  the  Alps  is  a  verv  long  one,  and  embraces  im- 
portant works  in  all  of  the  principal  languages 
of  Western  Europe,  French,  German,  Italian,  and 
English.  In  fact,  no  other  single  region  has  been 
so  much  written  about  from  a  geographical  point 
of  view.  For  a  detailed  knowledge  of  the  Alps, 
the  publications  of  the  various  Alpine  Chd)s  offer 
the  richest  sources  of  information.  Tlie  chief  of 
these  clubs  are:  The  English  Alpine  Clnb  (or- 
ganized in  1857),  publishes  2'lie  Alpine  Journal 
(London).  Deutscher  (1869)  und  ijsterreich- 
ischer  (18G2)  Alpen-Verein  (fused.  1874), 
1800  members:  Zeitschrift  des  De-utschen  und 
Oeslerreichischen  Alpen-Vrreins  and  ilitlheUun- 
gen  (Vienna);  Club  Alpin  Suisse  (186.3),  .1m- 
nuaire  and  L'echo  des  Alpes  (Geneva):  Club 
Alpino  Italiano  (1863).  Rivi/sta  mensile  and  Bnl- 
lettino;  Der  osterreichische  Touristen  -  Club 
(1869),  Oestei-reicheisehe  Touristen  -  Zeitniui 
(Vienna)  :  Le  Club  Aljiin  Francais  (1874),  Bnl- 
letin  mensuel  and  Annuaire  (Paris)  ;  Der  Verein 
der  Xaturf reunde  (1877)  ;  Der  Oesterreiehische 
Alpen-Club  (1878).  Oesterreiehische  Aipen-Zei- 
tung  (Vienna)  ;  Le  Club  Alpin  International  il 
Nice  (1879)  :  Der  Alpen-Club  Salzburg  (18S0)  ; 
Sannthaler  Alpen-Club  (1880);  Der  Touristen- 
Verein  Hermagor  (1882);  La  Societa  degli 
Alpinist!  Tricstini  (Roveredo).  For  the  best 
general  description  of  the  combined  features 
of  the  Alps,  consult:  F.  Umlauft,  The  Alps, 
translated  by  Louisa  P. rough  (London,  1889)  ; 
T.  G.  Bonney.  The  Alpine  Rer/ions  of  Sn:it- 
zerland  and  ?ici(ihborinfi  Countries  (London, 
lacs')  ;  J.  Tvndail,  The  Glaciers  of  the  Alps 
(London.  ISO'C)  ;  J.  Tyndall.  Hours  of  h'xcreise 
in  the  Alps  (London,  187.3)  ;  Rambert,  Lcs  Alpes 
Suiases,  5  volumes  (Geneva.  1806-74)  ;  Desor,  De 
I'orographie  des  Alpes  (Neuchatel,  1862)  ;  C. 
Lentherie,  L'hommc  derant  lcs  Alpes  (Paris, 
1896)  ;  E.  Suess,  Die  Entstchung  der  Alpcn 
(Vienna,  1875)  ;  Sehaubach,  Die  deutschfn  Al- 
pen,  5  volumes  (.Jena,  1863-71)  ;  Studer,  Vcher 
Eis  und  Schnec  (Berue_,  IS'.Hi)  ;  Berlepscli,  Die 
Alpen  in  Satur-  und  Lebeiisbildern  (Jena,  1885)  ; 
Noe.  Dcutsches  Alpenhueh,  6  volumes  (Glogau, 
1875-88)  :  Schlagintvveit,  Vntersuchungcn  iiher 
die  phijsil:<ilische  (Icogniphie  und  Geolorjie  der 
Alpen  (Leipzig,  1850-54)  ;  Tschudi,  Diis' Ticrle- 
ben  der  Alpenu:elt  (Leipzig,  1892):  Grnbe,  Al- 
peniBanderungen  (Leipzig,  IS.Sfi)  ;  Giissfeldt,  In 
den  Sochalpcn  (Berlin.  IS92)  :  Conway,  The 
Alps  from  End  to  End  (London,  1895)  ;  Conway 
and  Coolidge,  Climh(rs'  Guide  to  the  Alps  (Lon- 
don, 1890-93),  which  contains  a  bibliography; 
Whymper,  Scrambles  Among  the  Alps  (London, 
1893)  ;  Neumayr,  Erdgeschichte   (Leipzig,  1885- 


87)  ;  Suess,  Das  Antlitz  der  Erdc  (Prague,  1883- 
88). 

ALPtrjARRAS,  al'poo-Hii'ras  (Ar.  al,  the +. 
hasharcil,  lierbiigc ) .  A  mountainous  region  in 
Andalusia,  Spain,  running  parallel  to  the  Sierra 
Nevada  on  its  southern  side  ( Map :  Spain,  D 
4).  It  is  remarkable  for  its  narrow,  deep-cut, 
and  romantic  valle.vs.  The  inhabitants  are  in 
part  of  Jloorisli  descent,  large  numbers  of  Jloors 
having  taken  refuge  here  after  the  fall  of  the 
kingdom  of  Granada. 

AL-RAKIM,  al  ril-kem'.  A  name  in  the  Koran 
( Sura  xviii.  8 ) ,  connected  with  the  tale 
of  the  "Seven  Sleepers."  It  is  commonly  under- 
stood to  apply  to  the  dog  that  guarded  the 
"Sleepers''  in  their  cave.  But  it  has  also  been 
variously  understood  to  mean  the  eave  itself,  or 
the  valley  wherein  the  eave  was  situated,  or, 
again,  the  tablet  set  up  over  the  entrance  of  the 
cave,  enumerating  the  names  of  the  slumbering 
occupants.     See  Se\'En  Sleepers. 

AL'REDTJS,  or  AL'FRED.  See  Alfred  op 
Beverley. 

ALSACE-LORRAINE,  al'sas'lSr'ran'  (Gor. 
Elsass  -  Lothringoi  :  Elsass,  ancient  Alsatia, 
from  the  river  III  -f-  Ger.  Sasse,  settler,  ten- 
ant; [.othringen,  the  realm  of  Lothaire.  grand- 
son of  Charlemagne).  An  imperial  territory 
{Reichslnnd)  occupying  the  southwestern  end 
of  the  German  Empire,  and  bounded  by  the 
Grand  Duchy  of  LiLxemburg.  the  Rhine  prov- 
ince of  Prussia,  and  the  Rhine  Palatinate  on 
the  north,  Baden  on  the  east,  Switzerland  on  the 
south,  and  France  on  the  west.  Its  area  is 
5603  square  miles.  It  is  divided  into  the  dis- 
tricts of  Upper  Alsace,  Lower  Alsace,  and  Lor- 
raine, the  last  being  but  a  fragment  of  the  old 
Lorraine.  Alsace  is  bounded  by  the  Rhine  on  the 
east  and  the  Vosges  on  the  west.  By  far  the 
larger  part  of  the  country  is  flat  or  only  slightly 
elevated.  The  eastern  part  of  it  is  an  e.\tensive 
plain,  slightly  inclined  toward  the  Rhine,  where 
it  occasionally  passes  into  swamps  and  marshes. 
The  western  part  is  traversed  by  the  Vosges, 
which  attain  their  greatest  elevation  in  Alsace, 
the  Sulzer  Belchen  (Ballon  de  Guebwiller)  ris- 
ing to  a  height  of  nearly  4700  feet  above  the  sea. 
German  Lorraine  is  a  plateau  region.  The  off- 
shoots of  the  Jura  where  they  enter  Alsace  are 
about  2500  feet  high.  Alsace-Lorraine  belongs 
entirely  to  the  basin  of  the  Rhine.  The  Til.  a 
tributary  of  the  latter,  rises  at  the  southern  end 
of  Alsace  and  runs  in  a  northerly  direction 
almost  through  its  entire  length.  In  the  north. 
Alsace  is  watered  by  the  Zorn,  Moder.  and  a  few 
other  tributaries  of  the  Rhine:  while  the  western 
part  of  Lorraine  is  crossed  by  the  Moselle.  The 
lakes  are  genorall.v  small,  ond  some  are  used  for 
irrigation  and  to  furnish  water  power.  The  cli- 
mate is  mild,  with  a  slight  difference  between 
the  plains  and  the  mountainous  regions;  the 
respective  average  summer  temperatures  of  the 
two  regions  being  61°  F.  and  58°,  and  those 
for  the  winter  being  30°  and  37°.  Strass- 
burg  has  an  average  vearly  temperature  of  50° 
while  in  Metz  it  is  about"  48.5°.  The  rainfall 
is  abundant. 

AoRiri-LTlTSE.  The  soil  of  the  country  is  well 
adapted  for  agriculture,  and  is  in  some  parts  ex- 
tremely fertile.  The  mountainous  region  is  de- 
voted almost  exclusively  to  the  cultivation  of  fruit 
and  the  vine,  which  grows  as  high  as  1300  feet 
above  the  sea.    The  southern  end  of  Upper  Alsace 


ALPINE     VEGE  TAT  I  O  N 


SCENE    IN    THE    RnCKV    MOUNTAINS    OF    MONTANA.      Alpine   laUe  and   meadow   In  foreground; 
spruces   and   firs  and    perpetual   snow   in    background. 


y 

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IBwi 

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I^H^^BH^^B^^H^H^eaiBM^^^^H^E'T'^^^^ 

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MT.   HOOD,  OREGON,  SHOWING  OSCILLATIONS  OF  THE  TIMBER   LINE.     The  trees,  mostly  moun- 
tain pines  and  hemlocks,  advance  farther  up  on  the  ridges  than  in  the  valleys. 


ALSACE-LORRAINE. 


401 


ALSACE-LORRAINE. 


is  consklered  tlie  must  fcrtih-  part  of  tlie  country, 
in  contrast  to  the  noitliern  part  of  Lorraine, 
where  the  stony  nature  of  the  ground  renders  it 
unfit  for  agricultural  purposes.  About  48  per 
cent,  of  the  land  is  under  tillage,  over  30  per 
cent,  under  forests,  nearly  13  per  cent,  in  mead- 
ows, and  about  2.3  per  cent,  in  vineyards.  The 
land  is  divided  into  very  small  holdings^  only 
about  2  per  cent,  of  tlie  total  area  being  in  estates 
of  over  fifty  acres  eaeli.  \^'lieat,  rye.  barley,  and 
oats  are  the  chief  grains.  Potatoes  and  sugar 
beets,  as  well  as  hay  and  hops,  are  produced  in 
large  quantities.  Tlie  cultivation  of  tobacco  is 
still  very  important,  altliough  it  has  been  declin- 
ing of  late.  The  cultivation  of  the  vine  is  car- 
ried on  more  extensively  tlian  in  any  other  sec- 
tion of  the  German  Empire.  .-Vlsace  produces 
chiefly  white  wines,  while  Lorraine  yields  exclu- 
sively red  wines.  The  value  of  the  annual  out- 
put is  about  18,000,000  marks  ($4.2,S4,000).  The 
forests  of  Alsace-Lorraine  consist  largely  of  foli- 
aceous  trees,  and  are  owned  to  a  considerable 
extent  by  the  communities. 

Miking.  Alsace-Lorraine  occupies  at  present 
the  first  rank  among  tlie  iron  producing  coun- 
tries of  the  German  Empire.  The  growth  of  iron 
mining  has  been  very  rapid  for  the  last  decade, 
and,  wliile  in  1892  the  production  of'iron  ore  in 
Prussia  exceeded  the  output  of  Alsace-Lorraine 
by  about  500,000  tons,  in  1890  the  latter  pro- 
duced over  l,000,0t)0  tons  more  than  Prussia. 
The  centre  of  iron  mining  is  at  the  western 
end  of  Lorraine,  near  the  frontier  of  Luxem- 
burg, where  the  highlands  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Moselle  contain  vast  deposits  of  iron  and 
some  phosphate.  Coal  is  mined  principally  in 
the  Vosges,  and  the  annual  product  exceeds  one 
milliiin  tons.  The  output  of  salt  is  considerable, 
amounting  to  about  one-tenth  of  the  total  pro- 
duction of  the  German  Emjiire. 

M.\NrrACTURES.  Among  the  manufacturing 
industries  of  Alsace-Lorraine  the  production  of 
textiles  occupies  the  chief  place,  employing  about 
one-third  of  the  total  population  engaged  in  in- 
dustrial pursuits.  Cotton  weaving  has  been  car- 
ried on  extensively  in  Alsace-Lorraine  since  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  centurj',  and  is  at  pres- 
ent considered  the  most  important  among  the 
manufacturing  industries.  The  jiroduction  of 
textiles  is  carried  on  chiefly  at  Jliilhausen,  Kol- 
niar,  and  along  the  numerous  streams,  which  are 
utilized  largely  for  industrial  purposes.  The  pro- 
duction of  woolens  and  yarns  is  very  exti>nsively 
developed  in  Lower  Alsace.  Linen  and  silk  weav- 
ing establishments  are  also  mimerous.  To  a 
certain  extent  the  production  of  textiles  is  still 
carried  on  as  a  house  industry,  especially  in 
Lower  Alsace.  The  iron  and  steel  industry  is 
next  to  the  textile  in  importance.  There  are  ex- 
tensive foundries,  machine  shops,  tool  factories, 
and  numerous  other  plants  for  the  production  of 
various  iron  products.  The  value  of  the  annual 
output  of  the  mills  and  foundries  amounts  to 
nearly  .'}!40,000,000.  Breweries  and  distilleries 
are  numerous,  but  supply  cliiefly  local  demand. 

Tit.vxspORTATiON  .\ND  TRADE.  The  transporta- 
tion facilities  of  the  Reichsland  are  not  behind 
its  industries.  There  are  over  5000  miles  of 
highways,  nearly  one  mile  of  road  to  one  square 
mile  of  territory.  Of  railway  lines  it  has  about 
1100  miles,  or  nearly  20  miles  for  every  100 
square  miles  of  territory,  about  the  same  as 
in  the  State  of  Illinois.  The  canal  system  of  Al- 
sace-Lorraine is  one  of  the  best  in  the  Empire, 


and  tlie  Government  evpeiids  large  sums  on  its 
maintenance  and  constant  extension. 

Government.  T'he  supreme  executive  author- 
ity in  Alsace-Lorraine  is  the  German  Emperor, 
who,  prior  to  the  introduction  of  tlie  German  con- 
stitution in  1874,  liad  also  the  right  of  enacting 
laws  for  the  Keiclisland,  with  the  consent  of  the 
Bundesrath.  .\t  the  liead  of  tlie  administration 
is  the  Statthalter.  appointed  by  the  Emperor,  and 
assisted  by  a  ministry  divided  into  four  depart- 
ments, and  a  Council  of  State.  The  latter  is  pre- 
sided over  by  tlie  Statthalter,  .and  consists  of  tlie 
Secretary  of  State  and  a  few  other  offi-ials,  be- 
sides a  number  of  members  appointed  by  the  Em- 
peror. The  three  districts  of  Lower  and  Upper 
Alsace  and  Lortaine  are  administered  by  presi- 
dents and  councils,  in  which  all  the  constituent 
cantons  of  the  districts  are  represented.  The 
Provincial  Committee,  or  Laiidcniinf<snlius/i,  con- 
sists of  58  members,  elected  inilirectly  for  a 
period  of  three  years,  34  by  the  three  district 
council-,  4  by  the  municipal  councils  of  Strass- 
burg,  Metz,  Kolmar.  and  iliilhauscn,  and  20  by 
the  communal  councils.  In  the  Bundesrat  Al- 
sace-Lorraine is  represented  by  two  commission- 
ers, whose  functions,  however,  are  only  advisory. 
The  revenue  is  obtained  chiefly  from  direct  and 
indirect  taxes,  customs,  and  state  forests.  The 
budget  balanced  in  1900  at  over  00.000,000  marks 
(.$14,280.000) .  Tlie  public  schools  are  under  the 
supervision  of  the  school  board,  presided  over  by 
the  .Secretary  of  State.  Since  the  German  occu- 
pation the  proportion  of  illiterates  has  dimin- 
ished consider.ably.  Education  is  still  controlled 
to  a  considerable  extent  by  the  Church,  as  evi- 
denced by  the  fart  that  over  27  per  cent,  of  the 
teaching  staff  consists  of  clergymen  and  persons 
belonging  to  religious  orders.  Alsace-Lorraine 
contains  one  university,  that  of  Strassburg. 
The  population  of  Alsace-Lorraine  in  1900  was 
1,717,451,  showing  an  increase  of  over  7  per 
cent,  since  1890,  and  making  Alsace-Lorraine  one 
of  the  most  densely  populated  sections  in  Ger- 
many. Over  75  per  cent,  of  tlie  ])eople  are  Roman 
Catholics,  nearlj'  23  per  cent.  Protestants,  and 
less  than  one  per  cent.  Jews.  Strassburg,  the 
capital,  has  a  population  of  over  150,000. 

History.  Originally  a  jiart  of  Roman  Gaul 
and  inhabited  bj-  Celtic  tribes,  the  region 
now  known  as  Alsace  was  overrun  by  the  Ger- 
manic nations  during  the  fourth  and  fifth  cen- 
turies, and  was  ultimately  brought  under  the 
dominion  of  the  Franks.  The  Teutonic  invaders 
supplanted,  to  a  great  extent,  the  old  Celtic  in- 
habitants, and  by  the  tenth  century  the  country 
had  become  thoroughly  Germanized.  After  the 
partition  of  the  Prankish  Empire,  Alsace  was 
held  by  the  dukes  of  Swabia  and  later  by  the 
Hapsburgs,  under  whose  rule  it  enjoyed  pros- 
perity. Rich  and  powerful  towns,  chief  among 
them  .Strassburg  and  Kolmar,  sprang  up,  and 
attained,  in  the  course  of  time,  a  very  Large 
degree  of  self-government,  entering  frequently 
into  treaty  relations  with  other  cities  of  the 
empire,  and  partaking  fully  in  the  intellectual 
and  spiritual  life  of  the  German  jieople.  French 
ambition  was  directed  towaid  Lorraine  as  early 
as  the  fourteenth  century,  though  no  serious  at- 
tem|)t  at  conquest  was  made  till  1552,  when 
Henry  II.  took  jiossession  of  Sletz,  Toul,  and 
Verdun.  In  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  in  1648, 
the  Hapsburgs  (as  rulers  of  Austria)  ceded 
their  territories  in  Alsace  to  France.  Louis 
XIV.  subsequently  seized  the  numerous  free  cities 


ALSACE-LOREAINE. 


402 


ALSTRCEMERIA. 


of  Alsace.  Kohnar  was  incorporated  with 
France  in  1C80  and  Strassburg  in  1681.  The 
Treaty  of  Ryswick  (1697)  confirmed  France  in 
possession  of  Alsace. 

■Systematic  attempts  to  assimilate  the  inhabi- 
tants, who  were  mainly  of  Germanic  stock,  with 
the  French  were  made  by  the  Government,  but 
met  with  no  success  until  the  Revolution,  when, 
in  *he  general  overtlirow  of  feudalism,  Germans 
and  French  were  drawn  together  by  tlie  common 
ideal    of    democracy.      The    French    spirit    pene- 
trated deeply  into  the  upper  and  middle  classes, 
and  even  the  mass  of  the  population  was  recon- 
ciled to   French   rule.     Wlien  war,  tlicrefore,  be- 
tween France  and  Prussia  broke  out  in  1870,  those 
natives  of  Alsace  who  did  not  side  zealously  with 
France  remained  neutral.     In  Lorraine  occurred 
some   of   the   most   decisive   battles   of   tlie    war, 
Gravelotte,  and  Vionville,  and  the  siege  of  Metz. 
The  surrender  of  Alsace  and  a  part  of  Lorraine 
was   made   the   principal    condition   of   peace   by 
Prince  Bismarck,  wlio  acted  in  this  as  the  expo- 
nent of  a  widespread  spirit  in  Germany,  which 
•demanded  the  recovery  of  the  ancient  Germanic 
borderland.     Alsace    ( with  the  exception  of  the 
district   of   Belfort),   and   the   part   of   Lorraine 
where  the  French  language  had  not  supplanted 
the  German,  became  a  part  of  the  newly  founded 
empire,  and  were  put  under  the  direct  control  of 
the  Emperor.     The  attempt  to  win  back  the  peo- 
ple to  German  influences  was  greatly  hampered 
In-  the  vehement  opposition  of  the  Gallicized  up- 
])er  classes  and  the  clergy,  and  the  civil  adminis- 
tration was  brought  almost  to  a  standstill  for  a 
number    of    years    by    the    refusal    of    the    men 
•elected   to   the   district   and   provincial   councils 
to  take  the  oath   of  loyalty  and  perform  their 
functions;  the  representatives  to  the  Reichsrath 
were,  for  the  most  part,   French  irreconcilables. 
In  1872  the  German  government  called  upon  the 
inhabitants  to  declare  themselves  either  German 
citizens  or  French.     More  than  one  hundred  and 
fifty     thousand     expressed     their     adlierence     to 
France,  and  of  these  nearly   fifty  thousand  re- 
moved across  the  border.     On  tlic  part  of  the 
German  authorities  a  policy  of  severity  approach- 
ing military  rule  was  tried  in  alternation  with 
one  of  mildness  and  concession,  and  for  a   long 
time  both   proved  equally  inefl'ective.     The  Ger- 
manization    of   the    provinces   has    steadily   been 
aimed  at.  ho\\ever,  in  acts  making  the  study  of 
the   German  language  compulsory   in  the  public 
schools,    and    the    use    of    it   obligatory    in    the 
courts  and  legislative  bodies;  in  the  suppression 
of  French  radical  newspapers,  and  in  tlie  estab- 
lishment of  higher  schools  of  learning  under  Ger- 
man control.     After  1890  the  prosjject  of  an  ul- 
timate reconciliation  became  brighter;  a  loyalist 
party  appeared  whicli  wielded  some  influence  in 
the    elections.      In    proportion    as    the    spirit   of 
rrvaurhr  grew   weaker   in   France,   and   the  per- 
manent retention   of  the  provinces  by  Germany 
became  more  assured,  the  opposition  of  French 
sympathizers  in  Alsace-Lorraine  subsided. 
"  Consult:      II.     Witte.     Zifr     Geschichte     des 
Dcutichlhumx   im    Elsti':s    loni  nil   Vnfirxrnrjcbwt 
(Strassburg.   1807);    Hfiiirlhiich  fiir  I'lsanfi-Lntli- 
rinpen     (Strassbur;r.    1898)  ;     H.    Derichsweiler, 
Ocfichirhtc  jAillnini/cns    (Wiesbaden,   1901). 

ALSA'TIA.  The  popular  name  of  Whitefri- 
ars,  London,  which  served  early  in  the  seven- 
teenth century  as  a  refuge  for  criminals;  but  Ihia 
inununity  was  aliolished  by  Parliament  in  1697. 
See  the  account  in  Scott's"  Fortunes  of  Nigel. 


ALSEN,  iil'seii  (Dan.  Ah).  An  island  in  the 
Baltic  belonging  to  the  Prussian  province  of 
Schleswig-Holstein,  and  separated  from  the  main- 
land by  the  Sound  of  Alsen  (Map:  Prussia,  CI). 
Its  greatest  length  is  nearly  20  miles,  its  greatest 
breadth  about  12  miles.  The  island  is  very  pic- 
turesque in  appearance,  with  a  fertile  soil.  Its 
lakes  have  fish,  and  it  is  famous  for  its  apples, 
which  constitute  an  important  article  of  com- 
merce. Tlie  chief  towns  are  Sonderburg  and 
Xordburg.  the  former  well  fortified  and  with  an 
excellent  harbor.  Close  to  the  harbor  are  the 
ruins  of  an  old  and  famous  castle,  in  which 
Christian  II.,  of  Denmark  and  Norway,  was  con- 
fined from  1532  to  1549.  In  the  war  of  1864 
Alsen  was  taken  by  the  Prussians  from  the 
Danes. 

AL  SIRAT.  The  bridge  from  this  world  to 
the  Mohammedan  paradise,  as  narrow  as  a  ra- 
zor's edge,  on  which  the  virtuous  pass  to  para- 
dise, while  the  wicked  fall  into  hell :  derived  from 
the  Zoroastrian  idea  of  the  Chinvat  Bridge. 

ALSOP,  al'sop,  Richard  (1701-1815).  An 
American  author,  born  in  Middletown,  Conn.  Be- 
fore he  finished  his  course  at  Yale  College,  he 
went  into  business.  His  literary  tastes  caused 
him  to  join  the  "Hartford  Wits,"  and  later  he 
became  the  principal  contributor  to  the  Eeho,  a 
satirical  publication  (1791-95).  His  works  in- 
clude a  Monody  on  the  Death  of  Washington, 
in  heroic  verse  (1800)  ;  The  Enchanted  Lake  of 
the  Fairy  Morgana  (1808)  ;  a  translation  of  a 
portion  of  Orlando  Innamorato.  and  the  Captivi- 
ty and.  Adventures  of  J.  R.  Jeirett  Among  the 
tSavages  of  Xootka  Hoxtnd  (1815).  Alsop  was 
an  accomplished  linguist. 

ALSTED,  iil'stet,  Johann  Heisrich  (1588- 
l(i38).  A  German  Protestant  divine  and  volu- 
minous writer,  professor  of  philosophy  and  divin- 
ity at  Herborn.  He  was  born  in  Ballersbach, 
near  Herborn,  and  died  at  Weissenburg,  Tran- 
sylvania. Of  his  voluminous  compilations  may 
be  mentioned  his  Cursus  Phitosophiri  Encyelo- 
pwdia,  which  includes  a  treatise  on  the  use  and 
abuse  of  tobacco,  particularly  noteworthy  from 
its  date,  Thesaurus  Chronologiw,  and  Dc  Mille 
Aiinis.  The  latter  was  a  prophecy  that  the  thou- 
sand years,  or  millennium,  during  which  the 
saints  were  to  reign  on  the  earth,  would  com- 
mence in  1694. 

'  AL'STRCEME'RIA,  or  ALSTROMER'S 
LILY  (Named  after  the  Swedish  botanist, 
Klas  Alstrumer).  A  genus  of  South  American 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Amaryllidace;e,  wliich 
is  distinguished  by  tuberous  roots  and  by  often 
having  the  outer  segments  of  the  periantli  dif- 
ferent ill  form  from  the  inner.  Tlie  leaves  are 
twisted,  so  that  what  should  be  the  upper  sur- 
face becomes  the  lower.  The  species  number 
about  60,  and  are  natives  of  the  warmer  parts 
of  America.  Some  are  sudiciently  hardy  to 
endure  the  open  air  in  England,  and  as  far  north 
as  Virginia  in  the  United  States,  and  are  ad- 
mired ornaments  of  flower-gardens.  Some  have 
climbing  or  twining  stems.  Among  these  is  the 
Snlsilla  (Alstra'meria  salsilla),  a  plant  of  great 
beauty,  with  lanceolate  leaves,  a  native  of  Peru, 
cultivated  in  the  West  Indies,  the  tubers  of 
which  are  eaten  like  those  of  the  potato.  In 
Great  Britain  it  requires  the  hothouse.  Alstroe- 
nieria  ovata,  also  a  beautiful  plant,  with  a  slen- 
der, twining  stem  and  ovate  leaves,  is  cultivated 
in  Chile  for  its  tubers,  which  are  used  as  food. 


ALSTBCEMERIA. 


■i03 


ALTAR. 


It  has  been  introchKfd  into  Great  Britain,  but 
its  cultivation  lias  made  little  progress.  The 
tubers  weigh,  from  three  to  six  ounees.  A  kind 
of  arrowroot  is  also  prepared  in  Chile  from 
the  succulent  roots  of  Alstroenieria  pallida  and 
other  species.  One  of  the  finest  species  for 
greenhouse  growing  is  AlstroDmeria  alba. 

ALSTEOMER,  iil'stre-mer,  Klas  vox  (1736- 
94).  A  Swedish  naturalist.  He  had  for  his 
master  and  friend  Linnanis,  who  named  in  bis 
honor  the  genus  Alstrwnieria.  He  visited  Spain 
and  wrote  a  work  on  the  breeding  of  fine-wooled 
sheep. 

ALT,  alt,  or  ALTEN,  iil'ten  (Ger.,  old).  A 
prefix  to  many  names  in  Europe,  as  Altdorf,  old 
village. 

ALTABAN,  al'ta-ban',  or  ALTASAN,  iil'ta- 
siin'.  -\  head-hunting  tribe  in  Nueva  Vizcaya 
province,   Luzon.     See   Philippi.nes. 

ALTAI  (al-tl')  MOtTNTAINS  (Tatar,  gold- 
en mountains,  from  altiiii,  altaii,  golden;  Chin. 
I:ee>i-s]irin.  same  meaning).  A  mountain  range 
of  Central  Asia  forming  part  of  the  elevated  re- 
gion on  the  borders  of  Siberia  and  the  Chinese 
Empire.  The  name  formerly  had  a  much  wider 
significance,  and  included  the  entire  line  of  high- 
lands from  the  Irtysh  River  to  the  Okhotsk  Sea, 
which  is  composed  of  several  structurally  inde- 
pendent units:  but  it  is  now  limited  to  the  much 
smaller  group  lying  on  the  borders  of  JInngolia, 
Sungaria.  and  Siberia,  and  between  about  45° 
and  5i°  N.  latitude.  The  range  has  a  general 
northwest  and  southeast  trend,  nearly  at  right 
angles  to  that  of  the  larger  system.  The  Altai 
^fountains  begin  on  the  southeast  with  the  Ektag 
range  (Greater  Altai),  in  the  region  of  the  Gobi 
Desert,  and  for  some  distance  they  form  the 
boundary  between  Mongolia  and  Sungaria.  To- 
ward the  northwest,  the  range  increases  in 
breadth  by  the  converging  of  outlying  mountains, 
and  also  in  height,  but  after  passing  the  Siberian 
frontier  it  gradually  loses  its  massive  character 
and  fades  out  into  the  steppes.  On  the  slopes 
of  the  Ektag  are  the  sources  of  the  Black  Irtysh, 
Kobdo,  and  Urungu  rivers.  North  of  this  range 
and  across  the  valley  of  the  Bukharma  River  are 
several  mountainous  groups  which  constitute  the 
Northern  Altai.  The  latter  are  arranged  along 
an  axis  parallel  to  that  of  the  Ektag  range,  and 
attain  an  extreme  elevation  of  over  10.000  feet 
in  Mount  Byelukha  (White  Mountain).  The 
Tarbagatai  group,  further  west,  may  also  be  in- 
cluded with  the  Altai  range.  This  group  be- 
gins in  Sungaria  and  reaches  across  the  Siberiau 
fi-ontier.  where  it  is  continued  by  the  Tschun- 
gistan  ilountains  into  the  region  of  the  Khirgis 
steppes.  Geologically,  the  Altai  consist  of  a 
central  core  of  schists  and  granite  broken 
through  by  intrusions  of  igneous  rocks,  with 
Paleozoic  strata  ranging  from  the  Silurian  into 
Carboniferous  on  the  outer  edges.  As  the  moun- 
tains were  formed  by  upheaval  at  an  early  geo- 
logical period,  they  have  been  subjected  to  long- 
continued  denudation  and  erosion.  Their  crests. 
of  which  only  the  highest  rise  above  the  snow 
line,  are  generally  well  rounded,  and  their  slopes 
are  covered  with  a  rich  growth  of  grass,  or  with 
heavy  forests  of  pine,  cedar,  and  birch.  Deer, 
hares,  and  wolves  abound  in  the  lower  and  bears 
in  the  higher  portions  of  the  range.  The  moun- 
tains are  but  thinly  populated,  except  within  the 
limits  of  the  Russian  Altai,  where  there  is  a  well- 
developed  mining  industry. 


ALTA'IC,  and  tT'RAL  ALTA'IC.  Terms 
used  of  a  family  of  languages  in  parts  of  north- 
ern, eastern,  and  central  Europe  and  the  greater 
part  of  northern  and  eastern  Asia,  besides  still 
other  sections.  See  Ur.^l-Altaic,  and  Tura- 
nian. 

ALTAMAHA,  al'ta-ma-ha'.  A  river  formed 
by  the  confluence  of  the  Oconee  and  Ocmulgee 
rivers,  at  the  boundary  line  of  Montgomery  and 
Appling  counties,  Georgia,  and  flowing  southeast, 
emptying  into  the  sound  of  the  same  name,  near 
Darien  (Map:  Georgia,  E  4).  It  is  IS.")  miles 
long,  drains  an  area  of  14,400  square  miles,  and 
is  navigable  for  its  entire  length  for  boats  draw- 
ing five  feet  of  water. 

AL'TAMONT.  1.  A  character  in  Rowe's  play, 
The  Fair  I'rnitcnt  (q.v.)  :  the  husband  of  Calista, 
the  heroine,  and  slaj'er  of  Lothario,  who  has 
seduced  her. 

2.  In  Thackeray's  Pendennis,  a  name  assumed 
by  the  convict  Amory  on  his  return :  the  father 
of  Blanche  Amory    (q.v.). 

ALTAMONT,  Frederick.  In  Scott's  novel 
The  Pirate,  the  assumed  name  of  the  pirate  John 
Bunce. 

ALTAMTJRA,  al'ta-nioo'ra.  An  episcopal 
city  of  Italy,  60  miles  northwest  of  Tarentum 
(Map:  Italy,  L  7).  It  is  beautifully  situated 
at  the  foot  of  the  Apennines,  and  has  a  magni- 
ficent cathedral,  founded  by  Frederick  II.,  and 
decorated  with  beautiful  paintings.  The  country 
produces  oil,  wine,  grain,  and  cattle,  and  the 
fairs  at  Altanuira  are  attended  from  far  and 
near.     Pop.,  1881,  20.000;  1901,22,729. 

AL'TAR  (Lat.  altarc  or  altcn;  probably  origi- 
nally a  high  place,  from  altiis,  high).  The  place 
on  which  sacrifices  were  made  or  offerings  laid 
or  libations  poured  or  some  other  act  of  worship 
performed.  Altars  were  in  use  from  the  earliest 
times  among  the  Babylonians,  the  Egyptians,  and 
later  peoples.  Some  of  those  mentioned  in  the 
Old  Testament  are  among  the  earliest  of  which 
descriptions  are  recorded.  The  British  Sluseum 
has  several  Assyrian  marble  altars  highly  deco- 
rated ;  one  triangular,  another  oblong,  with  scrolls 
that  call  to  mind  the  expression  '"horns  of  the 
altar,"  which  is  literallj'  carried  out  in  many 
Gra'co-Roman  altars  with  ox-horns  or  ram-horns 
at  the  corners.  The  altar  was  primitively  of 
two  classes :  Either  ( 1 )  placed  on  some  height 
and  often  nothing  but  a  mound  of  earth  or  a  heap 
of  stones  or  of  ashes;  or  else  (2)  the  familV 
altar  connected  with  each  dwelling,  in  front  of 
the  entrance.  This  was  smaller,  permanent,  and 
more  artistic.  Then  came  the  altars  connected 
with  temples,  either  in  the  outer  air,  in  front  of 
the  temple  steps,  or  within.  The  great  public 
altars  of  Groeco-Roman  worship  in  historic  times, 
at  \\hich  whole  hecatombs  were  sacrificed,  and 
great  festivals  held,  developed  into  immense  ar- 
tistic monuments,  as  for  example  that  of  Hiero 
at  Syracuse,  that  of  Hera  at  Samos,  of  Apollo 
at  Delphi,  and  of  Zeus  at  Oljnnpia;  the  last- 
named  was  12.5  feet  in  circumference.  The 
famous  altar  at  Pergamus,  with  sculptures 
representing  the  combat  of  the  gods  and  the 
giants,  was  40  feet  high.  Probably  such  altars 
and  their  platforms  are  derived  from  the  early 
Pelasgic  altars  that  stood  on  an  immense  three- 
stepped  platform,  and  were  the  one  centre  of 
worship ;  for  the  Pelasgians  had  few  temples. 
The  Romans  also  used  such  colossal  and  artistic 


ALTAR. 


404 


ALTDORPER. 


altars,  especially  to  consecrate  imperial  -yor- 
ship:  there  was  one  for  Spain  and  one  for  Gaul 
(at  Lyons),  with  an  abundance  of  statuary  and 
decoration,  where  the  Spanish  and  Gallic  councils 
met  annually  and  proclaimed  their  political  alle- 
giance. The  Altar  of  Peace,  with  its  sculptured 
friezes,  erected  in  honor  of  Augustus,  at  Rome, 
to  celebrate  the  pacification  of  the  world,  was 
one  of  the  artistic  masterpieces  of  the  Augustan 
reign.  Of  the  smaller  altars  and  tables  of  offer- 
ings, hundreds  were  erected  in  every  city,  not 
only  in  connection  with  the  temples,  but  also  in 
shrines  and  cliapcls  and  throughout  the  streets: 
they  are  among  the  finest  pieces  of  Gra>co-Roman 
decoration,  and  are  of  all  shapes — circular,  poly- 
gonal, square  or  oblong.  Usually  each  was  con- 
secrated to  a  single  god  or  hero.  Of  course,  the 
use  to  which  the  altar  was  put  influenced  its 
form:  according  as  it  was  for  incense  or  sacred 
fire,  for  libations,  for  fruits,  flowers,  or  the  like, 
or  for  bloody  sacrifices. 

In  the  Christian  Church  the  altar  was  quite 
difl'erent    in    its    suggestions.     All    reminiscence 
of   heathen   altars  was   abhorrent.     The   marble 
sarcophagi  in  which  were  buried  the  bodies  of 
martyrs  in  the  catacombs  were  among  the  earli- 
est  altars,   except,   indeed,   plain  wooden   tables 
which  developed  into  marble  slabs  with  one    or 
more  legs.     Only  a  single  altar  was  allowed  in 
each  church — none  outside — and   it  was  always 
erected   over   the   relics   of  a   martyr.     As   early 
as  the   fifth  century,   precious  metals   came  into 
use  for  altars.     The  great  variety  of  shape   in 
pagan  times  was  reduced  to  one — moderately  ob- 
long.    The  altar  was  placed  in  the  axis  of  the 
church,  just  outside  the  radius  of  the  apse,  or 
in  the  middle  of  the  transept,  if  there  was  one. 
Beneath  it  was  the  confession   (see  Co?fFESsioN) 
for  the  relics  of  the  saint,  which  afterward  de- 
veloped into  the  crypt.      (See  C'Ri-PT.)      Above  it 
rose   a   tabernacle,    canopy,   or   ciborium.      ( See 
ClBORlUM.)     The  structure  of  the  altar  itself  was 
rarely  ornamented,  though  in  Italy  the  faces  were 
often  inlaid  with  marbles  and  mosaics.  Neverthe- 
less   the    altar    usually   had    a    number    of    ar- 
tistic accessories  that  must  be  mentioned  to  give 
an  idea  of  its  appearance.  Altar-front  was  a  deco- 
ration for  the  front  and  sometimes  for  the  other 
sides  of  the  altar,  not  merely  when  the  structure 
was  a  slab  supported  on  legs,  but  even  if  it  were 
solid.     It  was  sometimes  in  the  shape  of  a  rich 
hanging;  sometimes  it  was  a  relief  of  gold,  silver 
gilt^  enamel,  or  silver.     Famous  mediaeval  altar 
fr'Vmts  are  at  the  Clugny  Jluseum   (from  Basel), 
Paris;  at  St.  Mark's,  Venice;  at  Sant'  Ambrogio, 
Milan;   at  San  .Jacopo,   Pistoia.     Altar-pievr   is 
used  as  a  decoration  placed  on  top  of  the  altar, 
a  custom  that  did  not  come  into  use  until  the 
Middle  Ages,  when  the  altar  was  made  to  face 
the  people  and   not   the  apse,  and  when  altars 
against  the  wall  were  multiplied.     Some  altar- 
pieces,  complements  to  the  altar-fronts,  were  of 
precious  metals,  as  at  Venice  (St.  Mark's),  and 
at  Pistoia   (San  JacopoK  hut  usually  they  were 
devotional    pictures,    preferably    in   the   form    of 
triptychs,  or  even  groups  of  sculpture,  or  a  sculp- 
tured tabernacle.    Altar-scrCFii  is  often  connected 
with  the  confession  and  its  staircase.     In  early 
churches   it   was   surmounted   by   sculpture,   and 
hardly  distinL'uishable  from  an  altar-rail.     Con- 
sult Roliault  do  Fleury,  Jm  Messe  (Paris,  1883). 
ALTAROCHE,     al'ta'rAsh',     Maeie    :MTcnEi, 
(lSll-84).    A  French  playwright  and  journalist, 
born  at  Issoire.     From  1834  to  1848  he  was  edi- 


tor-in-chief of  Chdiiciiri,  the  influence  of  which 
was  increased  by  his  political  satires  and  his 
general  wit  and  acumen.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Assembly  in  1848  but  retired  the  following  year, 
and  from  that  time  was  successively  manager 
of  tlie  Odeon,  Folies  Nouvelles,  and  other  theat- 
rical enterprises.  He  wrote  Cha>isons  et  vers 
politirjtics  i\S3o).  Conies  democratiqties  (1837), 
Avciititres  de  Victor  Augerol  (1838),  and  the  fol- 
lowing plays:  Lestocq  oil  le  retour  de  Sib(rie 
( 1836) ,  and  Le  Corregidor  de  Pampelune  ( 1843) . 

AliTAZ'IMTJTH  (oZHtude  +  azimuth:  see 
AzniiTH  ) .  An  astronomical  instrument,  used 
for  determining  the  position  on  the  sky  of  stars 
or  other  heavenly  bodies  by  measuring  their  alti- 
tude and  azimuth.  (The  altitude  of  a  star  is 
its  angular  distance  above  tlie  horizon,  meas- 
ured on  a  great  vertical  circle  of  the  sky,  perpen- 
dicular to  the  horizon  and  passing  through 
the  star  and  the  zenith,  or  point  directly  over- 
head. The  azimuth  of  a  star  is  the  angular  dis- 
tance, measured  on  the  horizon,  from  the  south 
point  of  the  latter  to  the  foot  of  the  vertical 
circle  upon  which  the  altitude  is  measured.) 
The  altazimuth  instrument  has  two  brass  circles, 
one  with  its  plane  horizontal,  the  other  with  its 
plane  vertical,  and  a  telescope  is  attached  to  the 
circles.  When  this  is  directed  so  that  a  star 
appears  at  the  intersection  of  a  pair  of  crossed 
threads  fixed  in  the  field  of  view,  it  is  possible  to 
read  the  star's  altitude  and  azimuth  from  the 
graduations  engi-aved  on  the  two  circles.  Being 
of  considerable  complexity,  the  instrument  does 
not  give  results  of  a  precision  qiiite  equal  to 
those  obtained  with  the  meridian  circle;  and  for 
this  reason  it  is  employed  chiefly  in  its  portable 
form  when  observations  must  be  made  at  tem- 
porary obsen-atories.  such  as  eclipse  expedition 
stations.  It  is  in  use,  however,  at  Greenwich, 
for  observing  the  moon  on  nights  wlien  it  is  not 
possible  to  observe  that  body  in  the  meridian. 

ALTDORF,  alt'dOrf,  or  ALTORF.  The  cap- 
ital 01  the  Swiss  canton  of  Uri,  situated  in  a 
sheltered  spot  at  the  base  of  the  Grunberg,  about 
2  miles  east  of  the  lake  of  Lucerne  (Map:  Swit- 
zerland. C  2).  It  lies  1475  feet  above  sea  level, 
and  is  a  well  built  town,  having  several  open 
places,  a  church,  a  nunnery,  and  the  oldest  Ca- 
puchin monastery  in  Switzerland,  built  in  1581. 
The  town  is  connected  with  the  Tell  legend— for 
Tell  is  said  to  have  lived  near  by — and  Tell 
dramas  are  still  played  here.  The  spot  where 
his  son  stood  to  be  shot  at  is  marked  by  a  bronze 
statue  of  father  and  child,  by  Kissling,  erected 
in  1S95.  Southeast  about  IV^.  miles  is  the  en- 
trance to  the  Sch;ichenthal.     Pop.,  3000. 

ALTDORFER,  alt'dOr-fer,  Ai.BUEcnT(  ?  1480- 
1.53S).  A  Bavarian  painter  and  engraver  ott 
copper  and  wood.  The  exact  date  and  place  of 
his  birth  are  unknown,  though  the  latter  was 
probablv  near  Landshut:  but  most  of  his  life 
was  passed  at  Regensburg,  where  he  practically 
founded  a  school,  and  where  he  died  Feb.  13, 
1538.  He  was  influenced  to  some  extent  by 
Diirer,  but  is  of  independent,  importance.  His 
pictures  are  marked  especially  by  romantic 
imagination,  his  landscapes,  which  constitute 
the  most  important  part  of  his  work  as  a  painter, 
bein"  more  the  creation  of  his  own  fancy  than 
faithful  transcripts  of  nature.  But  while  his 
drawing  is  frequently  disappointing,  his  coloring 
is  ricli  and  strong.  One  of  his  best-known  works, 
the  "Victorv  of  Alexander  at  Arbela"   (1529),  so 


ALTDORFER. 


405 


ALTERATION. 


captivated  Xapoleon  that  it  was  carried  oflF 
to  Paris,  and  only  restored  in  ISl.i  to  the 
Pinakothek  at  JIunich,  where  is  also  his  '"Su- 
sanna at  the  Bath"  (1520).  His  work  on 
copjier,  of  wliieli  a  Imndred  examples  remain, 
entitles  him  to  a  place  anion^  the  "little  mas- 
ters"; and  he  was  also  a  practical  architect. 
Consult  Friedlauder,  Albrecht  AUdorfer  (Leip- 
zig, 1S91).. 

ALTEA,  al-ta'a.  A  seaport  town  of  Valencia, 
Spain,  in  the  province  of  Alicante,  25  miles 
northeast  of  Alicante  (Jlap:  Spain,  K  .3).  It 
stands  on  a  rising  groimd  at  the  head  of  a  bay. 
It  is  known  for  its  exports  of  raisins,  and  has  a 
lighthouse  on  the  bay.     Pop.,  1900,  0179. 

ALTEN,  al'tcn.  A  portion  of  the  province  of 
Finmarkcn,  in  northern  Norway,  surrounding  the 
Altenfjord.  It  consists  of  fertile  tracts,  where, 
in  spite  of  the  high  latitude,  much  grain  is 
grown. 

ALTEN,  al'tcn,  Karl  ArausT,  Count  of 
(1704-1840).  A  celebrated  Hanoverian  general 
in  the  Napoleonic  wars.  He  entered  the 
army  in  1781,  and  gained  distinction  at  Valen- 
ciennes and  Hondschooten.  He  was  first  lieu- 
tenant in  1800,  but  after  the  capitulation  at 
Laucnburg  went  to  England,  where  he  was  made 
commander  of  a  battalion  in  the  German  Legion 
(1803).  In  1808  he  assisted  as  gencial  of  bri- 
gade in  covering  the  retreat  of  General  Jloore  to 
Corunna.  In  1811  he  took  part  luuler  General 
Beresford  in  the  siege  of  Badajoz  and  the  battle 
of  .\lbuera,  and  in  the  following  year  ^\-as  pi'o- 
motcd  by  the  Duke  of  Wellington.  In  almost 
all  the  engagements  of  the  Spanish  war  of  libera- 
tion— at  Salamanca,  Vitoria,  in  the  Pyrenees, 
Xivelle,  Nive,  Orthez,  Toulouse — Alten  took  a 
])rominent  part.  .-\t  Waterloo  he  held  La  Haye- 
Sainte  for  hours  against  the  French.  He  com- 
manded the  Hanoverian  contingent  of  the  army 
of  occupation  in  France  (1S18),  and  after  his 
return  to  Hanover  was  made  ^linister  of  War. 

ALTENA,  al't'i-na.  \  town  of  Westphalia, 
Prussia,  in  the  district  of  Arnsberg,  on  the 
l.enne,  40  miles  nortlieast  of  Cologne  (Map: 
Prussia,  B  3 ) .  The  town  possesses  several 
churches  and  the  ancestral  castle  of  the  counts 
of  the  mark.  Its  principal  manufactures  consist 
of  iron,  copper,  brass,  and  nickel  goods,  one  of  its 
specialties  being  metal  ecclesiastical  vessels. 
Po]!..  1890,  al)0ut  11.000;  1900,  12,800. 

ALTENBURG,  al'tcn-burK.  The  capital  of 
the  German  Duchy  of  Saxe-Altenburg,  situated  in 
a  fertile  country  in  lat.  50°  59'  N..  and  long.  12° 
2.5'  E.,  about  24  miles  south  of  Leipzig,  near  the 
River  Pleisse  (Map:  Germany,  E  3).  Preemi- 
nent among  tlie  noteworthy  buildings  is  the  ducal 
c:istle,  built  upon  an  almost  perpendicular  por- 
phyry rock,  and  celebrated  as  the  scene  of  the 
abduction,  in  1455,  of  the  two  Saxon  princes, 
Albert  and  Ernest.  A  curious  building  is  the  so- 
calh'd  Ttothen-Spitzen,  composed  of  two  con- 
nected towers,  containing  the  State  archives.  Al- 
tenburg  possesses  several  excellent  educational 
institutions,  a  museum,  a  picture  gallery,  and  a 
theatre.  Its  benevolent  institutions  include  an 
infirmary  and  a  hospital  for  poor  citizens. 
Brushes,  gloves,  hats,  and  cigars  are  among  the 
chief  manufactures  carried  on  in  .\ltenl)urg,  and 
it  has  a  considerable  trade  in  woolen  yarn  and 
produce,  largely  grain.  Pop.,  1890,  about  31,- 
000;   1900,  37,100. 


ALTENDORF,  jil'tcn  dOrf.  A  commune  con- 
sisting of  a  number  of  manufacturing  villages  in 
Rhenish  Prussia,  one  mile  west  of  the  city  of 
Essen.  Altendorf  is  liberally  sujiplied  with 
schools,  one  of  the  largest  being  that  of  tlie  fa- 
mous Krupp  iron  works,  which  are  located  here. 
In  addition  to  the  irim  industry,  .\ltcndorf  has 
extensive  coke,  brick,  and  ccmeut  works.  Pop., 
1890,  31,900;   1900,  63,.300. 

ALTENESSEN,  •ll'tcn-es'sen.  A  city  in  the 
Prussian  Khinc  ])rovinee,  about  2  miles  north 
of  Essen.  It  has  important  coal  mines  and  ma- 
chine works.  Pop.,  1890,  about  18,000;  1900, 
33,400. 

ALTENSTEIN,  iil'tpn-stin.  A  castle  in  the 
Duchy  of  Saxe-Meiningen,  near  the  watering- 
place  of  Liebenstein,  and  al)out  13  miles  southeast 
of  Eisenach,  on  the  south  slope  of  the  Thiiringer- 
wald,  the  summer  residence  of  the  reigning 
dukes.  It  has  a  fine  park,  in  which  is  a  cavern 
500  feet  long,  through  which  flows  a  large  stream. 
St.  Boniface,  "the  apostle  of  Germany,"  lived  and 
preached  here  from  724  to  727 ;  and  near  by  is 
the  place,  marked  by  a  monument,  where,  in 
1521,  Luther,  ^^■hile  returning  from  Worms,  was 
seized  and  carried  oil'  to  the  Wartburg. 

ALTENSTEIN,  Karl,  Baron  von  Stein  zfm 
(1770-1840).  A  Prussian  statesman.  He  was 
born  at  Ansbach,  and  studied  at  Erlangen  and 
Gottingen.  After  the  Treaty  of  Tilsit  he  became 
the  head  of  the  finance  department.  In  1815  he 
went  to  Paris  with  Wilhelni  von  Humboldt  to 
claim  the  restoration  of  works  of  art  taken  from 
Prussia  by  the  Fionch  armies.  He  was  Minister 
of  Public  Worship  and  Education  during  1817- 
38,  and  did  great  service  for  the  universities  and 
schools.  Under  his  direction  the  University  of 
Bonn  was  founded,  and  a  great  number  of  gym- 
nasiums  were   opened. 

AL'TERA'TION  (From  Lat.  alter,  other,  dif- 
ferent). In  its  most  general  sense,  with  refer- 
ence to  a  written  instrument  or  a  property  inter- 
est, alteration  is  such  a  diange  as,  if  effective, 
would  result  in  substituting  a  dilTerent  instru- 
ment or  interest  for  the  original.  An  alteration 
of  an  easement,  as  a  right  of  way,  consists  in 
changing  its  course  or  boundaries.  An  altera- 
tion of  a  written  instrument  consists  in  making 
any  material  change  in  its  language  or  character, 
such  as  erasing,  interlining,  or  adding  terms,  or 
removing  a  seal  from  a  deed.  \n  immaterial 
change  does  not  come  under  the  description  of  an 
alteration.  At  common  law,  the  alteration  of  a 
written  instrument  avoided  it  as  against  a  party 
not  assenting  thereto.  In  England  it  does  not 
matter  whether  the  alteration  is  made  by  a  party 
or  by  a  stranger.  In  this  country,  a  distinction 
is  made  between  the  two  cases,  and  alteration  by 
a  stranger,  or  spoliation  (q.v.),  as  well  as  alter- 
ation by  a  party  through  pure  accident  or  inno- 
cent mistake,  does  not  invalidate  the  instrument, 
if  its  original  language  or  tenor  remains  discov- 
erable. The  common-law  rule  rests  upon  consid- 
erations of  public  policy,  its  object  being  to  deter 
the  holder  of  a  written  instnunent  from  tam- 
pering -with  it,  and  to  force  him  to  carefully 
guard  its  integrity.  By  the  Bills  of  Exchange 
Act  in  England  and  the  negotiable  instrimients 
law  in  several  of  our  States,  a  holder  in  due 
course  of  an  altered  negotiable  instrument  may 
enforce  it  according  to  its  original  tenor.  See 
the  authorities  referred  to  under  Contract: 
Deed;  Negotiable  iNSTBUArENT. 


ALTERATIVE. 


406 


ALTERNATION. 


AL'TERATIVE  ( Lat.  alter,  other,  another, 
tlift'erent).  In  medicine,  a  term  applied  to  lem- 
edies  that  have  been  found  to  act  slowly  and  in 
an  unknown  way.  improving  the  nutrition  of  the 
body.  It  is  generally  applied  to  medicines  which 
are  irritant  in  full  doses,  but  which  almost  im- 
perceptibly alter  disordered  actions  or  secre- 
tions ;  acting  specially  on  certain  glands,  or  u]ion 
absorption  in  general,  when  they  are  given  in  com- 
paratively small  doses,  the  treatment  being  con- 
tinued for  a  considerable  length  of  time.  For  ex- 
ample, mercury  is  an  irritant  in  some  of  its  prep- 
arations; but  when  small  doses  of  some  of  its 
preparations  are  given  at  intervals  for  some 
length  of  time,  the}'  "produce  alteration  in  disor- 
dered actions,  so  as  to  cause  an  improvement  in 
the  nutrient  and  digestive  functions,  the  disap- 
pearance of  eru])tions,  and  the  removal  of  thick- 
ening of  the  skin  or  of  other  tissues"  (Eoyle)  ; 
and  tlu'v  will  efl'eet  these  changes  without  otlicr- 
wise  affecting  the  constitution  or  inducing  sali- 
vation. 80  iodine,  also  an  irritant  in  concen- 
trated doses,  and  poisonous  in  some  forms,  is 
most  useful  when  given  in  small  doses  in  certain 
enlargements  of  glands,  and  need  not  cause 
iodism,  if  carefully  given.  The  most  marked 
example  of  the  alterative  action  of  mercury  and 
the  iodides  is  seen  in  cases  of  syphilis. 

Some  preparations  of  arsenic  are  powerful 
alteratives  in  eases  of  skin  disease.  Cod  liver 
oil  (q.v.)  is  an  alterative  which  is  used  with 
gi-eat  benefit  in  tuberculous  conditions,  rickets, 
and  other  diseases  which  are  associated  with 
poor  nutrition.  Preparations  of  phosphorus 
have  a  powerful  alterative  action.  Colchicine 
(q.v.)  is  said  to  act  in  this  way  in  gout  and 
subacute  rheumatism.  Ichthyol  (q.v.)  is  an  im- 
portant alterative  in  skin  affections  when  ap- 
plied locally.  Sarsaparilla  (q.v.)  was  formerly 
believed  to  possess  strong  alterative  qualities, 
but  it  has  been  shoxra  to  be  practicallj'  inert. 

ALTER  (iil'ter)  FRITZ  (Ger.,  Old  Fritz). 
A  ])o]>ular  designation  of  Frederick  the  Great. 

ALTERNATING  (al'ter-na'ting)  CUR'- 
RENTS.     See  Electricity,  and  Dyn.\mo-Elec- 

TRIC   .M.\CHINERY. 

AL'TERNA'TION     OF     GEN'ERA'TIONS 

(Lat.  alternafio.  an  intercliange,  from  alter, 
other,  and  getieration  from  yenus,  birth,  descent, 
offspring).  Tlie  successive  occurrence  in  one 
life-c\'cle  of  two  or  more  dissimilar  forms;  the 
process  by  which  in  its  life  history  a  plant  or 
animal  may  pass  through  alternating  phases 
that  do  not  resemble  one  another,  especially 
(lid'ering  in  being  successively  sexual  and  asex- 
ual. This  phenomenon  is  very  widespread 
among  organisms,  and  assumes  different  charac- 
ters in  different  groups  of  plants  or  animals. 
Among  Plants.  Alternation  of  generations  is 
found  in  all  forms  of  plants  excepting  the  low- 
est, though  it  is  not  very  evident  in  th*  higliest 
plants.  One  may  get  some  conception  of  alter- 
nation of  generations  in  plants  by  comparing  it 
witli  the  very  different  alternation  of  forms 
wliioh  occurs  in  the  life  history  of  a  niutli  or 
butterfly.  In  the  plant,  however,  instead  of 
having  a  series  of  forms  wliich  pass  into  one 
another,  our  plant  larva  forms  an  egg  which 
]ii(]duces  the  mature  form.  If  in  the  life  his- 
tory of  a  butterfly  the  larva  should  lay  eggs  and 
thus  produce  the  mature  forms,  wc  should  have 
something  resembling  the  alternation  of  genera- 
tions  in   plants.     One  of  these  generations  has 


sex  organs,  and  hence  is  called  the  gametophyte; 
while  the  other  generation  has  no  sex  organs, 
and  is  known  as  the  sporophyte.     Both  genera- 


Life  history  of  a  Moss:  1,  ttie  gametoptiyte,  with  the  pro- 
tonema  (p)  devefoped  from  an  asesuat  spore  (y),  and  giving 
rise  to  buds  (6)  that  develop  tlie  feafy  shoot  (.?};  3,  the  young 
sporophyte  {c)  rising  above  the  leafy  shoot  (5). 

tions  produce  spores,  Ijut  in  a  very  different  way. 
By  means  of  its  sex  organs  the  gametophyte 
pi'oduces  spores  in  a  sexual  way,  that  is,  by 
the  fusion  of  two  sex  cells,  and  such  spores  are 
called  in  general  oc'ispores,  or  fertilized  eggs; 
while  the  sporophyte  by  ordinary  cell  division 
produces  spores  which  are  called  asexual  spores, 
meaning  spores  which  liave  not  been  formed  by 
sex  organs.  In  the  life  history  of  the  plant,  the 
sexual  spore  of  the  gametophyte  gives  rise  to 
the  sporophyte,  wliile  the  asexual  spore  of  the 
sporophyte  gives  rise,  in  turn,  to  the  gameto- 
phyte. and  so  the  alternation  continues. 

Alternation  of  generations  is  first  manifested 
among    the    lowest    plants     (the    thallophytes) , 


Sporophyte  (sporogoninm)  of  a  moss:  1,  the  young  sporo- 
phyte (e)  rnpturhlg  the  calyplia,  carrying  up  tlie  cap-lil«e 
ui)pi-i'  jKirtion  (t'(;  ;.',  a  mature  sporopliyte.  showing  imbedded 
foot  (0,  Heta  0'),  capsule  (c),  and  operculum  (o). 

but  it  is  not  com])Ietely  and  clearly  estal>lislied 
luitil  the  liverworts  and  mosses  (bryophytes) 
are    reached.      Tlie    phenomenon    is    still    more 


ALTERNATION. 


Wi 


ALTERNATION. 


apparent  among  the  ferns  and  their  allies  (Ptcri- 
dophytes)  ;  but  amonf;  tlie  seed  ])lants  (Sperma- 
tophytes),  while  evident  to  the  laboratory 
student,  it  is  well-nigh  invisible  to  the  ordinary 
observer.  It  is  to  mosses  and  ferns,  therefore, 
that  one  nmst  go  for  the  clearest  examples  of 
alternation  of  generations. 

In  an  ordinary  moss  the  gametophyte  consists 
of  the  well-known  leafy  moss  plant,  which  bears 
sex  organs  at  the  tips  of  its  main  stem  or 
branches.  By  means  of  these  sex  organs  a  fer- 
tilized egg  (oospore)  is  formed.  When  tlie 
fertilized  egg  germinates,  it  produces  the  sporo- 
phyte,  which  in  this  ease  consists  of  a  more  or 
less  elongated  stalk  (seta)  bearing  at  its  summit 
a  capsule  or  spore  case.  The  leafless  sporophyte 
is  anclmred  in  the  leafy  gametophyte  by  means  of 
an  organ  called  the  foot.  This  peculiar  sporo- 
phyte of  the  moss  is  commonly  spoken  of  as  the 
fruit,  and  when  it  appears  upon  the  leafy  plants 
these  are  said  to  be  "in  fruit."'  The  spores 
formed  in  the  spore  cases  are  asexual,  and  upon 
germination  produce  new  leafy  plants  (gamcto- 
pliytcs). 

in  the  case  of  the  ordinary  ferns,  which  belong 
to  the  gi'eat  group  Ptcridophytes.  the  same  phe- 
nomenon may  be  observed,  but  with  a  striking 
dill'erence.  In  the  mosses  the  prominent  leafy 
])lant  is  the  gametoph3'te,  while  in  the  fern  the 
conspicuous  leafy  jjlant  is  the  sporophyte.  The 
gametophyte  of  the  fern  is  a  simple  Hat  body 
(prothallium)  resembling  a  minute  liverwort. 
Upon  this  protliallium  the  sex  organs  are  devel- 
oped and  the  fertilized  eggs  are  formed.  From 
these  fertilized  eggs  the  comparatively  large 
leafy  fern  body  arises.  This  leafy  body  (the 
sporophyte)  produces,  usually  upon  the  under 
side  of  the  leaves,  numerous  asexual  spores, 
wliich  upon  germination  give  rise  again  to  sim- 
ple gametophytes. 

Among  certain  Club  mosses  and  other  Ptcrido- 
phytes the  sporo[ihyte  produces  two  kinds  of 
a.sexual  spores.  The  most  apparent  diflferences 
between  these  spores  is  that  of  size,  and  hence 
they  are  called  "microspores"  (small  spores) 
and  "mcgaspores"  (large  spores).  The  micro- 
spore upon  germination  produces  a  male  gameto- 
jihyte,  i.e.,  a  gametophyte  which  bears  only  male 
organs.  The  megaspore  upon  germination  pro- 
duces a  female  gametophyte,  i.e.,  a  gametophyte 
wliich  bears  only  female  organs.  This  differen- 
tiation of  spores  is  spoken  of  as  "heterospory," 
and  all  the  higher  plants  are  heterosporous.  With 
the  appearance  of  heterospory  the  alternation  of 
generations  passes  out  of  the  reach  of  ordinary 
observation,  since  the  gametophytes  are  so  much 
reduced  as  seldom  to  leave  the  spores  which 
produce  them.  In  a  seed  plant,  for  example,  the 
whole  visible  body  of  the  tree,  shrub,  or  herb  is 
a  sporophyte ;  the  ])ollen  grains  are  the  small 
asexual  spores  or  microspores,  while  the  so-called 
embryo  sac  in  the  ovule  is  the  large  asexual 
spore  or  megaspore.  The  male  gametophyte  con- 
sists of  but  two  or  three  cells,  which  form  within 
the  pollen  grain.  The  female  gametophyte  con- 
sists of  more  numerous  cells,  but  they  are 
entirely  confined  within  the  megslspore  walls  and 
hence  never  leave  the  ovule. 

Taking  the  plant  kingdom  as  a  whole,  it  may 
be  said  that  in  the  lowest  plants  only  a  gamcto- 
pliyte  existed.  Presently  a  sporophyte  began  to 
appear,  at  first  dependent  upon  the  gametophyte, 
as  in  the  mosses,  but  presently  attaining  inde- 
pendence and  prominence,   as   in  the  ferns  and 


seed  plants.  With  the  independence  of  the  sporo- 
pliyte,  the  gametophyte  became  gradually  re- 
duced in  size,  until  in  the  highest  plants  it  is 
visible  only  under  the  special  manipulation  of 
tlie  laboratory.  The  significance  of  alternation 
of  generations  in  the  plant  icingdom  is  by  no 
means  clear.  One  of  its  results,  however,  is  to 
multiply  the  product  of  a  single  fertilized  egg. 
If  there  were  no  alternation  of  generations,  one 
fertilized  egg  would  result  in  a  single  new  plant. 
By  the  interposition  of  a  sporophyte  bearing 
numerous  spores,  each  one  of  which  may  form 
a  new  gametophyte,  a  single  fertilized  egg  may 
result  in  many  new  plants.  However,  this  may 
be  but  one  of  the  incidental  results  of  a  diflfer- 
eutiation  that  is  probably  of  far  deeper  biologi- 
cal significance.  Consult:  Goebel.  Outlines  of 
Chissification  and  fipecial  Mori)holoriii  of  Plants, 
English  translation  by  Garnscy  and  iialfour(  Ox- 
ford. 1887);  Vines.".!  Students'  Text-hook  of 
Botanij  (New  York,  I8!t5)  ;  Coulter,  Plant  fitruc- 
tiircs  (New  York,  1900). 

Among  Animals.  In  the  simplest  case  of 
alternation  of  generations  among  animals,  the 
successive  generations  dift'er  only  slightly.  Thus, 
in  many  butterflies  having  two  broods  during  the 
year,  the  spring  brood  is  unlike  the  fall  brood: 
for  example,  in  our  "spring  azure"  the  spring 
brood  is  of  a  violet  color,  and  the  fall  brood  is 
dark;  both  are  sexual,  but  the  spring  and  fall 
forms  alternate  in  the  series  of  generations.  This 
form  of  alternation  of  generations  is  called  sea- 
sonal. 

The  next  example  shows  a  greater  difTcrence 
between  alternating  generations.  In  a  certain 
nematode  (Leptodera  nigrovenosum) ,  both  males 
and  females  are  found  living  in  pools  of  water 
or  in  damp  earth.  These  pair,  and  the  fertilized 
eggs  develop  into  larva-  that  enter  into  the  bodies 
of  aquatic  animals  and  develop  there  as  para- 
sites, not  as  male  and  female  individuals,  but  as 
hermaphrodites.  These  lay  self-fertilized  eggs, 
which  develop  free  as  either  males  or  females. 
Here  a  dicecious  generation  (A)  alternates  with 
an  hermaphroditic  generation  (B).  This  kind 
of  alternation  of  generations  is  called  hcterof/oni/. 
In  a  third  form  of  alternation  of  generations 
eggs  are  produced,  but  the  fertilization  of  the 
egg  is  omitted  from  alternate  or  even  several 
successive  generations;  these  are  then  followed 
by  dia>cious,  sexual  individuals.  To  this  class 
belong  many  cases  of  parthenogenetically  repro- 
ducing species;  among  Hat-worms,  trematodes; 
among  Crustacea,  the  Cladocera:  and  among  in- 
sects, aphids,  such  as  Phylloxera,  Chermes,  etc. 
In  most  of  these  cases  there  is  a  marked  differ- 
ence in  form  between  the  individuals  of  the 
dioecious  and  the  parthenogenetically  reproducing 
generation.  This  class  of  cases  is  called  hetero- 
genesis.    See  Hop-Louse. 

In  the  fourth  form  of  alternation,  the  ferti- 
lized egg  develops  into  a  generation  (A)  having 
a  characteristic  form,  and  capable  of  setting 
free  neither  eggs  nor  spermatozoa,  but  capable  of 
forming  buds.  These  buds  develop  into  a  new 
and  difTerent  foiin  of  individual  (generation 
B),  which  is  dioecious  and  sets  free  zygotes, 
from  which  generation  A  is  produced.  There 
are  numerous  examples  of  this  class  among 
animals,  e.g.,  among  coelenterates,  the  Hydrozoa 
and  some  Scyphozoa  and  Strobila ;  among  flat- 
worms,  certain  cestodes  (Eehinococcus)  ;  among 
Annelids,  certain  Syllida?  and  aquatic  Oligo- 
chseta;    among  tunicates,   the   Salpie   and  Dolio- 


ALTERNATION. 


408 


ALTIN. 


lidip.  This  class  of  alternation  of  generations 
has  lieen  called  mctarioicsis.  As  an  example  of 
it,  one  of  the  Hjdvozoa  may  be  taken.  The  free- 
swimming  jellyfishes  are  dia^eious,  and  produce 
the  male  and  female  gametes,  which  unite  in 
the  water.  The  larva;  which  result  from  the 
development  of  the  eggs  settle  down,  become 
attached  and  develoj)  into  a  hydroid.  which  pro- 
duces  a  colony  by  budding.     Certain   buds   are 


Alternate  Generations  in  Htdroids. 

A  Campaniilariiin  Hydroid :  a,  root-stock  fh ydrorhiza) ;  b.  6, 
hydraiiths  ;  c,  c,  gonaugia,  containing  medusa  buds  ;  r/,  a  free- 
swiumiiug,  gameter-producing  medusa;  e,  ciliated  larva  before 
settling  down. 

set  free  as  jellyfishes,  and  these  in  turn  set  free 
the  gametes.  Thus  the  hydroid  form  (A)  and 
the  jelly  form    (B)   alternate  with  each  other. 

In  certain  respects  the  gamete-producing  gen- 
eration of  spermatophytes  among  plants  (see 
above)  resembles  the  maturation  period  preceding 
the  formation  of  gametes  in  the  higher  animals; 
and  it  has  been  suggested  that  even  in  verte- 
brates, including  man,  we  have  an  alternation 
of  generations :  ( 1 )  the  non-sexual  generation 
beginning  with  fertilization  and  ending  with  the 
primary  oocyte  or  primary  spermatocyte;  (2) 
the  sexual  generation  beginning  with  the  j)ri- 
mary  germ-cell  and  ending  with  the  ripe  germ- 
cell   (two-cell  division) . 

UiBLioGRAPiiY.  .T..T.  S.  Steenstrup,  On  the  Alter- 
nation of  Ocnerations,  translated  by  Busk  (Lon- 
don, 1845)  ;  J.  V.  Caru.s,  Zur  mihern  Kenntniss 
dcs  Gcncrationsiccchseh  (Leipzig.  1849)  ;  R. 
Leuckart,  Ueher  den  Poli/morphismus  dcr  Indi- 
riduen,  etc.;  ein  Jieilraf)  :^ur  Lchrc  vom  Genera- 
tionxtrcrliscl   (Giessen.   1851). 

AL'TERNA'TOR.  See  Dynamo  -  Electric 
Maciiinerv. 

AliTGELD,  alt'geld.  John  Peteb  (1847- 
1902).  An  American  politician.  He  was  born 
in   Germany,    and   was   brought   to   the   United 


States  when  an  infant.  His  parents  settled 
near  Mansfield,  O.  He  entered  the  Union  army 
at  the  age  of  sixteen,  and  fought  until  the  close 
of  the  war.  After  teaching  school  for  some  time 
in  ilissouri,  he  began  the  study  of  law,  and  w^as 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1S69,  his  election  as 
State  Attorney  of  Andrew  County,  JIo.,  fol- 
lowing in  1874.  He  was  judge  of  the  superior 
court  of  Chicago  from  1880  to  189 Land  Governor 
of  Illinois  from  1893  to  1897,  in  which  capacity 
his  pardon  of  the  anarchists  Fielden,  Neebe.  and 
Schwab  excited  wide  comment.  As  a  prominent 
advocate  of  free  silver,  he  was  an  active  sup- 
porter of  William  .1.  Bryan  during  the  Presiden- 
tial campaigns  of  1896  and  1900.  He  did 
much  to  advance  the  cause  of  prison  reform,  and 
was  a  vigorous  and  effective  public  speaker. 

ALTH.ffl'A  (Gk.  i/.iSom,  althaia,  wild  or 
mai'sh  mallow).  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  order 
IVfalvacese.  differing  from  the  true  mallow.  Mitira, 
chiefly  in  its  six  to  nine-cleft  cah-x.  The  species, 
natives  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  naturalized  in 
North  America,  are  annual  and  perennial  shrub- 
by plants  that  are  much  grown  for  their  showy 
flowers.  The  more  common  species  are  the 
marsh-mallow,  Althcea  officinalis,  and  the  holly- 
hock. Althcea  rosea.  The  name  Althaea  is  applied 
also  by  gardeners  to  the  Rose  of  Sharon,  Hiiiscus 
syriactis.  See  Hollyhock;  JLvksh-JL^^llow; 
Hibiscus. 

ALTH.a;A,  or  ALTHEA  (Gk.' AA^aiu.  Altha- 
ia ) .  In  Greek  story,  the  mother  of  Jleleager 
(q.v.),  whose  life  the  Fates  had  told  her  should 
last  as  long  as  a  log  of  wood  burning  upon  the 
hearth  at  his  birth  should  be  unconsumed.  She 
quenched  and  long  preserved  it,  bvit  finally  in 
anger  at  him  set  it  on  fire  and  so  ended  his  life. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  Thestius,  wife  of  CEneus, 
King  of  Calydon,  and  mother  also  of  Tydeus 
and  Dei'anira. 

ALTHE'A.  In  Richard  Lovelace's  To  Althea 
from  I'risoii,  and  Other  Lijrics.  a  poetical  name 
apjilied  to  his  love  Lucasta,  who  is  understood 
to  have  been  Lucy  Sacheverell. 

ALT'HORN.     See   Saxhorn. 

ALTHORP,  LoKD.  See  Spencer,  John  Charles. 

ALTHU'SIUS,  .ToirANNES  ( 1.5.=)7-1()38) .  Pro- 
fessor of  la«'  and  ethics  at  Herborn.  He  pub- 
lished the  first  treatise  on  politics  •nTitten  in 
Germany.  He  made  the  basis  of  social  life  an 
express  or  implied  contract  between  associated 
men.  thus  anticipating  Rousseau's  famous  social 
contract  theory.  He  defended  resistance  to 
usurpation  of  the  rights  of  the  people,  from 
whom  all  rights  proceed.  He  put  combinations 
of  workmen  in  the  category  of  monopolies  to  be 
ro.gulated.  His  chief  works  are:  Polilica  Mctho- 
dice  Digesta  (Herborn.  1G03)  ;  Jnrispriidentia 
Fomana  (Herborn,  1588)  :  Dicoroloriicw  Lihri 
Trcs  Totum  ct  Uitii^erstim  Ju>!,  quo  Utimiir,  Meth- 
odicc  Complectantcs   (Herborn,  1017). 

ALTIM'ETRY  (Lat.  altiis.  high  -f  Gk.  fitrpov, 
mctron,  measure).  The  art  of  ascertaining  alti- 
tudes geometrically  or  measuring  vertical  angles 
by  means  of  a  quadrant,  sextant  (q.v.),  or  the- 
odolite (q.v.).  \\'hen  used  for  this  purpose,  the 
instrument  is  known  as  an  altimeter. 

ALTIN,  al-tin'.  Altyn-Nor  (Tartar  altun, 
golden  +  nor,  lake),  or  Telets  Lake.  A  fresh- 
water lake  in  the  government  of  Tomsk,  Siberia 
(Map:  Asia.  H  3).  It  is  in  the  Altai  Moun- 
tains, 1600  feet  above  the  sea  level,  and  has  an 


ALTIN. 


409 


ALTONA. 


area  of  about  1H4  s<|uaii'  miles.  Tliis  lako  is 
remarkable  because  in  Avinter  tlie  noitliern  jiart 
is  frozen  so  as  to  bear  sledges,  while  the  southern 
part  lias  never  been  known  to  freeze. 

AL'TITUDE  (Lat.  aUitudo,  height,  from 
alius,  high,  lofty) .  In  astronomy,  the  elevation  of 
a  heavenl.y  body  above  the  horizon.  It  is  meas- 
ured not  as  a  linear  distanee,  but  by  the  arigle 
wliieh  a  line  drawn  from  tlie  eye  to  tlu'  heavenly 
bod}-  makes  with  the  horizontal  line,  or  by  the 
are  of  a  vertical  circle  interce|)ted  l)etween  the 
body  and  the  horizon.  Altitudes  ai'o  measured  by 
means  of  a  telescope  attached  to  a  graduated  cir- 
cle. (See  CiKCLE.)  The  telescope  being  directed 
toward  the  body  to  be  observed,  the  angle  which 
it  makes  with  the  horizon  is  measured  on  the 
graduated  circle.  The  altitude  thus  observed 
nuist  receive  various  corrections — the  chief  being 
the  p.arallax  (q.v.)  and  refraction  (q.v.) — in 
order  to  get  the  true  altitude.  At  sea,  the  alti- 
tude is  taken  by  means  of  a  sextant  (q.v.),  and 
tlicn  it  has  tnrther  to  be  corrected  for  the  dip  of 
the  visible  horizon  below  the  true  horizon.  (See 
Horizon.)  The  correct  determination  of  alti- 
tudes is  of  vital  importance  in  the  jiroblem  of 
navigation.  The  sextant  is'  the  only  astronomi- 
cal instrument  of  precision  that  can  be  used 
without  a  fixed  support  on  the  deck  of  a  rolling 
ship,  and  it  is  essentially  an  instrument  for 
measuring  altitudes.  See  Sextant;  Altazi- 
ULTU ;   Latitude. 

ALTMUHL,  iilfmul  (Ger.,  old  mill).  A 
tributary  of  the  Danube,  rising  at  the  western 
border  of  Bavaria,  flowing  northeast  through  the 
Swabian  Jura,  and  joining  the  Danube  at  Kcl- 
heiui  (ifap:  Bavaria.  D  4).  It  is  100  miles  long, 
and  connected  with  an  atiluent,  the  Main,  by  the 
Ludwig's  Canal. 

ALTO  (Ital.,  high).  The  deepest  or  lowest 
species  of  voice  met  with  in  boys  or  castrates, 
the  voice  of  women  being  more  properly  called 
contralto.  In  England  the  alto  voice  is  often 
found  in  adults,  especialh'  among  the  ballad 
singers;  the  head  notes  are  carefully  developed 
to  abnormal  volume  and  po-wer  at  the  expense  of 
the  lower  notes,  which  gradually  become  atro- 
phied and  assume  the  same  timbre  as  the  upper 
register.  It  is  curious  that  the  original  name 
alt  us  meant  the  highest  voice  in  ecclesiastical 
music.  It  represented  the  changing,  undulating 
melody  sung  over  the  cantus  firmuf!  (q.v.),  but 
owing  to  its  dithculty,  it  could  not  be  learned  by 
boys,  and  thus  to  men  with  the  highest  voices 
was  assigned  the  ])art,  as  woinen  were  excluded 
from  church  choirs — miilirr  trirrat  in  ecclesia — • 
i.e.,  let  women  be  silent  in  the  church. 

ALTON,  al'ton.  A  city  and  railroad  centre  of 
Madison  Co.,  111.  It  is  picturesquely  situated  on 
limestone  bluffs,  200  feet  above  the  Mississippi 
River,  which  is  spanned  here  by  the  great  bridge 
of  the  Chicago,  Burlington  and  Quiiicy  Railroad, 
25  miles  above  St.  Louis  (Ma]):  Illinois,  B  5). 
It  is  on  the  Chicago  and  Alton  and  other  rail- 
roads, is  the  centre  of  a  large  connnerce.  and  has 
glass  factories,  (louring  mills,  machine  shops, 
agricultural  and  mining  tool  factories,  box  f.ae- 
tories,  etc.  .\lton  has  a  public  library  and  a  park, 
called  Rock  Spring  Park.  .\t  LTpper  Alton  is 
Shurtlefl'  College  (Baptist),  organized  1827,  and, 
at  Godfrey,  the  Montioello  Seminary.  Alton  was 
settled  in  17S.3,  incorporated  in  1835.  and  is  gov- 
erned by  a  charter  granted  under  a  general  law 
of  1876.  The  mayor  is  elected  for  two  years; 
Vol.  1.-28. 


the  city  couiu'il  is  made  up  of  fourteen  members, 
and  town  meetings  are  held  yearly  to  levy  the 
town  tax  and  approve  the  sujiervisor's  report. 
The  mayor  appoints  the  school  board  and  the 
heads  of  the  police  and  fire  de])artments,  with 
tlie  ai)proval  of  the  council.  On  November  7, 
1837,  occurred  here  the  famous  anti-abolitionist 
riot,  in  which  Elijah  P.  Lovejoy  was  killed  and 
his  printing-ollice  demolished.  Pop.,  1890,  10,- 
2i)4;    1!)0(),  14.210. 

ALTON  (al'ton)  LOCKE,  TAILOR  AND 
POET.  A  novel  by  Charles  Kingsley,  published 
1S50. 

ALTON,  Johann-  Samitsl  Ediaiid  d"  (1803- 
54).  A  German  anatomist,  son  of  the  anatomist 
and  arehiBologist  Joseph  Wilhelm  Eduard  d"Al- 
ton.  He  stuilied  medicine  at  Bonn,  and  became 
professor  of  anatomy  at  the  Academy  of  Arts  in 
Berlin  in  1827.  In  1834  he  was  made  i)rofessor 
of  anatomy  and  physiology  at  Halle.  His  writ- 
ings include:  Handbuch  der  menschlichen  Anat- 
omie  (Leipzig,  184S-.50),  De  Monstris  (Halle, 
1853).  and  De  Monslroruiii  DupUcium  Origine 
(Halle,  1849). 

ALTONA,  iil'tfi-na.  Tlie  largest  and  richest 
city  in  the  Prussian  province  of  Sehleswig-Hol- 
stein,  situated  on  the  ri£;ht  bank  of  the  Elbe,  its 
eastern  boundary  adjoining  the  Hamburg  suburb 
of  St.  Pauli  (Map:  Prussia,  C  2).  From  a 
commercial  point  of  view,  Altona  forms  one  city 
with  Hamburg.  In  1888  it  entered  the  German 
Customs  LTnion.  On  account  of  its  advantageous 
situation  on  the  Elbe  and  railway  connection 
with  other  German  cities,  its  trade  is  of  con- 
siderable importance,  and  extends  to  England, 
France,  the  Jlediterranean  Sea,  and  the  West 
Indies.  There  are  manj'  important  industrial 
works  in  Altona,  among  others,  cotton  and  wool- 
en mills,  iron  foundries,  glass  works,  breweries 
and  distilleries,  and  establishments  for  the  manu- 
facture of  chocolate,  cigars,  cotton,  soap,  leather 
ware,  etc.  Local  transportation  is  afforded  by 
numerous  street-car  lines,  which  also  connect 
Altona  with  Hamburg.  These  are  all  in  the 
hands  of  private  corporations.  The  rise  of  .41- 
tona  to  its  present  importance  has  been  recent, 
and  rapid  for  a  Continental  town.  In  1880  its 
population  was  91,(100,  from  which  it  had  grown 
to  143,000  in  1890  and  to  155,000  in  1900. 

The  streets  of  Altona  are  broad  and  for  the 
most  part  regular,  and  well  lighted  by  electricity. 
The  city  has  only  about  fifty  acres  laid  out  in 
parks.  This,  however,  does  not  include  the  sub- 
urbs. Among  the  notable  buildings  may  be  men- 
tioned the  Rathaus,  the  palace  of  justice,  the 
custom  house,  and  the  city  theatre.  Among  the 
objects  of  greatest  interest  in  the  city  is  the  old 
cemetery  of  the  Portuguese   .Jews. 

The  city's  affairs  are  administered  by  a  munic- 
ipal council  composed  of  35  members,  and  an 
e.xecutivc  board  composed  of  nine  members.  (See 
Prussia,  paragraph  Government.)  The  street- 
cleaning  of  Altona  is  a  model  of  thoroughness. 

The  city  owns  its  water  works,  containing  a 
filtering  plant  by  means  of  which  the  water  of 
the  Elbe  is  purified  for  drinking  ])urposes.  The 
plant  yields  an  annual  profit  of  about  $90,000. 
Its  system  of  sewers  is  practically  similar  to 
that  of  Hamburg.  It  has  not  as  yet  adopted  the 
system  of  sewage  farms,  v\hieh  has  proved  so 
successful  in  some  of  the  German  cities.  The 
annual  expense  of  drainage  and  sewerage  is  about 
$12,000. 


ALTONA. 


AltoTia  has  an  organized  fire  departnient, 
whieh  forms  one  of  the  chief  items  of  expense  in 
tlie  city's  budget,  amounting  annually  to  about 
$44,000.  Altona  owns  and  operates  its  own  gas 
works  at  a  net  profit  of  about  $75,000  annually. 
Its  electric  light  plant  is  owned  and  operated 
by  a  private  company,  which  pays  tlie  city  10% 
of  its  receipts. 

Among  tlie  charitable  and  benevolent  institu- 
tions are  a  public  poorhouse.  an  infirmary,  insane 
asylum,  a  house  of  refuge  for  boys,  one  general 
hospital,  two  hospitals  for  children,  and  a  lying- 
in  hospital.  Its  educational  institutions  include 
a  gymnasium,  three  high  scliools,  several  techni- 
cal schools,  twenty-seven  grammar  schools,  and 
a  museum. 

Altona  was  settled  in  1536,  and  rapidly  devel- 
oped into  a  prosperous  commercial  town.  In 
1640  it  came  under  the  rule  of  Denmark.  Its 
trade  suflfered  during  the  Napoleonic  wars,  but 
revived  with  peace.  In  1866  it  was  annexed  to 
Prussia.  Consult  H.  Meyer,  Hamlurg  und 
Altona    (Hamburg,    1836). 

AXTOONA,  al-toi5'na.  A  city  in  Blair  Co., 
Pa.,  117  miles  east  of  Pittsburg,  on  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Eailro.'id  (:\Iap:  Pennsylvania,  C  3).  It  is 
at  the  eastern  base  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains, 
between  Alleghany  JNIountain  and  the  Brush 
Mountain,  sil'uate'd  amid  the  most  picturesque 
mountain  scenery,  the  city  itself  having  an  eleva- 
tion of  1180  feet  above  the  sea  level.  Altoona  is 
a  typical  American  railroad  town,  its  indus- 
tries centring  principally  in  the  immense  sliops 
of  the  Pennsvlvania  Railroad,  which  employ  some 
7000  operatives  and  have  an  extensive  produc- 
tion of  locomotives,  passenger  coaches,  and 
freight  cars.  The  city  contains  a  public  library 
and^hospital,  and  Lakemont  Park.  Of  particular 
interest  is  the  famous  Horseslioe  Bend,  near  the 
city.  The  government  is  vested  in  a  mayor,  elected 
every  three  years,  a  bicameral  city  council, 
and  subordinate  administrative  officials.  Tliere 
are  municipal  water  works,  built  in  1860  and  ac- 
quired by  the  city  in  1872,  which  cost  .about 
$680,000."  Altoona  spends  annually  in  mainte- 
nance and  operation  about  $255,000;  the  prin- 
cipal items  of  expense  being  .$85,000  for  schools, 
$20,000  for  the  fire  department,  ,$20,000  for  the 
water  works,  $15,000  for  the  police  department, 
and  $15,000  for  municipal  lighting.  Altoona  was 
founded  in  1S50  by  the  Pennsylvania  Pvailroad 
Compauv,  and  was  incorporated  as  a  borough  in 
1854.  and  chartered  as  a  city  in  1808.  The  great 
railroad  strike  of  1877  caused  considerable  ex- 
citement here,  and  troops  were  ordered  out  to 
protect  the  company's  property.  Pop.,  1S80, 
19.710:   18!I0.  30.:'.:!7r  1000,  38.073. 

ALTOONA,  or  ALLATOO'NA,  PASS.  A 
pass  near  Allatoona,  Ga.,  the  scene,  on  October 
5,  1864,  of  one  of  the  most  hotly  contested  of 
the  minor  battles  of  the  Civil  War.  In  his  oji- 
erations  about  Atlanta,  Oeneral  Sherman  made 
Allatoona  his  secondary  liase,  and  stored  there 
one  million  rations  of  bread,  which  General 
Hood  determined  to  capture,  detailing  General 
S.  G.  French  for  the  enterprise.  As  soon  as 
Sherman  was  aware  of  Hood's  designs  he  ordered 
General  Corse  (q.v.),  stationed  at  Rome,  to 
move  with  the  utmost  speed  to  the  assist- 
ance of  the  small  garrison,  to  hold  the  place 
against  all  odds,  until  the  arrival  of  reenforee- 
luents.  Accordingly,  with  a  force  of  less  than 
2000,  he  maintained  the  defense  against  some 
4000  Confederates  from  nine  in  the  morning  un- 


410  ALTRANSTADT. 

til  three  in  the  afternoon,  when  General  French, 
alarmed  by  the  approach  of  Federal  reenforce- 
ments,  withdrew.  The  loss  in  killed,  wounded, 
and  missing  was  about  700  on  each  side.  An  in- 
teresting account  of  the  engagement  is  given 
in  General  Sherman's  Memoirs  (New  York, 
1888). 

ALTORF,   alt'orf.     See  Altdorf. 

ALTO-RILIEVO,  iil'to-re-lya'vo  ( Ital.  high- 
relief).  The  term  used  in  sculpture  to  designate 
that  mode  of  representing  objects  by  which  they 
are  made  to  project  strongly  and  boldly  from  the 
background  without  being  entirely  detached.  In 
alto-rilievo  some  portions  of  the  figures  usually 
stand  quite  free,  and  in  this  respect  it  differs 
not  only  from  hasso-rilicvo,  or  low-relief,  but 
from  the  intermediate  kind  of  relief  knomi  as 
mezzo-riUcvo,  or  semi-relief,  in  which  the  figures 
are  fully  rounded,  but  where  there  are  no  de- 
tached portions.  A  fourth  term  in  the  series  is 
cavo-rUievo  (q.v.),  where  the  relief  is  sunk  be- 
low the  ground  surface.  A  fifth  Italian  terin  is 
stiacciato,  to  describe  what  is  really  dra%ying 
or  outlining  on  marble  or  stone  with  little 
or  no  relief.  It  was  used  mainly  in  the 
background  of  Renaissance  reliefs  as  the  fur- 
thest plane  and  as  merely  suggestive,  beyond  the 
work  in  basso-rilievo.  These  five  terms  cover 
every  possible  variety  of  relief.  Their  historic 
use  is  given  under  Relief  Sculpture  and  Sculp- 
ture, 'Hlstory  of.  In  order  to  be  in  high-re- 
lief, objects  ought  actually  to  project  somewhat 
more  than  half  their  thickness,  no  conventional 
means  being  em])loyed  in  this  style  to  give  them 
apparent  prominence.  In  low,  or  bas-relief,  on 
the  other  hand,  tlie  figures  are  usually  llattened: 
but  means  are  adopted  to  prevent  the  projection 
from  appearing  to  the  eye  to  be  less  than  half; 
because  if  an  object  projects  less  than  half,  or,  to 
state  it  otherwise,  is  more  than  half  l)uried  in  the 
background,  it  is  obvious  that  its  true  outline  or 
profile  cannot  be  represented.  This  rule,  that  in 
all  reliefs  there  shall  be  either  a  real  or  an  appar- 
ent projection  of  at  least  half  the  thickness  of 
round  (ibjects,  was  strictly  observed  in  the  best 
period  of  Greek  art ;  but  "it  has  been  often  neg- 
lected in  the  execution  of  reliefs  in  later  times, 
and  hence  attempts  have  been  made  at  foreshort- 
ening and  perspective,  which  have  necessarily  re- 
sulted in  partial  failure.  For  illustration  of  re- 
lief, see  article  Giiiherti. 


ALTOTTING,  iilt-etlng.  A  place  of  pilgrim- 
age not  far  from  the  Inn.  situated  in  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  and  fertile  plains  of  I'pper  Ba- 
varia (Jlap:  Bavaria,  K  4).  Jlultitudes  of 
Catliolics  from  Germany  and  Austria  visit  the 
ancient  chapel  containing  a  black  wooden  imagi' 
of  tlie  \'irgin  (the  Black  Virgin)  .^dating  back  to 
the  eighth  century,  and  great  treasures  of  jewels, 
the  hearts  of  ilaxiniilian  1.  and  of  many  princes 
of  the  Bavarian  family  are  interred  there.  In 
the  Peter  and  Paul's  Chapel  lies  the  body  of 
Count  Tilly.  Altiitting  was  originally  a  riJIa 
reflin,  where  several  German  emperors  held  their 
court.  From  1838  to  1873  it  was  the  headquar- 
ters of  the  Redemptorist  Fathers,  and  at  present 
is  the  site  of  a  Capuchin  monastery. 

ALTRANSTADT,  ;ilt'ran-stet.  A  village  in 
Saxony,  15  mik'S  west  of  Leipzig  (Map:  Prussia, 
E  3).  It  is  famous  as  the  place  where  Augustus 
IT..  Elector  of  Saxony  and  King  of  Poland,  con- 
cluded a  treaty  with  King  Charles  XII.  of 
Sweden   in    1706.      Pop.,    1900,   823. 


ALTRICES. 


411 


ALUMINA. 


ALTRI'CES  (Lat.  nom.  pi.  of  iiltri.T,  a  female 
iiomislicr) .  A  terra  used  in  oniitliologj'  (op- 
pciM-il  to  I'rccoces)  to  designate  birds  wliose  young 
are  hatched  in  a  helpless  condition  and  require 
the  care  of  the  parent  birds.  Sncli  birds  usually 
build  some  sort  of  nest,  where  the  young  remain 
for  some  time  after  hatching.  Tlie  young  are 
usually  naked  when  hatched.  Nearly  all  land 
birils  (except  most  game  birds),  and  some  water 
birds,  as  herons,  pelicans,  etc.,  are  altricial.  See 
BiKu,  and  NiuiriCATiON, 

ALTRIJNfCHAM.  .nl'trini-flm.  A  market  town 
of  Cheshire,  England,  on  Bowden  Downs,  0  miles 
southwest  of  Manchester  (Map:  England,  D  3). 
]t  is  situated  on  two  railway  lines  and  near  the 
Bridgewater  Canal,  which  has  contributed  greatly 
to  its  prosperity.  It  is  a  very  neat  and  clean 
town,  and  on  account  of  the  salubrity  of  the  air 
is  a  favorite  residence  of  many  of  the  merchants 
(.f  Manchester.  It  has  manufactures  of  artificial 
manures,  cotton  goods,  and  an  iron  foundry;  but 
the  cliief  employment  of  its  inhabitants  is  the 
raising  of  fruits  and  vegetables  for  the  market  of 
ilanchester.  Altrincham  was  a  prosperous  town 
in  the  time  of  Edward  I.,  from  wliom  it  received 
many  privileges.  Pop.,  ISIU,  12,400;  1901,  16,- 
800. 

ALTRUISM,  al'troo-iz'm  (Ital.  altrtii,  of,  to, 
or  for  others,  from  Lat,  alter,  another).  A  word 
lirst  coined  in  French  by  Comte  (altruisme) , 
and  introduced  by  his  Positivist  followers  into 
l'',nglish  as  the  antonym  of  egoism  or  selfishness. 
It  signifies  consideration  for  others  and  a  due  re- 
gard for  their  feelings  and  interests.  Altruism 
is  regarded  by  Positivists  as  the  crowning  virtue, 
in  the  exercise  of  which  the  perfected  individual 
will  find  not  only  his  duty  but  his  chief  pleasure. 
The  woid  is  now  used  far  beyond  the  circle  of 
Positivists,  sometimes  quite  loosely  in  the  sense 
of  action  resulting  in  the  welfare  of  others,  what- 
ever might  be  the  motive:  sometimes  more  strictly 
in  the  sense  of  conduct  motived  by  the  desire  for 
tliis  welfare.  It  is  only  in  this  stricter  applica- 
tion that  the  word  has  any  significance  for  ethics. 
One  of  the  most  important  problems  of  ethics  is 
that  concerning  the  relations  between  one's  own 
interests  and  those  of  others,  in  so  far  as  these 
interests  enter  as  motives  into  conduct.  There 
arc  two  ri\-al  issues  to  the  question.  One  school 
maintains  that  self-sacrifice  is  the  supreme  moral 
principle,  the  other  champions  self-assertion. 
This  dif'erenee  gives  occasion  to  another  use  of 
tlie  terms  altruism  and  egoism.  The  view  that 
altruism  is  the  highest  moral  motive  is  itself 
called  altruism,  just  as  the  view  that  acknowl- 
edges the  primac.y  of  egoism  among  moral  mo- 
tives is  itself  called  egoism.  For  the  criticism 
of  these  two  views  and  for  bibliography,  see 
I'Itiiics;  ITeronism,  and  Utilitarianism. 

ALTRUISTS,  Society  of.    See  Communistic 

SnflKTIES. 

ALTSCHUL,  alt'shool,  Elias  (1812-6.5),  An 
Austrian  physician  of  .Jewish  extraction.  He 
was  born  at  Prague,  and  studied  medicine,  gradu- 
ating at  the  University  of  Vienna  in  18.'?2.  He 
became  professor  of  medicine  at  the  University 
of  Pragtie  in  1S4S,  and  in  18.5.'?  founded  the  first 
homeopathic  magazine  in  Austria,  under  the  title 
of  Monatsschriff  fiir  Throretinchr  und  Pralc- 
tinche  Homonpathie.  He  introd\iced  homeopathy 
at  the  University,  His  principal  works  are: 
IHcH'iDiHiive  dc  mcdecinc  oviiliiiir  (Vienna,  18.56, 
2  volumes)  ;  Lehriuch  der  Physiologischen  Phar- 


iHucodynamik   (Prague,  1850-52)  ;  Das  therapeU' 
tische  Poluritalsycsclz  (Prague,  1852), 

ALTWASSER,  iilt'viis-er,  A  town  of  Silesia, 
Prussia,  40  miles  southwest  of  Breslau,  It  has 
coal  mining  industries  and  manufactures  of  ma- 
chinery, porcelain,  and  mirrors.  Pop..  lUOO, 
12,700'. 

ALT-ZABRZE,  alt-zab'zhe.     See  Zabeze, 

AL'UM  (Lat.  alumcyi,  of  unknown  origin). 
A  double  salt  consisting  of  a  sulphate  or  selenate 
of  the  monovalent  element  or  radicle,  and  a  sul- 
phate or  selenate  of  a  sesquioxide,  that  crystal- 
lizes in  the  isometric  system  with  twenty-four 
molecules  of  water.  The  principal  alums  of  com- 
merce contain  potassium,  ammonium,  or  sodium, 
and  the  sesquioxide  of  aluminum. 

Potassium  alum  is  a  white,  astringent,  saline 
compound,  found  native  as  Icaliiiite.  It  is  made 
by  calcining  carbonaceous  shales,  the  residue 
from  which  is  digested  with  sulphuric  acid,  yield- 
ing alumininn  sulphate;  to  this  potassitini  sul- 
phate is  then  added,  the  resulting  crystals  con- 
stituting the  ahnn.  Another  metliod  consists  in 
dissolving  the  aUunina  derived  from  the  minerals 
cryolite  or  bauxite  in  sulphuric  acid  and  treat- 
ing the  solution  with  potash  or  ammonia. 

Ammonium  alum  is  found  native  as  tschcr- 
migitc.  and  is  artificially  made  by  combining  am- 
monium sulphate  with  aluminum  sulphate  as 
previously  described.  The  low  cost  of  anunonium 
sulphate,  obtained  as  a  by-product  in  the  manu- 
facture of  illuminating  gas,  has  led  to  the  sub- 
stitution of  this  alum  in  commerce  for  potassium 
alum.  The  properties  of  the  anunonium  and 
potassium  alums  are  simihir,  though  the  am- 
monium compound  is  less  soluble  in  water. 

Sodium  alum  is  found  native  as  meudozife, 
and  is  made  by  the  combination  of  sodium  sul- 
phate with   aluminum   sulphate. 

Alum  is  used  as  mordant  in  d.yeing,  to  clarify 
liquors  of  various  kinds  and  especially  water, 
to  harden  tallow,  fats,  and  gypsum  in  the  tan- 
ning of  leather;  the  ammonium  alum  is  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  baking  powders.  A  potas- 
sium chromium  sulphate,  called  chrome  alum, 
and  an  iron  aluminum  sulphate  called  iron  alum, 
are  also  used  in  the  arts.  Consult  J.  Gardner, 
Acetic  Acid,  Vinegar,  Alum,  Ammonia,  etc.  (Phil- 
adelphia,  1885). 

ALU'MINA  (fromo^im).  Aluminum  oxide, 
the  most  abundant  of  the  earths.  It  is  found 
native,  nearly  pure  as  corimdum ;  w  ith  minute 
quantities  of  metallic  oxides,  as  ruby,  sapphire. 
Oriental  amethyst.  Oriental  emerald,  and  Ori- 
ental topaz;  and  less  pure  as  emer.y.  It  is 
also  found  in  combination  with  silica,  as  in  many 
of  the  minerals  of  the  feldspar  group,  as  well  as 
in  certain  igneous  rocks, 

.Alumina  is  known  in  two  forms:  A  white, 
soft,  pulverulent  variety,  and  a  colorless  crystal- 
line variety.  It  maj'  be  prepared  in  a  pure  state 
by  heating  potash  alum  with  a  solution  of  am- 
monium carbonate;  the  resulting  aluminum  hy- 
drate is  well  washed,  dried,  and  ignited,  the 
residue  being  pure  alumina.  .\  comparatively 
pure  alumina  may  also  be  obtained  by  heating 
ammonium  alum  until  its  volatile  constituents 
are  driven  off.  When  alumina  is  precipitated 
from  a  solution  containing  some  coloring  matter, 
such  as  logAvood.  it  carries  down  the  color  with 
the  flocculent  precipitate,  forming  colored  in- 
soluble salts  called  lakes.  It  is  this  property 
that  has  led  to  its  extensive  use  as  a  mordant 


ALUMINA. 


412 


ALUM    ROOT. 


in  dyeing.  Its  silicate  forming  a  plastic  mate- 
rial with  water,  it  is  extensively  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  pottery.  Corundum,  sapphire, 
and  ruby  have  been  artificially  made  in  Paris 
from  alumina. 

AL'UMIN'IUM  or  ALU'MINUM(FromLat. 
ahiiitcii,  alum  I.     A  metallic  element,  next  to  oxy- 
gen and  silicon  the  most  widely  distributed.    It  is 
not  found  native,  but  in  combination,  chiefly  as 
an  oxide  in  the  mineral  corundum;  as  a  hydrated 
oxide  in  diaspora;  and  in  combination  with  oxy- 
gen   and    metals    as    aluminates,    as    in    spinel, 
chrysobeiyl,     and    gahnite.      It     also    occurs     as 
a    silicate   in   various   clays.      Its   chief   ores   are 
bauxite  {a  hydrated  aluminium  oxide) .  and  cryo- 
lite   (an  aluminium  and  sodium  lluoride).     The 
elementary  nature  of  aluminium  was  recognized 
by  Davy  and  others,  but  the  metal  was  not  iso- 
lated until  1S28,  when  Wohler  succeeded  in  de- 
composing aluminium  chloride  by  the  action  of 
potassium.     Deville,  in  1854,  obtained  the  metal 
bj'  electrolysis.     A  year  later   he   simplified  the 
process  of  manufacture  by  using  sodium  instead 
of  potassium  as  a  reducing  agent.     Devillc's  ex- 
periments   attracted   the   attention   of    Napoleon 
III.,   under    whose    patronage    a     metallurgical 
plant  was  established  at  .Tavelle.  France.     Ingots 
of  the  metal  were  exhibited  at  the  World's  Fair 
held  in  Paris,  1855.     In  188G  Hamilton  Y.  Cast- 
ner,  of  New  York  City,  invented  an  important 
process    for    the    reduction    of   aluminiiun.     His 
patent,  which  was  the  first  to  be  taken  out  since 
1808,  was  for  an  improved  method  of  obtaining 
sodium.     He  succeeded  in  lowering  the  price  of 
that  reducing  agent  from  one  dollar  a  pound  to 
one-fourth  that  amount.    He  established  a  plant 
in  Oldbury,  England,  and  began  the  commercial 
production  of  aluminium.  Jlc.nwhilp,  Charles  il. 
Hall,  of  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  perfected  an  electrolytic 
method  for  tiic  reduction  of  aluminium.     In  his 
process   the   alumina   is   held    in   solution   by   a 
molten  fluoride  hath,  which  is  itself  not  decom- 
posed by  the  electric  current.     The  latter  is  con- 
veyed to  the  melted  solution  by  means  of  carbon 
cj'linders   placed   in   the   bath    for   positive   elec- 
trodes, a  carbon  lined  pot  forming  the  negative 
electrode.    The  oxygen  of  the  aluminium  goes  ofT 
at  the  positive  electrode  as  carbon  dioxide,  wear- 
ing away  the  carbon  at  the  rate  ot  nearly  a  pound 
of  carbon  to  the 'pound  of  aluminium   produced. 
The  reduced  metal  settles  at  the  bottom  of  the 
pot,  which  is  easily  tapped,  yielding  a  metal  of 
99  per  cent,  purity.     Works  for  the  reduction  of 
aluminiimi  by  the  Hal!  process  were  estalilished 
in   1889   near   Pittsburg.      Since  then   Pittsburg 
has  been  the  centre  of  the  aluminium  industry  in 
the  United  States;  although  in  1895,  taking  ad- 
vantage of  the  power  obtained  from  the  Falls, 
a  large  electrolytic  plant  was  erected  at  Niagara. 
The  total  production  of  aluminium  in   1899  was 
5,570.:)8    metric    tons,    about    12,254,838    pounds, 
of   which     the     Pittsburg     Reduction     Company 
of  Niagara   Falls,   N.   Y.,   produced   about  2948 
metric     tons,     about      6,500,000      pounds.      The 
production     of     ahnninium      in      1900     in      the 
United   States  was  7.150,000  pounds,  valued  at 
$2,288,000,  as  against  1)1.281   pounds  valued  at 
$01,281,  in  1890.     In   1855,  the  first  year  of  its 
commercial  existence,  aliuniniinn  sold  at  $90  per 
pound;   in   1870  it  was  $12   jicr  pound:    in    1SS9 
the  Pittsburg  Reduction   Company  sold   it   at    $2 
per   pound,  and  in   1899  aluminium   in   rods  and 
bars   for   electrical    conduction   was   sold   at   29 
cents  per  pound. 


Aluminium  (sjtu.  A1.,  at.  wgt.  27.11)  is  a 
white  metal  with  a  bhiish  tinge,  is  extremely 
malleable,  and  has  a  specific  gravity  of  2.56, 
which  may  be  increased  to  2.68  by  rolling.  In 
its  tensile  strength  it  ranks  with  cast  iron, 
breaking  at  15.000  pounds  to  20.000  pounds  per 
square  inch,  but  in  malleability  and  ductility 
it  ranks  with  gold.  Like  gold  and  silver,  it  hard- 
ens in  working,  and  rods  and  wire  vary  in 
strength  from  2ti,000  pounds  to  62,000  pounds' per 
square  inch.  The  electrical  conductivity  of  alu- 
minium is  about  50,  with  copper  at  90,  and  silver 
at  100;  and  its  thermal  conductivity  is  38,  with 
copper  at  73. G,  and  silver  at  100.  It  is  also 
sonorous.  Aluminium  is  a  little  softer  than 
silver,  but  its  ductility  allows  it  to  be  drawn, 
punched,  or  spun  into  almost  any  form.  It  is 
practically  non-tarnishable,  but  strictly  speak- 
ing, after  long  exiiosure  to  the  atmosphere,  its 
polish  becomes  dulled  by  a  very  thin  film  of  white 
oxide.  Aluminium  is  not  acted  upon  by  hydro- 
gen disulphide,  carbon  monoxide,  carbon  dioxide, 
or  sulphurotis  acid.  It  is  practically  unaffected 
b)'  common  salt,  either  wet  or  dry,  and  hence  by 
sea  water.  On  tlie  other  hand,  solutions  of  the 
caustic  alkalies  readily  attack  it,  and  liydro- 
chloric  acid  is  its  natural  solvent.  Aluminium 
forms  alloys  with  most  of  the  metals.  Those 
with  copper,  silver,  and  tin  are  much  used  on 
account  of  their  color,  hardness,  and  stability, 
and  the  ease  with  which  they  are  worked.  (See 
Alloys.)  Those  witli  copper  arc  called  alumin- 
ium bronzes,  and  tliose  with  silver  are  known  as 
ticiK  (irrfi'iit.  Tlie  lightness  of  metallic  alumin- 
ium, subsequent  to  the  improved  processes  for  its 
manufacture,  suggested  its  application  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  iron,  tin.  or  copper;  but  as  yet  it  has 
failed  to  supersede  any  of  these  metals,  on  ac- 
count of  its  high  price.  Its  most  important  use 
is  still  in  the  form  of  alloy,  especially  with  cop- 
per; but  it  has  received  growing  favor  in  the 
manufacture  of  cooking  and  table  utensils,  and 
as  a  substitute  for  heavier  metals  in  opera  glass 
mountings  and  other  optical  instruments.  An 
application  of  aluminium  that  promises  favor- 
ably is  in  the  manufacture  of  accoutrements  for 
military  purposes.  Aluminium  is  enjoying  an 
increased  use  for  electrical  conductors  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  copper.  Owing  to  its  lightness,  the 
necessary  cross  section  to  insure  eqtial  conduc- 
tivity with  copper  cm  be  secured  witliout  undue 
weight,  and  the  question  seems  to  be  largely  one 
of  expense,  with  the  advantage  at  present  in 
favor  of  aluminium. 

BiBLlOGRAriiT.  C.  and  A.  Tissier.  L' Alumin- 
ium Pt  Jcs  mctaux  alcnlius  (Paris.  1858)  ;  .1.  W. 
Richards,  Aiuminiiini.  Itx  Properties.  Metalhirqii. 
and  Alloys  (Philadelphia,  1890);  A,  E.  Hunt, 
J.  W.  Langlcy,  and  C.  JI.  Hall.  "The  Properties 
of  Aliiiiiinum,  with  some  Information  Relating  to 
the  Jletal,"  Tratis<ictioi)S  of  the  American  Insti- 
tute  of   Mininij   Enfiineers    (New   York,    1890). 

See   B.MTXITE:    CUVOLITE. 

AL'UM  BOOT.  A  name  given  in  the  United 
States  to  two  ]ilants,  very  different  from  one 
another,  but  agreeing  in  the  remarkable  astrin- 
geney  of  their  roots.  One  of  these.  Geranium 
maculatum  (see  Oeranh'M),  very  much  resem- 
bles some  of  the  species  of  Geranium  which  are 
common  weeds  in  Great  Britain,  The  root  con- 
tains 12.27  per  cent,  tannin,  gallic  acid,  pectin, 
and  red  coloring  matter.  Tlie  tincture  of  the 
root  is  of  use  in  sore  throat  and  ulcerations 
of  the  mouth,  and  is  also  administered  in  vari- 


ALUM    BOOT. 


413 


ALVA. 


ous  diseases.  The  property  of  astiingoiiey  be- 
longs, in  an  interior  deyreo.  to  some  otlier  species 
of  Geranium,  and  of  tlie  kindred  genera  Erodium 
and  Pelarpiiniuni.  Tlic  other  American  plant  to 
which  tlie  name  alum  root  is  given  is  Heuuliera 
Americana,  of  the  natural  order  Saxifragaceie 
(see  Saxifrage),  an  order  in  which  also  astrin- 
gency  is  a  prevalent  property.  The  geniis  Heu- 
chera  has  the  caly.x  5-ck'ft.  undivided  petals,  live 
stamens,  with  remarkably  long  styles.  Jleuchera 
Americana  is  everywhere  covered  with  a  clammy 
down;  the  leaves  are  roundish,  lobed,  and  toothed: 
the  peduncles,  dichotomous  and  straggling.  The 
root  is  a  powerful  styptic,  and  is  used  to  make  a 
wash  for  woumls  and  obstinate  ulcers. 

ALUM  SHALE.  A  variety  of  shale  or  shaly 
sandstone  containing  iron  pyrites,  which  on 
weathering  yields  alum.  In  tlie  process  of 
weathering,  the  p.yrite  decomposes  and  the  pro- 
ducts of  decomposition,  reacting  on  tlie  alumina 
of  the  shale,  yield  limonite  and  alum.  The  safne 
process  can  be  hastened  by  roasting  the  rock. 
Alum  shales  are  found  in  many  formations.  For 
commercial  purposes  the  shale  is  crushed  and 
spread  out  for  exposure  to  tlie  weather,  or  is 
roasted;  but  the  industry  is  rapidly  dying  out, 
and  is  not  carried  on  in  the  United  States.  An 
alum  shale  from  England  has  the  composition: 
silica.  51.10;  iron  sulphide,  8.50;  iron  protoxide, 
6.11;  alumina,  18.30;  lime,  2.15;  magnesia,  .90; 
sulphuric  acid,  2.5;  carbon,  8.29;  water,  2.00; 
total,  99.91. 

AL'UNITE.  A  hydrated  aluminum  and 
potassium  sulphate  that  crystallizes  in  the  liex- 
agonal  system.  In  color  it  is  usually  white,  al- 
though gi'ay  and  reddish  varieties  are  sometimes 
found.  It  occurs  in  seams  in  trachytic  and  allied 
rocks,  where  it  has  been  formed  as  the  result  of 
the  action  of  sulphurous  vapors  on  the  rock. 
This  mineral,  which  is  used  as  a  source  of  alum, 
is  found  at  Tolfa  and  ilontioni  in  Italy,  in  Hun- 
gary, and  elsewhere  in  Europe;  also  at  various 
localities  in  tlie  United  States,  especially  in  Cus- 
ter County.  Colo. 

AXUNNO,  a-li5on'n6,  Niccoi.6  (c.  14.'?0-1502), 
properly  called  XiccolO  da  Foligno  from  his 
native  town,  or  XiccolO  di  Liberatore  after  his 
father.  An  Italian  painter  of  the  Early  Re- 
naissance, the  founder  of  the  Umbrian  school. 
He  was  boni  at  Foligno,  was  a  pupil  of  Benozzo 
Gozzoli,  and  was  at  a  later  period  inlluenced  by 
Carlo  Crivelli.  As  the  first  to  reveal  fully  the 
emotional  Umbrian  temperament,  in  its  strange 
combination  of  passion  and  mysticism,  he  may 
be  termed  founder  of  the  school  which  culmi- 
nated in  Raphael.  He  had  gooil  feeling  for  line 
and  color,  and  some  skill  in  rendering  movement. 
His  principal  ^^•orks  include  an  "Enthroned  Ma- 
donna" (1405)  in  the  Brera,  which  has  seven 
other  paintings  by  him,  and  his  largest  altar- 
piece,  a  polyptyeh  representing  the  "Coronation 
of  the  Virgin"  (1460)  in  the  Vatican.  Others 
are  a  processional  standard  representing  the 
"Annunciation"  (1400)  in  the  Pinacoteca  of 
Perugia ;  a  panel  in  two  compartments  at  Karls- 
ruhe; altar-pieces  at  Gualdo-Tadiiii  (1471)  and 
in  the  Villa  Albani,  Rome;  and  a  triptych  in 
the  cathedral  of  Assisi,  of  noble  yet  free  com- 
position. In  his  native  town  there  are  four 
paintings  by  him.  From  an  inscription  on  one 
of  them,  the  altar-piece  of  San  Niccolo,  "Nico- 
Inus  Alumnus  Fulginis,"  i.  e.,  "Xicholas,  a  na- 
tive of  Foligno,"  Vasari  erroneously  christened 


him    Alunno,    by    which    name    he    is    generally 
known. 

AL'URED.     See  Alfred  of  Beverley. 

ALUTA,  a-ltio'ta,  or  Alt  or  Olt.  An  afflu- 
ent of  the  Danube  risin;;  in  the  Carpathians,  in 
Transylvania.  After  entering  Rumania  through 
the  so-called  Red  Tower  Pass  of  the  Transylva- 
nian  Alps,  it  joins  the  Danube  near  Nicopolis 
(Map:  Turkey  in  Europe,  E  2).  It  is  about  340 
miles  long,  and  unfit  for  navigation  on  account 
of  its  rapidity. 

ALVA,  JlI'va,  or  ALBA,  Fernando  Alvarez 
DE  Toledo,  Duke  of  (1508-82  or  -83).  A  Span- 
ish general  and  statesman.  His  family  was  one 
of  the  most  distinguished  in  Spain.  He  was 
trained  by  his  grandfather  for  war  and  politics, 
entered  upon  a  life  of  brilliant  and  intense  ac- 
tivity, and  became  Prime  Minister,  and  general 
of  the  armies  of  Spain  under  Charles  V.  and 
Philip  II.  As  a  young  man  he  founght  in  the 
campaigns  of  Charles  V.  against  Francis  I.,  but 
his  military  talent  was  not  thought  highly  of, 
and  this  hurt  his  pride.  His  appointment  to 
high  command  was  attributed  to  favor  and  in- 
fluence rather  than  his  ability.  He  was  in  the 
campaign  against  the  Elector  .John  Frederick  of 
Saxony,  over  whom  he  gained  a  brilliant  vic- 
tory a"t  Miihlbeig  in  1547,  and  fought  against 
Henry  II.  of  France,  and  in  the  Italian  cam- 
paign of  1555  against  the  combined  French 
and  Papal  forces,  when  he  overran  the  States 
of  the  Church,  but  was  instructed  by  Philip  II., 
after  the  abdication  of  Charles  V.,  to  give  up 
his  conquests.  He  acted  as  proxy  for  Philip 
at  the  French  court  w^hen  the  Spanish  king 
espoused  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Henry  II.  of 
France,  after  the  peace  of  Cateau-Cambresis  in 
1559.  Alva  is  best  known  for  his  work  in  the 
Netherlands,  where  he  was  sent  in  1567,  with 
unlimited  authority  to  repress  the  Dutch  revolt 
against  Spanish  (tyranny  and  the  Inquisition. 
He  promptly  estabiished  the  tribunal  which  has 
been  known  as  the  '■Bloody  Council."  This  body, 
without  legal  status  or  procedure,  entered  upon 
a  general  proscription  of  the  living  and  the  dead 
and  the  confiscation  of  property.  Excessive  taxa- 
tion brought  commerce  almost  to  a  standstill, 
and  more  than  120.000  Protestants  emigrated. 
Counts  Egmont  and  Hoorne  were  executed. 
Prince  Louis  of  Orange  was  defeated,  and  Prince 
William  was  driven  into  Germany,  after  which 
Alva  made  a  triumphal  entry  into  Brussels, 
December  22,  1568.  He  was  especially  honored 
by  the  Pope,  and  set  up  in  Antwerp  a  statue  of 
himself  tramplingon  two  figures,  representing  the 
nobles  and  people  of  the  Netherlands.  His  blood- 
thirsty tyranny  intensified  the  resistance  of  the 
Dutch,  and  after  the  destruction  of  his  fleet  the 
King  recalled  him  at  his  own  request  (1573). 
He  claimed  to  have  caused  the  execution  of 
18.000  men.  He  was  received  in  Madrid  with 
the  highest  honors,  but  for  an  act  of  disobedience 
was  banished  from  the  court  until  called  upon  to 
conduct  a  campaign  (1580)  against  Dom  An- 
tonio, of  Portugal.  The  country  was  conquered 
and  treated  Avith  that  cruelty  and  license  which 
always  followed  Alva's  course.  Alva  was  tall, 
spare,  bronzed,  with  a  long  beard,  a  typical 
Spanish  grandee.  Motley's  estimate,  severe  as 
it  is,  represents  the  world's  verdict  upon  him: 
"Such  an  amount  of  stealth  and  ferocity,  of 
patient  vindictiveness,  and  universal  bloodthir.s- 
tiness  has  never  been  found  in  a  savage  beast  of 


ALVA. 


414 


ALVARY. 


the  forest,  and  but  rarely  in  a  human  being. 
The  German  historian,  Ludwig  Hinisser,  calls 
Alva  "the  hangman  of  the  Netherlands."  Con- 
sult: J.  L.  Jlotlev,  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Rcpuilw 
(New  York.  18:30)  ;  Ru.stant,  Historia  de  Don 
Fernando  Aharcz  de  Toledo,  duque  de  Alva 
(Madrid,  1751). 

ALVARADO,  iil'va-ra'oo.  A  seaport  in  the 
State  of  \'era  Cruz,  Mexico,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Alvarado  River,  40  miles  southeast  of  Vera 
Cruz  (Map:  Mexico,  L  8).  The  harbor  is  well 
sheltered,  but  is  too  shallow  for  vessels  of  more 
than  13  feet  draught,  and  the  climate  is  very  un- 
healthful  because  of  the  surrounding  swamps. 
Its  exports  are  rice  and  cacao.  Pop.,  about  4000. 
ALVARADO,  Aloxzo  or  Alfoxso  de  (  ?^ 
l.'),54).  A  Spanish  soldier  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. He  was  born  at  Burgos,  served  under 
Cortes  in  the  conquest  of  Mexico,  and  under 
Pizarro  in  that  of  Peru.  In  1537  he  was  sent 
to  Chile  against  the  rebel  Almagro,  but  at  the 
Abancay  River  was  defeated  by  Orgonez.  In 
1548.  under  Gasca,  he  assisted  in  suppressing  the 
revolt  of  Gonzalo  Pizarro.  He  was  appointed 
Captain-General  of  La  Plata  and  Potosi.  but  was 
vanquished  by  the  malcontent  Giron  in  1554,  and 
died  not  long  after. 

ALVARADO,    Pedro    de     (?  —   1541).     A 
Spanish  adventurer,  a  companion  of  Cortes,  and 
afterward  conqueror  of  Guatemala.    He  was  born 
at  Badajoz.  in  Spanish  Estremadura.    In  1517  or 
1518,  he  sailed  for  the  New  World,  and  in  the 
latter  year  was  dispatched  from  Cuba,  by  Velas- 
quez,  the   governor   of   that   island,   to   explore, 
under  the  command  of  Grijalva,  the  shores   of 
the  American  continent,  when  for  the  first  time 
the  Spaniards  heard  of  the  riches  of  Jlontczuma, 
and  of   his   vast    empire.      In    February,    1519, 
Alvarado   sailed   with   Cortes   from   Havana    for 
the  conquest  of  JMexico,  in  which  Alvarado  played 
a  part  second  only  to  Cortes.     His  blue  eyes  and 
blond  beard  strengthened  the  impression  anions 
the  dusky  Aztecs  that  the  invaders  were  "chil- 
dren of  the  sun.''  descendants  of  Quetzlcoatl.  who 
■were  looked  for  to  resume  the  dominion  of  the 
ancient  royal  house  in  ^Mexico.     While  he  held 
the  city  of   Mexico,  during  the   absence   of   his 
chief,  he  massacred  in  the  midst  of  a  fete  a  great 
number  of   Aztec   nobles.     In  the  night  retreat 
of  July  1,  1520,  the  )!oc?ic  triste,  Alvarado  com- 
manded the   rear-g\iard.   and   saved   his   life   by 
a  famous  leap,  the  "salto  de  Alvarado,"  which 
he  accomplished  with  the  aid  of  his  long  spear 
across  a  wide  breach  in  the  causeway  along  which 
the   retreating    Spaniards    were    being    driven. 
After  the  conquest  of  Mexico,  he  was   sent,   in 
1523,  to   sul)due   the  tribes   on  the  coast  of   the 
Pacific  in  the  direction  of  Guatemala.     He  was 
completely   successful,  and   returned    to    Spain, 
where   the   Emperor    Charles   V.    appointed   him 
Governor  of  Guatemala.     Pizarro  and  Almagro 
were  then  prosecuting  a  brilliant  career  of  con- 
(juest  ill  South  America.     Alvarado  did  not  intend 
to  intrude  on  their  territories,  but  as  he  consid- 
ered  the   province   of   Quito  to  be   without  the 
limits   of   these,  he   landed   with   a  force   of   five 
hundred    soldiers    at     Bahia    de    los    Caraques, 
whence  he  penetrated  into  the  heart  of  the  coun- 
trv,  crossing  the  Andes  bv  a  bold  and  hazardous 
march.     In  the  plain  of  Rio  Bamba,  he  was  met 
by  some  of   the  troops  of    Pizarro,   headed    by 
Almagro,   and   agreed   to   retire   on   receiving   an 
indemnity.      Subsequently   he   received   the   gov- 


ernment of  Honduras  in  addition  to  Guatemala. 
He  perished  in  an  alTray  with  tlie  Indians  near 
Guadalajara  in  western  Mexico  in  1541,  crushed 
under  his  fallen  horse. 

ALVAREZ,  al'va'ra',  Albert  Raymond  (1860- 
— ).  A  French  vocalist.  He  was  born  at  Bor- 
deaux. He  was  first  in  the  army  as  a  musical 
conductor :  afterward  he  studied  at  the  Conserva- 
toire, Paris,  and  appeared  as  an  operatic  tenor. 
He  first  sang  at  the  Paris  Opera  in  1892,  and 
soon  became  the  leading  tenor  of  the  Opera.  In 
1893  he  appeared  in  Covent  Garden,  London. 
He  visited  the  United  States  in  1898-99  and  1900. 
The  unanimous  approval  with  which  he  met  in 
Europe  was  not  wholly  confirmed  in  this  country. 
His  repertoire  includes  no  less  than  forty-five 
operas,  in  eleven  of  which  he  created  the  prin- 
cipal parts. 

ALVAREZ,     al-va'reth,     Jose     (1708-18271. 
A  Spanish  sculptor.  He  was  born  April  23,  1708, 
at'  Priego,    in    the    province    of    Cordova.     Dur- 
ing his  youth  he  labored  with  his  father,  a  stone 
mason,  and  when  twenty  years  old  began  to  study 
diawins  and  sculpture  in  the  Academy  of  Gra- 
nada.     His   early  essays   in  sculpture   soon  at- 
tracted attention,  and'in  1794  he  was  received 
into  the  Academy  of  San  Fernando,  at  Madrid, 
where,  in   1799.  lie  gained  the  first  prize  in  the 
first  class.     A  roval  pension  having  enabled  him 
to   pursue    his   studies   at    Paris,    he   gained   the 
second  prize  for  sculpture  in  the  Institute,  and 
in  1804  increased  his  celebrity  by  a  plaster  model 
of  Ganymede,  which  proved  that  he  could  rival 
Canova"   in    gracefulness    of    style.      Having   re- 
moved to  Rome,  he  was  employed  by  Napoleon  to 
design    bas-reliefs    for    the    Quirinal    Palace    on 
Monte    Cavallo;    but    on    account    of    political 
changes,   his  works  were  not  allowed  to   occupy 
the  places  for  which  they  had  been  destined.     In 
Rome,  where  he  lived  on  terms  of  friendship  with 
Canova    and    Thorwaldsen,    he    executed,    among 
other  works,  his  colossal  group,  now  in  the  Royal 
Museum  of  Madrid,  representing  a  scene  in  the 
defense  of  Saragossa.     This  work  alone  is  suffi- 
cient to  establish  Alvarez's  fame.     Clearness  of 
design,   dignified   simplicity   in   execution,   triie- 
ness"  to    nature,    and    deep    sentiment   mark    the 
sculptures  of  Ailvarez.  who,  next  to  nature  and 
classical    antiquity,   studied   most   the   works   of 
Michelangelo.      He    died    in   Madrid,    November 
20,  1827. 

ALVAREZ,  .JuAX  (1780-1807).  A  Mexican 
general  of  Indian  descent.  He  instigated  the  re- 
volt which  deposed  Santa  Anna  (q.v.)  in  July. 
18.10.  and  succeeded  Carrera  as  President  in  Sep- 
tember, but,  through  the  dissatisfaction  of  the 
clergy  and  army,  he  resigned  before  the  end  of 
the  year.  He  "was  afterward  one  of  the  most 
determiiie.!   oppoueiits   of   Maximilian    (q.v.). 

ALVARY,  al-vii're.  Max  (1858-98).  The 
sta^e  name  of  a  famous  German  dramatic  tenor. 
He%vas  born  at  Diisseldorf;  his  father  was  an 
eminent  landscape  iiainter.  Andreas  Achenbach. 
He  studied  singing  with  Lamperti  and  Julius 
Stockhausen  of  Frankfort,  but  owing  to  his 
father's  opposition  to  his  going  on  the  stage,  did 
not  make  his  d6but  until  1882,  at  W^eimar,  in 
Stradrlla.  He  came  to  this  country  in  1884. 
and  made  his  first  appearance  as  Jose  in  Car- 
men at  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House.  New 
York.  During  his  five  years'  engagement  here 
he  developed,  partly  under  Seidl's  guidance,  into 
a  Wagner  singer,  his  finest  roles  being  Loge,  m 


ALVABY. 


415 


ALZOG. 


Das  Rhcitigold,  and  Sief^fricil,  in  the  music  drama 
of  tliat  title.  Alvaiy  returned  to  Ameriea  for 
the  season  of  1804-05,  and  again  in  180G.  March 
21,  1S9.5,  at  the  Jletropolitan  Opera  House,  he 
sang  Kiififried  for  tlie  one  hundredth  time.  In 
November,  1800.  he  was  afflicted  with  cancer  of 
the  stomach,  resultins;,  it  is  su]>posed,  from 
hruises  received  l)y  a  fall  throuph  an  open  trap 
on  the  Mannheim  stage.  He  went  to  his  beau- 
tiful country  seat,  Datenberg,  the  building  of 
which,  and  his  enforced  absence  from  the  stage, 
had  iMipo\eris]icd  him.  Here  he  died,  November 
8,  ISOS. 

ALVENSLEBEN,  lil'vens-la'bcn,  Konstan- 
TIX  VOX  (1800-02).  A  Prussian  general.  He 
was  liorn  in  Prussian  Saxony,  was  trained  In  the 
cadet  corps,  ser\ed  through  the  Danish  War  and 
the  war  with  Austria,  and  commanded  the  third 
army  corps  in  the  Franco-German  War.  He  re- 
tired in  1873.  One  of  the  forts  at  Mctz  was 
named  in  his  honor. 

ALVIN,  al'vax',  Lotn.s  Joseph  (180G-87).  A 
Belgian  poet  and  art  critic.  He  was  horn  at 
Cambrai ;  in  1830  was  appointed  secretary,  and 
subsequently  chief  of  division  in  the  ministry  of 
education.  In  1850  he  was  appointed  librarian 
of  the  Royal  Library,  Brussels.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  lielgian  Academy  (elected  1845),  and,  be- 
sides numerous  contributions  to  periodicals, 
wrote  a  variety  of  works,  including  a  tragedy, 
Hardannpale  (1834)  ;  the  comedy  Le  foUiculaire 
anonyme  (1835);  the  satire  Les  recontempla- 
tions  (1856),  and  the  two  studies,  Le.i  acade- 
mien  et  Ics  aiitres  ccoirs  de  dessin  de  la  Belfiique 
en  ISG-'i   (18GU),  and  Andre  von  Ilasselt   (l'877). 

ALVINCZY,  ol'vin-tsp,  Joseph,  B.vrox  von 
(1735-1810).  An  Austrian  field-marshal.  He 
fought  in  the  Seven  Years'  War  at  Torgau  and 
Teplitz,  and  in  1789  he  led  the  foice  which  unsuc- 
<;essfidly  attempted  to  capture  Belgrade  by  storm. 
Between  1700  and  1703  he  touglit  bravely  in  the 
Netherlands.  Though  oftener  losing  than  win- 
ning, he  was  selected  to  lead  the  Austrian  army 
against  Bonaparte:  but  having  lost  the  impor- 
tant battles  of  Areola  and  Rivoli,  he  was  recalled. 
In  1798  he  received  the  chief  command  in  Hun- 
gary, and  reorganized  the  army.  He  became 
field-marshal  in  1808. 

AL'VIS  (All- wise).  In  Norse  mythology,  the 
dwarf,  a  suitor  for  the  hand  of  Tlior's  daughter, 
who  answers  Thor's  questions  in  the  lay  (song) 
of  Alvis. 

AL'VORD,  Benmamin  (1813-84).  An  Ameri- 
can soldier  and  writer.  He  was  born  at  Rutland, 
Vt„  and  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1833.  Af- 
ter serving  in  the  second  Seminole  War  (1S35- 
37),  he  participated  in  the  War  with  Mexico, 
and  attained  the  brevet  rank  of  major.  During 
the  march  from  A'era  Cruz  to  ^lexico  he  was 
chief  of  staff  to  itajor  Lally's  column.  He  was 
paymaster  of  the  Department  of  Oregon  from 
1854  to  1SG2,  and  brigadier-general  of  volunteers 
from  18H2  until  his  resignation  of  this  grade  in 
18C5.  He  then  became  paymaster  at  New  York 
City,  i\  position  which  he  held  until  1867,  and 
from  18G7  to  1872  he  held  the  same  post  in  the 
district  of  Omaha  and  Nebraska.  From  1876 
until  his  retirement  (1881)  he  was  Paymaster- 
Oeneral  of  the  United  States  Army,  with  the  rank 
of  brigadier-general.  Among  his  publications 
are:  Tinr/pncirs  of  Circles  and  of  Spheres 
(1855),   and    The   Interpretation    of   Inuiyinary 


Foots    in    Questions    of    Maxima    and    ilininia 
(ISGll). 

ALVORD,  Coryhon  A.  ( 1812-74) .  An  Ameri- 
can printer.  He  was  born  at  Winchester,  Conn., 
and  in  1845  removed  to  New  York,  where  he  be- 
came widely  known  as  a  printer  of  illustrated 
books.  His  establishment  on  Vandewater  Street 
was  one  of  the  largest  in  the  country.  It  con- 
tained fonts  of  old-style  type  and  of  ancient  and 
Oiiental  letters  which  enabled  him  to  make  re- 
markable facsimiles  of  old  books  and  papers. 
After  retiring  from  business  in  1871  he  removed 
to  Hartford,  where  he  devoted  most  of  his  time 
to  the  preparation  of  a  history  of  Hartford  and 
Winchester. 

ALWAR,  al'wjir.  One  of  the  feudatory  States 
of  Rajputana  (q.v.),  British  India  (Map:  India, 
C  3). 

ALWAR.  Capital  of  the  native  Rajputana 
State  of  the  same  name,  India,  on  the  North- 
western Railway,  GO  miles  northeast  of  Jaipur. 
It  is  the  residence  of  the  Maharaja  and  of  a  Brit- 
ish political  agent.  The  town,  dominated  by  an 
imposing  fort,  built  on  a  rock  1200  feet  high, 
is  picturesquely  situated  on  undulating  ground. 
Its  chief  building  is  the  Royal  Palace,  with  its 
marble  durbar  mom,  jewel  house,  valuable  libra- 
ry, armory,  and  extensive  stables.  Other  note- 
worthy features  are  temples  and  tombs,  and 
churches  of  the  Roman  Catholic  and  Presbyte- 
rian missions.  The  town  has  a  fine  water  sup- 
ply from  the  artificial  Siliser  Lake,  nine  miles 
southwest  of  the  city.  Pop.,  1801,  52,308;  1901, 
56,740. 

AL'WATO.     See  Andrews,  Stephen  Pearl. 

ALYATTES,  iil'i-;lt'tez  (Gk.  \0.vaTT,/().  A 
king  of  Lydia,  who  ascended  the  throne  about 
018  B.C.  He  took  Smyrna,  drove  the  Cimmerians 
from  Asia,  and  attacked  Clazomeufe,  but  was  re- 
pulsed. A  six  years'  war  was  waged  between  him 
and  ('ya.xares.  King  of  Jledia,  He  died  about 
5G2  B.C.,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  the  his- 
toric (^ncsus.  His  tomb,  situated  north  of  Sar- 
dis,  and  not  far  from  Lake  Gygtea,  was  one  of 
the  wonders  of  antiquity. 

ALYS'SXJM  (Gk.  uAvacsov,  ah/sson,  a  plant 
used  to  check  hiccough,  from  a,  a,  neg.  -^  XvCciv, 
lyzein,  to  hiccough).  A  genus  of  low-growing 
mostly  perennial  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Crueiferoe.  There  are  a  number  of  species  and 
many  cultivated  varieties,  mostly  of  European 
origin.  The  plant  is  used  largely  for  rock-work. 
The  (lowers  are  small,  white  or  yellow,  and  borne 
in  racemes.  The  sweet  alyssum  (Ahjssuin  mari- 
timum),  grown  in  low  borders,  window  gardens, 
and  baskets,  and  fenced  in  greenhouses,  is  an 
annual. 

ALZEY,  -il'tsi.  An  old  city  in  Rhenish  Hesse, 
on  the  Selz.  18  miles  southwest  of  Mainz  (Map: 
Prussia,  C  4).  Its  chief  industries  are  the 
manufacture  of  shoes,  leather  ware,  and  f\irni- 
ture.  Population  in  1890,  about  6000:  in  1900, 
6900.  The  town  was  known  as  early  as  the 
fourth  century,  and  was  built  on  the  site  of  an 
earlier  Roman  settlement.  Volker  the  Fiddler, 
one  of  the  heroes  of  the  Nibelunf/enlied,  is  sup- 
posed to  have  come  from  Alzey. 

ALZOG,  al'tsriG,  Johann  Baptist  (1808-78). 
A  Roman  Catholic  theologian.  He  was  born  at 
Ohlau,  Silesia,  June  20,  1808,  and  was  professor 
of  church  history  in  the  University  of  Freiburg 
from   1853  till  his  death  there,  March   1,   1878. 


AI.ZOG. 


416 


AMADIS    OF    GREECE. 


He  wTote  a  Manual  of  Universal  Church  History, 
which  is  known  in  many  lanjtnages  (original, 
Mainz,  1840:  tenth  edition  by  F.  X.  Kraus,  1882, 
2  volumes;  English  translation,  Cincinnati,  Ohio, 
1874-76,  3  volumes)  ;  also  (Innidriss  dcr  Patrolo- 
gie  Oder  der  altern  chrisllichfii  Littcrargeschichte 
(Freiburg,  18(i(i;  fourth  edition,  1888).  He  was, 
in  1869,  a  member  of  the  commission  on  dogma 
which  prepared  the  work  for  the  Vatican  Coun- 
cil, and  was  the  only  member  of  the  commission 
who  opposed  the  promulgation  of  the  dogma  of 
Papal  infallibility.  He  concurred  in  it,  however, 
after  its  adoption. 

AM'ADAS,  or  AM'IDAS,  Philip  (1550- 
1618).  An  Enslish  navigator.  He  was  born  m 
Huil.  England."  Sir  Walter  Kalegh  selected  him 
as  captain  of  one  of  the  two  ships  sent  out  in 
1584  to  find  a  suitable  place  on  the  coast  of 
North  America  for  planting  a  colony.  He  and 
Barlow,  captain  of  the  other  vessel,  coasted 
northeasterly  from  the  vicinity  of  Cape  Fear 
and  reached  Ocracoke  Inlet  (.Tuly  13).  They 
landed  on  the  narrow  island  separating  Pamlico 
Sound  from  the  Atlantic,  and  afterward  visited 
the  Indians  on  Roanoke  Island.  They  returned 
to  England  and  gave  a  glowing  account  of  the 
country.  Barlow  writing  the  report.  Several 
years  afterward  Amadas  conducted  an  expedition 
to  Newfoundland.  Consult  Hakluyt,  Prindpall 
Toiages,  new  edition,  Volume  III.  (London, 
1809-12). 

AMADEO,  a'ma-da'o.  Giovanni  Antonio 
(e.  1447-1552).  An  Italian  sculptor  and  archi- 
tect. He  was  born  at  Pavia,  where  he  executed 
a  portion  of  the  facade  decorations  of  the  Car- 
thusian monasterv.  His  most  important  work  is 
generally  considered  to  be  the  Colleoni  Chapel, 
Bergamo,  with  its  bas-reliefs  and  statuary.  From 
1)90  to  1519  he  conducted  the  work  upon  the 
Milan  Cathedral.  He  sought  to  combine  the  re- 
spective styles  of  the  jSIiddle  Ages  and  the  early 
Renaissance,  and  ranks  as  the  most  important  of 
Lombard  sculptors. 

AM'ADE'US.  A  name  borne  by  several  mem- 
bers of  the  House  of  Savoy  (q.v.),  including  one 
king  of  Spain.     See  Amadeus  I. 

AMADEUS  I..  Ferdinand  Maria  (1845-90). 
Duke   of    Aosta   and    King   of    Spain.     He   was 
the  second  son  of  Victor  Emmanuel  of  Italy,  and 
was  rear-admiral  in  the  Italian  navy  and  lieu- 
tenant-general in  the  army.    He  married  Princess 
Maria  del  Pozzo  della  Cisterna.  daughter  of  the 
Countess  de  Merode,  May  30,  1807.     On  Novem- 
ber   16.    1870,   the   Cortes   of   Spain   elected   him 
king,  and  on  December  4  .\madeus  accepted  the 
crown,  with  the  sanction  of  his  father  and  the 
approv.al  of  the  great  Powers.     He  reached  Mad- 
rid .lanuarv  2,  1871.  four  days  after  the  assassi- 
nation  of   General   Prim.     He   himself   was   at- 
tacked by  assassins  in  .Tuly,  1872.     In  the  same 
year  a  great  Carlist  rising  took  place.     On  Feb- 
ruary   II,    1873,    ho    abdicated    for   himself    and 
his  heirs,   and    returned   to   Italy,   the   Spanish 
Cortes    proclaiming    the    Pepublie.    and    making 
Fi^ueras  provisional  President.     Consult  White- 
house.   The  Sacrifice  of   a   Throne    (New  York, 
1897). 
AMADETTS  VIII.     See  under  Felix. 
AM'ADIS  OF  GAUL.     .\  legendary  hero  of 
the   most   famous   of   mediirval   romances,   which 
even   the   barber   of   Don   Quixote   had   not   the 
heart  to  consign  to  the  flames.     It  was  the  cen- 


tre  and   parent   of  a  cycle   of   similar   tales  of 
chivalry    which    have    their    representatives    in 
every  literary  language  of  mediteval  Europe,  and 
even  in  Hebrew.     In  what  language  it  was  first 
written  is  uncertain.     Portugal,  Spain,  France, 
and  England  claimed  its  nativity,  and,  with  the 
exception   of   Portugal,   all  with   some   show  of 
justice.     Amadis    owes    its    inspiration    to    the 
Arthurian  cycle,  and  so  to  Britain.     It  appears 
to  liave  been  developed  in  northern  France,  the 
home   of   the  niedia;val   epic,   to   have  migrated 
thence   to    Provence,    and    to   have   been   carried 
by  the  troubadours,  either  as   a   complete  story 
oi-  as  a  tradition,  to  Spain,  where  we  find  the 
epic   mentioned   by  poets   in  the  middle  of  the 
fourteenth   century   in   a   way  to   indicate   that 
it    was    already    widely    popular    there,    though 
no  contemporaneous  trace  of  it  has  been   found 
in   Italy.      (Consult  Braunfels,   Eritischer   Ver- 
such  iiber  den  Roman  Amadis  von  Gaula,  Leipzig, 
1876.)      The    earliest    surviving    .\madis    legend 
is  by  the  Spaniard  Garcia  Ordoiiez  de  Montalyo, 
and  appears   to  have  been   finished   about   1470. 
He   allowed   himself   considerable    liberties   with 
the  tradition,  especially  toAvard  the  close,   and 
his  anonymous  successors  extended  the  romance 
to  twelve  books  and  more  than  three  times  the 
length  he  had  given  it.     It  was  first  printed  in 
1519,    and   so   fully   embodies   the   taste   of   the 
generation  that  hail  given  it  birth  that  it  almost 
immediately  became  part  and  parcel  of  the  lit- 
erary consciousness  of  Europe,  each  nation  recog- 
nizing and  reclaiming  its  share  in  it,  although 
they  claimed  no  part  of  the  continuation  by  jSIon- 
talvo,   in   which   he   described,   out  of   his   own 
invention,    the    deeds    of    the    son    of    Amadis. 
Esplandian.     Amadis  was  rendered   into  Italian 
in  1540,  and  into  German  before  the  end  of  the 
century.     It  attracted  the  attention  of  Francis 
I.  during  his  captivity  at  Madrid,  and   at  his 
command  was  translated  by  Nicolas  de  Herberay, 
who    rendered   two-thirds    of   the    Spanish    epie 
into  polished  French,  finishing  his  work  in  1548. 
Ten    translations    followed    this,  ^  with    supple- 
mentary   adventures    and    imitations,     till     the 
whole   swelled   at  last  to   twenty-five  books,   de- 
tailing the  adventures  of  an  entire  family.     In 
its  simpler  form  it  tells  how  its  hero,  Amadis, 
the   illegitimate  son   of  Perion.   King   of  Gaul, 
and  Elisena,  a  princess  of  Brittany,  was  placed 
by  his  mother  in  a  river  in  a  box,  was  rescued 
at   sea  by   a   Scottish  knight,   and   educated  at 
the    Scottish    court,    was    enamored    of    Oriana. 
daughter  of  King  T.isuarte  of  England,  married 
her,'^returned  to  Gaul,  and  spent  the  rest  of  his 
life'  there  and  elsewhere,  in  manifold  adventures. 
Both   the  French  and  the  Spanish  .\madis  were 
criticised   in  their  own  day  for  defective   struc- 
ture, hyperbolic  phantasy,  immorality,  and  irre- 
ligion.  "  Their  popularity  lasted  until  they  them- 
selves had  raised  up  worthier  imitators  of  their 
example.     The  first  of  these  was  d'Urfe's  Astree. 
An  English  version  of  Amadis,  much  shortened 
to  its  advantage,  was  made  by  Southey  (London, 
1803).     For    the    origin    of    the    story,    consult: 
Griisse,  Litieraturqcschiclitc  (Dresden.  1844-50)  ; 
and   Korting.    dcschichte   des   franzosischcn    Ro- 
mans   im   Xrn.    Jahrhundert    (Leipzig,    1885)  : 
for  further  bibliography,  Braga.   Grundnss  der 
romanischen  Philologie   ( Strassburg,  1893). 

AMADIS  OF  GREECE.  A  supplement  to 
Amadis  of  Gaul,  a  Spanish  work  by  Feliciano  da 
Silva  It  is  noteworthv  as  being  perhaps  the 
source   of    Florizel    in    Shakespeare's    "Winters 


AMADIS    OF    GREECE. 


Tale,"  and  of  the  "Masque  of  Cu]iitl,"   iu  Spen- 
ser's Fucric  Queene. 

AMADOR  DE  LOS  RIOS,  a'ni:i-D6r'  da  16s 
rS'os,  Jose  (1S1S-7S).  A  Spanish  critic  and 
historian,  born  at  Baena.  He  first  became 
known  as  editor  (with  Madrazzo)  of  the  col- 
lection entitled  Monuineiitos  argnitectonicos  de 
EsjjuHii.  His  most  noted  work  is  the  Ilisloria 
ie  !a  Utcratura  I'spiinoht  (1801-05),  of  which 
he  completed  but  seven  volumes.  Despite  many 
defects  resulting  from  its  seope  and  comple.Kity, 
this  work  remains  standard  in  tlie  subject  of 
which  it  treats.  His  other  publications  include 
works  on  the  art  monuments  of  Toledo  and  Se- 
ville, a  hi.story  of  Latin-Byzantine  art  in  Spain, 
and  the  e-\liaustive  Histuria  social,  politica  ij 
rcUr/iosa  tic  los  jttdius  de  Espana  y  Portugal 
pladrid,  1S75-7G). 

AMADOU,  ;iiii'a-d(H>'  (Fr..  tinder,  from  ama- 
doiici:  to  l)uit,  allure,  coax,  alluding  to  its  use 
as  tinder  during  tlic  Middle  Ages).  A  name 
given  to  some  fungi  of  the  genus  Polyporus. 
They  grow  upon  old  trees,  especially  oak  and 
ash,  in  Great  Britain  and  on  the  continent  of 
Europe.  The  pileus  is  completely  blended  with 
the  hymeniuni,  which  is  pieiced  with  thin-sided, 
rather  angular,  tubular,  vertical  passages — the 
"hole  fungiis  thus  appearing  as  a  leathery  or 
fleshy  mass,  the  under  side  of  which  is  pierced 
hr  deep  pores.  Polyporus  igniarius  is  called 
Hard  amadou,  or  Touchwood.  Polyporus  fotnen- 
tarius  is  called  Soft  Amadou,  or  German  Tinder. 
They  are  used  as  styptics  for  staudiing  slight 
wounds:  and  when  steel  and  Hint  were  in  general 
>ise  for  striking  fire,  were  much  employed  as 
tinder,  being  prepared  for  this  purpose  by  boiling 
in  solution  of  nitre.  The  soft  amadou  is  used 
for  making  small  surgical  pads,  for  which  its 
elasticity  peculiarly  fits  it.  Polyporus  fomcn- 
tarius.  or  a  very  similar  species,  is  found  in  In- 
dia, and  is  there  used  in  the  same  manner  as 
iu  Europe.  The  remarkably  light  wood  of  Her- 
nandia  Guianensis,  a  shrub  of  the  natural 
order  ThjmieUvaceDe,  is  readily  kindled  by  flint 
and  steel,  and  is  used  as  amadou  in  Guiana, 

AMAGER,  ji-ma'ger.  An  island  in  the  district 
of  I'lipcnhagcn.  Denmark :  it  is  in  the  sound, 
and  separated  from  Zealand  by  the  Kalvebod 
Strand  (Map:  Denmark.  F  3).  Amager  has 
an  area  of  25  square  miles,  is  twice  as  long  as  it 
is  Mide,  with  a  very  low  and  level  surface  that 
is  very  well  cultivated.  Christianshavn,  at  the 
northern  end  of  the  island,  forms  part  of  the 
city  of  Copenhagen.  The  chief  trade  is  market 
gardening  for  Copenhagen.  The  sliipping  of 
the  island  is  of  some  importance.  The  inhabi- 
tants are  chiefly  descendants  of  Dutch  emigrants 
of  the  sixteentli  century,  who  still  preserve  their 
idd  dress  and  customs."    Pop.,  1890,   19,700. 

AMAI'MON,  or  AMOY'MON  ( Probably  Gk. 
a,  a  priv.  +  Hell,  mnimiii,  lieliever).  A  demon 
named  in  the  theory  of  the  Jliddle  Ages  as  king 
of  the  eastern  part  of  hell.  Asmodeus  (q.v. ), 
the  demon  of  desire,  was  his  lieutenant.  See 
allusions  in  Shakespeare's  Merry  Wildes  of  Wind- 
sor, II.,  2,  and  nciiry  IT.,  first  part,  II.,  4. 

AMAL'ARIC  (502.531).  The  last  Visisoth- 
ie  King  of  Spain  (526-531).  He  married' Clo- 
tilda, ^daughter  of  Clovis,  King  of  the  Franks, 
in  527,  and  treated  her  so  badly  because  she 
would  not  embrace  Arianism  that  her  brother 
Childebert  marched  against  him  and  defeated 
Vol.  1.-27 


417  AMALFI. 

him.  According  to  Gregory  of  Tours,  Amalarie 
was  killed  in  the  battle;  according  to  others,  he 
was  killed   at   Barcelona. 

AM'ALASUN'THA  (?-535).  Queen  of  the 
Ostrogotlis,  daughter  of  Theodoric  tlie  (Jrcat. 
On  the  death  of  Theodoric,  her  son  Athalaric 
succeeded  under  the  regency  of  Amalasuntha. 
She  was  well  educated,  and  preferred  the  Roman 
civilization.  The  Goths,  who  were  opposed  to 
this,  incited  her  son  to  rebellion  in  533.  Amala- 
suntha subdued  the  rebellion,  and  Athalaric  died 
the  following  year,  at  the  age  of  eighteen.  She 
then  associated  Theodahad  with  her  in  the  king- 
dom, but  did  not  marry  him.  In  535  Theodahad 
nmrdered  AnuUasuntha,  under  the  pretext  that 
she  was  planning  to  betray  the  Goths  to  Justin- 
ian. Her  actions  had  made  it  probable  that 
she  was  thinking  of  retirin"  to  Constantinople. 
Belisarius  avenged  her  death  by  killing  Theoda- 
had in  530.  Consult  Hodgkin.  Ituli/  and  Ucr 
liirtidcrs,  Volumes  III.  and  IV..  second  edition 
(Oxford,   18911).     See  GoTiis. 

AMAL'ECITE.  An  Algonkian  tribe,  closely 
related  to  tlie  Abiiaki,  and  scattered  over  west- 
ern New  Brunswick,  chielly  along  the  St.  John 
Kiver.  to  the  number  of  about  850.  The  name,  fre-. 
quently  written  Malisit,  has  been  variously  ren- 
dered ''disfigured  foot"  and  '"broken  talkers." 
Together  with  the  more  eastern  bands  of  the 
Abnaki,  they  were  sometimes  known  as  Etchemin. 
In  the  colonial  wars  they  took  the  French  side. 
AM'AIiEKITES.  One  of  the  fiercest  and 
most  warlike  of  the  old  nomadic  Arabian  tribes. 
They  dwelt  in  the  land  south  of  .ludea  (Num- 
bers xiii  :29),  between  Idumea  and  Egv'pt, 
though  it  would  also  appear  that  ,a  branch  ex- 
tended at  one  time  into  central  Palestine.  Their 
country  is  first  mentioned  in  Genesis  xiv  as  the 
scene  of  the  wars  of  Chedorlaomer  of  Elam.  From 
the  very  first  they  manifested  great  hostility  to 
the  Israelites,  attacking  them  at  Reiihidim  during 
the  journey  toward  Sinai.  Thej-  were  defeated  in 
this  encounter  (Exodus  xvii  :  8-10),  and  their 
complete  extermination  was  prophesied  (J6., 
Numbers  xxiv  :  20;  Deuteronomy  xxv  :  17-19). 
When  Israel  was  attempting  to  enter  Palestine, 
the  ."Vmalekites  led  the  opposing  Canaanitish 
forces  (Numbers  xiv:  43-45).  In  the  dajs  of 
Saul  they  were  almost  annihilated  (I.  Samuel 
XV  :  2)  ;  and  later  David  overcame  a  band  of 
maraudyig  Amalekites  with  gi-eat  slaughter,  pur- 
suing them  until  "there  escaped  not  a  man  of 
them  save  400  voung  men  who  had  camels  and 
fled"  (I.  Samuel  xxx  :  1-20).  The  last  Amale- 
kites were  finally  extirpated  in  the  days  of 
Hezekiah  by  the  Simeonites  (I.  Chronicles  iv  : 
43).  The  inveterate  hostility  between  Amalek 
and  Israel  is  reflected  in  so  late  a  production  as 
the  Book  of  Esther,  where  the  designation  of 
Haman,  the  arch-enemy  of  the  Jews,  as  "the 
Agagitc"  (Esther  iii  :  1),  is  introduced  in  order 
to  emphasize  his  descent  from  -4gag,  the  King 
of  Amalek    (Numbers  xxiv  :  7). 

AMALFI,  a-mal'fe.  A  seaport  town  in  Cam- 
pania, southern  Italy,  situated  on  the  (iulf  of 
Salerno,  about  22  miles  southeast  of  Naiiles.  It 
is  situated  on  the  slope  of  a  mountain  rising 
from  the  coast  and  covered  with  splendid  trees 
and  gardens.  The  houses  tower  one  above  an- 
other, and  are  connected  by  stairways  and 
bridges.  The  most  interesting  building  of  the 
place  is  the  old  cathedral,  with  its  bronze  doors 
cast  in  Constantinople  in  the  eleventh  century. 


AMALFI. 


418 


AMALRIC   OF   BENE. 


and  its  eolurans  from  Paestum.  An  old  Capu- 
chin monastei-v,  deitincr  from  the  bej;inning  of 
tlie  thirteenth  century,  is  finely  situated 
west  of  Anialfi  in  the  hollow  of  a  rock  rising 
about  230  feet  from  tlie  sea.  In  December,  1899. 
a  large  portion  of  the  rock  slid  into  the  sea, 
carrying  along  the  houses  in  its  path.  The 
town  produces  paper,  soap,  and  macaroni.  It  is 
connected  by  steamer  with  Naples  and  Messina. 
Pop.,  1881,  7500.  According  to  local  tradition, 
Amalfi  was  founded  by  Constantine  the  Great. 
From  the  ninth  to  the  eleventh  century  it  was 
an  independent  State,  and  was  ruled  by  doges. 
It  had  a  large  population,  and  enjoyed  a  con- 
siderable trade  with  the  Orient.  Amalfi  carried 
on  a  long  struggle  with  the  Pisans  and  the  neigh- 
boring prince's"  of  Salerno.  Since  the  twelfth 
century  the  place  has  been  on  the  decline.  The 
oldest  known  maritime  code,  the  Tabula  Amal- 
pliitana,  was  compiled  in  Amalfi,  and  the  town  is 
otherwise  famous  as  being  the  birthplace  of  Fla- 
vio  Gioja — who  was  wrongly  accredited  with  the 
invention  of  the  mariner's  compass — and  of 
Masaniello. 

AMAL'GAM  (Lat.  Gk.  fidUyfia,  malagma, 
^n  emollient,  plaster,  from  //aXa/cdf,  malakos, 
soft).  An  alloy  of  mercury  with  one  or  more 
other  metals.  An  amalgam  of  silver  crystal- 
lizing in  the  isometric  system  has  been  found 
native;  a  gold  amalgam,  too,  has  been  reported 
from  several  localities,  including  California. 
Artificially,  amalgams  are  made  { 1 )  by  bringing 
metallic  inercury  into  contact  A\-ith  another 
metal,  as  antimony,  arsenic,  bismuth,  etc.;  (2) 
by  bringing  mercury  into  contact  with  a  satu- 
rated solution  of  a  salt  of  the  other  metal,  when 
part  of  the  mercury  goes  into  solution  and  the 
remainder  combines  with  the  liberated  metal, 
which  is  the  ease  with  calcium,  iron,  and  certain 
other  metals:  (3)  by  placing  the  metal  to  be 
amalgamated  in  a  solution  of  a  salt  of  mercury, 
wliieh  is  the  usual  method  tor  amalgamating 
ccjpper  and  aluminum;  finally  (4)  by  placing 
■  the  metal  to  be  anuxlgamated  in  contact  with 
mercurv  and  dilute  acids. 

Amalgams  may  be  either  solid  or  liquid. 
Those  which  are  liquid  are  regarded  as  solutions 
in  which  there  is  an  excess  of  mercury.  The 
more  important  amalgams  are  as  follows:  Cop- 
per amalaam,  which  is  made  by  triturating 
finely  divided  metallic  copper  with  mercurous 
sulphate  under  hot  water.  This  amal.tfam  has 
the  property  of  softening  when  kneaded,  and  be- 
coming quite  hard  after  standing  some  hours, 
which  has  led  to  its  use  for  filling  teeth.  Gold 
amalgam  is  formed  by  heating  mercury  with 
powdered  gold  or  gold  foil.  The  readiness  with 
which  mercury  combines  with  gold  has  been 
made  the  basis  of  an  important  process  for  the 
extraction  of  the  latter  from  ores.  After 
the  ore  or  the  gold  quartz  has  been  stamped 
to  fine  powder,  the  powder  is  brought  in  con- 
tact with  mercury.  The  gold  re.adily  unites 
with  the  mercury,  forming  an  amalgam,  which 
is  then  placed  in  a  retort,  from  which  the 
mercury  is  expelled  by  heating,  and  may 
be  collected  for  further  use,  while  the  gold 
remains  in  the  retort.  Silver  amalgam  is 
formed  bv  the  union  of  mercury  with  finely 
divided  si"!ver,  and  this  fact  is  taken  advantage 
of  for  the  extraction  of  silver  from  its  ores  by 
a  process  analogous  to  that  described  in  connec- 
tion with  gold  amalgam.     An  amalgam  consist- 


ing of  8   parts  of  mercury  to   I   part  of  silver 


is  used  for  silvering  metals.  Jlercury  readil^if 
combines  with  sodium  when  the  tw'o  elements 
are  brought  in  contact  with  each  other,  yield- 
ing an  amalgam  wliich  is  largely  used  by  chem- 
ists as  a  reducing  agent.  Tin  amalgam  is 
formed  when  mercury  is  brought  in  contact 
witli  tin  in  the  proportions  of  3  parts  of  the 
former  to  I  part  of  tlie  latter.  This  amalgam 
is  the  one  commonly  used  for  silvering  mirrors. 
Zinc  amalgam  results  when  zinc  filings  are 
mixed  with  mercury  at  a  heat  somewhat  below 
the  boiling  point  of  the  latter.  It  is  used  for 
coating  the  rubbers  of  electric  machines.  Amal- 
gams of  bismuth,  cadmium,  magnesium,  potas- 
sium, and  other  metals  are  known,  but  have  no 
important  commercial  uses.  Consult  Dudley,  "An 
Index  to  the  Literature  of  Amalgams,"  in  Pro- 
ceediuys  of  the  Antcrican  Association  for  the 
Advancement   of   licioice    (Salem,    1889).  • 

AMAL'GAMA'TION.      See   Galvaxic  Bat- 
tery. 

AMALIA,  a-mii'ls-.^,  Anna  (1739-1807).  The 
wife  of  Duke  Ernest  Augustus  of  Saxe-Weimar- 
Eiscnach.  She  was  horn  at  Wolfenbiittel.  On  the 
death  of  her  husband,  in  1758,  she  was  appointed 
Regent  for  her  infant  son,  Karl  August,  whom, 
aided  by  his  tutor,  Wieland,  she  trained  in  the 
love  of'literature  and  art,  also  doing  much  to 
foster  education  and  material  prosperity  through- 
out his  domains.  Soon  after  assuming  the  gov- 
ernment, the  Duke,  with  his  mother's  active  co- 
operation, gathered  at  Weimar  a  galaxy  of  lit- 
erary talent  probably  never  equaled.  Goethe, 
Herder,  and  Schiller  were  its  brightest  stars, 
but  they  shone  in  goodly  company.  Weimar  con- 
tinued during  and  beyond  her  life  what  she,  more 
than  any  other,  had  "made  it,  tlie  literary  centre 
of  Germany.  She  died  at  Weimar,  April  10, 
1807.  Consult  Gerard,  .1  Orand  Duchess,  The 
Life  of  Anna  Amalia.  and  the  Classical  Circle 
of  Weimar  (Xew  York,  1902). 

AMALIE,  a'ma'le',  Marie,  or  Marie  Amei.ie 
(1782-186(5).  The  wife  of  Louis  Philippe,  King 
of  the  French.  She  was  the  daughter  of  King 
Ferdinand  I.  (IV).  of  the  Two  Sicilies.  When 
she  married  Louis  Philippe  (then  Duke  of 
Orleans),  he  was  a  political  exile,  without  hope 
of  ever  rising  to  the  throne  of  France.  Anialie 
never  interfered  in  politics,  and  possessing  all 
the  domestic  virtues,  was  happy  with  her  hus- 
band. She  shared  his  fortunes  in  exile,  and  was 
received  in  England  with  the  respect  due  her. 

AMALIE,  a-mii'U-e,  Makie  Friederike  ( 1818- 
75).  Queen  of  Greece,  daughter  of  Grand  Duke 
Augustus  of  Oldenburg.  She  married  King  Otho 
of  Greece.  November  22,  183(3,  and  was  much  be- 
loved for  firmness,  benevolence,  and  many  other 
virtues.  After  her  husband's  deposition  in  18(!2 
she  accompanied  him  to  Bavaria,  residing  after 
his  death  at  Bamberg. 

AMALIE,  Marie  Friederike  Auguste  (1794- 
1870).  A  German  duchess  and  dramatist,  eldest 
sister  of  King  John  of  Saxony.  In  part  under 
the  pseudonym  of  Amalie  Heitcr,  she  published 
a  large  number  of  dramas,  some  of  which  have 
been  adaptetl  to  the  French  and  English  stage. 
She  also  wrote  operas  and  sacred  music.  There 
is  a  comjjlete  edition  of  her  dramatic  works  by 
Waldmiiller    (0  volumes.   1873-74). 

AMAL'RIC  OF  BENE,  ban  (?-1209).  Also 
called  Amaury  of  Chartkes.  The  founder  of  a 
school   of  Pantheists   known  by  his  name.     He 


AMALRIC    OF     BENE. 


419 


AMARANTH. 


was  born  at  Ikik'.  near  Charties.  He.  lectured 
in  Paris  upon  philosophy  and  tlieolofry  about 
1200.  His  doctrines  were  condemned  bv  the  Uni- 
versity. Pope  Innocent  III.  confirmed  the  con- 
demnation (1204)  and  ordered  Amalric  to  re- 
turn to  Paris  and  recant,  which  he  did,  and  so 
when  he  died,  wliich  was  in  the  same  year,  he 
was  buried  in  the  consecrated  ground  of  the 
monastery  of  St.  Martin  des  Champs,  Paris. 
But  when  it  was  discovered  that  the  sect  which 
he  had  founded  had  spread  throughout  France,  a 
synod  was  called  in  Paris  in  1209,  his  teaching 
formally  condemned,  several  of  his  followers 
burned  at  the  stake  as  heretics,  and  his  own 
body  was  also  dug  up,  burned,  and  the  ashes 
thrown  to  the  winds.  His  doctrines  were  for- 
mallv  condemned  bv  the  fourth  Lateran  Council 
in    l'21.5. 

AM'ALS,  or  AM'ALI.  The  royal  family  of 
the  Ostrogoths,  which  furnished  the  sovereigns 
for  about  t\\o  centuries.  Tlie  most  noted  were 
Theodoric  tlie  Great  (q.v.),  Amalasuntha,  and 
\\  itigis.  The  race  came  to  an  end  in  G05.  when 
(jermanus  Posturaus  and  his  daughter  were  put 
to  death  by  Phocas.  Hodgkin,  in  Ituly  and  Eer 
Jiivarlcrs,  Volume  III.  (Oxford,  1890),  gives  a 
genealogical  table  of  the  Amals. 

AM'ALTHE'A  (Gk.  'Afii'/Jjeia,  Amaltheia). 
A  nymjih,  tlic  nurse  of  the  infant  Zeus.  The 
name  was  transferred  to  the  goat  which,  accord- 
ing to  the  Cretan  legend,  suckled  the  god,  and 
was  rewarded  with  a  place  among  the  stars. 
The  "cornucopia.''  or  horn  of  plenty,  was  said  to 
lie  the  horn  of  the  goat  Amalthea,  which  had 
been  broken  upon  a  tree.  Tliis  horn  is  really  an 
attribute  of  all  the  deities  who  were  believed  to 
control  the  fruits  of  the  earth.     See  .-Egis. 

AMA'MA,  SiXTixrs  (1503-1629).  A  Dutch 
Orientalist.  He  was  born  at  Franeker,  Frieslaud, 
studied  Oriental  languages  at  the  University 
there,  and  subsequently  at  Exeter  College,  Ox- 
ford. He  succeeded  Drusius  as  professor  of 
Hebrew  at  Franeker.  In  1625  he  was  called  to 
Leyden.  but  the  Estates  of  Friesland  refused  to 
permit  him  to  go.  He  was  among  the  first  to 
advocate  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  origiiuil 
languages  of  the  Bible  as  indispensable  to  theolo- 
gians. His  works  include  Dissertatio  qua  Osten- 
ditiir  Prieripuos  Paiiisnii  Errures  ex  Ignorantia 
Hehraiumi  Ortum  Sumpnis.ie  (1018).  Censura 
Vulaata;  Vemionis  V.  Lihrnrum  ilosis  (1620), 
and  a  IlebifeiiiOich  Woordenboek    (1028). 

AMANA,  am'a-na.  A  German  religious  com- 
munity established  at  Amana. la., com])rising  sev- 
eral villages  of  settlers  situated  a  few  miles  apart 
under  the  government  of  a  president  and  thirteen 
directors,  elected  annually  by  the  community. 
Family  life  is  jireserved,  but  meals  are  provided 
for  a  number  of  families  together.  Woolen  mills. 
Hour  mills,  saw  mills,  dye-shops,  and  agi'iculture 
are  tlie  chief  industries  operated  in  common  for 
the  benefit  of  all.  Life  is  simple,  and  all  nec- 
essaries are  furnished  freely  to  members  of  the 
community.  New  members  are  elected  after  a 
probationary  period.  Daily  prayer-meetings  are 
held.  The  sect  was  founded  by  Eberhard  Grubcr 
in  Wiirttemberg.  Germany,  1714.  and  came  to 
America.  184o.  settling  first  in  western  New  York 
and  moving  to  Amana.  1855-04.  The  community 
in  1901  numbered  1767  persons,  and  owned  26,- 
OOfl  acres  of  land,  their  total  property  being  val- 
ued at  .$1,500,000.  See  Communism  and  CoMMU- 
KlSTic  Societies. 


AMAN'DA.  In  Cibbcr's  ciiniedy.  Love's  Last 
Shift,  and  Vanbrugh's  The  lUlupsc,  (from  which 
Slieridan  made  A  Trip  to  Scarborough) ,  the 
faithful  and  charming  wife  of  Loveless,  who  has 
basely  deserted  her,  but  is  finally  won  back  by  the 
sense  of  her  lidelitv. 

AMANDE  DE  TERRE,  a'miiNd'  dc  tar'.  The 
French  name  lor  i'gperus  esculetilus.   See  CllL'FA. 

AM'ANI'TA  (Gk.  noni.  pi.  a/aaviTcu,  amani- 
tai,  a  sort  of  fungi).  A  poisonous  fungus  allied 
to  the  genus  Agaricus.  Amanita  musearia, 
which  is  pretty  coinmon  in  woods,  especially  of 
fir  and  beech,  in  Great  Britain,  and  also  in  the 
I'nited  States,  is  one  of  the  most  poisonous  fungi. 
It  is  sometimes  called  Fly  agaric,  being  used  in 
Sweden  and  other  countries  to  kill  ilies  and  bugs, 
for  which  purpose  it  is  steeped  in  milk.  The 
pileus  or  cap  is  of  an  orange-red  color,  with  white 
warts,  the  gills  white,  and  the  stem  bulbous.  It 
grows  to  a  considerable  size.  Notwithstanding 
its  veiy  poisonous  nature,  it  is  used  by  the  na- 
tives of  Is^amtchatka  to  produce  intoxication. 
Amanita  phalloides.  cniiiuionly  called  Death  Cup, 
is  quite  similar  to  the  fly  agaric.  It  is  perfectly 
white,  with  white  sjiores,  and  a  ring  on  the 
stem.     For  illustration,  sec  FfXGi,  Poisoxors. 

AMANTS  MAGNIFIQUES,  a'miiN'  ma'ny*'- 
fek'  (Fr.,  magnificent  lovers).  A  prose  comedy 
in  five  acts  by  Moli&re.  Avrittcn  by  order  of  Louis 
XIV.  in  1670.  The  two  lovers  are  princely  rivals, 
who  gi\-e  various  entertainments  and  ballets  for 
which  the  slender  plot  is  made  the  occasion. 

AMAPALA,  a-m;i'pa-la.  A  free  port  of  Hon- 
duras, situated  on  the  north  shore  of  the  island 
of  Tigre.  in  the  Gulf  of  Fonseca  (Map:  Central 
America,  D  4).  The  harbor  is  very  good,  capa- 
ble of  containing  vessels  of  the  deepest  draught, 
and  the  town  has  a  healthful  climate,  so  that 
it  gets  a  good  part  of  the  trade  of  Honduras, 
San  Salvador,  and  Nicaragua.  The  chief  articles 
of  export  are  hides  and  cofl'ee.  Gold,  silver,  and 
mineral  ores  were  formerly  exported  in  great 
quantities.  The  town  was  founded  in  1838,  and 
the  opening  of  the  port  took  place  in  1868.  Pop., 
1100, 

AMARA-KOSA,   am'a-ra   kOsha.     See  Ama- 

BASIXHA. 

AM'ARANT.  A  giant  slain  by  the  legendary 
Guv  of  Warwick  (q.v.)  in  the  Holy  Land. 

AM'ARANTA'CE^,  Amaranth  Family 
(For  derivation,  see  Amaranth).  A  natural  or- 
der of  dicotyledonous  plants,  embracing  about 
500  species.  They  are  widely  distributed,  hut  are 
most  abundant  in  the  tropics.  In  floral  charac- 
ters they  greatly  resemble  the  Chenopodiaceae, 
differing  in  some  minor  particulars  and  in  habit 
of  growth.  The  general  inflorescence  is  race- 
mose, the  auxiliary  cymes  going  to  make  up  a 
com])ound  inflorescence.  In  general  habit  most 
of  the  species  are  rather  coarse  weeds,  although 
some  are  grown  as  ornamentals,  such  as  Cocks- 
comb, Prince's  feather.  Love-lies-bleeding,  etc. 
The  chief  genera  are  Amarantus,  Celosia,  Gom- 
phrcna.  and  Iresine. 

AM'ARANTH  (Gk.  a/idpavrn^,  amarantos, 
from  d,  a.  neg.  -\-  /tapaiveiv,  marainein,  to  die 
away,  wither),  Amarantus.  A  genus  of  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Amarantacefp.  This  genua 
contains  nearly  100  known  species,  natives  of 
tropical  and  temperate  countries,  but  chiefly 
abounding  within  the  tropics.  They  are  herbs 
or   shrubs,   with   siniide   leaves,   and   flowers   in 


AMARANTH. 


420 


AMABI. 


heads  or  spikes.  The  genus  Amarantus  has 
mostly  monojcious  flowers.  Some  of  the  species 
are  naturally  of  .singular  form,  and  others  as- 
sume singular  but  monstrous  forms  through 
cultivation.  Love-lies-bleeding  {Amarantus  cau- 
datus).  Prince's  feather  {Amarantus  tiypo- 
chondriacus) ,  and  other  species  are  common 
annuals  in  our  llower  gardens.  The  spikes  of 
Amarantus  caudatus  are  sometimes  several  feet 
in  length.  The  dry  red  bracts  which  surround 
the  llower  "retain  their  freshness  for  a  long  time 
after  being  gathered,  for  which  reason  the  plant 
has  been  employed  by  poets  as  an  emblem  of  im- 
mortality. Tlie  Globe  amaranth  (Goinphreiia 
glohosa)  and  the  Cockscomb,  well  known  tender 
annuals,  belong  to  the  same  natural  order.  The 
Globe  amaranth  is  much  cultivated  in  Portugal 
and  other  Roman  Catholic  countries  for  adorn- 
ing churches  in  winter.  Its  llowers,  which  are  of 
a  shining  purple,  retain  their  beauty  and  fresh- 
ness for  several  years.  About  a  dozen  species  are 
native  and  introduced  in  the  United  States, 
where  they  are  mostly  coarse  annual  weeds. 
Amarantus  blitum,  Amarantus  oleraceus  (Chu- 
san  han-tsi),  and  other  species  are  used  as  pot- 
herbs. Wholesome  mucilaginous  qualities  are 
generally  found  in  the  leaves  tinoughout  the  or- 
der. The  seed>i  of  Amarantus  f rumentaceus  { called 
Kiery)  and  of  Amarantus  anardana,  or  Ama- 
rantus paniculatus,  are  gathered  for  food  in  In- 
dia, iledicinal  properties  are  ascribed  to  some 
species  of  the  order,  particularly  to  Gomphrena 
officinalis  and  Gomphrena  macrocephala,  which 
liave  a  high  and  probably  exaggerated  reputation 
in  Brazil  as  cures  for  many  diseases.  Consult: 
L.  H.  Bailey,  Cyclopwdia  of  American  Horticul- 
ture (New  York.  1900-02)  ;  and  G.  Nicholson, 
The  Illustrated  History  of  Gardening  (London, 
1888). 

AMARAPURA,  iim'a-ra-poo'ra,  or  Ummera- 
POORA,  "City  of  the  Gods."  The  former  capital 
of  Burma,  situated  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
Irrawaddy,  and  on  the  Rangoon  and  JIandalay 
Railway,  nine  miles  northea.st  of  Ava,  in  lat. 
21°  57'  N..  long.  9G°  7'  E.  Tt  was  founded  in 
1783;  in  1810  it  was  almost  totally  destroyed 
by  fire,  and  in  1839  an  earthquake  laid  it  in 
ruins.  In  lS.52-.i3  it  was  finally  deserted  and 
the  capital  of  the  country  removed  to  Mandalay. 
Nothing  remains  of  the  old  city  save  some  rows 
of  beautiful  trees  and  interesting  ruins  of  a 
palace  and  of  several  pagodas.  A  celebrated 
temple  in  the  suburbs  contains  a  famous  colossal 
bronze  image  of  Gautama  (Buddha).  The  pop- 
ulation in  1810  was  estimated  at  170,000;  it  has 
declined  to  less  than  .5000. 

AM'ARASIN'HA,     or    AM'ABA-SIM'HA. 

A  celebrated  Sanskrit  lexicogiapher  of  antiquity, 
whose  vocabulary,  Aiiiara-kosa,  or  '"Auiara's 
Treasury,"  formed  a  storehouse  of  words  in  early 
times,  and  a  mine  of  information  for  later  work- 
ers in  the  field.  This  glossator  is  commonly 
called  simply  .\mara  in  the  native  commentaries; 
but  his  title  Siuilui  shows  that  he  belonged  to  the 
princely  class.  Little  is  known  of  his  life,  except 
that  he  was  a  Buddhist  in  religion,  and  it  is  as- 
sumed that  all  his  writings,  except  the  diction- 
ary, peri.shed  through  the  persecutions  which  the 
Buddhists  at  one  time  suffered  at  the  hands 
of  the  orthodox  Brahmans.  There  is,  however, 
great  uncertainty  as  to  the  time  when  .\mara 
lived.  His  date  has  been  generally  put  at 
about    500    A.D.     His    name    is    associated    with 


the  poet  Kalidasa  ( q.v. ) ,  and  the  others  of  the 
"nine  gems"  at  the  court  of  Vikramaditya  in  an 
Augustan  Age  of  Sanskrit  literature.  The  sixth 
century  a.d.  is  the  date  most  commonly  assigned 
for  the  reign  of  this  mon;irch :  but  the  Hindus 
place  him  some  centuries  earlier,  a  view  which 
there  is  rather  a  tendency  to  follow  than  to  re- 
ject. (See  Kaudasa.)  The  real  title  of  Amara's 
Sanskrit  vocabulary  is  not  Ainara-koiu,  but 
XdmaUnganusasana,  "a  book  of  words  ami  gen- 
ders." It  is  also  called  Tri-kanda  or  Tri-kandi, 
i.e.  tripartite,  from  its  three  books  of  words  and 
homonyms  relating  to  the  world  and  man  and 
miscellaneous  matters.  The  second  of  these  is 
the  longest,  and  each  book  is  subdivided  into 
chapters,  called  vargas.  The  whole  work  com- 
prises about  1500  verses,  generally  consisting  of 
lines  of  si.\teen  syllables,  and  the  words  are  ar- 
ranged, not  alphabetically,  but.  in  general,  as 
synonjTiis  according  to  subject  and  gender. 
There  aie  numerous  editions  of  the  Aniara-koiu, 
accompanied  also  by  the  old  native  commentaries. 
Mention  may  be  made  of  the  edition  with  intro- 
duction, English  notes,  and  index  by  Colebrooke 
(Serampore,  1808).  This  was  reprinted  in 
1S29.  A  French  edition,  with  translation,  was 
published  by  Loiseleur-Deslongschamps  ( 2  vol- 
umes, Paris,  1830-45).  Valuable  are  the  editions 
by  Chintamani  Sastri  Thatte.  under  the  superin- 
tendence of  F.  Kielhorn  (2d  edition,  Bombay, 
1882),  and  in  the  collection  of  Sanskrit  ancient 
lexicons,  or  Abhidhfinasamgraha  (Bombay,  1889). 
Consult  Zachariie,  "Die  indisehen  Wiirterbucher" 
(KoS'a),  in  Biihler's  thundriss  der  indo-urischen 
Philologie  und  Altertumskunde  {Strassburg, 
1897  >. 

AMARI,  a-ma're,  Michele  (1806-89).  An 
Italian  historian  and  Orientalist.  He  was 
born  at  Palermo.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he 
entered  a  government  office,  and  soon  after- 
ward— his  father  being  condemned  to  thirty 
years'  imprisonment  for  a  political  crime — 
the  duty  of  supporting  his  mother  and  the 
other  members  of  the  family  devolved  upon 
him.  He  succeeded,  nevertheless,  in  acquiring  an 
education,  learned  French  and  English,  and  pub- 
lished a  translation  of  Marmion  in  1832,  In 
1837  he  removed  to  Naples,  In  1841  appeared 
his  masterpiece.  La  Guerra  del  Vespro  Siciliano 
{The  War  of  the  l^icilian  Vespers),  in  which  the 
author  overthrows  the  prevalent  notion,  estab- 
lished by  Villani,  of  the  cause  of  the  famous  mas- 
sacre of  1282.  The  book  was  quickly  prohibited, 
and,  as  a  consequence,  widely  read.  It  was 
translated  into  German  by  Dr.  Schroder,  of 
Ilildesheim,  and  into  English  bj'  Lord  Ellesmere. 
Dreading  punishment  at  Naples.  Amari  fled  to 
France,  where  he  gave  himself  up  to  the  study 
of  Arabic  and  modern  Greek,  and  to  the  prepara- 
tion of  his  Storia  dei  Musnhnnnni  di  l^irilia 
(1854-68),  Upon  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution 
of  1848,  he  returned  to  Italy,  and  shortly  after 
his  arrival  was  elected  vice-president  of  the 
committee  of  war  in  Sicily,  He  was  next  sent 
on  a  diplomatic  mission  by  the  provisional 
government  to  France  ana  England.  In  1849 
he  published  at  Paris  La  Sicile  et  les  Bour- 
bons, to  show  up  the  pretensions  of  the  Neapoli- 
tan sovereign,  .'^fter  the  Sicilian  insurrection 
had  been  quelled,  .\mari  took  tip  liis  residence  in 
Paris,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  literary  pur- 
suits till  1859,  when  he  returned  to  Italy,  fight- 
ing the  following  year  under  Garibaldi,  He  was 
made  senator  in  1861,  and  in  1862-64  was  minis- 


AMARYLLIDACE/E 


■niGHT,  rgoa,  by  oooo,  meao  »  comp»«' 


1  ULY  OF  THE   PALACE        HIPPEASTRUM  ^    ATAMASCO    LILY  -  2EPHYRANTHES    ATA  MASCO 

2  NARCISSUS   ^   NARCISSUS    PSEUCO-NARCISSUS  5    HYMENOCALL.S   ^  HY„ENOCALl"s  CRASSI^otfA 

3  FOTHERGILLIA    -   NERINE    CURVIFOLIA  '         6     STAR  GRASS      HYPOXIS        ''"'-'-'*  '=''*"'™'-'* 

7     COOPERIA  -    COOPERIA     DRUMMONOII 


AMABI. 


421 


AMASIA. 


tpr  of  instruction,  lie  rosi^icd  his  ])rofcssorship 
at  Florence  in  187S  ami  renioveJ  to  Home,  wliere 
he  continueil  liis  liistorieal  studies.  He  died 
July  10,  1889.  Other  writings  of  Amari  are 
upon  the  languajre  and  history  of  the  Arabs,  in 
the  Revue  Archiologique,  the  Journal  Asiatique, 
etc. 

AMAR'NA  LET'TERS.  A  collection  of  more 
than  three  hundred  letters  and  dispatches,  in- 
scribed upon  clay  tablets,  which  were  found,  in 
the  winter  of  1SS7-88,  in  the  village  of  Tel- 
1 1-Aniarna  (q.v. )  in  Jliddle  Egypt.  They  repre- 
sent the  Asiatic  correspondence  of  the  Egyptian 
court  about  1-100  B.C.,  and  it  is  a  remarkable 
fact  that  they  are  in  the  cuneiform  character, 
and,  with  three  exceptions,  in  the  Babylonian 
language,  which  would  thus  appear  to  have  been 
the  medium  of  diplomatic  conmiuuieation 
throughout  Western  Asia.  One  of  the  Icttei's  is 
in  the  language  of  ilitani.  in  northern  Mesopo- 
tamia, and  two  are  in  that  of  Argapi  or  Arzaya 
(probably  Cyprus).  Among  the  writers  are  the 
Egyptian  kings  Amenophis  III.  (q.v.).  and 
.\menophis  IV.  (q.v.),  and  the  kings  of  Jlitani, 
of  Babylonia,  of  the  Hittites,  and  of  Alashia 
(Cyprus).  It  a])pears  from  these  letters  that 
the  Egyptian  kings  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty 
intermarried  with  the  royal  houses  of  both 
!Mitani  and  Babylonia.  Amenophis  III.  married 
a  sister  of  Kadashman-Bel,  King  of  Babylonia, 
and  also  a  sister  of  Dushratta,  King  of  Jlitaiii ; 
while  Amenophis  IV.  married  a  niece  of  his 
father's  Milanian  wife.  Frequent  reference  is 
made  to  connnercial  atTairs.  implving  a  consider- 
able intereouise  between  Egypt  and  the  Asiatic 
states.  By  far  the  greater  number  of  the 
Amarna  letters  proceed  from  Egyptian  officials 
and  subject  allies  in  Syria,  at  that  time  a  de- 
pendency of  Egypt,  and  afford  a  valuable  insight 
into  the  state  of  Palestine  before  tlie  Hebrew  in- 
vasion. The  growing  weakness  of  Egypt  and  the 
extension  of  the  Hittite  dominion  in  the  north 
can  be  clearly  seen,  and  the  withdrawal  of  the 
Egyptian  troops  gave  opportunity  for  conflicts 
between  the  princes  of  the  small  city-states  into 
which  the  land  was  broken  up.  To  add  to  the 
general  confusion,  the  country  was  threatened 
on  the  east  by  the  Khabiri — marauding  nom- 
ads from  the  Arabian  Desert,  whose  sphere 
of  activity  extended  from  southern  Palestine  as 
far  north  as  Sidon.  Beirut,  and  Gebal.  Some 
scholars  are  inclined  to  identify  the  Khabiri 
with  the  Hebrews;  bnt  this  theory  has  not  met 
with  general  approval.  The  letters  of  the  Pales- 
tinian princes,  which  are  full  of  mutual  recrim- 
inations, reveal  the  fact  that  there  were  two 
chief  parties;  one  loyal  to  Egypt,  the  other  pro- 
fessing loyalty,  but  in  reality  allied  with  the 
enemies  of  Egypt.  The  latter  party  seems  to  be 
everywhere  successful.  Among  the  most  zealous 
supporters  of  Egypt  was  the  Piince  of  Jerusalem, 
which  appears,  at  this  time,  as  a  city  of  some 
importance.  For  a  translation  into  German  of 
the  Amarna  tablets,  consult  Winekler,  in  Sriira- 
der's  KeiUnschriftUcheBibliofhckCiierlinASQe)  : 
English  translation  by  Sletealfc,  under  the 
title.  The  Tcil  El  Amarna  Letters  (New  York, 
1S9C). 

AM'ARYL'LIDA'CEiE  (The  Amartllis 
Family).  An  order  of  monocotyledonous  plants 
■nith  about  75  genera  and  nearly  1000  species. 
The  plants  resemble  those  of  the  Liliacea>  in 
-many  respects,   except  that  they   all    have    in- 


ferior ovaries.  The  species  are  mostly  tropi- 
cal and  .subtropical,  and  are  generally  found 
in  dry  regions.  Many  are  bulbous,  leafing  and 
liowering  only  in  the  wet  season,  while  others 
have  thick  fleshy  leaves  covered  with  wax  or 
otherwise  protected  for  their  xerophytic  habit. 
The  inflorescence  is  usually  a  scape;  the  Howers 
have  an  inferior  three-celled  ovary,  six  stamens, 
and  six  petal-like  segments  to  the  i)erianth.  In 
some  s])ecies,  as  in  Narcissus,  a  sort  of  corona  is 
present  between  the  normal  perianth  and  the 
stiimens.  The  fruit  is  a  capsule  or  berry.  The 
recent  classification  by  Pax  is  into  Amaryllid- 
oidea;,  of  which  the  chief  genera  are  Hajmianthus, 
Galanlhus,  Amaryllis,  Crinum,  and  Narcissus; 
Agavoideae,  with  Agave  and  Fourcrora.  the  lead- 
ing genera;  Hypoxidoidea>,  with  Alstroemeria, 
Bomaria  and  Anigoz;inthus:  and  Campynemat- 
oidese,  represented  by  Canipynema.  Home  of 
these  are  of  gieat  economic  value  (see  Ag.we; 
Hemp,  Sisal),  while  many  others  are  extensively 
cultivated  as  ornamentals.  See  N.\pcissf.s; 
Amaryllis;     Blood     Flower;     Alstrcemeria  ; 

(JALANTIIUS,  etc. 

AM'ARYL'LIS  (from  the  famous  nymph 
Aiiiari/Uis) .  A  genus  of  bulbous-rooted  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Amar3'llidacca>,  having  a 
simple  six-partite  perianth,  and  containing  a 
large  number  of  species,  natives  of  the  warmer 
regions  of  the  globe.  Many  of  them  have  flowers 
of  very  great  bcaut.y.  Many  of  the  species  for- 
merly grouped  under  Amaryllis  have  been  sepa- 
rated into  (lillerent  genera,  of  which  Amaryllis, 
Ncrine,  HipiJcastrum  and  Brunisvigia  are  the 
best  known.  A  .species  of  this  genus.  Amaryllis 
forraosissima,  was  brought  to  Europe  from  South 
America  in  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
and  has  since  been  in  connuon  cultivation  as  a 
garden  flower.  Its  scentless  flowers  are  of  a 
beautiful  red  color,  exhibiting  a  play  of  golden 
gleams  in  the  sunshine.  Amaryllis  belladonna, 
known  also  as  a  Belladonna  Lily,  has  a  scape 
1-3  feet  high,  bearing  an  umbel  of  rose-colored 
fragiant  flowers.  Amaryllis  amabilis,  Amaryllis 
josephinte,  and  Amaryllis  vittata  are  among  the 
most  admired  bulbous-rooted  plants.  Amaryllis 
sarniensis  is  one  of  the  most  hardy  species,  flow- 
ering freely  in  Guernsey,  with  a  little  protection 
during  winter,  and  although  commonlv  called 
Guernsey  Lily,  it  is  supposed  to  be  a  native  of 
Japan.  By  artificial  impregnation,  a  gieat  num- 
ber of  hybrid  forms  have  been  produced  in  this 
genus.  Consult  J.  G.  Baker,  Handbook  of  the 
Aiiiart/Uidcc   (London,   1888). 

AMARYLLIS.  A  shepherdess  in  the  Idyls 
of  Theocritus  and  in  Vergil's  Eclogues.  The  name 
is  sometimes  used  as  the  type  of  a  bucolic  sweet- 
heart, as  in  the  pastoral  of  The  Faithful  Shep- 
herdess, by  Fletcher,  and  Milton's  Lycidas. 

AM'ASA.     See  Joab. 

AMASIA,  a-ma'se-a  (ancient  Gk.  ' Afidacta, 
Anias(ia).  A  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  the  capi- 
tal of  the  sanjak  of  the  same  name,  in  the  vil- 
ayet of  Sivas,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Veshil- 
Irmak,  200  miles  southwest  of  Trebizond  (Map: 
Turkey  in  Asia,  G  2).  It  stands  in  a  deep  and 
narrow  valley,  and  the  river  flows  through  a 
narrow  channel,  between  precipitous  rocky  banks. 
The  environs  are  very  fraitful  and  of  much 
natural  beauty.  Amasia  is  the  centre  of  the  silk 
industry  in  Asia  Minor,  and  exports  silk  to 
Aleppo.  Damascus,  and  even  Constantinople.  It 
contains  a   fine  bazaar  and  a   large  number  of 


AMASIA. 


■iSS 


AMATEUR. 


IMohamniedan  schools  for  higher  education.  Tliere 
are  to  be  found  the  ruins  of  an  old  castle,  built 
on  the  site  of  the  ancient  acropolis,  and  a  number 
of  archaic  remains.  The  po])ulation  is  estimated 
at  30,000.  Amasia  was  the  birthplace  ot  the 
geographer  Strabo,  and  was  once  the  capital  of 
the  kings  of  Pontus. 

AMA'SIS,  Aahmes  (Gk.  'AMd<ris,  Egyptian 
'Ah-mose,  probably  "child  of  the  moon").  The 
name  of  tAvo  Egvi)tian  kings. 

Amasis  I.  The  first  Pharaoh  of  the  eighteenth 
dynasty.  He  reigned  for  at  least  twenty-two 
years,  "from  about  IGOO  B.C.,  or  perhaps  a  little 
later.  He  finished  the  long  war  against  the 
Hyksos  or  Shepherd  Kings,  rulers  of  a  foreign 
race,  who  had  subjugated  part  of  Lower  Egj^pt. 
He  captured  tlieir  stronghold,  Avaris,  in  the 
Delta,  expelled  them  from  Egypt,  and  began  the 
Egyptian  conquests  in  Asia  by  making  Palestine 
and  Phcenicia  tributary. 

Amasis  II.  The  fifth  Pharaoh  of  the  twenty- 
sixth  dynasty,  well-known  through  the  anecdotes 
of  Herodotus.  Egyptian  sources  tend  to  confirm 
the  statements  ()f  the  Greeks  that  he  was  of 
humble  origin,  and  not  particularly  refined  as 
to  habits.  He  came  to  the  throne  through  an 
insurrection  of  the  native  troops  against  King 
Apries,  whom  he  dethroned  and  slew.  The  usurp- 
er reigned  from  about  570  to  520  B.C..  and  was  a 
wise  and  prudent  ruler.  He  fought  against 
Nebuchadnezzar,  and  later  cleverly  avoided  the 
conflict  with  the  rising  Persian  power.  (See 
History  of  Egypt,  under  title  Egypt.)  The  con- 
quest of  Cyprus  is  ascribed  to  him,  though  per- 
haps erroneously.  He  employed  Greek  mercenary 
troops,  and  assigned  to  the  Greeks  the  city  of 
Naucratis.  in  the  Delta,  which  soon  rose  to  great 
commercial  importance.  Greek  writers  speak  of 
Amasis  in  a  very  kindly  spirit,  and  endeavor  to 
prove  that  he  was  the  friend  of  various  Greek 
sages  and  statesmen.  ( See  Polycrates.  )  He  is 
said  to  have  married  a  Greek  woman  of  Gyrene ; 
but  it  is  quite  impossible  that  she  could  have 
been  his  legitimate  wife. 

AMATEUR'  (Fr.,  from  Lat.  amator.  lover, 
from  aiiiare.  to  love).  It  would  seem  at  first 
easy  to  define  the  word  "amateur"  in  sports;  yet 
it  is  a  subject  that  has  for.  ha  If  a  century  taxed 
the  most  active  and  subtle  brains  of  two  con- 
tinents. One  would  say  otThand  that  the  ama- 
teur in  sport  is  one  who  engages  in  a  personal 
pliysical  contest  of  pluck,  nerve,  muscle,  and 
skill  for  the  love  of  it,  as  distinguished  from 
the  professional,  who  enters  for  profit;  but  that 
by  no  means  disposes  of  this  intricate  subject. 
There  were  early  found  to  be  men  in  plenty  who 
entered  a  particular  contest  because  they  loved 
the  sport,  and  who  derived  no  pecuniary  interest 
from  that  contest,  yet  who  it  was  unfair  to 
allow  to  enter  it.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  not  long 
after  the  renaissance  of  athletic  contests  in 
18.50,  it  became  obvious  that  the  lines  would 
have' to  be  drawn  more  strictly,  or  those  would 
have  an  unfair  advantage  whose  daily  occupa- 
tions gave  them  a  continuous  training  in  the 
skill  needful  for  perfection.  Take,  for  example, 
a  boat-builder  of  tlic  old  school,  one  who  had 
been  apprenticed  to  it  in  his  youth,  and  had 
spent  all  his  earlv  manhood  in  the  handling  of 
boats  and  oars,  and  in  rowing  and  gradually 
acquiring  the  knowledge,  power,  and  endurance 
of  a  waterman.  To  such  a  man,  trained  and 
hardened    by    years,    rowing   became    a    second 


nature,   and  his   skill   in   it   automatic.     It  was 
plainly   unfair    to    allow    such    a    man,    however 
much  he  rowed  for  love  of  the  sport  and  without 
taking   money    for    his   prize,    to   enter    contests 
where  the  rest  of  the  participants  had  acquired 
their  knowledge  and  skill  only  for  the  pleasure 
of  the  game,  and  as  part  of  the  ordinary  routine 
of  school  and  college,  or  for  health  and  pleasure's 
sake.     So  it  came  to  pass  that  the  boat-builder 
and    woterman    were    early    excluded    from    the 
amateur    ranks.     The    same    principle    has    been 
working  itself  out  ever  since.     Step  by  step  the 
fences    against   professionalism    have   had   to   be 
raised,  until  now  the  rules  bar  them  out  of  all 
contests  under  the  control  of  the  Amateur  Row- 
ing   Association    of    England.     No    person    can 
enter  as  an  amateur  "who  has  rowed  or  steered 
in  any  race  for  a  stake,  money,  or  entrance  fee; 
who  has  ever  knowingly  rowed  or  steered  with 
or  against  a  professional  for  any  prize;  who  has 
ever  taught,  pursued,  or  assisted  in  the  practice 
of  athletic  exercises  for  any  kind  of  profit;  who 
has  ever  been  employed  in  or  aljout  boats,  or  in 
any  manual  labor  for  money  or  wages ;  who  is  or 
has  been  by  trade  or  employment  for  wages  a 
mechanic,   artisan,   laborer,   or   engaged   in   any 
menial  duty;   or  who  is  disqualified  as  an  ama- 
teur in  any  other  branch  of  sport."     The  most 
jealous  stickler  for  the  purity  of  amateur  oars- 
manship could  hardly  desire  tlie  line  to  be  more 
firmly  or  decisively  drawn ;  yet  the  rules  govern- 
ing amateur  athletics  in  America  do  go  farther, 
for  inter  alia,  they  make  a  man  a  professional 
who  engages  in  an  athletic  contest  where  pro- 
fessionals participate,  even  though  no  prize  is  at 
stake.     The  following  are  the  rules  of  the  Ama- 
teur  Athletic   Union,   which   claims   jurisdiction 
over    the    following   games:     1,    Basket   ball:    2, 
billiards;    3,  boxing;   4,  fencing;   5,  gymnastics; 
6.   hand  ball;    7,  hurdle  racing:    S.  jumping;    9, 
lacrosse;   10,  pole  vaulting;   11.  putting  the  shot 
and  throwing  the  discus,  hammer,  and  weights; 
12,  running;  13,  swimming;   14,  tugs  of  war;   15, 
walking;    10,  wrestling. 

Conditions  of  Competition.  "1.  No  person 
shall  be  eligible  to  compete  in  any  athletic  meet- 
ing, game  or  entertainment  given  or  sanctioned 
by  this  Union  who  has  (a)  received  or  com- 
peted for  compensation  or  re\\-ard,  in  any  form, 
for  the  display,  exercise,  or  example  of  his  skill 
in  or  knowledge  of  any  athletic  exercise,  or  for 
rendering  personal  service  of  any  kind  to  any 
athletic  "organization,  or  for  becoming  or  con- 
tinuing a  member  of  any  athletic  organization : 
or  (b)  has  entered  any  competition  under  a 
name  other  than  his  own,  or  from  a  cluli  of 
\\hich  he  was  not  at  that  time  a  member  in 
good  standing;  or  (c)  has  knowingly _  entered 
any  competition  open  to  any  professional  or 
professionals,  or  has  knowingly  competed  with 
any  professional  for  any  prize  or  token;  or  (d) 
has  issued  or  allowed  to  be  issued  in  his  behalf 
any  challenge  to  compete  against  any  profession- 
al," or  for  money,  or  (e)  has  iiawned,  bartered, 
or  sold  any  prize  won  in  athletic  competition, 
or  (f)  is  "not  a  registered  athlete.  Nor  sliall 
any  person  residing  within  the  territory  of  any 
active  member  of  lliis  Union  be  eligible  to  com- 
pete for  or  to  enter  nnv  comiiotition  as  a  member 
of  any  club  in  the  territory  of  any  other  active 
memb'er  of  this  Union,  unless  he  shall  have  been 
elected  to  menibcrshi])  in  such  club  prior  to 
■\pril  1,  1891 ;  provided,  however,  that  this  re- 
striction   as    to    residence    shall    not    apply    to 


AMATEUR. 


423 


AMATI. 


undergraduates  coiiiu'cted  with  any  allied  college 
athletic   organization. 

"2.  No  one  sluiU  be  eligible  to  compete  in  any 
athletic  meeting,  games,  or  entertainment  given 
or  sanctioned  Uy  this  Union,  unless  he  shall  be  a 
duly  registered  athlete,  a  member  of  the  organi- 
zation from  which  he  enters,  and  shall  not  have 
competed  from  any  club  in  this  Union  during  a 
jieriod  of  three  months  next  preceding  such 
entry;  nor  shall  any  member  of  any  club  in  this 
Union,  or  any  club  in  any  district  in  this  Union, 
he  allowed  to  conijjete  in  case  he  has  within 
one  3'ear  competed  as  a  member  of  any  other  cIuIj 
then  in  this  Union,  except  witli  the  consent  of 
such  other  club,  which  consent  shall  be  filed  with 
the  Registration  Committee  of  his  district  prior 
to  such  competition,  unless  such  other  club  shall 
have  disbanded  or  practicalh'  ceased  to  exist; 
provided,  that  the  requirements  of  this  section 
shall  not  apply  to  any  athletic  meeting,  games, 
or  entertainment,  the  entries  for  which  ai'e  con- 
fined to  the  club  or  organization  giving  such 
meeting  or   entertainment. 

"No  athlete  who  has  been  released  from  a 
club  which  is  a  member  of  this  Union,  and  wlio 
competes  for  another  club  directly  thereafter, 
shall  be  allowed  to  compete  again  for  the  club  he 
was  released  from  for  one  year  from  the  date 
of  his  release,  except  that  the  club  has  disbanded 
or  ceased  to  exist. 

"No  person  shall  be  eligible  to  compete  for 
or  enter  any  competition  as  a  member  of  any 
club  in  the  territory  of  any  active  member  of 
this  Union,  unless  he  shall  have  resided  within 
the  territory  of  said  active  member  at  least  four 
months  previous  to  entering  for  competition; 
nor  shall  any  person  be  eligible  to  enter  or  com- 
pete in  any  district  cliampionship  meeting  unless 
he  shall  have  been  a  bona  fide  resident  of  such 
district  for  at  least  six  months  ])rior  to  the  hold- 
ing of  such  championship  meeting;  and  no  person 
shall  be  eligible  to  compete  in  a  championship 
meeting  of  more  than  one  district  in  one  year. 
The  restrictions  contained  in  this  section  shall 
not  affect  the  eligibility  of  an  undergraduate 
connected  with  any  allied  college  athletic  organi- 
zation who  shall  have  been  elected  to  membership 
in  any  club  of  this  Union  prior  to  November  20, 
1899,  to  represent  such  club  as  long  as  he 
remains  an  undergraduate:  nor  shall  these  re- 
strictions apply  to  an  undergraduate  competing 
for  any  college  belonging  to  an  allied  body. 

"3.  No  prizes  shall  be  given  by  any  individual, 
club,  committee,  or  association,  or  com])eted  for 
or  accepted  by  any  athlete,  except  suitably  in- 
scribed wreaths,  diplomas,  banners,  badges, 
medals,  time-pieces  and  mantel  ornaments,  or 
articles  of  jewelry,  silverware,  table  or  toilet 
service,  unless  authorized  by  the  Registration 
Committee." 

It  will  be  noticed  that  this  organization  does 
not  control  golf,  in  which  game  amateurs  may 
play  in  contests  against  professionals  even  for  a 
prize;  with  this  limitation,  however,  that  if,  in 
the  open  contest,  an  amateur  win  he  must  take 
the  prize  in  plate,  and  not  in  money.  The  golf 
rules  are  fornuilated  and  enforced  by  the  United 
States  Golf  Association. 

In  cricket  there  is  no  bar  whatever  to  playing 
against  or  with  professionals  openly  paid  for 
their  services  or  even  hired  season  after  season 
by  their  clubs :  but  cricket  has  been  in 
existence  so  long,  and  its  ethics  are  so  well 
understood,   that  no   harm   results;    the   profes- 


sional needs  no  laws  to  define  his  social  position 
or  the  part  he  takes  in  a  game  wliich  has 
escaped  tlie  eagerness  so  characteristic  of  the 
more  modern  games.  In  fact,  in  nearly  every 
sport  there  are  shades  and  differences  in  defini- 
tion and  practice.  Notably  is  this  so  in  bicycling, 
wherein  tlie  classification  has  been  altered  sev- 
eral times,  and  in  football,  where  the  rules  of 
college  games  extend  so  far  as  to  limit  the  con- 
testants to  those  who  have  been  resident  pupils 
for  such  and  such  a  time  and  are  in  such  and 
such  an  educational  grade.  Other  minute  dis- 
tinctions entitle  a  man  to  or  debar  him  from  the 
right  to  play,  and  readers  desiring  to  be  per- 
fectl,v  sure  of  their  position  on  any  given  sport, 
in  any  given  year,  Avill  do  well  tu  consult  the 
actual  rules  in  force  formulated  by  the  govern- 
ing body  of  the  sport. 

Professionalism  sometimes  tends  to  elevate  the 
standard  of  sports  so  far  as  records  are  con- 
cerned, and  it  is  not  in  itself  necessarily  bad. 
But,  although  some  of  the  truest  sportsmen  have 
been  professionals,  the  nature  of  sport  is  such 
that  its  best  uses,  recreation  and  emulation,  are 
in  danger  of  being  lost  sight  of  by  the  profes- 
sional whose  aim  is  to  make  money.  The  record 
of  baseball  in  this  country  is  an  instance  of  the 
harmful  effects  of  professionalism  on  the  spirit 
of  a  game.  Bicycle  racing,  too.  has  degenerated 
into  a  mere  gate-mone.v  exhibition.  In  England 
football  is  in  danger  fiom  the  same  cause,  while 
in  America  football  is  played  almost  exclusively 
by  the  colleges,  and  professionalism  is  practi- 
cally unknown.  Into  some  other  sports  the 
spirit  of  professionalism  has  never  entered;  not- 
abl.v  is  this  so  in  lawn  tennis,  curling,  quoits, 
canoeing,  archery,  polo,  croquet,  and  its  successor 
roque.  These  and  a  few  other  games  have 
always  been  played  solely  by  enthusiastic  lovers 
of  them.  The  amateur  spirit  is  essentially  a 
moral  quality,  and  the  games  will  retrograde, 
or  otherwise,  just  in  proportion  as  the  moral 
code  of  the  contestants  is  interpreted.  Laws 
are  next  to  useless  where  men  are  determined  to 
evade  them.  Happily,  the  tendency  of  the  times 
is  distinctly  toward  "a  higher  plane  of  interpre- 
tation, and  a  stricter  separatfon  of  the  amateur 
from  the  professional. 

AMATI,  ;i-ma'te.  A  family  of  celebrated 
Italian  violin  makers,  who  lived  in  Cremona. 
Andrea,  the  eldest,  born  about  1520,  was  de- 
scended from  an  ancient  family  dating  back  to 
the  eleventh  century.  He  was  the  founder  of  the 
Cremona  school  of  violin  makers.  His  early  in- 
struments are  so  Brescian  in  character  that  he 
is  supposed  to  have  been  a  pupil  of  Gasparo  da 
Sail).  Few  of  his  violins  are  extant.  His  model 
was  small,  with  high  back  and  belly,  amber  var- 
nish, and  clear  though  weak  tone.  Nicola,  his 
.younger  brotlier,  made  basses  in  preference  to 
violins,  and  was  his  inferior.  Andrea's  sons, 
Antonio  and  Geronimo,  worked  together  much 
after  their  father's  style.  Geronimo  also  made 
instruments  alone,  of  larger  pattern,  and  changed 
the  shape  of  the  pointed  soimd-hole.  Geronimo's 
son,  Nicola  ( 1.500-1(!84) ,  was  the  most  eminent 
of  the  family.  His  model  is  of  extreme  elegance. 
The  corners  are  sharply  pointed,  the  backs  and 
bellies  of  beautiful  grained  wood,  the  sound-holes 
graceful  and  bold,  the  scroll  of  exquisite  cut, 
and  the  varnish  transparent  and  of  a  deep,  rich 
hue.  As  a  rule,  he  worked  after  a  small  pattern, 
but  he  produced  some  large  violins,  which  are 
now    called    "grand    Amatis,"    and    are    highly 


AMATI. 


424 


AMAZON. 


valued.  He  also  made  a  number  of  beautiful 
tenors  and  violoncellos.  His  label  reads;  yico- 
laus  Amati  Creinoncns.  nirronimi  filiu-s  Antonii 
vcpos  fecit  amio  16 — .  Antonio  Stradivari  and 
Guarneri  were  his  pupils,  and  the  Jacobs  of  Am- 
sterdam and  Grancino  of  Milan  were  among  his 
most  successful  imitators.  With  Geroninio.  his 
son,  the  family  of  Amati  ends.  He  followed  their 
trade,  but  made  indifl'erent  instruments.  For  a 
further  discussion  of  the  family  and  their  mu- 
sical inventions  see  under  Violin. 

AM'ATITLAN'.  A  department,  town,  and 
lake  of  Guatemala,  Central  America.  The  town, 
the  capital  of  the  department,  situated  on  the 
shores  of  the  lake  12  miles  southwest  of  Guate- 
mala city,  is  also  known  as  St.  Juan  de  .\matit- 
lan.  It  was  founded  by  Jesuits,  who  formerly 
engaged  here  in  extensive  sugar-cane  cultivation. 
The  gathering  of  cochineal  now  constitutes  the 
chief  industry,  and  there  is  a  trade  in  salt,  raw 
silk,  and  fruit.  Salt  and  alum  wells  and  hot 
springs  exist  in  the  neighborhood.  The  lake  has 
a  length  of  nine  miles  and  a7i  extreme  breadth  of 
three"  The  population  of  the  town  in  1803  was 
8408 :  of  the  department,  3.5,387. 

AM'ATON'GALAND.     See  Tongaland. 

AM'ATJRO'SIS  (Gk.  afiavpuci^,  a  darkening, 
from  afiavpiic,  uinnuros,  hardly  seen,  dim.  ob- 
scure). A  term  applied  to  absolute  blindness, 
with  no  discoverable  changes  in  the  eye.  It  is 
also  used  to  include  all  other  cases  of  total  blind- 
ness.    See  Airni.TOPi.\. 

AMAURY,  ft'mo're'.  The  title  of  two  kings 
of  Jeriisalem.  Araaury  I.  was  born  in  113.5,  and 
reigned  from  11G2  to  1173.  He  was  the  brother 
of  Baldwin  III.  In  llCS  lie  invaded  Egypt,  but 
was  driven  out  by  Saladin,  who  carried  the  war 
into  Amaury's  country  in  1170.  Amaury  II., 
born  1144,  was  King  of  Cyprus  (1194-1205),  and 
titular  King  of  Jerusalem  in  1198,  but  never 
made  good  his  claim  to  the  latter  kingdom.  He 
died  at  Acre  in  1205. 

AMATJRY  OF  CHARTRES.  See  Amalric 
OF  Bi:ne. 

AMAXICHI,  a'maks-e'ke,  or  Levka.s.  The 
capital  of  the  Ionian  island  of  Santa  Maura,  or 
Leucadia  ( Map :  Greece,  B  3 ) .  It  is  the  resi- 
dence of  a  Greek  metropolitan,  and  is  built  on 
the  edge  of  the  sliallow  lagoons  that  separate 
the  northeast  part  of  the  island  from  the  main- 
land, which  narrows  down  less  than  a  mile  north 
to  3500  feet.  It  has  two  harbors.  Amaxichi 
derives  its  name  from  Gk.  afiatai,  aniaxai,  cars, 
.vhich  the  Venetian  garrison  employed  in  bringing 
down  the  oil  and  wine  from  the  inland  districts 
to  the  point  nearest  the  fort  of  Santa  Maura, 
where,  subsequently,  houses  began  to  be  erected. 
Pop.,  0000. 

AM'AZI'AH  (Heb.,  "whom  Yahweh  strength- 
ens"). Eighth  king  of  Judah.  He  succeeded 
Joash  (or  .lehoash).  and  his  reign  has  by  some 
been  fixed  approximately  at  797-779  B.C.  Amaziah 
undertook  two  wars,  against  Edom  and  ag-ainst 
Israel,  respectively.  In  the  first  he  was  suc- 
cessful, despite  the  fact  that  he  had  dis- 
missed his  mercenaries  and  thus  weakened 
his  army  (II.  Chronicles  xxv  :  10).  Edom  was 
defeated  in  the  Valley  of  Salt,  and  Selah 
(the  modern  Petra)  was  captured  (II.  Kings 
xiv:7).  Elated  by  his  success,  he  chal- 
lenged .Toash,  King  of  Israel,  who  accepted  the 
challenge  only  when  compelled  to.     Amaziah  was 


defeated  (II.  Kings  xiv  :  12)  and  taken  prisoner 
to  his  own  capital.  Amaziah  survived  his  de- 
feat by  fifteen  years  (II.  Kings  xiv  :  7),  when  he 
was  killed  by  conspirators  at  Laehish  (II.  Kings 
xiv  :  19).  The  biblical  narrator  has  a  word  of 
praise  for  Amaziah.  because  in  punishing  t4ie 
murderers  of  his  father,  Joash.  he  did  not  harm 
the  children  of  the  conspirators  (II.  Kings 
xiv  :  6). 

AM'AZON.  A  river  of  South  America,  for- 
merly called  the  Orellana,  aftei"  a  Spanish  sol- 
dier of  that  name,  who  first  explored  it  (Map: 
South  America,  D  3).  The  name  Amazon  is  said 
to  be  derived  from  an  Indian  word  meaning 
"boat -destroyer,"  from  the  dangerous  action  of 
the  tidal  waves  at  the  river's  niouth.  The  native 
name  of  the  river  from  the  mouth  of  the  Negro 
to  the  junction  of  the  Maraiion  and  the  Ueayali, 
is  Solimoens. 

The  head  waters  of  the  .^mazon,  the  Maranon 
and  the  Ueayali  rivers,  rise  in  the  central  and 
northern  Peruvian  Andes,  and  after  a  northerly 
course  parallel  with  these  mountains  unite  in 
about  long.  74°  W.,  and  the  united  waters 
pursue  an  almost  easterly  course  between  lat. 
5°  S.  and  the  equator  to  the  Atlantic,  which  is 
reached  in  long.  50°  W.,  where  this  meridian 
intersects  the  equator.  The  Maraiion.  which 
rises  in  long.  76°  30'  W.  and  lat.  10°  30'  S.,  is 
properly  the  head  stream  of  the  .\mazon,  as  it  is 
furthest  west;  bvit  the  Ueayali  is  .slightly  the 
larger,  and  has  its  source  farther  south  in  the 
Andes  in  long.  72°  W.  and  lat.  10°  S.  From 
long.  70°  W.,  where  the  Amazon  leaves  Peru, 
its  course  is  confined  to  Brazil. 

The  total  length  of  the  Amazon  from  the  head 
waters  of  the  Ueayali  is  about  3300  miles.  It 
is  between  one  and  two  miles  wide  where  it  enteis 
Brazil,  and  giadually  increases  in  breadth,  en- 
larging to  a  width  of  fifty  miles  at  its  main 
mouth :  and  where  it  enters  the  sea  the  distance 
across  it,  from  headland  to  headland,  is  fully 
one  hundred  and  fifty  miles. 

The  total  area  drained  by  the  Amazon  is 
about  two  and  one-half  millions  of  square  miles, 
a  territory  equal  in  extent  to  about  85  per  cent, 
of  that  of  the  United  States  (exclusive  of  Alas- 
ka), and  embraces  most  of  the  South  American 
continent  west  of  long.  50°  W.  and  between  lat. 
3°  N.  and  lat.  17"  S..  except  a  comparatively 
narrow  strip  along  the  Pacific  coast,  and  a  some- 
what broader  one  on  the  Atlantic.  The  latitu- 
dinal zone  drained  by  the  rivers  from  the  north 
averages  only  C°  or  7°  in  width,  while  that  on 
the  south  has  a  breadth  of  13°  or  14°. 

The  chief  rivers  flowing  into  the  Amazon  from 
the  north  are  the  Xapo,  Putumayo,  Yapura.  and 
Rio  Negro.  These  rivers  flow  in  a  direction  more 
or  less  parallel  with  that  of  the  .\mazon,  and 
thus  they  drain  but  a  narrow  longitudinal  belt. 

The  chief  affluents  from  the  south  (in  addition 
to  the  Huallaga,  an  affluent  of  the  Maranon.  and 
the  Ueayali)  are  the  .Tavari,  JuruS.  Purus.  Ma- 
deira, Tapajos.  and  Xingu.  The  Toeantins  River 
practically  belongs  to  this  system  of  southern 
branches,  being  connected  with  the  Amazon  by 
an  arm  of  that  river,  which  cuts  off  the  large 
island   of   Marajn. 

The  l)asin  of  the  Amazon  lies  almost  wholly 
within  the  belt  of  remarkably  uniform  equatorial 
heat,  so  that  there  is  an  uninterrupted  plant 
growth  throughout  the  year.  There  is  a  mod- 
erately heavy  rainfall  over  the  whole  of  the 
basin,  except  in  the  western  part,  where,  east  of 


AMAZON. 


425 


AMAZON. 


the  Andes,  the  rainfall  is  excessive;  and  higher 
up  among  the  Andes,  where  it  is  deficient.  The 
very  heavy  rains  in  tlie  upper  waters  of  the 
basin  are  responsible  for  the  enormous  amount 
of  water  supplied  to  the  river,  which  makes  it 
(and  its  western  tributaries)  navigable  to  such 
a  great  distance  from  its  mouth.  In  most  sec- 
tions there  is  a  rainy  season  from  January  to 
Jlay,  and  a  six  months'  dry  season  from  Jiini' 
to  December.  In  the  Upper  Amazon  Valley  the 
rainy  season  begins  in  Xovember  and  continues 
until  July,  during  which  time  the  prevailing 
wind  is  northwest;  but  in  the  dry  season  the 
wind  is  chiefly  from  the  southeast.  The  rainfall 
amounts  to  over  100  inches  a  year  in  this  sec- 
tion. 

The  alternation  of  the  rainy  and  dry  seasons 
produces  corresponding  periods  of  high  and  low 
water  in  the  rivers.  Even  in  the  Maranon  a  rise 
of  ;J0  feet  occurs  in  the  wet  season,  and  through- 
out the  whole  length  of  the  Amazon  during  about 
half  the  year  its  waters  are  .swollen  and  the 
adjoining  low  country  inundated.  These  floods 
are  not  by  any  means  of  uniform  magnitude, 
and  at  intervals  of  every  few  years  abnormally 
high  water  occurs.  The  oirrent  of  the  Amazon 
averages  about  2 '4  miles  per  hour,  but  its  veloci- 
ty is  much  increased  during  the  floods. 

The  drainage  basin  of  the  Amazon  is  remark- 
ably level,  and  the  slope  from  the  outlying 
bounding  highlands  is  verj'  gradual.  The  height 
of  land  almost  to  the  very  sources  of  the  branch 
rivers  does  not  exceed  1000  feet,  and  as  falls  or 
rapids  east  of  the  Andes  are  almost  unknown, 
these  rivers  are  navigable  for  the  greater  part  of 
their  lengths.  The  Amazon  and  its  tributaries 
form  the  most  remarkable  and  extensive  system 
of  inland  water  highways  in  the  world.  The 
jiossibilities  of  future  development  in  the  chain 
of  South  American  inland  navigation  are  shown 
by  the  fact  that  on  the  north,  the  Amazon  has 
water  conmnuiication  with  the  Orinoco  through 
the  Kio  Negro  and  the  Casiquiare,  while  on  the 
south  the  navigable  waters  of  the  Tapajos  lack 
little  of  connecting  it  with  the  head  waters  of  a 
tributary  of  the  Plata  River. 

Within  the  Ijasin  of  the  Amazon  there  occur 
horizontal  layers  of  argillaceous  rocks  and  sand- 
stone, which  vary  in  height  from  100  feet  to  ten 
times  that  amount.  These  and  other  deposits 
seem  to  indicate  that  at  one  time  a  local  med- 
iterranean sea  covered  the  present  Amazonian 
lowlands,  and  the  Maraiion  had  for  its  outlet 
into  the  western  end  of  this  sea  a  delta,  which 
has  gradually  moved  eastward  as  the  shallow  sea 
became  filled  up. 

Not  only  the  source  streams,  but  nearly  all  the 
tributaries  of  the  Amazon,  experience  a  succes- 
sion of  falls  where  their  waters  enter  upon  the 
floor  of  the  main  stream,  and  some  branches  have 
falls  higher  up.  Above  these  falls,  which  vary 
from  a  succession  of  rapids  to  falls  of  50  feet, 
or  more,  navigation  is  again  resumed.  On  the 
Lower  Amazon  these  rapids  occur  at  a  distance 
of  only  from  200  to  300  miles  from  the  main 
stream ;  but  the  distance  increases  toward  the 
west,  so  that  on  the  Madeira  and  Rio  Negro 
rivers  the  falls  are  far  removed  from  the  mouths, 
while  most  of  the  southern  branch  rivers  west  of 
the  Madeira  lie  almost  entirely  within  the  unob- 
structed low  belt. 

Where  the  Amazon  enters  Brazil  its  elevation 
is  less  than  .'JOO  feet  above  sea-level.  Even  at  its 
low  stage  it^  usual  depth  in  its  lower  course 
Vol.  l.—2'j. 


is  about  l.iO  feet,  and  in  places  it  is  said  to  be 
much  deeper  still.  It  has  been  estimated  that 
the  Amazon  discharges  between  four  and  five  mil- 
lion cubic  feet  of  water  per  second;  and  with 
this  enormous  outflowing  water  there  is  carried 
every  twenty-four  hours  a  quantity  of  sediment 
suflicient  to  form  a  solid  cube  measuring  500 
feet  on  each  edge. 

The  Amazon  is  navigable  by  steamers  for  a 
distance  of  about  2200  miles,  and  for  smaller 
boats  to  points  considerably  beyond;  but  at  the 
entrance  to  the  gorges  of  the  eastern  Andes, 
navigation  is  practically  suspended,  on  account 
of  the  rapids  occurring  there.  Steamboat  navi- 
gation of  the  Amazon  began  in  1853,  but  it  was 
not  until  1867  that  the  navigation  of  the  river 
was  thrown  open  to  the  world.  Now  regular 
lines  of  steamers  ply  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Amazon  to  Yurimaguas  on  the  Huallaga  River 
in  north  central  Peru.  Vessels  enter  the  Amazon 
through  the  estuary  of  the  Para  Rivei',  since  the 
main  mouth  of  the  Amazon  north  of  Jlarajo 
Island   is  shoal  water  filled  with   rocky  islands. 

At  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon  there  is  a  con- 
tinual battling  of  the  river  current,  the  tides, 
and  the  winds.  The  tidal  influence  is  felt  up 
the  river  to  a  distance  of  about  400  miles.  The 
tidal  bore  is  at  times  so  pronounced  as  to  form 
successive  walls  of  water  ten  to  fifteen  feet  in 
height,  which  noisily  sweep  everything  before 
them  in  their  mad  rush  against  the  river  current. 
The  latter  is  perceptible  at  a  distance  of  fully 
200  miles  seaward  from  the  mouth  of  the  river. 

The  importance  of  the  Amazon  as  a  highway 
of  foreign  commerce  will  Itecome  greater  and 
greater  as  the  economic  development  of  Brazil 
proceeds,  when  in  exchange  for  the  ever-increas- 
ing quantities  of  tropical  products  exported  from 
the  Amazon  basin,  there  will  be  returned  the 
manufactures  and  products  of  the  temperate 
zones. 

F.\u>;a.  The  Amazon  Valley  is  covered  with 
tliick  forests  of  lofty  growth,  which  are  thinly 
inhal)ited  by  numerous  independent  s.avage  tribes. 
The  animal  life  is  exceedingly  rich  in  numbers, 
but  the  flood  conditions  which  so  generally  com- 
))el  arboreal  habits  in  unaquatic  animals  greatly 
limit  at  least  the  species  of  mammals.  The 
principal  animals  are  the  tapir,  jaguar,  panther, 
ca\y,  armadillo,  sloth,  peccary,  ant-eater,  and 
monkey.  Birds  are  exceedingly  numerous; 
many  of  them  are  songless,  but  bedecked  with 
gorgeously  colored  feathers ;  such  are  the  hum- 
ming birds  and  parrots.  Among  the  snakes,  the 
giant  anaconda  is  the  best  known,  and  of  the 
lizards  the  iguana  attains  formidable  size. 
Numerous  alligators  and  turtles,  and  the  great 
water  mammal,  the  manatee,  frequent  the  river 
and  its  branches.  Of  fishes  there  is  a  greater 
variety  than  in  any  other  stream,  and  in  fact 
a  large  proportion  of  the  present  known  species 
are  found  in  the  Amazon.  Insects  exist  in  the 
forests  in  countless  numbers.  Neither  the  fauna 
nor  the  flora  of  the  Amazon  has  been  more  tlian 
partly  studied,  and  that  mostly  by  visiting  nat- 
uralists. 

Flora.  The  flora  of  the  immediate  vicinity 
of  the  river  is  that  which  flourishes  in  a  watery 
soil,  and  which  will  survive  the  long-continued 
annual  inundation  which  occurs  in  midsummer. 
There  js  no  suspension  of  plant  activity,  and  the 
leaves  remain  green  throughout  the  year,  and  no 
month  is  without  its  bloom  or  fruit.  Aquatic 
plants  grow  in  great  profusion  and  attain  enor- 


AMAZON. 


mous  size,  a  prominent  example  being  the  giant 
lily,  Victoria  regia.  In  tlie  undergrowth  oceur 
rnbias.  myrtles,  leguminosic,  epiphytic  orchids, 
bromelia,  and  ferns. 

The  Amazonian  forest  presents  to  the  river  a 
wall-like  frontage  of  trees,  interwoven  with  vines 
and  roots  clothed  and  fringed  with  moss  in  the 
most  fantastic  manner.  A  continuous  mass  of 
verdure  overhead  has  a  secondary  flora  of  its 
own.  Some  of  the  trees  grow  to  a  height  of 
even  200  feetj  such  are  "the  moviatinga,  the 
saraauma,  and  the  massaranduba.  Palms,  bam- 
boos, and  ferns  grow  in  profusion:  but  few  tree 
ferns  and  almost  no  cacti  grow  immediately  on 
the  river. 

Among  the  ports  on  the  Amazon  (from  its 
mouth  upward)  are  Macap.l,  Santarem,  Obidos, 
Manaos,  Teffe,  and  Tabatinga.  The  commercial 
outlet  of  the  Amaj.on  basin  is  Parfi,  on  the  Rio 
Para,  the  estuary  of  the  Tocantins. 

BlBLlOGR.^PHY.  Bates,  The  Xaturttlist  on  the 
River  Amazon  (London,  1892)  ;  Wallace,  Travels 
on  the  Amazon  and  Rio  Negj-o  (London,  1870, 
second  edition,  1889)  ;  Agassiz,  Voijage  au  Bresil 
(Paris,  18G9)  ;  Brown  and  Lidstone,  Fifteen 
Thousand  Miles  on  the  Amazon  (London,  1878)  ; 
Shichtel,      Der     Amazonenstrom       (Strassburg, 

1893)  ;  JIarajo,  .4s  Reyioes  Amazonicus  (Lisbon, 
1895)  ;  Herndon  and  Gibbon,  Exploration  of  the 
YaUey  of  the  Amazon  (Washington,  1853)  ;  Ex- 
pedition into  the  Valley  of  the  Amazon,  1539, 
fj'tO.  16S9,  translated  and  edited  by  Markham. 
published  by  the  Hakluyt  Society  (London, 
18.59)  ;  Keller-Leuzinger,  The  Amazon  and  Ma- 
deira Rivers  (New  York,  1874)  ;  Smith,  Brazil, 
the  Amazon  and  the  Coast  (New  York,  1879)  ; 
Carvajal,  Descuhrimiento  del  rio  de  las  Amazo- 
nas,  with  an   introduction  by  Medina    (Seville, 

1894)  ;  Schutz-Holzhausen,  Der  Amazonas  (Frei- 
burg,  1895). 

AMAZONAS,  a'ma-tho'nas.  A  northern  de- 
partment of  Peru,  bounded  by  Ecuador  on  the 
north,  the  Peruvian  department  of  Loreto  on 
the  east,  Libertad  on  tlie  south,  and  Cajamarca 
on  the  west.  Area,  13,943  square  miles.  It  is 
sliuhtly  mountainous  and  has  a  fertile  soil.  The 
population  was  officially  estimated  in  1895  at 
70,670.     Capital,  Chaehapoyas. 

AMAZONAS,  or  ALTO  AMAZONAS.  The 
northernmost  and  largest  of  the  Brazilian  States, 
bounded  by  British  Guiana,  Venezuela,  and  Co- 
lombia onthe  north.  State  of  Parfi  on  the  east, 
Bolivia  and  the  State  of  Jlatto  Grosso  on  the 
south,  and  Colombia  and  Peru  on  the  west  (Map: 
Brazil,  K  4).  Its  total  area  is  732,250  square 
miles.  The  surface,  with  the  exception  of 
a  few  mountain  chains  on  the  Venezuelan  bor- 
der, is  one  alluvial  plain,  covered  with  impene- 
trable forests,  and  intersected  by  the  River 
Amazon,  with  its  numerous  tributaries,  includ- 
ing the  Rio  Negro  and  Madeira.  Tlie  climate,  al- 
tliongli  hot,  is  not  unlicaltliful.  and  the  soil  is 
very  fertile.  Industrially,  the  State  is  very  little 
developed,  and  its  principal  articles  of  trade  are 
food  products.  With  an  area  three  and  a  half 
times  as  large  as  that  of  France,  an  abundance 
of  fertile  land,  and  excellent  waterways,  Ama- 
zonas had  (1900)  a  population  of  207 .(>00.  or 
less  than  one  inhabitant  for  three  square  miles. 
Capital.  Manaos,  which  is  also  the  chief  port. 
Amazonas  formed  a  part  of  the  State  of  ParS, 
and  was  constituted  a  separate  State  in  1850. 
Consult:  J.  Verissinio,  Para  e  Amazonas  (Rio  de 


436  AMBAKISTA. 

.Janeiro.  1899)  ;  C.  L.  Temple,  The  State  of  Ama- 
zonas   (London,  1900). 

AM'AZONITE,     or     Amazon     Stone.       See 

MiCROCLINE. 

AM'AZONS,   Amaz'one.s    (from   Gk.  ^Afia^uv, 
Amazon).     In  early  Greek  legends,  a  race  of  war- 
like women,  who  either  suH'ered  no  man  to  live 
among  them,  or  held  men  in  servitude  for  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  race.    The  earliest  accoiuits  place 
them  in  northeast  Asia  Minor,  on  the  River  Tliir- 
modon ;   later  writers,  farther  to  the  north   and 
west,  in  Scythia  and  the  Caucasus;  and  finally 
we  hear  of  Amazon^  in  Libya,  at  the  south  of  the 
known  world.    Their  expeditions,  undertaken  for 
w'ar  and  plunder, led  them  intoSc.ythia  andS.yria, 
but  especially  to  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  where 
we  find  them  in  conflict  with  Priam,  Bellerophon, 
and  other  heroes.     In  this  region  they  were  said 
to   have   founded   many   cities,   notably   Ephesus, 
where   they   established   the   temple   of   Artemis, 
which    furnished    them    a   refuge   when   defeated 
by  Hercules.     They  were  daughters  of  Ares,  and 
w-orshiped  him  and  Artemis  as  their  chief  gods. 
They   appear  chiefly  in  three   stories:       (I)    The 
killing  by   Achilles   of  their   queen   Penthesilea. 
who  led  her  army  to  the  relief  of  Troy;    (2)  the 
conflict  with  Hercules,  which  arose  from  his  en- 
deavor to  secure  the  girdle  of  their  queen,  and 
led,  according  to  some  writers,  to  their  annihila- 
tion;    (3)    the   war    with    Athens,    which   began 
with  the  expedition  of  Theseus  to  carry  off  the 
Amazon  queen,  and  ended  with  their  invasion  of 
Attica,   attack  on  the  Acropolis  from  the  Areo- 
pagus, and  total  destruction  by  Theseus  and  the 
Athenians.     The   origin   of   these   legends   is   not 
clear:  but  if  we  consider  the  localities  in  which 
the  Amazons  lived,  and  that  in  historic  times  the 
Greeks  found  tribes  about  the  Black  Sea  in  which 
the  women  held  sway  and  took  part  in  -n-ar,  while 
in  Caria,  Lycia,  and  Lydia  there  is  much  evidence 
for  descent  traced  througli  the  mother,  it  seems 
not  improbable  that  the  Amazons  embody  a  remi- 
niscence of  the  people  and  civilization  which  pre- 
ceded  the    Greeks   on   the    east   of   the   .Egertn. 
Representations  of  the  Amazons  are  very  com- 
mon in  all  periods  of  Greek  art.     At  first  they 
appear  in  the  costume  of  Greek  hoplites,  but  later 
assume  the  Scythian  garb.     Tliey  are  armed  with 
lance,   battle   axe,   or  bow,   and   usually  carry   a 
crescent  shield.     Among  the  chief  ancient  repre- 
sentations  are   the   reliefs    from   Gy'ilbaschi,   in 
Vienna,   which    seem   to    reflect   the   painfing   of 
Micon  at  Athens;  and  the  friezes  from  Phigalia 
and    the    mausoleum    at    Halicarnassus,    in    the 
British  Jluseum.     Of  the  statues,  three  tyjies  go 
back    to    the    best    period    <if    Greek    art:     the 
"Wounded  Amazon," in  Berlin,  probably  by  Poly- 
cletus:  the  "Wounded  Amazon"  of  tlie  Capitoline 
Museum  in  Rome,  and  the  "Unwounded  Amazon" 
in  the  Vatican.     It  was  said  that  in  order  to  be 
unimpeded  in  war,   they  burned  ofi"  their  right 
breasts:  but  no  Miirk   of  art  shows   them   thus 
mutilated,  and  undoubtedly  the  story  is  merely 
an   invention  to   explain   a   false   etymolog;y,   as 
thougli    the   composition    of    the   word    Am.azon 
were"  a    priv.    and    //ofdc,    mazos,    breast.      Con- 
sult:  Kliigmann,  Die  Amazonen  in  der  attischen 
Utteraiiir    und    Kunst    (Stuttgart,    1875),    and 
Corey,     De    Amuzonum    Antiquissimis    Figims 

(Berlin,  1891). 

AM'BAKIS'TA.     A  Bantu  tribe  of  Amboia, 
Portuguese  West  Africa.    They  were  enterprising 


AMBAKISTA. 


i27 


AMBER-FISH. 


traders  orininally,  Init  were  ruined  by  the  Portu- 
guese, and  dispersed  to  other  regions. 

AMBALA,  anihii'lA.  or  UMBALLA.  A  city 
in  India,  lapital  of  tlie  district  of  Anil)ala  in  the 
Punjab  (Map:  India.  C  2),  and  an  important 
station  on  the  Sindli,  Punjab,  and  Dellii  Rail- 
way, 150  miles  northwest  of  Delhi.  It  is  a  large, 
walled  town,  in  a  level,  well-watered,  and  culti- 
vated country,  and  has  an  extensive  trade.  It 
contains  a  fine  Gothic  church,  a  Presbyterian 
church,  dispensary,  hospital,  and  leper  asylum. 
The  town  was  founded  in  the  fourteenth  century. 
Here,  at  a  grand  durbar,  in  1809,  Shere  Ali, 
Ameer  of  .Afghanistan,  concluded  a  treaty  with 
Lord  Mayo,  Governor-General  of  India.  Popu- 
lation, 79,.'!00.  including  the  English  military 
station  or  cantonment  near  by. 

AMBALEMA,  iim'ba-la'ma.  A  city  in  the 
department  of  Tolima.  Colombia,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Magdalena  (Map:  Colombia,  B  2).  The 
city  lies  28  miles  above  Honda  in  the  midst  of  an 
excellent  tobacco-growing  district,  and  is  one  of 
the  most  modern  as  well  as  one  of  the  most 
thriving  towns  of  Colombia.  Pop.,  8000. 
AM'BARI  HEMP.  See  Hibiscus. 
AMBAS'SADOE,  (Med.  Lat.  ambasciator, 
agent,  from  atnbanciare,  to  go  on  a  mission,  ear- 
lier ambactiare,  from  Lat.  ambacius,  vassal;  ac- 
cording to  Festus,  of  Celtic  origin;  compare 
Welsh  aitiacth,  hiisbandnian,  and  Goth,  aiidhalits, 
servant;  Ger.  Ami,  office).  The  highest  rank  of 
public  minister  accredited  to  a  foreign  court. 
Though  used  popularly  and  sometimes  by  writ- 
ers on  public  law  in  a  loose  sense  as  the  equiva- 
lent of  minister  (q.v),  the  term  is  strictly  appro- 
priately used  only  of  the  highest  of  the  four 
orders  of  diplomatic  agents  established  by  the 
Congress  of  Vienna  in  1815,  and  that  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  in  1818.  The  classification  then 
adopted,  which  has  been  generally  accepted,  is  as 
follows:  (1)  Ambassadors,  and  legates  and  nun- 
cios of  the  Pope.  (2)  Envoys  and  ministers 
plenipotentiary.  (3)  Ministers  resident,  accredi- 
ted to  the  sovereign.      (4)   Charges  d'affaires. 

The  ambassador  is  supposed  to  represent  di- 
rectly the  person  of  his  sovereign,  who  signs  his 
credentials,  or  letters  of  credence,  and  the  am- 
bassador, therefore,  enjoys  of  ri^'ht  the  privilege 
of  personal  communication  willi  the  sovereign 
to  whom  he  is  accredited.  Ministers  and  charges 
d'all'aires  do  not,  in  theory,  possess  this  right, 
thougli  in  the  case  of  the  minister,  at  least,  the 
privilege  is  not  usually  denied.  The  charge 
d'atlaires  is,  in  fact,  not  accredited  to  the  sov- 
ereign, but  to  the  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  and 
is  regarded  merely  as  an  agent  of  his  government 
to  transact  the  business  intrusted  to  him.  Mod- 
ern methods  of  carrying  on  the  diplomatic  inter- 
course of  states  have  greatly  diminished  the 
relative  importance  of  ambassadors,  as  compared 
with  other  diplomatic  agents,  and  little  remains 
of  their  prinurcy  excepting  a  superior  dignity  and 
impressiveness  and  certain  rights  of  precedence 
on  ceremonial  occasions.  Prior  to  1893  the  Gov- 
ernment of  the  United  States  had  been  repre- 
sented abroad  by  no  agents  of  higher  rank  than 
ministers  resident,  who  were,  in  the  case  of  the 
great  Powers,  accredited  as  envoys  extraordinary 
and  ministers  plenipotentiary.  But  in  that  year, 
in  order  to  give  our  diplomatic  representatives 
at  foreign  courts  an  equal  dignity  and  importance 
with  that  enjoyed  by  the  representatives  of  other 
great  Powers,  Congress  passed  an  act  authoriz- 


h 


ing  the  President  to  accredit  ambassadors  to  rep- 
resent the  United  States  at  certain  European 
courts.  The  jirivilcges  and  immunities  of  am- 
bassadors, which  are  shared  by  them  with  other 
interniitional  representatives,  will  be  dealt  with 
in  the  article  on  niiM.oM.vnt'  Agents.  See  also 
AsYHM.Eic.iiT  OF:  Extehritoriality  ;  Legatio>.'. 

AMBATO,  :im-ba't6,  or  AsiEXTO  DE  AiiBATO, 
A-sy."in't6  dfi  >un-b;i't6.  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Leon,  Ecuador,  on  the  northeastern  slope  of 
Chimborazo,  78  miles  south  of  Quito,  and  8859 
feet  above  the  sea  (Map:  Ecuador,  B  4).  It  was 
destroyed  in  1698  by  an  eruption  of  Cotopaxi,  but 
was  soon  rebuilt,  and  became  more  flourishing 
than  before.  It  carries  on  an  active  trade  in 
grain,  sugar,  and  cochineal,  the  products  of  i.he 
surrounding  country.     Pop.,  about  10,000. 

AM'BER  (From  .\r.  'anbni;  ambergi'is;  called 
so  from  its  resemblance  to  ambergi-is).  A  fossil 
resin  of  vegetable  origin.  It  is  usually  of  a  pale- 
3'ellow  color,  sometimes  reddish  or  brownish ; 
it  is  sometimes  transparent,  sometimes  almost 
opaque.  It  occurs  in  round  irregular  lumps, 
grains,  or  drops;  has  a  perfectly  conchoidal 
fracture,  is  slightly  brittle,  emits  an  agreeable 
odor  when  rubbed,  melts  at  550°  F.,  and  burns 
with  a  bright  flame  and  pleasant  smell.  Thales 
of  Miletus  was  the  first  to  notice  that  when 
amber  is  rubbed  it  becomes  capable  of  attracting 
light  bodies;  this  was  tlie  first  electric  phenom- 
enon produced  by  man.  An  acid  called  succinic 
iicid  (named  from  the  Lat.  succinum,  amber)  is 
obtained  from  it  by  distillation.  Amber  had 
formerly  a  high  reputation  as  a  medicine,  but 
the  virtues  ascribed  to  it,  were  almost  entirely 
imaginary.  It  is  employed  in  the  arts  for  the 
manufacture  of  many  ornamental  articles,  and 
for  the  preparation  of  a  kind  of  varnish.  Great 
quantities  are  consumed  in  Mohannnedan  wor- 
ship at  I\Iecca,  and  it  is  in  gieat  demand  through- 
out the  East.  It  was  obtained  by  the  ancients 
from  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic  Sea,  where  it  is 
still  found,  especially  between  Kiinigsberg  and 
Jlemel,  in  greater  abundance  than  anywhere  else 
in  the  world.  It  is  there  partly  cast  up  by  the 
sea,  partly  obtained  by  means  of  nets,  and  partly 
dug  out  of  a  bed  of  carbonized  wood.  Limited 
quantities  of  it  are  found  in  the  United  States. 
It  sometimes  occurs  in  diluvial  deposits,  as  in 
the  gravel  near  London ;  but  it  is  very  rare  in 
Great  Britain.  It  is  obtained  in  small  quantities 
from  the  coasts  of  Sicily  and  the  Adriatic,  and  is 
found  in  ditferent  parts  of  Europe,  in  Siberia, 
Greenland,  etc.  It  sometimes  incloses  insects  of 
species  which  no  longer  exist.  Leaves  have  also 
been  found  inclosed  in  it.  Specimens  which  con- 
tain insects  or  leaves  being  much  valucil,  artifi- 
cial substitutes  are  often  manufactured  and  im- 
posed upon  collectors.  According  to  an  ancient 
fable,  amber  is  the  tears  of  the  sisters  of  Phae- 
thon,  who,  after  his  death,  were  changed  into 
poplars.  The  ancients  set  an  immense  value 
upon  it.  Pieces  of  amber  have  occasionally  been 
found  of  twelve  or  thirteen  pouTuls  weight,  but 
such  pieces  are  extremely  rare. 

AMBER-FISH.  Any  of  several  carangoid 
fishes  of  tlie  genus  Scriola.  numerous  on  both 
coasts  of  North  America,  which  are  of  moderate 
size,  graceful  form,  often  brightly  colored  and 
excellent  to  eat.  The  commonest  species  of  the 
Atlantic  coast  is  Seriola  lalandi.  On  the  Pacific 
coast  an  allied  species  (Seriola  dorsalis),  the  yel- 
lowtail,  is  highly  valued  as  a  food-fish,  and"  by 


AMBEB-riSH. 


428 


AMBLESIDE. 


anglers.     For  further  discussion  and  illustration, 
see  HoBSE  JIackerel. 

AMEEBG,  am'borK.  The  old  capital  of  the 
Tapper  Palatinate  in  Bavaria,  35  miles  east  of 
Nuremberg  and  32  north  of  Ratisbon  (Map: 
Bavaria,  D  4 ) .  It  is  situated  on  both  sides  of 
the  Vils,  and  is  well  built.  The  ancient  walls  are 
noAV  transformed  into  shady  avenues.  Amberg 
is  the  seat  of  the  court  of  appeal  for  the  district, 
possesses  a  library  of  34,000  volumes,  a  lyceura, 
an  agricultural  and  industrial  school,  a  munici- 
pal hospital,  a  house  of  correction,  etc.  There 
is  also  a  royal  factory  for  the  manufacture  of 
arms.  The  Jirincipal  products  are  earthenware, 
woolen  cloths,  ironmongery,  and  beer.  Near  Am- 
berg, Archduke  Charles  defeated  the  French  un- 
der .lonrdau  on  August  24,  1796.  Pop.,  1890, 
19,000:   in  1900,  22,000. 

AMBEEGEB,,  -iraljerK-er,  Ciiristoph  (c.  1500- 
c.  1501?).  A  German  painter.  He  was  received 
into  the  Augsburg  guild  in  1530,  and  is  best 
known  for  his  careful  portraits  of  contempora- 
ries, particularly  those  of  Charles  V.,  Frunds- 
berg,  and  the  geographer  iliinster.  Various 
altar-pieces  by   hiui  are   in   Augsburg  churches. 

AMBERGRIS,  amTier-gi-es  (Fr.  ainlre  gris, 
gray  amber;  Ar.  'anbar) .  Also  spelled  amherghse 
and  (tmhergrcase.  A  fatty  secretion  formed  in  the 
bowels  of  some  sperm  whales  (q.v.),  and  valued 
as  a  material  for  perfume.  It  is  taken  from 
whales  directly,  but  more  is  found  floating  in 
waters  (especially  of  the  tropics)  frequented  by 
these  cetaceans,  or  cast  upon  the  beaches  in 
lumps  of  all  sizes  up  to  a  mass  exceeding 
200  pounds  in  weight.  It  is  lighter  than  water, 
gray  marbled  with  blackish  in  color,  opaque  and 
waxy  in  consistency,  softens  readily  under 
heat,  melting  into  resinous  liquid  at  145°  F., 
and  develops  on  exposure  to  the  air  a  sweet, 
"earthy"  odor  in  place  of  its  disagreeable  smell 
when  first  taken  from  a  whale.  Chemically,  it 
is  soluble  in  oils,  but  resists  acids;  and  it  dis- 
solves readily  in  hot  alcohol,  yielding  a  substance 
termed  ambrein.  As  this  is  closely  related  chem- 
ically to  known  biliary  secretions,  it  is  further 
evidence  that  ambergris  is  of  this  nature,  perhaps 
induced  by,  and  partaking  of,  the  squids  upon 
which  the"  sperm  whale  largely  feeds,  remains 
of  whose  beaks  are  frequently  found  mixed  with 
it.  Like  other  bezoars  and  substances  of  mys- 
terious origin,  ambergris  was  formerly  regarded 
as  an  efHcacious  medicine,  but  its  virtues  were 
imaginary,  and  it  is  no  longer  used  in  pharmacy, 
nor  as  a  flavor  in  cookery,  except  among  a  few 
barbarians  of  the  East.  It  has  a  high  commer- 
cial value,  however,  as  a  material  for  the  man- 
ufacture of  various  perfumes,  and  the  price  is 
increasing,  owing  to  the  increasing  rarity  of  the 
&perni  whale,  and  a  growing  demand.  Hence  it 
is  adulterated  and  imitated;  a  test  of  its  genu- 
ineness is  described  as  "its  solubility  in  hot  alco- 
hol, its  fragiant  odor,  and  its  uniform  fatty  con- 
sistence on  being  penetrated  by  a  hot  wire." 

AM'BER  ISLANDS,  or  Electrides.  In 
later  Greek  gei>j;rai)hy.  the  islands,  famed  for 
their  amber,  in  the  North  Sea,  from  Denmark  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Rhine.  Also  certain  islands 
at  the  mouth  of  tlie  legendary  river  Eridanus 
(the  Po). 

AMBERT,  liN'bAr',  Jo.^niiM  JIarie  .Jean 
Jacques  (1804-90).  A  French  general  and 
writer.     He  was   born  at  Chillas,   near   Cahors 


(Lot),  and  was  educated  at  St.  Cyr.  He  served 
in  the  Spanisli  and  Belgian  campaigns,  distin- 
guished liimself  in  Algeria,  and  became  brigadier- 
general  in  Europe.  He  traveled  extensively  in 
Eurojje  and  .4merica,  and  for  some  time  was  a 
contributor  to  L'Aheille,  a  French  journal  pub- 
lished at  New  Orleans.  Among  his  numerous 
writings  are:  Etudes  tactiques  (18U5),  Bistoire 
de  la  guerre  cle  1810-71  (1873),  Les  soldats 
fraiiQais  (1878-82),  Claulois  et  gcnnains,  recits 
militaires   (  1884-80). 

AM'BER  WITCH,  The.  An  English  opera 
by  \V.  V.  Wallace,  the  text  being  by  H.  F.  Chor- 
ley,  first  presented  at  Her  Majesty's  Theatre, 
London,  February  28,  1801.  Its  incidents  are 
based  on  those  of  a  German  story  by  Meinhold 
(1843). 

AM'BIGTJ'ITY  (Lat.  iimhigiius,  going  about 
hither  and  thither,  uncertain,  doubtful).  In  law, 
the  duplicity  or  uncertainty  of  meaning  of  a 
word,  clause,  or  other  part  of  a  written  instru- 
ment. The  rule  of  evidence  forbidding  the  ad- 
mission of  parol  evidence  to  contradict,  vary,  or 
explain  a  written  document  is  subject  to  the 
important  exception  that  parol  evidence  may 
be  introduced  for  the  purpose  of  explaining  an 
ambiguit.v  in  a  written  instrument.  Ambiguities 
are  "patent"  and  "latent."  A  patent  ambigu- 
ity is  one  which  appears  on  the  face  of  an  in- 
strument without  referring  to  any  intrinsic  fact 
or  circumstance.  Thiis,  if  a  testator  after  refer- 
ring in  liis  will  to  two  persons  named  John,  made 
a  bequest  to  John,  the  term  of  the  bequest  would 
constitute  a  patent  ambiguity.  A  latent  ambigu- 
ity is  one  which  is  disclosed  only  by  the  proof  of 
extrinsic  facts.  TIius,  if  a  testator  made  a  be- 
(juest  to  a  person,  naming  or  otherwise  describ- 
ing him,  and  it  appeared  extrinsically  that  there 
were  two  persons  answering  the  description,  the 
terms  of  the  bequest  would  constitute  a  latent 
ambiguity.  It  is  sometimes  said  that  parol  evi- 
dence cannot  be  introduced  to  explain  a  latent 
ambiguity.  While  the  judicial  decisions  are  not 
altogether  harmonious,  the  weight  of  authority 
does  not  favor  such  a  rule.  See  the  authorities 
named  under  the  titles  Contract,  \\ill,  and 
Evidence. 

AMBI'ORIX.  A  chief  of  the  Eburones  in 
Belgic  Gaul,  who  fought  against  Julius  Cfesar  in 
54  B.C.  By  cunning  and  strategy  he  defeated  one 
important"  Roman  garrison  and  massacred  every 
man :  but  while  on  the  march  to  another  camp, 
he  enc<mntered  Csesar  himself,  who  easily  de- 
feated him,  though  Ambiorix  with  a  few  men  es- 
caped  into  the  forests. 

AMBI'TIOXTS  STEP'MOTHER,  The.  A 
tragedy  by  Nicholas  Rowe,  produced  and  printed 
in  1700.     Tlie  scene  is  laid  in  Persepolis. 

AM'BLEB,  JAjfES  Markiiam  Marshali, 
(1848-81).  An  American  surgeon,  born  in  Fau- 
quier Co.,  Va.,  and  educated  at  tlie  medical 
college  of  the  University  of  Maryland.  He  vol- 
unteered as  surgeon  to  the  Jeannettc  Arctic  ex- 
pedition in  1879  (see  De  Long,  George  W.),  and 
was  in  the  first  cutter  with  De  Long  when  the 
oflicers  and  crew  left  the  sinking  vessel  ( Jjine  13, 
1881 ) .  His  body  was  found  March  23.  1882,  and 
buried  on  Mjnument  Hill,  on  the  Lena  Delta, 
where  a  pyramidal  structure  of  stone  and  timber 
was  erected  to  the  memory  of  the  explorers. 

AM'BLESIDE.  A  town  in  the  heart  of  the 
English  lake  district,  Westmoreland;  a  favorite 


AMBLESIDE. 


429 


AMBOISE. 


resort  for  tourists  on  account  of  its  spenery  and 
its  nearness  to  points  of  historic  interest,  the 
homes  of  Wordsworth,  Dr.  Arnold,  and  others. 
Fragments  of  Roman  Inuklings  have  l)cen  found 
in  the  neigliborhood.  Stoelv  Gill  Force  is  a  water- 
fall in  the  hills  near  the  town.     Pop.,  1901,  2530. 

AMBLETETJSE,  ax'hl'-tPz'.  A  seaeoast  vil- 
lafxe  of  France,  in  tlie  department  of  Pas-de- 
C'alais,  on  the  English  Cliannel,  about  1.)  miles 
southwest  of  Calais  and  six  miles  north  of  Bou- 
logne. It  is  famous  as  the  landing  place  of  James 
11.  after  his  (light  from  England  in  lU.SO.  Tfiere 
is  a  monument  erected  by  Napoleon  to  the  Grand 
Army  in   ISO.').     Pop.,    1!)01,   US'). 

AM'BLYO'PIA  (Gk.  d/jS'/.tuiria,  dim-sight- 
edness.  fi-oin  ifiiJU^,  ainhli/s,  blunt,  dull  +  uij}, 
Ojis,  eye).  A  name  given  to  diminished  aeuteness 
of  vision  not  relieved  by  the  use  of  glasses,  and 
not  accompanied  by  any  visible  ocular  changes. 
The  term  is.  however,  sometimes  more  loosely 
used  to  include  other  forms  of  imperfect  sight. 
Congenital  amblyopia  of  one  or  both  eyes  is  often 
due  to  hyperopia,  myopia,  or  astigmatism.  These 
prevent  perfect  vision,  and  although  the  use  of 
proper  glasses  may  eventually  cause  an  improve- 
ment in  young  persons,  this  is  impossible  if  the 
lack  of  proper  vision  has  lasted  long.  Congenital 
amblyopia  for  colors  (see  Color  Bi.ixdxe.ss) 
may  occur  with  a  contraction  of  tlie  lield.  Hys- 
terical amblyopia,  usually  unilateral,  may 
amount  to  total  blindness.  There  is  contraction 
eoncentricallv  of  the  field  of  vision  for  white  and 
colors,  and  the  fields  for  colors  do  not  maintain 
the  relative  sizes  which  they  normally  possess. 
There  are  generally  other  hysterical  symptoms. 
Sinnilated  amblyopia  is  simply  a  pretense  of 
blindness  in  one  or  both  eyes,  and  is  usually 
readily  detected.  Toxic  amblyopia  is  produced 
at  times  by  large  doses  of  quinine,  or  excessive 
and  continual  use  of  tobacco,  alcoliol,  opium,  and 
otlier  drugs.  If  the  drug  is  entirely  given  up 
recovery  usually  occurs  after  a  long  time.  51a- 
larial  amblyopia  of  one  or  both  eyes  is  usually 
relieved  by  quinine.  Uriemic  amblyopia  some- 
times appears  suddenly  in  both  eyes  during  an 
attack  of  ur*mia.  without  retina!  changes, 
though  at  times  accompanying  an  albuminuric 
retinitis.  It  is  generally  very  transitory.  See 
Sight,  Defects  of. 

AM'BLYOP'SID.ffi  (Gk.  iij,3?.v(,  amhhjs,  dull 
+  '""/'";,  I'jisis,  the  look,  eyesight).  A  family  of 
small  fislies  allied  to  the  cyprinodonts,  mostly 
living  underground,  and  having  their  eyes  in 
varying  degiees  of  degeneration.  See  Cave  Ani- 
mals. 

AMBLYS'TOMA  (Gk.  u/ilSXi-g.  ambli/s,  hhmt, 
dull  -f  arouii.  .s7o/;i((,  mouth) .  A  genus  of  sala- 
manders ranging  over  ilexico  and  tlie  United 
States.  They  generally  prefer  damp  climates, 
for  the  fifteen  or  more  species  are  grouped  in  the 
watered  regions  on  either  side  of  the  arid  plains. 
(>nly  one  species  {Amblystoma  tifiriiiuin)  ranges 
over  all  of  the  United  States  and  into  Mexico. 
The  eastern  examples  transform  early  and  while 
yet  small.  The  larval  or  "axolotl"  .itage  of  the 
western  forms  grows  large,  transforms  late,  and 
may  even  become  sexually  mature  while  still 
bearing  external  gills.  Oiie  Mexican  form  has 
never  been  observed  to  metamorphose.  See 
Axolotl,  and  Salamaxder. 

AM'BO  (Eat.  tiiiiho.  Ok.  u/iSuv.  from  avajiai- 
var.    to    ascend).      The    pulpit    or    reading-desk 


used  in  the  early  Christian  churches.  There  were 
usually  two  of  them,  placed  on  either  side  of  the 
raised  choir  for  the  lower  clergy,  wiiich  occupied 
the  upper  part  of  the  middle  nave,  below  the 
altar.  These  ainbones  were  entered  frcnn  within 
the  choir,  and  stood  on  its  outside  edge,  toward 
the  aisles,  connected  with  the  encircling  parapet 
or  screen.  They  had  usually  a  double  staircase 
on  either  side,  and  three  levels;  the  u|)per  for  the 
reading  of  the  Gospels  and  for  preaching,  confes- 
sions of  faith,  and  important  ecclesiastical  an- 
nouncements: the  middle  one  for  the  reading  of 
the  Epistles:  the  lower  for  other  parts  of  the 
Bible.  Usually  one  ambo  was  devoted  to  the 
reading  of  the  Gospels,  and  near  it  stood  the 
paschal  candlestick,  while  the  second  ambo  was 
for  the  Epistles.  The  earliest  ambones  are  at 
Ravenna  (cathedral  and  Sant'  Apollinarc).  Those 
at  Rome  are  mediaeval  (San  Clemente,  San  Lo- 
renzo ) ,  but  are  better  preserved.  They  were  of 
marble,  merely  carved  in  the  earliest  examples; 
inlaid  with  mosaics  in  later  times.  To  the  form 
with  a  single  stairway  the  term  "pulpit"  is  more 
appropriate.    See  Pllpit. 

AMBOISE,  iix'bwiiz'.  A  town  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Loire,  in  the  de]>artment  of  Indre- 
et-Loire,  France  (Map:  France,  H  4).  It  is  15 
miles  by  railway  east  of  Tours,  and  lies  in  a  re- 
gion so  rich  in  vineyards  that  it  has  been  called 
•"the  garden  of  France."  The  town  has  consider- 
able steel  manufactures  and  a  trade  in  leather 
and  cloth.  It  possesses  a  castle,  in  which  several 
of  the  French  kings  have  resided.  Charles  VIII. 
was  born  here.  It  was  also  the  scene  of  his  death. 
The  town  owes  much  of  its  importance  to  the  re- 
nown of  the  great  churchmen  and  statesmen,  Car- 
dinal Georges  and  Francois  Charles  d'Amboise. 
The  town  is  memorable  as  the  place  in  which  the 
religious  wars  which  devastated  the  kingdom  dur- 
ing the  sixteenth  century  broke  out,  and  where 
the  word  "Huguenot"  was  first  applied  to  the 
Protestant  Party.  The  castle  of  Amboise  was 
much  improved  by  Louis  Philijipe,  and  was  the 
residence  of  the  Arab  chief  Abd-cl-Kader  dur- 
ing his  captivity  in  France.  Pop.,  1001,  4538. 
Consult  Chevalier,  Inventaire  niialytique  dcs 
arcliiirs  coiiitnunales  d'Amboise,  l.'i21-17S9 
(Tours,  1874). 

AMBOISE,  Georges  d'  (1400-1510).  Car- 
dinal and  Prime  Minister  under  Louis  XII.  of 
France.  He  was  born  at  Chaumont-sur-Loire.  At 
a  very  early  age  lie  became  almoner  to  Louis  XI. 
It  is  generally  stated  that  he  became  Bishop  of 
Montauban  at  foui-teen;  but  he  did  not  attain  to 
the  dignity  till  the  age  of  twenty-four.  In  1493 
he  was  made  Archbishop  of  Rouen,  and  in  1499 
Cardinal.  Initiated  in  early  years  into  the  in- 
trigues of  the  court,  he  soon,  by  his  zealous  serv- 
ices, secured  the  confidence  of  Louis  of  Orleans 
(Louis  XII.),  by  whom  he  was  nuide  Premier  in 
14!)S.  From  this  time  Amboise  became  the  prime 
mover  in  all  the  political  affairs  of  France.  By  his 
advice  the  King  undertook  the  conquest  of  Milan, 
which  had  such  great  influence  on  the  fortunes  of 
France.  After  the  death  of  Pope  Alexander  VI., 
Amboise  endeavored  to  raise  himself  to  the  Papal 
see,  and.  having  failed,  became  the  dangerous 
enemy  of  the  succeeding  popes.  Pius  III. — wlio  oc- 
cupied the  Papal  chair  only  twenty-seven  days — 
and  Julius  II.  To  secure  liis  own  election,  xVm- 
boise  encouraged  a  schism  between  the  French 
Church  and  the  see  of  Rome,  and  convoked  a 
separate  council,  held  first  at  Pisa,  afterward  at 


AMBOISE. 


430 


AMBROS. 


Milan  and  Lyons;  but  his  plans  were  frustrated 
by  tlie  failure  of  the  French  army  in  Italy. 
Cardinal  Amboise  was  a  dexterous,  experienced, 
and  ambitious  statesman.  He  governed  France 
wisely,  introduced  reforms  in  the  judicial  sys- 
tem, reduced  taxation,  and  by  his  benevolence 
earned  the  respect  of  the  whole  nation.  Consult: 
Le  Oendre,  T')>  dii  Cardinal  d'Ainboixe  (Rouen, 
1720)  ;  Hardouin.  Le  Cardinal  d' Amboise (B.ouen, 
1875). 

AM'BOY  CLAYS.  A  great  series  of  upper 
Cretaceous  clay  deposits  foiind  extensively  devel- 
oped in  northeastern  New  Jersey,  especially  in 
the  region  around  Perth  Amboy,  whence  the 
name.  The  beds,  which  are  of  non-marine  origin, 
are  also  known  as  the  Raritan  clays,  because  the 
Karitan  Eiver  flows  through  the  area  in  which 
they  outcrop,  and  their  total  thickness,  including 
the  interbedded  sands,  is  about  3.50  feet.  A  few 
of  the  beds  contain  an  abundaiice  of  plant  re- 
mains, as  well  as  some  ol  nioUusks.  The  Amboy 
clays  are  of  great  economic  value,  being  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  chinaware,  firebricks,  stone 
ware,  brick,  and  tile.  Large  pits  have  been 
opened  in  the  deposits  at  Perth  Amboy,  South 
Amboy,  \^■oodbridge,  and  other  points.  The  clays 
are  used  chiefly  within  the  State,  but  large  quan- 
tities are  also  sent  to  neighboring  States.  See 
Cret.\ikois  System;  Fireclay;  Clay. 

AMBOY'NA  (ilalay  Amhiiii.) ,  ApoN,or  Thau. 
The  most  important  of  the  Moluccas,  belonging  to 
the  Dutch,  and  lying  southwest  from  Ceram,  and 
northwest  from  Banda.  Tlie  island  coveis  an 
area  of  204  square  miles  and  is  divided  by  the  bay 
of  Amboyna  into  two  unequal  peninsulas  (Map: 
East  India  Islands,  G  5),  Hitu.  the  larger, 
and  Leitimor,  the  smaller.  The  surface  is  highly 
mountainous,  and  traversed  by  numerous  streams 
abounding  in  fish.  The  soil  is  fertile  and  pro- 
duces coft'ee,  pepper,  indigo,  and  rice.  But  the 
main  product  of  the  island  is  tlie  clove,  which 
grows  there  in  abundance,  and  constitutes  the 
chief  article  of  commerce.  A  great  part  of  the 
island  is  covered  with  forests  full  of  valuable 
woods.  The  inhabitants  in  1891  numbered  liO,- 
380.  They  are  ph.ysically  and  linguistically 
Malayan,  although  some  Papuan  admixture  from 
Ceram  has  occurred.  They  have  also  some  Portu- 
guese blood.  Their  language  contains  a  consider- 
able Portuguese  element,  and  their  religion  is 
Protestantism  (introduced  by  the  Dutch),  with 
the  addition  of  rites  and  ceremonies  borrowed 
from  the  Portuguese  Catholics,  and  inherited 
from  their  aboriginal  past.  The  residency  of  Am- 
boyna comjtrises  besides  the  Amboyna  Island,  the 
Southern  Jloluccas,  the  Banda  group  (q.v.), 
Ceram,  Buru,  Kei  Islands  (q.v.),  Aru  Islands, 
and  a  few  other  islands,  with  a  total  '  area 
of  over  18,000  square  miles  and  a  popula- 
tion of  over  200,000.  The  capital  of  the  island 
and  of  the  residency  is  Amboyna  (q.v.)  The  his- 
tory of  Amboyna  is  similar  to  that  of  the  Moluc- 
cas, except  for  tlie  massacre  of  the  British  set- 
tlers by  the  Dutch  in  1023,  for  which  the  Dutch 
Government  was  compelled  by  Cromwell  in  1054 
to  pay  the  sutii  of  £300,000,  in  addition  to  a  small 
island,  as  a  compensation  to  the  families  of  the 
massacred.  Consult:  The  liarbamus  Proceed- 
ings Against  the  English  at  Amboyna  (London, 
1053*;  Beaumont,  Dutch  Alliances  ( l.omlon, 
1712)  ;  Vcrbeek,  "Over  de  geologie  van  Ambon," 
in  Tohimes  0  and  7,  Koninklijke  alrademie  ran 
tcetenschappcn   (Am-tcrdam,  181H1). 


AMBOYNA.  The  capital  of  the  Dutch  resi- 
dency of  that  name,  situated  near  the  middle  of 
the  northwest  shore  of  Leitimor,  one  of  the 
peninsulas  of  the  island  of  Ambovna.  in  3°  41' 
S.  lat.,  and  128°  E.  long.  It  is  well-built,  has 
wide  streets,  and  contains  a  churcli,  several 
schools,  a  hospital,  and  an  orphan  asylum.  The 
government  buildings  are  situated  in  Fort  Vic- 
toria. The  roadstead  is  spacious  and  affords 
safe  anchorage.  The  town  suft'ered  considerably 
during  an  earthquake  in  January,  1898.  Its 
population  is  about  9000. 

AMBOYNA  WOOD.     See  Kiaboucca. 

AMBKA'CIA  (Gk.  'A/iiSpaKia,  Ambrakia) .  A 
Greek  city  in  the  southern  part  of  Thesprotia, 
on  the  Arachthus  Kiver,  about  ten  miles 
from  the  mouth  of  the  river.  It  was  colonized 
by  the  Corinthians,  under  the  leadership  of  Gor- 
gus,  son  of  C3'pselus,  in  the  last  half  of  the 
seventh  century  B.C.,  and  soon  rose  to  a  position 
of  great  wealth  and  power.  Pyrrhus  of  Epirus 
made  it  his  capital,  and  enriched  it  with  many 
public  buildings  and  works  of  art.  The  latter 
were  removed  and  carried  to  Rome  when  the 
town  was  taken  by  the  Romans  in  1S9  B.C.  After 
Augustus,  in  31  B.C.,  transferred  the  inhabitants 
of  Ambracia  to  the  newly  founded  city  of  Nicop- 
olis,  the  former  town  sank  into  insignificance. 
The  modern  town  is  Arta. 

AMBRA'CIAN  GULF.     See  Arta,  Gulf  of. 

AM'BKEE,  JIary.  The  subject  of  a  ballad 
included  in  Percy's  Reliqucs  of  Ancient  English 
Poetry;  a  woman  who  to  avenge  the  death  of 
her  lover  is  said  to  have  disguised  herself  as  a 
soldier  and  fought  against  the  Spaniards  at  the 
siege  of  Ghent  in  1584.  Though  unknown  in  his- 
tory, she  is  frequently  alluded  to  by  the  poets, 
especially  by  Ben  Jonson,  who  refers  to  her  in  his 
Epicocne  (iv.  2).  Tale  of  a  Tub  ( i.  2),  and  For- 
tunate Isles,  by  Fletcher,  in  his  Hcornful  Lady 
(Act  v.),  and  by  others  of  the  period,  to  whom 
she  beiame  a  sort  of  typical  virago. 

AMBBIZ,  am-brez'.  A  seaport  town,  the  cap- 
ital of  a  district  of  the  same  name,  in  Portu- 
guese Angola,  West  Africa.  It  has  a  large  ex- 
port trade  in  coft'ee.  ivory,  and  gums.  Extensive 
copper  deposits  exist  in  the  district.  Its  occu- 
pation dates  from  1855.     Pop..  2500. 

AMBROGIO  IL  CAMALDOLESE,  am-bro'- 
j6  el  ka-miU'do-la'za  ( properly  Ambrogio  Tra- 
versari)  (1378-1439).  An  Italian  humanist  and 
Greek  scholar,  born  in  the  Romagna.  He  early 
entered  the  Convent  degli  Angel  i  at  Florence, 
studied  the  Greek  ecclesiastical  writers  in  the 
original  when  a  knowledge  of  Greek  was  rare 
even  among  scholars,  and  in  1431  was  appointed 
Director  General  of  the  Canialdolese  Order  by 
Eugenius  IV.  A  member  of  the  circle  which 
Cosinio  de'  Medici  had  assembled  at  Florence  for 
the  restoration  of  the  studies  of  antiquity,  he  pre- 
pared at  the  request  of  Cosimo  a  translation  of 
Diogenes  Laertius.  Synionds  refers  to  him  as  a 
"little,  meagre,  lively,  and  laborious  man." 

AMBROS,  iim'bios,  August  Wiliielm  (I8I6- 
76).  A  musical  historidn.  critic,  and  composer. 
He  was  born  at  ^lauth.  Bohemia.  His  History 
of  Music,  on  which  he  was  engaged  from  1800, 
was  left  unfinished  with  the  fourth  volume, 
reaching  the  seventeenth  century.  This  masterly 
work  has  been  completed  in  five  volumes  by  W. 
I.anghans.  Die  Grenzen  der  Musik  und  Poesie 
(1856),  a  reply  to  Hanslick's   (q.v.)  ultra-purist 


AMBKOS. 


431 


AMBROSIA    BEETLES. 


tlieorj'  of  the  Ijeautiful  in  niusie,  is  of  exceptional 
value.  His  compositions  inckiilt'  pianoforte 
jiiece;;.  songs,  two  masses,  anj  a  national  opera, 
liictlxhir  a  Jitku. 

AM'BROSE,  Saint  (c.  340-397).  One  of  the 
most  celebrated  of  the  ancient  Fathers  of  the 
t'liiuch.  and  one  of  the  four  doctors  of  the  West- 
ern Church.  He  was  born  about  the  year  340, 
at  Treves,  where  his  father,  as  prefect  of  Gaul, 
was  wont  to  reside.  According  to  his  earliest 
biogiapher,  Ambrose  received  a  fortunate  omen 
even  in  his  cradle:  a  swarm  of  bees  covered  the 
slumbering  boy,  and  the  astonished  nurse  saw 
that  the  bees  clustered  round  his  mouth  without 
doing  him  any  luirm.  His  father,  perhaps  re- 
membering a  similar  wonder  related  of  Plato, 
foretold  from  this  a  liigh  destiny  for  Ambrose.  He 
received  an  excellent  education  in  Rome  with  his 
brother  Satyrus,  who  died  early,  and  his  sister 
JIarcellina,  who  became  a  nun.  Ambrose  studied 
law  and  entered  the  civil  service,  and  soon  dis- 
tinguished himself  so  much  that  he  became, 
about  370.  a  consular  magistrate  in  upper  Italy, 
with  his  court  at  Milan.  In  this  office  his  gentle- 
ness and  wisdom  won  for  him  the  esteem  and  love 
of  the  people,  whose  prosperity  had  been  much 
injured  by  the  troubles  caused  by  Arianism. 
Accordingly,  he  W'as  unanimously  called,  bj'  both 
Arians  and  Catholics,  to  be  Bishop  of  Milan  in 
374.  He  long  refused  to  accept  this  dignity,  and 
even  left  the  city;  yet  he  soon  returned,  was  ba])- 
tized.  as  hitherto  he  had  been  only  a  catechumen, 
and  was  consecrated  eight  days  afterward.  The 
anniversary  of  this  event  is  still  celebrated  as  a 
fele  by  the  Catholic  Church.  As  a  bishop,  Am- 
brose won  universal  reverence  by  his  mild  and 
gentle,  though,  toward  wickedness  of  every  kind, 
severe  and  unbending  character.  Thus  he  de- 
fended the  churches  of  JNIilan  against  the  pro- 
posed introduction  of  Arian  worship  by  the  Em- 
press Justina  (385-86),  and  brought  to  repent- 
ance and  public  penance  the  Emperor  Theodosius 
himself,  who  had  caused  the  rebellious  Thessa- 
lonians  to  be  cruelly  massacred  by  Eufinus 
(390).  He  is  best  remembered,  however,  not  as 
the  faithful  bishop  and  wise  counselor,  nor  as 
the  tluent  preacher  and  learned  theologian,  but 
as  the  sympathizing  friend  of  ^lonica,  the 
mother  of  Augustine,  when  she  deplored  his  re- 
jection of  orthodox  Chri.stian  teaching,  and  as 
tlie  one  whom  Augustine  heard  with  pleasine 
and  who  received  him  into  the  Church.  Ambrose 
died  in  Milan,  April  4,  307.  The  best  edition 
of  his  works,  in  which  he  followed  in  many 
things  the  Greek  theological  writers,  is  that  pub- 
lished bv  the  Benedictines  (2  volumes,  Paris, 
ir)Si:-90i',  reprinted  in  iligne.  Pair.  Lat..  XIV.- 
XVIl..  later  edited  by  Ballerini  (Milan,  1875-80: 
ti  volumes)  ;  liy  ('.  Schenklc  in  Corpus  Srriptorum 
Ecclcsiasticoniiii  Latinorum  (  N'icnna,  1890  sqq, ). 
English  translation  of  some  of  his  principal 
works  by  H.  de  Romestin  (New  York.  1890). 
Eor  his  biography  consult  Barry  (London. 
1890).  His  fifteenth  centenary  was  observed. in 
Milan  in  1897.  Consult  //  (^iiindici  Ceitteiiario 
dcUa  mortc  di  S.  Ambi-ogio  (Milan,  1897).  The 
hymn  Tr  Dcuiii  Laudamus  is  ascribed  to  Am- 
bro-e.  but  it  is  proved  to  have  been  written  one 
hundred  years  later.  The  Andnosian  ritvuil  has 
also  received  his  name  only  because  Ambrose  had 
made  some  changes  in  it.  which  are  retained 
at  the  present  day  in  the  Milanese  Church.  A 
c<inunentary  on  the  E))istles  of  Paul,  which  was 
formerly  ascribed  to  Ambrose,  is  now  frequently 


ascribed  to  the  Roman  deacon  Hilarius,  and  is 
usually  quoted  as  the  ■"Commentary  of  the  Am- 
brosiaster."  Ambrose  is  the  patron  saint  of 
Milan,  and  the  large  And>rosian  Library,  estab- 
lished by  Cardinal  Federigo  Borromeo  in  1602- 
09,  which  now  contains  tlie  famous  cartoon  by 
Raphael  for  his  school  of  Athens,  received  its 
name  in  honor  of  him. 

AM'BBOSE'S  TAVERN.  An  old  tavern  in 
Edinburgh,  noted  as  the  scene  of  the  Nocten 
Ambrosianw  (q.v.)  by  Christopher  Xorth  (.John 
Wilson).  It  is  no  longer  standing;  its  site  is 
occupied  by  the  new  register  house. 

AMBRO'SIA  (Gk.  afi(}pnaia;  a/ii3poTO(,  ain- 
hrofof:.  immortal,  from  d,  a,  priv.  -|-  PpoTor, 
brotos.  for  * fipord^,  *))irotof<,  mortal).  In  the 
classical  mythology,  with  nectar  (q.v.),  the  food 
and  drink  of  the  gods.  The  word  is  etymologi- 
cally  identical  with  the  Sanskrit  a-nirta,  immor- 
tal, drink  of  immortality,  and  the  same  root  ap- 
pears in  the  Latin,  iin-mortalis.  Naturally  the 
gods  not  only  eat  ambrosia,  but  also  bathe  and 
anoint  themselves  with  it;  and  the  adjective 
ambrosial  may  be  applied  to  any  of  their  pos- 
sessions. Without  ambrosiii  the  gods  lose  their 
strength,  and  if  given  to  mortals  it  confers  age- 
less immortality.  It  also  preserves  bodies  from 
decay.  The  conception  of  the  nature  of  ambrosia 
varied,  according  to  its  use.  As  a  food  it  was 
like  bread:  as  nectar,  like  wine.  In  some  of  the 
later  writers,  nectar  becomes  the  food  and  am- 
brosia tile  drink  of  the  gods. 

AMBRO'SIA  BEE'TLES.  Beetles  of  the 
family  Scolytidce,  which  differ  from  the  bark- 
borers  by  pushing  their  galleries  deeply  into  tim- 
berwood  and  feeding  upon  a  substance  called  "am- 
brosia." They  include  the  genera  Xyleborus, 
Platypus.  Corthvhis,  and  their  allies,  and  are  com- 
mon and  often  injurious  througliout  North 
America.  All  are  very  small,  elongate,  compact 
beetles,  of  the  form  shown  in  the  illustrations 
of  their  work  on  the  Plate  illustrating  Army- 
Worm  and  Ambro.sia  Beetles,  and  their  cylin- 
drical galleries  rarely  exceed  a  tenth  of  an  inch 
in  diameter.  These  galleries  penetrate  the  solid 
v\ood  deeply,  ramify  widely,  are  uniform  and  free 
from  dust,  and  have  many  short  branches,  serv- 
ing as  brood-cells ;  their  walls  are  stained,  and 
the  perforations  and  stain  injure  the  wood  for 
many  tises,  although  not  sufficient  to  harm  the 
life  of  the  tree  perceptibly.  The  most  interest- 
ing feature  of  their  history  is  the  care  given  to 
their  young,  and  the  cultivation  of  fungi — acts 
unique  among  beetles,  and  comparable  to  those 
cf  the  .social  hymenoptera.  Habits  and  methods 
vary  among  the  different  genera,  but  in  general 
are  as  follows:  Within  their  galleries  is  found  a 
substance,  taking  various  forms,  most  usually 
that  of  a  cluster  of  chains  of  beads,  which  has 
been  named  "ambrosia,"  and  which  is  shown  by 
the  microscope  to  be  a  fungus.  This  fungus  is 
succulent,  and  forms  the  food  of  the  insects  and 
their  young,  and  it  is  jilanted  and  cultivated  by 
these  beetles,  which  regard  its  safety  with  the  ap- 
parently anxious  solicitude  that  bees  feel  toward 
their  stores  of  honey  food.  It  is  started  by  the 
mother  insect  upon  a  carefully  prepared  bed  of 
wood  dust,  some  sjiecies  devoting  special  cham- 
bers to  this  purpose,  others  starting  a  bed  any- 
where near  the  larva-,  using  the  excrement  of  the 
larvae  as  an  aid  to  its  propagation.  Sap  must  be 
present,  however,  in  order  to  secure  its  growth, 
and  in  most  species  the  sap  nuist  be  in  a  condi- 


AMBKOSIA    BEETLES. 


432 


AMBUSCADE. 


tion  of  fermentation.  Then  the  fungTis  must  be 
eaten  as  it  grows — kept  grazed  down — or  it  will 
ripen,  emit  spores,  and  choke  up  the  tunnels. 
All  these  diftieulties  are  so  well  met  by  these 
minute  gardeners  that  many  generations  in  suc- 
cession sometimes  inhabit  and  continue  to  en- 
large their  system  of  galleries.  These  are  some- 
times bored  in  vigorous  timber,  but  more  often  in 
weak  trees,  and  dead  \yood  is  sometimes  occupied, 
certain  species  exhibiting  a  special  predilection 
for  the  staves  of  wine  casks.  A  full  treatment  of 
this  group  and  their  customs  and  efi'ects  has  been 
given  by  H.  G.  Hubbard.  I'niicd  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agririiltiire,  new  series,  Division  of  En- 
tomology,  Bulletin   No.   7    (Washington,   1897). 

AMBRO'SIAN  CHANT.  The  choral  music 
of  the  early  Christian  Cluuch,  introduced  from 
the  Eastern  Church  into  the  Western  by  St.  Am- 
brose, Bishop  of  Milan,  in  the  fourth  century. 
It  was  founded  on  the  first  four  authentic  modes 
of  the  ancient  Greeks,  and  was  sung  antipho- 
nally.  It  continued  in  use  until  the  sixth  cen- 
tury, when  Pope  Gregory  the  Great  reformed  the 
music  of  the  Church  by  introducing  the  Gregorian 
chant  (q.v. ).  There  exists  still  another  speci- 
men of  music  by  St.  Ambrose,  which  is  now 
known  only  in  tlie  German-Lutheran  Church  by 
Luther's  translation  of  the  words.  Nun  kommt 
der  Heiden  Heiland;  it  is  beyond  a  doubt  1400 
years  old,  and  remains  to  this  day  a  beautiful 
specimen  of  melody,  expressive  of  filial  humility 
and  submission.  The  Ambrosian  chant  continued 
to  be  still  sung  in  the  cathedi-al  at  Milan  long 
after  Gregory's  reformation,  and  even  now,  it  is 
said,  may  be  heard  there.  Consult:  Camilla 
Perego,  ker/ola  del  canto  Ambrosiano  (Milan, 
1862):  A.  W.  Ambros,  Geschichte  der  Musik, 
Volume  IT.   (Breslau,  LSfi2-82). 

AMBRO'SIAN  LI'BRARY.  A  famous  li- 
brary in  Milan,  so  named  in  honor  of  St.  Am- 
brose, the  patron  saint  of  the  city.  It  was 
founded  in  1002  by  Cardinal  Federigo  Borromeo, 
who,  in  1609,  formally  opened  it  to  the  public. 
The  library  contains  upward  of  175,000 
printed  volumes  and  8400  manuscripts,  some  of 
them  of  great  value.  Among  the  latter  the  chief 
treasures  are  a  Greek  Pentateuch  of  the  fifth 
century;  several  palimpsest  texts,  including  an 
early  'Plautus;  fragments  of  Ulfilas's  Gothic 
translation  of  the  Bible;  the  celebrated  Codex 
Atlanticus,  containing  original  drawings  and 
MSS.  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  and  a  copy  of  Vergil, 
■with  marginal  notes  by  Petrarch. 

AMBRO'SIO,  or  The  Monk.  A  romance  by 
M.  G.  Lewis  (hence  known  as  "i\Ionk"  Lewis), 
first  published  in  1795.  The  hero  is  a  Capuchin 
abbot  of  Madrid,  wlio  loses  his  character  and  is 
condenmed  by  the  Inquisition,  but  saves  himself 
for  a  time  by  a  eomjjact  with  Lucifer. 

AMBROSITJS,  am-bro'se-us,  JonANN.*.  (1S54 
— ).  A  German  writer.  She  was  born  at  Leng- 
wethen,  East  Prussia,  August  3,  1854,  the  daugh- 
ter of  a  mechanic,  and  in  1S74  married  Joseph 
Voigt.  With  only  a  village-school  education,  in 
a  life  of  poverty  and  daily  work,  she  wrote  verses 
which,  by  their  intense  earnestness  and  rhythmic 
beauty,  at  last  attracted  admiration.  Her  Poems 
iOedichte),  two  volumes  (1894-97),  have  passed 
through  numerous  editions  and  have  been  in  part 
translated. 

AM'BROTYPE  (Gk.  a/iSporoc,  amhrotos.  im- 
mortal  +    riTof.   Ii/iios,  impression).     An   early 


form  of  positive  pliotograph  on  glass,  similar  to 
the  daguerreotype.  It  consisted  of  a  thin  col- 
lodion negative  backed  with  a  black  surface  and 
viewed  by  reflected  light. 

AM'BRY,  AuiiERY,  or  Almert  (0.  F.  almdrie, 
Fr.  armoirc,  from  Lat.  armarium,  a  closet,  chest; 
for  the  I),  see  Alhambra)  .  A  niche  in  the  wall  of 
a  church  shut  in  by  a  door,  or  a  small  cabinet 
of  wood  placed  by  the  side  of  the  altar  for  the 
purpose  of  holding  the  vestments  and  utensils, 
such  as  the  chalices,  basins,  cruets,  etc.,  used  for 
the  service  of  the  mass.  In  monastic  buildings, 
ambries  were  presses,  or  even  store-rooms  or  pan- 
tries, used  for  various  purposes,  such  as  keeping 
plate,  hanging  towels,  and  the  like.  In  this 
sense,  the  term  ambry  seems  to  have  been  ap- 
plied to  any  kind  of  locked  cupboard. 

AM'BTJLANCE  (Fr.  hopital  ambulant,  walk- 
ing hospital,  from  Lat.  ainbulare,  to  walk).  A 
two  or  four-wheeled  wagon  constructed  for  con- 
veying sick  or  wounded  persons.  Ambulances 
are  constructed  to  run  very  easily,  and  are  de- 
signed to  carry  one  or  two  tiers  of  stretchers. 
Some  forms  are  fitted  with  water-tank,  medicine 
chest,  operating-table,  and  other  conveniences. 
City  hospital  ambulances  are  light,  four-wheeled 
wagons  furnished  with  one  or  two  beds,  surgical 
appliances,  and  restoratives.  Since  1899  electric 
automobile  ambulances  have  been  used  by  the 
larger  hospitals  in  the  larger  cities  of  the 
United  States.  A  surgeon  rides  in  the  ambulance, 
and  in  crowded  streets  a  gong  is  kept  sounding 
in  order  that  the  ambulance  may  have  the  road 
cleared.  Ambulances  used  in  the  army  are  large 
spring  wagons  provided  with  all  the  necessary 
appliances  for  the  care  and  triinsportation  of  the 
sick  an<l  wounded.  In  each  division  of  the  army 
these  wagons  are  organized  into  a  corps,  and 
placed  under  the  command  of  an  ambulance  offi- 
cer. Railway  cars  and  steamers  are  also  fitted  up 
with  conveniences  for  transporting  patients  to 
more  remote  and  permanent  hospitals.  The  sys- 
tem perfected  in  this  country  during  the  Civil 
War  has  now  been  adopted  by  most  of  the  civ- 
ilized nations.  Several  of  the  Continental  coun- 
tries keep  permanently  in  store  railway  trains 
completely  equipped  for  hospital  service.  In 
France  an  ambulance  is  a  portable  hospital  at- 
tached to  every  division  of  an  army  in  the  field, 
and  provided  with  all  the  requisites  for  the  medi- 
cal succor  of  sick  and  wounded  troops.  Such  an 
ambulance  is  stationed  at  some  spot  removed 
from  immediate  danger,  and  soldiers  after  a  bat- 
tle seek  tliose  who  have  been  wounded  and  con- 
vey them  to  the  ambulance.  The  French  also- 
introduced  the  caeolets,  which  consist  of  two 
easy  chairs  slung  in  panniers  across  the  back 
of  a  mule,  which  "are  available  along  paths  where 
no  wheel-carriage  could  pass.  The  caeolets  have 
since  been  adopted  by  other  armies,  as  well  as 
improved  hand-littersj  and  wheeled  litters  or  bar- 
rows. 

AMBULANCE  CORPS.  See  Hospital 
Corps. 

AM'BULATORY  (from  Lat.  ambiilare,  to 
walk).  A  name  given  sometimes  in  architecture 
to  passages  or  covered  walks  intended  for  prome- 
nades in  monastic,  collegiate,  or  cathedral  struc- 
tures,  such   as   the   arcades   of   a  cloister.      See 

MONA.STEUY. 

AM'BUSCADE'  (from  Low  Lat.  imboscare, 
to   ambush,   from   in,   in  +  boscus,   bush,   wood). 


AMBUSCADE. 


433 


AMEN. 


A  device  of  militaiT  strategy  often  employed 
in  ancient  and  media-val  warfare;  now,  owing  to 
the  changed  conditions  of  fighting,  rarely  pos- 
sible. Originally  it  had  special  reference  to 
bodies  of  men  "concealed  in  a  wood.''  as  its  name 
implies.  The  only  modern  instance  of  the  use 
of  this  particular  device  occurred  at  the  battle 
of  Santiago,  during  the  Spanish-American  War 
of  1S98,  when  efi'ective  damage  was  inflicted  on 
the  American  attacking  forces  by  Spanisli  sharp- 
shooters hidden  in  the  dense  foliage  of  the  trees. 
Ambuscade  must  not  be  confused  with  Ambush, 
which  see. 

AM'BTJSH  (For  derivation,  see  .^mhusoade)  . 
A  strategical  device,  enabling  one  force  success- 
fully concealed  to  surprise,  defeat,  or  capture 
another.  It  is  probably  the  one  element  of  strat- 
egy that  time  has  never  changed;  for  notwith- 
standing the  transformation  that  has  taken  place 
in  the  general  science  of  warfare,  the  ambush 
with  all  its  variations  of  form  and  method  still 
remains.  An  ambush  may  be  on  any  scale,  from 
the  surprise  and  capture  of  a  small  reconnoiter- 
ing  patrol,  to  the  defeat  of  an  army.  In  the  lat- 
ter case,  it  occasionally  is  described  by  a  more 
ambitious  title  by  some  European  authorities,  but 
such  is  the  exception  rather  than  the  rule.  Every 
campaign  that  history  has  recorded  gives  inci- 
dent after  incident  of  the  more  or  less  success- 
ful practice  of  this  particular  form  of  strategy- : 
but  it  has  been  left  to  the  Anglo-Boer  War  of 
1000-01  for  its  highest  and  most  successful  de- 
velopment. In  this  campaign  the  Boers  pi-acti- 
cally  owed  nearly  every  success  to  the  use  of  the 
amimsh  in  one  form  or  another ;  a  typical  example 
was  encountered  in  General  Roberts's  campaign. 
During  liis  march  to  Bloemfontein,  a  stron" 
detachment  of  Boer  troops,  under  General 
Christian  De  Wet,  cleverly  concealed  themselves 
among  the  rocks  and  kopjes  at  a  place  called 
Sannahspost.  A  convoy  of  128  wagons,  carry- 
ing valuable  supplies  and  munitions  of  war,  to- 
L'ctlier  with  their  escort,  walked  unsuspectingly 
into  the  trap,  and  were  captured  without  the 
firing  of  a  shot  or  the  showing  of  a  single  man 
other  than  De  Wet  himself.  A  body  of  200  vol- 
unteer horse,  sent  from  the  main  column  to 
ascertain  the  whereabouts  of  the  convoy,  were 
similarly  captured,  and  on  attempting  to  escape 
were  practically  annihilated  by  their  unseen 
enemv.  Consult  Conan  Doyle,  The  Great  Boer 
ir»/-'(  London,   1901). 

AMEER'.     See  Emir. 

AM'ELAN'CHIEB.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Rosaces  distinguished  by  having 
five-celled  ovaries,  each  of  which  is  divided  by 
a  false  partition  into  two  cells,  witli  one  ovule 
in  each  cell,  the  ripe  fruit  including  three  to 
five  carpels.  Tt  consists  of  .a  few  species  of 
small  trees  with  deciduous  simple  leaves,  abun- 
dant racemes  of  white  flowers,  and  soft,  juicy, 
and  agreeable  fruit  somewhat  larger  than  a  pea. 
The  common  .\nielanchier  (Amelanchier  vulga- 
ris) is  a  native  of  the  Alps,  Pyrenees,  etc.  Other 
species  are  natives  of  North  America  and  Asia. 
Amelanchier  botryapium  is  sometimes  called 
June-berry,  from  its  fruit  ripening  in  June,  and 
-Amelanchier Canadensis  produces  a  very  pleasant 
fruit.  Among  the  North  American  species  are 
.\nielanchier  Canadensis,  known  as  Shad-bush  or 
Service  berry,  Amelanchier  oligocarpa,  .Vmelan- 
chier  alnifolia,  and  Amelanchier  rotundifolia. 
The  Amelanchiers  are  planted  in  Great  Britain 


merely  as  ornamental  trees.  They  are  hardy. 
AMELIA,  ama'h'-a  (ancient  Amcria).  A  city 
of  Central  Italy.  21  miles  southwest  of  Spoleto. 
It  has  been  tlie  seat  of  a  bishop  since  340  a.d., 
has  a  cathedral,  was  the  birthplace  of  Sextus 
Roscius  Amerinus.  and  claims  to  be  four  hun- 
dred years  older  than  Rome.     Pop.,   1881,  5400. 

AME'LIA.  A  novel  by  Fielding,  published  by 
Millar,  who  is  said  to  have  paid  £1000  for  the 
copyright,  December  19,  17.51.  Two  editions 
were  called  for  on  the  day  of  publication.  Much 
of  the  story  is  autobiographical,  some  of  the  ad- 
ventures of  the  hero.  Booth,  recalling  incidents 
in  the  author's  earlier  life  in  the  country,  while 
the  title-character  Avas  largely  suggested  by  the 
personality  of  Fielding's  first  wife.  The  book 
was  a  great  favorite  with  Dr.  .Johnson.  Con- 
sult Piozzi,  Anecdotes  of  the  Late  Samuel  John- 
ton,  LL.D.   (London,  1786). 

AMELIA  ISLAND.  A  small  island  oflf  the 
east  coast  of  Florida,  opposite  the  mouth  of  St. 
Mary's  River  (ilap:  Florida,  G  1).  It  was 
settled  by  General  Oglethorpe  in  1736,  and 
in  1739  it  was  the  scene  of  the  first  blood- 
shed in  the  war  between  Spain  and  England, 
a  party  of  Spaniards  killing  two  unarmed 
Highlanders.  After  1808  the  island,  then,  a 
part  of  Spanish  East  Florida,  was  a  notorious 
resort  for  pirates,  smugglers,  and  slave-traders. 
In  March,  1812,  it  was  captured  by  rebels 
against  Spain,  and  immediately  handed  over  to 
the  United  States:  early  in  'l813  the  United 
States  troops  stationed  here  were  withdrawn, 
and  in  1817  the  island  was  captured  by  a  filibus- 
tering expedition,  while  later  in  the  3'ear  a  Mexi- 
can force  took  temporary  possession  of  it  in  the 
name  of  Mexico.  TThe  United  States  again  occu- 
pied it  in  1818,  and  held  it  in  trust  for  Spain 
until  she  acquired  the  Floridas  by  the  treaty 
of  1819.  Consult  McMaster's  History  of  the 
People  of  the  United  States  (New  York,  1893- 
1900). 

AMELIE-LES-BAINS,  a'ma'le'lft'baN'  (Fr. 
'watering-place  of  Amelia,'  wife  of  Louis  Phil- 
ippe), formerly  called  Arles-les-Bains.  A  famous 
watering-place  and  sxinuner  resort  in  France, 
situated  in  the  department  of  Pyrcnees-Orien- 
tales,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Tech  and  the  Mon- 
dony,  at  an  altitude  of  over  700  feet  above  the 
sea.  It  has  sulphurous  springs,  with  a  tempera- 
ture from  03°  to  145°  F.,  the  waters  of  which 
are  used  both  externally  and  internally.  It  con- 
tains a  very  large  military  hospital  and  numer- 
ous remains  of  Pioman  t henna'.  Pop.,  1901,  1340. 
AMELOT  DE  LA  HOUSSAYE,  am' 16'  de  la 
iwi'sa',  Abr.mi.vm  Nicolas  (1634-1706).  A  French 
historian,  who  was  made  a  prisoner  in  the  Bas- 
tille by  order  of  Louis  XIV.  He  published  a. 
History  of  the  (lovcrnmcnt  of  Venice,  transla- 
tions of  Machiavelli's  Prince,  of  Tacitus's  An- 
nals, and  of  Sarpi's  History  of  the  Council 
of  Trent,  the  notes  to  the  last  of  which, 
written  by  himself,  gave  great  otl'ense  to  the 
advocates  of  the  unlimited  authority  of  the  Pope. 
Voltaire  speaks  of  his  histories  as  very  good, 
and  of  his  memoirs  as  very  faulty. 

AMEN'  (Heb.  word,  "it  is  trustworthy," 
transliterated  into  Gk.  ajj-i/v,  amen,  Lat.  amen, 
and  so  in  later  versions).  A  word  difl'erently  used 
in  the  Scriptures.  (1)  To  express  tlie  idea  that 
the  thing  just  stated  is  true,  or  will  come  to 
pass;  e.g.  Numbers  v  :  22;  Deuteronomy  xxvii  : 


AMEN. 


43-1 


AMENEMHAT. 


15  passim;  1.  Corinthians  xiv  :  16;  (2)  To 
confirm  one's  own  utterances,  as  in  prayers  and 
doxologies;  e.g.  Romans  xv  :  .3.3;  Galatians  vi  : 
18;  (3)  In  descriptions  of  God  as  Christ;  e.g. 
Isaiah  Ixv:  10;  (Heb.  translated  "truth")  Rev- 
elation iii:  14;  (4)  To  introduce  an  affirmation. 
This  is  only  done  by  Christ;  e.g.  John  xiii  ;  21. 
In  John  the  amen  is  doubled,  for  solemnity  and 
emphasis,  as  elsewhere 

AMEN,  Harlan  Page  (1853 — ).  An  Ameri- 
can educator.  He  was  born  at  Sinking  Spring, 
O.,  and  graduated  at  Harvard  University  in  1879, 
having  won  a  scholarship  in  each  year  of  his 
course.  In  18!15  he  became  principal  of  Phillips 
Exeter  Academy,  which  under  his  management 
became  one  of  the  foremost  educational  institu- 
tions in  the  United  States. 

AMENDE  HONORABLE,  .i'milNd'  6'n6'ra1]l 
(Fr..  honoralilc  amends,  satisfactory  reparation). 
Formerly  an  infamous  punishment  to  which 
criminals  were  condemned  who  had  ofTended 
against  public  decency  or  morality.  It  was  first 
introduced  in  France  in  the  ninth  century,  and 
remained  in  force  there  until  formally  abrogated 
in  1791.  It  was  restored  as  a  punishment  for 
sacrilege  in  1826,  but  disappeared  finally  in  1830. 
It  consisted  of  a  confession  nnide  by  a  bare- 
headed and  kneeling  criminal  in  open  court,  con- 
ducted thitlicr  with  a  rope  around  his  neck  by 
the  common  hangman.  In  popular  language,  the 
phrase  now  denotes  a  public  recantation  and 
reparation  to  an  injured  party  for  improper  lan- 
guage or  treatment,  or  is  still  further  extended 
to  mean  an  apology  of  any  kind,  an  "honorable 
compensation"  for  insult  or   injury. 

AMENO'MENT.  A  term  used  with  reference 
both  to  legislative  action  and  parliamentary  and 
judicial  procedure.  Amendment  in  legislation  is 
the  alteration  of  an  existing  statute  by  means  of 
a  new  legislative  enactment,  which  may  expressly 
refer  to  and  modify  the  earlier  law.  or  which  by 
reason  of  its  inconsi.stency  with  the  earlier  law 
may  impliedly  modify  its  meaning.  In  general 
there  is  no  limitation  upon  the  power  of  legisla- 
tive bodies  to  amend  or  repeal  existing  laws, 
except  the  provisions  of  the  constitution  to 
which  the  legislative  body  is  subject.  The 
British  Parliament,  being  itself  the  eonstitution- 
]uaking  body,  has  unrestricted  power  to  amenil 
and  repeal  existing  laws.  In  the  United  States. 
Congress  has  jjower  to  repeal  laws  of  the  United 
States,  but  it  has  no  power  to  amend  tlie  pro- 
visions of  the  constitution.  The  method  of 
amending  the  Constitution  of  the  United  St.ates 
is  provided  by  Article  V.  of  that  instrument,  but 
the  exercise  of  this  power  is  limited  by  the  pro- 
vision "that  no  State  without  its  consent  shall  be 
deprived  of  its  equal  suffrage  in  the  Senate." 
The  United  States  Constitution  contains  no  pro- 
vision directly  limiting  the  power  of  the  State 
Legislatures  to  repeal  the  statute  law  of  the  sev- 
eral States:  but  Article  1.,  Section  10,  i)roviding 
that  "No  State  shall  pass  any  law  impairing  the 
obligation  of  contract,"  amounts  to  a  restriction 
on  the  powei'  of  the  State  Legislature  to  repeal 
statutes  which  are  in  effect  contracts  with  the 
citizen  of  the  State.  This  construction  was  first 
established  in  the  celebrated  Dartmouth  College 
case  (q.v.).  The  several  State  constitutions  may 
also,  and  frequently  do.  limit  the  power  of  the 
Legislature  to  amend  or  repeal  existing  laws. 
See  CoNSTiTfTioNAi,  Law;  Abroc^tion. 

Amendment    in    parliamentary    procedure    is 


used  in  order  to  vary  or  to  qualify  a  motion, 
bill,  or  resolution  before  the  House.  Amendment 
is  usually  offered  by  means  of  a  motion,  and  when 
adopted  in  accordance  with  the  rules  of  parlia- 
mentary procedure  becomes  a  part  of  the  original 
motion  or  bill,  which  may  then  be  voted  upon. 
In  the  case  of  bills  before  legislative  bodies, 
amendment  is  not  infrequently  a  method  of 
changing  the  entire  scope  and  meaning  of  a  bill, 
or  of  dismissing  it  from  any  further  considera- 
tion. See  Parliahientary  Law,  and  the  au- 
thorities there  referred  to. 

Amendment  in  the  law  of  pleading  and  prac- 
tice is  the  correction  of  an  error  or  defect  in 
a  pleading  or  judicial  proceeding  in  the  progress 
of  action  or  proceeding.  The  amendment  may  be 
"as  of  course,"  i.e.,  without  application  to  the 
counsel  or  judge,  or  "on  leave,"  as  the  statute  or 
rules  of  pleading  and  practice  may  require. 
Amendment  at  common  law  independently  of 
statute  might  be  made  to  remedy  formal  defects, 
by  leave  of  the  court  at  any  time  before  the  sigi\- 
ing  of  the  judgment  in  the  action.  Leave  to 
amend  was  a  discretionary  matter,  and  when 
granted,  it  might  be  on  such  terms  as  the  court 
should  direct,  usually  on  payment  of  the  costs  of 
the  action  up  to  the  time  of  amendment.  By 
modern  statutes  amendments  are  allowed  after 
judgment  in  furtherance  of  justice,  and  are 
more  liberally  allowed  than  formerly,  when  the 
defect  is  one  of  substance  or  affects  tlie  merits  of 
the  case.  See  Pleading;  Pr.\ctic'E;  St.\tute  of 
jEor.\iLS,  and  the  authorities  there  referred  to. 

A'MENEM'HAT.  The  name  of  four  Egj-ptian 
kings  of  tlic  twelfth  dynasty.  Amenemhat  I. — 
He  reigned  for  thirty  years,  beginning  about  2130 
B.C.  How  he  came  to  the  throne  is  not  known, 
but  on  his  accession  he  found  Eg>'pt  in  a  state 
of  great  disorder.  He  thoroughly  reorganized 
the  government,  restored  order,  and  conducted  a 
wise  and  vigorous  administration.  He  checked 
the  power  of  the  great  nobles,  and  personally 
superintended  a  new  survey  of  the  whole  land. 
Amenemhat  warred  in  Nubia  and  on  the  Asiatic 
frontier  of  Egypt,  but  his  chief  attention  was 
devoted  to  internal  affairs.  He  was  a  great 
builder,  and  his  monuments  are  found  from 
Nubia  to  the  Delta.  In  later  times  he  was  es- 
teemed a  sage,  and,  in  a  work  composed,  appar- 
ently, under  the  ninteenth  dynasty,  he  is  repre- 
sented as  giving  instructions  in  the  art  of  gov- 
{■rnment,  based  on  his  own  experience,  to  his  son 
Usertesen  (afterward  Usertesen  I.).  AxiEXEit- 
n.\T  II. — He  reigned  for  35  years, beginning  about 
2066  B.C.  During  the  first  two  years  of  his  reign 
he  was  regent  with  his  father,  Usertesen  I.,  and, 
for  three  years  before  his  death,  his  son  User- 
tesen H.  was  associated  with  him  in  the  gov- 
ernment. In  the  twenty-eighth  year  of  his  reign 
he  sent  an  expedition  to  Punt  on  tlie  Somali 
coast.  Amexemi[AT  III. — Son  of  Usertesen  III. 
He  reigned  for  44  years,  from  about  1986  n.c. 
Monuments  of  this  king  are  found  throughout 
Egypt,  but  his  greatest  work  was  connected  with 
the  Fayum  (  Coptic,  P/i  joni,  "the  lake") .  Amen- 
emhat I.  (q.v.),  had  built  a  dam,  reclaiming 
a  considerable  extent  of  land  from  the  highest 
part  of  the  bed  of  Lake  Moeris.  .\menemhat  III. 
greatly  extended  this  system  of  daunuing.  By 
means  of  a  large  embankment,  about  20  miles 
long,  he  reclaimed  some  40  square  miles  of  fer- 
tile land,  and,  at  the  same  time,  converted  the 
lake  into  a  gigantic  reservoir,  whose  waters,  re- 
plenished annually  by  the  inundation  of  the  Nile, 


AMENEMHAT. 


435 


AMERBACH. 


were  used  fm-  irrigating  tlio  adjacent  country. 
The  lake  continued  to  serve  this  purpose  down  to 
tlie  fiftli  century  R.c.  Later  it  was  gradually 
dried  up,  and.  under  the  Ptolemaic  dynasty,  a 
Macedonian  colony  was  established  on  a  portion 
of  its  former  bed.  The  pyramid  of  Amenemhat 
in.,  at  Ha\v;ua,  near  Illahun,  is  built  of  Nile 
brick  and  formerly  had  a  easing  of  limestone. 
\\hen  entered  by  Petrie,  in  1889,  the  King's 
stone  sarcophagus  was  found  in  the  sepul- 
chral chamber,  but  the  mummj'  had  been  re- 
moved. Adjoining  the  pyramid  are  the  ruins  of 
the  famous  Lal)yrinth,  formerly  a  gigantic  peri- 
style temple,  covering  an  area  1000  feet  long  by 
800  feet  broad.  Amene,mi[.\t  IV. — Son  of  Amen- 
endiat  III.,  reigned  for  some  nine  years,  from 
about  1941  D.c.  His  reign  seems  to  have  been 
marked  by  no  event  of  special  importance. 

A'MEN-HO'TEP.     See  .\jienophis. 

AMEN'ITIES  OF  LIT'ERATTJEE.  A  work 
relating  to  English  literary  history,  by  Isaac 
Disraeli,  completed   in   I84I. 

AM'EWO'PHIS  (  F.gypt.  Aiiicii-hotep,  Amnion 
is  jjleased).  The  name  of  four  Pharaohs  of  the 
eighteenth  djnasty. 

Ame.\opiii.s  I.,  the  second  king  of  this  dynasty, 
son  of  Amasis  I.  He  reigned  for  ten  years,  from 
about  1570  B.C.  He  carried  on  some  insignificant 
wars  in  Nubia,  and  against  the  Libyans  on  the 
northwest  frontier  of  Egypt.  After  his  early 
death  he  was  revered  as  the  patron  of  the  Theban 
necropolis,  and;  together  with  his  mother,  Nofret- 
ari,  received  divine  honors.  His  mummy,  found 
at  Dair  el-Bahri,  is  now  in  the  museum  of  Gizeh. 

AiiENonns  II.  He  reigned  for  some  twenty- 
five  years,  from  about  l-loO  n.c.  waged  energetic 
wars  in  Syria,  and  maintained  the  territorj-  in- 
herited from  his  father,  Thothmes  III.,  in  Asia 
and  Ethiopia. 

Ame.xopiii.':  III.  Son  of  Thothmes  IV.  He 
reigned  for  thirtysix  .years,  from  about  1410  B.C. 
In  the  early  part  of  his  reign  he  seems  to  have 
warred  in  Asia,  but  later  lie  did  little  to  main- 
tain his  Syrian  provinces.  The  Aniarna  Letters 
(q.v. )  show  that  in  his  reign,  and  in  that  of  his 
successor,  the  Egyptian  supremacy  in  Asia  was 
seriously  threatened.  Amenophis  is  noted  for  his 
activity  as  a  builder.  He  erected  in  Thebes  a 
gigantic  temple;  but  of  this  nothing  remains  ex- 
cept the  two  colossi  at  the  entrance,  one  of 
which,  in  classical  times,  became  famous  as  "the 
\<ical  ]\Iemnon."  The  Aniarna  Letters  record  the 
fact  that  Amenophis  married  Gilukhepa,  sister 
uf  King  Dusliratta  of  Mitani  in  northern  Meso- 
I'l'tamia.  He  chose,  however,  as  his  principal 
M  ife  a  woman  not  of  royal  blood,  the  fair  Teye, 
and  indicated  his  love  for  her  on  his  monuments. 
She  was  the  mother  of  his  son  and  successor. 

A.mexopiiis  IV.  The  Napkhururiya  (Egyptian 
Nefer-Khoper-re)  of  the  Aniarna  Tablets.'  This 
monarch  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  characters 
in  Egyptian  liistory,  because  of  the  great  relig- 
ious reform  which  he  attempted.  He  endeavored 
to  supersede  the  old  polytheistic  religion  of 
Egypt  by  the  exclusive  worship  of  the  Sun.  But 
his  fanatical  efforts  in  this  direction,  his  perse- 
cution of  the  cult  of  the  Theban  god  Amnion, 
and  the  shifting  of  his  residence  to  Tel-el- 
Aniarna,  led  to  no  permanent  results.  After  his 
reign  of  eighteen  years  (beginning  about  1.375 
B.C.),  his  innovations  were  abolished,  and  the 
old  religion  was  again  triumphant.  By  his  wife 
Nefer-titi  he  had  six  daughters. 


AMEN'ORRHCE'A  (Gk.  d,  a,  priv.  +  ui?i. 
nii'ii,  month  +  (loia,  rhoiu.  How,  fiux).  The  sus- 
pension from  any  cause  other  than  pregnancy, 
or  the  menopause,  of  the  catamenial  flow.  It  is 
generally  an  indication  of  functional  disturb- 
ance, and  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  symptom  rather 
than  as  a  malady.  It  is  frequently  an  accom- 
paniment of  ana?mia  (q.v.),  and  due  to  poverty 
of  the  blood.  It  very  often  is  an  early  symptom 
of  an  imiiending  chronic  malady,  such  as  tuber- 
culosis. In  both  these  cases  the  treatment 
adopted  should  be  one  tending  to  stiengthen  the 
general  health  :  the  diet  should  be  nourishing  and 
generous,  iron  and  arsenic  should  be  adminis- 
tered, the  bowels  should  be  carefully  regulated, 
and  tlie  patient  should  take  mild  exercise  in  the 
sunlight.    See  Emmen.\goque;  Menstruation. 

A'MENT  (Lat.  amentum,  strap  or  thong),  or 
CAT'KIN.  A  tiowcrcluster  in  which  simple 
thiwers  are  developed  upon  an  elongated  axis, 
and  are  subtended  and  more  or  less  concealed  by 
conspicuous  bracts.  Such  clusters  are  found  in 
the  birches,  alders,  willows,  etc.,  which,  in  conse- 
quence, are  often  called  AnientifersB.  See  Inflor- 
escence. 

A'MENT,  William  Scott  (1851—).  An 
American  missionary  in  China.  He  was  born  at 
Owosso,  Mich.,  of  Dutch  descent,  and  educated  at 
Oberlin,  and  at  Union  (N.  Y. )  and  Andover  theo- 
logical seminaries.  He  went  to  China  as  a  mis- 
sionary of  the  American  Board,  and  was  sta- 
tioned in  Peking,  where,  in  the  summer  of  1900, 
he  was  one  of  the  eight  hundred  foreigners  and 
three  thousand  native  Christians  who  were  be- 
sieged. When  the  siege  was  raised.  Dr.  Anient, 
with  the  missionaries  of  his  station  and  500 
native  Christians,  took  possession  of  the  deserted 
premises  of  a  lesser  Mongol  prince  who  had  be- 
come a  fugitive.  They  acted  as  intermediaries 
in  reestablishing  the  native  Christians,  and  in 
some  of  the  economic  readjustments  made  neces- 
sary b.v  the  outbreak;  but  subsequently  they 
were  severely  criticised  by  many  of  the  .\merican 
newspapers,  which  accused  them  of  having  been 
morally  guilty  of  looting.  This  charge  was 
strenuously  denied  by  all  the  missionaries  and 
their  supporters. 

AMEN'THES.  The  Greek  form  of  the  Egj'p- 
tian  Amente^tl,  "the  Lower  W'orld,"  or  realm  of 
departed  spirits.  The  word  signifies,  liter- 
ally, "the  Western  (World),"  as  the  mysterious 
abode  of  the  dead  was  supposed  to  lie  beneath  the 
western  horizon.  The  graves  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians  were  situated  in  tlie  desert  on  the 
westein  side  of  the  Nile,  and  the  souls  of  the 
dead  were  believed  to  pass,  with  the  setting  sun, 
through  the  gates  of  Amenthes,  where,  after  many 
perils,  they  appeared  before  Osiris  (q.v.)  and  his 
forty-two  assessors  to  undergo  final  judgment. 
The  views  of  the  Egyptians  in  regard  to  the  life 
of  the  soul  in  the  nether  world  were  manifold. 
Plutarch  defined  Amenthes  as  meaning  "giving 
and  taking,"  and  it  is  sometimes  derived  from 
amen,  "liiddcn."  but  such  etymologies  are  value- 
less.    See  also  Anubis;  Set;  Athor. 

AMERBACH,  Ji'mer-biiG,  Johann  (144.3- 
1513).  A  German  printer,  educated  in  Paris. 
He  estalilishcd  a  i)ress  at  Basel,  publishing  the 
works  of  St.  Ambrose  and  St.  Augustine,  and  be- 
gan to  publish  tho.se  of  St.  .Jerome,  which  were 
finished  by  his  son  Boniface.  He  was  one  of 
the  first  to  use  Roman  instead  of  Gothic  letters. 


AMERCEMENT. 


436 


AMERICA. 


AMERCE'MENT  (Angl.  Fr.  amercimcnt, 
from  amercitr,  to  be  at  the  mercy  of).  In  old 
Englisb  law,  a  fieeuniary  penalty  imposed  for 
crime  or  for  the  violation  of  the  fealty  which  the 
freeholder  owed  liis  lord.  It  was  imposed  as  the 
result  of  a  judicial  conviction  of  the  ofi'ense 
charged,  but  differed  from  a  fine  in  that  it  was 
a  commutation  of  a  sentence  of  forfeiture  of 
goods,  while  the  fine  was  a  coTumutation  of  a 
sentence  of  imprisonment  of  the  person.  The  de- 
cree of  the  court  was  that  the  offender  was  at 
the  mercy  {in  miscricordia,  a  merci)  of  the 
king,  the  sheriff,  or  the  lord  in  whose  court  the 
judgment  \\as  rendered.  The  amount  of  the 
ameicement,  originally  unlimited,  as  the  term 
implies,  was  regulated  by  a  provision  of  Magna 
Charta  ( 121,5) ,  which  decreedthatallamercements 
should  be  set.  or  fixed,  by  good  men  of  tlie  neigh- 
borhood, the  peers  of  the  offender,  and  that  the 
amount  should  vary  with  the  gravity  of  the  of- 
fense. Consult  Pollock  and  Maitland,  Histori/  of 
Eiif/lish  Law,  second  edition  (London  and  Boston, 
IS09).  See  CRiMiM-Ai  Law;  Fine;  Punishment. 

AME'RIA.  The  ancient  name  of  Amelia 
(ij.v.).  a  city  in  Italy. 

AMER'ICA  (named  after  Amerigo  Vespucci, 
an  Italian  navigator).  America,  or  the  New 
World,  is  one  of  the  great  land  divisions  of  the 
earth.  It  has  a  meridional  extent  of  about  0000 
miles,  stretching  from  72°  N.  lat.  (Boothia  Felix) 
to  56°  S.  lat.  (Cape  Horn),  without  including 
the  Arctic  islands.  Its  extreme  northern 
part  extends  far  within  the  Arctic  Circle,  while 
on  the  south  it  stretches  to  the  border  of  the 
Antarctic  Ocean.  Excluding  its  islands,  it  lies 
between  the  meridians  of  34°  and  168°  west  of 
Greenwich,  and  has  a  ma.ximum  breadth  of  about 
3300  miles.  The  entire  area  is  estimated  to  be 
16,000,000  square  miles. 

General  Featttres.  The  New  World  differs 
from  the  Old  in  size,  having  about  half  its  area. 
It  differs  also  greatly  in  outline,  in  location  on 
the  earth's  surface,  and  in  the  character  of  its 
coasts  and  its  relief.  The  Old  World  has.  very 
roughly,  a  triangular  form;  while  the  New  World 
consists  of  two  triangles  connected  with  each 
other.  While  both  grand  divisions  lie  mainly 
north  of  the  equator,  a  greater  proportion  of  the 
Old  World  is  in  the  nortliern  hemisphere.  The 
coasts  of  the  Old  World,  taken  as  a  whole,  are 
much  more  broken  than  the  American  coasts. 
The  principal  relief  feature  of  the  Old  World 
is  a  great  stretch  of  elevated  land  crossing  most 
of  Europe  and  Asia  in  an  east  and  west  direction, 
while  the  backbone  of  America  traverses  its 
length  in  a  direction  nearly  north  and  south, 
near  its  western  coast. 

America  is  hounded  on  the  north  by  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  on  the  south  by  the  Antarctic,  on  the 
east  by  the  .\tlantic,  and  on  the  west  by  the 
Pacific.  While  stretching  from  one  polar  ocean 
to  the  other,  it  separates  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
throughout  their  whole  length.  In  the  extreme 
northwest  it  almost  touches  Asia,  from  which 
it  is  separated  by  Bering  Strait.  Very  narrow 
passages  separate  it  from  the  extensive  islands 
that  constitute  the  Arctic  Archipelago  of  the 
Western  Hemisplicre. 

Physical  Divisions.  America  is  divided  in- 
to two  continents.  North  and  South  America, 
separated  in  part  by  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  connected  by  the  narrow 
Isthmus  of  Panama,  30  miles  in  width. 


North  .\merica  lias  an  area  of  about  8,300.000 
square  miles,  and  South  America  of  7,700,000. 
The  mean  altitude  above  sea  level  of  both  conti- 
nents is  not  far  from  2000  feet. 

These  two  great  continents  are  much  alike  in 
some  respects,  while  differing  in  others.  They 
are  both  triangular  in  shape,  with  the  base  of  the 
triangle  at  the  north  and  the  opposite  apex  at 
the  south.  Each  has  its  greatest  length  along 
meridians,  and  greatest  breadth  along  parallels 
of  latitude;  each  has  a  great  mountain  system 
running  the  whole  length  of  the  western  side  and 
parallel  to  it,  and  a  shorter  secondary  and  more 
disconnected  mountain  system  in  the  eastern 
part,  also  parallel  to  the  coast,  the  two  moun- 
tain systems  in  each  case  converging  toward 
the  lower  apex  of  the  continent.  In  both  cases 
the  eastern  ranges  are  the  oldest  geologically. 

While  the  two  American  continents  thus  pre- 
sent certain  similarities  of  configuration,  they 
are  very  differently  placed  on  the  sphere,  and 
thus  their  climatic  differences  are  marked,  and 
the  conditions  dependent  on  climatic  influences 
likewise  differ.  The  broad  part  of  North  Ameri- 
ca lies  mainly  within  the  north  temperate  zone, 
and  only  its  apex  extends  into  the  tropical  zone; 
thus  causing  a  great  portion  of  the  continent 
to  be  dominated  by  comparatively  low  tempera- 
ture conditions.  In  South  America,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  broad  part  lies  within  the  tropics,  and 
a  comparatively  small  portion  of  it  extends  into 
the  temperate  zone. 

Coasts.  With  regard  to  the  nature  of  their 
coast-lines,  North  and  South  America  present  an 
extraordinary  contrast.  North  America,  in  its 
extreme  irregular  coast-line  and  its  great  penin- 
sulas, is  the  counterpart  of  the  Eurasiatic  con- 
tinent in  the  Old  World,  while  South  America, 
with  its  almost  unbroken  coast,  is  the  counter- 
part of  Africa.  In  North  America  we  have  the 
peninsulas  of  Alaska,  Labrador,  Nova  Scotia, 
Florida,  Yucatan,  and  Lower  California.  South 
America  presents  but  one  great  peninsula,  that 
of  Patagonia.  The  Atlantic  coast  of  .\merica  is 
far  more  irregular  and  broken  than  that  of  the 
Pacific.  On  the  north  of  North  America,  Hudson 
Bay  projects  far  into  the  interior  of  Canada, 
forming  a  vast  inland  sea.  Farther  south,  the 
Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Bay  of  Fundy  form 
deep  indentations.  On  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the 
L^nited  States  are  several  large  bays  and  harbors, 
Massachusetts  Bay,  Long  Island  Sound,  Delaware 
and  Chesapeake  bays,  and  Albemarle  and  Pamlico 
sounds  being  among  them.  The  Gulf  of  Jlexico 
and  the  Caribbean  Sea  have  many  arms,  extend- 
ing into  the  land,  among  them  the  gulfs  of  Cam- 
peachy,  Honduras,  and  Colon. 

The  Atlantic  coast  of  South  America  is  sim- 
pler, the  chief  indentations  being,  on  the  north 
the  gulfs  of  Darien  and  Venezuela,  on  the  north- 
east the  estuary  of  the  .\mazon,  and  on  the  east 
the  harbors  of  Bahia  and  Rio  de  Janeiro,  the 
estuary  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  and  the  gulfs  of 
Blanca,  San  Matias,  and  San  Jorge,  on  the  Argen- 
tine coast. 

The  west  coasts  of  !)oth  continents  are  in  the 
main  extremely  simple.  Between  latitudes  42° 
S.  and  48°  N.  there  are  few  harbors.  In  South 
.\merica.  the  Gulf  of  (Juayaquil  is  almost  the  only 
indentation  of  magnitude.  South  of  latitude  42°, 
S..  however,  the  character  of  the  coast  changes  to 
a  fiord  coast,  with  many  deep,  narrow  passages 
and  hundreds  of  islands".  Where  the  two  conti- 
nents meet,  the  bend  of  the  Pacific  coast  forms 


I/iwlainis.  below  1,000  Feci  elevation,  are  shown  in  Green.  Highlands,  above  1,000  Feet  elevation,  are  shown  in  Buff._ 


L      A      N      TIC 


OCEAN 


tit  ^'^         /■ 

.\f/   L  JV   ."       J^! 


>>aS 


A     T    L    A    N    T    I    C 

O     (     E    A    JV 


PHYSICAL  MAP  OF 

SOUTH  AMERICA 

O    so  100      300      JOO       -WO      WO      <oo 


Scale  ofMifes 
rompftmliveAiTM . 


^Ccjce  Morn 


Lowlands,  below  1,000  Feet  elevation,  are  shown  in  Green.  HighlamU.  above  i.oou  Tect  eIe\-alion.  ore  shown  in  Buff. 


AMERICA. 


437 


AMERICA. 


tlio  dopp  bay  of  I'miniiui.  Tho  west  coast  of 
Xortli  Ameiic-a  soutli  nf  the  parallel  of  48°  N. 
is  broken  deeply  only  by  the  Ciulf  of  California 
and  San  Francisco  Ba.\-,  but  near  the  north- 
west eorner  of  the  United  States  a  fioid  coast 
comnieiices  with  Puu'et  Sound,  and  extends 
thence  alon<j  ]!ritisli  Columbia  and  Alaska  to  the 
Aleutian  Islands.  The  15ering  Sea  coast  of  Alas- 
ka is  low,  and  broken  by  snany  indentations,  and 
similar  conditions  ])revail  on  the  Arctic  coast. 

Topo(n!.\i'iiY.  The  ])roininent  relief  feature  of 
both  continents  consists  in  a  great  system  of  ele- 
vation, .stretching  along  or  near  the  western 
coast,  from  Cape  Horn  in  South  America  to  the 
extreme  end  of  the  Alaska  peninsula  in  North 
America.  This  is  kno%m  in  South  America  as 
the  Andean  Cordilloa,  and  in  North  America  as 
the  Cordillera.  It  ditTers  greatly  in  its  ditTerent 
parts,  in  breadth,  height,  complexity,  and  char- 
acter. In  North  America  the  Cordillera  are  suc- 
ceeded on  the  east  by  a  broad  valley;  east  of  this 
valley,  and  separating  it  in  the  south  from  the 
Atlantic,  is  the  shorter,  snuiller,  and  lower  Appa- 
lachian system.  In  South  America  the  succes- 
sion is  somewhat  similar.  East  of  the  Andes  is 
a  broad  slope  or  depression,  which  in  Argentina 
continues  to  the  Atlantic:  but  in  eastern  Brazil 
and  the  Guianas  the  continuity  of  the  eastward 
slope  is  broken  by  numerinis  short  and  compara- 
tively low  ranges,  corresponding  roughly  with 
the  Appalachians  of  the  northern  continent. 

North  Amertc.v.  In  North  America  the  Cor- 
dillera develops  its  greatest  breadth  and  complex- 
ity in  the  main  body  of  the  United  States, 
Here  it  includes  a  broad  plateau  1000  miles  in 
width,  with  an  elevation  of  from  5000  to  10,000 
feet,  on  which  stand  a  succession  of  mountain 
ranges  trending  nearly  north  and  south,  the 
highest  of  which  rise  to  altitudes  of  from  14,000 
to  15,000  feet.  The  highest  of  these  ranges  are 
in  Colorado  and  California.  In  the  former  State 
are  the  Front  Range,  with  Long's  Peak,  14,271 
feet;  Gray's  Peak.  14..341  feet;  Pike's  Peak,  14,- 
108  feet;  the  Sangre  de  Cristo  Range,  with  Blan- 
ca  Peak,  14,300  feet;  the  Park  Range,  with  Mount 
Lincoln,  14,297  feet;  the  Sawatch  Range,  with 
the  Mountain  of  the  Holy  Cross,  14,000  feet, 
Elbert  Peak,  14.421  feet,  and  Mount  Harvard, 
14,375  feet ;  and  the  San  .Tuan  Jlountains,  with 
Uncompahgre  Peak,  14,289  feet,  and  Mount  Wil- 
son, 14,280  feet. 

The  principal  range  of  California  is  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  with  Mount  Corcoran,  14,093  feet:  Fish- 
erman Peak,  14,448  feet;  JNIount  Whitney,  14,- 
898  feet ;  and  l\Iount  Shasta,  an  extinct  volcano, 
14,380  feet.  The  Cascade  Range  of  Oregon, 
Washington,  and  British  Columbia  is  a  contin- 
uation of  the  Sierra  Nevada  in  direction,  though 
not  in  structure,  as  it  is  in  the  main  the  product 
of  volcanic  action,  and  contains  many  extinct 
volcanoes,  the  highest  of  these  being  Mount 
Rainier,  14,526  feet.  Northward  in  British  Co- 
lumbia the  system  is  not  as  high  nor  as  broad, 
but  following  the  coast  around  through  Alaska. 
it  rises  in  semi-detached  groups  and  ranges, 
some  of  which  are  of  great  height,  culminating 
in  Mount  McKinley,  north  of  the  head  of  Cook 
Inlet,  20,404  feet  in  height,  the  highest  summit 
in  North  America.  Another  high  peak,  on  the 
boundary  between  Alaska  and  British  America, 
is  Mount  St.  Elias,  18,100  feet  above  the  sea. 
This  was  long  supposed  to  be  the  highest  point 
in  North  America. 

The  area  of  Mexico,  with  the  exception  of  the 


State  of  Yucatan,  lies  almost  entirely  within  the 
Cordilleran  mountain  system.  The  plateau  ex- 
tends southward  into  it  from  the  United  vStates, 
with  an  elevation  ranging  from  4000  to  7000 
feet.  Upon  this  undulating  talrle-land,  which  is 
known  as  the  plateau  of  Anahuac,  are  many 
mountain  ranges  and  many  active  or  dormant 
volcanoes,  the  latter  being  the  highest  peaks  of 
the  country.  Among  them  are  Popocatepetl, 
17.520  feet;  Orizaba,  18,250  feet;  Iztaccihuatl, 
10,900  feet:  Nevada  de  Toluca,  14,950  feet:  anil 
ilalinche,  13,400  feet.  In  the  countries  of  Cen- 
tral America  the  Cordillera  is  represented  by 
detached  ranges  of  hills,  with  numerous  volcanic 
peaks,  some  of  which  are  active,  others  extinct. 

The  depression  lying  east  of  the  Cordillera 
stretches  in  the  north  to  the  Atlantic  or  to  Hud- 
son Bay,  and  in  southern  Canada  and  the  LTniled 
States  to  the  Appalachian  or  Eastern  Moun- 
tains, with  a  breadth  of  25°  of  longitude.  Over 
this  great  area  the  surface  presents  no  serious 
variations  of  level.  The  only  elevations  of  im- 
portance are  the  Ozark  Hills  in  Arkansas,  South- 
ern IMissouri,  and  Indian  Territory,  with  a  maxi- 
mum altitude  little  over  3000  feet. 

The  Appalachian  Mountains,  in  a  broad  sense, 
extend  from  the  Gasp(^  Peninsula  in  southeastern 
Canada,  southwestward  through  the  eastern 
United  States  to  northern  Alabama  and  Georgia, 
in  a  fairly  continuous  system.  They  form  a  nar- 
row plateau,  70  to  200  miles  in  width  and  1500 
to  3000  feet  in  height,  which  is  bordered  on  the 
east  by  the  Blue  Ridge  and  on  the  west  by  the 
Alleghany  Mountains.  In  the  northern  section 
the  line  of  elevations  includes  the  Green  and 
White  Mountains  of  Vermont  and  New  Hamp- 
shire and  the  Adirondacks  of  New  York,  all  of 
which  differ  more  or  less  in  their  geological 
structure  from  the  central  and  southern  portions 
of  the  system.  The  highest  sunnnits  are  Mount 
Washington  in  New  Hampshire,  0294  feet,  and 
Mount  Mitchell  in  North  Carolina,  0707  feet. 
East  of  this  mountain  system  the  land  slopes 
gently  to  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  is  known  as 
the  Piedmont  Region  and  the  Atlantic  Plain, 
See  Rocky  Mountains;  Arp.vLAcniAXS,  etc. 

South  America.  The  Cordillera  of  the  Andes 
follows  the  western  coast  of  South  America  in  a 
continuous  mountain  system  from  Cape  Horn  to 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  leaving  a  narrow  strip 
of  lowland  between  its  base  and  the  eoast  no- 
where much  more  than  a  hundred  miles  in 
breadth.  In  the  south  the  system  is  narrow  and 
simple,  consisting  in  groat  part  of  a  single  range, 
whieh  has  no  great  height.  Northward  it  in- 
creases in  altitude  and  becomes  more  complex, 
reaching  a  culminating  point  in  the  great  peak 
of  Aconcagua,  in  lat.  32°  S..  which  reaches  the 
height  of  23,080  feet,  the  loftiest  summit  in 
South  America.  Still  farther  north  the  peaks 
are  not  as  high,  but  the  system  broadens  and 
becomes  more  complicated  by  the  appearance  of 
ranges  in  Argentina,  east  of  the  Andes  proper. 
In  lat.  18°  S.  the  system  curves  to  the  northwest, 
following  the  coast:  here  it  has  a  breadth  of 
fully  300  miles,  with  two,  and,  in  places,  three 
main  ranges,  and  encloses  an  elevated  plateau,  on 
which  is  situated  Lake  Titicaca,  12.045  feet 
high.  Near  this  lake,  in  the  Cordillera  Real,  are 
many  high  peaks,  among  them  Ancohuma,  21,490 
feet;  Cacaca,  20,250  feet:  and  Illimani,  21,192 
feet. 

Still  following  the  eoast,  the  system  turns 
north   again   at  the   Gulf   of   Guayaquil,   main- 


AMERICA. 


438 


AMERICA. 


tainiiig  the  form  of  a  broad,  elevated  plateau, 
bordered  by  lofty  ranges,  with  many  volcanic 
peaks.  In  the  neighborhood  of  the  equator,  in 
Ecuador,  are  many  notable  peaks,  among  them 
Tunguragua,  16,000  feet;  Cotopaxi,  19,613  feet; 
Chimborazo.  20,498  feet;  Antisana,  19,335  feet: 
Cayambe,  19,186  feet;  and  Piohincha,  15.918 
feet.  From  this  knot  of  lofty  volcanoes  the 
system  falls  off  in  altitude  northward  toward  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama  and  the  shores  of  the  Carib- 
bean Sea,  splitting  into  three  ranges,  which 
trend  away  from  one  another  to  the  north  and 
northeast. 

East  of  the  Andes  the  level  of  the  land  descends 
rapidly  to  the  llanos  of  the  Orinoco,  the  valley  of 
the  Amazon,  and  the  pampas  of  Argentina.  This 
great  area,  comprising  by  far  the  gi-eater  part  of 
South  America,  is  but  slightly  diversified  by  hills, 
forming  mainly  an  immense  plain.  In  eastern 
Brazil  is  a  mountain  system  standing  on  a  broad 
plateau,  and  composed  of  many  ranges,  trending 
in  general  parallel  to  the  coast,  and  having  col- 
lectively a  great  breadth.  The  highest  point  in 
this  system  is  Itatiaia,  with  an  altitude  of  10,- 
340  feet.  A  similar  but  smaller  plateau  occupies 
much  of  the  area  of  the  Guianas.  See  An- 
des, etc. 

The  islands  pertaining  to  this  grand  division 
belong  mainly  to  North  America.  In  the  Arc- 
tic Ocean  these  land  bodies  are  numerous  and 
large,  Greenland,  almost  continental  in  area, 
being  the  largest  of  them.  West  of  Greenland, 
across  Smith  Sound,  is  the  great  extent  of  Grin- 
nell  Land,  and  south  of  this  island  are  North 
Devon,  Cockburn  Land,  and  Baffin  Land,  with 
many  other  large  islands  to  the  west,  including 
Bathurst,  Melville,  Prince  of  Wales,  and  North 
Somerset  islands,  and  Prince  Albert  and  Banks 
Land,  the  whole  forming  an  extensive  archipel- 
ago in  the  Arctic  Sea.  In  Bering  Sea,  on  the 
northwest  of  the  continent,  are  many  smaller 
islands,  while  the  chain  of  the  Aleutian  Islands, 
stretching  in  a  gi-eat  curve,  convex  southward, 
from  the  point  of  the  Alaskan  Peninsula,  partly 
separates  Bering  Sea  from  the  Pacific.  On  the 
east  side  of  the  continent,  the  gi-eat  island  of 
Newfoundland  partially  closes  the  mouth  of  the 
Gulf  of  St.  L.awrence. 

Jlainly  within  the  tropics,  and  lying  between 
the  northern  coast  of  South  America  and  the 
southeast  coast  of  the  LTnited  States,  are  the 
West  Indies,  with  Cuba,  Haiti,  Jamaica,  and 
Porto  Eico,  known  collectively  as  the  Greater 
Antilles,  and  many  smaller  islands  grouped 
about  and  stretching  away  from  them.  They 
are  the  unsubmerged  portions  of  a  mountain 
system.  On  the  north  side  are  the  Bahamas, 
consisting  of  a  large  number  of  small  coral 
islands,  and  on  the  southeast,  stretching  in  a 
broad  curve,  convex  to  the  east,  to  the  south 
American  coast,  are  the  Lesser  Antilles,  all 
small,  and  many  of  them  of  volcanic  origin.  The 
best  known  among  them  are  Guadeloupe.  Mar- 
tinique, and  Trinidad.  South  America  has  few 
islands,  the  Falkland  Isles,  east  of  the  Strait 
of  Magellan,  being  the  largest,  if  we  except  Tierra 
del  Fuego.  at  the  south  end  of  the  continent. 
Off  the  west  coast,  and  under  the  equator,  are  the 
Galapagos  Islands,  once  prominent  as  a  source 
of  guano. 

HvDRoaiiAPHY.  North  America. — While  most 
of  North  America  is  drained  into  the  Atlantic, 
yet  great  areas  are  drained  into  the  Pacific  and 
Arctic   oceans.   The   Rocky   ^lountains,   i.e.,    the 


easternmost  ranges  of  the  Cordillera,  carry  the 
continental  divide,  and  most  of  the  ranges  and 
valleys  of  this  system  are  drained  westward  to 
the  Pacific  by  the  Colorado  River  of  the  west, 
through  its  marvelous  canons  to  the  head  of  the 
Gulf  of  California,  by  the  Sacramento  to  San 
Francisco  Bay,  and  by  the  Columbia,  the  Eraser, 
Copper,  and  other  rivers.  The  northern  and 
northeastern  slopes  of  the  system,  as  well  as 
most  of  Alaska  and  much  of  the  Yukon  province 
of  Canada,  are  drained  by  the  great  river  Yukon 
to  Bering  Sea.  The  northern  part  of  the  great 
central  depression  of  the  continent  sends  its 
waters  to  the  Arctic  Ocean  by  way  of  Mackenzie 
River.  Farther  south  the  land  is  drained  to 
Hudson  Bay  by  the  Nelson  and  other  rivers,  and 
to  the  Atlantic  directly  by  the  chain  of  the  great 
lakes,  Superior,  Michigan,  Huron,  Erie,  and  On- 
tario, and  the  River  St.  Lawrence.  The  waters 
of  the  southern  part  of  this  depression  are  col- 
lected by  one  of  the  greatest  rivers  of  the  earth, 
the  ilississippi,  with  its  branches,  the  Ohio,  Mis- 
souri, Arkansas  and  Red  rivers,  and  are  carried 
to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  coast-land  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  itself  is  drained  by  a  number  of 
rivers  on  either  side  of  the  Mississippi.  The 
Atlantic  slope  of  the  Appalachian  mountain  sys- 
tem is  drained  to  the  Atlantic  by  many  compara- 
tively small  rivers. 

Besides  the  great  lakes  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
system.  North  America  contains  many  large  bod- 
ies of  water.  In  Canada  are  Great  Bear  and 
Great  Slave  and  Athabaska  lakes  in  the  Macken- 
zie River  system:  lakes  Reindeer. Winnipeg, Man- 
itoba, and  Lake  of  the  Woods,  which  are  drained 
to  Hudson  Bay,  and  Lake  Nepigon,  tributary  to 
the  St.  Lawrence  system.  In  the  northern  LTnit- 
ed States  are  thousands  of  small  lakes,  which, 
in  common  with  those  of  Canada,  were  formed 
by  the  Laurentian  glacier.  In  the  Cordilleran 
region  are  many  lakes,  some  of  glacial  origin, 
like  Pend  Oreille  and  Flathead,  others  of  vol- 
canic origin,  like  Yellowstone  Lake,  while  many 
occupy  desert  valleys  and  have  no  outlet,  like 
Great  Salt,  Carson,  and  Walker  lakes.  See 
Yukon  Ri\-er  ;  Mississippi,  etc. 

tiouth  Aincr'irn. — Soutli  America  is  for  the 
most  part  drained  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  the 
Andes  forniing  a  great  and  continuous  water- 
shed ;  and  while  three  great  river  systems  carry 
most  of  the  waters  to  the  sea,  yet  a  number  of 
secondary  but  by  no  means  small  rivers  aid 
them  in  this  work.  In  the  extreme  northwest 
of  South  America,  the  Magdalena  drains  the 
region  in  which  the  Andes  separate  into  diverg- 
ing ranges  before  their  subsidence.  The  area  of 
its  basin  is  not  great,  but  the  enormous  rainfall 
sends  great  volumes  of  water  through  this  river 
channel  into  the  Caribbean  Sea.  The  entire 
length  of  the  Magdalena,  independent  of  its  wind- 
ings, is  not  over  700  miles.  The  great  valley 
at"  the  extreme  north  of  South  America,  lying 
between  the  Andes  on  the  west  and  the  plateau 
of  Guiana  on  the  east,  is  drained  by  the  Orinoco, 
which,  although  not  more  than  1200  or  1400 
miles  long,  not  counting  the  windings,  carries 
an  immense  volume  of  water  into  the  Atlantic, 
because  it,  too,  lies  almost  wholly  within  the 
belt  of  excessive  rains.  Between  the  Orinoco 
and  the  Amazon  there  are  a  number  of  short 
rivers  draining  the  plateau  of  Guiana,  and  head- 
ing chiefly  in  the  watershed  between  this  section 
and  the  valley  of  the  Amazon  on  the  south. 
Next    in    order,    proceeding    southward    on    the 


AMERICA. 


439 


AMERICA. 


Atlantic  coast,  is  the  mighty  Amazon  itself, 
whose  system  drains  the  great  valh'V  inchided 
between  the  plateau  of  Brazil  on  the  southeast, 
the  plateau  of  Guiana  on  the  north,  the  .\ndes 
on  the  west,  and  the  higlilands  of  the  Cordillera 
Geral  and  ilatto  Orosso  on  the  south,  thus  em- 
bracing about  one-third  of  South  America.  The 
Amazon  pours  a  vastly  greater  quantity  of  water 
into  the  ocean  than  any  other  river  on  the  globe. 
The  plateau  of  Brazil  is  drained  chiefly  by  the 
Toeantins.  which  flows  to  the  north  and  empties 
into  the  Para  estuary;  a  number  of  smaller 
streams  which  flow  northeast  and  enter  the 
Atlantic  between  the  mouth  of  the  Par.l  and 
Cape  St.  Roque ;  the  Sao  Francisco,  which  has  a 
generally  northeastern  direction,  and  a  few 
smaller  streams  which  drain  the  short  eastern 
slopes  along  the  whole  extent  of  coast  be- 
tween the  mouth  of  the  Sao  Francisco,  lat.  10° 
S.,  and  the  estuary  of  the  Plata,  lat.  35°  S.  The 
Plata,  which  receives  the  waters  of  the  Paranii, 
Paraguay,  and  Uruguay,  drains  the  whole  of 
the  south  central  part  of  South  America,  from 
the  Amazon  watershed  in  lat.  15°  S.  to  lat.  35° 
S.,  and  embraced  between  the  coast  sierra  on 
the  east  and  the  Andes  on  the  west.  This  gi-eat 
river  system  has  been  compared  with  the  Jlissis- 
sippi  Kiver  system,  with  which  it  has  certain 
features  in  common.  South  of  the  Plata  are  a 
number  of  rivers,  including  the  Colorado,  Negro, 
and  Chubut.  On  the  Pacific  coast  the  drainage 
is  effected  by  short,  torrential  streams  scarcely 
worthy  the  name  of  river.  See  Amazon;  Or- 
inoco, etc. 

Geologt.  The  geological  history  of  North 
America,  considered  in  a  broad  way,  is  not  com- 
plex. The  oldest  part  of  the  continent,  the  first 
to  be  elevated  above  the  sea,  is  the  northeastern 
section,  including  the  Adirondacks  of  New  York 
and  the  Laurentian  Highlands  of  Canada,  and  a 
region  about  the  Great  Lakes,  together  with  a 
southward  projection  just  east  of  the  Blue  Ridge 
in  the  Southern  States.  This  is  the  Archaean 
area.  From  this,  as  a  nucleus,  the  continent 
grew  westward,  as  is  indicated  by  the  surface 
formations,  which  become  successively  more  re- 
cent. The  eastern  portions  of  the  Ajjpalachians 
are  in  great  part  composed  of  Silurian  beds. 
The  plateau  forming  the  western  part  of  the  sys- 
tem is  Carboniferous,  which  formation  also  un- 
derlies much  of  the  Mississippi  Valley.  The 
great  plains  which  form  the  eastward  slope  of 
the  Cordilleran  plateau  are  floored,  in  westward 
succession,  by  Triassic,  Cretaceous,  and  Tertiary 
beds. 

Tlie  mountains  of  the  Cordilleran  system  are 
mainly  of  recent  formation,  and  show  strata  of 
all  ages,  as  they  have  been  much  disturbed  by 
uplift,  and  the  beds  exposed  by  subsequent  ero- 
sion. Upon  the  mountains  granitic  rocks  large- 
ly predominate,  as  the  stratified  beds  which  form- 
erly covered  them  have  been  eroded  away,  while 
in  very  many  cases  these  stratified  beds  still  re- 
main on  the  flanks  of  the  ranges,  as  hog-back 
ridges.  The  valleys  are  often  partially  filled 
with  detritus  from  the  mountains.  In  this  re- 
gion many  great  areas  have  been  covered  by  out- 
flows of  lava,  some  of  them  in  very  recent  times. 
The  regions  bordering  the  coasts  of  the  .\tlantic 
and  the  Gulf  of  ^lexico  are  floored  with  Creta- 
ceous and  Tertiary  deposits,  indicating  their 
comparatively  recent  uplift.  There  are  no  active 
volcanoes  in  the  United  States  proper  or  in  Can- 
ada.    Within    historical    times    eruptions    have 


been  reported  on  the  coast  of  .\laska.  and  several 
peaks  on  that  coast  are  still  smoking.  In  Mex- 
ico, Central  America,  and  the  West  Indies 
there  are  many  active  volcanoes.  See  Geology 
under  United  States  ;  C.vnada,  etc. 

South  America. — The  eastern  highlands  are  of 
Archa;an  and  Paleozoic  formations,  with  a  super- 
imposed layer  of  sandstone.  No  subsequent  sub- 
mergence has  occurred,  and  no  folding  has  taken 
place  since  Paleozoic  times,  so  that  no  recent 
marine  deposits  have  been  made,  and  the  deep 
valleys  are  due  to  erosion  ratlicr  than  to  iri'egu- 
lar  faulting,  the  rock  layers  lying  liorizontally. 
These  eastern  highlands  are  but  the  remains  of 
a  great  mountain  system  which  has  been  worn 
away  to  the  existing  condition  in  the  filling  up 
of  the  plains  below,  to  which  they  have  contrib- 
uted their  material.  The  western  highlands  (see 
Ande.s),  while  of  more  recent  origin  than  the 
eastern,  are  made  up  of  ranges  differing  in  geo- 
logic age.  Most  of  the  great  peaks  of  the  Andes 
are  of  volcanic  origin,  and  many  of  them  are 
still  active,  or  have  been  eruptive  in  recent  and 
historic  times.  The  lowlands  east  of  the  Andes 
are,  so  far  as  known,  floored  with  Tertiary  de- 
posits, with  broad  bands  of  alluvium  bordering 
the  larger  streams.  See  Geology  under  Brazil; 
Argentina,  etc. 

Glaci.ation.  In  recent  geologic  times  nearly 
all  of  Canada  and  much  of  tlie  United  States  was 
covered  by  a  great  sheet  of  ice,  the  Laurentian 
glacier.  In  the  United  States  it  covered  New 
England  and  New  York,  extended  southward  to 
the  Ohio  Kiver,  and  westward  to  the  Missouri. 
Througliout  this  area  the  surface  has  been  modi- 
fied by  erosion  and  deposition  by  ice.  Stream 
courses  have  been  changed,  countless  lake  basins 
have  been  formed,  and  the  surface  covered  with 
drumlins,  kames,  and  otlier  morainal  deposits. 
In  the  northern  part  of  the  Cordillera,  evidences 
of  former  glariation  are  everywhere  abundant, 
and  in  the  higher  ranges  many  glaciers  still 
exist.  Indeed,  in  the  mountains  on  the  Alaska 
coast,  where  the  precipitation  is  profu.se,  there 
are  many  glaciers  of  great  magnitude,  some  of 
which  reach  the  sea.  The  Muir  Glacier  covers 
fully  a  thousand  square  miles,  and  there  are 
others  of  equal  size.  Even  these  great  glaciers, 
however,  are  but  the  much  reduced  relics  of  far 
larger  ones,  which  covered  the  coast  and  eroded 
the  fiords  which  intersect  it. 

In  South  America  the  glacial  history,  so  far 
as  known,  is  confined  to  the  Andes.  Jlost  of  the 
higher  peaks,  even  those  under  the  equator,  have 
glaciers  upon  their  upper  slopes,  while  in  the 
southern  portion  of  the  system  glaciers  are  ex- 
tremely abundant,  and  the  configuration  of  the 
land  shows  that  in  past  time  they  covered  it, 
lying  in  every  gorge  and  fiord,  which  are  evident- 
ly  products   of   ice  erosion. 

CLIM.4.TE.  Stretching  from  the  south  temper- 
ate zone  through  the  tropics  to  the  north  polar 
zone,  America  has  many  climates,  dependent 
upon  latitude,  prevailing  winds,  and  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  relief  features.  The  main  body  of 
North  America  is  principally  within  the  region 
of  the  anti-trades  or  prevailing  westerlies.  These 
winds  give  to  the  western  coast  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  and  to  southeastern  ,\laska, 
an  insular  climate,  with  great  uniformity  of  tem- 
perature and  a  heavy  rainfall.  Their  influence 
extends  inland  but  a  short  distance,  owing  to 
the  mountain  ranges  which  border  this  coast,  and 
the  rest  of  the  United  States  and  Canada  have  a 


AMERICA. 


440 


AMERICA. 


continental  climate  with  much  greater  extremes 
of  temperature;  the  Cordilleran  region,  which 
is  dependent  upon  the  Pacific  as  its  source  of 
precipitation,  has  an  arid  climate:  but  in  the 
east,  wliere  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Atlantic 
serve  as  sources  of  supply,  the  rainfall  is  ample. 

Central  America  is  within  the  region  of  the 
trade  winds,  and  has  measurably  an  insular  cli- 
mate, owing  to  the  narrowness  of  the  land.  That 
portion  of  South  America  which  lies  in  the  trop- 
ics, over  wliieh  the  trade  winds  blow  continuous- 
ly from  tlie  east,  has  a  warm,  moist  climate  and 
a  heavy  rainfall.  This  region  is  limited  on  the 
west  by  the  Andes,  over  whose  wall  none  of  the 
moisture  from  the  Atlantic  can  pass.  Hence, 
most  of  the  Pacific  coast  of  South  America  with- 
in the  tropics  is  a  desert.  In  Chile  and  ."Vrgen- 
tina  the  conditions  prevailing  in  Xorth  America 
are  duplicated.  Here  in  the  south  temperate 
zone  the  prevailing  westerly  Avinds  bring  to  the 
western  coast  the  mild,  saturated  atmosphere 
of  the  Pacific.  The  temperature  is  uniform 
throughout  the  year  and  the  rainfall  heavy; 
while  east  of  the  Andes  the  westerly  winds,  de- 
prived of  their  moisture  in  crossing  the  moun- 
tains, blow  dry  over  the  land,  and  the  semi-desert 
pampas  are  the  result. 

North  America. — The  mean  annual  tempera- 
ture ranges  from  80°  F.  in  Central  America  down 
to  5°  on  the  Arctic  coast,  and  except  on  the 
Pacific  coast  tlie  temperature  decreases  quite 
regularly  with  the  latitude.  On  the  Pacific  coast 
the  reduction  in  temperature  with  increase  in 
latitude  is  much  less  rapid.  At  San  Diego,  on 
the  southern  boundary  of  the  United  States,  the 
mean  annual  temperature  is  about  70°,  while 
the  Alaska  coast,  even  as  far  north  as  Prince 
William  Sound,  has  a  temperature  only  30° 
lower,  and  20°  higher  than  in  the  same  latitude 
on  the  Laln-ador  coast.  This  measures  the  effect 
of  the  ocean  in  ameliorating  the  mean  annual 
temperature. 

In  midwinter  (January)  the  temperature 
ranges  from  80°  in  the  south  to  — "H^"  on  the 
Arctic  coast.  Here  again  the  reduction  with  in- 
creasing latitude  is  much  less  on  the  Pacific 
coast  than  in  the  interior  or  on  the  Atlantic 
coast.  The  coast  of  southern  Alaska  is  .'!0° 
warmer  than  that  of  Labrador  in  approximately 
the  same  latitude.  The  midsummer  (July)  tem- 
perature is  highest  on  the  arid  plateaU  of  north- 
ern Mexico  and  in  southern  Arizona,  where  it 
reaches  0.5°.  Thence  it  diminishes  in  all  direc- 
tions, sharpl.v  to  the  west  as  the  Pacific  coast  is 
neared,  and  much  more  gradually  northward  and 
eastward.  The  range  of  summer  tem])erature  be- 
tween San  Diego  and  the  Aleutian  Islands  is  but 
20°,  from  70°  to  50°,  while  in  the  eastern  part  of 
the  continent  its  range  is  from  80°  to  40°,  and  in 
the  Cordilleran  region  from  95°  to  40°.  In  this 
latter  region  extreme  heat  as  well  as  extreme  cold 
is  frequently  encountered;  in  southern  Arizona 
temperatures  of  120°  have  been  recorded,  and 
100°  as  far  north  as  latitude  60°.  On  the  Pacific 
•coast  the  range  of  temperature  between  midsum- 
mer and  midwinter  (July  and  .lanuary)  seldom 
exceeds  20°.  while  upon  the  Atlantic  coast  the 
corresponding  range  is  nearly  twice  as  great, 
and  in  the  Cordilleran  region  it  is  in  many 
places  three  times  as  great. 

The  distribution  of  rainfall  over  North  .\meri- 
ca  depends  upon  the  configuration  and  relief  of 
the  land  and  on  the  direction  of  the  winds.  In 
the  region  of  the  trade  winds  the  rainfall  is  very 


heavy,  200  inches  at  Panama,  and  diminishing 
northward.  In  the  region  of  the  anti-trades,  the 
Pacific  coast  receives  nearly  all  the  moisture 
brought  by  these  winds  from  the  Pacific,  and 
here  the  amount  and  distribution  of  the  rainfall 
are  radically  afi'ected  by  the  relative  tempera- 
tures of  land  and  sea.  Where  and  when  the 
land  is  colder  than  the  sea,  moisture  is  condensed 
from  the  air  currents  and  falls  in  rain ;  the  rain- 
fall is  therefore  heavy  on  the  northern  part  of 
this  coast  and  light  on  the  southern  part,  and  is 
heavy  in  winter  and  light  or  entirely  absent  in 
sunnner. 

At  San  Diego  the  rainfall,  even  In  winter,  is 
very  light,  while  at  Puget  Sound  it  has  increased 
to  from  75  to  100  inches,  and  has  an  average 
along  the  Alaska  Pacific  coast  of  about  90  inches 
annually,  most  of  which  falls  in  winter.  Air 
currents  from  the  Pacific,  deprived  of  most  of 
their  moisture  in  passing  over  the  mountain 
ranges  near  the  Pacific  coast,  flow  over  the  Cor- 
dilleran region  during  most  of  the  year  as  dry 
winds.  In  the  summer,  however,  they  retain 
a  little  moisture,  which  they  give  up  to  the  high 
ranges  of  the  interior.  Hence,  this  region,  which 
is  upon  the  whole  desert,  or  semi-desert,  receives 
most  of  its  scanty  supply  of  rain,  20  inches  or 
less,   in   the   summer   time. 

Moving  eastward,  this  general  air  movement 
from  west  to  east,  wliich  commonly  takes  the 
form  of  great  cyclones  or  anti-cyclones,  draws 
air  currents  from  all  directions.  These,  coming 
off  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  are  saturated  with  mois- 
ture, and  cooling  as  they  go  northward,  give  rain 
to  the  land.  Thus  the  great  depression  of  the 
continent  is  watered  in  the  main  from  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  the  rainfall  ranging  from  60  inches 
on  the  coast  to  .30  inches  in  the  region  of  the 
Great  Lakes  and  Hudson  Bay.  These  cyclonic 
disturl)ances,  as  they  approach  the  Atlantic, 
draw  saturated  air  currents  in  from  that  ocean, 
and  from  that  source  of  moisture  the  Atlantic 
coast  is  watered,  the  amount  of  rainfall  ranging 
from  50  to  40  inches. 

tSoiith  America. — The  southern  continent  has 
no  such  range  of  temperature  as  North  America, 
since  it  lies  on  both  sides  of  the  equator.  The 
annual  temperature  ranges  from  80°  to  40°,  the 
highest  temperature  being  in  the  northern  part. 
The  midwinter  (July)  temperature  ranges  from 
about  80°  in  the  north  to  35°  in  the  south,  and 
the  midsummer  temperature  from  85°  to  50°, 
the  highest  being  in  the  interior,  in  northern 
Argentina.  On  the  southern  part  of  the  west 
coast  of  South  America,  where  the  prevailing 
winds  are  from  the  west,  the  temperature  is 
moderated  by  them  as  on  the  western  coast  of 
North  America,  making  the  w-inter  temperature 
higher  and  the  summer  temperature  lower.  The 
greatest  range  between  summer  and  winter  is 
found  in  northern  Argentina,  a  region  corre- 
sponding in  situation  to  the  Cordilleran  region 
in  North  America.  Here  the  range  between  the 
hottest  and  coldest  months  is  from  25°  to  30°. 

The  great  Amazon  basin,  lying  within  the 
tropics,  is  abundantly  watered  by  the  trade  winds 
which  come  to  it  saturated  from  the  Atlantic. 
The  rainfall  over  this  great  area  is  estimated 
at  from  50  to  75  inches,  and  in  some  parts  is 
150  to  200  inches.  This  heavy  rainfall  extends 
to  the  foot  of  the  Andes,  and  even  up  its  abrupt 
eastern  slopes.  The  air  currents,  thus  deprived 
of  their  moisture,  descend  the  western  slope  as 
dry  winds,  and  the  narrow  western  base  of  the 


AMERICA. 


441 


AMERICA. 


range  receives  little  moisture.  Farther  south, 
in  southern  Chile  and  Argentina,  the  conditions 
are  reversed.  The  westerly  winds  bring  rain 
to  the  narrow  strip  of  land  on  the  west  coast, 
which  receives  as  much  as  80  inches  in  certain 
localities,  and  the  pampas  on  the  east  receive 
very  little,  on  account  of  the  intercepting  moun- 
tains. 

Flora.  North  America. — The  flora  of  North 
America  is  varied,  ranging  from  those  plants 
peculiar  to  Arctic  regions  to  those  of  the  tropics. 
In  the  extreme  northern  part  of  Canada  and 
Alaska,  where  tlie  gi'oiind  is  constantly  frozen, 
thawing  only  on  the  surface  in  the  summer,  and 
forming  the  well  known  tundra,  the  prevailing 
plant  life  consists  of  reindeer  moss,  with  a  few 
dwarf  Arctic  willows.  But  in  tlie  short,  hot 
summers  of  this  region  even  the  tundra  is  gay 
with  bright-colored  blossoms.  Near  the  Arctic 
Circle  forests  of  spruce,  with  some  birch  and 
alders,  appear,  at  first  in  scattering  clumps, 
then  more  continuously.  Thence  southward  as 
far  as  the  North  Saskatchewan  River,  in  Can- 
ada, the  land  is  forested  witli  coniferous  trees, 
spruce,  pine,  fir,  and  hemlock.  This  timbered 
area  extends  southward  along  the  Pacific  coast 
nearly  to  San  Francisco  Bay.  In  Washington, 
Oregon,  and  California  exist  probably  the  heavi- 
est forests  in  the  world,  consisting  entirely  of 
eonifene.  great  firs,  sugar  pines,  redwoods,  and 
the  giant  sequoia,  the  largest  and  the  oldest  liv- 
ing thing. 

Eastern  Canada  and  the  United  States  are 
forested,  the  western  limit  including  most  of  Min- 
nesota, Wisconsin,  and  Indiana,  southern  Mis- 
souri, the  eastern  part  of  Indian  Territory,  and 
northeastern  Texas.  In  the  central  United 
States,  the  prevalent  species  change  to  hard 
woods,  \\hile  in  the  Southern  States  yellow  pine 
becomes  the  dominant  species.  West  of  this 
fore.sted  region  in  the  United  States  and  Canada 
is  the  prairie  region,  once  grassed,  and  witli 
groves  of  timber,  now  highly  cultivated,  which 
passes  by  insensible  degrees  into  the  treeless 
plains  which  form  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Cor- 
dilleran  plateau. 

In  the  Cordilleran  region  forests  are.  as  a 
rule,  found  only  on  the  mountains,  and  consist 
mainly  of  coiiiferae.  The  valley  vegetation  de- 
pends upon  the  degree  of  aridity;  here  may  be 
found  grass,  artemisia,  cacti,  yucca,  and  other 
thorny  desert  shrubs,  which  in  some  localities 
grow  so  densely  as  to  form  what  is  called  chap- 
arral. The  northern  plateau  region  of  Jlexico 
is  without  forests,  except  upon  the  higlu'r  ranges, 
while  the  southern  and  lower  part  of  the  country, 
with  Central  America,  has  a  tropical  profusion 
of  fruit  and  vegetation.  See  Flora  under  Rocky 
MotNTAiN«;  Canada;  United  State.s;  Mexico; 

NiCABAGUA,   etc. 

iSoiith  America. — The  flora  of  South  America 
ranges  from  that  of  the  tropical  to  that  of  the 
temperate  zone,  and  is  controlled  not  only  by 
latitude,  but  by  altitude  and  rainfall.  At  the 
extreme  north  in  Colombia,  on  the  waters  of 
the  Magdalena.  the  hot  climate  and  excessive 
rainfall  produce  a  luxuriant  vegetation  which 
changes  from  its  tropical  character  only  with 
great  change  of  altitude  above  the  sea,  palms, 
bamboos,  and  tree  ferns  forming  much  of  the 
lower  forests,  and  coniferte  higher  on  the  moun- 
tains. To  the  east  of  this  region  are  the  llanos 
of  the  Orinoco,  with  their  tall  grasses  and  iso- 

VOL.  I.— 3U 


lated  trees.  To  the  south  of  these,  east  of  the 
Andes,  are  the  great  selvas  of  the  Amazon,  with 
their  rich  forests  and  mixed  flora.  Directly 
south  of  these  occur  the  great  forests  of  the 
Matto  Grosso.  to  the  east  of  whicl\  lie  the  Catinga 
woodlands  and  the  Brazilian  campos,  with  their 
thickets  interspersed  with  open  glades.  To  the 
west  of  the  Matto  Grosso  lies  the  great  mountain 
of  southwestern  Brazil  and  Bolivia.  To  the 
south  of  the  JIatto  Grosso  lies  the  Gran  Chaco, 
with  its  wax  palms  and  otlier  rich  forest  growth. 
Still  farther  south  begins  the  plains  or  pampas 
of  the  Plata,  which,  at  first  consisting  of  rich 
grasses,  soon  degenerate  into  the  dry  plains  of 
southern  Argentina,  with  their  stunted  and  poor 
plant  growth.  Tlie  Hora  of  the  western  strip  of 
South  America,  which  includes  the  Andean  re- 
gions, is  in  geneial  tropical  or  sub-tropical  at 
low  levels,  and  changes  in  altitudinal  zones  with 
increase  of  height  above  the  sea  level,  but  is 
much  modified  by  the  distribution  of  rainfall 
throughout  the  length  of  the  continent,  which 
permits  of  an  abundant  vegetable  growth  in  the 
northern  and  southern  portions,  but  greatly 
limits  it  in  the  intervening  region  of  little  rain- 
fall. The  potato  is  indigenous  to  South  America. 
See  Flora  under  Andes  ;  Colombia  ;  Ecuador  ; 
Peri^  ;  Bolivia  ;  Chile  ;  Amazon  ;  Brazil,  and 
Argentina. 

Fauna.  In  considering  this  subject,  it  must 
be  recognized  first  that  we  here  have  to  deal 
with  two  continental  fauna",  for  the  animal  life 
of  North  America  is  almost  completely  different 
from  that  of  South  and  Central  America.  This 
unlikeness  seems  related  in  large  degree  to  his- 
tory and  derivation.  The  fauna  of  North  Amer- 
ica is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  northern  zones 
of  the  Old  World,  in  large  part  identical  with 
it.  Among  mammals  substantially  similar  to 
those  of  Europe  or  northern  Asia  are  all  the 
bears,  wolves,  the  lynx,  most  fur-bearers  (Mus- 
telidw) ,  the  bison,  reindeer,  moose  ("elk"  of 
Europe),  bighorn,  white  goat,  beaver,  and  the 
majority  of  the  rodents  and  small  insectivores, 
bati,  etc.,  where  the  differences  are  rarely  more 
than  generic.  The  peculiar  North  American 
mammals  of  note  ai'e  the  puma,  the  skunk,  the 
pronghorn,  the  musk-ox,  and  ceitain  rodents, 
as  the  pouched-rats  and  sewellel.  The  ab.sentees 
.are  equally  interesting.  Altliough  they  arose 
in  Tertiarj'  North  America,  no  horses,  camels, 
or  rhinoceroses  are  in  its  recent  fauna ;  nor  any 
true  antelopes  or  swine  (except  in  the  extreme 
southwest)  ;  of  Marsupials  a  single  form, 
tlie  opossum,  is  present.  The  birds  present  a 
similar  parallelism  with  northern  Europe  and 
Asia,  many  species,  and  nearly  all  the  families, 
being  common  to  both  continents.  The  same  is 
true  of  reptiles  and  amphibians,  which  are 
marked  in  North  America  by  the  preponderance 
of  certain  subordinate  forms,  such  as  the  rattle- 
snakes, rather  than  by  anything  very  different 
from  those  of  the  Olil  World.  Fishes  present 
somewhat  greater  distinctions,  yet  the  bulk  of 
fresh-water  fish  are  similar  to,  and  some  are 
identical  with,  those  of  the  colder  parts  of 
Europe.  Insects  and  fresh-water  mollusks  seem 
generally  related  to  those  of  Europe  and  Asia ; 
but  the  United  States  is  richer  than  any  other 
part  of  the  world  in  fluviatile  mollusks — espe- 
cially river  nius.sels  {Unidiiicliv) .  On  the  whole, 
the  Nearetic  fauna  is  closely  allied  to  the  Palae- 
arctic,  and  by  some  students  they  are  united  in 


AMERICA. 


442 


AMERICA. 


a  single  grand  division,  termed  "Holarctic,"  or 
■'Triarctic.'' 

South  America,  considered  with  reference  to 
its  fauna,  includes  Central  America,  the  low- 
lands of  Mexico,  and  the  West  Indies,  and  forms 
one  of  the  grand  zoogeographical  divisions, 
named  "Neotropical"  by  Sdater.  It  is  charac- 
terized by  richness  and  isolation,  leading  to  the 
belief  that  its  union  with  North  America  has 
been  accomplished  at  a  comparatively  recent 
date,  and  that  the  origin  of  its  animal  popula- 
tion is  exceedingly  remote  and  was  followed  by 
long  isolation.  It  has  eight  families  of  mam- 
mals absolutely  confined  to  it.  including  two  fam- 
ilies of  monkeys,  markedly  different  from  those 
of  the  Old  World  I  but  no  lemurs ) .  the  blood- 
sucking bats,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  order 
of  Edentates,  and  many  peculiar  rodents.  The 
continent  has  no  ilustelidae  nor  Viverridse ;  only 
one  kind  of  bear :  almost  no  insectivora ;  no 
hirses  or  related  animals,  except  one  species  of 
tapir;  no  ruminants,  except  the  cameloid  llamas 
(not  known  elsewhere),  and  only  a  few  small 
ungulates  of  any  sort.  Birds  display  still  great- 
er isolation  and  singularity  when  compared  with 
the  avifauna  of  the  Old  World  or  of  North  Amer- 
ica. Wallace  gives  23  families  and  GOO  "enera 
as  exclusively  Neotropical,  while  that  continent 
or  its  northerly  extensions  possess  the  greater 
part  of  many  other  important  families,  such  as 
the  humming-birds  ( some  400  species ) ,  tanagers. 
and  macaws,  to  which  must  be  added  a  long  list 
of  peculiar  sea-fowl.  Among  reptiles  there  are 
less  peculiar  forms,  the  boas  and  scytales  being 
most  conspicuous  among  snakes;  but  there  are 
several  local  families  of  lizards  and  many  genera, 
the  iguanids  being  widely  developed,  while  the 
Varanidse,  Lacertidie,  and  Agamid;e,  so  charac- 
teristic of  the  Old  World,  are  entirely  absent 
from  America.  The  Amphibia  present  a  similar 
ease.  Fishes  of  fresh  waters  are  enormously 
abundant,  and  their  resemblance,  as  a  whole,  is 
to  the  African  piscifauna.  while  many  are  sur- 
vivors of  very  ancient  types,  such  as  lepidosiren. 
Similar  facts  might  be  adduced  to  show  the 
regional  exclusiveness  of  the  insects  and  other 
invertebrates.  On  the  whole.  South  America  is 
characterized  by  the  possession  of  a  very  uni- 
formly distributed  fauna,  far  more  local  and 
distinct  from  any  other  region  than  that  of  any 
other  continent,  unless  it  be  Australia,  probably 
more  than  four-fifths  of  its  species  being  re- 
stricted to  its  zoogeographical  boundaries.     See 

DlSTRIBUT10>-  OF  AxiM.4XS. 

HISTORY. 
DiscovEKY.  Christopher  Columbus,  in  1492. 
added  a  new  world  to  European  commerce  and 
civilization ;  but  there  can  be  little  doubt  that 
the  Western  Hemisphere  to  which  Columbus  ■ 
opened  the  way  had  lucviously  been  visited  by 
voyagers  from  the  older  world.  There  is  noth- 
ing inherently  impossible  in  the  stories  that 
Japanese  or  Chinese  vessels,  blown  by  storms  or 
carried  by  the  Pacific  currents,  reached  the  west- 
ern coast  of  North  America.  The  most  circum- 
stantial of  these  tales  relates  that  some  Chinese 
Buddhist  priests  in  the  fifth  Christian  century 
reached  a  land  of  Fu-sang,  and  successfully  re- 
turned with  the  account  of  their  adventures  in 
what  some  critics  have  thought  was  the  country 
now  known  as  Mexico.  From  Europe  the  ear- 
liest visitors  to  America  came  by  way  of  Iceland, 
and  the  story  of  their  experiences,  though  it  does 


not  satisfy  all  the  demands  of  modern  historical 
criticism,  may  safely  be  deemed  true  in  its  prin- 
cipal details.  In  S76,  Gunnbjorn,  a  sea  rover, 
while  on  his  way  from  Norway  to  the  new  Norse 
settlement  in  Iceland,  was  blown  westward 
until  he  sighted  an  unknown  land.  A  century 
later,  about  98.3.  a  restless  young  Norwegian 
named  Eric  the  Red  succeeded  in  verifying  tlie- 
stories  which  had  been  handed  down  from  Gunn- 
bjiirn's  time,  and  in  establishing  a  settlement  on 
the  shores  of  the  land  to  which,  with  the  idea 
of  attracting  colonists,  he  gave  the  name  of 
Greenland.  Two  j-ears  or  so  after  this,  Bjarni 
Heijulfson,  while  in  command  of  a  ship  in  which 
he  had  set  out  to  visit  the  Red  Eric's  settlement, 
encountered  storms  that  drove  him,  as  he  re- 
ported, southward  until  he  came  in  sight  of  land. 

In  the  year  1000,  Leif,  Eric's  son,  started  to- 
explore  Bjarni's  land.  He  came  first  to  a  barren 
shore  backed  by  ice-covered  mountains,  a  descrip- 
tion which  suggests  Labrador.  Sailing  south,  he 
met  with  more  pleasant  regions,  to  which  he  gave 
the  names  of  ilarkland  and  Vinland.  Many  at- 
tempts have  been  made  to  identify  these  localities, 
and  Newfoundland  and  Nova  Scotia  perhaps  best 
answer  the  essential  conditions.  .\t  Vinland  a 
flourishing  settlement  was  established  and  main- 
tained for  several  years,  and  there  Gudrid.  the 
wife  of  Thorfinn  Karlsefne,  g.ave  birth,  in  1007, 
to  a  son,  Snorre.  from  whom  the  sculptor  Tllor- 
waldsen  claimed  descent.  Many  localities — New- 
port and  Dighton,  on  Narragansett  Bay;  Cam- 
bridge and  "VValthaui,  on  the  Charles;  Salem,  in- 
deed, well-nigh  every  town  situated  beside  a 
pleasant  river  northward  from  Long  Island — have- 
laid  claim  to  this  Norse  settlement,  regarding  the 
actual  situation  of  which,  however,  nothing  cer- 
tain is  known.  During  the  succeeding  five  hundred 
years,  many  voj'agers  may  have  crossed  tlie  .■\t- 
iantie,  but  none  of  them  left  any  proof  of  their 
work.  Madoc,  son  of  Owen  Gwynnedd,  a  prince 
of  Wales,  is  said  by  Humfrey  Lloyd,  in  a  book 
printed  in  1559,  to  have  sailed  westward  and  to 
have  established  a  transatlantic  Welsh  colony 
in  1170.  The  Venetiin  brothers  Zeno,  between 
1380  and  1390,  probably  made  a  voyage  from  the 
Shetland  Islands  to  Iceland  and  Greenland,  and 
in  their  letters  home  to  their  Italian  brethren 
they  seem  to  have  given  a  picturesque  account 
of  what  they  had  learned  about  the  country  lying 
still  farther  to  the  southwest.  French,  Breton, 
and  Basque  fisliing  vessels  very  likely  visited  the 
cod  banks  in  tlie  western  Atlantic  during  the 
fifteenth  century;  but  if  they  did,  they  were  care- 
ful not  to  let  the  information  of  their  valuable 
discovery  reach  their  rivals. 

Consecutive  discovery  and  exploration  began 
with  the  voyage  of  Christopher  Columbus  in 
1492.  (For  a  full  account  of  his  expeditions,  see 
CoLtTMDU.s,  Christopher.)  In  1493  and  1494 
Columbus  established  the  main  features  of  the 
islands  in  the  West  Indies.  In  liis  third  voyage, 
1498,  he  touched  at  Trinidad,  and  followed  the 
mainland  for  some  distance;  and  in  1502-04  he 
coasted  from  Yucatan  to  Venezuela.  MeanAvhile, 
in  1497,  .John  Cabot  sailed  from  England,  and 
reached  the  neighborhood  of  the  Gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence;  but  many  years  passed  before  the 
Identity  of  the  land  which  served  as  headquarters 
for  the  hosts  of  fishing  boats  which  freqiiented 
the  Banks  with  thai  of  the  New  World  of  the 
Spaniards  was  definitely  determined.  It  appears 
probable  that  almost  'simultaneously  with  Ca- 
bot's landing  on  the  American  continent,  Pinzon 


A  COIPAHt. 


~°1 


• 


AMERICA. 


443 


AMERICA. 


(aooompanied  by  Vespiiciiis)  discovered  Central 
America.  A  succession  of  voyages  now  rapidly 
extended  ideographical  knowledge  of  the  coast  line 
of  the  Mexican  Cinlf  and  northeastern  South 
America.  In  ]4ii!>  Ojeda  and  ^'espucius  coasted 
the  northern  shores  of  the  southern  continent, 
naming  Venezuela,  "the  little  Venice,"  and  unit- 
ing this  coast  with  the  territory  visited  by  C'o- 
lunduis.  Pinzon.  early  in  1500,  reached  Brazil, 
entered  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon,  and  crossed 
the  equator,  reaching  8°  20'  S.  on  the  Brazil 
coast.  Cabral,  in  1500,  too.  was  blown  to  the 
same  coast  while  trying  to  follow  the  route  of 
Vasco  da  Gama  to  the  East  Indies,  and  thus  es- 
tablished the  Portuguese  claim  to  a  part  of 
America.  Vespucius.  transferring  his  services 
to  Portugal,  in  1501  followed  the  coast  from 
Cabral's  Land  nearly  to  the  mouth  of  the  Plata. 
These  were  the  olUcial  recorded  voyages :  but  the 
extent  and  importance  of  the  information  se- 
cured by  the  surreptitious  voyagers  who  were 
striving  to  gain  a  part  of  whatever  the  new- 
found lands  had  to  offer  is  best  shown  by  the  fact 
that  though  Cuba  was  not  ollicially  circumnavi- 
gated until  1508,  by  Ocampo,  nevertheless,  it  is 
represented  as  an  island  on  La  Cosa's  map  of 
1500  and  on  the  Cantino  Portuguese  map  of 
1502.  As  soon  as  it  was  realized  that  a  vast 
land  mass  still  barred  the  way  to  India  and  Ja- 
pan, the  problem  of  foremost  importance  became 
that  of  finding  a  water  route  through  or  around 
the  western  continent.  The  way  was  found  in 
1520  by  Fernao  Magalhaes.  commonly  known  as 
Magellan.  JIagalhaes  sailed  so  directly  for  the 
strait  which  now  bears  his  name  that  it  has  been 
surmised  that  he  alread.y  knew  of  its  probable 
existe'ice  from  the  captains  of  merchant  vessels 
who  had  explored  the  coast  to  the  extreme  south 
in  their  search  for  trading  chances.  From  the 
western  end  of  the  strait,  Magalhaes  laid  his 
course  to  the  East  Indies.  There,  on  one  of  the 
Philippine  Islands,  he  was  killed  in  April,  1521  ; 
but  .Juan  Sebastian  del  Cano,  in  command  of  the 
T"ic(on'a,  prosecuted  the  voyage  successfully,  and 
reached  Seville  in  September,  1522,  by  way  of 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  having  circumnavigated 
the  globe  for  the  first  time. 

The  exploration  of  the  interior  demanded  atten- 
tion as  soon  as  the  main  features  of  the  coast 
had  been  determined.  In  151.3  Vasco  Nunez  de 
Ballioa  ascended  one  of  the  peaks  in  the  range 
whicli  forms  the  isthmus  of  Panama,  and  looked 
down  upon  a  south  sea,  to  which  Magalhaes,  a 
few  years  later,  gave  the  name  of  Pacific,  because 
of  his  calm  and  pleasant  passage.  Cortes,  in 
1519,  set  out  from  Cuba  to  investigate  the  per- 
sistent gold  rumors  from  the  West,  and  landed  at 
a  pert  to  which  he  piously  gave  the  name  of 
Vera  Cruz.  Two  years  later  he  had  mastered  the 
geography,  as  well  as  the  people,  of  Central 
Mexico,  and  within  the  ensuing  ten  years  his 
captains  traversed  a  large  part  of  the  Central 
American  region,  reaehing'the  Pacific  by  several 
routes.  In  1527  Cortes  built  a  fleet  on  the  west- 
ern coast,  which  he  dispatched  to  the  Moluccas 
under  Alvaro  de  Saavedra,  for  the  purpose  of  co- 
operating with  an  expedition  commanded  by  Se- 
bastian Cabot,  who  had,  however,  turned  aside 
from  his  original  piirpose  of  sailing  to  the  East 
Indies  by  way  of  the  Strait  of  Magellan,  and  was 
spending  three  years  in  ascending  nearlv  to  the 
head  waters  of  the  Plata.  In  15.3(>  Cortes  found 
Lower  California,  which  was  supposed  to  be  an 
island   until,   in   1540,   Alarcon  proved   its   con- 


tinuity with  the  mainland  by  his  trip  up  the 
Rio  Colorado  of  the  West.  Similarly,  in  1512, 
Ponce  de  Leon  discovered  the  "island"  of  Florida, 
which  Pineda,  in  1519,  definitely  connected  with 
the  continent  by  ,a  voyage  along  the  coast  from 
Florida  to  Vera  Cruz.  Ponce  de  Leon  was  fol- 
lowed by  Narvacz,  Cabeza  de  \^aca,  and  Fer- 
nando de  Soto,  whose  explorations,  combined 
with  that  of  Vasquez  Coronado  from  Mexico  to 
the  Kansas-Nebraska  prairies,  had,  by  1545.  made 
known  the  principal  features  of  central  North 
America  south  of  the  Missouri  and  Ohio  rivers. 

Francisco  Pizarro  was  the  successful  discoverer 
of  the  truth  in  the  reports  of  a  rich  land  south- 
ward from  Panama,  of  which  the  settlers  had 
heard  from  the  time  of  their  first  visit  to  the 
isthmus.  Between  15.31  and  15.34  Pizarro  brought 
the  Inea  Empire  of  Peru  within  the  limits  of  tlie 
known  world,  while  his  associate,  Diego  de  Al- 
magro,  pushed  on  farther  south  into  the  plateau 
of  northern  Chile.  Gonzalez  Pizarro,  in  1540-41, 
crossed  the  Andes  and  reached  the  head  waters  of 
the  Amazon,  wliich  one  of  his  com])anion.=,  Fran- 
cisco de  Orellana,  followed  down  to  its  mouth, 
reaching  the  sea  in  August,  1541.  The  reports 
of  a  large  river  in  the  northeastern  part  of  the 
southern  continent  caused  much  confusion  in  the 
handiwork  of  European  map-makers,  and  it  was 
a  long  while  before  they  succeeded  in  evolving 
two  distinct  river  systems.  It  is  often  quite 
impossible  to  determine  from  the  narratives  of 
early  explorers  in  the  interior  whether  they  are 
describing  the  Orinoco  or  the  Amazon.  The  lat- 
ter was  known  at  first  as  the  Maraiion  or  the 
Orellana ;  but  the  name  given  by  the  tribe  of  fe- 
male warriors  supposed  to  live  near  it  eventually 
became  the  accepted  designation.  The  other 
great  river  system,  that  of  the  Plata,  was  first 
visited  in  1515  by  De  Solis,  whose  name  clung  to 
it  for  several  years,  until  after  the  explorations 
of  Sebastian  Cabot  and  Diego  Garcia  in  1527-30. 
The  only  remaining  section  of  South  America, 
from  the  Strait  of  Magellan  northward  to  Chile, 
which  had  been  explored  to  40"  south  by  Val- 
divia  in  1540,  is  not  known  to  have  been  visited 
until  the  latter  part  of  the  century,  when  Di-ake 
and  his  fellow  freebooters  undertook  to  tap  the 
sources  of  Spanish  wealth.  Drake  started  off  on 
a  mission  of  vengeance  for  the  injuries  he  had 
brought  upon  himself  in  the  West  Indies  in  the 
winter  of  1577-78.  Sailing  through  the  Strait 
of  ilagellan,  he  followed  up  the  west  coast,  plun- 
dering as  he  went,  until  he  had  filled  his  vessels 
with  Spanish  treasure.  Learning  that  his  ene- 
mies were  watching  to  attack  him  when  he  should 
return  through  the  strait,  Drake  decided  to  seek 
some  other  way  home  to  England.  He  tried 
first  for  a  northwest  passage ;  but  the  season  was 
not  propitious,  and  after  visiting  the  California 
coast  and  annexing  it  to  the  Britisli  crown  under 
the  name  of  New  Albion,  he  turned  westward  and 
completed  the  first  English  circumnavigation  in 
1580. 

John  Cabot  showed  the  way  to  the  Newfound- 
land Banks,  and  it  is  probable  that  English, 
Breton,  and  Ba.sque  fishermen  visited  the  neigh- 
boring coasts  regularly  from  the  very  beginning 
of  the  sixteenth  century.  They  added  little, 
however,  to  the  general  geographical  knowledge  of 
the  country.  Gaspar  de  Cortereal  visited  the  St. 
Lawrence  region  or  the  Labrador  coast  in  1500- 
01,  and  Jean  Denys  of  Honfleur  was  on  the  New- 
foundland coast  in  1506.  By  chance  a  record  of 
these  voyages  has  been  preserved.     Many  similar 


AMERICA. 


444 


AMERICA. 


voyages  must  have  lieen  uiulertakcn.  but  all  traces 
of  them  are  lost.  In  1524  Giovanni  da  Verrazano. 
sailing  with  a  commission  from  the  French  king, 
followed  tlie  Nortli  American  coast  for  a  long 
distance,  perhaps  from  Cape  Fear  as  far  as  Cape 
Kace.  His  narrative  provides  the  earliest  de- 
scription of  many  of  tlie  characteristic  features 
of  the  coast.  At  one  point  he  saw  open  water 
beyond  low-lying  land,  sucli  as  the  narrow  islands 
which  protect  the  Albemarle  and  Pamlico  sounds, 
and  he  guessed  tliat  this  might  be  the  much- 
sought  Southern  Sea.  In  consequence,  many  of 
the  maps  of  the  ensuing  years  represent  a  vast 
gulf  of  the  Pacific,  entering  from  the  west  and 
occupying  the  larger  part  of  the  northern  con- 
tinent, being  separated  by  a  narrow  isthmus  from 
the  Atlantic.  In  1534  and  1535  Jacques  Cartiei- 
entered  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  and  sailed  up  the 
river  as  far  as  the  present  site  of  Montreal,  where 
lie  heard  of  the  Great  Lakes — another  hopeful 
clue  to  the  longed-for  water  passage  to  the  east. 
During  the  second  half  of  the  century,  attempts 
at  settlement  led  to  a  more  careful  determination 
of  the  details  of  the  north  Atlantic  coast.  St. 
Augustine  was  founded  in  1565.  Raleigh's  famous 
"lost  colony"  on  the  Carolina  or  "Virginia"  coast 
was  established  in  1587,  and  the  attempts  to 
determine  the  fate  of  the  settlers  led  to  several 
voyages  during  the  next  two  decades. by  means  of 
which  the  coast  was  more  or  less  carefully  exam- 
ined from  New  Jersey  southward.  Farther  north, 
the  work  of  Gosnol'd  in  1002,  Pring  in  100.3, 
Champlain  and  Weymouth  in  1605,  and  Hudson 
in  1600,  marked  out  the  courses  which  were  fol- 
lowed year  by  year  by  a  constantly  increasing 
nunrber  of  vessels. 

Champlain  settled  Quebec  in  1008,  and  began 
the  systematic  exploration  of  the  interior  by 
visiting  the  lake  which  preserves  his  name  in 
1000.  In  1015  he  penetrated  to  Lake  Huron. 
Traders  and  missionaries  year  by  year  pushed 
their  way  farther  up  the  river  and  along  the 
lakes.  Pere  Allouez,  in  1065,  founded  a  mission 
on  the  southern  shores  of  Lake  Superior,  and  in 
1672,  accompanied  by  P.  Dablon,  he  made  a  tour 
through  Wisconsin  and  Illinois.  A  year  later 
Marquette  and  Jolict  reached  the  Upper  Missis- 
sippi. In  1079  La  Salle  began  his  career  by  a 
voyage  from  Niagara  to  the  southern  end  of 
Lake  Jlichigan.  Hennepin,  one  of  La  Salle's 
companions,  crossed  to  the  Mississippi,  which  he 
followed  up  as  far  as  Minneapolis  in  1680.  Two 
years  later  La  Salle  made  a  trip  down  the  Ohio 
to  the  Mississippi,  and  on  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
establishing  the  claim  of  France  to  the  whole  of 
the  interior  of  the  continent. 

Henry  Hudson,  in  1010,  entered  the  bay  to 
which  his  name  has  been  attached,  and  there  he 
was  left  in  an  open  boat  by  his  mutinous  sailors. 
Some  years  earlier,  in  1.502,  Juan  de  la  Fuca,  in 
a  Spanish  vessel,  jirobably  entered  the  sound  on 
the  western  coast  which  was  more  carefully  ex- 
plored and  named  by  Captain  Vancouver  ex- 
actly two  hundred  years  later,  and  carried  home 
a  report  that  he  had  seen  a  vast  stretch  of  open 
water  extending  eastward.  The  attempts  to  find 
a  way  between  these  two  bays,  the  search  for  the 
northwest  passage,  belongs  to  the  article  on 
Arctic  discovery.  The  discovery  of  the  interior 
of  Canada  was  largelj'  accomplished  by  the  trap- 
pers and  agents  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company, 
which  was  organized  in  1070;  but  it  was  not  until 
1740  that  Varenne  de  la  Verendrye  made  known 
the  vast  extent  of  the  country  lying  east  of  the 


northern  Rocky  Mountains.  In  1769-72  the  fur 
trader  Hearne  traced  tlie  Coppermine  River  to 
the  sea,  and  in  1793  Mr.  (afterward  Sir  A.)  Mac- 
kenzie, while  crossing  the  continent  for  the  first 
time  north  of  Mexico,  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific,  discovered  the  course  of  the  river  to 
wliicli   his   name  has  been  given. 

The  exploration  of  the  western  part  of  the 
United  States  did  not  begin  until  after  the  re- 
public had  acquired  that  region.  As  soon  as  the 
Louisiana  purchase  had  been  concluded,  Jeffer- 
son dispatched  Lewis  and  Clark  to  investigate 
the  course  of  the  Missouri  and  determine  its  rela- 
tion to  the  Pacific,  which  they  did  by  descending 
ttie  Columbia  to  the  sea,  their  Jovirney  occupying 
the  years  1804-00.  Pike,  meanwhile,  was  travers- 
ing the  country  between  the  head  waters  of  the 
Mississippi  and  Red  rivers,  and  afterward, 
1800.  he  followed  the  mountain  ranges  south, 
discovering  the  peak  known  by  his  name,  and 
making  important  contril)iitions  to  an  under- 
standing of  the  geograjihy  of  the  southwest. 

Among  the  other  explorers  of  the  United  States 
in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  were 
Long,  Bonneville,  Schoolcraft,  Catlin,  Nicollet, 
and  Fremont.  Among  their  successors  in  the 
second  half  of  the  century  were  Wheeler,  Whit- 
ney, Hayden,  and  Powell.  The  list  of  explorers 
of  British  America  and  Alaska  in  the  nineteenth 
century  embraces  .Sir  .John  Franklin,  Back,  Rich- 
ardson, Beechy,  Dease,  Simpson,  and  Rae,  whose 
activity  lay  in  the  realm  of  Arctic  exploration, 
and  Bell.  Selwyn,  Dawson,  Dall,  Muir,  Allen, 
Schwatka,  Ogilvie,  Russell,  and  Low.  Of  the 
many  explorers  of  South  America  in  modern 
times  mention  may  be  made  of  Humboldt,  Maxi- 
milian of  Wied,  Spix,  JIartius,  Auguste  de 
Sainte-Hilaire.  Orbigny,  Piippig,  the  brothers 
Schomburgk,  Darwin,  Ave-Lallemaiit,  Tschudi, 
C'astelnau,  Burmeister,  Herndon  and  Gibbon, 
Chandless,  Crevaux,  Bates,  Karl  von  den  Steinen, 
and  Ehrcnreich.  Among  the  explorers  of  the 
Andes  in  recent  times  have  been  Reiss,  Stiibel, 
Whymper,  Fitzgerald,  and  Conway. 

CciLONlz\TiON.  Before  Columbus  left  the 
newly  discovered  West  India  Islands  in  January, 
1493,  he  built  a  fort  on  Espafiola.  now  Haiti. 
Here  some  forty  of  his  sailors  remained  to  form 
a  settlement  which  should  serve  as  headquarters 
for  tlie  further  discoveries  that  Columbus  ex- 
pected to  make  as  soon  as  he  could  return  to  the 
new  world.  These  first  Spanish  colonists  were 
killed  by  the  Indians,  but  their  places  were  taken 
by  others,  numbering  between  two  and  three  liun- 
died,  who  accompanied  Columbus  on  his  second 
voyage.  During  the  eaily  months  of  1494  the 
town  which  they  built,  named  in  honor  of  the 
queen.  Isabella,  rapidly  assumed  the  appearance 
of  a  flourishing  city.  During  the  next  ten  years 
a  constant  stream  of  settlers,  many  of  them  ac- 
companied bj'  their  families,  flowed  from  Spain 
into  the  new  city.  Many  of  these  remained  there 
to  practice  the  trades  necessary  to  town  life, 
while  others  took  farms  near  by  or  went  on  to 
assist  in  building  up  the  newer  towns  which  were 
being  established  at  every  good  harbor  and  in  the 
mining  districts.  These  places  became  in  a  sur- 
prisingly short  time  practically  self-supporting, 
and  they  were  soon  able  to  supply  men  and  equip- 
ment for  further  exploration.  Cortes  drew  from 
Cuba  whatever  he  needed  for  his  enterprise  of 
1519,  a  debt  which  Mexico  repaid  by  furnishing 
the  supplies  for  the  large  expedition  which  Vas- 
quez  Coronado  led  through  the  present  Arizona 


AMEBICA. 


445 


AMERICA. 


and  New  Mexico  to  the  great  buflalo  plains  of 
tlie  Mississippi  Valley  in  1540-41.  Moreover, 
Alniagro  and  Pizarro  drew  from  Panama  the 
moans  for  tlifir  adventurous  expeditions  into 
Peru  and  Ecuador,  and  these  countries  furnished 
the  supplies  to  send  Valdivia  southward  into 
Chile  (1540),  and  Orcllana  and  Ursua  (see  the 
article  Aguiure)  to  explore  the  trans- Andean 
regions.  By  1550  the  Spanish-American  settle- 
ments were  firmly  established,  witli  every  pros- 
pect of  developing  into  powerful  and  wealthy 
colonies.  Unluckily,  the  home  Government  in 
Spain  persisted  in  retaining  all  the  administra- 
tive authority  in  the  hands  of  officials  appointed 
in  Europe.  As  a  result,  the  colonists  were  sub- 
jected to  a  succession  of  incompetent,  coriupt 
governors,  ignorant  of  American  conditions,  and 
desirous  only  of  securing  the  greatest  annual 
revenue  for  themselves  and  for  the  royal  treas- 
ury. Deprived  of  all  the  incentives  of  public 
service,  the  Spanish-Americans  sufl'ered  a  steady 
decline  in  social  and  intellectual  tone,  very  similar 
to  that  which  was  so  noticeable  in  the  northern 
English  colonies  between  1690  and  1750.  Mis- 
sionary zeal  supplied  almost  the  only  active  force 
for  extending  the  colonial  limits.  The  Jesuits 
built  up  a  very  remarkable  domination  over  the 
natives  along  the  upper  Paranft  and  Paraguay, 
and  noith  of  Mexico  the  Franciscans,  although 
driven  out  of  New  Mexico  by  the  native  "rebel- 
lion" of  1610,  eventually  succeeded  in  laying  the 
foundations  for  permanent  settlements  in  that 
region.  During  the  eighteenth  century  there  was 
a  flourishing  provincial  life  along  the  upper  Rio 
Grande  del  Norte,  the  strength  of  which  may  be 
inferred  from  the  fact  that  the  first  printing 
press  west  of  the  Mississippi,  in  what  is  now 
United  States  territory,  was  set  up  about  1737 
in  the  town  of  San  Fernando  de  Taos,  New 
Mexico,  which  is  still  many  miles  from  any  rail- 
way. The  Franciscans,  Dominicans,  and  Jesuits 
sent  their  friars  into  Upper  California,  and  the 
mission  buildings  whose  ruins  are  now  so  care- 
fully clierished  were  begun  dui'ing  the  second 
half  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Soldiers  and 
ranchers  followed  the  priests,  and  by  1800  the 
Spanish  settlements  were  scattered  thickly  along 
the  Pacific  coast  and  throughout  the  southwest. 

Portugal  began  to  colonize  the  eastern  coast 
of  South  America  in  1531,  in  order  to  maintain 
its  claim  to  what  is  now  Brazil  against  the 
Spanish,  who  were  locating  everywhere  else  on 
the  new  continent.  A  few  settlements  along  the 
coast,  however,  were  all  that  resulted  until  early 
in  the  eighteenth  century,  when  the  Portuguese 
tried  to  develop  the  country  as  a  substitute  for 
the  East  Indian  possessions  which  the  English 
and  Dutch  had  taken  from  them.  There  was 
little  European  impress  upon  the  country, 
however,  before  1808,  when  the  Portuguese  court 
emigiatcd  to  Rio  de  Janeiro,  which  became  for  a 
while  a  pseudo-European  capital.  In  1821  King 
John  VI.  went  back  to  Portugal,  but  he  left  his 
eldest  son,  Dom  Pedro,  as  emperor.  E.xtensive 
Brazilian  estates  were  granted  to  his  European 
retainers,  and  foreign  capital  began  to  be  intro- 
duced. The  countrj'  was  developed  for  invest- 
ment rather  than  colonization.  There  was  no 
extensive  taking  up  of  the  land  by  Europeans 
imtil  the  second  half  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
when  Italians,  Germans,  and  Poles  turned  their 
attention  to  this  region  of  South  America. 

The  French  colonization  of  North  America 
began  with  De  Monts'  .settlement  on  the  Bay  of 


Fundy  in  1604.  The  English  (see  the  article 
Arg.vll)  effectually  stopped  all  efforts  to  extend 
these  settlements  along  the  JIaine  coast,  and  so 
Champlain  undertook  to  open  up  the  interior  by 
way  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River.  Quebec  was 
settled  in  1608,  and  Montreal  in  1042;  but  these 
towns  grew  rapidly  as  trading  and  shipping 
places  rather  than  as  centres  for  colonization.  A 
few  other  towns  were  started  along  the  lines  of 
comnmnication  with  the  trapping  and  hunting 
regions  around  the  great  lakes,  as  headquarters 
for  trade  with  the  Indians.  As  the  competition 
with  England  for  the  possession  of  the  country 
south  of  the  lakes  became  keen,  military  posts, 
of  which  Fort  Duquesne  is  tlie  best  known,  were 
established  on  the  Ohio  and  the  Mississippi,  to 
emphasize  and  protect  the  French  claims.  No- 
where was  there  much  actual  possession  of  the 
soil.  Wlien,  in  1763,  England  secured  the  whole 
of  French  North  America  east  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, the  greatest  part  of  it  was  open  for  settle- 
ment by  her  own  people. 

The  English,  like  the  other  European  nations, 
began  by  establishing  outposts,  first  for  the  fish- 
ermen on  Newfoundland  before  1570,  and  in  1585 
on  the  Carolina  coast  for  the  purpose  of  extend- 
ing the  search  for  gold  and  treasures  inland. 
Religious  and  political  conditions,  however, 
changed  the  character  of  the  English  emi2:ration 
to  America  soon  after  1600.  In  1620  and  1630 
the  Pilgrims  and  Puritans  established  themselves 
along  Massachusetts  Bay,  with  the  deliberate 
purpose  of  becoming  permanent  inhabitants  of 
the  country.  A  few  years  earlier,  in  1607,  a 
Church  of  England  colony  had  been  attempted 
at  Sagadahoc,  now  Popham  Beach,  on  the  Maine 
coast:  but  it  made  no  permanent  impression  on 
New  England.  The  same  year  a  settlement  was 
started  at  Jamestown,  in  Virginia,  a  successor 
to  Raleigh's  "lost  colony"  of  1587;  and  after 
many  vicissitudes  this  gradually  acquired  a  per- 
manent character.  The  English  Roman  Catholics 
had  held  themselves  ready  to  emigrate  if  neces- 
sary throughout  the  reign  of  Elizabeth ;  but  it 
was  not  until  1634  that  they  prepared  a  place  for 
themselves  in  Lord  Baltimore's  grant  of  Mary- 
land. The  development  of  New  England,  begin- 
ning with  the  "gieat  iramigi'ation"  of  1630,  was 
very  rapid.  In  1635  the  "Bay  Colony"  was  able 
to  spare  a  large  body  of  people,  who,  disagreeing 
with  the  majority  in  some  minor  matters  of  doc- 
trine, preferred  to  live  by  themselves  along  the 
Connecticut  River.  A  year  later,  others  who 
differed  from  the  Boston  elders  in  opinions  re- 
garding more  vital  points  of  dogma  formed  the 
Providence  Plantations  as  a  refuge  for  those  who 
desired  religious  liberty.  The  Southern  colonies 
were  settled  move  slowly,  the  formal  organiza- 
tion of  colonial  governments  (the  Carolinas  in 
1603  and  Georgia  in  1733)  being  brought  about 
partly  by  the  necessity  of  counteracting  the  ex- 
tension of  the  Spanish  settlements  north  and 
west  from  St.  Augustine  (founded  in  1505). 

The  Dutch  promptly  organized  trading  posts 
along  the  river  explored  by  Hudson  in  1609,  and 
sent  over  a  large  body  of  colonists  during  the 
next  ten  years  to  hold  the  country.  Rivalry 
with  the  English  on  the  east,  and  with  the 
Swedes,  who  settled  on  the  Delaware  in  1638, 
prepared  the  way  for  the  absorption  of  the  lat- 
ter by  the  Dutch  in  1655,  and  in  turn  for  the 
occupation  of  the  Dutch  territory  by  the  English 
in  1064. 

French  trappers  and  frontiersmen  wandered  up 


AMERICA. 


446  AMERICA. 


and  down  the  ^Mississippi  and  along  its  western 
tributaries  in  steadily  increasing  numbers  from 
the  time  of  La  Salle's  voyage  down  the  river  in 
1682.  By  1803,  the  year  of  the  Louisiana  pur- 
chase, these  men  and  their  descendants  were 
scattered  widely  over  the  w'estern  plains,  draw- 
ing their  supplies  from  the  lai-ge  village  at  St. 
Louis  or  the  small  town  of  New  Orleans.  There 
was  no  real  occupation  of  the  country,  however, 
until  the  signs  of  the  exhaustion  of  the  farming 
lands  in  the  east,  combined  with  political  con- 
siderations, led  to  an  investigation  of  the  oppor- 
tunities for  profitable  existence  beyond  the  Mis- 
sissippi, Politics  was  largely  responsible  for  the 
annexation,  in  1845.  of  Texas,  and  the  same  force, 
acting  in  advance  of  economic  or  agricultural 
reasons,  led  to  the  organization  of  the  emigrant 
aid  societies  in  1854  to  hasten  the  settlement  of 
Kansas  and  Nebraska.  The  discovery  of  gold  in 
California  in  1848.  in  Nevada  a  decade  later. 
and  in  the  Klondike  in  1807,  resulted  in  opening 
up  those  regions,  and  in  the  sudden  extension  of 
the  limits  of  permanent  occupation.  For  further 
information  on  America,  see  special  articles  un- 
der the  political  divisions  of  the  continent, 

/.    Indepoirlent    States    of    the    American    con- 
tinent and  islands: 


II.  European  dependencies — continued. 


Sq.  Miles. 

Population. 

United  States  Proper           ..  . 

2,970,000 

591,000 

3,600 

6.700 

70,300,000 
60,000 

Portti  Rico                          

950,000 

150,000 

3,571.300 

767,000 

48,IK)0 

8.000 

49.000 

46.000 

21.500 

44.000 

10.000 

18.000 

500.000 

690,000 

3,200,000 

118.000 

700.000 

700.000 

290,000 

1,000,000 

73,000 

98,000 

77,460.000 
13,550.000 

1.570,000 

1,000.000 
500,000 

680.000 

300,000 

1.570.000 

Haiti                                  

1,500,000 

500,000 

4,000.))00 

2,500.000 

Brazil                                     

14.300.000 

1.270.000 

4,600,000 

Bolivia     

2.000,000 

Chile 

2.700,000 

4,090,000 

9,50,0{W 

630,000 

Total  for  Independent  States. 

11.850,800 

135,570,000 

//.   European  dependencies: 


Sq.  Miles. 

Population. 

British  Possessions  ; 
Canada: 

219.000 

344.000 

20.000 

28.000 

73.000 

340,000 

2,100 

2,000.000 

2.160,000 

1,620,000 

459,0<» 

331.000 

254,000 

liuebec 

Nt'w  Hninswlc'k 

Prince  ICdward  Island 

The  Territories 

]03.(«10 
200.000 

Newfonndlaiul 

3,026,100 

42.000 

120.000 

20 

7..500 

B.400 

160 

4.400 

5.317.000 
*>'iO  000 

4.000 
16  000 

Bcrniiidas 

British  Honduras 

37.0VX) 

63  000 

195. (H)0 
750,000 

Jamaleaaud  Calcos  Islands.. 

Windward  Islands: 

Grenada 

St.  Vincent 

St.  Lucia 

Leeward  lelandri: 
Antigua   (with   Barbuda 

and  Redonda) 

Virgin  Islands 

Dominica 

St.  Christopher 

Nevis 

Anguilla 

Montserrat 

Trinidad 

Tobago 

British  Guiana 

Falkland  Islands 

French  Possessions: 
St.  Pierre  \ 

Miqnelon  j  

Guadeloupe 

Martinique 

Guiana 

Danish  Possessions 


Sq.  Miles. 


130 
130 
230 


170 
270 
290 
GO 
5U 
35 
30 

i.Teo 

100 

95.000 

7,500 


3,311,325 


600 

380 

30,500 


609,000 
75 
30 
20 

10.000 

Santa  Cruz 

18.000 
11.000 

900 

Dutch  Possessions  : 

600,125 

200 
BO.OOO 

39.900 
61.000 

83,000 

4ion8. 
Con- 

50.200 

134,000 

Total  Foreign  Posses 
Total   for  American 

3.893,220 
15,744,020 

8,018.900 
143.588.90C 

Population. 


60.000 
44.000 
50,000 


35.0<10 
40.000 
29.000 
29,000 
13.(HI0 
4.000 
12.000 

255.000 

19.000 

295.000 

2.000 

7,479.000 


6,000 

180,000 
1.50.000 
30.000 


BiBLiooR.\piiY.  General  Featcre.s.  Phy.sical 
DIVISION'S. — A  com]irehensive  work  is,  Reclus. 
.Xoucellc  georjruphie  iiniL-erseUe,  Volumes  XV.- 
XIX.  (Paris,' 1800-94),  translated  and  edited  by 
Keane  and  Ravenstein  (London,  18!)0-!)5).  The 
following  monographs  comprised  in  Stanford's 
Compendium  of  Modern  Geography  and  Travel 
are  comprehensive :  Dawson,  Xorth  America,  ('a)i- 
ada.and  Xevfoundland  (London,  1897)  ;  Gannett, 
North  America;  The  United  States  (London, 
1898)  ;  Keane,  Central  and  South  America  (Lon- 
don. 1901),  Consult,  also,  in  general:  The  Xa- 
tional  Geographic  Moga.::ine  (Wasliington,  1888, 
et  seq,)  ;  The  American  Geopraphical  Socictij 
■Journal  end  Bulletins  (New  York,  1852,  et  seq.)  : 
Humboldt,  Exanien  critique  dc  I'histoire  de  la 
geographic  du  yourcau  Continent,  new  edition 
(Paris,  18.36-39)  ;  Perez,  Geografia  general  del 
Xuevo  Mundo  (Bogota,  1888)  ;  Sievers  (editor), 
Ameril-a.  Einc  allgemeine  Lamleskunde  (Leip- 
zig, 1894)  -,  Dupont,  Xotions  de  geographic  gcnf- 
rale  et  geographic  phi/sique,  c1hnograiihi(iur. 
politique  et  ceonomique  du  continent  ami'ricaiu 
(Pnris.  moot  ;  Hellwald,  Amerika  in  Wort  vud 
mid  (Leipzig,  1883-85)  :  Shalcr,  Xaturc  and  Man 
in  America  (New  York,  1891);  Russell,  Vol- 
canoes of  Xorth  America  (New  York,  1897)  ;  id,. 
Glaciers  of  Xortli  America  (Bo.ston,  1898)  : 
Wright,  Ice  .^ge  in  Xorth  America  (New  York, 
1889)  ;  Powell,  "Physiographic  Regions  of  the 
United     States,"     Xatioual     Geographic     Mono- 


AMERICA. 


447 


AMERICAN   ASSOCIATIONS. 


graphs.  Volume  I.  (New  York,  1895);  Shaler 
(editor),  Unitrd  states  of  America  (New  York, 
]8fl4)  ;  Comte  d'Ursel,  L'Amcrique  du  Slid  (sec- 
ond edition,  Paris,  1879);  C'liild,  The  Spanish- 
American  Republics  (New  York,  1891)  ;  Tliomas, 
Explorations  dans  I'Ameriquc  du  Hud  (Paris, 
1S91)  :  Vincent,  Around  and  About  South  Ameri- 
ca I  New  York,  1890);  Burmeister,  "Die  Siid- 
amerikanisclien  Republiken,  Argentina,  Cliile, 
Paragua}',  uiid  Uruguay,"  in  I'etermann's  Mit- 
teiluniicn,  Erfiiinzungslicft  39  (Gotha,  1875)  ; 
J'cjiorts  of  the  Princeton  University  Expeditions 
to  FalagGnia.  lS:Hi-!)9,  edited  by  Scott  (Prince- 
ton, 1901,  et  seq.). 

GEor.OfiY.  United  States  Geological  Survey 
Annual  Reports  (Washington,  1885-1901); 
United  States  Geological  Survey  Bulletins 
(Washington,  1884,  et  seq.);  United  States 
Geological  Survey  Monographs  (Washington, 
1890,  et  seq.)  ;  Suess,  Das  Antlitz  dcr  Erde 
(Prague,  1883-88)  ;  Canada  Geological  and  Natur- 
al History  Survey  Reports  (Montreal,  1885,  et 
seq.)  ;  Feli.x  and  Lenk,  licit riige  zur  Geologic 
und  Palliontologie  der  Rcpuhlik  Mexico  (Leip- 
zig, 1890)  ;  Boletin  del  Instituto  Geologico  de 
Mexico,  Nos.  1  to  14  (Mexico,  1895-1900)  ; 
Darwin,  Nafural  History  and  Geology  of  the 
Voyage  of  the  "Beagle"  (London,  1809)  ;  Darwin, 
Geological  Ohservatiotis  on  Volcanic  Islands  of 
South  America  (London,  1892)  ;  Steinmann. 
"Sketch  of  Geology  of  South  America,"  in  Amcri- 
t-OH  Xuturalist,  XXV.  (Salem,  Boston,  Philadel- 
pliia.  1891)  ;  Hartt,  Geology  and  Physical  Geog- 
raphy of  Brazil  (Boston,  1870). 

HvDi!OGn.\rHY.  Reports  of  the  United  States 
Const  and  Geodetic  Survey  (Washington)  ; 
United  States  Hydrographic  Office  Publications 
(Washington,  1867-1900);  Newell,  "Report  of 
Progress  for  1893-95,  United  States  Division  of 
Hydrography."  Geographical  Survei/  Bulletins 
JSl.  1J,0  (Washington,  1893-95)  :  Russell,  Lakes 
of  North  America  (Boston,  1895)  ;  Russell,  Riv- 
ers of  North  Ameriaa  (Boston,  1898)  ;  Ray, 
"Navigation  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  Carib- 
bean Sea,"  United  States  Hiidrographic  Office, 
No.  86  (Washington,  1898)  ;  Humphrey  and  Ab- 
bott, "Report  on  the  Physics  and  Hydraulics  of 
the  Mississippi  River,"  United  States  Army 
Corps  of  Topographical  Engineers,  Professional 
Paper  No.  IS  (Washington,  1876). 

Climate.  Publications  of  the  United  States 
Weather  Bureau  (Washington)  ;  of  the  various 
State  Weather  Series  of  tlie  United  States;  of 
the  Canadian  Meteorological  Office  (Toronto)  ; 
and  of  the  Mexican  Weather  Service,  Observa- 
torio  Meteorolfjgico  Central  (Mexico)  ;  Waldo, 
Elementary  Meteorology  (New  Y'ork,  1896)  ; 
Greely,  American  Weather  (New  York,  1888)  ; 
(iould,  Antiales  dc  la  Oficma  Meteoroldgica  Ar- 
gentina  ( Buenos  Ayres,  1878). 

Flora.  Britton  and  Brown,  Illustrated  Flora 
of  the  Northern  United  States,  Canada  and  the 
British  Possessions  (New  York,  1896-98)  :  Hel- 
ler, "New  and  Interesting  Plants  from  Western 
North  America,"  in  Torrey  Botanical  Club  Bul- 
letin, Volume  XXVI.  (New  Y'ork,  1899)  ;  Small, 
"Notes  and  Descriptions  of  North  American 
Plants,"  in  Torrey  Botanical  Club  Bulletin,  Vol- 
ume XXV.  (New  York,  1898)  ;  Berg,  Physiog- 
nomy of  Tropical  Vegetation  in  South  America 
(Loudon,  1854)  ;  Rusby,  "Enumeration  of  Plants 
Collected  in  South  .America,"  in  Torrey  Botanical 
Club  Bulletin,  Volumes  XV.,  XX.,  XXII.,  XXV., 
XXVII.  (New  York,  1888-96-98,  1900)  ;  Goodale, 


The  Wild  Eloaers  of  .Vmerica  (Boston,  1887)  ; 
Hervey,  Beautiful  Wild  Flou-ers  of  America 
(London,  1878)  ;  Newhall,  The  Trees  of  North- 
eastern America  (New  York,  1891);  Newhall, 
Tlir  Shrubs  of  Northeastern  America  (New  York, 
1S93);  Newhall,  The  Vines  of  Northeastern 
America  (New  York,  1897)  :  Sargent,  The  Silva 
of  North  America  (Boston,  1890-91);  Heller, 
Catalogue  of  North  American  Plants  North  of 
Mexico  (Lancaster,  1900)  ;  Gray,  Synoptical 
Flora  of  North  America  (New  York,  1880-95- 
97):  Scribner.  American  Grasses,  Parts  I. -III. 
(United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Washington,  1897-1900)  ;  Lesquereux  and 
James,  Manual  of  Mosses  of  North  America 
(Boston,   1884-95). 

Fauna.  For  bibliography  of  American  fauna, 
consult  the  authorities  referred  to  under  the  in- 
dividual countries,  and  under  such  heads  as  Bird  ; 
Insect;  Mammalia;  Distribution  of  Ani- 
mals, etc.  The  one  work  best  outlining  American 
zoology  is  the  Standard  Natural  History,  edited 
by  Kingsley  ( Boston,  1885).  Consult  also:  Wal- 
lace, The  Geographical  Distribution  of  Animals 
(London  and  New  York.  1S7())  :  Merriam,  "The 
Geographic  Distribution  of  Life  in  North  Amer- 
ica," Proceedings  of  the  Biological  Society,  Vol- 
ume VIII.  (Washington,  1892);  Elliot.  North 
American  Shore  Birds  (New  York,  1895)  ;  Elliot, 
Game  Birds  of  North  America  (New  Y'ork, 
1897)  ;  Elliot.  Wild  Fowl  of  North  America 
(New  York,  1898)  ;  Apgar,  Birds  of  the  United 
States  (New  York,  1898)  ;  Cope,  "The  Croco- 
diles, Lizards,  and  Snakes  of  North  America," 
United  States  National  Museum  Report,  1898 
(Washington,  1900)  ;  Goode,  American  P^ishes 
(New  York,  1888)  ;  Edwards,  The  Butterflies  of 
N/irth  America  (New  York,  1868-88)  ;  Scudder, 
Butterflies  of  the  Eastern  United  States  and 
Canada  (Cambridge,  1888)  ;  Scudder,  Brief 
Guide  to  the  Common  Butterflies  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada   (New  York,  1893). 

History  and  Discovery.  For  the  discovery 
and  colonization  of  the  American  continent,  con- 
sult: Winsor,  Narrative  and  Critical  History  of 
America  (Boston,  1884-89).  This  work  is  valu- 
able for  its  careful  study  of  the  sources  of  infor- 
mation on  American  history  and  for  its  copious 
bibliography.  For  a  more  popular  and  concise 
but  scholarly  treatment  of  the  subject,  consult 
Fiske.  The  Discovery  of  America  (Boston,  1893), 
a  work  supplied  with  ample  notes,  wliich  may  be 
used  as  a  basis  for  further  investigation.  The 
best  books  on  special  topics  will  be  found  in  the 
articles  on  the  individual  explorers,  countries, 
and  colonies. 

AMERICA.  The  American  national  hymn, 
by  the  Rev.  Samuel  F.  Smith  (1832).  The'mel- 
ody.  ascribed  to  Henry  Carey  ( 1742) .  is  identical 
with  that  of  the  English  national  anthem,  "God 
Save  the  King,"  and,  popular  in  France  from 
1775,  became  national  in  Denmark,  Germany, 
and  Pr\issia. 

AMERICA.  The  name  of  the  schooner-yacht 
which  in  the  international  yacht  race  of  1851 
won  the  cup  since  known  as  the  "America's  Cup." 
Sec  Yacht. 

AMER'ICAN    ALL'SPICE.     See    Calycan- 

TIIUS. 

AMERICAN  AL'OE.    See  Agave. 

AMERICAN  AS'SOCIA'TIONS  AND  SO- 
CI'ETIES.    For  descriptions  of  associations  and 


AMEBICAN   ASSOCIATIONS. 


448 


AMERICANISMS. 


societies  whose  official  titles  begin  with  the  word 
American,  see  names  of  subjects  in  which  such 
organizations  are  interested.  Example:  For 
the  American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social 
Science,  see  Political  axd  Social  Sciemce, 
American  Ac.\demt  of. 

AMERICAN  BAP'TIST  MIS'SIONA'RY 
UNION.     See  Missions. 

AMERICAN  BLIGHT.  A  terra  used  in  Aus- 
tralia and  elsewhere  abroad  for  the  injurious 
effects  upon  trees  or  plants  of  tlie  presence  of 
plant-lice  of  the  cosmopolitan  genus  Schizoneura, 
especially  Schizoneura  lanigera.  Consult  Bul- 
letin Xo.  IS,  Division  of  Entomology,  United 
States  Department  of  Asriculture  (Washington, 
18981. 

AMERICAN  BOARD  OF  COMMIS'SION- 
ERS  FOR  FOR'EIGN  MIS'SIONS.     See  JIis- 

SIOXS. 

AMERICAN  COUS'IN,  Ore.  One  of  the 
best  known  plays  of  the  English  dramatist,  Tom 
Taylor  (18.58),  very  popular  a  generation  ago. 
The  unimportant  character,  Lord  Dundreary, 
became  in  the  clever  creation  of  E.  A.  Sothern  a 
great  part.  For  Americans,  however,  the  drama 
must  always  possess  melancholy  associations,  for 
it  was  while  enjoying  its  presentation  that  Lin- 
coln was  assassinated. 

AMERICAN  FLAG.   The.     See  Flag. 

AMERICAN  IN'STITUTE  of  the  Citt  of 
New  York.  An  organization  to  promote,  by 
means  of  exhibitions  and  fairs,  the  interests  of 
agriculture,  commerce,  manufactures,  and  arts 
in  the  State  and  country.  The  institute  was 
founded  in  1828.  and  its  fairs  attracted  wide  at- 
tention from  investors  and  capitalists.  Among 
the  inventions  which  received  early  recognition 
from  the  institute  were  the  ilcCormick  reaper, 
the  sewing  machine,  Colt's  fire-arms,  the  type 
revolving  and  double  power  printing  press  ma- 
chines, the  first  anthracite  coal  burning  stove, 
the  Morse  telegraph,  the  stocking  loom,  the  tele- 
phone, and  the  Francis  metallic  lifeboat  and  life- 
saving  appliances.  The  American  Institute  now 
embraces  in  its  organization  five  sections:  The 
Farmers"  Club,  the  Henry  Electrical  Society,  the 
Horticultural  Section,  the  Pliotographic  Section, 
and  the  Polytechnic  Section.  It  has  a  valuable 
scientific  library  of  over  15,000  volumes. 

AMERICAN  IP'ECAC.     See  Gillexia. 

AMERICANISMS.  Words  and  phrases  pe- 
culiar to  tlie  United  States.  They  are  classified 
by  one  writer  on  this  subject  (Bartlett)  as  fol- 
lows: (I)  Archaisms,  obsolete,  or  nearly  so.  in 
Great  Britain.  (2  I  English  words  used  in  a  dif- 
ferent sense.  (3)  Words  used  in  the  original 
sense  in  the  United  States,  although  not  in  Great 
Britain.  (4)  English  provincialisms  adopted  into 
general  use  in  America.  ( 5 )  Xewly-coined  words 
owing  their  origin  to  productions  or  circum- 
stances of  the  country.  Id)  Words  derived  from 
European  languages,  especially  the  French,  Span- 
ish.and  Dutch.  (7)  Indian  words.  (8)  Xegroisms. 
(9)  Peculiarities  of  pronunciation.  Accepting  for 
the  present  this  arrangement,  we  may  cite  as  ex- 
amples of  archaisms,  fall,  for  autumn,  freshet. 
to  lam,  in  the  sense  of  to  beat,  to  squelch,  and 
to  tarrii.  These  are  only  a  few;  for  an  American 
philologist  has  stated  that  of  the  words,  phrases, 
and  constructions  found  in  the  Bible  and  Book 
of  Common  Prayer,  "about  one-sixth,  which  are 
no  longer   used   in   England   in   ordinary  prose- 


\vr)ting,  would  apparently  be  used  without 
thought  or  hesitation  by  an  American  author." 
Among  the  many  English  words  used  in  a  differ- 
ent or  perverted  sense  are  barn  for  stable; 
hoards,  for  deals;  buggy,  a  four-wheeled  vehicle — 
in  England,  two- wheeled;  ealieo,  printed  cotton, 
in  England  means  unprinted;  clever,  for  good- 
natured  —  in  England,  generally,  intelligent  or 
skillful ;  corn,  for  maize,  whereas  in  England 
it  means  wheat,  in  Scotland,  oats,  and  in  Ireland, 
barley;  cracker,  for  biscuit;  depot,  for  station; 
dress,  for  gown;  forehanded,  well-to-do — in  Eng- 
land, means  timely,  early;  hack,  a  hackney 
coach — in  England,  a  hired  horse:  homely,  plain- 
featured — in  England,  homelike  or  unadorned ; 
to  jeir.  to  haggle — in  England,  to  cheat;  likely, 
for  promising;  lumber,  for  timber;  to  mail, 
for  to  post;  notify,  to  give  notice — in  Eng- 
land, to  make  kno\vn;  pond,  a  natural  pool 
of  water — in  England,  artificial;  reliable,  for 
trustworthy;  saloon,  for  tap-room:  smart,  for 
talented;  smudge,  a  smouldering  fire  used  to 
drive  away  insects — in  England,  simply  an  over- 
powering smoke;  store,  for  shop;  tavern,  for  inn 
(a  tavern  in  Great  Britain  pro\'ides  no  lodg- 
ings) ;  temper,  with  us  meaning  passion,  is  in 
England  control  of  passion ;  ugly,  for  ill-natured ; 
venison,  deer's  flesh — in  England,  meat  of  any 
wild  animal;  track,  for  line;  vest,  for  waistcoat. 
We  use  also,  in  large  number,  different  words  for 
the  same  thing,  as  conductor,  for  guard;  edi- 
torial, for  leader;  elevator,  for  lift;  horse-car, 
for  tram,  and  sleeper,  for  tie. 

Examples  of  words  retaining  here  their  old 
meaning  are:  Fleshy,  in  the  sense  of  stout;  offal, 
the  parts  of  a  butchered  animal  not  worth  salt- 
ing; sick. in  the  sense  of  ill:  andwilt.  in  the  sense 
of  wither.  On  the  other  hand,  to  heft,  meaning 
with  us,  to  weigh  by  lifting,  keeps,  in  England, 
its  original  meaning,  to  lift.  Many  words  called 
archaic  or  provincial  by  English  writers  are 
widely  current  among  Americans  in  both  speech 
and  literature — among  them  adze,  affectation, 
angiy  ( wound ) ,  andiron,  bay-window,  bearer  ( at 
a  funeral),  to  blaze  (a  tree),  burly,  cesspool, 
clodhopper,  counterfeit  money,  cross-purposes, 
deft,  din,  hasp,  loophole,  ornate,  ragamuffin, 
shingle,  stand  (speaker's),  stock  (cattle),  thill, 
toady,  tramp,  truck,  and  underpinning.  Among 
newly-coined  words  and  expressions  are  these, 
showing  plainly  their  origin  on  the  frontier  or 
in  the  forest:  backwoods,  cache,  clearing,  to 
draw  a  bead,  to  fight  fire,  a  gone  coon,  hogwal- 
low,  logging  camp,  prairie  schooner,  raft  (of  dead 
trees),  squatter,  .squaw-man,  the  timber,  and 
trapper.  Ranch  life  has  given  us  such  words  as 
corral,  cowboy,  roundup,  and  stampede;  the  min- 
ing regions,  bed-rock,  diggings,  to  pan  out.  to 
prospect,  and  to  stake  a  claim.  From  the  farm 
and  plantation  we  have  obtained  among  others, 
bagasse,  broom-corn.  Hessian  fly,  Indian  meal, 
and  truck-patch :  wliile  trade  has  supplied  us 
with  bogus,  drummer,  posted  up,  and  to  settle 
(a  bill).  Many  otheis  might  be  added  from  the 
language  of  Wall  Street.  Our  political  terms 
and  phrases  include  the  following,  most  of  which 
are  the  subject  of  special  articles  in  this  Ency- 
cIon;pdia :  Agricultural  wheel,  barnburner,  bloody 
sliirt.  boodle,  buncombe,  carpet-bagger,  caucus, 
copperhead,  to  eat  crow,  dark  horse,  doughface, 
favorite  sons,  fence-riding.  F.  F.  V.'s,  filibuster, 
fire-eater,  gerrymander,  half  breed,  stalwart, 
hunker,  jayhawker.  Ku-KIu.\-Klan,  loco-foco.  log- 
rolling,   LjTich    law.    Mugwump,    omnibus    bill. 


AMERICANISMS. 


449 


AMERICANISMS. 


pipe-laying,  plank,  primary,  reconstruction,  salt 
river,  shin-plaster,  spellbinder,  squatter  sover- 
eignty, Grcenbacker,  wire-puller,  Yazoo  fraud. 

Words  derived  from  foreign  languages  are 
numerous,  and  one  philologist  (W.  W.  Oane) 
asserts  that,  though  few  are  intelligible  to  Eng- 
lish people,  they  are  more  extensively  used  by 
Englishmen  than  is  generally  supposed,  and 
"form  the  really  distinctive  features  of  what  may 
be  termed  the  American  langiuige,"  Thus,  from 
the  Spanish  we  have  in  corrupted  or  contracted 
form,  Creole  ( cr/o//o ),  garrote  ( (/o/co^u) ,  jerked 
beef  (churqui) ,  key,  a  small  island  (cayo) ,  lasso 
[luzo) .  mustang  (mesteno) ,  pickaninny,  con- 
tracted to  pickney  in  S.  C.i pequoio  nii'w) ,  Sara- 
bo  (Zomfeo,  a  person  of  negro  and  Indian  blood); 
stampede  (cstantpedo)  ;  and  such  literally  appro- 
priated words  as  adobe,  bonanza,  canon,  and  mesa. 
From  the  French  have  been  obtained  among 
many,  bayou  (boyati,  a  trench),  cache  or  cash 
(cac/ipr) ,  chowder  ichandicrc] .  shivaree  {chari- 
vari), metif,  an  Indian  half-breed  (metif  or 
mftis),  and  the  identical  butte,  levee,  portage, 
prairie,  and  voyageur.  From  the  Dutch  have 
come  boss,  an  overseer  or  superior  (haas)  ;  cold 
slaw,  cabbage  salad  {kool  slaci)  ;  cruller  (knil- 
Icr,  to  twist)  ;  hook,  a  point  of  land  (hoek,  a 
corner)  ;  noodles,  an  imitation  of  macaroni 
t  noodle jes )  ;  overslough,  to  supersede  or  defeat 
(orerslariii.  to  skip  or  pretermit)  ;  stoop  or 
stoup,  the  step  or  steps  of  a  house  (stoep).  Kill, 
a  small  stream,  retains  both  its  old  sound  and 
spelling,  and  Santa  Claus  (Klaus)  receives  as 
much  respect  as  before  the  slight  change  in  his 
name.  The  Germans  have  contributed  bummer 
ihummler,  a  braggart,  a  wanderer),  pretzel, 
and  dude. 

From  the  Indian  we  have  chinquapin,  a  kind  of 
oak  (Va.  Algonquian  che-chicnamin)  ;  hominy 
(Va.  Algonquian,  custnthominy)  ;  moccasin 
(Mass.  Algonquian,  mockisin)  ;  opossum  (appas- 
suni)  ;  powwow  (//oicaH,  a  prophet  or  conjurer)  ; 
raccoon  (Algonquian,  aroughcun)  ;  sachem  {sak- 
tmo);  skunk  ( Abnakis,  secancii)  :  succotash 
(Nanaheganset,  mcsicmotash)  ;  toboggan  (oda- 
bogaii)  ;  tomahawk  (Algonquian,  tamahayan,  a 
war-club)  ;  wigwam  (Natie,  weccwahm) .  Among 
words  introduced  or  invented  by  the  Southern 
negroes  are:  brottus,  a  small  gift  (Ga.)  ;  buccra, 
a  white  man;  corn  (harvest)  songs  (Md. )  ; 
cracklings  or  goody-bread,  bread  containing 
roasted  pork-rinds;  enty?  is  that  so?  (Sea  Is- 
lands) ;  goober,  a  peanut  (W.  African  giija,  or 
Guinea  gobbe-yohbe,  Va.  and  N.  C.)  ;  lagniappe, 
a  tradesman's  gi'atuity  (Sp.  I'lapa,  La.)  ;  moon- 
ack,  a  mythical  animal ;  pickaninny,  and  pinder, 
a  peanut  (Fla.)  :  while  the  Chinese  word  kowtow 
or  kotow,  salutation  by  prostration,  has  (or  had) 
a  limited  use  in  the  sense  of  obsequious  polite- 
ness. 

In  the  matter  of  pronunciation,  slight  differ- 
ences exist.  The  word  trait,  for  instance,  is  pro- 
nounced tray  by  the  English,  the  i  in  sliver  ia 
lengthened  by  them,  and  schedule  is  commonly 
pronounced  shediile.  We  may  mention  here  that 
cheerful  retains  in  some  parts  of  the  South  its 
old  pronunciation,  eherful.  In  the  pronunciation 
of  proper  names,  English  and  American  usages 
frequently  disagi'ee.  In  England  Ralph  is  pro- 
nounced Rate:  Brownell.  Parnell,  etc..  are  ac- 
cented on  the  first  syllable;  the  last  syllable  of 
Gladstone  is  sounded  short.  With  English  sur- 
names and  geographical  names  cultivated  Ameri- 
caHS  should  seek  to   follow   tinglish   usage.     In 


Christian  names  Englishmen  generally  use  only 
the  first,  while  Americans  always  give  the  full 
form.  In  England  we  read  of  Ralph  Emerson, 
Edgar  Poe,  etc.  What  have  been  termed  by 
Grant  Allen  "Americanisms  in  spelling,"  exam- 
ples of  which  are  labor,  offenses,  and  theater, 
are  undoubtedly  the  result  of  the  extensive  use 
of  Webster's  spelling-books  and  dictionary. 

Americanisms  are  classified  by  Reeves  as  fol- 
lows: (1)  Eastern  dialects;  (2)  Southern;  (3) 
Western;  (4)  Pacific  or  mining;  and  he  adds  as  a 
possible  (5)  English-Dutch  (German)  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. This  convenient  arrangement  enables  us 
to  separate  such  words  and  phrases  as  are  lim- 
ited to  particular  sections  or  localities  (provin- 
cialisms )  from  those  that  may  be  called  national. 
Beginning  with  New  England,  we  have:  to  ad- 
mire, for  to  like,  e.g.,  "I  should  admire  to  go;" 
to  allot,  or  'lot,  for  intend;  barm,  for  yeast;  be, 
for  am  or  are:  bettennost ;  blob,  a  blossom; 
bloicth,  blossoming  time;  bungtoicn  copper,  a 
counterfeit;  to  calculate,  for  to  infer  or  sup- 
pose: empti'ns,  any  dregs;  to  fail  vp;  to  fay, 
for  to  fit;  fore-chamber,  a  front  bedroom  (Jle.)  ; 
gawnicus,  a  dolt;  gray  slick,  a  glassy  stretch  of 
water  (Me.)  ;  Hessian,  as  a  term  of  reproach; 
like,  without  a  specified  object,  as,  "How  did  you 
like?"  (a  place,  person);  long-favored,  tall; 
mush-muddle,  a  potpie  (Cape  Cod)  ;  pew-cart, 
a  box-like  carriage  (Nantucket);  pleasant,  for 
pleasing;  pokeloken,  a  marsh  (Me.)  ;  priest,  for 
a  minister  of  any  denomination ;  pung,  a  kind  of 
sleigh ;  rifle,  a  whetstone  for  scythes ;  sconce,  for 
discretion ;  to  seep,  to  pour  through  a  sieve  or 
hole;  slip,  for  pew;  spero,  a  commonplace  enter- 
tainment, "small  doings"  (Vt.)  ;  staddle,  a  sap- 
ling; suant  or  suent,  level,  uniform;  to  sugar  off, 
to  boil  maple  syrup  down  until  it  grains;  tack- 
ling, for  harness ;  timbers,  for  skeleton  of  a 
whale;  torsh,  the  youngest  child  (Cape  Cod)  ;  to 
train,  to  move  briskly  (like  the  militia  on 
"training  day"),  to  frolic;  vestry,  the  chapel  or 
lecture-room  of  a  non-liturgical  cluircli ;  v'y'ge, 
for  voyage;  wopper  (or  u-hoj)per)  jawed;  wicket, 
a  hut  or  shelter  of  boughs  (Jle. )  ;  winegar,  for 
vinegar  (Essex  Co.,  Mass.)  ;  York  shilling,  nine- 
pence.  In  New  York  State,  among  localisms  de- 
rived from  the  Dutch,  are  bockey,  a  gourd-dip- 
per ;  fyke,  a  bow-net ;  hoople,  a  child's  hoop ; 
pile,  an  arrow,  and  scup,  a  swing,  a  name  still 
used  by  children  of  foreign  parentage  on  the 
"east  side"  of  New  Y'ork  City.  Slip,  an  opening 
between  wharves,  is  apparently  an  indigenous 
English  word;  the  provincial  English  duff,  dough 
or  paste,  signifies,  in  the  Adirondacks,  fallen  and 
matted  hemlock  needles;  and  dimpy  (probably 
from  the  English  dimpsy,  a  kind  of  preserve)  is 
the  name  given  in  some  places  to  a  tea-party,  or 
a  small  social  gathering  at  which  refreshments 
are  served.  New  Jersey,  settled,  like  New  Y'ork, 
both  by  English  and  Dutch,  preserves  in  remotu 
localities  some  Old  World  words,  or  perversions 
of  the  same;  for  example,  lilirkic.  a  tin  pail:  to 
heir  to,  to  inherit;  jag.  a  small  load;  mux.  dis- 
order, and  piece,  a  cold  meal  hastily  prepared, 
or  one  for  farm  hands.  Examples  of  the  pro- 
vincialisms of  Pennsylvania,  which  were  intro- 
duced by  the  English,  Scotch-Irish,  and  Germans, 
and  in  many  instances  have  been  carried  beyond 
her  borders  by  emigration,  are:  after-night,  for 
after  candle-light;  Aprlle.  for  April  (Cumber- 
land Valley)  ;  barrick.  a  hill:  beating,  suppurat- 
ing; brickie,  brittle;  dipscy.  the  sinker  of  a  fish- 
line;    dozy,    timber   brittle    from   decay;    fouty, 


AMEBICANISMS. 


450 


AMERICANISMS. 


trifling;  to  get  shut,  to  get  rid:  gums,  for  over- 
shoes (eastern  Pa.)  ;  horsebeast ;  to  lift,  a  col- 
lection in  church,  to  take  up;  once,  immedi- 
ately; outcry,  public  auction:  riffles,  rip])les; 
scrapple,  an  article  of  food:  slave,  a  fierce  dog, 
i.e.,  needing  to  be  chained  (M-estern  Pa.)  ;  to 
smouch,  to  kiss:  sots,  common  yeast;  to  top  (a 
candle),  to  snuff;  to  threap,  to  argue;  yammer, 
a  whine  or  whimper. 

The  South  has  retained  fully  as  many  old  Eng- 
lish \\-ords  and  pronunciations  as  New  England, 
and  has  originated  some  of  the  most  ex- 
pressive terms  used  in  ordinary  conversation,  a 
number  of  which,  by  migration,  have  been 
domesticated  in  the  West  and  on  the  Pacific 
coast.  Among  them  are  afeared,  afraid;  am- 
ber, expectoration  produced  by  chewing  tobacco 
(Va.,  Carolina)  ;  beast,  horse;  branch,  a  stream 
of  any  size;  buclcet,  pail;  brogan,  a  kind  of  boat 
(Chesapeake  Bay);  castaway,  overturned;  cen- 
trical, central  (Va.)  ;  to  chunk,  to  throw  a  mis- 
sile; coppcn,  cow-pens;  complected,  having  a  cer- 
tain kind  of  complexion;  eondeript,  thrown  into 
fits  (Ky. )  ;  corn-dodger ;  cracker,  a  poor  white 
(Ga.,  Fla.)  ;  dinghy,  a  kind  of  row-boat  (Fla.)  ; 
dismal,  a  swampy  tract  of  land  (N.  C.)  ;  docioiis, 
for  docile;  donock,  or  donnock,  a  stone  (South- 
west) ;  cscalan.  a  kind  of  coin  (La.)  ;  evening, 
afternoon  (also  in  Illinois)  ;  feaze  or  feeze,  an 
excited  state;  fice  or  phyce,  a  small  dog.  cur; 
French,  anything  distasteful  (Va.,  Md. )  ;  grund- 
py,  groundpea  (Tenn.)  :  gum  or  bee-gum,  a  hive 
made  from  a  hollow  tree:  (7U»!6o.okra,  or  a  dish 
made  of  it;  gumbo,  a  patois;  hammock  or  hum- 
mock, a  peculiar  kind  of  land,  often  hilly  (Fla., 
Tex.)  ;  hoe  cake,  a  corn  cake  once  baked  on  a  hoe; 
holpen,  helped  (biblical)  :  honcy-fogling,  for 
cheating  or  coaxing:  hot, hit;  howdy,  how  do  you 
do?;  human,  for  person;  Jeames,  James  (Ind., 
Va.)  ;  kiver,  cover;  lone,  any  inclosed  road; 
lightwood,  pine  chips  or  knots;  marooning,  pic- 
nicking or  traveling  by  carriige;  mammoxed, 
seriously  injured;  marvel,  for  marble;  maverick, 
an  unbranded  yearling  (Texas  and  Southwest)  ; 
viillion,  melon;  needccssity,  necessity;  or' nary, 
contemptible;  paint,  a  spotted  horse;  peart, 
lively,  brisk;  pine-tag,  pine  needle;  a  poll,  a 
blow;  pone,  bread  of  Indian  meal;  powerful, 
very;  quarters,  farm  buildings  or  out-houscs  in- 
habited by  negioes;  ranee  sniffle,  a  malignant  act 
(Ga. )  ;  rantonkcrous,  quarrelsome  (Ga.)  ;  to 
reckon,  to  suppose  or  conclude ;  rock,  stone ; 
roustabout;  savigerous  or  survigrous,  fierce, 
alert;  slash,  low  ground  or  an  opening  in  the 
woods;  right  smart,  great  or  considerable:  to 
scringe,  to  flinch  (Tex.)  ;  skygudlin,  obliquely 
(Tex.)  ;  swash,  a  narrow  cliannel  of  water; 
tackey,  neglected  or  dowdy;  to  tarrify,  to  co- 
erce; to  tote,  to  carry;  trash,  worthless  or  low- 
born persons,  especially  poor  ichite  trash;  to  up, 
used  as  a  verb;  used,  used  to;  you  all,  of  any 
number  of  persons;  yoti-uns,  for  you. 

The  West,  using  the  term  in  its  old  sense,  which 
included  the  interior  States  as  well  as  the  North- 
west and  Southwest,  in  addition  to  words  derived 
from  the  French  and  Spanish,  some  of  which  have 
already  been  cited,  has  brought  into  its  vocabu- 
lary many  peculiar  words  and  expression.s.  Such 
are  affcr-elap,  a  demand  made  after  a  bargain 
is  closed;  Arkansas  toothpick,  a  kind  of  bowie- 
knife;  bad  man,  a  nnirderer;  bell  mare,  the 
horse  leading  a  drove  of  mules  (Southwest)  ; 
to  bear  off,  to  separate  a  stray  "brand"  by  rid- 
ing between  it  and  the  herd   (Southwest)  ;  bode- 


tcash  {bois  de  vache),  dried  cow-dung  used  as 
fuel  (Southwest)  ;  to  build,  to  make  shoes 
(Ohio)  ;  to  buss,  to  strike;  catawampous  or 
catawamptious,  terribly  or  completely;  country, 
for  State  or  section:  coivbrute  (Mo.);  dog- 
gery, a  grogshop;  drink,  river;  galoot,  to 
take  a  gird,  for  to  make  an  efl'ort;  to  hustle: 
keener,  a  .sharp  man;  lave!  {leve) ,  get  up!  or 
rise  up!  (Mississippi  Valley)  ;  locoed,  for  fren- 
zied, Sp.  loco  (Kansas  and  Soutliwest)  ;  long 
sweetening,  molasses  (Iowa,  from  New  England); 
main  traveled  road,  highwaj-;  7iakcd  possessor, 
one  without  title  to  his  farm  (Southwest)  ;  old- 
ermost,  oldest;  plumb  sure;  to  pull  foot,  to 
hasten;  to  raise,  to  obtain;  robbilw,  pemmi- 
can  boiled  with  flour  and  water  (Northwest)  ;  to 
slosh  'round,  to  brag,  also  to  frequent  saloons 
(South  and  West)  ;  sugar  or  sugar-tree,  maple: 
sun-up,  sunrise;  swinger,  the  middle  horses 
in  a  team  of  six;  tenderfoot,  a  newcomer; 
to  trash  (to  cover)  a  trail;  every  whipstick,  for 
continually,  often;  to  want  down  or  up  (111.)  ; 
worm  (or  snake)  fence;  to  zit,  to  sound  like 
a  bullet  striking  the  water.  The  Pacific  slope 
is  responsible  for  adobe,  soil  from  which  adobe 
bricks  are  made;  to  bach,  to  camp  out  without 
ladies  (Cal.)  ;  Bostons,  white  men  in  gen- 
eral (Or.  Indian)  ;  coulee,  a  rocky  valley 
(Or.)  ;  claim,  land  to  which  one  has  a  legal 
right;  elaim-jumper,  one  who  forcibly  takes  an-  i 
other's  claim ;  to  coyote,  to  sink  a  small  shaft  I 
(Cal.)  ;  diggings,  a  particular  locality;  hardpan  ;  * 
heeled,  for  armed ;  pay-streak,  a  profitalile  lode 
or  vein;  rusher,  a  person  going  to  tlie  mines; 
tanglefoot,  bad  liquor.  Local  usage  differs  gi'eat- 
ly  in  connection  with  articles  in  common  use. 
The  Eastern  paper  bag  is  in  the  central  West  a 
sack;  a  scuttle  or  pail  is  a  bucket.  The  British 
perambulator  is  in  the  East  a  baby  carriage,  and 
in  the  Central  West  a  baby  buggy  or  cab.  A 
comfortable  is  a  comfort.  A  distinction,  further- 
more, should  be  made  between  words  that  are 
used  in  large  cities  and  those  that  are  in  the 
main  confined  to  small  communities.  In  the 
country,  people  hire  help  and  keep  girls:  in  the 
cities  they  have  servants  or  maids;  the  city  nurse 
is  lengthened  in  the  country  to  nurse  girl.  The 
original  English  folks  is  now  a  provincialism  in 
this  country.  It  should  be  noted  that  most  of 
the  New  England  words  and  forms  used  by  Low- 
ell in  the  Biglow  Papers  are  provincialisms. 
Some  Eastern  provincialisms  are  in  general  use 
in  the  Central  \\'est. 

Earl}'  writers  on  Americanisms  were  wont  to 
stamp  every  odd  or  vulgar  word  and  expression 
as  American,  with  the  lamentable  result,  as 
Richard  Grant  White  complained,  of  creating  a 
belief  that  there  is  a  distinctive  American  lan- 
guage, "a  barbarous,  hybrid  dialect,  grafted  upon 
English  stock;"  the  truth  being  that  most  of 
the  so-called  Americanisms  were  brought  to  this 
country  by  its  early  settlers,  English,  Scotch- 
Irish,  Dutch,  Germans,  etc.,  and  that  many  of 
them  are  now  used  only  by  the  unlettered.  The 
language  of  the  "stage  Yankee."  and  that  of  the 
characters  in  dialect-stories.  Northern  and  South- 
ern, are  with  few  exceptions  English,  provincial 
or  obsolete  in  the  mother  country,  and  not 
"American"  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word.  In  the 
county  of  Suffolk,  according  to  Lounsbury,  the 
following  "Americanisms"  were  current  as  re- 
cently as  1823:  Apple-fritters,  by  gum,  chaw, 
cute,  darnation,  gal,  gawky,  hoss,  ninny-hammer, 
ride   like  blazes,  sass    (sauce),  sappy,  and  tan- 


AMERICANISMS. 


451 


AMERICANISMS. 


triim.  Wliite  prepared  a  lonR  list  of  words  and 
phrases  supposed  to  be  indii,'enoiis,  and  proved 
their  British  origin  by  eitinj,'  early  dates  at 
wliieh  they  appear  in  literatuie,  or  the  names 
of  authors  in  whose  works  they  occur.  Selecting; 
from  this  list,  and  indicating,'  by  the  letter  "a." 
words  known  to  be  ancient,  by  "m."  such  as  are 
still  used  in  provincial  speech,  and  l)y  "Bible," 
Kinj;  James'  version,  we  submit  the  following: 
To  (i(li)iirc,  in  the  sense  of  to  wish  eagerly  (Chap- 
man's Hamer,  1655)  ;  to  advocate  (Milton)  ; 
opaii,  aside  ( Buhver )  ;  baggiifie,  luggage  (  Field- 
ing, T.  Hughes);  hli::zard  (ni.);  blow,  boastful 
talk  (a.  m.)  ;  to  bolt,  to  rush  or  escape  (Dry- 
den)  ;  bosom,  applied  to  .a  man  (Shakespeare)  ; 
bull-doze  ( W.  Scott);  bureau,  for  chest  of 
drawers  (Fielding,  Hare);  by  the  skin  of  one's 
teeth  (Bible)  ;  catamount  (a.)  ;  chaw  (15iiO,ra.)  ; 
chore,  light  work  (Ben  Jonson)  ;  clean  gone 
(Bible)  ;  clever,  good-natured  (Elizabethan  writ- 
ers) ;  conclude,  resolve  (Tyndale,  Froude)  ;  cre- 
vasse (Chaucer)  ;  deck  of  cards  (Shakespeare)  ; 
divine,  clergyman  (\V.  Scott,  G.  Eliot)  ;  elect, 
for  conclude  or  determine  (Lord  Thurlow,  Rus- 
kin)  ;  to  enjoy  poor  health  (m.)  ;  fall,  for  au- 
tumn (Cairne,  1552;  Froude)  ;  feel  to,  as  in  the 
expression,  "I  feel  to  rejoice"  (m.);  to  fellow- 
ship (Chaucer)  ;  fix.  to  put  in  place  or  order 
(Farquhar,  Sterne);  fleshy,  stout  (Chaucer, 
Prof.  Owen)  ;  folks,  people  (Byron,  Bulwer  Lyt- 
ton)  ;  gent  (Pope)  ;  a  good  time  (Swift)  ;  grain, 
any  cereal  (Wiclif)  ;  guess,  think  or  suppose 
(\Viclif,  Milton,  A.  TroUope)  ;  gumption  (a. 
111.)  ;  hefl  (Sackville,  T.  Hughes)  ;  liclp,  servant 
(T.  Hughes)  :  liununi.  person  (Chapman's  Ho- 
mer) ;  hung,  hanged  (Shakespeare,  C.  Reade)  ;  to 
hustle  (a.)  ;  illy  (a.  m.)  ;  inftiiPiftinl  (\V.  Thomp- 
son, c.  171)0)  ;  improvement,  of  an  occasion,  etc. 
(Defoe,  Gibbon)  ;  institiition  in  the  sense  of  an 
establishment  or  foundation  (Beatty,  1784;  Trol- 
lope)  ;  interview,  to  meet  for  conversation  (Dek- 
ker)  ;  to  let  on,  to  divulge  (m.)  ;  to  let  slide 
('iower)  ;  /i»ih,  leg  (Fielding);  /ore,  like  (Cow- 
per)  ;  lucrative  (Bacon);  mad,  angry  (Bible, 
Middleton)  ;  magnetic  as  an  adjective  (Donne)  ; 
to  make  a  visit  (m.l  ;  nielropolis,  the  chief  city 
of  the  State  (Milton,  De  Quincey,  Macaulay)  ; 
million,  melon  (Pepys)  ;  musieianer  (Byron); 
mice,  pleasing  or  agreeable  (a.  m.)  ;  notify,  to 
give  notice  (m.)  ;  notions,  for  small  wares 
(Young);  overly,  excessively  (m.)  ;  parlor,  for 
drawing-room  (G.  Eliot,  Helps)  ;  peruse,  scan  or 
read  (W.  Scott)  ;  professor  of  religion  (Milton)  ; 
pumpion  (pumpkin)  pie  (1655)  ;  quit,  leave  off 
(Ben  .Jonson)  ;  railroad,  railway  (.1.  H.  Newman, 
Mrs.  Trollope)  ;  rn re,  underdone  (Dryden)  ;  reli- 
able ( Richard  Montagu,  1624,  Gladstone);  reck- 
on, suppose  or  conclude  (Bible,  \V.  Scott)  ;  rock. 
stone  (a.)  ;  run,  a  small  stream  (a.)  ;  siek,  ill 
(Bible,  Evelyn)  ;  skeddadle  (m.)  ;  slick  (a.)  ; 
span  neu:  (Chaucer)  ;  spell,  a  period  of  time  (a.)  ; 
spruce,  for  neat  (Evel™)  ;  spunky  (Burns); 
swop  (B.  .Jonson,  Dryden)  ;  to  take  on.  to  wail 
or  grieve  (a.)  ;  tend,  attend  (Shakespeare)  ; 
town  as  a  geographical  division  (Wiclif); 
well,  prefacing  a  sentence  (Disraeli)  ;  whittling 
(Walpole);  and  the  writer  would  add  the 
following  which  are  sometimes  ridiculed  as 
outlandish      products      of      the    New      World: 

A    hoveling    vilderness     (Bible):     Mr.    

and  lady  (Thackeray)  ;  and  to  set  store  by,  in 
the  sense  of  to  prize  or  appreciate  (Mrs.  Oli- 
phant).  Gilbert  M.  Tucker  says  that  the  460 
Words  in  Elwyn's  Glocsary  of  Supposed  Ameri- 


canisms are  all  of  British  origin;  that  in  Pick- 
ering's work  (1816)  not  more  than  70  words  out 
of  the  500  are  really  American;  and  that  out 
of  the  5000  or  more  entries  in  Bartlett's  Diction- 
ary, only  about  500  are  genuine  and  distinct 
Americanisms  now  in  decent  use.  Most  New 
Englanders,  .said  James  Russell  Lowell,  speaking 
of  colloquialisms  still  heard  in  Massachusetts, 
stand  less  in  need  of  a  glossary  to  Shakespeare 
than  many  a  native  of  the  old  country.  It  may 
be  added  that  many  words  formerly  termed 
Americanisms  are  as  eonnnonly  used  in  England 
as  here,  though  not  in  polite  speech  or  literature: 
e.g.,  bamboozle,  choekfnl,  duds,  and  sight  for 
number,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  such  old  forms 
as  axe  for  ask,  and  hounen  for  houses,  are  fre- 
quently heard  in  England  and  rarely  here. 

Richard  Grant  White  and  T.  R.  Lounsbury 
limit  the  term  "Americanisms" narrowly.  Accord- 
ing to  the  former,  they  must  not  have  been  trans- 
planted, but  must  be  perversions  or  modifica- 
tions of  English  words  or  phrases,  and  must  be 
used  in  the  current  speech  or  literature  of  the 
t'nited  States  at  the  present  day,  "Words  which 
are  the  names  of  things  peculiar  to  this  country 
are  not  Americanisms,  except  under  ceitain  con- 
ditions (maize,  squaw,  wigwam).  They  are 
merely  names  which  are  necessarily  used  by 
writers  and  speakers  of  all  languages.  If,  how- 
ever, any  such  word  is  adopted  here  as  the  name 
of  a  thing  which  already  had  an  English  name 
[wigwam,  for  hut;  squau\  for  wife),  it  then  be- 
comes properly  an  Americanism.  Indian,  and 
names  compounded  of  Indian,  were  given  by 
Europeans.  Indian  pudding  is  an  American 
thing,  but  its  name  is  not  an  Americanism."  As 
he  rejects  Indian  summer,  paleface,  succotash, 
tomahawk,  and  the  rest,  White  asks,  "What  have 
we  to  do  with  the  Indian?"  and  proceeding, 
crosses  from  the  list  of  cherished  "American- 
isms," bronco,  lacrosse,  stampede,  and  their  kin; 
abolitionist,  border-ruffian,  gerrymander,  reserva- 
tion, etc.,  as  well  as  groundhog,  long-moss,  pine 
barrens,  and  saltlick,  to  go  further,  besides 
refusing  to  discuss  such  words  as  intervale  and 
water-gap.  because  they  are  "legitimate  English." 
Lounsbury,  like  White,  objects  to  the  expression,' 
"the  American  language,"  and  remarks  of  the 
so-called  "Yankee  dialect"  that  it  is  never  "the 
characteristic  tongue  of  any  one  man,  or  of  any 
one  class,  or  of  any  one  district."  He  doubts 
whether  the  term  "Americanisms"  can  be  regu- 
larly applied  to  cent,  congress,  mileage,  nullifica- 
tion, and  so  on,  and  prefers  to  call  tliem  "Ameri- 
can contributions  to  the  common  language." 

American  newspapers  are  largely  to  blame  for 
the  mongrel  and  high-sounding  words  heard  in 
the  United  States,  especially  those  derived  from 
the  Latin  or  the  Greek.  The  oratory  of  political 
campaigns  gives  rise  to  not  a  few  astonishing 
Americanisms,  and  our  humorists  have  coined 
many  more  that  are  beloved  by  the  pulilie.  Per- 
sons of  fair  education,  who,  as  we  learn  from 
their  talk,  engage  in  avocations,  reside  in  a  man- 
sion, wear  pants,  donate  to  charities,  ride  to  the 
metropolis  in  a  smoker,  retire  to  bed,  and  have 
proclivities,  must  be  expected  to  use  also  enthuse, 
funeralize,  saleslady,  and  shootist,  when  they  find 
them  in  their  favorite  journals;  but  criticism 
under  this  head  comes  with  little  grace  from  the 
English,  whose  leaderette  is  as  absurd  as  our 
editorial  paragraph,  and  agricultural  laborer,  a 
clumsy  name  for  him  whom  we  term  a  farm- 
hand.   Our  colleges,  Yale  in  particular,  are  proli- 


AMERICANISMS. 


453 


AMERICAN   LITERATURE. 


fie  in  slang,  some  of  which,  as  to  rattle,  in  the 
sense  of  to  confuse,  soon  become  public  property. 
Most  of  our  colloquial  expressions  are  short-lived, 
but  the  following  may  be  instanced  as  having 
been  in  use  for  a  long  period:  to  a1)sqiiati(late ; 
haf/gage-smaslier ;  to  bark  up  the  n-rong  tree;  bot- 
tom dollar;  caboodle;  to  boost;  to  cavort;  con- 
niption fit;  not  to  cure  a  continental;  a  contin- 
ental darn;  to  chip  in;  coon,  a  colored  man;  a 
coon's  age,  an  indefinitely  long  time;  to  dust, 
to  leave  quickly;  to  euchre  out;  to  flash  in  the 
pan;  flatfooted;  gum  game;  highfalutin ;  lust  o' 
pea  time:  level  best;  to  liquor;  to  moosey,  to 
leave  quickly;  obligated;  to  paddle  one's  oicn  ca- 
noe; to  pan  out;  picuyune,  small,  mean;  to  raise 
Cain;  right  awat/;  to  run,  in  the  sense  of  to 
maniige  or  conduct:  to  salt  a  mine;  sample  room, 
drinking-bar;  shoddy,  applied  to  a  person; 
to  smile,  to  drink  spirits:  socdologer,  a  finishing 
blow  or  argument;  to  sour  on;  a  square  meal; 
to  strike  oil,  to  get  rich  suddenly ;  to  stump, 
to  puzzle,  or  challenge;  to  talk  turkey,  to  brag; 
tuckered  out;  to  vamose  (Sp.  xmmos) ,  to  leave 
quickly;  to  weaken,  to  yield  or  give  out. 

T.'W.  Higginson  (see  Bibliography,  infra),  in 
examining  a  glossary  of  the  slang  used  about 
1798  by  British  prisoners  in  the  Castle  in  Bos- 
ton Harbor,  now  Fort  Independence,  discovered 
a  number  of  words  that  had  been  classed  as  of 
recent  origin,  the  most  familiar  of  which  are 
grub,  victuals;  douse  the  glim,  to  put  out  the 
light;  and  spotted,  for  found  out.  Also  some 
that  are  not  given  in  any  English  glossaries,  as 
briar,  a  saw;  nipping-jig,  the  gallows;  and  wib- 
ble,  a  dollar.  Most  of  these  expressions  belong 
to  the  argot  of  thieves. 

When  we  remember  that  the  dialects  of  the 
counties  in  England  have  marked  differences — so 
marked  indeed  that  it  may  be  doubted  whether  a 
Lancashire  miner  and  a  Lincolnshire  farmer 
could  understand  each  other — we  may  as  well  be 
proud  that  our  vast  country  has,  strictly  speak- 
ing, only  one  language.  It  is  remarkable  that 
the  influx  of  European  innnigrants  has  not  re- 
sulted in  some  States  in  reducing  English  to  a 
patois,  if  not  in  e.xtinguishing  it,  or  In  giving  it 
scant  room  in  a  mongiel  vocabulary.  Again,  it 
might  reasonably  be  expected  that,  in  the  course 
of  three  centuries,  the  political  and  social 
changes  which  we  have  undergone,  and  the  pe- 
culiar circumstances  attending  the  settlement  of 
new  regions,  would  have  separated  us  so  widely 
from  the  mother  country  that,  in  spite  of  kinship 
and  commercial  and  literary  intercourse,  some 
radical  differences  in  language  would  have  been 
evolved. 

Bibliography.  J.  Withers];  von,  D.D.,  essav  in 
The  Druid.  Volume  IV.  (Philadelphia,  1801); 
J.  Pickering,  Vocabulary  of  Words  and  Phrases 
Supposed  to  be  Peculiar  to  America  (Boston, 
1810)  ;  J.  R.  Lowell,  introduction  to  the  liigloxo 
Papers  (Cambridge,  1848)  ;  A.  L.  Elwyn.  Glos- 
sary of  Supposed  Americanisms  (New  York, 
1858)  ;  J.  R.  Bartlett,  Dictionary  of  American- 
isms (Philadelphia,  1850)  ;  Scheie  de  Vere, 
Americani.'i7ns  (New  York,  1872);  Norton,  Poli- 
tical Americanisms  (London,  1890)  ;  Leland.  A 
Dictionary  of  Slang,  Jargon  and  Cant  (London, 
1887)  ;  G. Gibbs, />ir(io«nr(/  of  theChinook  ./argon 
(Washington,  1803)  ;  Leland,  llans  Breitmann's 
Ballads  (Philadelphia,  1870)  ;  Harris,  Uncle 
Uemus,  His  Sonqs  and  Bis  Saj/ings  (New  York. 
1880),  and  Nights  With  Uncle  Remus  (New 
York,  188.3)  ;  R.  G.  White,  "Americanisms,"  At- 


lantic .l/0H?7i/i/,VolumesXLI.-XLV.  :T.  R.  Louns- 
bur}',  "The  English  Language  in  America,"  In- 
ternational Review,  Volume  VIII.;  G.  M.  Tucker, 
"American  English,"  North  American  Review, 
Volume  CXXXVI. ;  W.  W.  Crane,  "The  American 
Language,"  Putnam's  Magazine.  Volume  XVI.; 
Rev.  H.  Reeves,  "Our  Provincialisms,"  Lippiii- 
cott's  Magazine,  Volume  III.;  T.  W.  Higginson, 
"American  Flash  Language  in  1798,"  Science, 
May,  1885;  "Southwestern  Slang,"  Overland 
Monthly,  August,  1869;  Brander  Matthews, 
"Briticisms  and  Americanisms,"  Harper's  Maga- 
zine, July,  1891.  See  also  Dialect  Notes,  pub- 
lished by  the  American  Dialect  Society  since 
1889.  The  same  society  has  issued  a  list  of 
American  slang  words,  edited  by  E.  H.  Babbitt. 
Studies  of  several  Southern  dialects,  by  Calvin 
S.  Brown  and  Sylvester  Primer,  have  appeared 
in  the  Publications  of  the  Modern  Language 
Association. 

AMER'ICAN    KNIGHTS,    Order    of.      See 

Knights  of  the  Golden  Circle. 

AMERICAN  LIT'ERATURE.  A  term  ap- 
plied ratlier  loosely  to  the  body  of  writings  in 
the  English  language  produced  in  the  territory 
now  occupied  by  the  Lfnited  States.  It  includes 
a  period  extending  from  1608,  when  Captain 
John  Smith's  True  Relation  was  published  in 
London,  to  the  present  day.  Strictly  speaking, 
the  works  of  Smith  and  of  those  of  his  contempo- 
raries who  did  not  make  a  permanent  sojourn 
in  the  N^ew  World,  belong  rather  to  British  than 
to  American  literature.  Again,  it  is  plain  that 
the  term  literature  must  be  used  with  consid- 
erable latitude,  if  it  can  be  made  to  include  the 
news-letters,  the  bare  annals,  the  topographical 
treatises,  the  controversial  pamphlets,  the  ser- 
mons and  other  theological  lucubrations  that 
form  the  bulk,  of  the  writings  produced  by  the 
colonists  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  cen- 
turies. The  paucity  of  the  materials  at  their 
command  has,  however,  induced  American  liter- 
ary historians  to  give  a  hospitable  reception  to 
almost  everything  that  can  be  called  a  book 
written  in  the  American  colonies  or  about  them, 
whether  published  in  England  or  at  home  after 
Stephen  Daye  had  set  up  his  press  at  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  in  1639.  We  need  not  here  imitate  their 
grasping  tendencies,  yet  we  may  find  a  few  works 
of  importance  dating  before  1700  that  will  de- 
mand our  attention. 

Surprise  has  sometimes  been  expressed  at  the 
fact  that  Englishmen,  contemporaries  of  Shake- 
speare and  Slilton,  should,  in  their  new  environ- 
ment, have  written  practically  nothing  of  iesthetio 
value.  The  excuse  is  usually  made  for  them  that 
they  had  many  more  necessary  things  to  do,  such 
as  felling  the  forests  and  keeping  off  the  Indians. 
This  excuse  is  certainly  applicable,  but  it  may 
be  doubted  whether  the  Puritan  or  the  Cavalier 
stock  that  settled  America  would  have  Ijeen 
noted  for  great  contributions  to  English  litera- 
ture had  they  remained  in  the  mother  country. 
The  companions  of  Bradford  and  Winthrop  would 
have  done  wdiat  writing  tbey  did  on  theological 
lines;  the  companions  of  Captain  Smith  and  the 
younger  sons  of  royalist  country  gentlemen  would 
have  written  little  more  than  they  did  in  Vir- 
ginia. This  is  but  to  say  that  there  is  slight 
reason  to  express  surprise  that  the  colonial  lit- 
erature of  the  seventeenth  century  is  chiefly  val- 
uable to  the  historian  and  tlie  antiquarian.  The 
early  colonists  wrote  for  utilitarian  purposes.  The 


AMERICAN   LITERATURE. 


453 


AMERICAN    LITERATURE. 


Virginians  wmte  to  convey  information  to  their 
friends  at  lionie  and  to  eneonrage  emigration; 
the  Puritans  wrote  for  tliese  reasons  and  also  to 
defend  and  expound  their  theokigy  and  to  train 
ui>  the  new  generations  in  the  ways  of  the  old. 
For  literary  Mvt  in  itself,  or  indeed  for  any  art, 
the}'  had  little  care;  but  when,  as  not  infre- 
quently hapjjened,  the  men  who  wrote  were  in- 
teresting or  even  gieat  in  their  private  or  pub- 
lie  capacities,  they  managed  to  impart  some  of 
their  own  finer  qualities  to  their  writings,  which 
may  not  exactly  live,  but  are,  at  least,  worthy  of 
remembrance  if  not  of  perusal  by  the  reader  in- 
terested in  the  history  of  his  country. 

The  portion  of  this  early  literature  produced 
by  the  Southern  and  Middle  colonies  is  com- 
paratively meagre.  Captain  Smith'.s  works, 
which  culminate  in  the  composite  (Irneral  Uin- 
tory  of  Virginia,  Xew  England  and  the  Hummer 
Isles  (1624),  are  quaint  and  crude  but  full  of 
their  adventurous  and  magniloquent  author's  en- 
ergy. William  Strachey's  account  of  the  famous 
wreck  of  Sir  Thomas  Gates  (1610)  may  possibly, 
some  think  probably,  have  given  Shakespeare 
hints  for  his  description  of  the  storm  in  The 
Tempest.  Nothing  so  interesting  was  in  all  prob- 
ability produced  in  Virginia  until  1649,  when  a 
certain  Colonel  Norwood  narrated  to  his  relative. 
Sir  William  Berkeley,  the  adventures  that  had 
befallen  him  during  and  after  his  shipwreck.  The 
same  picturesque  Governor  Berkeley  is  one  of  the 
protagonists  in  the  next  Virginian  tract  of  impor- 
tance— the  so-called  Bunnell  Papers,  descriptive 
of  Bacon's  Rebellion  (1670).  Only  two  interest- 
ing books  are  credited  to  Maryland  during  this 
eentury,-John  Hammond's Lcn/i  and  Raehcl  { 1656) 
and  George  Alsop's  quaint  Charaeler  of  the 
Province  of  Maryland  (1660).  The  Carolinas 
were  settled  too  late  to  produce  anything  of 
consequence.  The  same  thing  is  true  of  the  mid- 
dle colo7iies.  although  Daniel  Denton's  Brief  De- 
seription  of  Xeii:  York  (1670)  is  not  uninterest- 
ing, and  Gabriel  Thomas's  Aeeount  of  Pennsyl- 
vania and  Vei(j  Jersey  (1698)  does  not  lack 
sprightliness. 

An  abundance  rather  than  a  lack  of  writings 
confronts  the  student  of  the  Seventeenth  Century 
New  England,  but  few  books  and  writers  need 
mention  here.  The  histories  composed  by  Gov- 
ernor William  Bradford  of  Plymouth  and  Gov- 
ernor .John  Winthrop  of  ^Massachusetts  have  many 
merits,  but  are  on  the  whole  fatiguing  reading. 
The  sermons  and  theological  treatises  of  such 
representative  divines  as  Thomas  Hooker,  Thomas 
Shepard,  John  Cotton,  Peter  Bulkeley,  and  their 
compeers  furnish  interesting  passages  for  our 
anthologies,  but  are  rarely  read  in  extenso.  The 
works  of  Roger  Williams  are  probably  treated  in 
a  similar  fashion;  but  the  loss  falls  upon  the 
reader  as  well  as  upon  the  fame  of  that  truly 
great  man.  Another  writer  who  deserves  more 
attention  than  he  receives  is  Daniel  Gookin,  who 
wrote  two  books  about  the  Christian  Indians,  for 
whom  he  labored  in  conjunction  with  that  famous 
apostle,  John  Eliot.  But  unquestionably  the  most 
interesting  book  in  prose  produced  in  New  Eng- 
land during  the  seventeenth  century  was  Na- 
thaniel Ward's  Sitnple  Cobbler  of  Agateam 
(1647) — a  whimsical  compound  of  satire  and  in- 
vective that  is  almost  without  parallel.  .John 
Josselyn's  yew  England's  Rarities  Discovered 
(1672)  and  his  Account  of  Two  Voyages  (1674) 
deserve  mention  also  as  almost  turning  credulity 
into  artistic  virtue. 


But  tlie  early  New  Englanders  wrote  verse  as 
well  as  prose — especially  verse  of  an  elegiac  na- 
ture, in  1640  appeared  the  astonishingly  crude 
Bay  Psalm  Booh.  Ten  years  later  Mrs.  Anne 
Bradstreet's  Tenth  Muse  Lately  >Sprung  up  in 
America  was  published  in  London,  accompanied 
by  poetical  pancgj'rics  that  made  the  modest 
woman  blush.  Mrs.  Bradstreet  was  not  without 
genuine  powers,  as  her  later  works  showed;  but 
she  followed  bad  models,  had  no  eye  for  the  beau- 
ties of  nature,  and  is  in  consequence  almost  un- 
readable to-day.  This  fate  has  not  befallen 
Michael  Wigglesworth's  Day  of  Doom  (1662) — a 
New  England  Inferno  which  long  continued  to  be 
popular.  Its  quaint  stanzas  are  perused  to-day 
with  sensations  quite  different  from  those  pro- 
duced by  them  two  hundred  years  ago ;  but  they 
are  still  read,  and  even  quoted  for  amusement,  a 
fortune  not  accorded  to  the  amiable  Wiggles- 
worth's  other  performances.  Wigglesworth  is, 
however,  almost  a  great  poet  when  he  is  com- 
pared with  contemporaries  like  Peter  Folger, 
Franklin's  grandfather,  whose  Looking-Glass 
for  the  Times  (1077)  is  almost  the  ne  plus 
ttltra  of  doggerel.  Perhaps  the  only  poems  of 
any  decided  merit  composed  in  America  during 
the  seventeenth  century  are  an  anonymous  epi- 
taph on  Bacon,  given  in  the  Burwell  Papers, 
and  an  Elegy  on  the  Rev.  Thomas  Shepard 
(1077),  by  the  Rev.  Uriah  Oakes,  President  of 
Harvard. 

The  close  of  the  seventeenth  century  in  New 
England  is  marked  for  us  by  the  famous  persecu- 
tions for  witchcraft  which  have  given  so  sinister 
a  reputation  to  many  good  men,  especially  to 
the  two  Mathers,  Increase  and  Cotton.  '  These 
are  in  some  ways  the  most  important  divines  of 
early  New  England,  although  they  mark  the  de- 
cline of  the  theocracy  rather  than  its  culmina- 
tion. Both  were  voluminous  writers,  and  both 
treated  in  particular  the  two  topics  uppermost 
in  the  New  England  mind :  to  wit,  the  struggles 
of  the  saints  against  witches  and  fiends  and 
against  the  savage  Indians.  All  the  dominant 
ideas  of  the  times  are  found  embodied  in  the 
younger  Mather's  encyclopaedic  Magnalia  Christi 
Americana  (1702),  a  chronicle  which  is  not  alto- 
gether authoritative  as  to  facts,  but  is  typical  of 
its  fantastic  author  and  of  the  Brahmin  caste  he 
represented.  Typical  of  the  old  order  that  was 
passing,  and  of  the  new  that  was  coming  in,  is 
Judge  Samuel  Sewall's  Diary,  which  ran  from 
1673  to  1729.  Sewall  is  the'Pepys  of  his  time, 
and  many  a  quaint  page  can  be  e.xtracted  from 
his  jottings;  but  he  should  also  be  remembered  as 
perhaps  our  first  abolitionist,  his  short  tract. 
The  Selling  of  Joseph,  dating  from  1700.  An- 
other early  diarist  is  Mrs.  Sarah  Kemble  Knight, 
who  wrote  a  sprightly  account  of  a  journey  she 
took  on  horseback  in  1704  from  Boston  to  New 
York.  Even  in  New  England,  secular  writing  be- 
came more  popular  as  the  eighteenth  century  ad- 
vanced, which  is  what  one  might  expect,  since 
the  colonies  were  growing  prosperous  and  were 
being  aflfected  by  the  utilitarian  tendencies  of  the 
epoch.  There  is  a  considerable  amount  of  verse, 
none  of  it  of  much  consequence,  and  there  is  quite 
a  mass  of  history,  particularly  of  narratives  deal- 
ing with  Indian  atrocities.  Probably  the  most 
important  poets  are  the  Rev.  Mather  Byles 
and  his  contemporary,  Joseph  Green,  but  they 
succeeded  best  in  trifles.  The  most  scientific  his- 
torian of  the  period  is  the  Rev.  Thomas  Prince; 
the   most  interesting   is  the  quaint   Scotchman, 


AMERICAN   LITERATURE. 


454 


AMERICAN   LITERATURE. 


William  Douglass,  whose  Summary  dates  from 
1747-51. 

But  theology  did  not  vanish  from  New  Eng- 
land with  the  weakening  of  the  theocracy.  Tlie 
Kev.  John  Wise,  with  his  Churches'  Quarrel  Es- 
poused (1710)  and  his  Vindication  of  the  Gov- 
ernment of  New  England  Churches  (1717) 
showed  himself  to  be  the  peer  of  any  of  his  fore- 
runners, and  gave  lessons  in  statesmanship 
to  the  Revolutionary  leaders  who  were  to  follow 
him.  Greater  than  Wi.se  was  Jonathan  Edwards, 
the  most  original  theologian  and  metaphysician 
that  the  New  World  has  produced.  In  his  juvenile 
papers  Edwards  anticipated  Berkeley ;  in  his 
personal  memoranda  and  occasionally  in  his  for- 
mal treatises,  he  showed  that  he  was  a  poet-mys- 
tic and  a  lover  of  nature  rare  for  his  times; 
in  his  Narrative  of  Surprising  Conversions 
(1736),  he  displayed  a  remarkable  psychological 
acumen.  He  is,  of  course,  best  known  to-day  by 
his  Freedom  of  the  Will  (1754),  which  is  still  a 
powerful  piece  of  exposition,  although  its  con- 
clusions seem  monstrous  and  untenable,  and  by 
his  minatory  sermons,  which,  like  the  famous  one 
preaclied  at  Enfield,  Conn.,  held  his  awestruck 
hearers  suspended  over  the  very  mouth  of  hell. 
Edwards's  theology  is  now  antiquated,  but  his 
works  contain  the  germs  of  nearly  all  subsequent 
theological  speculations,  and  they  are  a  well  of 
inspiration   to   thoughtful   readers. 

The  only  American  colonial  who  ranks  with 
Edwards  as  a  writer  and  thinker,  Benjamin 
Franklin,  while  also  a  New  Englander,  is  always 
regarded  as  a  representative  of  the  middle  colo- 
nies. Other  interesting  writers  were  grouped 
about  him  in  Philadelphia,  but  New  York  and 
New  Jersey  produced  few  of  any  consequence.  As 
a  student  of  nature  Franklin  was  only  the  fore- 
most of  an  interesting  group  of  men  such  as 
James  Logan,  John  Bertram,  and  Jolin  Winthrop, 
of  Harvard.  As  a  writer  and  thinker  on  political 
subjects  he  exemplified  the  spirit  of  the  age  that 
was  to  produce  publicists  like  John  Dickinson, 
whose  Letters  from  a  Farmer  (1767)  focused  tlie 
spirit  of  resistance;  Samuel  and  John  Adams, 
Jefterson,  Hamilton,  and  Madison — men  whose 
political  writings,  culminating  in  The  Federalist 
( 1788) ,  astonished  Europe  and  reached  what  per- 
haps is  the  high-water  mark  in  this  species  of 
composition.  For,  as  is  well  known,  the 
eigliteenth  century  was  not  less  predominatingly 
political  than  the  seventeenth  had  been  theologi- 
cal. It  was  also  utilitarian,  and  so  Franklin, 
who  thoroughly  sunnned  up  his  age,  was  the  cre- 
ator of  Poor  Richard,  whose  Almanac  may  almost 
be  said  to  be  the  foundation  stone  of  popular 
education  in  America.  It  is  probably  his  de- 
lightful Autobiography,  however,  that  gives 
Franklin  his  position  as  the  wiiter  of  the  only 
literary  classic  produced  in  America  before  the 
nineteenth  century.  Taken  along  with  his  let- 
ters, this  book,  in  both  style  and  substance,  fur- 
nishes us  witli  one  of  the  most  remarkable  self- 
revelations  in  literature.  We  read  from  a  sense 
of  duty  a  few  authors  of  our  Revolutionary  pe- 
riod, like  the  .satirists  Francis  Hopkinson  and 
John  Trumbull,  author  of  MeFingal  (1775-82)  ; 
we  know  The  Indian  Burying  Ground,  and  a  few 
other  verses  of  the  patriotic  poet,  Philip  Fre- 
neau;  we  remember  from  our  histories  that  the 
ill-fated  Thomas  Godfrey  was  the  author  of  our 
first  real  po  tical  tragedy.  The  Prince  of  Par- 
thia  (1765);  we  smile  at  the  mention  of  Joel 
Barlow's  Vision  of  Columbus   (1787),  which  de- 


veloped into  liis  formidable  epic,  The  Columbiad 
(1807)  ;  but  for  many  of  us  the  true  American 
literatm-e  of  the  eighteenth  century  is  repre- 
sented by  the  miscellaneous  writings  of  Franklin. 

This,  however,  is  not  altogether  fair.  Several 
of  Franklin's  contemporaries  deserve  to  be  re- 
membered as  writers  of  interest  and  of  some  im- 
portance. Among  these  are  the  Quaker  John 
Woolman,  the  loyalist  historian  of  Massachu- 
setts; Thomas  Hutchinson, the  patriotic  historian 
and  portentous  dramatist  and  poet :  Mrs.  Mercy 
Otis  Warren  :  the  negro  poetess,  Phillis  Wheatley, 
whose  imitative  verses  astonished  the  learned  of 
her  day;  the  laborious  poet,  Rev.  Timothy 
Dwight,  whose  Conquest  of  Canaan  (1785),  to- 
gether with  tlie  productions  of  the  so-called 
"Hartford  Wits," was  intended  to  lay  the  founda- 
tion of  a  real  American  literature,  and  has  at 
least  been  buried  sufficiently  deep  for  that  pur- 
pose; the  novelist,  Mrs.  Susanna  Haswcll  Row- 
son,  whose  Charlotte  Temple  (1790)  is  still  read 
— all  these  and  a  few  other  writers  should  be  re- 
membered before  we  accuse  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury in  America  of  literary  barrenness.  These 
are  not  a  tithe  of  the  authors  whom  a  serious 
literary  historian  would  feel  obliged  to  treat,  and 
even  we  must  add  to  them  such  a  conscientious, 
if  dull,  historian  as  the  Rev.  William  Stith,  of 
Virginia,  the  distinctly  more  picturesque  de- 
fender of  the  Old  Dominion,  Robert  Beverley, 
and  the  genial  cavalier.  Colonel  William  Byrd, 
of  Westover,  who.se  History  of  the  Dividing  Lino 
(172'J)  between  Virginia  and  !\orth  Carolina  is 
a  remarkably  entertaining  production.  To  these 
Southern  historians  the  name  oi  Dr.  David  Ram- 
say, of  South  Carolina,  sliould  be  added ;  but  it  is 
of  more  importance  not  to  forget  the  gi'eater 
works  of  two  citizens  by  adoption — the  English- 
man, Thomas  Paine,  and  the  Frenchman,  Hector 
St.  Jean  de  Crevecceur.  Paine's  Crisis  and  his 
Common  Sense  (1776)  did  perhaps  more  to  make 
independence  the  goal  of  the  American  Revolu- 
tionists than  any  other  contemporary  writings, 
and  it  was  the  spirit  of  the  Revolution  that  ani- 
mated his  later  but  less  acceptable  books.  CrSve- 
coeur's  Letters  from  an  American  Farmer  (1782) 
are  full  of  an  idealism  more  charming  than  can 
be  found  in  Paine  and  of  a  love  of  nature  almost 
worthy  of  Thoreau   himself. 

The  confused  period  between  the  close  of  the 
Revolution  and  tlie  beginning  of  tlie  nineteenth 
century  was  naturally  not  propitious  to  litera- 
ture. But  many  of  the  writers  mentioned  in  the 
last  paragraph  did  tlieir  best  work  in  it,  and  to 
them  we  may  add  the  names  of  Royal  1  Tyler, 
whose  play,  entitled  The  Contrast  (1786),  was 
the  first  American  comedy  of  importance;  Noah 
Webster  and  Lindley  Murray,  famous  later  for 
their  works  in  lexicography  and  grammar;  Jere- 
my Belknap,  author  of  one  of  the  best  of  our 
early  State  histories,  that  of  New  Hampshire 
(1784)  ;  William  Dunlap,  whose  History  of  the 
American.  Stage  (1832)  is  still  important,  and 
Joseph  Dennie,  a  writer  of  a  mildly  Addisonian 
type,  whose  Portfolio,  founded  in  1801,  marked, 
with  the  contemporaneous  establishment  of  the 
New  York  Evening  Post,  the  great  aid  tliat  jour- 
nalism would  give  to  literature  throughout  the 
new  century. 

But  a  more  conspicuous  writer  than  any  of 
these,  our  first  novelist,  Charles  Broekden  Blown, 
had  written  his  three  most  important  novels,  VFie- 
land,  Ormond,  and  Arthur  Mervyn  in  the  three 
closing  years  of  the  eighteenth  century.     He  pub- 


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455 


AMERICAN   LITERATURE. 


lishpd  tlirec  other  novels  in  1801,  and  his  literary 
activity,  which  was  mainly  associated  with  Phila- 
delpliia,  promised  much  for  the  new  Rcpuhlic. 
But  his  work  was  cut  short  by  ill-lieaUh  and  an 
early  death,  and  to  modern  readers  his  stories, 
while  marked  by  distinct  imaginative  power,  are 
too  plainly  connected  with  the  extravagant  school 
of  Godwin  and  Mrs.  Radclifle  to  be  attractive. 
Brown  deserves,  however,  to  be  remembered  as 
the  first  American  who  made  the  profession  of 
letters  a  success,  and  he  was  a  genuine  prede- 
cessor of  Hawthorne  and  Poe. 

The  opening  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century 
was  one  of  great  political  importance;  but  it  is 
marked  by  few  literary  names  of  note,  John  Mar- 
shall's Life  of  ^yaflhi)ll|loll  (1804)  being  less  im- 
portant than  his  judicial  decisions,  and  the  writ- 
ings of  the  Rev.  JI.  L.  Weenis  and  William  Wirt 
not  meaning  much  to  the  sophisticated  readers  of 
a  centviry  since.  But  In  1809  a  work  that  will 
probably  never  lose  its  interest  made  it  certain 
that  American  literature,  in  the  true  sense  of 
the  term,  had  been  born.  In  this  year  Washing; 
ton  Irving  gave  the  world  "Diedrich  Knicker- 
bocker's" Histort/  of  Xeic  Yorlc.  Irving  may  be 
a  little  out  of  fashion  to-day  with  some  readers, 
and  he  may  seem  almost  as  much  a  British  as  an 
American  classic;  but  a  classic  he  is.  whose  style 
has  perhaps  not  been  surpassed,  and  whose  es- 
says, short  stories  and  works  of  travel,  biogra- 
phy and  history  must  be  read  by  all  cultivated 
Americans.  During  his  long  life  he  was  the 
worthy  head  of  the  Knickerbocker  school  of 
writers  who  made  New  York  the  literary  centre 
of  the  country  befoie  the  rise  of  New  England 
Transcendentalism. 

It  was  more  than  a  decade,  however,  after 
Irving's  success  before  a  really  great  writer  arose 
to  keep  him  company.  Such  poets  as  Washington 
Allston,  John  Pierpont  and  Mrs.  Sigourney,  and 
such  a  dramatist  as  John  Howard  Payne,  can- 
not send  us  back,  with  any  great  enthusiasm,  to 
the  second  decade  of  the  century  just  passed.  It 
is  true,  nevertheless,  that  the  founding  of  the 
Xorlh  Amcricnn  Review  at  Boston  in  May,  1813, 
was  an  important  event,  and  that  by  publishing 
two  years  later  the  youthful  Bryant's  Tlmnatop- 
sis,  it  introduced  to  the  work!  a  poet  of  dignity 
and  power,  who,  if  not  precisely  great,  was  at 
least  able  to  interpret  pleasingly  and  satisfac- 
torily to  Americans  the  natural  beauties  of 
their  native  land.  Two  other  poets,  inferior  to 
Bryant,  yet  still  remembered,  .Toseph  Rodman 
Drake,  author  of  The  Culprit  Fay,  and  Fitz- 
Greene  Hallcck,  author  of  an  elegy  on  Drake  and 
some  stirring  lyrics,  also  made  their  first  appear- 
ance in  this  decade. 

When  James  Fenimore  Cooper  published  Pre- 
caution, in  1820,  he  gave  the  public  no  evidence 
that  one  of  the  gi'catest  of  modern  writers  of 
fiction  had  arisen.  A  competent  reader  of  The 
iipy,  which  was  issued  the  very  next  year,  might, 
however,  have  perceived  the  fact.  Two  years 
later.  The  I'ilut  and  The  Pioneers  showed  that  al- 
though Cooper  might  be  essentially  a  follower  of 
Scott,  and  although  his  style  might  be  often  slip- 
shod and  his  power  of  characterization,  especially 
in  the  case  of  women,  almost  nil.  he  was,  never- 
theless, master  in  his  own  splendid  domain,  the 
sea,  the  forest,  and  the  prairie.  The  Leather- 
stocking  Tales  have  been  frequently  called  the 
real  American  epic,  and  a  recognition  of  the 
truth  of  this  statement  would  prevent  many  per- 
sons from  underrating  the  genius  of  one  of  the 


few  Americans  who  have  won  a  world-wide  fame 
by  their  writings.  America  has  produced  several 
authors  of  finer  genius  than  Cooper  possessed, 
but  perluips  none  of  larger. 

Besides  Cooper,  the  third  decade  of  the  last 
century  brought  into  notice  the  poet  James 
Gates  Pereival,  who  unfortunately  did  not  de- 
serve the  re|)utation  he  speedily  acquired.  A 
less  highly  praised  poet,  Edward  Coate  Pinkney, 
is  now  more  interesting  on  account  of  his  small 
but  genuine  lyric  vein.  The  same  decade  counts 
among  its  worthies  the  indefatigable  historiog- 
rapher, Jared  Sparks,  and  the  admirable  student 
of  Spanish  literature,  George  Ticknor.  Lydia 
Maria  Child,  Edward  Everett,  the  elder  William 
Ellery  Channing,  and  Bronson  Alcott  also  made 
their  appearance  as  writers;  and  Poe  and  Haw- 
thorne published  juvenile  works  that  are  now 
very  rare.  But  perhaps  the  best-known  produc- 
tion of  the  period  is  Webster's  reply  to  Hayne, 
which  struck  tlie  keynote  that  was  to  dominate 
our  literature  for  the  next  generation. 

Theyear  IS.'Jl  sawthe  establishment  ofWilliam 
Lloyd  Garrison's  Liberator  and  the  publication  of 
Whittier's  first  book.  Legends  of  \eio  England. 
Both  men  were  to  do  a  great  work  for  the  anti- 
slavery  cause,  and  Whittier  in  especial  was  to 
endear  himself  to  his  native  section  as  its  true 
poet  laureate.  The  writer  who  best  represented 
New  York  at  this  period  was  Nathaniel  Parker 
V^'illis,  poet,  traveler,  and  journalist.  But  he, 
though  still  interesting,  h:.s  greatly  declined  in 
reputation.  The  same  thing  is  true  of  those 
representative  ante-bellum  Southern  writers, 
William  Gilmore  Siinms,  of  South  Carolina,  and 
.lolin  Pendleton  Kennedy,  of  Maryland,  who, 
with  Robert  Montgomery  Bird,  of  Pennsylvania, 
formed  a  group  of  romancers  inferior  indeed  to 
Cooper,  yet  worthy  of  being  read,  at  least  in 
their  best  novels,  such  as  The  Yemassee,  Horse- 
shoe 1,'ohinson,  and  yirk  of  the  Woods.  Besides 
these  writers,  who  began  their  careers  in  the 
thirties,  we  should  recall  the  historian  George 
Bancroft,  whose  Histiirij  of  the  United  States  re- 
mains eminently  valuable. 

The  Transcendental  movement  in  New  England, 
culminating  in  The  Dial  of  the  early  forties,  is, 
of  course,  the  prime  fact  of  American  literary 
history  before  the  Civil  War.  Yet  many  of 
the  writers  more  or  less  connected  with  it, 
such  as  the  critics  George  Ripley  and  Mar- 
garet Fuller,  and  the  poets  C.  P.  Cranch  and 
Jones  Very,  have  long  since  become  mere 
names  to  most  readers.  The  poet  -  naturalist, 
Thoreau,  however,  has  not  only  held  his  own, 
but  gained  ground  year  by  year,  and  Emerson  has 
taken  his  phice  with  Hawthorne  and  Poe  in  the 
very  front  rank  of  American  writers.  Through- 
out his  long  life.  Emerson  was  to  his  countrymen 
and  to  many  Europeans  not  merely  a  great  writer 
but  an  inspiring  seer,  and  there  are  not  wanting 
readers  to-day  who  consider  him,  in  his  double 
capacity  of  pliilosopher  and  poet,  the  gi-eatest  of 
American  men  of  letters.  Since  the  publication 
of  his  Hcurlet  Letter  (1850),  this  position  has 
been  assigned  to  Hawthorne  by  the  majority  of 
his  fellow  citizens,  while  foreign  readers  have 
unhesitatingly  assigned  it  to  Edgar  Allan  Poe, 
whose  haunting  poems  and  tales  have  seemingljr 
exerted  a  greater  literary  influence  than  the 
works   of   any   other   American. 

More  infiuential,  so  far  as  the  culture  of  the 
American  people  is  concerned,  has  been  the 
poetry  of  Henry  Wadsworth  Longfellow.     It  has 


AMERICAN   LITERATTJBE. 


456 


AMERICAN   LITERATURE. 


been  recognized  by  the  critics  that  Longfellow's 
nenius  was  at  first  overestimated ;  but  critical  de- 
preciation has  probably  been  carried  too  far,  and 
it  seems  quite  likely  that  the  best  loved  of  Ameri- 
can poets  will  continue  to  rank  not  far  below 
the  greatest  of  his  contemporaries.  Much  tlie 
same  thing  may  be  said  of  Oliver  Wendell 
Holmes,  whose  Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast  Table 
(1858)  has  lost  little  or  nothing  of  its  popu- 
larity. As  a  poet  also.  Holmes,  though  he  may 
most  fairly  be  called  the  laureate  of  Boston,  still 
has  a  hold  upon  the  heart  of  the  nation,  and  he 
should  perhaps  be  better  known  as  a  novelist 
than  he  is;  for  his  Elsie  Venner  (1861)  is  a 
striking  book. 

.lames  Russell  Lowell,  by  his  Fahle  for  Critics 
and  the  first  series  of  The  Biglow  Papers  (1848), 
had  proved  himself  to  be  our  greatest  poetical 
humorist  and  satirist  before  the  Civil  War  be- 
gan. That  cataclysm  inspired  him  to  write  his 
great  odes,  and  later  he  became  easily  the  first 
of  American  critics  and  letter-writers,  and  one  of 
the  first  of  American  publicists.  He  is  too  near 
us  for  a  proper  estimate  to  be  made  of  his  rank 
in  our  literature,  but  it  would  appear  that  his 
fame  as  humorist,  essayist,  and  epistolary  master 
is  secure.  Secure,  too,  seems  tlie  fame  of  those 
admirable  historians  William  H.  Prescott  and 
John  Lothrop  Motley,  although  the  former's 
works  have  suffered  through  the  discoveries  of 
modern  investigators.  Their  Junior,  Francis 
Parkman,  is,  however,  generally  regarded  as  their 
superior,  his  great  series  of  histories  dealing 
with  the  struggle  between  French  and  English  for 
the  mastery  of  the  New  World  beingas  fascinating 
and  at  the  same  time  as  scientifically  thorough 
as  any  other  modern  historical  compositions. 

All"  the  writers  treated  in  the  immediately 
foregoing  paragraphs  won  at  least  a  partial 
recognition  before  the  Civil  War.  Their  fame 
has  not,  however,  entirely  cast  in  the  shade  such 
writers  as  Richard  Henry  Dana,  Jr.,  author  of 
Two  Years  Before  the  Mast  (1840),  and  Herman 
Melville,  whose  'lypee  (1846),  Omoo  (1847),  and 
Moby  Dick  (1851),  are  among  the  best  books  of 
adventure  in  our  literatiire.  Nor  is  the  work  of 
Bayard  Taylor,  Donald  G.  Mitchell,  Richard 
Grant  White,  James  T.  Fields,  Thomas  Went- 
worth  Higginson,  and  Charles  Eliot  Norton, 
to  be  omitted  even  in  so  brief  a  sketch  as  the 
present.  Mention  should  be  made  also  of  George 
William  Curtis.  E.  P.  Whipple,  and  the  two 
Southern  poets,  Paul  H.  Hayne  and  Henry  Tim- 
rod,  as  well  as  of  the  worthy  Philadelphia  dra- 
matist and  poet,  George  Henry  Poker.  Two  other 
WTiters  who  emerged  before  the  Civil  War  have 
attained  positions  only  just  below  the  highest. 
One,  Mjs.  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe,  stirred  the 
sympathies  of  the  civilized  world  by  her  pathetic 
story  of  American  slavery,  Uiiele  Tom's  Cabin 
(1852)  ;  the  other,  Walt  Whitman,  by  his  Leaves 
of  Grass  (1855-83)  poetically  expressed  the 
democratic  ideal  in  a  way  that  appealed  pro- 
foundly to  European  readers,  and  has  won  him 
quite  a  large  circle  of  devotees  at  home. 

The  most  noteworthy  name  in  the  decade  to 
which  the  Civil  War  beh)ngs  is  that  of  Samuel  L. 
Clemens,  who,  over  tlie  ])seudonym  of  "Mark 
Twain,"  won  a  world-wide  reputation  as  a  hvi- 
morist  and  writer  of  fiction.  With  him  ap- 
peared a  numl)er  of  authors  whose  later  and 
more  mature  work  has  made  them  known 
throughout  the  country.  One  of  the  most  im- 
portant books  of  the  decade  was  The  Man  With- 


out a  Country  (1863),  by  Edward  Everett  Hale. 
Appearing  at  a  time  when  the  feelings  of  the 
nation  were  so  divided,  it  did  much  to  strengthen 
a  spirit  of  loyalty  to  the  Union.  Two  other 
writers,  who  first  came  to  notice  in  the  sixties, 
were  cut  off  in  what  promised  to  be  most  fruit- 
ful careers — Theodore  Winthrop,  the  novelist, 
whose  John  Brent  (1862)  was  full  of  racy  vigor, 
and  Sidney  Lanier,  regarded  by  some  critics  as 
the  most  important  American  poet  of  the  last 
forty  years. 

Since  1870,  the  number  of  publications  has 
been  constantly  and  rapidlj'  increasing,  and  two 
dominant  types  have  appeared — the  local  short 
story  and  an  exaggerated  form  of  the  romantic 
novel.  As  the  Middle  and  Western  States  be- 
came more  settled,  a  new  type  of  literature  arose, 
which  was  especially  adapted  to  the  new  con- 
ditions. As  early  as  1868  a  magazine.  The 
Overland  Monthly,  had  been  established  in  San 
Francisco;  and  in  it  appeared  the  vivid,  racy, 
unconventional  story.  The  Luck  of  Roaring 
Camp,  by  Bret  Harte.  From  the  appearance  of 
this  tale  may  be  dated  the  vogue  of  the  short 
story  dealing  with  the  local  conditions  in  vari- 
ous sections  of  the  United  States.  Following  ■ 
Bret  Harte,  a  score  of  writers  appeared  all  over  ^ 
the  country,  each  depicting  the  life  and  man- 
ners of  his  own  particular  section.  For  the 
most  part,  they  emphasized  local  conditions  by 
employing  the  dialect  peculiar  to  their  division 
of  the  country.  Among  the  more  successful  of 
these  dialect  writers  were  Joel  Chandler  Harris, 
with  his  Uncle  Remus  stories;  Edward  Eggles- 
ton,  the  author  of  The  Hoosier  Schoolmaster 
(1871),  and  other  tales  of  the  Middle  West; 
G.  W.  Cable,  who  so  skillfully  depicted  the 
French  Creole  life  of  New  Orleans;  and  Mary 
Noailles  Murfree,  better  known  under  her  pseu-  ■ 
donym  "Charles  Egbert  Craddock,"  whose  novels  fl 
of  the  mountain  whites  of  Tennessee,  Kentucky,  ■ 
North  Carolina  and  Georgia  first  attracted  tlie 
attention  of  the  country  to  these  peculiar  people. 
But  although  the  majority  of  short-story  writers 
used  dialect  forms,  there  were  a  number  who 
adhered  to  more  conventional  styles  of  ex- 
pression, depending  upon  their  power  of  charac- 
terization and  the  enumeration  of  salient  details  M 
to  give  the  necessary  semblance  of  reality.  ■ 
Among  these  were  Harold  Frederic,  who  dealt  " 
with  the  crude  life  of  West-Central  New  York ; 
Hamlin  Garland,  who  wrote  of  the  North-West; 
James  Lane  Allen,  who  depicted  the  people  of 
Kentucky;  and  Mary  E.  Wilkins,  who  with  de- 
served success  wrote  her  vignettes  of  the  narrow- 
er life  of  New  England.  F.  R.  Stockton  drew 
with  much  quaint  humor  some  familiar  and  very 
characteristic  American  types  in  Rudder  Grange; 
and  Ernest  Seton-Thompson  described  the  lives 
of  wild  animals  by  the  original  and  interesting 
metliod  of  looking  at  their  environment  from 
their  own  standpoint. 

Besides  these  writers  there  were  a  few  suc- 
cessful authors  whose  works  cannot  be  classi- 
fied under  any  one  division.  First  of  these  is 
General  Lew  Wallace,  whose  Ben  Hur  (1880),  a 
tale  of  the  early  days  of  Christianity,  was  im- 
mensely popular.  It  was  a  forerunner  of  the  re- 
action against  the  short  dialect  story;  for  just 
as  tlie  psychological  novel  had  given  place  to  the 
story,  so  it  in  turn  was  to  be  superseded  b3'  the 
unalloyed  romance.  A  prolific  and  interesting 
writer  was  Francis  Marion  Crawford,  who  was 
an  exponent  of  the  theory  that  a  novel  should  be 


AMERICAN   LITERATURE. 


457 


AMERICAN   RIVER. 


essentially  a  drama,  in  which  descriptions  should 
take  the  place  of  scenery.  At  the  same  time, 
William  Dean  Houells  and  Henry  .James  were 
working  along  lines  which,  tliough  parallel,  were 
nevertheless  clearly  separated.  The  former  prac- 
tically created  the  novel  of  American  social  life. 
His  material  was  found  in  men  and  women 
rather  than  in  incidents;  and  in  his  stories  the 
most  commonplace  occurrences  are  rich  in  fas- 
cination, because  of  his  skillful  realization  of  the 
characters  of  whom  he  writes.  Henry  James 
has  been  cliaractcrized  as  the  "creator  of  the 
international  novel."  His  psychology  is  ad- 
miralilc,  though  almost  too  subtle,  and  his  style 
is  refined  to  a  degiee. 

In  1S94  the  success  of  The  Prisoner  of  Zenda, 
by  an  English  author,  Anthony  Hope  Hawkins, 
drew  the  attention  of  American  writers  to  the 
possibilities  of  the  romantic  novel.  The  reading 
public  had  tired  of  psj-chology  and  dialect,  and 
was  only  too  glad  to  welcome  tales  of  adventure 
and  of  love,  which  were  all  the  more  acceptable 
because  their  themes  were  in  direct  contr.ast 
with  the  commonplace  civilization  of  the  day. 
Winston  Churchill,  Jlary  Johnston,  Charles 
Major,  Maurice  Thompson,  S.  Weir  ^Mitchell, 
Paul  Leicester  Ford,  and  many  less  known  writ- 
ers wrote  historical  romances,  of  which  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  copies  sold  within  incredibly 
short  periods.  The  beginning  of  the  twentieth 
century  was  marked  b_y  the  introduction  of  the 
novel  dealing  with  the  individual  who  is  in  re- 
volt against  existing  social  conditions.  Although 
this  perhaps  is  not  yet  a  clearly  defined  depart- 
ment of  fiction,  Vnleacened  Bread  (1900),  by  Rob- 
ert Grant,  A  Singular  Life  (IS'J.5),  by  Elizabeth 
Stuart  Phelps,  and  A  Gentleman  from  Indiana 
(1!)00),  by  Booth  Tarkington,  are  all  novels 
which  show  the  same  general  tendency  to  empha- 
size individualism. 

In  turning  from  fiction  to  poetry  one  is  struck 
with  the  dearth  of  really  important  names. 
There  have  been  any  number  of  versifiers  whose 
lyrics  are  musical  and  commonplace;  but  E.  C. 
Stedman,  R.  H.  Stoddard,  T.  B.  Aldrich.  Rich- 
ard Watson  Gilder,  H.  C.  Bunner,  Richard 
Hovcy,  and  Madison  Cawein  are  almost  the  only 
ones  whose  poetry  has  risen  in  the  slightest  de- 
gree above  the  ordinary  level. 

In  historical  composition  there  has  been  a, 
marked  inclination  to  follow  the  example  set  by 
the  English  historian,  J.  R.  Green,  and  not  only 
to  weigh  carefully  tlie  dramatic  events  of  politi- 
cal history,  but  also  to  study  with  equal  thor- 
oughness the  character  of  the  people  themselves. 
This  tendency  has  been  especially  evident  in  the 
■works  of  .Tohn  Fiske,.Tohn  Bach  McMaster,  Wood- 
row  Wilson,  and  Edward  Kggleston,  all  of  whom 
have  addeil  much  to  our  knowledge  of  conditions 
and  men  at  the  beginnings  of  oiu'  national  life. 
and  in  the  elaborate  researches  of  .Justin  Winsor. 
Other  historical  writers  of  importance  are  James 
Ford  Rhodes,  the  historian  of  the  Civil  War, 
and  William  M.  Sloane,  the  author  of  a  monu- 
mental biography  of  Napoleon. 

Literary  criticism  has  had  many  representa- 
tives; but  since  James  Russell  Lowell's  death, 
American  literature  has  found  no  one  fitted  to 
succeed  him.  The  best  known  critics  who  en- 
joyed a  certain  amount  of  authority  in  the  de- 
cade ending  with  the  year  1000,  were  William 
Dean  Howells,  Henn-  .James.  Hamilton  W.  MaSie, 
Brander  Matthews,  George  E.  Woodberry.  Harry 
Thurston  Peck,  and  William  0.  Brown'ell.     Re"- 

VOL.    I.— 31. 


cent  criticism,  however,  has  been  distinguished 
by  the  note  of  individual  preference  which  is  at 
times  almost  emotional,  and  by  the  absence  of 
definite  and  unalterable  a-sthetic  standards,  such 
as  those  which  characterized  the  work  of  Sainte- 
Beuve  in  France  and  of  Matthew  Arnold  in  Eng- 
land. 

In  conclusion,  the  most  important  develop- 
ments since  1870  may  be  summed  up  as  being 
New  England's  loss  of  literary  supremacy;  the 
wide  distribution  of  literary  activity;  the  de- 
cline of  the  essay  as  a  recognized  medium  of 
purely  literary  expression;  the  predominance  of 
light  fiction;  and  an  unparalleled  increase  in 
the  number  of  books,  newspapers,  magazines,  and 
other  periodicals. 

Bibliography.  For  the  best  account  of  Colo- 
nial and  Revolutionary  literature,  consult:  Tyler, 
History  of  Ameriean  Literature,  4  vols.  (New 
York,  1878-07)  ;  for  a  good  general  survey,  Rich- 
ardson, American  Literature  (New  York,  1887- 
88)  ;  Nichol,  Americayi  Literature  (Edinburgh, 
(1882)  ;  Wendell,  A  Literari/  History  of  America 
(New  York,  1!)0I)  :  C.  Noble,  Studies  in  Ameri- 
can Literature  (New  York,  I89S)  ;  Katherine 
Lee  Bates,  American  Literature  (New  York, 
1898)  ;  for  poetry,  Stedman,  Poets  of  Amer- 
ica (Boston,  188,5)  ;  Stedman,  An  American  An- 
tliotor/y  (New  York,  1901);  for  prose.  Car- 
penter, American  Prose  (New  York,  1808)  ;  for 
anthologies  of  prose  and  verse,  Stedman  and 
Hutchinson,  Library  of  American  Literature 
(New  York.  1888-90)  ;  Dtiyckinck,  Cyclopwdia  of 
American  Literature  (New  York,  I8G5).  The 
best  series  of  monographs  on  American  authors 
is  the  American  Men  of  Letters  Series  (Bos- 
ton). A  valuable  handbook  is  Whitcomb, 
Chronological  Outlines  of  American  Literature 
(New  York,  1S94). 

AMERICAN  MUSE'UM  OF  NAT'XTRAL 
HIS'TORY.     See   Museum. 

AMERICAN  NOTES.  By  Charles  Dickens, 
published  in  1842,  after  his  first  visit  to  the 
United  States.  A  volume  of  impressions  which 
excited    much    resentment    in    America. 

AMERICAN  PAR'TY.  The  name  applied 
to  three  parties  in  the  history  of  the  United 
St.ates.  The  first  and  best  known  was  organized 
in  1852,  chiefly  to  oppose  the  immigration  of 
foreigners,  and  had  a  considerable  following 
between  the  years  18.52  and  1856.  A  fuller 
account  is  given  under  the  title  Know-Nothin'os, 
the  name  by  which  the  party  was  generally 
known.  The  second  party  was  an  outgrowth  of 
the  National  Christian  Association,  and  was 
organized  in  1872  to  oppose  secret  societies  and 
to  advocate  the  prohibition  of  the  sale  of  intoxi- 
cants, the  regular  use  of  the  Bible  in  the  schools, 
arbitration  of  international  disputes,  a  direct 
popular  vote  for  President,  the  resumption  of 
specie  payments,  and  a  more  general  observance 
01  Sunday.  After  1888,  when  it  cast  its  largest 
vote,  it  virtually  went  out  of  existence.  The 
third  party  was  organized  in  Philadelphia  in 
September,  1887.  to  restrict  the  immigration  and 
naturalization  of  foreigners,  to  exclude  all  Anar- 
chists and  Socialists  from  the  privilege  of  citi- 
zenship, and  to  prevent  alien  proprietorship  of 
the  soil.     Its  inlluence  has  been  inconsiderable. 

AMERICAN  RIVER.  A  river  in  north  cen- 
tral California  (Map;  California,  C  2).  It  rises 
in  Eldorado  County  and  flows  southwesterly  to- 


AMEKICAN   RIVEB. 


458 


AMES. 


-n-ard  the  Sacramento  River,  into  which  it  emp- 
ties a  little  above  Sacramento  City.  Gold  has 
been  frequently  found  along  its  banks. 

AMERICAN  SYCAMORE.     See  Plane. 

AMERICAN  SYS'TEM.     See  Tariff. 

AMERICAN  U'NIVER'SITY.  An  institu- 
tion of  higher  learning  for  post-graduate  study 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  situated  at  Washington,  D.  C.  It  was 
chartered  in  1893,  and  the  plans  include  a  series 
of  colleges,  specializing  respectively  in  history, 
language,  and  literature,  philosophy,  the  several 
sciences,  technology,  sociology,  and  economics, 
law,  civics,  medicine,  ait,  and  comparative  re- 
ligion. The  plan  of  organization  provided  that 
for  entrance  to  all  courses,  the  bachelor's  degi-ee, 
or  its  equivalent  in  scholarship,  should  be  re- 
quired. The  assets  in  1901  amounted  to  $1,600,- 
000.  Chancellor,  1901,  John  F.  Hurst,  D.D., 
LL.D. 

AMERICAN  WINE.     See  Wine. 

AMER'ICTJS.  A  city  and  the  county  seat  of 
Sumter  Co.,  Ga.,  70  miles  south-southwest  of 
Macon,  at  the  junction  of  the  Central  of  Georgia, 
and  Georgia  and  Alabama  railroads  (Map: 
Georgia,  B  3).  It  is  in  a  cotton  and  sugar-cane _ 
district,  and  has  chemical  works,  iron  foundry," 
and  machine  shops.  The  city  owns  and  operates 
its  water  works.  Americus  was  settled  in  1832, 
incorporated  1SS5.  and  is  governed  by  a  cliarter 
of  1889,  which  places  the  mayor's  term  at  two 
years,  and  ]uovides  for  a  city  council  of  si.K. 
elected  on  a  general  ticket,  with  full  power  of 
appointments.'     Pop.,  1890,  0398;   1900,  7674. 

AMERIGHI, 

See  Cauavaggio. 


a'ma-re'ge,      Michelangelo. 


AMERIGO  VESPUCCI,   a'ma-re'go  ves-poo'- 

che.     See  Vesitcius,  Ahekicus. 

AM'ERIND.  A  name  suggested  as  a  designa- 
tion for  the  American  Indians  (including  the 
Eskimo  and  the  Fuegians),  as  distinguished 
from  the  natives  of  India  and  the  adjacent  re- 
gions. It  is  compounded  from  the  two  words, 
American  and  Indian,  and  originated  with  jSIajor 
J.  W.  Powell,  Director  of  the  Bureau  of  Amer- 
ican Ethnology. 

AMERLING,  :i'mer-ling,  Friedrich  (1803- 
87).  An  Austrian  painter,  born  at  Vienna.  He 
studied  there  and  at  London,  Paris,  and  Munich, 
and  went  to  Italy  in  1831.  Upon  his  return  he 
painted  a  portrait  of  the  Emperor  Franz  I.,  and 
finm  that  time  was  the  most  prominent  of  Aus- 
trian portrait  painters.  His  portraits  number 
not  far  from  a  thousand,  and  are  distinguished 
by  brilliant  coloring,  but  sometimes  fail  of 
definiteness  in  characterization.  Consult:  Bo- 
denstein,  Hundert  JaUre  Kunstgcschichtc.  Wiens 
(Vienna,  1888)  ;  and  for  his  life,  Frankl  (Vienna, 
1889). 

AMERSFOORT,  a'morz-fort.  An  ancient 
town  in  the  province  of  Utrecht,  Netherlands, 
15  miles  nortlu'ast  of  Utrecht  on  the  Fern,  which 
flows  into  the  Ziiyder  Zee  (Map:  ^Mherlands, 
T>  2)  The  town  is  sitiuited  in  a  fertile  plain,  at 
the  foot  of  sandy  hills.  Tobacco  Is  nnich  grown 
in  the  district,  and  cotton  and  woolen  goods, 
leather,  soap,  beer,  etc..  are  manufactured.  The 
Catholic  church  of  St.  Mary,  built  in  the  four- 
teenth century,  has  a  Gothic  tower  308  feet 
high,  considered  the  finest  in  Holland.  There 
is'also  a  college  of  Jansenists  in  the  town,   it 


being  one  of  the  chief  seats  of  this  sect,  which 
does  not  now  exist  outside  of  Holland.  Pop., 
1890,   1.5,500;    1900,   19,000. 

AMES.  A  city  in  Story  Co.,  la.,  37  miles 
north  of  Des  Moines,  on  the  Chicago  and  North- 
western Railroad  (Map:  Iowa,  D  3).  It  is  the 
seat  of  the  State  Agi'icultural  College,  which  has 
a  plant  covering  some  900  acres.  The  electric 
light  plant  is  owned  and  operated  by  the  munici- 
palit.v.     Pop.,    1890,    1276;     1900,    2422. 

AMES,  Adelbert  (1835 — ).  An  American 
soldier.  He  was  born  at  Rockland,  Me.,  and 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1801.  He  was 
wounded  at  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run,  and  after- 
ward served  with  distinction  at  Malvern  Hill, 
Antietam,  Fredericksburg.  Chancellorsville,  Get- 
tysburg, and  Petersburg.  He  was  brevetted 
(March  13,  1865)  major-general  of  volunteers  for 
conduct  at  Fort  Fisher,  and  on  .July  28,  1866,  be- 
came a  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  reg\ilar  army. 
He  was  afterward  Provisional  Governor  of  ilissis- 
sippi  from  1868  to  1809,  and  was  commandant  of 
the  Fourth  Military  District  (including  Missis- 
sippi) from  1869  to  1870,  and  was  a  United  States 
senator  from  1870  to  1873,  when,  in  spite  of  the 
white  population,  he  became  Governor  of  IMissis- 
sippi  by  popular  election.  His  administration 
of  affairs  soon  antagonized  the  whites,  who  ac- 
cused him  of  favoritism  to  the  negro  population, 
and  a  bitter  race  war  ensued,  culminating  in  the 
Vicksburg  riot  of  December  7,  1874.  and  in 
numerous  minor  conflicts  between  Democrats  and 
Republicans.  Finally,  in  1876,  the  Democrats 
having  secured  a  majority  in  the  Legislature, 
Ames  was  impeached,  and  resigned  on  condition 
that  the  charges  against  him  be  withdrawn.  (See 
article  on  Missis.sippi.)  He  then  removed  to 
New  York,  and.  later,  to  Lowell,  Mass.,  and 
during  the  Spanish-American  War  served  as 
brigadier-general   of  volunteers. 

AMES,  Fisher  (1758-1808).  An  American 
orator  and  Congressman.  He  was  born  at  Ded- 
ham,  Mass.,  April  9,  1758.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  in  1774,  began  the  practice  of  law  in 
1781,  and  soon  became  favorably  known  through 
his  trenchant  newspaper  articles  in  condemna- 
tion of  Shays's  Rebellion  (q.v.)  and  in  favor  of 
a  strong  government.  This  local  reputation  was 
increased  bv  his  efl'orts  in  favor  of  the  Federal 
constitution  in  the  Massachusetts  Convention  of 
1788,  the  immediate  result  of  which  was  his 
election  to  Congress,  where  he  served  for  eight 
years,  becoming  known  especially  as  an  accom- 
plished public  speaker.  In  his  later  years  he 
served  in  the  Massachusetts  Council,  delivered 
a  eulogy  on  Washington  before  the  Legislature, 
and  produced  a  number  of  essays:  but  he  took  no 
part  in  active  politics.  In  1804  he  declined  the 
presidency  of  Harvard.  He  died  July  4.  1808. 
A  single  'volume  of  his  Worl.-fi  was  published  in 
Boston  (1809),  and  later  his  son,  Seth  Ames, 
edited  his  writings  and  speeches  in  more  extend- 
ed form,  with  a  memoir  by  J.  T.  Kirkland 
(Boston.    1854). 

AMES,  James  Barr  (1846—).  An  eminent 
American  educator  and  legal  scholar.  He  was 
born  in  Boston,  graduated  in  18r.8  at  Harvard 
and  in  1872  at  the  Law  School  of  the  University, 
in  1868-09  was  an  instructor  in  a  private  school 
at  Boston,  and  from  1871  to  1872  was  tutor  in 
GeVman  and  French  at  Harvard.  In  the  same 
institution  he  was  appointed  successively  ins_truc- 
tor  in  history  (1872),  associate  professor  of  law 
(1873),  and  professor  of  law   (18<7).     In  1SJ!> 


I 


AMES. 


459 


AMETHYST. 


he  became  Dean  of  the  Harvard  Law  School.  He 
has  piiblislieii  various  articles  in  the  Harvard 
Law  Review  an<l  simihir  periodicals,  and  has 
compiled  and  edited  numerous  valuable  collec- 
tions of  eases  on  torts,  trusts,  and  suretyship, 
and  other  legal  questions.  He  received  the  de- 
gree of  LL.D.  from  New  York  University  ( 1808) , 
the  University  of  Wisconsin  (1898),  and  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  ( 1899) . 

AMES,  .To.sEPii  (1089-1759).  An  English  an- 
tiquary and  bibliographer,  born  at  Yarmouth. 
He  was  in  some  sort  of  mercantile  pursuit,  and 
in  addition  to  various  other  compilations  pub- 
lished tlie  Typographical  Antiquities  (1749), 
regarded  as  forming  the  foundation  of  English 
bibliography. 

AMES,  Joseph  (1816-1872).  An  American 
portrait  painter.  He  was  born  in  Roxbury, 
N.  H.,  and  studied  at  Rome,  Italy,  where  he 
painted  a  line  picture  of  Pope  Pius  IX.  On  his 
return  to  America  he  lived  successively  at  Bos- 
ton, Baltimore,  and  New  York,  where  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  National  Academy  of 
Design  in  1870.  His  best  portraits  are  those  of 
Emerson.  Rachel,  Ristori,  Clarence  H.  Seward, 
Webster,  Clioate,  and  President  Felton  of  Har- 
vard. Among  the  paintings  treating  of  ideal 
subjects,  tliat  entitled  "The  Death  of  Webster" 
is  generally  considered  the  best. 

AMES,  Joseph  Sweetman  (1864 — ).  An 
American  physicist  and  educator,  born  at  Man- 
chester. Vt.  He  graduated  in  1S86  at  the  Johns 
Hopkins  University,  and  became  professor  of 
physics  there.  He  was  elected  an  honorary  mem- 
ber of  the  Royal  Institution  of  Great  Britain, 
has  edited  (New  York,  189S)  J.  von  Fraunhofer's 
memoirs  on  Prismatic  and  Diffractive  Spectra, 
and  has  published  The  Theory  of  Physics  (1897), 
Elements  of  Physics  (1900).  and  The  Induction, 
of  Electric  Currents    (2  volumes,   1900). 

AMES,  MAr.y  Clemmer  (1839-84).  An  Amer- 
ican author,  best  known  by  her  "Woman's  Letter 
from  Wasliington,"  contributed  for  many  years 
to  tile  New  York  Independent.  She  was  born  at 
Utica,  New  York,  and  at  an  early  age  married 
the  Rev.  Daniel  Ames,  from  whom  she  was 
divorced  in  1874.  In  later  life  she  removed  to 
Washington,  where  her  home  was  a  literary 
and  social  centre,  and  in  1883  she  married  Ed- 
mund Hudson,  editor  of  the  Army  and  Navy 
Register.  Her  works  include  Eirene,  a  novel 
(1870),  Ten  Years  in  Washington  (1871),  and 
Memorials  of  Alice  and  Phrebe  Vary  (1872),  of 
whom  she  Iiad  been  an  intimate  friend.  Her  com- 
plete works  were  published  at  Boston,  4  volumes 
(1885).  Consult  Hudson,  Memorial  Biography 
of  Mary  C.  Antes   (Boston,  1886). 

AMES,  Nathax  P.  (1803-47).  An  American 
manufacturer  of  firearms,  ordnance,  and  cutlery. 
In  early  life  he  owned  extensive  cutlery  works 
at  Chicopee  Falls,  Mass.,  but  afterward  removed 
to  Cabotsville.  The  works  were  supplemented  in 
1836  by  a  bronze  foundry,  where  most  of  the 
brass  guns  for  the  United  States  Army  were  cast. 
There  also  the  statues  of  DeWitt  Clinton,  in 
Greenwood  Cemetery,  Brooklyn ;  of  Washington, 
in  Union  Square,  New  York;  and  of  Franklin, 
in  School  Street,  Boston,  were  cast. 

AMES,  Oakes  (1804-1873).  An  American 
manufacturer  and  legislator.  He  was  born  at 
Easton,  Mass.,  and  at  an  early  age  entered  his 
father's   workshop,   where   he   soon   familiarized 


himself  with  every  detail  of  the  shovel  business, 
which,  upon  the  discovery  of  gold  in  California 
and  the  impetus  thereby  given  to  railroad  build- 
ing, soon  became  a  most  important  industry. 
In  1804,  after  others  had  failed,  lie  was  called 
upon  by  President  Lincoln  and  others  to  build 
the  Union  Pacific  Railroad,  which  great  under- 
taking he  successfully  completed  on  May  10, 
1869.  He  had  invested  .$1,000,000  in  the  enter- 
prise, and  had  pledged  the  remainder  of  his  for- 
tune for  the  same  purpose.  He  was  censured 
by  the  Forty-second  Congress  for  participation 
in  the  Credit  Mobilier  .scheme,  but  afterward  was 
vindicated  in  a  resolution  passed  bv  the  Massa- 
chusetts Legislature  (May  10,  1883).  From 
1862  to  1873  he  was  a  member  of  Congress  from 
the  second  Massachusetts  district.  His  will 
contained  a  bequest  of  $50,000  to  children  of 
North  Easton,  Mass.  A  fine  monument  in  his 
memory  was  erected  by  the  Union  Pacific  Rail- 
road at  Sherman,  Wyoming,  8550  feet  above  the 
sea  level — the  highest  point  reached  by  the  rail- 
road. 

AMES,  Oliver  (1831-95).  The  thirty-first 
governor  of  Massachusetts,  a  son  of  Oakes  Ames 
(q.v.).  He  was  trained  in  his  father's  manufac- 
tory, and  upon  his  death  undertook  the  discharge 
of  the  numerous  financial  obligations  incurred 
by  the  building  of  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad 
and  other  enterprises,  paying  within  a  few  years 
debts  aggregating  millions  of  dollars.  In  1882 
he  was  chosen  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Massachu- 
setts, serving  for  four  successive  terms,  and  in 
ISSO  was  elected  Governor,  to  which  office  he 
was  reelected  in  1887  and  1888. 

AMES,  William  (1570-1633).  An  English 
Puritan  clergyman  and  writer  on  moral  philos- 
ophy, born  in  the  county  of  Norfolk.  He  studied 
at  Christ  College,  Cambridge,  and  was  professor 
of  theology  in  the  University  of  Franeker,  Fries- 
land,  from  1622  to  1632.  His  best-known  work 
is  De  Conseientia,  eius  lure  et  Casibus  (1632). 
long  highly  esteemed  in  the  schools. 

AMESBUBY,  .amz1jer-i.  A  town  in  Essex 
Co.,  Mass.,  on  the  Boston  and  Maine  Railroad, 
42  miles  northeast  of  Boston  (Map:  Massachu- 
setts, F  2).  It  has  a  public  library  of  7500  vol- 
umes, and  extensive  manufactures  of  carriages, 
carriage  manufacturers'  supplies,  hats,  shoes, 
cotton  goods,  and  underwear.  The  government  is 
administered  by  town  meetings,  held  annually. 
Originally  a  part  of  Salisbury,  Amesbury  was 
virtually  separated  as  New  Salisbury  in  1654, 
and  was  incorporated  in  1606,  and  named  (from 
Amesbury,  England)  in  1607.  John  Greenleaf 
Whittier  (q.v.)  lived  here  from  1836  until  his 
death  in  1892.  Pop.,  1890,  9798;  1900,  9473. 
Consult:  J.  Merrill,  History  of  Amesbury 
(Haverhill,  1880). 

AM'ETHYST  (Gk.  ifieOvaToc,  amethy.^tos,  a 
remedy  against  drunkenness,  from  a,  a,  priv.  + 
/iidv,  methy,  wine).  A  violet  blue  or  bluish 
violet  variety  of  quartz,  the  color  of  which  is 
believed  to  be  due  to  manganese  oxide.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  esteemed  varieties  of  quartz,  and  is 
much  employed  for  seals,  rings,  and  other  articles 
of  jewelry.  The  ancients  imagined  it  to  possess 
the  property  of  preventing  drunkenness,  and 
those  addicted  to  that  habit  wore  it  on  their  per- 
sons. Amethyst  frequently  occurs  lining  the 
interior  of  balls  or  geodes  of  agate,  and  in  veins 
and  cavities  in  various  rocks.  The  finest  speci- 
mens are  from  Scotland,  Siberia,  India,  and  Cey- 


AMETHYST. 


460 


AMHERST. 


Ion.  In  the  United  States  the  amethyst  is  found 
in  many  localities,  but  seldom  of  sufficient  clear- 
ness or  color  to  be  used  as  a  gem.  The  Lake 
Superior  crystals,  from  tlie  slaty  formations 
around  Thunder  Bay,  are  perhaps  the  best  known, 
and  annually  thousands  of  dollars  worth  is  sent 
from  this  locality  to  be  sold  at  Niagara  Falls, 
and  othei  tourist  "resorts.  The  Oriental  amethyst 
is  a  purple  variety  of  corundum. 

AM'ETECPIA  (Gk.  a,  a,  priv.  +  /lirpov, 
mctroii.  measure,  or  a/ierpnf,  ainetrus,  dispropor- 
tionate-f  tJV.  ops,  eye).  A  condition  of  the 
eye  siich  that  when  it  is  resting  parallel  ray.s  of 
light  reaching  it  are  foe\ised  either  in  front  of  or 
behind  instead  of  upon  the  retina.  It  is  the  re- 
verse of  enunetropia,  the  condition  of  the  nor- 
mal eye.  See  Hyperopia;  Myopia;  Astigmat- 
ism :  Vision. 

AMGA,  ani-ga'.  A  river  in  the  territory  of 
Yakutsk,  Siberia,  rising  in  tlie  Yablonoi  Moun- 
tains, running  north-northeast,  and  joining  the 
Aldan,  one  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Lena  ( Map : 
Asia,  N  2). 

AMHABA,  am-ha'ra  (the  high  lands) .  The 
central  di\'ision  of  Abj-ssinia,  occupying  the  ter- 
ritory around  Lake  Tsana  (Map:  Africa,  H  3). 
The  capital  is  Gondar  (q.v.)  See  Amharic 
Language. 

AMHARIC  (am-ha'rik)  LAN'GUAGE.  A 
modern  Semitic  dialect  which  derives  its  name 
from  the  peojile  of  Amhara  ( q.v. ) ,  one  of  the 
divisions  of  Abyssinia.  Next  to  the  Arabic,  Am- 
haric is  the  most  widely  spread  of  the  Semitic 
languages.  It  has  displaced  in  popular  usage 
the  original  language  of  Abyssinia,  the  Ethiopic 
or  Geez,  and  is  now  the  spoken  tongue,  whereas 
the  Geez  is  the  religious  tongue.  For  many  years 
A.mharic  had  no  writing,  so  that  it  changed  very 
nuich  in  its  forms,  conjugations,  and  even  in 
the  meanings  of  its  roots.  Moreover,  its  vocabu- 
lary received  non-Semitic  additions  from  the  sur- 
rounding African  tribes.  Hence  it  is  that 
Amharie  is  the  least  Semitic  of  the  Semitic  lan- 
guages, and  this  appears  very  strongly  in  the 
syntax.  ^\*hen  the  Amharic  language  began  to 
be  written,  the  Ethiojiic  or  Geez  letters  were 
used.  In  this  way  something  resembling  a  lit- 
erature has  grown  up  in  comparatively  modern 
times.  There  is  an  Amharie  Bible,  prepared  by 
missionaries,  and  we  have  a  few  texts,  such  as 
Guidi's  Le  Cunzoni  qecz-amarina  in  onore  di  R6- 
Abissini  (Rome,  18S9)  :  of  grammars  there  are 
Ludolph's  (Frankfort,  1098)  ;  Isenberg's  (Lon- 
don, 1842)  ;  Massaja's  (Paris,  18G7)  ;  Priltorius 
(Halle,  1879)  ;  Guidi  (Rome,  second  edition, 
1892)  ;  of  dictionaries,  Isenberg's  (London, 
1S41);  A.  d'Abbadie's  (1881).  See  Afeican 
Languages. 

AM'HEBST.  A  district  of  Lower  Burma 
(q.v.),  British  India. 

AMHERST.  A  tovm  in  Hampshire  Co., 
Mass.,  08  miles  west  of  Boston,  on  the  Boston 
and  Maine  and  Vermont  Central  railroads  (Map: 
Massachusetts,  C  3).  The  scenery  is  picturesque, 
with  beautiful  views  of  the  Connecticut  Valley, 
IMount  Holyoke,  and  other  mountains.  It  is  the 
seat  of  Amherst  College,  and  of  the  Massachu- 
setts Agricultural  College  (q.v.).  Straw  hat 
manufacture  is  the  principal  industry.  Prob- 
:ibly  settled  as  early  as  1708,  Amherst  was  part 
of  Hadley,  ami  was  known  successively  as  New 
Swamp,  Hadley  Farms,  East  Farms,  and  East 


Hadley  until,  in  1759,  it  was  incorporated  as  a 
district  under  its  present  name,  given  by  Gover- 
nor Po\\mall  in  honor  of  General  Jeffrey  Amlierst 
(q.v.).  In  177f)  it  became  a  town.  The  govern- 
ment is  administered  by  town  meetings,  which 
convene  annually  to  elect  officers  and  raise  funds 
for  current' expenses.  Pop.,  1890,  4512;  1900, 
5028.  Consult  Carpenter  and  Morehouse,  The 
Bistory  of  the  Town  of  Amherst  (Amherst, 
1S9G), 

AMHERST.  A  busy  Canadian  seaport,  the 
capital  of  Cumberland  Co.,  Nova  Scotia,  near 
the  head  of  Cumberland  Basin,  an  inlet  of  the 
Bay  of  Fundy.  It  is  138  miles  northeast  of 
Halifax  by  rail,  has  substantial  public  and  pri- 
vate buildings,  and  a  considerable  lumber  and 
general  trade.     Pop.,  1901,  4964. 

AMHERST,  Jeffrey,  Baron  (1717-79).  An 
English  soldier.  He  was  born  at  Riverhead, 
Kent,  and  for  some  time  was  .a  page  in  the  house- 
hold of  the  Duke  of  Dorset.  He  entered  the 
army  as  ensign  in  1731,  soon  became  an  aide-de- 
camp of  General  Ligonier,  and  in  the  War  of  the 
Austrian  Succession  served  at  Dettingen,  Fonte- 
noy,  and  Eoncoux,  and  in  the  Seven  Years'  War 
at  Hastenbeck.  In  1758  Pitt  rai.sed  him 
from  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel  to  that  of 
major-general,  and  put  him  in  command  of  the 
expedition  against  Louisburg,  which,  after  a 
short  siege,  surrendered  on  .Tuly  27.  In  Septem- 
ber he  replaced  Abercromby  as  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  English  forces  in  America  ;  and  in 
1759  led  the  expedition  against  Ticonderoga  and 
Crown  Point,  gaining  possession  of  the  former 
July  23,  and  of  the  latter  August  1.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  he  commanded  in  person  the  forces 
before  Montreal,  and  on  September  8  compelled 
the  French  to  capitulate  and  surrender  Canada 
with  all  its  dependencies  to  the  British  crown. 
For  his  services  he  was  appointed  Governor-Gen- 
eral of  British  North  America,  was  formally 
thanked  by  Parliament,  and  was  made  a  Knight 
of  the  Bath.  Having  no  knowledge  of  Indian 
warfare,  and  scorning  to  avail  himself  of  the 
undisciplined  colonial  militia,  he  proved  unfit  for 
the  task  of  suppressing  the  conspiracy  of  Pontiac 
(q.v.),  and  returned  to  England  in  1763,  where, 
as  the  conqueror  of  Canada,  he  was  received  with 
the  greatest  enthusiasm.  He  was  absentee  Gov- 
ernor of  Virginia  from  1763  to  1708.  was  ap- 
pointed Governor  of  Guernsey  in  1770.  and  be- 
came a  Pri\'y  Councillor  in  1772.  From  1772  to 
1782.  and  from  1783  to  1793  he  was  acting  Com- 
niantler-in-chief  of  the  British  Army.  He  became 
a  general  in  1778,  was  Commander-in-Chief  1793 
to  1795,  and  was  made  a  Field-Marshal  in  1796. 
For  his  record  as  an  officer  in  America,  consult: 
Parkman,  Montcalm  and  Wolfe  (Boston,  1884)  ; 
and  The  Conspiracy  of  Pontiac   (Boston,  1S51). 

AMHERST,  WiTxiAM  Pitt,  Earl  (1773- 
1857).  A  Biitish  diplomatist  and  statesman. 
He  succeeded  his  uncle  .Jeffrey  as  Baron  Amherst 
in  1797.  In  181S  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
China,  where  he  refused  to  perform  what  he 
thought  a  degrading  act  of  kneeling,  which  was 
required  of  all  who  would  sec  tlie  Emperor.  For 
this  he  was  not  allowed  to  enter  Peking,  and  the 
object  of  his  mission  was  frustrated.  On  the 
way  home  he  was  wrecked.  Another  ship,  in 
which  he  returned,  touched  at  St.  Helena,  where 
he  had  several  interviews  with  Napoleon.  He 
was   Governor-General   of   India,   from    1823   to 


AMHERST. 


461 


AMICUS    CURI^. 


1828,  and  for  his  services  in  conducting  the  first 
Burmese  \\  ar  he  was  created  an  earl  in  1820. 

AM'HEBSTBTJRG.  A  town  in  Ontario, 
Canada,  on  the  Detroit  River,  six  miles  above 
Lake  Erie.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest  settlements  in 
Upper  Canada,  is  a  port  of  entry,  was  formerly  a 
garrison  town,  and  is  connected  w'ith  Detroit, 
Mich.,  by  a  steamer  line.  It  has  a  public  li- 
brary, electric  lighting,  water  works,  various 
manufactures,  and  is  the  seat  of  a  United  States 
consulate.  In  the  war  of  1812  it  was  dis- 
mantled b_v  the  British  in  September,  1813,  and 
destroyed  by  General  Harrison,  of  the  United 
States  Army,  a  week  later.     Pop.,  1001,  2222. 

AM'HERST  COL'LEGE.  .A  leading  American 
college,  situated  at  Amherst,  Mass..  and  founded 
in  1821   by  Congregationalists  in  the  interest  of 
Christian   education.     Up   to   the  year    1900   the 
graduates  numbered  4100,  of  whom  1237  entered 
the  clergy,  while  an  equally  large  number  became 
teachers.     The     unusual     educational     inlluence 
wielded  by  Amherst  for  halt  a  century  was  due 
to  a  considerable  extent  to  two  of  its  presidents, 
Edward   Hitchcock   and   Julius   H.    Seelye.     The 
former    was    probably    the    most    distinguished 
American  geologist   of   his   time,   and   the  latter 
united  with  a  broad  scholarship  in  the  human- 
ities great  ability  as  a  practical  educator.     Am- 
herst  has    never    endeavored    to    branch    out    as 
a  university,  but  has  steadily  increased  in  effi- 
ciency  as    a    non-specialized    and    non-technical 
liberal   college.     In    1900   the   faculty   numbered 
36,   and   the  students  400.     The  total   value   of 
the  buildings  and  grounds   is  about  .$1,000,000; 
the    interest    of    over    .$240,000    is    used    to    aid 
needy  students ;  the  annual  income  of  the  college 
is  about  $110,000,  and  the  entire  property  under 
the  control  of  the  college  aggregates  $2,.500,000. 
The  library  contains  75,000  volumes,  and  is  the 
largest  belonging  to  any  purely  collegiate  insti- 
tution in  the  country.     Of  accessories  to  the  col- 
lege may  be  mentioned  the  Hitchcock   ichnolog- 
ical  cabinet,  the  Adams  collection  in  conchology, 
the  Shepard  meteoric  collection,  and  an  extensive 
and  valuable  geological  and  mineralogical  collec- 
tion gathered  largely  by  the  personal  efforts  of 
Professor    Benjamin    K.    Emerson.     The    Pratt 
Gymnasium,  athletic  field,  and  college  hospital 
are  the  gifts  of  the  sons  of  the  late  Charles  Pratt 
of  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.     The   presidents   have  been: 
Zephaniah   Swift   Moore.   D.D.,    1821-23;    Heraan 
Humphrey,    D.D..    1823-45;    Edward    Hitchcock, 
D.D..LL.D.,   1845-54:   William  A.   Stearns.   D.D., 
LUD.,   1854-70:   .Julius  H.   Seelye,  D.D.,  LL.D., 
1870-90;   Merrill   Edwards  Gates.  LL.D.    Ph.D., 
1890-99  ;  George  Harris,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  1899.     Con- 
sult Tyler,  A  History  of  Amherst  College   (New 
York.  1890). 

AM'ICABLE  NUM'BERS  (Lat.  amicabiUs, 
friendly).  Two  numbers,  each  of  which  is  the 
sum  of  the  factors  of  the  other,  are  called  ami- 
cable numbers,  as  220  and  284,  e.g.: 

220  =  1+2+4+71  +  142 
284=1+2+4+5+10+11+20+22+44+55+110 

The  classification  and  fanciful  name  are  due 
to  the  Pythagoreans,  who  made  much  of  number 
mysticism. 

AMICE,    am'is.      See    Costume,    Ecclesias- 

TICVI,. 

AMICI,  a-me'che,  Giovanni  Battista  (178G- 
1804).     An  Italian  astronomer  and  optician.   He 


was  born  at  Jlodena,  where  he  was  afterward 
professor  of  mathematics  at  the  University.  In 
1831  he  was  appointed  superintendent  of  educa- 
tion, and  subsequently  became  director  of  the 
observatory  and  professor  of  astronomy  at  Flor- 
ence. The  various  pieces  of  physical  and  astro- 
nomical apparatus  designed  or  constructed  by 
him  include  a  reflecting  telescope,  an  achromatic 
microscope,  polarization  apparatus,  a  micrometer 
for  telescopes,  and  a  reflecting  prism.  lie  pub- 
lished papers  on  observations  on  double  stars,  the 
moons  of  Jupiter,  the  sun,  and  on  various  botan- 
ical subjects,  such  as  the  circulation  of  the  sap 
in  plants. 

AMICIS,    ame'ches,    Edmondo    de     (1840 — ). 
One  of  the  most  popular  of  living  Italian  authors. 
He  was  born  at  Oneglia,  in  Liguria.  October  21, 
1846.     In  1801   he  graduated   from   the  military 
academy  at  Modena,  with  the  rank  of  sub-lieii- 
tenant,  and  five  years  afterward  participated  in 
the  battle  of  Custozza.     For  a  while  he  edited 
a  Florentine  journal,  L'ltalia  MilHare.  and  sub- 
sequently took  part  in  the  Roman  occupation  of 
1870:   but  having  achieved  some  success  with  a 
volume  of  sketches  of  army  life,  Bozzetti  ( 1808) , 
he  abandoned  both  the  military  and  the  journal- 
istic career,   and   undertook   a"  series  of  voyages 
to  England,  Holland,  Spain,  Africa,  Turkey,  and 
South ^  America.       Almost    all    these    gave    him 
material   for  brilliant  and  widely   popular  vol- 
umes of  travel,  such  as  La  Spayna  ( 1873) ,  Ricor- 
di  di  Londra   (1874),  L'Olanda   (1874),  Marocco 
(IS75),  and  Constantinopoli  (1877).     These  vol- 
umes have  been  translated  into  many  languages. 
They  show  a  keen  power  of  observation,  a  genial 
humor,   and   a   broad   spirit   of   tolerance,    which 
would  justify  their  popularity  even  without  the 
warm  coloring  and  glowing  vividness  of  descrip- 
tion, in  which  respect  his  style  challenges  com- 
I'arison  with   that  of  Theoph'ile  Gautier.     Other 
writings    include    Ifitratti    letterari     (1881),    a 
series    of    personal    impressions    of    well-known 
writers,  including  Zola  and  Dumas  fils:  a  sym- 
pathetic and   semi-humorous   volume  on   friend- 
ship,  Gli  Amici    (1882),   and   a   number   of   his- 
torical novelettes,  collected  under  the  title,  Alle 
parte  d'llalia   (1888).   Of  recent  years  De  Amicis 
has  become  deeply  interested  in  educational  and 
economic  questions,  and  in  many  ways  his  great- 
est  literary   success   is   a   simple   little   volume, 
II  Cuore   ( "The  Heart  of  a  Boy" ) ,  intended  pri- 
marily  for   children,   and   recording   the   events 
of  a  single  school  year  as  told  from  day  to  day 
by   one    of   the    pujiils.     In    Italy,    it    is    ncaring 
its  two  hundredth  thousand.     Educational  prob- 
lems have  also  given  De  Amicis  his  subject  for 
his  more  serious  attempt  at  fiction.  La  triwstriiia 
degli    operai     (1895),     and     II     romanzo     d'un 
ma-sfro    (1895).     The   last-named  volume  shows 
a  strong  socialistic  tendency,  w'hich  he  has  since 
openly  avowed.     "As  a   fountain   of   literary  in- 
spiration," he  said  recently,  "socialism  seems  to 
me   most   valuable.     Since'  the   last    outbreak   of 
patriotism  and   of  patriotic   literature   in   Italy, 
we  have  had   no  sort  of  vital   literature.     But 
socialism  will  give  it  to  us."     His  latest  volumes 
are  La  carozza  di  tutti  (1899),  Meinorie  (1899), 
Speranza  e  glorie  (1900),  liicordi  d'infanzia  e  di 
scuola  (1901). 

AMI'CUS  CXJ'RI^  ( Lat.,  friend  of  the  court ) . 
One.  usually  a  counselor  at  law,  who  volunteers 
information,  or  gives  it  at  the  request  of  the 
court,   upon   some  matter   of  law-   in   regard  to 


AMICUS   CURIiE. 


462 


AMIEL. 


which  the  judge  is  doubtful,  or  information  upon 
matters  of  fact  of  which  the  court  may  take 
judicial  cognizance.  The  amicus  curiae  cannot 
add  anj'thing  to  the  record  or  increase  the 
power  of  the  court  to  dispose  of  the  matter  in 
hand.  The  amicus  curiae  in  general  lias  no  con- 
trol over  an  action,  as  does  the  attorney  of 
record ;  but  in  somQ  cases,  as  when  letters  of 
administration  have  been  issued  without  author- 
ity, he  may  move  to  set  the  proceeding  aside. 
By  an  early  English  statute  the  amicus  curiae 
was  permitted  to  move  to  quash  an  improper 
indictment. 

AM'IDAS,  Philip.     See  Amadas,  Philip. 

AM'IDAVAD'  {amadavat,  Indian  name;  the 
bird  was  first  imported  from  the  city  of  Ahmeda- 
bad).  A  cage-bird  {Estrilda  amandaim) ,  one  of 
the  small  weaver-finches  of  India,  having  a  pretty 
song  and  a  social  disposition,  so  that  it  is  a 
favorite  for  aviaries.  The  plumage  is  most 
brilliant,  the  prevailing  colors  being  fiery  red, 
black,  and  yellow.  It  requires  the  food  and  care 
given  to  a  canary.     See  CAiiE-BiuDS. 

AM'IDES,  or  ACID  AM'IDES  (derived 
from  ammoiiiii) .  An  interesting  class  of  organic 
compounds  formed  by  tlie  substitution  of  organic 
acid  radicles  for  one  or  more  hydrogen  atoms 
in  ammonia  (NH3).  If  one  of  the  hydrogen 
atoms  of  ammonia  is  replaced  by  an  acid  radicle, 
the  resulting  compound  is  termed  a  primary 
amide;  if  two  acid  radicles  are  introduced  into 
the  molecule  of  ammonia,  a  secondary  amide  is 
obtained ;  finally,  if  all  the  three  hydrogen  atoms 
of  ammonia  are  replaced  by  acid  radicles,  a  ter- 
tiary amide  is  obtained.  The  relation  of  these 
three  sub-classes  of  amides  to  ammonia  is  shown 
by  the  following  formulie,  representing  com- 
pounds containing  one  or  more  acetyl  groups 
( radicles  of  acetic  acid )  : 

/H  /COCH  /COCH3  /COCH, 

N_H       N— H  N-COCH3       N— COCH, 

\H  \H  \H  \COCH, 

Ammonia  Acetamide  Di-acetylamide        Tri-acftylamide 

(a  primary  (a  secondary  (a  tertiary 

amide)  amide)  amide) 

Amides  are  also  subdivided  into  fatty  and 
aromatic  amides,  according  as  their  acid  radicles 
are  derived  from  fatty  or  from  aromatic  acids ; 
thus,  acctamide  (corresponding  to  acetic  acid) 
is  a  fatt}'  amide,  while  benzamide  (derived  from 
benzoic  acid)    is  an  aromatic  amide. 

The  primary  amides  are  by  far  more  numerous 
and  important  than  the  secondary  or  tertiary 
amides.  From  the  above  it  is  evident  that  their 
molecule  consists  of  two  parts:  viz.,  one  acid 
radicle  and  the  group  NH..  A  number  of  inter- 
esting derivatives  of  the  amides  have  been  ob- 
tained by  replacing  the  hydrogen  of  the  latter 
group.  Thus,  from  acetamide,  CH,.,CONH,,  com- 
pounds may  bo  readilv  obtained,  represented  by 
the  following  formuhe:  CH.CONH  (CH,)— me- 
thvl-acetamide;  ClLCONfCHj),— di-methyl-acet- 
amide;  CHX'ONHAg— silver-acetamide;  CH.CO 
KHBr — bromine-acetaniide,  etc. 

The  following  are  the  principal  general  meth- 
ods by  which  primary  acid  amides  may  be  pre- 
pared : 

1.  When  the  ammonium  salts  of  many  fatty 
organic  acids  arc  distilled,  they  lose  the  elements 
of  water,  and  the  corresponding  amides  are 
formed.     Thus,  acetamide  is  made  by  distilling 


ammonium    acetate,-  the    reaction    taking    place 
according  to   the   following   chemical    equation: 

CH3COONH,  —  H,0  =  CH3CONH, 

Ammonium  acetate  Acetamide 

2.  The  chlorides  of  acid  radicles  are  treated 
with  ammonia.  Thus,  benzamide  (the  amide  of 
benzoic  acid)  is  readily  prepared  by  slowly  add- 
ing benzoyl  chloride  to  strong  ammonia  in  the 
cold,  the  reaction  taking  place  as  follows: 

CoH^COCl     +     NH3    =     C„H,CONH,     +     HCl 

Benzoyl  Anmionia  Benzamide  Hydro- 


clUoride 


chloric  acid 


When  acid  amides  are  boiled  with  dilute  acids 
or  alkalies,  they  take  up  the  elements  of  water 
and  are  reconverted  into  the  ammonium  salts  of 
the  corresponding  acids.  Thus,  acetamide  yields 
ammonium  acetate,  according  to  the  following 
equation : 

CH3CONH,     +     H,0     =     CH3COONH. 
Acetamide  Ammonium  acetate 

The  amides  are  all  soluble  in  alcohol  and  in 
ether,  and  many  are  more  or  less  soluble  in  water. 
Most  of  them  are  solid  crj'stalline  substances 
that  can  be  distilled  without  decomposition. 

The  acid  amides  should  be  distinguished  from 
the  amido-acids :  compounds  of  the  latter  class 
may  be  obtained  by  treating  the  halogen-substi- 
tution products  of  acids  with  ammonia,  while, 
as  stated  above,  the  acid  amides  are  produced  by 
the  action  of  ammonia  on  the  chlorides  of  acid 
jadicles.  The  following  two  eqiurtions  may 
serve  to  show  tlie  formation  of,  and  the  dift'er- 
ence  in  chemical  constitution  between,  an  acid 
amide  and   an   amido-acid: 


CH3CONH2     +     HCl 
Acetamide 


CH3COCI      -I-      NH3 
Acetyl  chloride 

/CI  X-NH, 

CH.COOH     -f     NH3     =     CH,CdOH     +     HCl 

Mono-cliloro-  Amido-acetic  acid 

acetic  acid 

AM'IDO -ACIDS.     See  Amides. 

AMID'SHIP,  or  JIidsuip.   See  Suipbuildinq. 

AMIEL,  a'myel',  Hexri  FnfinfiRic  (1821-81). 
A  Swiss  essayist,  poet,  and  professor  of  aesthetics. 
He  was  born  at  Geneva,  September  27,  1821. 
and  died  there,  May  11,  1881.  He  is  remem- 
bered almost  solely  for  his  Journal  intime,  a 
diary  of  1700  pages  of  manuscript,  posthumously 
published  in  part  in  1SS3-S4  and  translated  into 
English  in  1889,  with  a  critic.nl  study  by  Mrs. 
Humphry  Ward.  This  journal,  through  its  singu- 
lar clearness,  keenness;  of  insight,  and  sensitive- 
ness to  impression,  is  the  complete  revelation  of  a 
cast  of  mind  that  felt  itself  peculiarly  modern 
and  peculiarly  entitled  to  be  self-distressed.  It 
expresses  with  masterful  passion  and  original 
power  the  spiritual  yearning  and  despair  of  a 
pure  soul  gasping  in  a  rationalistic  atmosphere. 
Thus  Amiel  is  a  curious  projection  into  reality 
of  the  Shakespearean  Hamlet,  in  whom  morbid 
introspection  numbs  action.  He  is  more  fasci- 
nating than  stimulating,  more  sombre  than  pessi- 
mistic, more  subtle  than  strong.  His  thoughts 
will  be  cherished  for  the  beauty  of  their  form 
rather  than  for  anv  tonie  quality  in  their  teach- 
ing.    There  is  a  Life  of  Amiel,  by  Vadier  (Pans, 


AMIEL. 


463 


AMINES. 


1885).     Consult  also,  Bourgct,  Kouvcaux  Essais 
(I'aiis,  18S.5).      ' 

AMIENS,  li'inyaN'  (From  the  Lat.  Ambiani, 
the  name  of  a  Belgic  tribe;  literally  "dwellers  on 
the  water;"  compare  Gadhel.  uhhain,  ahhuinnc, 
water,  a  river).  The  capital  of  ancient  Picardy 
and  of  the  present  French  department  of  Somme, 
situated  on  the  River  Somme,  81  miles  by  rail 
from  Paris  (Map:  France,  J  2).  The  residential 
section  is  well  built  with  wide,  well-paved  streets 
and  fine  squares.  The  business  part  of  the  town 
is  crossed  by  several  canals,  and  is  rather  unat- 
tractive. The  old  town  is  surrounded  with 
boulevards,  which  occup}'  the  site  of  tlie  ancient 
fortifications,  and  there  is  in  the  western  part  of 
the  town  an  extensive  pleasure  gro\ind,  the 
Promenade  de  la  Hotoie,  used  for  public  concerts 
and  festivals.  The  world-famous  cathedral  is 
situated  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  city,  facing 
the  Place  Notre  Dame.  ISesides  being  the  largest 
ecclesiastical  edifice  of  France,  the  cathedral  of 
Amiens  is  also  one  of  tlie  finest  specimens  of 
Gothic  architecture  in  Europe.  Its  construction 
was  begun  in  1220  by  the  architect  Robert  de 
Luzarches.  and  was  continued  by  Thomas  de 
C'orniont  and  his  son  Renault.  It  was  finished  in 
1288,  but  many  additions  have  been  made  since; 
the  two  side  towers  of  the  western  facade,  how- 
ever, are  still  unfinished.  The  length  of  the  ca- 
tliedral  is  470  feet,  that  of  the  transept  213  feet, 
and  tlie  width  of  the  nave  144  feet.  The  main 
facade  has  three  lofty  poi'ches  profusely  decora- 
ted with  statuary  and  other  scul])tural  orna- 
ments. The  central  spire  over  tlie  transept  is 
very  slender,  and  3(i0  feet  in  height.  The  inte- 
rior is  also  veiy  imposing.  The  nave  is  147  feet 
high,  and  the  vaulting  is  supported  by  120  col- 
umns. There  are  numerous  chapels,  and  the 
transepts  are  covered  with  fine  reliefs.  At  the 
sides  of  the  nave  are  placed  bronze  statues  of  the 
two  founders  of  the  cathedral,  and  there  are  also 
large  marble  statues  at  the  entrance  to  tlie  choir. 
Besides  the  cathedral  the  most  noteworthy  build- 
ings are  the  town  hall  and  the  Chateau  d'Fau, 
where  the  water  works  of  the  city  are  situated. 
Of  educational  establishments  Amiens  has  a  ly- 
ceum,  a  medical  school,  a  theological  seminary, 
a  municipal  librar.v.  with  about  100,000  volumes 
and  nearl.v  tiOO  manuscripts,  and  the  miiseuui  of 
Picardy,  containing  collections  of  antiquities, 
sculptures,  and  paintings.  Amiens  was  of  con- 
siderable industrial  importance  as  early  as  the 
twelfth 'Century,  and  in  the  sixteenth  century  it 
became  one  of  the  largest  centres  of  the  textile 
industry  in  France.  At  present  the  chief  manu- 
factures of  Amiens  are  linen,  woolens,  silk,  plush, 
and  shoes.  Amiens  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop  and  of 
a  court  of  appeals.     Pop.,   1901,  00,7.58. 

Amiens  was  anciently  known  as  Saniarobriva, 
and  was  the  capital  of  the  Gallic  Ambiani.  Csrsar 
included  it  in  Gallia  Bclgica,  and  it  Iiccame  a 
Roman  stronghold;  Marcus  Aurelius  adorned  it. 
In  the  fifth  century  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Franks.  In  ll8."i  Philip  .\ugustus,  in  consolidat- 
ing the  kingdom,  induced  Philip  of  Alsace  to 
cede  it  to  the  crown.  The  famous  Treaty  of 
Amiens  between  Great  Britain  on  one  side  and 
France,  Spain,  and  the  Batavian  Republic  on  the 
other,  in  which  Great  Britain  reiognized  the 
changes  made  by  France  in  the  map  of  Europe, 
and  gave  up  most  of  her  recent  conquests,  was 
signed  in  the  Hotel  de  Villc  on  March  27,  1802. 
.\niong  notable  men  born  in  this  city  was  Peter 
the  Hermit. 


AMINA,  a-nie'na.  In  Bellini's  opera.  La 
t-oiinambula,  the  heroine,  an  orphan,  who  walked 
in  sleep. 

AMIN'ADAB   SLEEK.      See   Sleek,   Amin- 

AUAi;. 

AMINE,  a-men'.  The  name  of  two  characters 
in  the  Arabian  Xights.  (1)  In  the  History  of 
Sidi  Nouman,  his  wife,  wlio.se  habit  of  eating 
only  so  much  rice  as  she  could  jiick  up  on  a  bod- 
kin excited  his  suspicions,  and  who,  he  discovered, 
partook  of  ghoulish  feasts  in  the  cemetery.  She 
used  also  to  lead  her  three  sisters  about  like 
hounds.  (2)  In  the  story  of  Three  Ladies  of  Bag- 
dad, the  half-sister  of  Zobeide  and  wife  of  Amin, 
the  Caliph's  son,  who  becomes  estranged  from 
her,  but  is  reconciled. 

AM'INES  (Derived  from  ammonia).  A  gen- 
eral term  applied  in  organic  cliemistiy  to  an  im- 
portant class  of  basic  compounds  derived  by  sub- 
stituting hydro-carbon  radicles  like  methyl 
(CHj),  ethyl  (C.Hj),  etc.,  for  one  or  more  of  the 
hydrogen  atoms  of  ammonia  (NHj).  The  com- 
pound CH-NK.  is  called  methyl-amine;  the  com- 
pound (CHjjoNH  —  di-iiiethyl-amine;  the  com- 
pound (CHsJaN  —  tri-methyl-amine.  An  amine 
derived  by  replacing  one  hydrogen  atom  of  am- 
monia is  called  a  jirinwry  unrinc;  one  derived  by 
replacing  two  hydi'ogeiis  is  called  a  secondary 
amine;  finally,  one  derived  by  replacing  all  of  the 
h.ydrogen  of  ammonia  is  called  a  tertiary  amine. 
The  three  compounds  just  mentioned  are  exam- 
ples, respeetivelj-,  of  primary,  secondary,  and 
tertiary  amines. 

The  amines  may  be  readily  prepared  by  the 
action  of  halogen  substitutive  products  of  the 
hj'droearbons  upon  ammonia  (Hofmann's 
method).  Thus,  by  the  action  of  mono-iodo- 
ethane  (ethyl  iodide)  upon  ammonia,  one  or 
more  ethyl  groups  (C^Hj)  are  introduced  into 
the  molecule  of  .ammonia  (NH,),  according  to 
the  following  chemical  equations,  which  usually 
take  place  simultaneously: 


CHsI     -h    NHs    = 

Ethyl-  Ammonia 

iodide 


Ethyl-amine 


+       HI 

Hydriodic 
acid 

+     SHI 


3.    2CaH5l  +    NH3    =    (C2Ho)2NH 

Di-ethyl-amine 

3.  SC.HsI  +    NHs    =     (CJl6)3N     +    SHI 

Tri-ethyl-amine 
As  the  amines  are  powerful  bases,  they  combine, 
of  course,  with  the  hj'driodic  acid  formed  in  these 
reactions,  producing  salts  like  C.HjNHJII, 
from  which  the  amines  are  readily  isolated  by 
distilling  with  caustic  alkalies. 

Simultaneously  with  the  above  three  reactions, 
a  fourth  reaction  takes  place:  viz.,  between  the 
halogen  substitution  product  of  the  hydrocarlion 
and  the  tertiary  amine  produced  in  the  third 
reaction.  This  fourth  reaction,  in  the  case  of 
tri-cthyl-aniine,  is  represented  by  the  following 
equation: 

4.  C,HJ        -f        (CJI,)3N       =        (C,H,),NI 
Ethyl-iodide  Tri-cthyl-amine  Tclr-clliyl-am. 

uioniiim  iodide 

The  compound  formed  in  this  reaction  is  evi- 
dently ammonium  iodide  (H^NI),  all  the  hydro- 
gen of  which  has  been  rejilaced  by  ethyl-groups 
(C2H5)  ;  it  is  therefore  named  tetr-etbyl-ammo- 
nium-iodide.  When  treated  in  aqueous  solution 
with  silver  hydroxide,  it  is  transformed  into  tetr- 


AMINES. 


464 


AMINES. 


ethyl-ammonium  hydroxide,  according  to  the  fol- 
lowing equation: 

(C,H,).NI  +  AgOH  =  (CHJ.NOH  +  Agl 


Tetr-ethyl-am- 
monium  iodide 


Tetr-ethyl-am- 
moDiuni  hydroxide 


just   as   ammonium   iodide   is   transformed   into 
ammonium  hydroxide: 

H,N1    +    AgOH    =    H.NOH    +    Agl 


Ammonium 
iodide 


Ammonium 
hydroxide 


Bases  like  (C^HsJ.NOH,  derived  from  ammonium 
hydroxide  by  substituting  hydrocarbon  radicles 
like  methyl  (CH3),  ethyl  (CJh^),  etc.,  for  all  of 
its  hj'drogen,  are  termed  quaternary  ammonium 
bases. 

The  above  method  of  preparation  of  the  amines 
and  the  substituted  ammonium  salts  may  also 
serve  in  determining  the  nature  of  an  amine. 
An  example  will  render  this  clear:  an  amine 
found  in  herring-brine  has  the  molecular  for- 
mula C.,H„X:  is  it  the  primary  amine  CjHjNHj 
(propyl-amine),  or  the  tertiary  amine  (CHjjjN 
(tri-raethyl-amine)  ?  To  answer  this  question 
the  amine  m;iy  be  treated  with  methyl  iodide, 
and,  when  the  reaction  is  completed,  the  result- 
ing substance  analyzed.  The  formation,  as  a 
final  product  of  the  reaction  of  the  compound 
CjH,_,XI,  proves  that  the  substance  C3H0N,  found 
in  herring-brine,  is  a  tertiary  amine  (CHjjjN, 
for  onlj'  one  methyl  group  (CH^)  is  required  to 
transform  it  into  the  substituted  ammonium 
iodide  C,H„NI  [(CHs)4NI]  ;  while  if  it  were  the 
primary  amine,  C,H-NII,,  the  number  of  methyl- 
groups  taken  up  would  be  three,  and  the  com- 
pound C'eH^NI  [C,H,(CH:,),NI]  would  be  formed. 
The  number  of  groups,  like  methyl,  ethyl,  etc., 
taken  up  by  an  amine  thus  generally  determines 
its  nature. 

The  nature  of  amines  is  also  shown  by  their 
beliavior  toward  nitrous  acid,  the  three  sub- 
classes of  amines  being  characterized  as  follows : 

1.  Primary  amines  are  converted  by  nitrous 
acid  into  the  corresponding  alcohols;  thus,  ethyl- 
amine  is  transformed  into  ethyl  alcohol,  accord- 
ing to  the  following  chemical  equation: 

C.H,NH,  +  HNO,  =  CJI5OH  +  H,0  +  N^ 


distilled  with  caustic  potash,  w-hich  leaves  the 
substituted  ammonium  iodide  undecomposed  as  a 
residue,  while  the  salts  of  the  three  amines  are 
decomposed,  and  a  mi.xture  of  the  amines  in  the 
free  state  passes  over  in  the  distillate.  (2)  When 
the  distillate  is  treated  with  ethyl-oxalate,  the 
primary  amine  (say,  ethyl-amine)  is  converted 
into  a  derivative  of  oxainide  (the  amide  of  oxalic 

CONH2 
acid,  I  \,  according  to  the  following  eqiia- 

conrJ 

tion: 

COOC.H,      CONHCjH, 

2C,H,NH,-f  I  =1  +2C,H,0H; 

COOCHs      CONHC,H, 
Ethyl-amine     Etliyl-oxalate     Etiiyl-oxamide  Alcohol 

w-hile  the  secondary  amine  (say,  di-ethyl-amine) 
is   converted   into  a   derivative   of   oxamic   acid 

CONH, 
(the  amide  of  oxalic  acid,  I  \,  according  to 


Ethyl-amine       Nitrous 
acid 


Ethyl 
alcohol 


just  as  ammonia  is  transformed  into  water: 

NHj     +     HXO,    —    H,0     +     H,0     +     N, 

Ammonia         Nitrous  Water 

acid 

2.  Secondary  amines  are  converted  by  nitrous 
acid  into  compounds  containing  the  group  NO, 
and  called  nitroso-amines :  thus,  di-ethyl-amine, 
(C»H3),XH,  is  transformed  into  ethylnitroso- 
amine,  according  to  the  following  equation: 

(C3H=)2NH    +   HNO,  =    (aH,.),N.  NO   +    H,0 


Di-ethyl- 
aminc 


Ethyl-nitrogo- 
"aminc 


3.  Tertiary  amines  are  not  affected  by  nitrous 
acid. 

It  has  been  stated  above  that  when  ethyl-iodide 
or  similar  substances  are  treated  with  anunonia, 
four  reactions  take  place  simultaneously,  and  a 
mixture  of  four  compounds  is  obtained:  viz.,  the 
salts  of  a  primary,  a,  secondary,  and  a  tertiary 
amine,  and  a  substituted  ammonium  iodide.  The 
separation  of  the  four  compounds  may  be  effected 
by  the   following   method:    (1)    The  mixture   is 


'  COOH  j' 


the  following  equation: 

COOCjH,     CON(C,H,), 
( C:H5 )  ,NH  +  1  =1  +  C^H^OH ; 

COOC,H,     COOC.H5 

Di-ethyl-  Ethyl-  Ethyl-di-ethyl-  Alcohol 

amine  oxalate  osaraate 

the  tertiary  amine  is  not  affected  by  treatment 
with  ethyl-oxalate,  and  as  it  is  much  more  vola- 
tile than  both  ethyl-ox.amide  and  ethyl-di-ethyl- 
o.xamate,  it  may  be  readily  separated  from  these 
compounds  by  distillation.  Finally,  the  two 
compounds  derived  respectively  from  the  primary 
and  secondary  amines  may  be  readily  separated, 
since  ethyl-oxaniide  is  solid,  while  ethyl-di-ethyl- 
o.xamate  remains  liqttid  on  cooling  the  mixture. 
The  primary  and  tlie  secondary  amines  may  be 
obtained  separately  in  the  free  state  by  distilling 
the  substances  tints  separated  with  caustic  pot- 
ash, the  reactions  taking  place,  respectively,  ac- 
cording to  the  following  two  equations: 

CONHCH, 

+    2K0H   =   2CjH,NHj   +   K.CJO, 


co> 


ONHC.H, 

Ethyl- 
oxamide 

CON  (an,)  J 


Ethyl-  Potassium 

amine  oxalate 


COOC.Hs 

Ethyl-di-cthyl- 
oxamate 


+  2K0H  = 

(aHJ^NH  +  K.CA  +  C,H,OH 

Di-ethyl-  Potassium         Alcohol 

amine  oxalate 

Tile  amines  are  much  more  powerful  bases  than 
ammonia.  Their  odor  resembles  that  of  ammonia, 
fi'oni  which,  however,  tlie  gaseous  amines  may  be 
readily  distinguished  by  their  inflammability. 
Many  liquid  and  solid  amines,  too,  have  been 
obtained.  All  of  the  amines  known  have  been 
made  by  artificial  chemical  processes,  and  certain 
amines  are  ftnuid  among  the  products  of  decom- 
position of  nitrogenous  substances.  The  quater- 
nary ammonium  bases  (such  as  tetr-ethyl-anuuo- 
nium-hydroxidel  are  similar,  and  even  more  pow- 
erful in  their  action  than  caustic  pot.ash. 

Amines  containing  a  benzene-nucleus  are  classed 
with  the  so-called  aromatic  compounds  of  organic 
chemistry,  and  are  subdivided  into  amido-com- 
pounrls  and  aromatic  amines  proper,  according 
as  their  nitrogen  is  linked  to  the  nucleus  imme- 
diately, or  through  the  medium  of  CH..-ffroups. 
Ordinary  aniline  is  an  example  of  an  amido-com- 


i 


AMIENS    CATHEDRAL 


AMINES. 


465 


AMLWCH. 


pound,  its  formula  btin^'  (',,H-XH,.  Benzylamine, 
C'oliiCH.NH;,  is  a  true  aromatic  amino.  The  aro- 
matic: amido-comj)ouiids  umleryo  an  interesting 
transformation  when  treated  witli  nitrous  acid 
in  the  cold,  the  resulting  substances  being  known 
as  (limO'CoiiiiJOiirids  (q.v.). 

AMIN'TA.  A  celebrated  pastoral  play  by 
Torquato  Tasso,  produced  at  Ferrara  in  1573.  It 
is  an  allegory,  presenting  the  characters  of  the 
court  where  Tasso  lived. 

AMINTE,  ii'miiMt'.  (1)  In  Moli6re's  Les  prc- 
cicuncs  ridicules  (q.v. ),  the  sentimental  name 
taken  by  the  girl  Cathos.  (2)  A  character  in 
ilolicre's   L'Amour   iiiidecin. 

AMIN'TOR.  The  hero  of  Beaumont  and 
Fletcher's  Maid's  Tragedy  (q.v.),  a  young  noble- 
man who,  though  betrothed  to  Aspatia.  yet  by 
the  king's  command  marries  Evadne,  the  heroine. 

AMIOT,  a'myo'.     See  Amyot. 

AMIRAWTE,  am't-rant',  or  AD'MIRAL, 
ISTjAJMDS.  a  group  of  islets  in  the  Indian 
Ocean  in  lat.  5°  S.  and  long.  ,')3°  E.  They  belong 
to  Great  Britain  and  are  dependencies  of  Mauri- 
tius. There  is  a  small  population,  chiefly  en- 
gaged in  fisheries. 

AMIS  ET  AMILES,  a'me'  za  ta'niel',  also 
called  Amis  et  Amii.ol.v.  A  chansvii  dc  geste, 
dating  from  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  century.  It 
consists  of  about  3500  verses,  chiefly  decas^'Ilabic. 
Amis  and  Amiles  are  two  noble  knights  whose 
close  resemblance  and  whose  friendship  and  mu- 
tual sacrifices  are  the  theme  of  the  jioem.  They 
first  escape  the  machinations  of  the  treacherous 
Hardre  while  in  the  service  of  Charlemagne, 
whose  niece  is  given  in  marriage  to  Amis.  Belli- 
cent,  the  Emperor's  daughter,  loves  Amiles,  who  is 
thereby  brought  into  great  pc.il,  but  he  is  rescued 
by  Amis  and  obtains  the  princess.  Amis,  how- 
ever, in  lighting  in  place  of  his  friend,  has  had 
to  perjure  himself.  For  this  he  is  punished 
with  leprosy,  of  which  at  last  he  is  cured  by  the 
blood  of  Amiles's  two  sons,  voluntaiily  sacrificed 
by  their  father.  These  then  are  miraculously  re- 
stored to  life. 

AM'ISH  CHURCH,  The.    See  Mennonites. 

AMISH  CHURCH,  The  Old.  See  Mennonites. 

AMISTAD  (a'me'st.-iD')  CASE,  The.  Aca.se 
before  the  Linited  States  Supreme  Court  involv- 
ing the  legal  status  of  kidnapped  negroes.  In 
l!S39  some  slaves  recently  kidnapped  from  Africa, 
who  were  being  carried  from  Havana  to  Puerto 
Principe,  Cuba,  in  the  Spanish  schooner  L'Ami- 
stad,  killed  two  of  the  crew,  the  otliers  escaping, 
and  ordered  two  whites,  their  owners,  whose 
lives  they  spared,  to  steer  the  vessel  to  Africa. 
Tlie  latter  steered  north  instead,  and  in  August 
the  vessel  was  captured  ofl'  Long  Island  by  a 
United  States  warship.  President  Van  Buren 
wished  to  surrender  the  negroes  to  the  Spanish 
(iovernnient,  in  accordance  with  the  treaty  of 
17',)5,  as  "property  rescued  from  pirates";  but  the 
Supreme  Court  fi'nally  decided  (in  .March,  1S41) 
that  the  blacks,  having  been  originally  kidnapped, 
were  by  international  law,  which  then  prohibited 
the  slave  trade,  free  men.  The  case  was  argued 
before  the  Supreme  Court  with  great  ability  by 
John  Quincy  Adams,  and  aroused  much  e.Kcite- 
nient  throughout  the  country,  especially  among 
the  radical  abolitionists,  who  advocated  violent 
measures  to  secure  the  release  of  the  negioes. 
Consult:       Peters,     Reports    of     Uniird     titalcs 


Supreme  Court  XV.  (Washington,  1828-43); 
Barber,  flistorii  of  the  Amistad  Captives,  and  an 
interesting  article  in  Volume  XXU  (N.S. )  of  The 
Xcir  Enijland  Magazine  (Boston,  1900). 

AMITE,  a-niet'.  A  town  and  parish  seat  of 
Tangipahoa  Parish,  La.,  about  70  miles  north  by 
west  of  New  Orleans,  on  the  Tangipahoa  River 
and  on  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad  (Map: 
Louisiana,  E  3).  It  is  the  centre  of  a  prosperous 
agricultural  community.  Pop.,  1890,  1510;  1900, 
1547. 

AM'ITO'SIS  ( Gk.  <i,  a,  priv.  -)-  /jiroc,  mitos, 
a  thread  of  the  warp).  A  division  (rare)  of  the 
animal  or  plant  cell  by  simple  constriction  with- 
out the  formation  of  nuclear  figures.  See  Cell; 
MlTOSLS. 

AM'ITYVILLE.  A  village  in  Suffolk  Co., 
N.  Y.,  30  miles  east  of  New  York  City,  on  the 
Long  Island  Railroad  (Map:  New  Y'ork,  G  5). 
It  is  near  the  southern  shore  of  Long  Island,  and 
is  popular  as  a  place  of  residence  and  as  a  sum- 
mer resort.     Pop.,  1890,  2293;   1900,  2038. 

AMTLET,  Dick,  or  Richard.  In  Vanbrugh's 
play.  The  Confederaeij  (q.v.).  the  dissipated  son 
of  a  vulgar  old  woman,  who  is  jiroud  of  him  and 
gives  him  money  -nith  which  to  \i\i\y  the  fine  gen- 
tleman. His  breeding  bctraj-s  itself,  however, 
and  he  marries  the  daughter  of  Grife  the  Scriv- 
ener. 

AM1,ETH,  or  Hamleth.  Prince  of  Jutland, 
supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  .second  century 
B.C.  According  to  Sa.xo  Grammatieus,  he  was 
the  son  of  Horvendill  and  Gerutha ;  and  after 
the  murder  of  his  father  by  his  uncle  Fengo,  who 
married  Gerutha,  he  feigned  himself  a  fool  to 
save  his  own  life.  Sa.\o  relates  a  number  of 
little  things  regarding  Amleth,  which  are  a 
curious  medley  of  sharp  and  lively  observation, 
and  apparent  madness.  We  are  tolij  that,  on 
one  occasion,  when  he  visited  his  mother,  sus- 
pecting that  he  was  watched,  he  commenced  to 
crow  like  a  cock  and  dance  idiotically  about  the 
apartment,  until  he  discovered,  hidden  in  a  heap 
of  straw,  a  spy  in  the  person  of  one  of  Fengo's 
courtiers,  whom  he  immediately  stabbed;  he 
then  so  terrified  his  mother  by  his  reproaches, 
that  she  promi.sed  to  aid  him  in  his  intended 
revenge  on  his  father's  murderer,  and,  according 
to  the  old  chronicler,  really  did  so.  Scandina- 
vian traditions  confirm  the  existence  of  a  prince 
of  this  name.  In  the  vicinity  of  Elsinore  is 
shown  a  suspiciously  modern-looking  pile  of 
stones,  which  bears  the  name  of  Hamlet's  grave. 
Saxo  himself  does  not  mention  the  manner  or 
circumstances  of  Amleth's  death ;  but  the  French 
Wanslator  says  that  he  was  murdered  at  a  ban- 
quet. Jlost  of  the  recent  historians  of  Denmark 
consider  the  history  of  Amleth  fabulous.  As  the 
ultimate  source  of  Shakespeare's  tragedy  of 
Hamlet,  it  possesses  a  perennial  interest  for  all 
the  civilized  world.  There  are  two  Hamlet  sagas 
in  Icelandic,  one  of  which,  the  romantic  .Im- 
hales  Saga,  has  been  edited  and  translated,  with 
an  introductory  essay,  by  I.  Gollancz   (1898). 

AM'L"WCH,  am'luk.  A  seaport  town  of 
Anglesey,  North  Wales,  on  the  northern  coast 
of  the  island,  14  miles  northwest  of  Beaumaris 
(^lap:  Wales,  B  3).  It  is  a  bu.sy  but  rather 
dirty  town,  deriving  its  importance  and  wealth 
almost  entirely  from  the  rich  Parys  and  Jlona 
copper  mines  in  its  vicinity.  Copper-smelting 
is  carried  on  in  Amlwch,  and  a  harbor  has  beea 


AMLWCH. 


■16G 


AMMIANUS    MARCELLINUS. 


formed  by  excavation  out  of  the  solid  slate  rock, 
at  the  expense  of  the  mining  companies,  capable 
of  receiving  vessels  of  GOO  tons.  Pop.,  1891, 
5400;   I'JOl,  5300. 

AM'MAN.     See  Rabbah. 

AM'MAN,  JoHANN  KoNRAD  (1GG9-1724).  A 
Swiss  physician,  and  one  of  the  earliest  writers 
on  the  instruction  of  the  deaf  and  dumb.  In 
his  work,  Hurdiis  Loquens  (1G92),  he  describes 
the  process  employed  by  him  in  teaching,  which 
■was  principally  by  fixing  the  attention  of  tlie 
pujjils  on  the  motions  of  his  lips  and  larynx 
while  he  spoke,  and  inducing  them  to  imitate  him 
iinvil  they  could  utter  distinct  words.  He  prac- 
ticed in  Holland. 

AM'MAN,  .JosT,  or  Justus  (1539-91).  An 
engraver  and  designer  of  gi'eat  productiveness, 
many  ■  of  whose  works  are  in  the  Berlin  col- 
lection of  engravings.  He  was  born  in  Ziirich 
and  after  15U0  lived  at  Nuremberg.  He  began 
a  series  of  copperplate  portraits  of  the  kings  of 
France  (published  157G),  and  made  many  wood- 
cuts for  the  Bible.  His  drawing  is  correct  and 
spirited,  and  his  costumes  are  minutely  ac- 
curate. 

AMMANATI,  am'ma-na'te,  Baetolommeo 
(1511-92).  An  Italian  architect  and  sculjjtor, 
born  at  Settignano;  one  of  the  foremost  artists 
of  the  Late  Renaissance  or  Baroceo,  at  first 
a  pupil  of  Baccio  Bandinelli,  and  afterward 
of  Sansovino,  at  Venice,  wiiora  he  assisted 
in  connection  with  the  Library  of  St.  Mark. 
On  his  return  to  Florence  he  came  under  the 
influence  of  Jlichclangelo's  Medici  Chapel 
sculptures.  He  went  to  Rome  and  collaborated 
with  Vignola  at  the  Villa  of  Pope  Julius,  under 
Pojie  Paul  III.  He  returned  to  Florence  in  1557, 
became  architect  of  Cosmo  de'  iledici,  and  devot- 
ed himself  thenceforth  to  the  beautifying  of  his 
native  city.  His  Santa  Trinita  Bridge,  several 
fountains  and  small  private  palaces  (Pucci, 
Oiugni),  are  successful;  but  his  great  courts  of 
the  Pitti  Palace  and  Santo  Spirito  are  in  bad 
taste.  He  afterward  redeemed  himself  in  the 
simpler  court  of  the  Collegio  Romano  at  Rome 
(15S2),  and  in  the  Ruspoli  Palace  (1586). 

AM'MEN,  Daniel  (1820-08).  An  American 
naval  oflicer.  He  was  born  in  Brown  Co.,  Ohio, 
entered  the  naval  service  as  midsliipman  in 
183G,  and  by  successive  promotions  rose  to  the 
rank  of  rear-admiral  in  1877.  In  18G1-62,  and 
again  in  18G3-64,  he  served  in  Admiral  Dupont's 
blockading  squadron,  and  as  commander  of  the 
gunboat  Seneca  participated  in  the  reduction 
of  Port  Royal  (November  7,  1861),  and  took 
command  of  the  forts  after  their  surrender.  He 
commanded  the  monitor  Pcilapsco  before  Fort 
IMaoallister  (March  3,  1803).  and  before  Fort 
Sumter  (April  7,  1803)  ;  and  in  the  two  attacks 
on  Fort  Fisher  (December,  1804,  and  January, 
1865),  was  in  command  of  the  Mohican.  He 
served  as  chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Yards  and  Docks 
from  180!)  to  1871,  and  of  the  Bureau  of  Navi- 
gation from  1871  to  1878,  when  he  retired  to  pri- 
vate life.  He  designed  the  "Amnien  life  raft" 
*nd  the  ram  Katahdin,  and  wrote  The  American 
Jnter-Oceaiiic  Ship  Canal  Question  (1880)  ,•  The 
Atlantic  Count  (1883).  a  discriminating  ac- 
count, from  the  standpoint  of  a  naval  specialist, 
of  the  operations  of  the  Federal  navy  along  the 
Atlantic  coast  during  the  Civil  War;  Country 
JIoiiics  and  Their  Improvement;  and  The  Old 
t>avij  and  the  New   (1891). 


AMMENHAUSEN,  am'mcn-hou'zen,  Kon- 
RAD  vo.x.  A  Geiinan  poet  of  the  fourteenth 
century.  He  traveled  extensively,  became  a 
monk  at  Stein,  and  wrote  a  long,  "rhymed  poem 
on  the  game  of  chess.  For  much  of  his  material 
he  drew  upon  the  Latin  work  of  Jacobus  de 
Cessolis.  The  poem  is  valuable  for  the  anec- 
dotes of  the  Middle  Ages  which  it  preserves, 
and  still  more  for  extended  references  to  con- 
temporaneous  history. 

AMMERGAIT  (iim'mer-gou)  MYSTERY. 
See  Passion  Play. 

AM'METER,  or  AMPERE'METER  {am- 
pere +  Gk.  fiirpov,  metron,  measure).  An  in- 
strument which  is  used  to  measure  the  intensity 
of  an  electric  current,  and  which  indicates  this 
quantity  directly  in  amperes  (q.v. ).  Ammeters 
are  constructed  in  numerous  forms,  whicli  are 
based  for  the  most  part  on  the  galvanometer 
(q.v.),  on  the  intensity  of  attraction  for  soft 
iron  exerted  by  a  hollow  coil  of  wire  carry- 
ing a  current,  or  on  the  electro-dynamometer. 
As  the  galvanometer  is  used  to  detect  and 
measure  minute  currents,  so  the  ammeter  is 
employed  in  testing  and  engineering  to  indicate 
large  currents,  and  to  enable  an  observer  to  read 
directly  in  amperes  the  current  flowing  at  any 
instant  in  a  circuit.  The  best  form  of  ammeter 
is  the  Weston  instrument,  made  in  the  United 
States,  and  used  all  over  the  world.  It  consists 
of  a  voltmeter  (q.v.)  or  portable  galvanometer, 
whose  movable  coil  is  connected  in  parallel  with 
a  low  resistance  formed  by  one  or  more  copper 
wires.  As  the  current  in  a  circuit  depends 
upon  the  fall  in  potential  across  a  constant 
resistance  (in  this  case  the  copper  wire),  the 
operation  of  the  instrument  will  readily  be  seen. 
Numerous  otlier  forms  of  ammeters  are  con- 
structed, the  simplest  of  whicli  consist  of  a  coil 
of  wire  through  which  the  current  passes,  in- 
closing a  soft  iron  core  suspended  by  a  spring. 
The  amount  that  this  core  is  attracted  is  indi- 
cated by  a  pointer  on  a  scale,  which  can  be  made 
regular  by  constructing  the  core  of  suitable 
shape.  In  other  ammeters  a  magnetic  needle 
is  placed  between  the  poles  of  a  strong  |)ernia- 
nent  magnet,  and  is  surrounded  by  coils  through 
which  the  current  passes.  This  current 
in  passing  deflects  the  needle  by  an  amount 
depending  upon  its  intensity.  The  dynamometer 
or  some  modification  of  it,  is  often  used  to 
measure  alternating  currents,  and  consists  of 
two  coils,  one  of  which  is  free  to  revolve  against 
the  action  of  a  spring.  When  the  current  ])asses 
through  the  two  coils,  which  are  normally  at 
right  angles,  there  is  a  tendency  for  the  movable 
coil  to  take  a  position  parallel  to  the  other,  and 
the  amount  of  motion  depends  upon  the  intensity 
of  the  current. 

AM'MIA'NUS  MAR'CELLI'NUS.  The 
last  Latin  historian  of  the  Roman  Empire.  He 
flourished  in  the  closing  years  of  the  fourth 
century,  and  wrote  a  history  of  Rome  from  the 
accession  of  Nerva    (96)    to  the  death  of  Valens 

(378),  designed  as  a  continuation  of  the  histo- 
ries of  Tacitus.  The  work  when  complete  was 
in    thirty-one    books,    of    which    only    eighteen 

(14-31)  are  extant,  covering  the  last  twenty-five 
years  of  I'ontemporaneous  history  (353-378).  Am- 
mianus  ilarcellinus  was  himself  a  Greek,  born 
at  Antioch;  but  he  had  served  for  years  in  the 
army,  and  had  risen  to  rank  in  the  Eastern 
and   Gothic   campaigns   before  he   settled   down 


AMMIANtrS    MABCELLINUS. 


467 


in  Rome  to  a  quiet  and  studicms  life.  His  book 
is  of  ijreat  importance  as  tlie  conscientious  work 
of  an" experienced  man;  l)ut  the  Latin  is  rude 
and  tlie  style  is  heavy  and  dull.  The  account  of 
the  events  of  Julian's  reign  is  especially  val- 
uable. Best  edition  by  Gardthausen  (Leipzig, 
IS?.'))  :  English  translation  by  C.  D.  Yonge, 
in  Bnlin's  (7<i.ss/ca/  Lihrari/  (London,  18G2). 

AMMIRATO,  iim'me-rii'to.  Scipione  (1531- 
1001).  An  Italian  historian  of  some  merit.  He 
was  born  in  Lecce,  in  the  kingdom  of  JJaples,  and 
after  living  in  Venice,  Rome,  and  Naples,  settled 
at  Florence.  In  Venice  he  aided  in  editing  an 
edition  of  Ariosto.  His  reputation,  however, 
rests  mainly  upon  his  Istoric  florciitiiic,  which 
in  1570  he  was  commissioned  to  write  by  the 
(I rand  Duke  Cosimo  I.,  and  which  covers  the 
history  of  Tuscany  from  the  earliest  times  down 
to  1574.  It  shows  distinct  ability  and  historical 
acumen,  and  is  based  upon  original  documents 
and  other  authentic  sources.  First  complete 
edition.  Florence,  1641-47;  best  modern  reprint, 
Turin.   1850. 

AM'MON.  An  Egyptian  deity.  His  name 
(Egyptian  Ainon,  later  Ainun)  was  explained  by 
the  priests  as  meaning  "the  hidden,"  or  "myste- 
rious;" but  this  etymology  is  not  reliable.  Orig- 
inally Ammon  was  mereh'  the  local  god  of 
Thebes ;  but  after  the  Theban  dynasties  became 
rulers  of  all  Egypt  (beginning  with  the  Eight- 
eenth Dyn.'isty,  about  1000  B.C.),  he  became  the 
ollieial  head  of  the  pantheon  and  national 
deity  of  Egypt.  His  worship  spread  through- 
out Ethiopia  and  Libya,  and  he  had  a  famous 
oracle  in  the  Lilmin  Desert.  The  Greeks  iden- 
tified him  with  their  supreme  god  Zeus,  and 
named  Thebes,  his  original  seat  of  worship, 
Diospolis.  In  the  Old  Testament  the  city  is 
called  No-Ammon.   "The   City  of  Ammon." 

Although  not  originallj'  a  solar  divinity,  later 
theological  schools  ascribed  a  solar  character  to 
this  god,  and  he  was  called  Ammon-RO,  i.e., 
'■.\nmion  the  Sun."  In  his  statues,  Ammon  is 
generally  represented  in  human  form,  with  skin 
of  a  bluish  tint,  and  wearing  a  peculiar  head- 
dress, from  which  rise  two  immense  feathers, 
while  a  long  and  narrow  band  liangs  down  be- 
hind. He  often  appears  in  the  form  of  his  sacred 
animal,  the  ram,  or  as  a  ram  with  a  man's 
head.  Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  the  Lib- 
yan type,  with  a  human  head  bearing  a  ram's 
horns,  became  popular.  For  illustration,  see 
Egypt. 

AMMON,  Otto  (1842 — ).  A  German  an- 
thropolu'^ist  and  editor.  He  was  born  at  Karls- 
ruhe, and  was  educated  as  a  civil  engineer,  which 
profession  he  followed  from  180:!  to  1808.  He 
then  became  a  publisher  and  editor,  but  in  1883 
began  to  devote  himself  to  literary  work,  and 
afterward  made  several  important  contributions 
to  sociological  and  anthropological  literature. 
He  was  the  discoverer  of  the  so-called  "Amnion's 
law,"  that  the  Teutonic  race  betrays  almost  ev- 
erywhere a  marked  tendency  toward  <'ity  life, 
which  he  has  demonstrated  in  a  series  of  interest- 
ing measurements  of  the  physical  characteristics, 
especially  of  the  head,  of  thousands  of  ccmscripts 
in  the  Baden  army,  showing  radical  <litferences 
between  the  form  of  the  head  in  city  and 
country,  and  between  the  upper  and  lower  classes 
in  the  larger  towns.  His  chief  works  are:  Die 
natiirlichc  Aiislese  beim  itenschcn  (Jena,  1893), 
Die   Gcscltschaftsordnung   und   Hire   natiirlichen 


AMMONIAC. 

Grundlagen  (second  edition,  ,Iena,  1896),  and 
important  articles  as  follows:  "Die  Geschichte 
einer  Idee,"  Rundschau  (Berlin,  1896),  on  the 
physical  types  of  city  populations;  "Der 
Abiinderungsspiclraum,"  Xaturicisscnschaftliche 
Wochenschrift  (Berlin,  189G)  ;  "Die  Menschen- 
rassen  in  Europa,"  Rundscliau  (Berlin,  1890); 
"Die  Korpergrosse  der  Wehrpfiichtigen  in  Ba- 
den. 1840-04"  (Karlsruhe,  1840);  "Anthropolo- 
gisehe  Untersuchungen  der  Wehrpfiichtigen  in 
Baden"    (1890). 

AMMONIA.     See  Antidotes. 

AMMO'NIA  (Gk.  a/i/iavtnK6v,  ammoniakon, 
rock-salt),  NHj.  A  colorless,  pungent,  gaseous 
compound  of  nitrogen  and  hydrogen.  It  was 
known  to  the  ancients  as  volatile  alkali,  and  is 
said  to  have  been  called  vehement  odor  by  Pliny. 
Its  name  is  believed  to  be  derived  from  Zeus 
Ammon,  near  whose  temple  in  Libya,  Upper 
Africa,  it  was  first  produced  by  burning  camels' 
dung.  Others  derive  it  from  Anunonia,  a  Cyre- 
naic  territory.  In  1774  Priestley  obtained  it  by 
boiling  its  aqueous  solution  and  collecting  the 
gas,  which  he  termed  alkaline  air,  over  the  mer- 
curial pneumatic  trough.  Scheele  showed  that 
it  contained  nitrogen,  and  Berthollet,  in  1785, 
demonstrated  its  composition.  Free  ammonia 
does  not  occur  in  nature,  but  its  salts  are  found 
in  the  atmosphere  and  in  rain-water,  in  mineral 
and  sea  waters,  in  most  plants,  and  as  a  product 
of   the   decay   of   nitrogenous   organic   bodies. 

It  may  be  made  by  heating  ammonium  chloride 
with  lime.  The  principal  commercial  source  of 
anunonia  is  from  the  destructive  distillation  of 
coal  in  gas  making.  In  the  distillation  of  coal 
ill  a  retort,  there  is  obtained,  first,  illuminating 
gas,  and,  secondly,  a  liquor  which  contains  ammo- 
nia. Allowing  this  liquid  to  settle,  the  aqueous 
portion  separates,  from  which  free  ammonia  is 
first  expelled  by  means  of  steam,  after  which 
the  liquor  is  treated  with  lime  and  further  steam 
to  expel  the  fixed  ammonia.  The  steam,  ammo- 
nia, and  other  gases  are  passed  through  strong 
sulphuric  acid  in  lead  tanks,  and  the  crj-stals  of 
ammonium  sulphate  which  then  form  are  re- 
moved from  time  to  time  by  means  of  ladles, 
while  the  free  ammonia  is  collected  in  water 
yielding  aqueous  ammonia  or  hartshorn,  a  trans-, 
parent,  colorless,  and  strongly  alkaline  liquid 
with  an  acrid,  caustic  taste  and  pungent  odor. 
When  exposed  to  the  air,  it  loses  ammonia,  and 
when  reduced  to  minus  40°  C.  it  freezes. 

Liquid  ammonia  has  been  used  for  motive 
power,  and  its  evaporation  is  the  basis  for  the 
Carrg  and  Linde  processes  for  the  production 
of  artificial  cold.  It  is  also  used  in  pharmacy, 
dyeing,  calico  printing,  and  in  the  preparation 
of   coloring   matters,   and   many   chemicals. 

Ammonium  sulphate,  which  is  a  white  crys- 
talline compound,  is  largely  used  both  alone  and 
in  mixtures  as  an  artificial  fertilizer;  it  is  also 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  alum,  and  in  the 
preparation  of  other  ammonium  salts.  Ammo- 
nium chloride,  called  also  sal  ammoniac,  is  used 
in  pharmacy,  in  dyeing,  and  as  a  convenient 
source  of  ammonia.  Ammonium  carbonate, 
called  also  sal  volatile,  is  used  for  scouring  wool, 
for  dyeing,  and  as  a  baking  powder.  Consult : 
Arnold,  Ammotiia  and  Ammonia  Compounds 
(London,  18S9)  ;  and  Lunge,  Coal  Tar  (London, 
1882). 

AMMO'NIAC  (Lat.  ammoniacum,  Gk.  a/jftu- 
vianoi;    ammoniakon,    gum-ammoniac),    or    GuM 


AMMONIAC. 


468 


AMMONIXJS. 


Ammoniac.  A  gum-resin,  used  medicinally 
in  certain  plasters.  It  is  obtained  from  the 
Dorema  amraoniacum,  an  umbelliferous  plant 
found  in  Persia  and  Turkestan.  The  gum  is 
made  by  drying  the  milky  juice  of  the  plant. 
It  occurs  in  commerce  either  in  tears,  or  in 
masses  formed  of  them,  but  mixed  with  impuri- 
ties. It  is  whitish,  becoming  yellow  by  exposure 
to  the  atmosphere,  is  softened  by  the  heat  of  the 
hand,  and  has  a  peculiar  heavy  smell  and  a 
bitter    taste. 

AM'MONI'ACAL  COP'PER  CAR'BON- 
ATE.     See  Fu.ngiCides. 

AM'MONITE  (Derived  from  ammonia).  A 
trade  name  of  a  product  rich  in  nitrogen  (thir- 
teen to  fourteen  per  cent.),  obtained  largely 
from  rendering  establishments  where  different 
portions  of  dead  animals  are  subjected  to  treat- 
ment— usually  drying  and  extracting  the  fat 
by  means  of  steam.  The  product  is  also  ob- 
tained in  considerable  quantities  from  beef-ex- 
tract factories.  It  is  a  high-gi-ade,  nitrogenous 
fertilizer,  practically  identical  with  the  "dried 
meat  or  meal,"  "animal  matter,"  or  "azotin," 
found  on  the  market  as  a  fertilizer.  See  article 
Fertilizers. 

AMMONITES.     A  people  allied  to  the  Mo- 
abites.  and  also    (though  in  a  minor  degree)    to 
the    Hebrews,    whose    settlements    were    on    the 
edge  of  the  Syrian  Desert.     According  to  Genesis 
(xix  :  38)    they  were  descendants  of  Ben-Ammi, 
the  son  of  Lot," and  while  this  account  is  fanciful, 
there    is    no    reason    to    doubt    the    relationship 
implied  between  Ammonites  and  Moabites.     The 
Ammonites    inhabited    the   country   east    of    the 
.Jordan,   between   the   rivers  Arnon   and   Jabbok, 
i.e.,  the  desert  country  east  of  Gad.     Their  chief 
city  was  Rabbath  Amnion  (Deuteronomy  iii  :  11: 
Ezekiel  xxi  :  20),  known  as  Philadelphia  in  the 
Greek    occupation.      The    relations    between    the 
Ammonites  and  the  Hebrews  were  almost  contin- 
uously  hostile.     Jephthah    defeated    them    with 
great"  slaughter    (Judges  xi  :  4-33:   xii  :  28  may 
be  a  later   interpolation)  :   they  were  also  over- 
come  by   Saul    (I.    Samuel    xi  :  Ml),    and    by 
David  (II.  Samuel  xii  :  26-31).     After  the  king- 
dom was  divided,  the  Ammonites  attacked  Gil- 
ead,   perhaps   together   with   the   Assyrians    (II. 
Kings  XV  :  29:   I.  Chronicles  v  :  26),  for  which 
they    are    denounced    by    the    prophets    Amos 
i:i3),     Zephaniah      (xxviii,     xxix),     Jeremiah 
(xlix  :  1-7),  and  Ezekiel    (xxi  :  28-32).     In  the 
davs  of  Jehoshaphat,  the  Ammonites  made  an 
abortive  attempt  to  attack  Judah  (II.  Chronicles 
XX  :  1-30).  and  later  they  were  defeated  by  King 
Jotham     (II.    Chronicles'    xxvii:.5).     .\fter    the 
captivity    they    recommenced    their    feuds    with 
the  Jew"s    (Ne'hemiah  iv  :  1-15),  but  in  the  days 
of    .ludas    Maccabseus    the    Ammonites,    together 
with  their  Syrian  allies,  were  thoroughly  routed 
by    the    Jews     (I.    Maccabeus    v  :  6).      Justin 
Martyr  affirms  that  in  his  day  (about  150  A.n.) 
the  -Ammonites  were  still  numerous.     The  chief 
deity  worshipped  by  the  Ammonites  was  Milcom, 
which   signifies   "king"    (I.   Kings   xi  :  3.   7-33), 
who   bore   the   same   relation   to   his   subjects   as 
Chemosh  did  to  the  Moabites  and  Yahweh  to  the 
Hebrews.    He  was  the  natural  protector  to  whom 
the  people  looked  for  succor  in  distress.     Of  the 
rites  of  the  Ammonites  we  know  nothing  beyond 
the  prejudiced  references  in  the  writings  of  the 
Hebrew    prophets,    but    the    supposition    seems 
reasonable  that  the  worship  was  similar  to  that 


of  the  Moabites  as  well  as  to  that  of  the  Hebrews 
in  the  early  stages  of  their  history.  The  Am- 
monitisli  language,  likewise,  was  practically  iden- 
tical with  Moabitish  and  ancient  Hebrew,  the 
differences  between  them  being  merely  of  a  dia- 
lectical order.  See  the  commentaries  on  Genesis 
xix  :  38.  Dillmann,  Delitzsch,  Gunkel,  and  Hol- 
zinger. 

AMMONITES,  am'o-ni'tez.  A  generic  name 
given  by  Lamarck  and  L.  von  Buch  to  a  group  of 
tetrabranchiate  cephalopod  shells  found  in  the 
Mesozoic  rocks  of  Europe.  A  still  earlier  name 
applied  to  them  by  the  alchemists  and  others  of 
the  Middle  Ages  was  Cornu  Ammonis,  from  a 
fancied  resemblance  to  the  horns  of  Zeus 
Amnion.  The  term  Ammonites  lias,  as  a  generic 
name,  fallen  into  disuse,  for  more  recent  re- 
searches have  shown  that  Von  Bueh's  name  in- 
cluded a  large  array  of  species  that  present 
characters  not  only  of  a  generic  but  also  of 
family  rank.  The  name  is,  however,  still  ussd 
in  a  loose  way  to  distinguisli  those  Mesozoic 
cephalopods,  with  complicated  suture  lines,  from 
the  Palfeozoie  Goniatites  with  more  simple  su- 
tures. Von  Bueh's  three  genera,  Ammonites, 
Ceratites,  and  Goniatites,  with  their  numerous 
species,  have  been  broken  up  into  a  host  of  new 
generic  terms,  about  fifty  in  number,  and  these 
latter  have  been  grouped  into  about  ninety  fam- 
ilies, all  of  which  are  included  in  the  order  Am- 
monoidea.  For  the  structure  of  the  shell,  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  species,  and  the  geological  his- 
tory of  the  group,  see  Cephalopoda. 

AMMO'NItTM     (From    ammonia),    NH,.     A 
chemical  radicle  composed  of  one  atom  of  nitro- 
gen and   four  atoms   of  hydrogen.     This   radicle 
or   atomic   group,   acts   like   the   monovalent  ele- 
ments, sodium  and  potassium,  and  is  contained 
in    ammoniacal    salts.     An    amalgam,    too,    has 
been  obtained  in  which  it  exists  in  direct  com- 
bination   with    mercury.     Ammonium    amalgam 
is  a  pasty,  lustrous,  met<al-like  substance  formed 
by  passing  an  electric  current  through  ammoni- 
um chloride  in  contact  with  mercury.     It  is  an 
unstable  body,  which  readily  decomposes,  giving 
off  ammonia  and  hydrogen. 
AMMO'NIUM.     See  SiwAH. 
AMMO'NItrS     (Gk.     'A/i/iuvmc,    Ammonios). 
An  Alexandrian  philosopher  of  the  third  century 
A.D.,    surnamed    Saccas     (sack-carrier),    because, 
as  it  is  said,  he  had  been  a  porter  in  his  youth. 
He  was  of  Christian  parentage,  but  according  to 
his    most    eminent    pupil,    Plotinus,    his    studies 
led    him    to    abandon    Christianity    for    the    old 
Greek  religion ;  this  is  denied,  however,  by  Euse- 
bius  and  St.  Jerome.     Longinus  says  that  as  a 
philosoplier  he  surpassed  all  his  contemporaries; 
his   teaching   was   directed   chiefly   toward   har- 
monizing  the   doctrines   of   Plato   and   Aristotle, 
and  through  his  disciples  he  became  the  founder 
of     the      Neo-Platonie      school     of      philosoiihy. 
Among  his  pupils  were  Origen,   the  Xeo-Platon- 
ist.  Origen  the  Christian,  Longinus.   Herennius, 
Th'eodosius.    Antoninus,    and    Plotinus.     Amnio- 
nius  left  no  writings,  but  his  esoteric  teachings 
were  spread  by  Origen  and  Herennius,  and  cspe- 
ciallv  bv  Plotinus. 

Ammonius  was  the  name  of  several  otlier 
learned  men  in  the  later  periods  of  Greek  his- 
tory: Ammonius,  a  Peripatetic  philosoidier  of 
the  first  century,  the  teacher  of  Plutarcli;  Ani- 
nionius,  a  Christian  philosopher  at  Alexandria 
in  the  third  century,  who  wrote  a  work  on  the 


AMMONIXrS. 


■169 


AMMUNITION. 


agreement  of  the  teachings  of  Moses  and  Jesus, 
and  composed  a  harmony  of  the  Gospels;  Am- 
nionius,  son  of  Hermeas,  a  Peripatetic  philoso- 
plier  of  the  fifth  century,  disciple  of  Proclus  and 
author  of  commentaries  on  Aristotle;  Ammo- 
nius,  the  famous  surgeon  of  Alexandria,  who 
lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the  first  century  B.c; 
Ammonius,  the  giammariau,  pupil  of  Aristar- 
chus,  and  his  successor  as  head  of  the  Alex- 
andrian Scliool. 

AM'MONOIB'EA.  An  order  of  tetrabran- 
chiate  ceplialopods,  equivalent  in  rank  to  the 
Nautiloidea.  It  contains  more  than  five  thou- 
sand species,  all  of  which  are  extinct  and  found 
in  a  fossil  state  in  marine  rocks  of  Devonian 
and  Carboniferous,  and  abundantly  in  those  of 
Mesozoic  age  of  all  parts  of  the  world.  The 
foriA  of  the  animal  in  this  order  is  unknown; 
but  from  the  structure  of  the  shell,  it  is  sup- 
posed to  have  a  form  like  that  of  its  only 
living  ally,  the  nautilus,  though  of  a  more 
delicate  construction,  and  to  have  been  a  crawler 
instead  of  a  swimmer.  The  shell  is  coiled  in  a 
single  plane,  with  its  apex  in  the  centre  of  the 
coil,  and  it  is  usually  compressed  into  a  discoid. 
This  discoid  form  is  in  some  phylogerontic  or 
senile  types  of  Mesozoic  Age  changed  to  a  tur- 
reted,  or  irregular,  or  straight  shell.  The  five 
thousand  species  of  the  order  are  grouped  under 
about  five  hundred  genera  and  some  ninety-eight 
families,  according,  chiefly,  to  the  form  and 
mode  of  development  of  the  so-called  sutiire 
lines,  which  are  tlie  lines  of  union  of  the  internal 
septal  walls  with  the  inner  wall  of  the  shell. 
The  order  is  of  peculiar  interest,  in  that,  of  all 
groups  of  animals,  it  furnishes  the  finest  illus- 
trations of  evolution,  and  the  laws  of  growth 
and  decline,  of  ontogeny  and  phylogeny;  in  other 
words,  of  bioplastology.  For  more  particular 
information  and  illustrations,  see  Cephalopoda. 

AM'MONOO'SUC,  Lower.  A  river  rising  in 
the  White  Mountains,  New  Hampshire,  and 
flowing  tlirough  Coos  and  Grafton  counties 
(Map:  New  Hampshire,  G  >5).  It  is  flO  miles 
long,  drains  an  area  of  nearly  400  squiire  miles, 
and  furnishes  extensive  water  power.  It  flows 
into  tlie  Connecticut  River  opposite  Wells  River, 
Vermont. 

AMMONOOSTJC,  Upper.  A  river,  40  miles 
long,  rising  in  the  Randolph  range  of  the  ^\^lite 
Mountains,  and  draining  an  area  of  252  square 
miles  of  Coos  County,  New  Hampshire  ( j\lap : 
New  Hampshire,  J  3 ) .  It  flows  into  the  Con- 
necticut below  Groveton. 

AMMOPH'ILA  (Gk.  a///;of,  ammox,  sand  -\- 
(I>i1nr,  7</ii7o.'!,  friend,  loving) .  A  genus  of  grasses, 
closely  allied  to  Arundo.  (See  Reed.)  It  is 
distinguished  by  a  spike-like  panicle,  and  by  the 
character  of  the  glumes,  which  are  nearly  equal, 
keeled,  longer  than  the  palea;  of  the  single  floret, 
and  surrounded  at  the  base  by  a  tuft  of  hairs. 
Ammophila  arenaria  or  Ammophila  arundina- 
cea,  formerly  called  Arundo  areiuiria — a  grass 
about  two  to  three  feet  high,  with  rigid  bluish 
leaves,  the  edges  of  which  are  rolled  in,  and  creep- 
ing rootstocks — is  frequent  on  sandy  shores 
of  Great  Britain  and  the  Continent  of  Europe. 
It  is  sometimes  called  beach  grass,  sea  reed,  or 
sand  reed,  and  sometimes  nuit  grass,  because  the 
culms  are  wrought  into  foot-nuxts,  coverings  for 
stairs,  etc.  It  is  also  called  marram,  by  which 
name  it  is  designated  in  l.aws  both  English  and 
Scottish,   by   which   the   destruction   of   it   was 


prohibited  under  severe  penalties,  because  of  its 
great  utility  in  fixing  the  shifting  sand.  In 
Holland  and  in  Norfolk,  as  well  as  in  the  United 
States,  it  is  extensively  employed— along  with 
the  Sea  lyme  grass  (q.v. ) — in  preserving  the 
banks  of  sand  which  prevent  the  inroads  of  the 
sea.  It  is  of  little  value  as  food  for  cattle, 
although  they  eat  the  very  young  leaves.  The 
fibre  has  been  used  instead  of  flax,  but  is  too 
short.  Beach  grass  has  been  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  paper  of  coarse  quality. 

AM'MTJNI'TION  (Fr.  amunition,  probably 
by  wrong  division  of  la  nmnilion  into  I'anmni- 
tion;  from  Lat.  munire,  to  fortify,  defend).  A 
term  which  embraces  all  the  ordnance  stores 
used  in  the  actual  firing  of  guns  of  every  sort 
and  calibre,  and  which  includes  gunpowder,  pro- 
jectiles, primers,  and  their  accessories.  When 
the  powder,  projectile,  and  primer  are  so  com- 
bined in  a  single  piece  as  to  be  ready  for  firing 
as  soon  as  phaced  in  the  gun,  the  packages  so 
formed  are  called  fixed  ammunition  :  the  term 
is  also  extended  to  ammunition  for  large  guns 
in  which  the  powder  is  inclosed  in  a  primed 
metallic  case,  but  loaded  separately  from  the 
projectile.  In  small  arms  the  ammunition  is 
invariably  of  the  fixed  type.  For  heavy  guns 
the  ammunition  is  almost  universally  fixed  for 
calibres  of  less  than  four  inches.  Above  this, 
the  practice  is  not  uniform  in  all  countries  or 
in  all  classes  of  guns.  In  the  United  States 
Navy  fixed  ammunition  is  used  in  all   calibres 


r^~~r 


J- 


FIXED    AMMUNITION — UNITED    STATES    KAVT. 

1.  One-pounder.    2.  Six-pounder,  three  inch  and  four  inch. 

A.  Braes  Cartridge  Case,  bottle-necked  at  E. 

B.  Rotating  Band  (copper). 

C.  Projectile. 

D.  Base  of  Cartridge  Case. 

E.  Bottle-neck  of  Cartridge  Case. 

F.  Primer. 

of  guns  up  to  and  including  that  of  four  inches ; 
guns  of  five-inch  calibre,  of  models  antedating 
1899,  are  also  supplied  with  it;  six-inch  guns, 
except  those  of  1S99  and  later  models,  have  the 
powder  charge  put  vip  in  primed  brass  cartridge 
cases,  but  the  projectile  is  separately  loaded. 
In  other  services,  army  and  navy,  the  rule  was, 
and  is.  about  the  same.  In  the  new  United 
States  Navy  guns  (model  of  1899),  fixed  ammu- 
nition is  used  for  guns  of  four-inch  calibre  and 
less.  No  cartridge  cases  are  used  for  the  larger 
calibres.  A  new  form  of  lock,  which  automati- 
cally ejects  the  primer,  assists  to  make  the  load- 
ing with  powder  in  bags  quite  as  rapid  as  if  it 
were  incased  in  metal.  Tlie  metallic  cartridge 
cases  used  for  fixed  ammunition  are  now  gen- 
erally made  of  hard  drawn  brass  of  the  best 
quality,  stamped  from  sheets  or  plates  of  vary- 
ing thickness,  depending  upon  the  calibre  of  the 
gun  for  which  they  are  designed.  The  circular 
disk  cut  from  the  slicct  or  plate  is  first  given 
the  form  of  a  shallow  cup  and  then  drawn  out 


AMMUNITION. 


470 


AMMUNITION    CHESTS. 


and  pressed  into  finished  shape.  The  cases 
usually  have  a  rim  around  the  base,  but  some 
have  a  groove,  called  a  cannelure,  sunk  into  and 
surrounding  the  base;  the  chief  use  of  both  rim 
and  cannelure  is  to  enable  the  extractor  to  take 
hold  of  and  extract  the  empty  case  after  firing; 
but  the  rim  also  assists  to  hold  the  ease  in  its 
proper  position  in  the  gun.  The  high  velocity 
given  the  projectile  in  a  modem  gun  entails 
•  the  use  of  a  relatively  large  charge  of  powder; 
to  hold  this,  and  to  avoid  undue  length  of  case, 
which  involves  unnecessary  weight  and  intro- 
duces difficulties  in  connection  with  vibrations 
and  pressures,  the  case  is  increased  in  diameter 
ow  the  powder  and  drawn  down  to  form  a  bot- 
tle-neck where  it  grips  the  projectile.  No  paper 
cases  are  used  for  military  or  naval  arms,  but 
the  cases  for  the  ammunition  of  breech-loading 
shot-guns  have  the  cylindrical  portion  of  card- 
board or  papier-mache,  the  base  being  of  brass 
formed  in  (he  manner  already  described. 

Gunpowiler  ( see  Explosives  and  Gu.\powder), 
the  jiropelling  force  in  all  military  weapons  in 
general  service  (except  pneumatic  guns,  which 
have  a  very  limited  use  and  are  not  generally 
approved  for  any  purpose),  is  put  up,  for  guns 
of  large  calibre,  in  bags  made  of  some  sort  of 
cloth,  usually  serge.  For  convenience  of  hand- 
ling, the  charges  are  divided  into  sections  when 
the  weight  of  the  full  charge  exceeds  one  hun- 
dred pounds.  Powder  charges,  when  in  bags, 
are  stowed  in  water-tight  copper  tanks  in  com- 
partments or  buildings  called  magazines;  on 
shipboard,  magazines  are  placed  below  the  water 
line,  near  the  bottom  of  the  ship,  and  as  far 
away  as  practicable  from  the  heat  of  boilers  and 
engines.  In  fortifications  the  magazines  for 
war  service  are  below  ground  or  behind  ample 
protections.  Fixed  amnumition  is  stored  in 
rooms  similar  to  magazines,  as  are  also  projec- 
tiles (q.v. ).  Powder  charges,  whether  in  metal- 
lic cases  or  in  bags,  are  ignited  by  primers;  these 
are  of  four  types:  percussion,  friction,  electric, 
and  combination  (percussion  and  electric).  Per- 
cussion primers  resemble  miniature  fixed  ammu- 
nition; those  used  in  the  United  States  Navy 
are  about  an  inch  long,  one-fifth  of  an  inch  in 
diameter  in  the  body,  and  enlarged  consideral)ly 
at  tlie  base;  they  contain  seven  grains  of  fine 
powder  in  the  body,  and  a  primer  cap  in  tlie 
head,  which  will  ignite  when  struck  by  the  firing 
pin  of  the  gun  lock.  Friction  primers  are  of 
t)ie  same  shape  and  size,  but  are  ignited  by  the 
friction  caused  by  drawing  a  serrated  strip  of 
metal  through  the  fulminate  in  the  primer  head. 
Their  use  in  the  United  States  Navy  has  been 
discontinued,  but  they  are  still  in  some  favor 
abroad.  Electric  primers  differ  from  those 
already  mentioned  in  being  ignited  by  an  electric 
spark  instead  of  by  friction  or  percussion.  Sin- 
gle and  double  wire  systems  are  employed,  but 
only  the  former  is  used  in  the  United  States 
Navy;  in  guns  which  do  not  use  fixed  ammuni- 
tion the  current,  furnished  by  a  dry  battery, 
or  the  dynamo,  passes  thrinigh  a  single  insulated 
copper  wire  into  the  primer;  there  it  encoiinters 
resistance  in  tlie  shape  of  a  bridge  of  platinum 
wire,  and  thence  escapes  through  the  metal  of 
the  primer  to  the  gun  and  so  to  earth;  in  pass- 
ing through  the  platinum  bridge  it  heats  the 
latter  while  hot  and  thus  causes  ignition.  In 
guns  using  fixed  ammunition,  the  electric  primer 
is  .screwed  or  pressed  into  the  base  of  the  powder 
case;  the  current  enters  the  primer  through  the 


electric  primer  connection,  which  is  similar  to 
the  percussion  firing  pin,  but  is  insulated  in 
order  to  carry  the  current.  The  combination 
primer  is  being  experimented  with  in  Europe; 
in  the  United  States  Navy  it  is  displacing  the 
percussion  and  electric  primers,  as  all  new  guns 
and  powder  cases  are  fitted  to  take  it,  and  the 
old  ones  are  being  altered  as  opportunity  offers. 
It  may  be  ignited  either  by  an  electric  current 
or  by  percussion.  It  is  much  larger  than  the 
older  primers,  being  about  two  inches  long  and 
about  as  large  around  as  a  lead  pencil. 

EtTective  ammunition  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant factors  of  modern  warfare,  and  the  one 
great  factor  in  determining  prevailing  tactics, 
methods  of  defense,  and  equipment  of  men  and 
materials.  Every  improvement  in  rapidity  of 
fire  of  weapons  increases  the  anxiety  about  the 
supply  of  ammunition  in  the  field ;  nevertheless, 
it  nuist  be  remembered  that,  although  separate 
battalions  or  batteries  have  en  occasion  been 
without  amnumition,  the  troops  as  a  whole  have 
never  sutlered  from  this  want.  The  soldier  car- 
ries a  considerable  number  of  rounds  on  his 
person,  and  at  the  very  opening  of  a  battle  the 
company  ammunition  wagons  are  available; 
when  they  are  exhausted,  they  go  to  the  nearest 
auiuiunition  column,  rejjlenish,  and  return  as 
quickly  as  possible.  The  field  artillery  uses  its 
limber  ammunition  only  when  no  other  is  avail- 
alile,  that  of  the  caisso7is  being  used  first;  the 
empty  caissons  being  replaced  by  others  from 
the  second  Echelon  of  the  battery,  and  the  latter 
obtaining  further  supplies  from  the  ammunition 
cohnnns. 

Tlie  question  of  ammunition  was  one  of  the 
subjects  of  tlie  Peace  Congress  held  at  The  Hague 
in  the  summer  of  1899,  and  strong  recommenda- 
tions were  made  to  discountenance  the  use  of 
explosive  or  expanding  bullets.  The  English  in 
the  Sudan,  and  in  smaller  Indian  punitive  expe- 
ditions, found  that  the  smallness,  shape,  a?id 
velocity  of  a  modern  rifle  bullet  had  not  a  suf- 
ficiently deterring  effect  on  the  charging  masses 
of  tribesmen,  and  frequently  used  the  so-called 
dum-dmn  bullet,  which  is  made  of  softer  metal 
and  expands  or  contracts.  During  the  Boer  War 
dum-dum  and  explosive  cartridges  were  fre- 
quently found  after  the  various  battles,  each  side 
charging  the  other  with  having  used  them.  In 
the  Spanish-American  War  of  1S98-99  the  small, 
clean-cut  wounds  caused  by  the  Krag-Jorgensen 
(United  States)  and  Mauser  (Spanish)  bullets 
were  found  fatal  only  in  a  small  percentage  of 
cases.  Instances  were  frequent  where  men  con- 
tinued  to   fight   for   some   time   after   being   hit. 

In  England,  and  Europe  generally,  all  govern- 
ment-made ammunition  is  manufactured  at  the 
government  arsenals.     See  AnsENAl.. 

The  word  ammunition  is  still  retained  in  the 
English  services  in  its  early  English  form,  as 
pertaining  to  certain  forms  of  military  supplies; 
aTumunition  shoes,  ammunition  socks,  ammuni- 
tion bread,  ammunition  shirts,  etc.,  as  distinct 
from  the  same  articles  supplied  from  purely 
civil  sources.  See  Projectile;  Fuze;  Primer; 
Cartridge;   Ordn.\.nce;   Artillery,  etc. 

AMMUNITION  CHESTS.  Boxes  contain- 
ing ammunition,  jiacked  so  as  to  be  fitted  for 
transport  by  eitlier  elephant,  camel,  bullock, 
pack-horse  or  mule;  or  in  the  case  of  horse  and 
field  artillery  so  arranged  that  the  gunners  may 
utilize  them  for  seats  or  pack  them  in  caissons. 


I 


AMMUNITION    WAGON. 


■iTl 


AMCEBA. 


AMMUNITION  WAG'ON.  A  specially  built 
watjiin  fur  the  safe  and  speedy  transport  of  am- 
munition. The  general  use  of  rapid-lire  guns 
has  made  the  question  of  suitable  wagons,  ea])a- 
ble  of  carrying  the  tremendous  quantities  of  am- 
nmnition  demanded  by  modern  arms  and  war- 
fare, one  of  the  most  important  features  of  a 
campaign.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  Lord  Rob- 
erts, the  British  commander-in-chief  in  the  Boer 
War,  specially  employed  and  strongly  recom- 
mended wagons  built  in  the  United  States  and 
used  generally  in  the  United  States  Army.  The 
important  features  of  such  wagons  are  great 
strcngtli,  easy  draught,  great  flexibility,  and  ad- 
justed balance.  They  must  also  be  so  arranged 
that  the  shells  and  fuzes  are  held  firmly  in  place, 
and  secured  as  strongly  as  ])ossible  against 
shocks  and  jolts  or  damage  by  water. 

AM'NESTY  (Gk.  a/ivi/aria,  amnCstia,  forget- 
fulness,  from  a,  o,  priv.  +  ^ivuo-dai,  ministhui,  to 
remember).  An  act  of  State  granting  oblivion 
for  past  offenses,  and  generally  employed  where 
pardon  (q.v. )  is  extended  to  whole  classes  or 
communities  instead  of  to  individuals  before 
trial  and  conviction.  The  President  may  grant 
amnesty  by  a  general  proclamation  for  ofTenses 
against  the  United  States,  e.xcept  in  cases  of  im- 
peachment; and  the  Supreme  Court  has  held 
that  Congress  also  may  pass  acts  of  general  am- 
nesty. (Brown  vs.  Walker,  161  U.  S.  591. 
[1805].)  There  was  a  vigorous  dissent,  however, 
iu  til  is  ease. 

AM'NION  (Gk.  afiviov.).  The  membrane 
which  immediately  invests  the  embryo,  appearing 
very  early  in  the  development  of  the  latter,  and 
adhering  closely  to  it.  As  gestation  proceeds, 
this  membrane  secretes  from  its  inner  surface  a 
fluid  which  separates  it  from  the  foetus.  This 
fluid,  the  liquor  ainiiii,  supports  and  at  the  same 
time  gives  free  movement  to  the  fcctus,  preserves 
it  from  injury,  and  maintains  around  it  an  equa- 
ble temperature,  and  later,  during  labor,  becomes, 
with  its  inclosing  membranes,  an  important  di- 
lator of  the  genital  canal.  See  Embryology,  and 
Caul. 

AMNIO'TA.     See  Embryology. 

AMCE'BA  (Neo-Lat. ;  Gk.  afioifiri,  anVoibe, 
change,  alternation).  A  microscopic  animalcule, 
classified  among  the  lowest  Protozoa,  which  in- 
habits fresh  water  or  occasionally  moist  earth. 
It  appears  in  water  under  great  magnification 
as  a  clear,  translucent,  highly  refracting  body. 
It  is  made  up  of  a  substance  that  docs  not  mix 
with  water,  is  viscid  like  glue,  and  has  a  specific 
gravity  a  little  greater  than  water,  namely 
about  1.015.  Under  the  highest  i)ower  of  the 
microscope,  particularly  after  death,  the  body  is 
seen  not  to  be  perfectly  homogeneous,  but  to  be 
made  up  of  films  inclosing  water-filled  spaces. 
This  structure  may  be  imitated  by  making  a 
fine  mixture  of  oil  and  potassium  carbonate,  and 
letting  it  stand  in  water.  The  potassium  carbon- 
ate is  hygroscopic,  and  eventually  an  emulsion 
is  produced  in  which  the  oil  stands  to  the  water 
in  the  same  relation  that  the  protoplasmic  films 
do  to  the  water  spaces.  The  cytoplasm  is  not  all 
of  the  same  kind.  Near  the  centre  is  a  special- 
ized portion  known  as  the  nucleus,  the  proto- 
plasm outside  of  which  is  called  cytoplasm.  Be- 
tween nucleus  and  cytoplasm  a  constant  inter- 
change of  material  is  taking  place  in  the  living 
cell,  and  the  two  parts  are  interdependent. 

A  living  amoeba  under  appropriate  conditions 


exhibits  a  continual  movement  of  the  protoplasm. 
The  very  structure  favors  a  constant  movement, 
as  witness  the  artificial  emulsion,  whose  outline 
is  constantly  changing.  In  amoeba  processes 
(iiseudopodia)  are  thrust  out  at  certain  points 
of  the  body,  and  others  behind  them  are  re- 
tracted, and  thus  a  change  occurs  in  the  centre 
of  the  mass  and  locomotion  is  effected.  Ama?ba 
is  irritable,  i.e.,  it  is  affected  in  a  definite  man- 
ner by  external  conditions;  it  "responds"  to 
them  by  moving  with  reference  to  them.  With- 
out a  stimulus  there  would  probably  be  no  move- 
ment at  all.  If  tlie  stimulus  comes  upon  the  or- 
ganism from  one  side,  it  may  move  toward  or 
from  that  side.  Thus  the  amoeba  moves  from  tlje 
point  of  contact  of  a  needle  or  from  the  source 
of  light,  or  it  moves  so  as  to  keep  in  water  of 
a  medium  temperature.  Thus  we  see  that  pro- 
toplasm  e;Mly   had   the  capacity  of  appreciating 


Begmnirjj  at  the  upper  left-hand  figure,  the  sncceesive  draw- 
ings ehow  the  progress  of  a  division  of  an  amoeba  througli  its 
nucleus  into  two. 

external  conditions  and  moving  with  reference 
to  them.  This  may  be  regarded  as  the  beginning 
of  a  "psychic  life." 

The  amoeba  is,  by  its  movements,  constantly  ex- 
pending energy.  This  must  be  renewed  by  taking 
in  fuel.  Also,  its  plasma  is  undergoing  constant 
destruction  and  must  be  reformed.  Food  here 
serves  two  purposes.  (1)  It  serves  as  fuel.  (2) 
It  forms  new  protoplasm.  But  these  two  roles 
may  be  played  by  the  same  food-stuff.  There  is 
no  proper  oral  aperture,  and  the  food  is  merely 
taken  into  the  interior  of  the  body  by  a  process 
of  intussusception — any  portion  of  the  surface 
being  chosen  for  this  purpose,  and  acting  as  an 
extemporaneous  mouth.  Sometimes  the  inges- 
tion of  food  takes  place  chiefly  at  the  posterior 
end  of  the  body.  When  the  particle  of  food  has 
been  received  into  the  body,  the  aperture  by 
which  it  was  admitted  again  closes  up,  and  the 
discharge  of  solid  excreta  is  effected  in  an  exact- 
ly similar  but  reverse  manner.  Food-stulfs  that 
are  ingested  become  dissolved  (digested)  and 
penetrate  the  plasm  films.  Here  they  are  burned 
(oxidized)  and  carbon  dioxide,  water,  urea,  and 
other  substances  are  produced.  These  get  back 
into  the  water  spaces  and  are  finally  thrown  out 


AMCEBA. 


472 


AMOBITES. 


with  ttie  "eontractile  vacuole."  This  process  is 
<>xcretion.  But  in  the  plasma  film,  where  the 
food-stuff  was  burned,  there  is  an  increase  of 
temperature.  This  heat  is  used  in  part  in  chem- 
ical work — in  the  building;  up  of  new  living  mole- 
cules from  food  stuffs.  Here,  then,  is  a  great 
chemical  laboratory  in  the  protoplasm. 

"The  "contractile  vesicles'  are  cavities  within 
the  endosarc,  of  which  ordinarily  only  one  is 
present  in  the  same  individual,  though  there  may 
be  two  or  more.  In  position,  the  contractile  vesi- 
cle, or  'pulsating  vacuole,'  as  it  is  often  called,  is 
usually  placed  toward  the  hinder  end  of  the  body, 
as  is  also  the  nucleus." 

Reproduction  takes  place  by  simple  division, 
each  amoeba,  as  it  reaches  maximum  size,  split- 
ting in  two,  as  shown  in  the  illustration.  See 
Cell,  and  Protozoa. 

AM'CEBE'AN  VERS'ES  (Gk.  a/ioiPawc, 
amoihiiius,  alternate).  A  species  of  pastoral 
poetry  in  which  two  persons  answer  each 
other  alternately,  as  in  some  of  the  Idyls  of 
Theocritus  and  the  Eclogues  of  Vergil. 

AmOL,  a-mol'.  A  Persian  town,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Mazanderan,  situated  on  the  River 
Heraz,  a  short  distance  from  its  fall  into  the 
Caspian  Sea  (Map:  Persia,  D  3).  It  contains  a 
fine  bazaar  and  a  number  of  old  tombs,  including 
tliat  of  Mir  Bursuk,  who  died  in  Amol  in  l:)78, 
and  whose  memory  is  held  in  great  reverence  by 
the  natives.     Pop",  about  10,000. 

AHOLE,  a-mo'ia.  The  Mexican  name  for 
soapwort   (q.v.). 

AMO'MTJM  (Lat.  Gk.  aiiu/iov,  amonion,  an 
Indian  sjiicc-plant) .  A  genus  of  Zingiberaces, 
to  which  belongs  the  plant  yielding  Cardamom 
(q.v.)  and  Grains  of  Paradise  (q.v.).  Fruits 
allied  to  Amonunn  are  described  as  Amomocar- 
puni,  from  Tertiary  rocks  of  Europe. 

AM'ON.  A  king  of  Judah,  from  about  030  to 
038  B.C.,  son  of  Manasseh.  After  a  short  reign  he 
fell  a  victim  to  a  court  intrigue.  His  death  was 
avenged,  and  his  son  Josiah  succeeded  him  on  the 
throne.     He  was  buried  in  the  garden  of  Uzzah. 

AMONTONS,  a'moN'toN',  GuiLLAUME  (1663- 
1705).  A  French  physicist  and  inventor.  He 
devoted  himself  to  physical  research,  investigat- 
ing the  phenomena  of  friction  and  perfecting 
many  instruments  used  in  experimental  philoso- 
phy. With  the  aid  of  the  barometer  he  studied 
the  variations  of  atmospheric  pressure,  and  by 
the  use  of  a  thermometer  of  his  own  invention, 
discovered  independently,  though  simultaneously 
with  Halley,  that  the  boiling-point  of  water 
varies  with  the  external  pressure  of  the  at- 
mosphere, and  hence  with  the  elevation.  He 
also  invented  an  ingenious  method  of  telegraphic 
co)nmunicalion,  a  new  hygrometer,  etc.  He 
wrote:  llemarques  et  experiences  physiques  stir 
la  construction  d'line  nouvelle  clepsydre,  sur  les 
haromclres.  les  ihcrmometres,  et  les  hygrome- 
trcs  (100.5),  besides  contributions  to  the  Me- 
moir(  s  of  the  Acad(?mie  des  Sciences. 

AM'ORET.  In  Fletcher's  Faithful  ithepherd- 
ess  (q.v.),  a  .shepherdess  betrothed  to  Perigot  at 
the  "Virtuous  Well,"  and.  after  many  troubles, 
p;iti''ntly  borne,  united  to  him. 

AMORET,  or  AM'OBET'TA.  In  Spenser's 
Faerie  Quecne,  the  twin  sister  of  Belph(]ebe(q.v. ), 
brought  up  by  Veniis  an<l  Psyche.  She  loves  Sir 
Scudamore,  but  is  imprisoned  by  the  enchanter 
Busiiaiie;    in  the  end,   liowever,  she  is   happily 


married,  appearing  as  the  type  of  feminine  afTec- 
tion. 

AMORETTI,  a'mo-ret'ts,  Caklo  (1741-1816). 
An  Italian  naturalist  and  author.  He  was  born 
near  Genoa,  and  died  at  Milan.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  order  of  St.  Augustine,  professor 
of  law  at  the  University  of  Parma,  and  after- 
ward curator  of  the  Ambrosian  Library  at  Jlilan. 
He  is  remembered  chiefly  for  a  good  biography 
of  Leonardo  da  Vinci  (1784),  and  various  treat- 
ises on  natural  science,  including  a  study  of  the 
natural  history  and  geography  of  lakes  Como, 
Maggiore,  and  Lugano,  entitled  A  Journey  from 
iniiiii   to  the  Three  .Ln/oes   (1794), 

AMORGOS,  a-mor'gos  (Gk,  'A/iopydc).  The 
most  easterly  island  of  the  Cyclades,  Greece, 
having  an  area  of  52  squai'e  miles,  with  its 
greatest  length  from  northeast  to  southwest. 
The  island  is  crossed  by  a  mountain  range,  and 
yields  olive  oil,  wine,  fruit,  and  grain.  Its 
chief  town  is  Korax,  or  Chora,  on  the  eastern 
coast.  Amorgos  was  famous  in  antiquity  for  the 
fine  quality  of  its  flax.  Population  in  1889,  4000. 
Consult:  H.  Hauttecoeur,  "L'tle  d'Amorgos,"  in 
Bulletin  de  la  Societe  royale  beige  de  geographic. 
Volume  XXIII.  (Brussels,  1899)  ;  J.  Delamarre, 
"Amorgos,"  in  La  Revue  de  Philologie,  Volume 
XXV,   (Paris,  1901). 

AM'ORITES.  The  name  of  a  people  of 
Canaan  (II.  .Sanuiel  xxi  :  12;  Amos  ii  :  9,  10), 
The  name  is  known  outside  of  biblical  literature, 
occuiring  on  both  the  Assyrian  and  Egj'ptian 
inscriptions.  The  Egyptian  docimients  speak  of 
a  people  called  the  Amar.  In  the  Assyrian 
monuments  Nebuchadnezzar  I.  styles  himself 
the  conqueror  of  the  "land  of  Amurru,"  while 
even  earlier  we  know  of  Amurru  from  the  Tel-el- 
Amarna  tablets.  The  name  was  applied  origin- 
ally to  the  highlands  in  the  northeast  and  gi-adu- 
allj-  spread  southward  (Genesis  xiv  :  7;  Deute- 
ronomy i  :  7-44)  and  westward,  where  it  met  the 
term  Canaan.  From  that  time  on  ■  considerable 
confusion  took  place  in  the  use  of  the  name. 
Sometimes  the  terms  coalesce,  Amorite  being 
used  for  the  whole  of  Canaan  (II.  Samuel  xxi:  12 
Amos  ii:  9,  10);  again  some  tribes  are  called 
Amorites  in  one  place  and  another  name  in  an- 
other ( .loshua  X  :  5  ;  Joshua  xv  :  03 ) .  In  the  nar- 
rower sense,  the  Amorites  lived  on  the  eastern 
side  of  the  .lordan,  and  at  the  time  of  the  inva- 
sion of  the  Jews  had  two  kingdoms,  under  Og  and 
Sishon,  respectively.  This  land  tlie  Amorites 
had  held  against  the  Hittites  on  the  north  and 
the  Moabites  on  the  south.  In  two  battles  the 
Amorites  were  defeated  and  their  land  annexed  to 
the  territory  west  of  the  Jordan  (Deuteronomy 
xx.xi  :  4).  Althotigh  subdued,  they  were  far  from 
being  exterminated, or  else  the  injunction  against 
intermarriage  with  the  Amorites  would  have 
been  unnecessary.  And  the  injunction  further 
proves  their  final  history.  They  lived  as  tribu- 
taries among  the  conquering  nation,  as  in  the 
days  of  Solomon,  and  were  most  likely  ab- 
sorbed. 

The  meaning  of  the  name  has  been  given  in 
two  ways.  According  to  some  scholars  the  root 
idea  is  "high."  "lofty."  "mountaineers,"  as  op- 
posed to  the  Canaanites.  the  lowlanders;  while 
according  to  others  the  "high'"  is  to  be  applied 
not  to  the  locality  but  to  the  size  of  the  men. 
Of  the  two.  the  first  is  preferable,  though  it 
should  be  added  that  there  are  strong  objections 
to  be  urged  against   the  explanation.     Consult 


I 


AMORITES. 


473 


AMPELOPSIS. 


Sayce,  Races  of  the  Old  Testament  (London, 
1891). 

AMOROSO,  ;i'm6io'so  (It.  amorous).  In 
niiisip,  affectionately,  tenderly. 

AM'OROTJS  BIG'OT,  The.  A  play  by  Thom- 
as Sliadwoll,  presented  in   1690. 

AMOR'PHA.     See  Indigo. 

A'MORY,  Blanche.  A  character  in  Thack- 
eray's I'endennis  (q.v.),  really  named  Betsy; 
an  insincere  and  selfish  girl,  whose  emotions  are 
all  shuras. 

AMORY,  Robert  (1842—).  An  American 
physician.  He  was  born  in  Boston,  and  studied 
medicine  at  Harvard  and  later  in  Paris  and  in 
Dublin.  In  1809  he  was  made  lecturer  at  Har- 
vard College  on  the  plysiologieal  action  of  drugs. 
He  was  also  for  some  time  professor  of  physi- 
ology at  the  Bowdoin  Medical  School.  Besides 
a  translation  from  the  German  of  Russ's  Lec- 
tures nn  I'hysiolofjy  (Boston,  187.5),  Dr.  Amory 
published  a  number  of  interesting  papers  on 
the  physiological  action  of  various  chemical  sub- 
stances. He  also  wrote  a  volume  on  poisons, 
forming  part  of  Wharton  and  Stille's  Medieal 
•ftirisprudence. 

AMORY,  Thomas  (1001  ?-17S8)  .  An  Irish 
author,  called  the  "English  Rabelais,"  and  sup- 
posed by  certain  authorities  to  have  been  slight- 
ly insane.  He  was  the  son  of  Counselor  Amory, 
who  was  appointed  by  William  III.  secretary 
for  the  foreign  estates  in  Ireland.  His  birth- 
place is  not  known,  but  in  1757  he  was  living 
in  seclusion  in  Westminster.  It  is  supposed 
that  he  sketched  portions  of  his  own  career  in 
his  Life  of  John.  Buncle,  2  volumes  (17.'iO-flG). 
He  wrote  also  Memoirs  Confoiiiing  the  Lives  of 
Several  Ladies  of  Great  Britain  (175.5).  He 
was  married  and  had  one  son.  Dr.  Robert  Amory. 
A  sketch  of  his  life  appeared  in  the  Saturday 
Review.  May  12,  1877. 

AMORY,  Thomas  Coffi:^  (1812-89).  An 
American  lawyer  and  author.  He  was  born  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  and  after  graduating  at  Harvard 
(IS.SO),  held  various  posts  in  connection  with 
the  municipal  government  of  Boston.  In  addi- 
tion to  oflficial  reports  and  addresses,  his  publi- 
cations include  the  Life  of  James  Sullivan  (Bos- 
ton, 1859),  MiUtari)  Services  and  Public  Life  of 
Major-General  John  Snllivan  (Boston,  1808), 
pamphlets  on  subjects  connected  with  the  Revo- 
lutionary War.  among  which  was  a  Life  of  Sir 
L'iaae  Coffin  (1886),  and  numerous  poems,  of 
w-hich  the  best  known  is  William  Blaxton,  Sole 
Inhattitant  of  Boston. 

A'MOS.  A  Hebrew  prophet  of  the  eighth 
century  B.C.,  author  of  the  biblical  book  which 
bears  his  name.  He  was  a  herdsman  of  Tekoa, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Bethlehem  (Amos  i  :  1), 
and  also  a  tender  of  sycamore  trees  (Amos  vii: 
14).  He  prophesied  during  the  reigns  of  Uzziah 
m  Judah  and  .Jeroboam  II.  in  Israel  (about 
760  B.C.),  He  foretells  the  doom,  first  of  several 
surrounding  nations,  then  of  Israel  itself,  on 
account  of  the  various  sins,  mainly  disloyalty  to 
Yahweh.  which  had  brought  the  "anger  "of  S'ah- 
weh  upon  the  kingdom.  He  closes  with  a  pro- 
mise of  restoration  for  Israel.  The  style  of 
Amos  is  remarkable  for  its  clearness  and  pictur- 
esque vigor,  and  abounds  with  images  taken 
from  rural  and  pastoral  life.  While  Amos  is 
the  first  of  the  prophets  who  wrote  as  well  as 
spoke,  the  editing  of  his  propliecies  belongs  to 
Vol.  I.— 32. 


a  period  long  subsequent  to  the  prophet's  death. 
Hence,  modern  critics  have  detected  in  the 
prophecies  numerous  additions,  insertions,  and 
changes,  made  by  the  various  liands  concerned 
in  giving  the  series  of  chapters  its  present  form. 
For  recent  discussions  of  the  problems  involved, 
consult:  G.  A.  Smith,  "The  Twelve  Prophets."  in 
The  Expositor's  Bible,  Volume  I.  (New  York, 
1890-97);  and  H.  G.  Mitchell,  Amos  (Boston, 
1899). 

AMOSKEAG,  fim'os-keg'.  See  Manchester, 
New  Hampshire. 

AMOY,  a-moi'  (the  local  pronunciation  of 
Hai-mim,  or  Gallery  Gate).  A  third-class  Chi- 
nese city  on  an  island  of  the  same  name,  in  N. 
lat.  24°'28',  E.  long.  118°  4',  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Pei-chi  or  IDragon  River,  in  the  province  of  Fu- 
kien  (Map:  China,  E  5).  The  island  of  Hai- 
mun  is  40  miles  in  circumference.  Being  the 
chief  city  and  port  opposite  Formosa,  Amoy 
enjoys  a  large  trade  with  that  island.  Amoy 
was  early  known  as  a  pl.ace  of  Asiatic  foreign 
commerce,  and  is  the  ancient  centre  of  the  tea 
trade.  The  Portuguese  came  here  in  1044;  but 
were  expelled  for  their  cruelty  and  their  vessels 
burned.  The  English  traded  here  until  1730, 
when  they  were  ordered  to  remove  to  Canton. 
Nearly  all  the  tea  brought  to  Boston -Harbor 
by  the  British  ships  in  1773  was  from  Amoy, 
where  the  pronunciation  of  eha  is  "tea;"  but  the 
trade  in  this  herb  is  now  nearly  annihilated 
by  the  competition  of  Formosa  Oolong  and  the 
heavy  likin  tax.  The  British  treaty  of  1842 
made  Amoy  one  of  the  five  ports  opened  to  for- 
eign commerce,  and  the  treaty  of  Tien-tsin  in 
1858  confirmed  and  extended  the  privilege. 
Amoy  has  long  been  the  centre  of  flourishing 
Christian  missions  in  Fu-kien.  In  1882  a  Brit- 
ish engineer  discovered  coal  and  iron  within 
40  miles  of  Amoy,  in  an  area  of  50  square 
miles,  and  within  20  miles  of  water  traflie. 
The  harbor  is  large,  safe,  and  picturesque, 
formed  partly  by  Ku-lang-su  Island,  on  which 
the  houses  of  the  foreigners,  numbering  nearly 
three  hundred,  are  built,  and  by  Kwe-moi  (Gold- 
en Harbor).  The  Japanese  scttlcujcnt,  laid 
out  in  1899,  has  several  hundred  inhabitants. 
There  are  three  granite  docks  built  by  foreigners, 
an  English  church  and  club,  and  a  daily  news- 
paper. One  hundred  thousand  emigrants  pass 
through  Amoy  every  year  to  Singapore.  Pop., 
1897,  96,370. 

AM'PELIDA'CEJE.      See   Vitace.ts. 

AMPE'LITJS,  Lucius.  A  Roman  writer, 
who  lived  between  the  second  and  fourth  centu- 
ries A.D.  He  was  the  author  of  a  note-book, 
Liher  Uemorialis,  which  contained  a  condensed 
and  meagre  summary  of  various  astronomical, 
geographical,  and  historical  writings.  Tlie 
Liber  is  too  inaccurate  for  use  as  a  work  of  ref- 
erence, but  it  is  valuable  as  the  only  ancient 
work  which  mentions  the  celebrated  sculptures 
of  Pergamus,  discovered  in  1878,  and  now  at 
Berlin.  It  is  usually  appended  to  editions  of 
Florus,  and  has  been  edited  with  notes  by  Beck 
(Leipzig,  1820).  The  best  text  is  that  of  Wolf- 
flin   (Leipzig.  1854). 

AM'PELOP'SIS  (Gk.  unirtln^,  ampelos, 
vine.  -\- oTpi^,  opsis,  appearance).  A  genus  of 
vine-like,  woody  plants,  including  Virginia 
creeper,  or  American  woodbine,  much  used  for 
ornamental  decoration  of  buildings.     In  autumn 


AMPELOPSIS. 


474 


AMPHIARAUS. 


the  dying  leaves  of  ampelopsis  turn  a  most  bril- 
liant red  and  yellow.  The  vine  called  Japanese 
ivr  or  Boston  ivy  belongs  to  tliis  same  genus  of 
plants,  and  is  probably  the  favorite  of  all  the 
hardy  vines  grown  in  cities  in  the  eastern 
United  States.  It  is  especially  effective  for  a 
considerable  area  from  Massachusetts  to  Florida 
and  on  the  Pacific  coast,  but  north  of  the  Ohio 
and  west  of  the  Mississippi  River  it  is  tender. 
Fossil  forms. — A  single  fossil  species  of  this 
genus,  Ampelopsis  tertiaria,  has  been  recognized 
in  the  White  River  beds  of  the  Tertiary  in 
Wyoming. 

AMPERE,  .am-par'  (Derived  from  the  name 
of  Ampere).  Tlie  practical  unit  employed  in 
measuring  tlic  intensity  of  an  electric  current, 
and  technically  defined  as  one-tenth  of  the  C.G.S. 
electro-magnetic  unit  (see  Electrical  Units) 
of  current.  By  intensity  of  current  is  meant 
the  quantity  of  electricity  which  passes  any 
cross  section  of  the  wire  or  conductor  in  the 
course  of  one  second  of  time.  The  current  de- 
pends upon  the  resistance  of,  and  the  difference 
of  potential  at  the  ends  of,  the  conductor,  vary- 
ing inversely  as  the  former  and  directly  as  the 

-p 

latter.     From  Ohm's  law  that  C^  -,  when  C  is 

ix 

the  current,  E  the  difference  of  potential,  and  R 

the  resistance,  we  have  amperes^-^j .     A  cur- 
ohms 

rent  of  electricity  can"  do  work  in  decomposing 
certain  chemical  substances  into  their  respective 
elements,  consequently  by  measuring  the  amount 
of  a  substance  so  decomposed  in  unit  time  we 
can  ascertain  the  strength  of  the  current.  The 
ampere,  accordingly,  has  been  legally  defined  as 
the  amount  of  a  constant  current  which,  when 
passed  through  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver, 
in  accordance  with  standard  specifications,  de- 
posits silver  at  the  rate  of  0.001118  of  a  gram 
per  second.  The  detailed  specifications  prepared 
by  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences  of  the 
United  States  provide  that  in  measuring  currents 
of  about  one  ampere  in  strength  the  silver  vol- 
tameter (q.v. )  emplo.ved  should  consist  of  a  pla- 
tinum bowl  as  the  cathode,  containing  a  neutral 
solution  of  pure  silver  nitrate  in  the  proportion 
of  15  parts  by  weight  of  the  nitrate  to  85  parts 
of  water,  and  an  anode  consisting  of  a  disk  or 
plate  of  pure  silver  wrapped  with  pure  filter 
paper.  Precautions  are  to  be  observed  to  insure 
cleanliness  and  accuracy  of  measurement  before, 
during,  and  after  the  experiment.  The  silver 
deposited  in  the  platinum  bowl  is  then  washed 
and  weighed,  and  the  gain  in  weight  expressed 
in  grams  is  divided  by  the  number  of  seconds 
during  which  the  current  passed  and  by  0.001118. 
Within  the  past  few  years  it  has  been  proved 
that  the  quantity  of  silver  deposited  in  a  vol- 
tameter depends  upon  many  conditions  previous- 
ly unsuspected,  such  as  the  age  of  the  solution, 
tile  construction  of  the  voltameter,  etc.  P'or 
full  details  as  to  our  present  knowledge  of  the 
subject,  the  reader  should  consult  a  paper  by 
A.  Leduc  on  the  electro-chemical  equivalent  of 
silver,  copper,  and  water,  in  the  Reports  of  the 
International  ('ovfjrcss  of  I'hysics  at  Paris,  Vol- 
ume II.  (1900),  and  tlie  original  report  of  the 
National  Academy  of  Sciences  on  Standards  for 
Elect rirnl   Measure. 

AMPERE'  ax'par',  AndrI?  Marie  (1775- 
1836).  A  distinguished  French  physicist,  math- 
ematician, and  naturalist,  born  at  Lyons.     The 


death  of  his  father  under  the  guillotine  in  1793 
made  a  deep  and  melancholy  impression  on  th& 
mind  of  the  young  man,  and  he  sought  solace  in 
the  study  of  nature  and  the  Latin  poets.  In 
1,801,  after  he  had  been  engaged  for  some  time 
as  private  mathematical  tutor  at  Lyons,  he  be- 
came professor  of  physics  in  the  Central  School 
of  the  department  of  Ain  at  Bourg.  He  was 
afterwards  professor  of  mathematics  at  Lyons. 
He  was  called  to  Paris,  where  he  distinguished 
himself  as  an  able  teacher  in  the  Polytechnic 
School.  He  began  his  career  as  an  author  by  the 
essay  on  the  mathematical  theory  of  chances, 
Sur  la  thcorie  muthematique  dii  jeu  (Lyons, 
1802).  In  1814  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences,  and  in  1824  was  appointed 
professor  of  experimental  physics  in  the  College 
de  France.  Science  is  largely  indebted  to  Am- 
pere, especially  for  his  electro-dynamic  theory 
and  his  original  views  of  the  identity  of  electri- 
city and  magnetism,  as  given  in  his  Recueil  d'ob- 
servatioiis  electro-dynainiques  (Paris,  1822), 
and  his  Thcorie  des  phcnomenes  clectro-dyna- 
miques  (Paris,  1826).  Amp6re  was  the  inventor 
of  the  astatic  needle  (q.v.),  which  made  possible 
the  modern  astatic  galvanometer  (q.v.).  He 
was  the  first  to  sliow  that  two  parallel  conductors 
carrying  currents  traveling  in  the  same  direction 
attract  each  other,  while  if  traveling  in  opposite 
directions  they  I'epel  each  other.  Amp6re  also 
formulated  the  theory  tliat  there  were  currents, 
of  electricity  circulating  in  the  earth  in  the  direc- 
tion of  its  diurnal  revolution  which  attracted 
the  magnetic  needle.  The  ampere  (q.v.),  or  unit 
of  the  strength  of  an  electrical  current,  is  named 
after  him.  Ampere's  scientific  papers  are  largely 
contained  in  the  Annales  de  Physique  et  de 
Chimic.  A  eulogy  by  Arago,  delivered  shortly 
after  his  death,  which  contains  an  account  of 
his  life,  will  be  found  translated  into  English  in 
the  annual  report  of  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion for  1872   (Washington,  1872). 

AMPERE,  iiN'par',  Jean  Jacqites  Antoine 
(1800-1804).  A  French  academician,  essayist, 
literniv  liistorian  and  professor  in  the  College 
de  France.  He  was  born  at  Lyons,  the  son  of 
Andrg  Marie  Amp&re.  His  essays,  collected  as 
Littcrature  et  voyuycs  (2  volumes,  1834),  attest 
his  knowledge  of  foreign  countries  and  their  lit- 
eratures. Better  known  are  the  essays  on  the- 
formation  of  the  French  language,  Histoire  de  la 
formation  de  la  lanyiie  fran^uise  (1841),  and  La 
Grece,  Pome  et  Dante  (1850).  Ampere  was  a 
judicious  critic,  a  profound  scholar,  and  master 
of  a  precise  style.  Consult  Potton,  Etudes  snr 
la  vie  et  les  travaux  de  Jean  Jacques  Ampere 
(Paris,  1867). 

AMPERE  TURNS.  In  problems  involving 
the  magnetic  field  produced  b3'  a  current  flowing 
in  a  coil  of  wire,  two  of  the  factors  necessary  are 
the  strength  of  current  in  amperes,  and  the  num- 
ber of  turns  or  revolutions  that  the  conductor 
through  which  tlie  current  passes  makes  in 
forming  the  coil  or  solenoid.  Their  product  is 
known  as  the  ampere  turns. 

AM'PHIARA'tJS  (Gk.  'Afiipidpaoc,  Amphia- 
raos).  A  Greek  chthonic  divinity.  At  Oropus 
he  had  a  celebrated  oracle,  healed  the  sick, 
was  honored  witli  games,  and  was  worshiped 
elsewliere  as  a  hero  and  propliet.  In  legend  Am- 
phiaraiis  is  prominent  in  the  war  of  the  Seven 
against  Thebes,  into  which  he  was  forced  by  the 
treachery  of  his  wife,  who  was  bribed  by  Poly- 


AMPHIARAUS. 


475 


AMPHIBIA. 


nices.  As  he  fled  from  the  victorious  Thebans, 
Zeus  caused  the  earth  to  open  and  en^ilf  Am- 
phiaraiis  with  his  horses  and  chariot.  He  was 
a  descendant  of  the  se£r  Melaniinis,  and  son  of 
Oleics  and  Hj-permnestra.  According  to  hiter 
writers,  he  took  part  in  the  Calydonian  hunt  and 
the  Argonautic  expedition. 

AMPHIB'IA  (Gl<.  ift0i.  amphi,  on  both 
sides -j- /^lof,  hius,  life).  A  class  of  vertebrates 
intermediate  between  fishes  and  reptiles.  It  was 
made  by  Linnaeus  to  comprise  rci)tiles,  amphibia, 
and  cartilaginous  fishes,  but  has  been  restricted, 
until  now  it  is  equivalent  to  Batrachia,  and  in- 
cludes frogs,  toads,  newts,  salamanders,  the 
snaUc-like  Gymno])hiona  and  gigantic  e.xtinct 
forms,  the  Stegocephali.  As  adults,  many,  but 
not  all  of  them,  are  able,  either  by  the  possession 
of  lungs  or  by  means  of  skin  respiration,  to  come 
from  water  to  land;  hence  their  name. 

Distinctive  C'h.\racteristic.s.  All  the  free- 
developing  amphibia  possess  gills  in  the  larval 
stage  that,  in  some  forms, persist  throughout  life. 
The  skin  is  soft  and  glandular, and  serves  in  part 
or  wholly  to  aerate  the  blood.  The  outer  layers 
of  the  skin  become  cornificd  and  are  periodically 
shed,  and  in  a  few  cases  there  is  a  bony  dermal 
skeleton.  The  paired  fins  of  fishes  are  replaced 
by  pentadactyl  legs.  In  some  forms,  as  in  sirens, 
one  pair  of  limbs  may  be  wanting,  and  in  such 
forms  as  G3'mnophiuna  both  pairs  may  be  lacking. 
Tlie  mouth  is  terminal  and  the  teeth  are  firmly 
ankylosed  to  the  supporting  bones.  The  tongue, 
when  present,  is  bifid,  and  is  so  fixed  at  the  front 
of  the  moutli  that  the  free  end  turns  backward. 
The  mouth  and  pharynx  are  ciliated  and  into 
them  open  the  internal  nares.  The  alimentary 
tract  is  nearly  straight  in  the  elongated  forms, 
or  it  may  be  much  convoluted,  as  in  the  case  of 
vegetable  feeding  tadpoles.  There  is  a  two-lobcd 
liver  and  a  pancreas.  The  lungs  are  thin-walled 
sacks  "that  may  have  internal  folds,  but  some 
salamanders  are  lungless.  The  heart  is  usually 
composed  of  two  distinct  auricles,  one  ventricle, 
and  a  conus  arteriosus.  The  red  blood-corpuscles 
are  oval,  nucleated,  and  large  in  comparison  with 
those  of  warm-blooded  vertebrates. 

BuEEmNG  Hauits.  The  eggs  may  be  fertilized 
internally  or  externally,  just  as  they  are  being 
de]iositcd  in  the  water.  In  most  cases  they  are 
left  to  chance,  but  in  some  species  are  carried  in 
strands,  or  otherwise  cared  for  by  the  male  or 
female.  A  few  have  brood-pouches,  and  one  toad 
rears  its  young  in  pits  in  the  skin  of  the  back. 
A  few  forms  bring  forth  their  young  in  an  active 
condition.  The  gill-bearing  or  larval  stage 
(a.xolotl)  of  Amblystoma  tigrinum  is  capable  of 
breeding,  and  under  certain  conditions  may  un- 
dergo its  metamorphoses.  (See  AxoLOTL.)  The 
eggs  are  pigmented  and  usually  undergo  total 
and  unequal  segmentation.  They  possess  a 
large  amount  of  yolk,  so  much  in  a  few  eases, 
siich  as  pipa,  that  the  embryo  lies  coiled  over 
the  egg  as  though  it  were  a  fish.  The  blastula 
and  gastrula  stages  are  present,  but  are  modified 
in  form  and  manner  of  development  by  the  pres- 
ence of  the  yolk;  the  medullary  groove  develops 
by  a  pair  of  upfoldings  along  "the  middle  of  the 
back,  and  by  fusion  of  head  and  body,  the  tail 
becomes  marked  ofT;  on  the  neck  are  two  or  three 
pairs  of  external  gills.  At  about  this  time  the 
tadpoles  hatch,  and  begin  to  swim  about  or 
adhere  to  weeds  by  means  of  the  sucker  on  the 
ventral  surface  of  the  head.  At  first  the  tadpole 
has  no  mouth,  but  soon  one  develops,  the  external 


gills  dwindle  and  are  replaced  by  the  internal, 
\yhich  are  covered  by  a  fold  of  .skin.  The  liind 
limbs  are  the  first  to  appear  externallj-,  lungs 
develop,  and  the  larva  can  breathe  both  on  land 
and  in  water.  The  gills  of  the  Anura  continue 
to  dwindle  and  likewise  the  tail  is  gradually  and 
completely  absorbed.  Tadpoles  as  well  as  some 
adult  amphibia  have  the  power  of  reproducing 
lost  parts.     See  Toad. 

The  early  stages  of  amphibians  are  not  al- 
ways passed  in  water.  Some  of  the  European 
salamanders  are  viviparous,  the  j"oung  beincf 
born  ajl  developed,  but  still  requiring  water.  The 
young  of  the  viviparous  Ca>ciliidir,  however,  take 
to  a  terrestrial  life  as  soon  as  they  are  born.  So, 
too,  certain  frogs  (e.g.  Kana  opi'sthodon,  of  the 
Solomon  Islands)  hatch  from  eggs  laid  out  of 
the  water  as  perfect,  air-breathing  frogs.  In 
many  species,  as  in  the  persistent  gilled  Crodela, 
the  adult  lives  chiefly  in  the  water;  in  other 
cases,  as  in  the  other  Urodela,  the  CseciliidiE, 
and  the  Anura,  the  adult  lives  on  land. 

Habits.  The  adult  Amphibia  feed  on  worais, 
slugs,  and  insects.  Hence  they  are  all  useful  to 
agriculture.  Kone  has  a  poisonous  bite,  but  all 
trust  largely  for  safety  to  acrid  or  poisonous 
secretions  from  the  skin-glands.  The  tadpoles 
subsist  almost  entirely  on  water  vegetation,  such 
as  algae.  In  cold  or  dry  seasons  Amphibia  pre- 
serve themselves  by  burrowing  down  into  mud 
and  earth,  and  there  fall  into  a  lethargic  sleep. 
Jlost  Amphibia  keep  near  water,  and  their  young 
develop  in  it.  A  few  forms  that  live  in  moun- 
tains, in  trees,  or  on  dry,  porous  volcanic  islands, 
bring  forth  their  young  well  enough  developed 
to  breathe  air,  thus  approaching  a  reptilian  con- 
dition of  development.  Many,  but  not  all,  am- 
phibians are  nocturnal, being  most  active  in  their 
search  for  food  or  mates  in  the  early  morning 
or  evening  hours. 

Geographical  Di.stribution.  The  amphibia 
thrive  best  in  warm  and  moist  countries.  A  few 
live  in  the  temperate  zone,  some  frogs  penetrat- 
ing far  north,  but  not  so  far  as  the  polar  regions. 
The  order  of  relative  abundance  of  amphibia  in 
the  difl'erent  countries  is  as  follows:  Tropical 
America,  India,  Afi'ica,  Australia,  North  Amer- 
ica, Europe.  Many  families  and  genera  have  a 
very  limited  range,  since,  although  fresh  water 
is  a  necessity  to  them,  the  sea  is  a  complete 
barrier  to  their  spread.  Salamanders  are  con- 
fined mainly  to  Europe  and  North  America,  and 
only  toads  and  frogs  are  of  world-w-ide  distri- 
bution. 

Classification.  There  are  four  orders  of 
Amphibia:  the  Urodela  (q.v.),  possessing  a  tail 
throughout  life  (newts  and  salamanders)  ;  the 
Anura  (q.v,),  without  tail  in  the  adult  stage 
(frogs  and  toads);  the  Gymnophiona  (q.v.), 
snake-like,  without  limbs,  and  blind,  and  the 
Stegocephalia  (q.v.),  and  other  extinct  often 
gigantic  tailed  forms  fossil  in  the  Carboniferous, 
Permian  and  Trias  rocks.  The  existing  species 
number  about  1000. 

Ancestry.  The  Amphibia  have  doubtless 
sprung  from  fish-like  ancestors,  and  the  link 
with  that  ancestry  is  found  in  the  fossil  group 
of  Stegocephalia,  whose  head  carries  great  plates. 
The  piscine  group  from  which  the  Amphibia 
arose  must  have  been  either  the  Dipnoi,  which 
are  to-day  largely  air  breathers,  or  the  Cros- 
sopterygii.  Gadow,  in  1901,  gave  the  following 
features  of  Amphibia  as  those  that  proclaim 
their    piscine   descent:     (1)    The   possession   by 


AMPHIBIA. 


476 


AMPHYCTIONIC   COUNCIL. 


tlie  heart  of  a  long  conus  arteriosus  (anterior 
to  tlie  ventricle)  provided  with,  in  many  eases, 
numerous  valves,  on  at  least  (in  Anura)  one 
series  at  the  base,  another  at  the  beginning  of 
the  truneus  where  the  arches  branch  off;  (2) 
the  strictly  symmetrical  arrangement  of  these 
arches:  (3)  the  three-chambered  heart  is  still 
like  that  of  Dipnoi;  (4)  the  occurrence  of  as 
many  as  four  or  even  five  branchial  skeletal 
arches  in  the  larval  stage;  (5)  the  glottis  (or 
entrance  to  windpipe)  is  supported  by  carti- 
lages which  tliemselves  are  derivatives  of  pos- 
terior visceral  arches  ;  ( 6 )  the  development  ( m 
Vrodela  as  in  Stegoeephalia)  of  the  vertebrii!  from 
four  pairs  of  elements  called  arcvalia,  and  the 
formation  of  the  intervertebral  joints  by  a  split 
across  the  intervertebral  ring  of  cartilage;  (7) 
the  hypoglossal  nerve  still  lies  outside  and  be- 
hind the  skull  as  a  cranial  nerve;  (8)  the  pres- 
ence of  lateral  sense  organs;  (9)  the  possession 
of  external  gills  as  in  Dipnoi  and  Crossopterygii. 
It  is  frequently  assumed  that  the  first  Urodela 
were  aquatic  creatures,  provided  with  a  finned 
tail  and  small  lungs.  Gadow  believes  these  to 
be  larval  -acquisitions,  not  ancestral  reminis- 
cences. Tlie  fact  that  the  ancestors  of  Amphibia 
evolved  the  pentadaetyl  condition  proves  that 
they  were  land  animals.  The  evolutionary 
change  through  which  the  early  Amphibia  passes 
are  thus  enumerated  by  Gadow. 

( 1 )  "Terrestrial,  with  two  pairs  of  pentadac- 
tjdoid  limbs;  breathing  by  lungs  only;  with  a 
fully  developed  apparatus  of  five  pairs  of  gill- 
arclies,  which  during  the  embryonic  life  perhaps 
still  carried  internal  gills,  with  or  without  sev- 
eral pairs  of  gill  clefts.  Reduction  of  the 
dermal  armor  and  of  the  cutaneous  scutes  had 
taken  place. 

(2)  "Additional  respiratory  organs  were  de- 
veloped bv  the  embrvo,  in  the  shape  of  external 
gills ;  these  were  at  first  restricted  to  embryonic 
life  (as  in  the  existing  Apoda),  but  were  grad- 
ually used  also  during  the  aquatic  life  of  the 
larva.  These  external  gills,  together  with  the 
lungs,  have  superseded  the  internal  gills,  of 
which  there  are  now  no  traces  either  in  Urodela 
or  in  Anura. 

(3)  "Some  Urodela,  retaking  to  aquatic  life, 
retained  and  further  enlarged  the  external  gills 
into  more  or  less  permanent  organs.  The 
majority  of  Urodela  hurried  through  the  larval, 
aquatic  stage,  and  some — e.g.,  Salamandra  atra 
— became  absolutely  terrestrial.  The  possession 
of  unusually  long  external  gills  by  this  species 
and  by  the"  Apoila  indicates  that  these  organs 
are  essentially  embrvonie,  not  larval,  features." 

Bibliography:  the  foremost  systematic 
writers  upon  this  group  are  G.  A.  Boulenger,  of 
the  British  Museum,  and  E.  D.  Cope.  The  latter 
has  corapletelv  monogi-aphcd  North  American 
forms  in  "Batr'achia  of  North  America,"  liulletin 
SJi,  United  States  National  Museum  (Washing- 
ton, 1889).  This  discusses  the  larger  relations 
of  the  group,  and  gives  an  extensive  bibliography. 
For  a  still  more  recent  general  treatise,  consult 
H.  Gadow,  "Amphibia,"  Camhridge  Natural  Bis- 
tortj.  Volume  VIIT.  (Cambridge.  1901).  See 
Alimentary  Sy.stem  (Evolution  of)  and  simi- 
lar articles  relating  to  comparative  anatomy. 

AMPHIBIA,  Fossil,.     See  Stegocephalia. 

AMPHIB'IOUS  PLANTS.  A  remarkably 
plastic  group,  generally  classed  among  water 
plants  (Hydrophytes,  q.v.).     Not  only  are  these 


plants  able  to  endure  life  in  wet  or  dry  habitats, 
but  their  leaves  often  show  remarkable  varia- 
tions. (See  Leaf.)  Shallow  ditches  common- 
ly furnish  good  illustrations  of  amphibious 
plants. 

AM'PHIBOLE  (Gk.  a/x(l>il3o7iO;,  amphiholos, 
doubtful,  ambiguous;  alluding  to  its  being  easily 
confounded  with  augite).  An  important  group 
of  rock-making  minerals  closely  allied  to  the 
Pyroxene  (q.v.)  group.  The  ampliiboles  are 
m'etasilicates,  principally  of  calcium,  magnesium, 
or  iron,  and  sometimes  also  of  manganese,  so- 
dium, and  potassium.  The  group  is  subdivided 
according  to  the  forms  of  crystallization.  Those 
that  crystallize  in  tlie  orthorhombie  system  in- 
clude Anthophjdlite  and  its  variety  Gedrite;  the 
monoclinie  section  includes  the  typical  mineral 
Ampliibole  with  its  varieties,  as  W'ell  as  Glauco- 
phane,  Crocidolite,  and  certain  other  minerals; 
while  the  triclinic  section  includes  .^Snigmatite. 
All  of  these  minerals  have  a  common  prismatic 
cleavage  of  from  54°  to  56°,  and  also  agi-ee  in 
their  optical  characters  and  chemical  composi- 
tion. 

The  most  important  member  of  the  group  is 
the  mineral  Amphibole,  which  gives  its  name  to 
the  series.  The  several  varieties  of  amphibole 
are  divided  into  two  groups,  according  as  they  do 
or  do  not  contain  aluminum.  The  non-aluminous 
varieties  include  Tremolite,  a  calcium  magnesium 
silicate  that  is  usually  white  to  dark  gray  in 
color,  and  is  found  both  in  crystals  and  massive; 
Actinolite,  a  calcium  magnesium  and  iron  sili- 
cate of  varying  shades  of  green ;  Griinerite,  an 
iron  silicate  which  is  of  a  brown  color  that  oc- 
curs in  fibrous  masses.  The  aluminous  varieties 
include  the  several  varieties  of  Hornblende, 
which  comprises  the  dark  green  and  black  va- 
rieties, known  as  common  Hornblende  (black), 
Pargasite  (green  and  blue),  and  Edenite  (white, 
gray,  and  pale  green).  These  minerals  are  found 
in  crystalline  metamorphic  limestones,  granitic, 
and  schistose  rocks,  and  in  volcanic  or  igneous 
rocks.  Nearly  every  member  of  the  group  has 
several  varieties,  each  of  which,  besides  having 
a  separate  name,  differs  from  the  type  by  some 
slight  variation  in  color,  optical  properties,  or 
chemical  composition.  Many  varieties  of  amphi- 
bole have  been  cut  as  gem-stones. 

AMPHIC'TYON'IC  COUN'CIL  (from  Am- 
phictyun;  see  below).  A  celebrated  religious 
congiess  of  the  confederated  tribes  of  ancient 
Greece,  which  met  twice  every  year,  in  spring  and 
in  autumn,  at  both  Delphi  and  Thermopylae.  The 
meetings  at  Delphi  took  place  in  the  temple  of 
Apollo,  those  at  Thermopyla;  in  the  temple  of 
Demcter,  which  was  in  the  village  of  Anthela. 
The  congress  was  composed  of  the  deputies  of 
twelve  tribes,  the  list  of  which  is  given  differently 
in  different  authors.  The  list  of  the  orator 
yEschines  (containing  but  eleven  names,  how- 
ever) is  as  follows:  Thessalians,  Boeotians, 
Dorians,  lonians,  Perrhfcbians,  Magnetes,  Lo- 
crians,  (Eta-ans,  Phthiots,  IMalians,  and  Phocians. 
The  twelfth  tribe  was  probably  either  the  Dolo- 
pians  or  the  ^Eniauians.  (See  Pausanias.  ix.  is. 
and  Herodotus,  vii  :  1.S2:  also  Cauer  in  Pauly- 
Wissow's  Realevci/clopiidic) .  Each  tribe  sent 
two  members,  and  the  twenty-four  representa- 
tives possessed  equal  authority.  The  origin  of 
the  Aniphietyonic  Council  is  a  matter  of  legend 
only.  Tradition  connects  it  with  the  name  of 
Aniphictyon.  son  of  Deucalion,  or  with  that  of 


AMPHICTYONIC   COUNCIL. 


477 


AMPHIOXUS. 


Androtion.  We  maj-  at  least  be  sure  that  the  in- 
stitution was  one  of  great  antiquity.  Its  impor- 
tance (leelined  in  the  course  of  time,  and  by  the 
tliird  century  B.C.  it  had  lost  much  of  its  old 
authority.  The  duties  of  the  Council  were  pri- 
marily religious,  and  were  connected  with  the 
care  of  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Delphi  and  the 
protection  of  the  holy  lands,  treasures,  and  other 
perquisites  of  the  god.  It  was  also  intrusted 
with  the  preparation  and  direction  of  the 
Pythian  Games.  The  duty  of  protecting  the 
property  of  Apollo  carried  with  it  the  power  to 
prosecute  and  jiunish  all  who  in  an\'  way  injured 
the  majesty  of  the  god.  Thus  the  Council  pos- 
sessed important  judicial  rights,  and,  as  it  also 
had  power  to  regulate  matters  relating  to  peace 
and  war  among  the  different  members  of  the  fed- 
eration, it  in  time  acquired  political  importance 
also.  The  members  bound  themselves  by  an  oath 
not  to  destroj'  any  city  of  the  Amphictyons  or 
cut  off  their  streams  in  war  or  peace;  also,  if 
any  State  should  break  this  oath,  to  unite  in 
proceeding  against  and  destroying  such  a  State. 
There  were  in  early  times  various  other  am- 
phictyonies,  or  associations  of  tribes,  among  the 
Greeks,  as  at  Argos,  Delos,  and  elsewhere,  but 
little  is  known  of  these.  Consult:  Tittmann, 
Ueber  den  Bund  der  Amphictyonen  (Leipzig, 
1880)  :  and  Freeman,  History  of  Federal  Gov- 
ernment   (2d  ed.  London,  1893). 

AMPHIL'OCHUS  (Gk.  ' AfK^iloxog,  AmpUl- 
ochos).  In  legend,  a  son  of  Amphiaraiis,  and, 
like  him,  worshiped  as  a  propliet  at  Oro])us  and 
elsewhere:  one  of  the  Epigoni  (q-v.),  and  founder 
of  Amphiloehian  Argos  in  Ambracia,  Another 
group  of  legends  connected  Amphilochus  with 
Cilicia  and  Pamphylia,  where  he  was  said  to 
have  gone  after  the  Trojan  War,  in  which  he 
took  part  as  a  suitor  of  Helen.  With  Nopsus, 
he  founded  Mallus,  but  later  they  quarreled  and 
killed  each  other.  Their  graves  were  shown 
at  Mallus,  where  was  also  an  oracle  of  Amphil- 
ochus. 

AM'PHINETT'RA  (Gk.  aiKpi,  amphi,  around 
+  I'ei'poi;  neuron,  sinew,  nerve).  A  class  of 
mollusks,  characterized  by  the  peculiar  arrange- 
ment of  the  neivous  system.  There  are  two 
lateral  and  two  ventral  nerve  trunks  bound  to- 
gether by  numerous  commissures  and  provided 
with  ganglion  cells  throughout  their  whole 
length.  Anteriorly  these  cords  pass  into  the 
cerebral  ganglion,  which,  however,  is  often  hardly 
more  than  the  upper  half  of  a  ring  which  encir- 
cles the  cEsophagus.  The  araphineura  are  bi- 
laterally synmietrical  and  have  the  foot  some- 
what like  that  of  the  gastropods.  They  either 
have  a  shell  of  eight  pieces  or  there  is  no  shell 
at  all.  They  are  all  marine  forms,  chiefly  of  the 
warmer  seas,  and  rarelj-  reach  a  large  size.  There 
are  two  distinct  orders,  the  Polyplacophora,  or 
Chitons  (q.v. ),  and  the  Aplacophora,  or  Soleno- 
gastres.  The  latter  are  degenerate,  worm-like 
animals  of  small  size,  without  a  shell,  the  foot, 
mantle,  and  mantle-cavity  greatly  reduced,  and 
in  some  forms  almost  wanting.  Only  a  few  re- 
cent species  are  known. 

AMPHI'ON  (Gk.  'Afitpluv).  In  mythology, 
son  of  Zeus  and  Antiope,  twin  brother  of 
Zethus.  The  story  of  Antiope  and  her  sons  ex- 
isted in  many  local  forms,  but  the  accepted  ver- 
sion of  later  times  was  found  in  the  Antiope  of 
Euripides,  of  which  only  fragments  have  been  pre- 
served. Antiope,  dragged  from  her  refuge  atSicyon 


by  her  uncle,  Lycus  of  Thebes,  bore  the  twins 
on  Mount  Cithaeron,  where  they  were  exposed, 
but  found,  and  reared  by  a  shepherd.  Antiope, 
cruelly  mistreated  by  Lycus  and  his  wife  Dirce, 
fled  to  the  mountain,  where  she  found  her  sons. 
To  avenge  her  ^\rongs,  the  twins  tied  Dirce  to 
the  horns  of  a  wild  bull,  and  captured  Lycus, 
who  surrendered  Thebes,  which  they  fortified. 
Amphion  charmed  the  stones  into  place  by  his 
lyre.  The  characters  of  the  brothers  are  sharply 
contrasted:  Zethus,  the  rough  huntsman,  and 
Amphion,  the  gentle  musician.  Aniphion  and  Ze- 
thus were  honored  at  Thebes  as  Dioscuri,  as  Cas- 
tor and  PoIUlx  at  Sparta.  Ampliion  married 
Niobe  (q.v.),  and  was  killed  by  A])ollo,  or  com- 
mitted suicide  when  his  children  were  killed.  The 
punishment  of  Dirce  is  the  subject  of  a  celebrated 
group  of  statuary — "The  Farnese  Bull" — by 
Apollonius  and  Tauriscus  of  Tralles,  found  in 
the  Baths  of  Caracalla  in  Rome  in  1.54G,  and 
now  in  the  Naples  JIuseum.  It  is  a  work  of  the 
early  part  of  the  first  century  B.C.,  but  has  been 
much  restored. 

AM'PHIOX'US  (Gk.  i/x,pl,  amphi,  on  both 
sides  +  iJ^i'f,  ud:ys,  sharp).  A  small,  bilateral, 
translucent,  marine  animal,  about  two  or  three 
inches  long,  thought  by  some  to  be  an  offshoot 
of  the  primitive  vertebrate  stock,  and  by  others 
to  be  a  degenerate,  primitive  vei'tebrate.  The 
amphioxus  or  "lancelet"  has  no  well-defined 
brain,  but  a  persistent  and  unscgmented  noto- 
chord.  The  muscles  are  arranged  in  sixty-two 
V-shaped  myomeres  dovetailed  into  one  another. 
The  single  mouth  and  anus  are  in  the  median 
line.  There  are  no  limbs,  eyes,  ears,  sympathetic 
nerves,  or  genital  ducts.  The  gill-slits,  which 
are  numerous  and  supported  by  bars,  open  from 
the  mouth  into  the  atrial  chamber,  which  has 
one  opening  to  the  e.xterior,  the  atrial  pore.  The 
best-known  species  is  Amphioxus  lanceolatus, 
which  dwells  buried  in  sand  near  tlie  seashore 
line.  Its  food,  which  consists  mainly  of  diatoms, 
is  sucked  into  its  mouth.  The  adults  swim  about 
in  the  evening  onh-,  but  the  young  are  very  ac- 
tive. The  segmentation  of  the  egg  is  complete, 
and  results  in  the  formation  of  a  blastosphere, 
which    invaginates    to    form    a    eastrula.     The 


AMPHIOXUS. 

1.  Ventral  view  of  the  entire  animal  l,vinp:  on  its  side, 
%  Side  view,  a,  anterior  end,  sliowin^j  cirri  ali<)ut  tile 
hooded  mouth ;  b,  caudal  fin  ;  c,  anus ;  d,  atripore  or  ex- 
current  oiiflce  for  the  water  constantiy  talien  in  at  th© 
mouth:  e,  generative  organs ;  «,  uotochord. 

medullary  groove  is  formed  by  a  sinking  of  the 
ectoderm  along  the  raid-dorsal  line.  The  cavity 
of  the  gastrula  becomes  the  gut  of  the  adult. 
In  the  active  earl}'  life  of  the  embryo  the  ecto- 
derm is  ciliated.  The  simplicity  of  its  develop- 
ment has  made  the  amphioxus  a  favorite  object 
of  study  for  the  descriptive  and  e-xperimental 
embryologist.  If  the  two  cells  which  are  the 
result  of  the  first  segmentation  are  separated, 
each  cell  will  develop  into  a  complete  individual 
one-half  the  size  of  the  normal  embryo.     Incom- 


AMPHIOXtrS. 


plete  separation  results  in  the  formation  of 
double  or  Siamese-like  twins.  Compare  Balano- 
GLOSSUS;  and  consult  A.  Willey,  Amphioxus 
and  the  Ancestry  of  the  Vertebrates  (>fe\v  York, 
1894).  See  the  articles  on  the  evolution  of  the 
alimentary,  circulatory,  muscular,  nervous,  and 
respiratory  systems,  under  Alimentary  Sys- 
tem, etc. 

AMPHIP'ODA  (Gk.  nom.  neut.  pi.,  from 
a/upc,  amphi,  around  +  noig,  pons,  foot).  An 
order  of  crustaceans,  distinguished  by  the  ses- 
sile, lateral  eyes,  and  the  greatly  compressed 
body.  They  are  mostly  of  small  size,  and  some 
very  minute.  Their  name  alludes  to  the  peculiar 
arrangement  of  the  so-called  walking-feet,  four 
pairs  of  which  point  forward  and  three  back- 
ward. The  abdomen  or  "tail"  is  also  a  powerful 
locomotive  organ,  and  assists  the  animal  in  jump- 
ing, which  is  its  usual  mode  of  progression.  Even 
in  swimming  its  movements  are  chiefly  a  succes- 
sion of  jumps.  The  amphipods  are  usually 
plainlj'  colored,  but  some  forms  are  very  hand- 
some. A  large  number  of  species  is  known,  liut 
zoologists  are  by  no  means  agreed  as  to  their 
classification,  some  making  only  two,  and  some 
as  many  as  nine,  families.  They  occur  in  both 
fresh  and  salt  water,  and  are  especially  abundant 
along  sandy  beaches,  w'here  they  skip  about  in 
such  a  lively  manner  that  they  are  called  beach- 
fleas  or  sand-hoppers.  They  are  widely  distrib- 
uted over  the  world,  occurring  even  in  the  Arctic 
regions,  and  are  of  great  practical  importance  as 
food  for  fishes.  See  Beach-flea,  and  Crustacea. 

AMPHIP'OLIS  (C4k.  ' Afi<f,iwo2.ic) .  A  city 
of  ancient  Macedonia,  situated  in  a  deep  bend 
of  the  Strj'mon,  about  three  miles  from  the  sea 
(Map:  Turkey  in  Europe,  D  4).  Its  position 
made  it  important  as  the  port  of  entry  for  the 
fertile  Strymon  Valley  and  Thrace;  and  the 
neighborhood  yielded  timber  for  ships,  as  well  as 
gold  and  silver.  It  belonged  originally  to  the 
Edonians,  a  Thracian  people,  and  was  called,  on 
account  of  the  roads  which  met  here,  'Ewea 
'o6ot  (Nine  Ways).  The  first  who  attempted  to 
colonize  .it,  Aristagoras  of  Miletus,  was  cut  off 
with  his  fcjllowers  by  the  Edonians.  The  Atheni- 
ans next  tiied  to  gain  possession  of  it.  Their  first 
army,  amounting  to  10,000  men,  was  utterly  cut 
to  pieces  at  Drabescus,  405  u.c,  but  their  second, 
437  u.c.  under  Hagnon,  son  of  Nicias,  was  suc- 
cessful. The  Thracians  were  expelled  and  a  new 
city  built,  to  which  Hagnon  gave  the  name  Am- 
phipolis,  because  it  had  the  river  on  both  sides. 
Owing  to  its  mixed  population,  Amphipolis  was 
not  friendly  to  Athens,  and  in  424  n.c.  readily 
joined  the  Spartan  Brasidas.  The  Athenian  gen- 
eral, C'lcon,  having  been  sent  to  recover  the  city, 
■vvas  defeated  and  slain  in  a  battle  fouglit  near 
its  walls  in  422  B.  c,  Brasidas  also  falling  in 
the  engagement.  Though  nominally  restored  to 
Athens  by  the  peace  of  Nicias,  Amphipolis 
seems  to  have  remained  independent  until  its  sur- 
render to  Philip  of  Macedon.  At  Amphipolis 
was  situated  the  chief  mint  of  the  Macedonian 
kings,  and  under  the  Komans  it  was  the  capital 
of  Eastern  Macc(h)nia.  In  the  Middle  Ages  it 
was  called  Popolia.  Its  site  is  now  occupied  by  a 
Turkish  town,  but  a  few  of  its  ruins  are  still 
visible.  Consult:  Leake,  Travels  in  Northern 
(ireece  (London,  1S.3.'))  ;  and  Heuzey  and 
Paumet,  Mission  archdologique  en  Macidonie 
(Paris,  1876). 


478  AMPHITHEATKE. 

AM'PHISB.a/NA  (Gk.  afifiQ,  amphis,  on 
both  ends  +  (ialveiv,  bainein,  to  go).  The  type 
genus  of  a  family  of  degraded,  limbless  lizards, 
of  tlie  general  appearance  of  snakes  or  worms, 
found  only  in  the  West  Indies  and  South  Amer- 
ica. The  best  known  is  the  sooty  or  dusky 
species,  Amphislxiena  fuliginosa.  The  body  is  18 
to  24  inches  long  and  nearly  the  same  thickness 
throughout;  head  small,  eyes  small,  ears  covered 
with  skin,  and  tail  very  short.  It  tunnels  under 
ground,  feeding  on  insect  larva;  and  worms. 
As  it  moves  either  way  with  equal  ease,  rumor 
gave  it  two  heads,  and  asserted  that  when  cut  in 
twain  the  parts  would  find  eacli  other  and  re- 
unite. Its  dried  and  jmlverized  flesh  was  sup- 
posed to  possess  miraculous  curative  properties. 

AMPHIS'SA  (Gk.  "A/i^iaaa).  The  ofticial 
name  of  Salona,  the  capital  of  the  Greek  nome  of 
Phocis  (Map:  Greece,  D  3).  It  is  situated 
31  miles  northeast  of  Lepanto,  at  the  western 
foot  of  the  Parnassus,  a  few  miles  from  the  site 
of  Delphi.  The  town  lies  in  a  fertile  plain, 
and  has  trade  in  oil,  tobacco,  and  grain.  A 
road  runs  to  the  harbor  of  Itea,  five  miles  to 
the  south,  on  the  Bay  of  Salona.  It  is  on  the 
site  of  the  ancient  Amphissa.     Pop.,  1896,  5416. 

AM'PHITHE'ATRE  (Gk.       aumOeaTpov, 

amjiliilheatron,  a  double  theatre,  from  afi^l, 
amphi,  on  both  sides -f-  dearpov,  theatron,  a 
theatre).  An  architectural  structure  invented  by 
the  Romans  for  exhibiting  gladiatorial  combats, 
fights  of  wild  beasts,  and  other  spectacles.  These 
contests  were  at  first  given  in  the  Roman  Forum, 
within  hastily  contrived  wooden  scafl'oldings,  or 
in  the  Circus.  But  in  59  B.C.,  Curio,  wishing  to 
surpass  all  his  predecessors  in  the  sumptuous- 
ness  of  his  shows,  erected  two  wooden  theatres, 
back  to  back,  where  dramatic  performances  were 
given  simultaneously;  and  when  these  were  over 
the  two  theatres  were  made  to  revolve  and  close 
up.  Their  tiers  of  seats  inclosed  an  arena  suited 
for  the  contests  which  then  followed.  Perhaps 
the  model  was  found  in  the  cities  of  Campania; 
for  Pompeii  had  an  amphitheatre  as  early  as  70 
B.C.  Csesar  first  erected,  in  46  B.C.,  a  permanent 
structure  of  this  kind  in  wood,  and  it  was  called 
amphitheatre,  from  its  shape,  or  theutrum  vena- 
torium  or  "theatre  of  the  chase,"  from  the  kind 
of  contests  held  in  it.  Still,  combats  of  gladia- 
tors and  wild  beasts  continued  to  be  given  in 
the  Circus  and  the  Forum.  In  30  B.C.,  under 
Augustus,  Statilius  Taurus  built  the  first  am- 
phitheatre that  was  partly  of  stone,  in  the 
Campus  Martins:  it  remained  the  only  one  in 
Rome  not  entirely  of  wood  until  the  erection  of 
the  Coliseum  by  Vespasian,  whose  son  and  suc- 
cessor, Titus,  dedicated  the  edifice  in  SO  a.d. 
Even  the  upper  part  of  the  Coliseum  itself 
was  originally  of  wood  until  the  restoration, 
after  a  great  fire,  in  223.  The  example  of 
Rome  w'as  follow'ed  by  all  the  cities  of  any  im- 
portance throughout  the  Empire,  where  the  love 
of  bloody  sports,  so  repugnant  to  the  Greeks, 
spread  rapidly.  Amphitheatres  were  erected 
throughout  Italy  and  Sicily  (Verona,  Puteoli, 
Capua.  Pola,  Syracuse,  Pompeii,  etc.),  Spain 
(Tari'agona,  Italica),  France  (Aries,  Nimes,  Bor- 
deaux, Saintes,  etc.),  England  ( Silchester,  Ciren- 
cester), Germany,  North  Africa  (El-Jemm)  ,Asia 
Minor  (Perganuini,  Cyzicus),  Greece  (Corinth, 
Sparta.)  The  ruins  of  almost  a  hundred 
have  been  found.     Those  that  are  well  preserved 


AMPHITH  E  ATRE. 


479 


AMPHORA. 


are  anion;;  Uie  finest  remains  of  Roman  architec- 
ture. W'iiencver  possible,  the  natural  lay  of  the 
ground  was  utilized  to  save  expense,  by  cutting 
part  of  the  seats  in  the  natural  rock  and  using 
tlie  hillside  as  an  incline.  Hut  in  most  eases  the 
aiiiphitlicntres  were  entirely  free-standing  struc- 
tures of  elliptical  shape,  built  of  brick,  stone, 
and  marble.  The  Coliseum  at  Rome  seated  87,- 
000  persons,  according  to  a  document  of  the 
fourth  century;  but  Hiilsen  believes  that  there 
were  that  number  of  running  feet  of  benches,  and 
that  only  about  50,000  persons  could  be  seated. 
Its  greatest  length  is  CIG  feet,  its  greatest 
breadth  510  feet.  Several  others  are  of  about 
tlie  same  size,  as,  for  example,  those  at  Pozzuoli, 
Capua,  Italiea,  Verona,  Tariagona,  El-Jemm. 
The  exterior  wall  of  the  Coliseum,  100  feet  high, 
was  divided  into  four  stories;  the  three  lower 
ones  consisted  of  a  series  of  arcades  framed  by 
architraves  and  pilasters,  the  lowest,  Tuscan- 
Doric;  the  second,  Ionic;  the  third,  Corinthian, 
according  to  a  common  Roman  usage.  The 
uijper  story  was  broken  merely  by  windows 
and  pilasters,  as  well  as  by  the  high  masts  to 
support  the  awnings.  Tlie  lower  arcades  served 
as  entrances ;  four  were  main  entrances ;  sev- 
enty-six were  numbered  entrances  leading  to 
the  staircases.  The  arcades  of  the  second  and 
third  stories  opened  on  the  covered  promenade 
galleries,  passage-ways,  and  staircases.  To  the 
iipjier  story  were  fastened  the  great  awnings, 
■which  protected  the  spectators  from  the  sun 
when  necessary.  Other  amphitheatres  vary, 
from  two  stories  at  Ninies,  to  three  at  Verona, 
tlirce  and  a  basement  at  Pola,  to  four  at  El- 
Jemm.  The  arrangements  were  as  follows  at 
the  Coliseum:  There  were  four  tiers,  or  stories, 
of  seats,  forming  the  caveu,  and  corresponding  to 
tlie  four  external  stories.  Under  their  founda- 
tions were  five  concentric  corridors  communicat- 
ing with  the  staircases;  and  the  raking  vaults 
that  support  the  seats  and  staircases  are  one  of 
the  most  superb  and  im])ressive  parts  of  the 
structure.  The  interior  of  the  cai^ea,  or  place  for 
the  spectators,  had  tlirce  sections:  the  lower 
one,  or  podium,  with  the  seats  and  thrones  of 
honor;  the  mwiiianu,  or  lines  of  steps  for  the 
seats :  the  porticua.  or  portico.  The  podium  was 
a  platform  immediately  above  the  arena,  reserved 
for  the  Emperor  and  other  persons  of  greatest 
distinction,  and  crowned  witli  special  boxes  and 
balconies.  The  ma-niana  were  in  three  horizontal 
sections,  where  the  spectators  could  be  seated 
according  to  their  rank ;  tiie  equestrian  order 
in  the  lower,  the  citizens  in  the  middle,  and  the 
general  populace  in  the  upper  section.  Ordi- 
narily, the  women  were  obliged  to  be  satisfied 
with  the  highest  places  under  the  portico.  Each 
row  of  seats  was  numbered  and  the  places 
chalked.  A  large  personnel  kept  order.  The 
central  apace,  measuring  280  by  170  feet,  in 
which  the  contests  took  place,  was  called  the 
arena  and  was  encircled  by  a  low  wall  to  protect 
the  podium  from  the  wild  beasts.  Under  it  was 
an  elaborate  system  of  substructures,  not  only 
for  under-draining,  but  also  for  housing  men  and 
animals,  with  wells,  windlasses,  and  inclined 
planes  for  hoisting  the  animals,  and  other  means 
of  communicating  with  the  arena — such  as  the 
vomitoria — and  with  the  outside — such  as  pas- 
sages to  the  imperial  palaces.  Especially  inter- 
esting is  a  row  of  beasts'  dens  following  the  oval 
outline  of  the  arena  above.  The  Coliseum  has  not 
'preserved  its  seats;  those  at  Verona  and  NImes 


have.  Neither  is  the  entire  circuit  of  outer  wall 
as  well  preserved  in  the  Coliseum  as  at  these 
cities  or  at  Pola.  At  Capua  and  Pozzuoli  the  sub- 
structures of  the  arena  are  in  perfect  condition. 
Consult:  Friedliinder,  SittciKjififlnrhtc  Roms 
(Leipzig,  ISSl-flO)  :  De  Ruggicro.  Diziondrio  epi- 
Unifico  (Rome,  1887-0.3)  ;  jliddleton,  Rcmaitts  of 
Ancient  Rome  (London,  1892)  :  Daremberg  and 
Saglio,  Diet  ionnnire  dcs  antiquitcs  grecques 
et  Homaines  (Paris,  1881-92),  and  Baumeister, 
Denkmhler  dcs  Iclassischcn  Alterthums  (Munich, 
1885-88). 

AM'PHITRI'TE  (Gk.  A/iiiitTplTn) .  The 
daughter  of  the  sea-god  Nereus  and  of  Doris;  and 
the  wife  of  Poseidon.  Amphitrite  was  wor- 
shiped only  in  company  witli  Poseidon,  and  ap- 
pears with  him  on  many  painted  votive  tablets 
from  Corinth.  Her  marriage  forms  the  subject 
of  a  fine  Roman  iiuiible  relief,  in  Munich,  with 
Poseidon,  representing  her  as  drawn  in  a  car  by 
Tritons,  surrounded  by  Nereids  and  sea-monsters. 
She  also  appears  with  Poseidon  in  representa- 
tions  of   assemblies  of   the  gods. 

AMPHIT'RUO,     or     AMPHIT'RYON.     A 

comedy  or  burlesque  bj'  Plautus  (q.v. ),  based  on 
the  legend  of  Jupiter  and  Alcmene,  Amphitryon's 
wife.     Its  Greek  prototype  is  unknown. 

AMPHIT'RYON  (Gk.  •Au(t,iTfivuv) .  Legend- 
ary son  of  AlciEus  of  Tiryns.  lie  accidentally 
killed  Electryon,  father  of  Alcmene  (q.v.).  King 
of  Mycenae,  for  which  deed  he  was  expelled 
from  Slycense.  He  took  refuge  in  Thebes  with 
his  wife  Alcmene.  Here  she  became  the  mother 
of  Heracles  by  Zeus,  and  of  Iphicles,  by  Am])hit- 
ryon.  Amphitryon's  tomb  and  the  ruins  of  his 
house  were  shown  in  Thebes  in  the  days  of 
Pausanias. 

AMPHITRYON.  (1)  A  comedy  of  Moliere, 
produced  in  1008,  and  taken  from  that  of  Plautus. 
(2)  An  opera  by  Grgtry,  the  words  being  by 
Sedaine.  produced  in  Paris,  1781.  (3)  A  com- 
edy by  Andrieux,  presented  in  1782.  Tliere  are 
also  operas  with  this  title  in  Italian,  Portuguese, 
and  Swedish. 

AMPHITRYON,  OR  THE  TWO  SO'CIAS. 

A  comedy  by  Dryden,  with  musical  portions,  pro- 
duced in  1090.  It  was  adapted  from  Molifere's 
play. 

AM'PHIIT'MA  (Corruption  from  Gk.  a//0(, 
nmphi,  on  both  sides -j-  iri'tv/ja,  pneumo,  breath, 
referring  to  the  gill).  A  genus  of  tailed  amphi- 
bia that  loses  its  tadpole  gills  but  retains  in  the 
adult  stage'one  gill-slit  on  each  side  of  the  neck; 
hence  it  is  half-way  between  the  mud-puppy 
(Proteus),  which  retains  its  external  gill's 
throughout  life,  and  the  newts,  which  rc'tain 
neither  gills  nor  slits.     See  Congo-snake. 

AM'PHORA  (Gk.  niKfoptv;,  amphoreus, 
Homeric  afjifnOnpevc,  aniphiphoreus,  from  ('t/i(pl, 
amphi,  on  both  sides,  and  rif peiv,  pherein,  to 
carry).  Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  a  large 
vessel,  usually  made  of  clay,  with  a  narrow  neck 
and  two  handles.  Many  amphor.T;  ended  in  a 
sharp  point  below  for  insrrtion  in  a  stand  or  in 
the  ground.  The  pointed  form  of  the  amphora 
Mas  used  for  preserving  wine  and  oil,  as  in  the 
Panathenaic  amphora.  A  peculiar  tall  and 
slender  form  was  the  Loutrophoros.  which  was 
used  for  water  for  the  bridal  bath  and  to  mark 
the  graves  of  the  unmarried.  The  amphora  ap- 
pears  in   a  great  variety  of   forms  among  the 


AMPHORA. 


480 


AMPYX. 


Greek  painted  vases.  Anipliora  was  also  a  liquid 
measure  in  Konie,  equivalent  to  26.20  litres,  or 
about  seven  gallons.     The  name  was  also  given 


AMPHOR.?:. 

sometimes  to  tlie  Attic  metretes — equal  to  about 
11  gallons.  In  modern  times,  anfora  is  the  name 
of  a  wine-measure  in  Venice.    See  Vase. 

AM'PLIFICA'TION  (Lat.  amplus,  large  + 
facere,  to  make).  A  term  in  rlietoric,  meaning 
that  an  idea,  an  opinion,  or  an  inference  is  pre- 
sented to  the  mind  accompanied  by  accessory 
circumstances.  Its  aim  is  to  make  a  powerful 
and  vivid  impression  on  the  reader  or  the  hearer. 
It  is  generally  produced  by  breaking  up  general 
statements  into  particulars,  by  employing  some 
form  of  repetition,  by  adding  illustrative  details, 
and  by  quotation.  Consult  Genung,  The  Work- 
ing Principles  of  Rhetoric   (Boston,  1901). 

AM'PLITTJDE  (Lat.  ainplitiido,  from  amplus, 
large).  In  astronomy,  the  angular  distance  of  a 
heavenly  body,  at  the  time  of  its  rising  or  setting 
from  the  eastern  or  the  western  point  of  the  hori- 
zon. When  the  sun  is  in  the  equator  (i.e.,  at  the 
time  of  either  equinox),  he  rises  exactly  east  and 
sets  exactly  west,  except  for  the  small  efl'eets  of 
refraction  (q.v. )  Therefore,  at  these  times  the 
amplitude  is  zero.  His  amplitude  is  at  its  maxi- 
mum at  midsummer,  and  again  at  midwinter; 
and  that  maximum  depends  upon  the  latitude  of 
the  place,  being  2.31A°  at  the  equator,  and  in- 
creasing to  latitude  66%°,  where  it  becomes  90". 
The  amplitude  of  a  fixed  star  remains  constant 
all   the   year   round. 

AMPTHILL,  amt'hill.  First  Baeon.  See 
RussELi,,  Ono  WiLLiAsr  Leopold. 

AMPUL'LA  (diniin.  of  amphora:  in  Greek, 
/l)?K!)Oof,  IClcythos).  Apparently  a  generic  term 
among  the  ancient  Romans  for  anj'  little  bottle 
of  earthenware,  glass,  or  other  material,  used 
for  holding  liquids  or  ointments.  The  ampulla 
Uemensis  (the  holy  vessel,  Fr.  la  sainfe.  am- 
poule) was  the  name  of  that  famous  vessel  in 
which  was  contained  the  unguent  (believed  to 
have  been  brought  by  a  dove  from  heaven)  that 
anointed  Clovis,  King  of  the  Franks,  at  RheiTMS 
in  496  A.D.,  and  with  which  every  succeeding 
monarch  of  France,  down  to  Louis  X\'l.,  was 
anointed  at  his  coronation.  Tliis  ampulla  was 
shattered,  along  with  a  great  many  more  valu- 
able things,  at  the  Revolution  of  17S9;  hut  a 
fragment  of  it  was  preserved  by  some  devout 
royalist,  and  handed  over  at  the  restoration  to 


the  Archbishop  of  Rheims.  Curious  to  say,  a 
little  of  the  miraculous  substance  still  remained, 
and,  being  mixed  with  oil,  was  used  to  anoint 
Charles  X.  in  1825. 

AM'PTITA'TION  (Lat.  ampntare,  to  lop  off, 
cut  around).  The  cutting  off  of  a  part  which, 
by  its  condition,  endangers  the  safety,  health  or 
comfort  of  the  patient.  Injury,  gangrene,  and 
malignant  gi'owths  are  the  most  frequent  causes 
for  amputation.  The  amputation  of  a  limb  was 
in  ancient  times  attended  with  great  danger  of 
the  patient  dying  during  its  performance,  as  sur- 
geons had  no  efficient  means  of  restraining  the 
bleeding.  They  rarely  ventured  to  remove  a 
large  portion  of  a  limb,  and  when  they  did  so, 
they  cut  in  the  gangrened  parts,  where  they  knew 
the  vessels  would  not  bleed :  the  smaller  limbs 
they  chopped  ofi'  with  a  mallet  and  chisel ;  and 
in  both  eases  had  hot  irons  at  hand  with  which 
to  sear  the  raw  surfaces,  boiling  oil  in  which  to 
dip  the  stump,  and  various  resins,  mosses,  and 
fungi,  supposed  to  possess  the  power  of  arresting 
hemorrhage.  Some  tightly  bandaged  the  limbs 
they  wished  to  remove,  so  that  they  mortified 
and  dropped  off;  and  others  amputated  with 
red-liot  knives,  or  knives  made  of  wood  or  horn 
dipped  in  vitriol.  The  desired  power  of  con- 
trolling the  hemorrhage  was  obtained  by  the  in- 
vention of  the  ligature  by  Parg  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  and  by  the  invention  of  the  tourni- 
quet (q.v.)  in  1674  by  a  French  surgeon, 
Slorell.  The  ancient  surgeons  endeavored  to 
save  a  covering  of  skin  for  the  stump,  hav- 
ing the  skin  drawn  upward  by  an  assistantj 
previously  to  using  the  knife.  In  1679,  Lowd- 
ham,  of  Exeter,  suggested  cutting  semicircular) 
flajjs  on  one  or  both  sides  of  a  limb,  so  asl 
to  preserve  a  fleshy  cushion  to  cover  the! 
end  of  the  bone.  Both  these  methods  are  nowf 
in  use,  and  are  known  as  the  "circular"  and  thel 
"flap"  operations;  the  latter  is  most  frequently! 
used. 

A  "flap"  amputation  is  performed  thus:   Thel 
patient  being  placed  in  the  most  convenient  posi-I 
tion,  an  assistant  compresses  the  main  artery  ofl 
the  limb  with   an  elastic  band   or  a  tourniquet.  J 
Another  assistant  supports  the   limb.     The  sur- 
geon  with  one   hand   lifts   the   tissue   from   thel 
bone,  and  transfixing  with  a  long  narrow  knife,! 
cuts  rapidly  downward  and  toward  the  surface  of 
the    skin,    forming    a    flap ;     he    then    repeats 
this  on  the  other  side  of  the  limb.     An  assist-l 
ant  now  draws  up  these    flaps,  and  the    knifeJ 
is  carried  round    the  bone,  dividing    any    fleshi 
still    adhering    to   it.     The   surgeon     now     sawal 
the    bone.      He    then,    with    a    small    forceps,! 
seizes  the  end  of    the  main  artery,  and    draw-¥ 
ing  it   slightly   from   the   tissues,   an    assistant! 
ties  it  with  a  thread.     All  tlie  vessels  being  se-j 
cured  with  ligatures,  after  removal  of  the  toiu'ni-J 
quet,  the  flaps  are  stitched  together  with  a  needle 
and  thread,  or,   if  hea\-y,  with   silver  wire. 
suitable  dressing  is  then  applied. 

AM'PYX   (Gk.   a/iTTvi,    a  woman's  head-band,| 
a   snood).     A  characteristic    Ordovician  genu3J 
comprising    about    fifty    species,    restricted    tol 
North  America  and  Europe,  of  blind  trilobites,  in 
^\■lli(■h  the  central  portion   {t/labclhi)  of  the  head- 
shield  is  often  armed  with  a  cylindrical  or  angu-l 
lar  sharp   spine,   the  length  of  which   in   nianyj 
species  exceeds  that  of  the  entire  body.     LongT 
curved  spines  are  also  developed  upon  the  genal 
angles  or  posterior  corners  of  the  sides  of  the* 


AMPYX. 


481 


AMSLEB. 


head-shield.  The  thoracic  portion  of  the  body 
is  short,  consisting  of  five  or  six  segments,  and 
the  tail-shield  is  triangular  and  unarmed.  For 
illustration,   see  Trilouit.v. 

AM'RAPHEL.  In  Genesis  xiv:  1.  a  king  of 
Shiuar,  who  by  this  name  is  mentioned  as  in- 
vading Palestine,  together  with  Chedorlaonier, 
King  of  Klani,  Ariocb,  King  of  Ellasar,  and  Tidal, 
King  of  Goiim.  There  is  no  account  of  this 
expedition  in  Babylonian  literature,  and  none 
of  tlie  names  has  been  identified  with,  certainty. 
The  chapter,  as  a  whole,  is  generally  regarded 
by  the  school  of  modern  Bible  critics  as  a 
very  late  iiiidrash,  and  not  wholly  historical. 
Kilt  it  is  nut  impossible  that  the  account  of 
sMcli  an  expedition  has  been  drawn  from  Baby- 
lonian sources.  The  names  of  the  four  kings 
inspire  confidence;  and  the  expedition  against 
the  westland  by  Kudur  Mabuk  fiirnishes  a  paral- 
lel. Schrader  may  therefore  be  right  in  identi- 
fying Amraphel  with  Hammurabi  (Amru),  the 
sixth  king  of  the  first  Babylonian  dynasty.  A  re- 
cently published  cuneiform  letter,  in  which  this 
king's  name  is  apparently  given  as  Kimta-rap- 
ashtu,  removes  a  part  of  the  difficulty,  since 
riijMxhiu  is  but  the  softened  pronunciation  of 
niiKilfn.  Tlie  expedition  would,  in  that  ease, 
have  taken  place  about  2250  B.C.  As  the  connec- 
tion with  the  Hebrew  patriarch  is  likely  to  be 
a  late  development,  no  light  is  thrown  by  this 
identification  on  the  historic  character  or  date 
of  Abraham.    See  Hammurabi. 

AME,  IBN  AL-ASI,  Um'r  'b'n  ul  a's«  (died 
663  A.D.).  An  Araldan  general.  He  was  one  of 
Mohammed's  disciples,  though  before  conversion 
a  furious  opponent.  C'hielly  to  him  were  the 
Pro])liet's  successors  indebted  for  the  conquest  of 
Syria.  In  6.39  he  led  40,000  men  into  Egypt,  and 
within  three  years  eflFected  the  subjugation  of 
tlie  country.  In  641,  after  a  siege  of  fourteen 
months,  he  took  Alexandria,  losing  23.000 
men.  In  the  struggle  between  Ali  and  jloawiyah 
for  the  caliphate,  Amr  sided  with  the  latter, 
and  to  him  was  due  the  triumph  of  the  Om- 
niiads  over  the  Alids.  From  601  to  his  death 
lie  was  Emir  of  Egypt,  and  by  his  wise  ad- 
ministration facilitated  the  c-onversion  of  the 
country  to  Islam.  He  is  credited  with  pro- 
jecting a  canal  to  unite  the  Mediterranean 
and  Red  seas,  and  Is  charged  with  causing 
the  destruction  of  the  famous  library  at  Alex- 
andi'ia ;  but  the  charge  may  well  be  dismissed, 
as  it  was  not  advanced  until  six  centuries  after 
his  death.  Consult  Sir  William  Muir,  The  Ca- 
liphate  (London,  1891). 

AMRITSAR,  um-rit'sar  {Vmritsar).  A  city 
of  the  Punjab,  India,  in  lat.  31°  40'  N.  and  long. 
74°  45'  E.,  on  the  Sindh,  Punjab  and  Delhi  Kail- 
way  (Map:  India,  B  2).  It  is  the  capital  of  a 
district  of  1574  square  miles,  with  a  population 
of  about  000,000,  and  of  a  division  with  an  area 
of  5354  square  miles  and  a  population  of  about 
2,750,000,  both  of  the  same  name.  Amritsar  is, 
next  to  Delhi,  the  richest  and  most  prosperous 
city  in  northern  India,  being  connected  with 
Lahore,  the  capital  of  the  Punjab,  distant  36 
miles  to  the  west,  by  a  canal,  and  possessing  con- 
siderable manufactures  of  cotton,  silks,  shawls, 
etc.,  and  carrying  on  considerable  trade.  It  is 
the  religious  metropolis  of  the  Sikhs,  a  distinc- 
tion which,  along  with  its  name,  it  owes  to 
its  "pool  of  immortality,"  on  an  islet  of  which 
stands  the  marble  Darbar  Sahib,  the  chief  temple 


of  the  Sikh  faith,  maintaining  an  establishment 
of  over  500  priests,  and  founded  in  1574  by  the 
minor  apostle  Guru  Ram  Das.  Amritsar  is  a 
favorite  pilgiim  re-sort;  and  it  was  the  place 
where,  perhaps  to  bind  the  Sikhs  more  firmly, 
was  signed  the  treaty  of  1846,  providing  for  the 
cession  to  the  British  of  the  territory  between  the 
Beas  and  the  Butlej.  The  huge  Govindgarli,  or 
fortress,  built  in  1809,  is  the  most  jirominent 
feature  of  Amritsar.  The  town  has  a  good  water 
supply  in  connection  with  the  Bari  Doab  Canal. 
It  is  a  municipality  of  the  first  class,  with  a  pop- 
ulation of  136,766  in  1891,  which  increased  to 
162,548  in  1901. 

AMEU-EL-KAIS,  iirn'roo-el-kis'  (written 
also  AntRrLCALS,  and  Amru'l-Kais)  .  By  many 
esteemed  the  greatest  of  Arabian  poets.  He  has 
been  by  some  authorities  assigned  to  the  begin- 
ning of  the  sixth  century,  but  by  others  is 
described  as  contemporary  with  Mohammed.  Tlie 
accounts  of  his  life  are  equally  diverse,  generally 
unreliable,  and  not  infrequently  legendary.  He 
was  the  author  of  the  first  of  the  Moallakut,  a 
collection  of  seven  Arabic  poems,  which  from 
their  collective  title  ("Suspended")  were  once 
believed  to  have  been  hung  in  the  Kaaba,  at 
Mecca,  but  are  now  thought  to  have  been  so 
called  as  an  indication  of  special  excellence.  His 
MoaUakat  was  rendered  into  English  by  Sir 
William  Jones    (1782). 

AMRTJM,  iiin'room,  or  AMROM,  am'rom. 
One  of  the  North  Friesian  Islands,  on  the  west 
coast  of  Sehleswig,  Germany,  south  of  the  Sylt, 
an  island  of  the  same  gioup  (Map:  Denmark,  B 
4).  The  island  is  about  6  miles  long  and  has  an 
area  of  about  8  square  miles.  On  the  west  side 
are  high  sand-dunes.  The  island  is  unproductive, 
but  contains  monuments  of  former  prosperity. 
The  fishing  and  oyster  gathering  were  formerly 
considerable,  but  have  dwindled  away;  but  of 
late  Amrum  has  gained  some  importance  as  a 
watering-place. 

AMSDORF,  ara.s'dorf,  Nikolau.s  von  (1483- 
1565).  A  German  Protestant  reformer,  an  early 
and  determined  supporter  of  Luther.  He  was 
born  at  Torgau,  December  3,  1483,  educated  at 
Leipzig,  and  was  among  the  very  first  students 
of  the  university  at  Wittenberg  (1502),  where  he 
afterward  taught  philosophy  and  theology.  He 
was  with  Luther  at  the  Leipzig  disputation 
(1519),  and  the  Diet  of  Worms  (1521),  and  in 
the  privacy  of  his  Wartburg  seclusion.  He  as- 
sisted the  first  efforts  at  reformation  in  Magde- 
burg, Goslar,  and  Einbeck.  He  was  active  in  the 
Smalkald  debates,  and  spoke  strongly  against  the 
bigamy  of  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse.  Amsdorf  was 
made  Bishop  of  Naumburg  in  1542,  was  driven 
away  in  1547  liy  the  Imperial  party  during  the 
Smalkaldic  War,  and  took  part  in  founding 
the  University  of  Jena.  In  1552  he  became 
superintendent  at  Eisenach,  where  he  died  un- 
married. May  14,  1565.  He  superintended  the 
pulilication  'of  Luther's  works,  and  opposed  Me- 
lanchthon  on  the  separation  of  the  High-Lutheran 
party.  He  is  the  author  of  the  familiar  dictum, 
"good  works  are  prejudicial  to  salvation."  by 
which  he  meant  those  works  which  man  thinks 
in  themselves  certain  to  save  his  soul.  For  his 
biography, constilt:  T.  Pressel  ( Elberfeld,  1862); 
E.  Meier,  Leben  dcr  Altvater  der  Lutherischen 
Eirche,  Volume  III.   (Leipzig,  1863). 

AMSLER,  iims'ler,  Samuel  (1791-1849).  An 
eminent    German    engraver.      He    was    born    at 


AMSLER. 


482 


AMSTERDAM. 


Schinznach,  in  Switzerland,  received  his  first 
lessons  from  Lips  of  Ziirieh,  and  afterward 
studied  under  Hess,  in  Municli.  His  first  great 
work  was  an  engraving  from  a  JIagdalen  by 
Carlo  Dolci.  In  1816  he  went  to  Rome,  where 
he  joined  the  group  of  entliusiastic  young  Ger- 
mans among  wliom  Overbeck  and  Cornelius  were 
prominent  (see  Pre-Rapiiaelites)  .  Aided  by 
Bartli  and  Hildburghausen,  lie  engraved  a  title- 
page  for  the  Lay  of  the  Xihelungeii,  from  a  de- 
sign by  Cornelius.  During  his  second  sojourn  in 
Rome  (1820-24),  he  began  his  great  work,  an 
engraving  of  "Alexander's  Triumphal  Proces- 
sion," by  Thorwaldsen.  In  1821)  he  became 
professor  of  line-engraving  at  JIunieh,  and 
in  1831  finished  his  large  plate  of  the  "Burial 
of  Christ,"  by  Raphael,  which,  with  his  engrav- 
ing of  a  statue  of  Christ,  by  Danneeker,  dis- 
played the  highest  qualities  of  imitative  art. 
His  last  great  work  was  an  engraving  from 
■Overbeck's  "Triumph  of  Religion  in  the  Arts." 
His  style  is  marked  by  a  clear  and  noble  treat- 
ment of  form,  rather  than  by  strong  contrast 
of  tones.  Few  engravers  liave  equaled  Amsler  in 
his  deep  knowledge  and  faitliful  representation 
of  the  works  of  Raphael,  from  whom  he  repro- 
duced three  Madonnas,  the  Tempi,  Canigiani,  and 
Conestabile. 

AM'STERDAM,  or  AM'STELDAM  (ear- 
lier Amstclledaminc,  the  dam  or  dyke  of  the 
Amstel).  The  chief  city  of  the  Netherlands,  situ- 
ated at  the  confluence  of  the  Amstel  with  the  Y 
or  Ij  (pronounced  Eye),  an  arm  of  the  Zuyder 
Zee  (Jlap;  Netherlands.  C  2).  Amsterdam  has  an 
area  of  18 1.3  square  miles,  and  has  the  shape  of 
a  semicircle,  its  diameter  being  the  Y  or  Ij.  The 
town  is  further  cut  up  into  six  other  concentric 
zones  by  canals.  Other  canals  (or  grachten) 
split  up  the  city  into  ninety  islands,  crossed  by 
about  300  bridges.  Along  these,  rows  of  trees  are 
planted,  making  the  finest  avenues  of  the  city, 
of  which  the  Singelgracht,  seven  miles  long,  the 
Prinsengracht,  the  Keizersgracht,  and  the  Heer- 
engracht,  which  is  147  feet  wide,  are  the  most 
liandsome.  The  bridge  over  the  Amstel,  the 
Hoogesliis,  has  thirty-two  arches,  is  G20  feet  long, 
and  affords  a  fine  view  of  the  city  and  harbor. 
In  the  southern  part  of  the  city  some  of  the 
canals  have  been  drained  and  filled  in  to  form 
broad  streets,  as  also  a  portion  of  the  Y,  which 
now  is  the  site  of  the  central  railroad  station. 
The  great  square  of  Amsterdam  is  the  so-called 
Dam,  getting  its  name  from  its  position  on  the 
west  side  of  the  old  wall  that  is  popularly  be- 
lieved to  be  the  site  of  the  city's  first  founda- 
tions. Around  it  are  the  royal  palace,  the  ex- 
change, and  the  Nieuwe  Kerk  (New  Church),  and 
from  it  as  a  centre  radiate  the  principal  streets 
and  street-car  lines  of  the  city.  Here  is  the  monu- 
ment to  the  loyaltv  of  Holland  during  the  Bel- 
gian revolution  of  1830-31.  It  is  called  Het 
IMetalen  Krins,  a  reminiscence  of  the  commemo- 
rative war  medals  then  issued.  Here,  too,  for 
one  week  in  summer  the  boys  of  the  city  have  the 
privilege  of  playing,  because,  it  is  said,  in  1622 
some  boys  licrc  discovered  a  conspiracy  of  the 
Spaniards   against   the   town. 

Many  of  the  bviildings  of  the  city  are  the  Dutch 
brick  style  of  the  seventeenth  century.  They  are 
all  built  on  piles,  because  of  the  loose,  shifting 
nature  of  the  sandy  soil  near  to  its  surface.  It 
is  necessary  to  go  down  from  fourteen  to  sixty 
feet  before  a  firm  foundation  can  be  secured. 
An  interesting  part  of  the  city  is  the  Jewish 


quarter,  the  Jews  having  formed  an  important 
section  of  the  inhabitants  from  the  middle  of 
the  seventeeth  century.  In  this  part  of  the 
city  Spinoza   lived. 

Among  the  ecclesiastical  structures  of  the  city, 
the  Nieuwe  Kerk  (New  Church),  or  St.  Cath- 
arine's Church,  a  cruciform  basilica  in  the  late 
Gothic  style,  erected  in  1408-78,  is  the  finest. 
The  interior  contains  interesting  remnants  of 
old  stained  glass,  a  beautifully  carved  pulpit, 
executed  by  Vinckenbrinck  in  1649,  and  the 
monuments  of  Admiral  De  Ruyter  and  the  fa- 
mous Dutch  poet  Vondel.  The  Oude  Kerk  (Old 
Church ) ,  a  Gothic  structure  dating  from  about 
1300,  is  noticeable  for  handsome  stained-glass 
windows  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  contains 
several  monuments  to  naval  heroes.  In  the 
Jewish  quarter,  the  synagogue  of  the  Portuguese 
Jews  is  interesting,  as  being  built  in  imitation  of 
Solomon's  Temple;  it  also  boasts  of  a  consider- 
able number  of  costly  vessels.  The  handsomest 
secular  edifice  is  the  roj-al  palace,  built  in  1048- 
55  as  a  stadthuis,  or  town  hall,  a  massive  struc- 
ture resting  on  a  foundation  of  13,659  piles,  and 
surmounted  by  a  round  tower  rising  187  feet 
from  the  base,  and  commanding  an  extensive 
view.  The  gilded  A'ane  of  the  tower  represents 
a  merchant  vessel.  The  building  is  adorned  with 
numerous  statues,  bas-reliefs,  and  mural  paint- 
ings, the  interior  profusely  decorated  by  eminent 
Dutch  sculptors  and  painters  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  All  the  principal  apartments  are  lined 
with  white  Italian  marble  and  richly  adorned 
with  sculptures,  especially  the  magnificent  recep- 
tion room,  an  apartment  of  great  splendor,  and 
one  of  the  largest  halls  in  Europe,  measuring  120 
feet  in  length,  .57  feet  in  width,  and  100  feet  in 
height.  The  building  was  converted  into  a  royal 
residence  in  1808,  being  presented  by  the  city  to 
King  Louis  Napoleon.  The  Rijks-lMuseum,  a 
stately  edifice,  erected  in  1877-85,  in  the  early 
Dutch  Renaissance  style,  with  various  Gothic 
and  Romanesque  characteristics,  is  richly 
adorned  with  statues  of  Dutch  architects,  paint- 
ers, and  sculptors,  allegorical  bas-reliefs,  en- 
caustic paintings,  and  figures  in  colored  tiles, 
symbolic  of  the  Dutch  towns  and  provinces.  The 
museum  contains  one  of  the  most  important  col- 
lections of  paintings  and  engi'avings  in  the  world. 
The  works  of  Rembrandt  are  especially  well  rep- 
resented, and  besides  his  most  celebrated  work, 
the  so-called  "Night  Watch,"  include  "De  Staal- 
meesters,"  "The  Jewish  Bride,"  and  one  of  his 
most  finished  portraits,  that  of  "Elizabeth  Bas." 
Van  der  Heist's  "Banquet  of  the  Arqucbusiers" 
is  another  highly  prized  gem  of  this  collection, 
which  abounds  in  select  paintings  by  the  most 
famous  Dutch  and  Flemish  masters.  The  nui- 
seum  further  includes  an  interesting  department, 
showing  the  development  of  ecclesiastical  art  in 
the  Netherlands  from  the  Carolingian  period 
to  the  seventeenth  century,  and  a  valuable  col- 
lection of  objects  of  industrial  art.  In  the  Fodor 
Museum  may  be  seen  161  admirable  paintings 
by  modern  Belgian,  Dutch,  and  French  artists; 
about  300  drawings  by  old  masters,  and  about  100 
engravings.  The'Six  Gallery  is  a  small  but  ex- 
tremely valuable  collection  of  paintings  by  the 
old  Dutch  masters,  while  the  modern  Dutch  ar- 
tists may  be  studied  to  great  advantage  in  the 
Municipal  Museum,  containing  about  200  select 
specimens. 

Amsterdam  has  long  been  renowned  as  a  cen- 
tre   of    learning.     The    school    known    as    the 


AMSTEKDAM. 


483 


AMSTEBDAM. 


Athenieum  Illustre  of  Ainstciihiiii,  which  was 
founded  in  1032,  in  1877  was  reorganized  as  a 
university.  Tlie  Universit}'  Library  now  has 
more  than  100,000  volumes,  ineUuling  the  Rosen- 
tlial  collection  of  8000  works  on  Indian  litera- 
ture. It  is  rich  in  manuscripts  and  original 
letters,  such  as  a  Syrian  New  Testament  and 
Cssar's  De  Bella  Gallico  of  the  tenth  century. 
Amsterdam  possesses  excellent  facilities  for 
medical  study,  as  her  hospitals  are  famous. 
Other  educational  institutions  are  State,  nor- 
mal, industrial,  and  commercial  schools,  the 
National  Academy  of  Arts,  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Sciences,  the  Royal  Dutch  Geographical  So- 
ciety, a  school  of  navigation,  and  a  municipal 
school  for  primary  teachers,  besides  a  school  of 
acting,  set  up  by  the  Society  for  the  Promotion 
of  the  Art  of  Acting.  The  Botanical  Garden 
ranks  among  the  foremost  in  Europe,  and  is 
equipped  with  a  library  and  ethnographical  mu- 
seum. It  was  established  by  the  Society  Natura 
Artis  Magistra,  founder  also  of  the  Zoological 
Gardens.  There  are  numeious  other  institutions 
of  learning  and  scientific  societies,  the  most  re- 
markable of  the  latter  being  the  Maatschappij  tot 
Nut  van't  Algemeen,  or  Society  for  the  Public 
\\'elfare,  which  has  spread  over  all  Holland.  It 
was  founded  at  Edam  in  1784,  and  moved  to 
Amsterdam  in  1787.  It  aims  at  bettering  the 
education  and  normal  culture  of  the  people,  and 
strives  toward  this  end  in  every  conceivable  way. 

Amsterdam  has  si.K  theatres,  one  of  them 
owned  by  the  city.  Prominent  among  the  benev- 
olent institutions  are  the  various  orphan  asy- 
lums, one  of  which,  the  Diaconic  Asylum,  erected 
in  1889,  has  about  1200  inmates. 

For  centuries  Amsterdam  h.as  been  the  centre 
of  Dutch  industry,  and  its  diamond  polishing 
factories  are  the  most  extensive  in  the  world. 
These  are  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  the  Portu- 
guese Jews,  and  employ  upward  of  12.000  work- 
men. Maehinerj',  ship  building,  and  iron  mold- 
ing are  important  industries,  and  there  are  large 
refineries  for  borax  and  camphor  in  the  town, 
producing  over  22,000  tons  annually.  The  pi-epa- 
ration  of  rice  for  the  market  amounts  to  23,000 
tons  yearly,  and,  besides,  there  are  large  glass- 
blowing  establishments,  many  breweries  and  lum- 
ber mills.  Other  manufactures  are  articles  of 
gold  and  silver,  silk,  porcelain,  and  carpets,  cor- 
dials, chocolate,  tobacco,  leather,  dyestuffs,  as- 
tronomical instruments,  chemicals,  cobalt  blue, 
stearine  and  sperm  candles,  and  sailcloth. 

Amsterdam's  commercial  importance  has  ad- 
vanced rapidly  since  1805.  Since  1876  the  short 
North  Sea  Canal  has  been  in  operation,  running 
to  an  artificial  harbor  of  250  acres  on  the  North 
Sea.  The  celebrated  North  Holland  Canal  has 
been  supplanted  by  it  for  most  of  the  sea  tralRe. 
Within  the  city  much  attention  is  paid  to  dredg- 
ing and  improvement  of  the  canals  centring  to 
the  north  in  the  three  islands,  near  which  are  the 
docks  of  the  various  steamship  lines,  that  connect 
the  city  with  all  the  great  ports  of  the  world. 
Here,  too,  are  the  naval  docks  and  stores,  a  vast 
system  of  docks  for  merchant  shipping,  grana- 
ries, and  railway  terminals  for  the  reception  of 
coal  and  iron  ore,  raw  materials,  etc.  Another 
canal  connects  Amsterdam  with  Utrecht.  There 
is  a  floating  dry-dock  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Y 
for  ships  of  4000  tons  and  of  16  feet  draught, 
while  another  dock  of  twice  the  size  has  been 
recently  constructed.  Amsterdam  has  need  of 
such  improvements,  for  her  proportion  of  ships 


entering  Holland  was  18. S  in  1889,  and  6.66  in 
1899;  whereas  in  those  years  Rotterdam  had  52.1 
per  cent,  and  1)3.3,  respectively. 

The  chief  trade  is  with  the  Dutch  East  India 
colonies,  and  the  imports  are  mainly  tropical 
products,  such  as  raw  sugar,  Java  and  Sumatra 
tobacco,  cofTce  from  Brazil  and  Java,  tea,  chemi- 
cals, drugs,  lumber,  and  rice.  Other  articles  of 
impoi't  are  machinery  and  manufactured  articles, 
wheat,  glassware,  and  petroleum.  In  addition 
to  the  colonial  products — cofi'ee.  tobacco,  and 
rice — Amsterdam  exports  such  Dutch  products 
as  cheese,  beer,  manufactured  articles  mentioned 
above,  and  drugs. 

Amsterdam  is  the  chief  financial  centre  of  the 
Netherlands,  and  her  stock  exchange  is  one  of  the 
most  important  in  Europe.  There  are  many  other 
financial  and  commercial  institutions,  and  the 
city  is  the  seat  of  the  Bank  of  the  Netherlands, 
the  successor  of  the  famous  Bank  of  Amsterdam, 
founded  in  1C09,  wliich  played  so  important  a 
role  in  the  history  of  banking,  with  a  capital  of 
$8,000,000,  which  has  full  control  of  all  the 
country's  paper  money. 

Amsterdam  has  a  complete  network  of  commu- 
nications with  the  interior  through  railway  and 
steamship  lines,  while  various  street-car  routes, 
carried  on  by  horse  and  electric  power,  traverse 
her  streets.  There  is  also  a  suburban  steam  rail- 
road. 

Amsterdam's  new  method  of  fortification 
merits  some  attention.  In  1870  the  old  walls, 
had  all  been  razed,  and  since  tlien  a  system  of 
dikes  and  sluices  has  been  devised  whereby  the 
surrounding  country  may  be  flooded;  so  that  now 
there  is  only  one  fort,  that  at  the  entrance  to  the 
harbor. 

Upward  of  one-fifth  of  the  population  of  Am- 
sterdam are  Catholics,  and  the  Jews  form  nearly 
one-ninth.  There  are,  besides,  manv  Germans. 
Population  in  1879,  310,(iOO:  in  1891,"42G.914.  In 
1900,  after  a  part  of  Nieuwer  Amstel  had  been 
added  to  the  city,  the  population  was  510,900. 

History.  We  first  hear  of  Amsterdam  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  when  the  lords  of  Amstel  had 
a  castle  there  to  protect  the  town,  and  when  also 
the  Dam  which  gives  the  town  its  name  had  al- 
ready been  built.  The  count  of  Holland,  Floris 
v.,  gave  the  ci,ty  free  trade  with  his  territories, 
and  Amsterdam  became  part  of  the  County  of 
Holland  in  1347.  Prom  now  on  the  town  in- 
creased rapidly,  and.  though  devastated  by  fire  in 
1421,  it  was  influential  enough  to  obtain  the  right 
of  bearing  the  imperial  crown  as  its  crest  from 
Maximilian  I.  After  the  war  for  independence, 
when  Antwerp  succumbed  to  the  Spaniards,  Am- 
sterdam became  the  chief  conuncrcial  centre  of 
the  North ;  and  after  the  foundation  of  the  Dutch 
East  and  West  India  Companies,  in  the  first 
quarter  of  the  seventeenth  century,  with  their 
headquarters  in  the  city,  it  attained  still  greater 
prosperity.  Even  the  wars  with  England  in 
1052-54  and  1665-07  did  not  for  long  check  its 
progress.  The  decline  of  the  city  came  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  centurv,  as  a  result 
chiefly  of  the  war  with  England  of"  1780-84,  and 
the  alliance  with  France.  Its  commerce  disap- 
peared entirely  after  it  became  a  part  of  the 
Fi-ench  Empire  in  1810,  only  to  revive  in  the 
second  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  by  the 
building  of  the  great  canals  to  the  sea  and  "to  the 
Rhine  system. 

AMSTERDAM.  A  barren  islet  of  volcanic 
origin,  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  situated  in  lat.  37° 


AMSTERDAM. 


484 


AMULET. 


52'  S.  and  long.  77°  37'  E.  It  covers  an  area 
of  25  square  miles,  and,  together  with  the  adja- 
cent island  of  St.  Paul,  forms  a  dependency  of 
Mauritius.  Both  islands  lie  about  midway  be- 
tween the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  Tasmania.  It 
was  discovered  by  Van  Diemen  in  1663. 

AMSTERDAM.  A  city  in  Montgomery  Co., 
New  York,  33  miles  northwest  of  Albany ;  on  the 
Mohawk  River,  the  Erie  Canal,  and  the  New 
York  Central  and  Hudson  River  and  the  West 
Shore  railroads  (Map:  New  York,  F  3).  Among 
numerous  industrial  establishments,  it  has  fac- 
tories producing  knit  goods,  carpets,  rugs,  wagon 
springs,  silk,  paper  boxes,  etc.,  and  foundries 
and  machine  shops.  An  academy,  a  hospital, 
and  a  board  of  trade  are  features  of  the  city. 
First  settled  about  1778,  and  known  as  Veeders- 
burg  until  1804,  Amsterdam  was  incorporated  as 
a  village  in  1830,  and  as  a  city  in  1885.  Pop., 
1890,  17,330;   1900,  20,929. 

AMSTERDAM,  U.niversity  of.  A  Dutch 
university  founded  by  the  city  in  1632  as  the 
Athenanim  lUustre.  After  a  checkered  existence 
it  was  reorganized  in  1867,  and  in  1877  was 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  royal  university,  rank- 
ing with  Leyden,  Groningen,  and  Utrecht.  It 
has  an  income  of  372,000  florins,  and  about  1000 
students.  Its  faculties  include  law,  medicine, 
mathematics  and  science,  arts,  and  theologj'.  Its 
administration  is  in  the  hands  of  a  "Curatorium" 
of  five  members  and  a  secretary,  chosen  by  the 
crown.  The  professors  form  the  Senate,  with  a 
Rector  Magnificus  as  their  head,  and  a  Secretary 
of  the  Senate.  The  library  is  large,  and  includes 
a  number  of  special  collections,  particularly  in 
Hebrew  and  in  medicine. 

AMU,  a-moo',  or  AMU  DARYA,  a-moo' 
diir'ya  (ancient  Oxts).  A  large  river  of  Central 
Asia,  which  has  its  source  in  the  Pamirs  be- 
tween India  and  Bokhara,  flowing  thence  north- 
west into  the  Aral  Sea.  In  its  course  through 
the  mountains  it  is  joined  by  the  Surkhab  from 
the  region  of  the  Alai  and  Trans-Alai  Mountains, 
by  the  Kafirnahan  and  Surkhan  from  the  Hazrot 
Sultan  chain,  and  by  numerous  smaller  streams, 
but  after  emerging  from  the  outer  slopes  it  re- 
ceives no  important  tributaries.  The  Zerafshan 
on  the  north  and  the  Murghab  on  the  south, 
which  formerly  drained  into  the  Amu,  now  lose 
their  waters  in  the  desert  regions  at  some  dis- 
tance from  its  bed.  It  is  navigable  by  light 
draught  boats  for  nearly  one-half  of  its  .total 
length  of  about  1600  miles,  but  its  chief  im- 
portance is  as  a  reservoir  for  irrigation,  rather 
than  as  a  commercial  highway.  A  remarkable 
feature  of  the  Amu  is  that  its  course  has  been 
frequently  changed  within  historic  times.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  present  era  it  flowed  into 
the  Caspian  Sea,  and  records  show  that  since 
that  time  the  course  has  been  changed  twice  to 
the  .'\ral  Sea.  As  late  as  the  first  half  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  it  was  a  feeder  of  the  Caspian 
Sea.  Consult  Sir  H.  C.  Rawlinson,  "The  Road 
to  Merv,"  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Geo- 
graphical Societif,  new  series  1.  161  (London, 
1879)  ;  Krapotkin,  "The  Old  Beds  of  the  Amu- 
Daria,"  OroqrapMcal  Journal,  Volume  XII. 
(London,  189S). 

AMUCK',  or  AMOK',  Running  (Javanese 
amonk,  to  kill).  A  practice  in  Java  among 
those  in  whom  a  ferocious  madness  is  produced 
by  long  use  of  opium.  The  sufi'erer  rushes  abroad 
armed  with  some  weapon,  usually  a  kris,  or  large 


dirk,  striking  indiscriminately  at  all  whom  he 
encounters.  When  one  is  seen  to  start  on  hi» 
madness,  the  people  cry  "amok,"  and  immedi- 
ately hunt  the  maniac  to  death.  Probably  in 
many  cases  this  is  deliberate  on  the  victim's  part, 
as  a  means  of  suicide. 

AM'ULET    (Lat.  amuletum,  from  Ar.  hama- 
let,  that  which  is  suspended).  Any  object  worn 
as  a  charm,  or  sometimes  placed  in  a  building 
to  ward  oil  evil.     Amulets  originated  at  an  early 
date  in  the  Orient,  and  regard  for  them  is  among 
the  earliest  superstitions  of  the  Babylonians  and 
Egyptians.     The     magical      formulas     connected 
with    them    are     frequent   in     early     Babylonian 
texts.     Their  religion  included  belief  in  a  multi- 
tude  of   spirits    present    everywhere   and     influ- 
encing every  act.     Hence   the  necessity  of   pre- 
serving the  house,  property,  and  person  by  images 
and  formulas,  and  these  were  from  the  beginning 
connected  with  medicine.     Even  the  monotheistic 
Hebrews  v.-ere  not  tree  from  the  taint,  and  the 
so-called  pitylacterics,  with  passages  from  sacred 
writ,   were  an  adaptation  of  these  magical  be-, 
liefs.     The   C4rceks   and   Romans     inherited    the 
same  beliefs  in  a  modified  degree.     Perhaps  the 
most  general  evil  to  be  guarded  against  by  amu- 
lets at  all  times  was  the  Evil  Eye,  which  is  still 
so  firmly  believed  in  throughout  Latin  countries. 
There   w'ere   various   classes    of    amulets.      First 
came  certain  precious  or  other  stones  supposed  to 
possess  mysterious  helpful  properties:  agates  for 
spiders'  and  scorpions'  stings,  and  for  protection 
against    thunderstorms;     diamonds     for    melan- 
choly:   jasper   for   the   tongue-tied  and   to   bring 
on  rain ;    amethyst  against  drunkenness,  and,  with 
certain  inscriptions  and  figures,  as  antidotes  to 
poisons,  hail,  and  locusts,  etc.     One  of  the  most 
permanent  of  all  suih  beliefs  is  that  in  the  bene- 
ficial effects  of  coral.     Metals,  also,  and  plants, 
were  used  as  amulets.     So  were  various  parts  of 
certain  animals,  such  as  hyena  teeth  or  marrow, 
wolves'  fat,  rats'  ears,  foxes'  tongues,  and  bats' 
heads.     !Most  eflScacious   of   all   are  the   teeth   of 
different   animals.     After   these   natural   objects 
come  artificial  ones.     A  large  proportion  of  an- 
cient jewelers' work  was  undoubtedly  made  in  con- 
nection with   the  wearing  of  amulets,  especially 
necklaces,    rings,   bracelets,    earrings,    and    other 
pendants.     Other  ways  of  carrying  anuilet  ma- 
terial Avas  in  gold  balls  or  lullw,  or  in  sachets. 
The  formulas  carried  were  usually  inscribed,  not 
on  paper,  but  on  some  durable  substance — metal, 
terra  eotta,  ivory,  precious  stones.     Trinkets  of 
every  variety  and  shape — crescents,  disks,  pend- 
ants"— were  hung  about  the  necks  of  children  and 
adults  as  charms;   and  few  went  without   them. 
Figures  of  gods  and  genii  had  magic  virtue    as 
well :  so  did  verbal  formula^.     (  See  ABR.\C-\n.\nRA, 
and  Abrax.\s.)      Many  of  such  tinj'  images  are 
found    on    necklaces.     Anchors    and     horseshoes, 
heads  and   ligiu'cs  of  animals,  votive  hands  and 
feet,  thunderbolts,  vases,  and  many  other  objects, 
all  had  their  specific  values.     The  amulets  not 
only  were  suspended  around  the  neck,  worn  in 
jewelry,  and  sewed  in  the  clothing,  but  also  were 
afiixed"  to  furniture  and  walls,  painted  or  carved 
on   doors  and   walls,   and  buried   in   the  ground. 
They  even   followed   the   deceased   to  his   grave. 
Christianity  was  as  unable  as  Judaism  to  eradi- 
cate  the   practice;    so   it   sought  to   mitigate   it 
by  legislation  and  by  offering  devotional  substi- 
tutes  in   the   form   of   sacred   relics   or   formulas 
from    the    Bible,     These    substitutes    were    care- 
fully   distinguished    from    the    heathen    amulets 


AMULET. 


485 


AMURATH. 


■n-hich  the  clprgy  wcio  fnrlpiilden  in  the  fourth 
century  to  luako,  under  jKiin  of  deprivation  of 
holy  orders,  and  tlie  weaiinj;'  of  whieli  was  sol- 
emnly condemned  by  a  council  in  721.  But  in 
the  East  the  practice  still  flourishes,  as  well  as 
in  primitive  parts  of  southern  Europe.  Consult: 
KincT,  History  of  Precious  Stones  and  Gems 
(London,  187.3)  ;  and  Wachsmuth  in  the  Athe- 
nwum    (Berlin),  Volume  II.,  pp.  209  foil. 

AMUNATEGUI,  a'muo-na'tft-ge,  Miguel 
Lui.s  (1S2S-8S).  .\  Chilean  author,  born  at  San- 
tiago. He  studied  at  the  National  Institute  and 
was  appointed  professor  there  in  1847.  He  won 
a  prize  in  1850,  olVered  by  the  Institute  for  the 
best  history  of  the  Spanish  conquest  of  1814-17, 
with  his  La  recoiirjuista  Espailola  (1850).  He 
became  a  member  of  the  philosophic  faculty  of 
the  Institute  in  1851,  was  appointed  Assistant 
Secretary  of  the  Interior  and  of  State  In  1802, 
and  held  several  important  public  offices.  He 
published  La  Dietailura  itc  O'Him/ins  (1854), 
Biografias  Americanas  (1855),  Cotn/iendio  de 
historia  politica  y  ecclesidstica  en  Chile  (1850), 
Los  Prccursorrs  de  la  I ndependencia  de  Chile 
(1870-72)   and  other  wwks. 

AMUR,  ;i-mo(7i'.  A  province  of  eastern  Si- 
beria (q.v. ),  situated  north  of  the  River  Amur; 
area,  172,848  square  miles.  It  was  ceded  by 
China  to  Russia  in  1858.  The  capital  is  Blagov- 
yestchensk.     Pop.,  1891,  87,705;   1897,  118,570. 

AMUR.  A  river  of  Asia,  formed  by  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Shilka  and  Argun  rivers,  near  the 
Russian  village  of  Ust-Strielka,  at  the  north  end 
of  the  Khingan  Mountains,  lat.  53°  20'  N.  and 
long.  121°  28'  E.  (Map:  Asia,  N  4).  From  the 
point  of  Junction  of  the  two  rivers  the  Amur 
flows  at  first  east  and  then  southeast  along  the 
northern  boundary  of  Manchuria.  At  the  east- 
ern extremity  of  Manchuria  it  turns  northward 
and  near  Fort  Nicolayevsk,  in  lat.  53°  20'  N.,  it 
empties  into  the  strait  which  separates  the 
island  of  Saghalien  from  the  mainland,  near  the 
point  where  that  channel  opens  into  the  Sea  of 
Okhotsk.  Including  its  headstream  of  Argun, 
the  Amur  has  a  total  length  of  nearly  2800  miles 
and  its  basin  is  estimated  at  about  750,000 
square  miles.  The  principal  tributary  of  the 
Amur  is  the  Sungari,  which  joins  it  on  the  right 
near  the  |)oint  at  which  the  Amur  begins  its 
great  bend  toward  the  north.  Another  impor- 
tant affluent  from  the  right  is  the  Ussuri.  The 
chief  affluents  on  the  left  are  the  Seya  and  the 
Bureya.  The  river  is  very  wide  in  the  lower 
part  of  its  course,  and  there  are  many  islands 
in  it.  The  great  station  of  the  steamers  that 
navigate  the  Amur  and  the  Ussuri  is  Khabar- 
ovsk (formerly  called  Khabarovka),  w-hich  is 
connected  by  rail  with  Vladivostok.  On  the  left 
bank  of  the  Amur,  near  the  parallel  of  .50°,  Is 
Blagovyestchensk,  the  capita!  of  the  Amur  ter- 
ritory: A  short  distance  below  this  town,  on 
the  opposite  bank,  is  Aigun.  The  Amur  is  nav- 
igable for  smaller  vessels  through  its  entire 
course,  and  steamers  can  ascend  the  Shilka  be- 
yond the  town  of  Strietensk.  The  Amur  is  open 
for  navigation  only  for  about  six  months  in  the 
year.  The  region  through  which  it  flows  is 
partly  covered  with  thick  forests,  and  but  few 
settlements  are  found  on  its  banks. 

As  early  as  1030.  several  Russian  adven- 
turers, attracted  by  rumors  of  the  wealth  of  the 
regions  to  the  southeast  of  Lake  Baikal,  made 
excursions   into  the  Chinese    territories    on  the 


Lower  Amur  by  way  of  the  Shilka  River.  In 
1649  Khabarofl'  descended  tlie  Amur,  subdued  the 
native  tribes,  and  erected  a  number  of  forts  at 
the  junction  of  its  tributaries.  In  1658,  Ner- 
tchinsk  on  the  Shilka  was  founded,  and  about 
1065  Fort  Albasin  was  erected.  The  Chinese, 
who  had  watched  the  Russian  advance  with  great 
uneasiness,  now  took  up  arms,  attacked  Fort 
Albasinrepeatedly,andin  the  peace  of  Neitchinsk 
(1089)  succeeded  in  closing  the  Amur  to  the 
Russians,  who  for  more  than  one  hundred  and 
fifty  years  made  no  conquests  in  Manchuria,  and 
contented  themselves  with  extending  their  in- 
fluence through  commerce,  missionary  work,  and 
diplomacy.  With  the  appointment  of  Count 
Nicholas  MuraviefT  to  the  governorship  of  East 
Siberia,  active  operations  recommenced.  A  line 
of  forts  was  constructed  on  the  Amur,  the  coast 
of  the  Gulf  of  Tartary,  and  the  island  of  Sag- 
halien. In  four  expeditions  undertaken  in  1854 
and  subsequent  years  Muravieff  established  the 
authority  of  Russia  over  the  Amur  region,  and 
some  slight  attempts  were  made  at  colonizing 
the  country  with  Russian  settlers.  With  the 
English  and  French  marching  upon  Peking,  China 
could  not  resist  the  Russian  encroachments.  The 
treaties  of  Aigun  and  Tien-tsin  concluded  in  1858, 
and  the  supplementary  treaty  of  Peking  in  1800, 
in  ceding  Eastern  Manchuria  to  the  Russians, 
merely  gave  formal  recognition  to  an  accom- 
plished fact.  By  these  treaties  Russia  obtained 
possession  of  all  the  country  between  the  Pacific 
and  the  Amur,  the  Ussuri  and  the  Tiumen  rivers 
down  to  the  Korean  frontier.  In  this  manner 
the  long-desired  goal  of  Russian  foreign  policy, 
an  outlet  and  an  ice-free  port  on  the  Pacific,  was 
attained.  The  new  territory  was  divided  into 
two  regions,  the  Amur  Territory  and  the  Jlari- 
time  Province.  In  1861,  Vladivostok  (Mis- 
tress of  the  East),  was  founded  on  the  Gulf  of 
Peter  the  Great,  in  the  extreme  southeast  of 
Russian  territory;  strongly  fortified,  it  became 
the  chief  military  centre  and  arsenal  of  the 
Russians  in  the  East,  while  its  port  was  made  the 
rendezvous  for  the  Russian  Asiatic  fleet.  Con- 
sult: Schrenek,  Reisen  and  Forschungen  im 
Amur  Lnnde  (St.  Petersburg,  1858-92)  ; 
Shirnkievitch,  "Reisen  bei  den  Amur-Volkern," 
in  pt.  74,  Globus  (Brunswick,  1898).  See  also 
Siberia ;  Manciiukia. 

AMURATH,     ii'moo-rat',     or    MURAD'    I. 

( 1319-89) .  Sultan  of  the  Ottoman  Eni])ire  from 
1359  to  1389,  succeeding  his  father  Orkhan.  He 
was  the  first  to  lead  a  powerful  Turkish  army 
into  Europe,  and  in  1361  took  Adrianople  and 
fixed  there  his  residence.  He  completed  the  sub- 
jugation of  Asia  Minor,  and  in  1389  his  army 
dealt  a  crushing  blow  to  the  kingdom  of  Servia 
in  a  battle  fought  at  Kossovo.  The  great  Sultan 
himself  was  slain  on  the  field  of  battle,  stabbed, 
according  to  the  common  accoimt.  by  a  wounded 
Servian  nobleman  as  he  was  surveying  the  scene 
of  his  victory.  Amurath  was  illiterate,  signing 
treaties  by  dipping  his  hand  in  ink  and  making 
a  mark  with  three  fingers  together,  with  the 
fourth  finger  and  thumb  stretched  wide  apart. 

AMURATH,  or  MURAD  II.  (1401-51).  The 
tenth  Sultan  of  the  Turks.  He  succeeded  his 
father,  Mohammed  I.,  in  1421.  In  1422  he  con- 
tended against  a  pretender,  Mustapha  (the  legit- 
imate Mustapha  having  previously  died),  but 
overcame  him  without  bloodshed.  He  took  Sa- 
lonica  from  the  Venetians  in  1430.  and  opened  the 


AMTTRATH. 


486 


AMYL   ALCOHOL. 


way  for  subjugating  Greece.  He  went  on  suc- 
cessfully till  1442,  when  he  was  defeated  by 
Hunyadi.  and  was  obliged  to  make  peace  with 
the  Christians.  At  that  time  he  lost  a  son,  and 
abdicated  in  favor  of  another  son,  Jlohammed, 
only  fourteen  years  old.  The  Hungarians  re- 
newed the  war,  and,  hastening  from  retirement, 
he  overwhelmed  them  in  the  battle  of  Varna, 
November  10,  1444,  where  Ladislas,  King  of 
Hungary  and  Poland,  fell.  He  again  retired, 
and  again  came  forth  to  quell  an  insurrection  of 
the  Janissaries.  He  invaded  Albania  and  was 
defeated  by  George  Castriota  (Scgnderbeg)  ;  but 
he  retired  only  to  gain  a  great  victory  over  his 
formidable  adversary  Hunyadi  at  Kossovo,  in 
1448.  He  was  the  first  Ottoman  monarch  who 
caused  bridges  of  great  length  to  be  built;  and 
in  his  reign  poetry,  jurisprudence,  and  theology 
began  to  flourish.  He  died  of  apoplexy  at 
Adrianople. 

AMURATH,  or  MUBAD  IIL  (1545-95). 
A  sidtan  of  the  Turks.  He  succeeded  his  father, 
Selim  TI.,  in  1574.  He  was  a  feeble,  uxorious, 
superstitious  man.  His  reign  was  marked  by 
great  reverses  in  Hungary,  counterbalanced  by 
territorial  gains  in  Persia  and  Asia  Minor.  He 
made  commercial  treaties  with  the  Western  Pow- 
ers, and  was  also  the  first  to  feel  the  tyranny  of 
the  Janissaries. 

AMURATH,  or  MXTRAD  IV.  (1011-40).  A 
sultan  of  the  Turks.  He  succeeded  his  imele, 
Mustapha,  in  1623.  He  is  known  as  "the  Turkish 
Nero."  and  like  his  Roman  namesake,  he  began 
his  reign  with  great  promise;  but  the  mutinous 
behavior  of  his  soldiers,  and  the  frequent  rebel- 
lions that  marked  the  first  years  of  his  rule, 
made  him  a  tyrant  of  extraordinary  cruelty. 
His  greatest  exploit  was  the  retaking  of  Bagdad 
from  the  Persians  (16.38),  after  an  assault  last- 
ing thirty  days,  an  occasion  on  which  he  slaugh- 
tered 30.000  of  the  inhabitants. 

AMURATH  V.  (1840—),  Sultan  of  Turkey. 
He  is  the  son  of  Sultan  Abd  ul  Medjid,  and  was 
born  September  21,  1840.  After  the  accession  of 
his  uncle,  Abd  ul  Aziz,  in  1861,  he  was  kept  in 
forced  retirement,  but  was  placed  upon  the 
throne  by  a  revolution  May  30,  1876.  He  showed 
strong  symptoms  of  insanity,  however,  and  was 
deposed  August  31st  of  the  same  year. 

AMUSSAT,  a'mu'sa',  Jean  Zul^ma  (1796- 
1856).  A  French  surgeon.  He  entered  the 
army,  was  assistant  surgeon  under  Esquirol  in 
the  "Salpetriere  Hospital,  and  prosector  at  the 
Paris  faculty  of  medicine.  He  improved  and 
invented  many  surgical  instruments,  and  was 
the  first  to  show  the  importance  of  torsion  of 
arteries  in  hemorrhage.  He  wrote  on  the  nerv- 
ous system,  lithotomy,  etc.  An  operation  for 
opening  the  large  intestine  at  a  point  where  it  is 
not  covered  with  peritoneum  was  perfected  and 
first  practiced  by  Amussat.  It  is  still  performed, 
and  it  bears  Ids  name.  Among  his  publications 
are  researches  regaiding  the  nervous  system 
(1825),  and  a  memoir  on  the  torsion  of  arteries 
( 1 829 ) ,  the  latter  winning  a  prize  from  the 
Institute. 

AMY'CL.ffi  (Gk.  •A^mAni,AniylcUii).  (1)  An 
ancient  town  of  l.,aconia,  on  the  eastern  bank 
of  the  Eurotas,  two  and  a  half  miles  southeast 
of  Sparta,  in  a  richly  wooded  and  fertile  region. 
It  was  early  a  famous  city,  and  after  the  Dorian 
conquest  seems  to  have  maintained  its  independ- 


ence as  an  Achaan  town  until  the  development 
of  the  Spartan  power.  In  the  neighborhood  of 
Amyclse  have  been  found  imjiortant  remains  of 
Mj'ceniean  civilization,  including  the  gold  cups 
of  Vaphio.  At  Amyclae  was  an  ancient  temple 
of  Apollo,  containing  a  primitive  bronze  image 
of  the  god  {xoanon) ,  standing  on  an  elaborate 
bronze  throne.  It  was  the  work  of  Bathycles. 
Pausanias  has  given  a  description  of  it,  impor- 
tant in  the  history  of  early  Ionic  art.  At  Amyclae 
were  celebrated  annually  the  Hyacinthia,  in 
memory  of  Hyacinthus  (q.v. ).  (2)  Amycl.e,  or 
Amuclae,  an  ancient  city  on  the  coast  of  Latium, 
Italy,  said  to  have  been  built  by  a  colony  from 
the  Greek  Amyclfe.  It  had  ceased  to  e.xist  before 
the  time  of  Varro. 

AMYG'DALIN  (Lat.  amygdala,  Gk.  afivy- 
('iu/Ti,  0)1) i/g dale,  almond),  C2„H.,N0i„  3H,0.  A 
crystalline  substance  existing  in  the  kernel  of 
bitter  almonds  and  in  various  other  plants.  It 
is  obtained,  by  extraction  with  boiling  alcohol, 
from  the  paste  of  bitter  almonds,  which  remains 
after  the  fixed  oil  has  been  separated  by  pressure. 
The  alcoholic  solution  usually  contains  more  or 
less  oil,  which  must  be  removed  by  decantation 
or  filtration;  it  is  then  evaporated  till  a  syrup 
is  left,  from  which  the  ainygdalin  may  be  ob- 
tained by  the  addition  of  ether;  amygdalin  is 
insoluble  in  ether,  and  is,  therefore,  precipitated 
by  it  from  its  solutions.  Amygdalin  has  a  some- 
what bitter  taste,  but  is  not  poisonous.  It  may 
be  dissolved  in  water  for  any  length  of  time  with- 
out undergoing  any  change  ;  but  if  some  emulsine 
(or  some  dilute  mineral  acid)  be  added  to  the 
solution,  a  sort  of  fermentation  is  set  up,  and  the 
amygdalin  gi'adually  undergoes  decomposition 
into  oil  of  bitter  almonds,  sugar,  and  hydro- 
cyanic or  prussic  acid.  Now,  as  emulsine,  too, 
is  one  of  the  constituents  of  bitter  almonds, 
when  the  paste  of  bitter  almonds  is  brought  into 
contact  with  water,  a  poisonous  liquid  is  ob- 
tained. 

AMYCTDALOID  (Gk.  r)/iv-,6d?.y,  ai)ii/gdale. 
almond  -\-  cMof,  eidon,  shape).  A  name  given 
in  geology  to  igneous  rocks,  generally  of  a  basal- 
tic nature,  which  contain  numerous  almond- 
shaped  or  spheroidal  cavities  filled  with  foreign 
minerals,  such  as  quartz,  calcite,  or  some  one 
of  the  zeolites.  These  cavities  are  regarded  as 
the  result  of  Ihe  escape  of  gases  when  the  rocks 
cooled,  at  which  time  the  crystallization  of  the 
minerals  also  took  place,  these  being  for  the 
most  part  similar  in  composition  to  the  rock. 

AM'YL  (Lat.  a)n)jlu))),  from  Gk.  o/jv'/mv,  amy- 
lo)),  starch  +  I'X;?,  hyle.  material),  CjHn.  A 
radicle,  or  group  of  atoms,  found  in  the  mole- 
cules of  many  organic  compounds,  but  incapable 
of  existing  independently.  See  Carbon  Com- 
pounds. 

AMYL  AL'COHOL.  A  name  applied  to 
eight  alcohols  having  the  same  molecular  compo- 
sition ( CjHiiOH ) ,  but  more  or  less  different 
chemical  and  physical  properties.  Seven  of 
these  alcohols  have  actually  been  prepared ;  the 
possibility  of  the  existence  of  tlie  eighth  is  indi- 
cated by  the  structural  llicnry  of  compounds. 
The  most  important  amyl  alcohols  are  the  two 
found  in  fuse!  oil.  which  is  produced  as  an  im- 
purity during  alcoholic  fermentation.  ( See  Alco- 
hols.) Of  these,  one  is  called  iso-butvl-carbinol, 
( CH, )  jCH .  CH. .  CH..OH ;  the  other.  '  secondary 
butyl-carbinol,  CH, .  CH^CH  ( CH, )  .  CH,OH.  Iso- 
butyl-carbinol   boils   at   131°   C,   has   a  specific 


i 


AMYL   ALCOHOL. 


487 


AMYBAUT. 


gravity  of  0.810,  and  is  optimally  inactive;  it 
forms  tlie  predominating  constituent  of  fusel  oil. 
Secondary  butyl-carbinol  boils  at  128°  C,  and 
imparts  to  fusel  oil,  of  wbich  it  forms  10  to 
20  per  cent.,  the  property  of  turning  the 
plane  of  polarized  light  to  the  left.  The  separa- 
tion of  the  two  is  a  matter  of  some  difficulty. 
It  may,  however,  be  effected  by  treating  the  mix- 
ture Willi  hydrochloric  acid:  iso-butyl-carbinol 
is  more  readily  attacked  by  tlie  acid  than  sec- 
ondary butyl-carbinol ;  it  is,  therefore,  the  first 
to  be  converted  into  the  corresponding  chloride, 
C'sHiiCl,  the  separation  of  which  from  the  unat- 
tackcd  secondary  butyl  alcohol  can  be  effected 
by  ordinary  laboratory  metliods.  A  third  amyl 
aicoliol,  known  as  amylene  hydrate,  or  di-methyl- 
ethyl-carbinol,  and  having  the  constitutional 
formula  (CHsj^C.HsCOII,  is  a  colorless  liquid, 
with  a  penetrating  and  pungent  odor  and  an 
unpleasant  taste.  When  taken  internally  in 
moderate  doses  it  acts  as  a  hypnotic;  in  larger 
doses  it  is  liable  to  cause  narcotic  symptoms. 
The  esters  (compound  ethers),  formed  by  the 
union  of  amyl  alcohols  with  some  of  the  acids  of 
the  acetic  acid  series,  have  highly  aromatic  odors, 
resembling  those  of  the  apple,  the  pineapple,  the 
strawberry,  the  banana,  and  other  friiits.  Fusel 
oil  is  therefore  used  in  making  artificial  fruit 
essences,  which  are  now  generally  employed  for 
flavoring  syrups,   confectionery,  etc. 

AM'YLENE  HY'DBATE.  See  Amyl  Alco- 
hol. 

AM'YL  NI'TRITE.  An  extremely  volatile, 
pale  yellow,  oily  liquid,  with  an  aromatic  taste 
and  an  odor  resembling  bananas.  It  is  formed 
by  the  action  of  nitric  acid  upon  amyl  alcohol 
(fusel  oil).  As  it  rapidly  deteriorates,  it  is 
necessarily  kept  in  "small,  dark,  amber-colored 
and  glass-stoppered  vials,  in  a  cool  and  dark 
place,  remote  from  lights."  The  last  precaution 
is  due  to  its  inflammable  nature.  The  drug  is 
also  put  into  closed  glass  capsules,  commonly 
known  as  "'pearls,"  which  are  so  fragile  that  they 
can  be  crushed  in  a  handkerchief  when  desired 
for  use.  Though  occasionally  administered  inter- 
nally, it  is  usually  given  by  inhalation.  A  mod- 
crate  amount  Inhaled  causes  almost  immediately 
flushing  of  the  face,  a  feeling  of  fullness  and  pain 
in  the  head,  rapid  and  strong  heart  action, 
labored  breathing,  and  a  very  soft  and  full  pulse. 
If  continued,  the  head  seems  distended  as  though 
it  would  burst,  and  the  other  symptoms  increase. 
Within  a  few  minutes  all  these  symptoms  dis- 
appear. Poisonous  doses  cause  pallor,  irregular 
breathing,  muscular  relaxation,  and  death. 
Xanthopsia,  or  yellow  vision,  sometimes  follows 
inhalation  of  amyl  nitrite,  but  within  a  few 
minutes  objects  gi'adually  resume  their  natural 
colors.  Besides  the  marked  diminution  of  arte- 
rial tension,  the  drug  causes  a  change  in  the 
blood,  with  the  formation  of  what  appears  to  be 
hicmoglobin.  The  chief  use  of  amyl  nitrite  is  to 
relieve  the  attacks  of  angina  pectoris.  It  is  also 
valuable  for  aborting  epileptic  seizures,  espe- 
cially when  there  is  an  aura,  or  peculiar  sensa- 
tion denoting  the  approach  of  one  of  these.  In 
spasmodic  conditions,  such  as  asthma,  tetanus, 
or  strychnine  poisoning,  it  is  used,  and  also 
as  a  rapidly  acting  heart-stimulant.     See  Nitro- 

(iLYCEKIN. 

AMYN'TAS  I.  {Gk.  •Afivvrac)  (c.  408  B.C.). 
King  of  Macedonia  from  about  540  to  498  B.C. 
In  token  of  submission  to  the  Persians,  he  pre- 


sented earth  and  water  to  the  ambassador,  Mega- 
bazus,  whom  Darius,  on  his  return  from  the 
Scythian  expedition,  had  left  at  the  head  of 
80,000  men  in  Europe. 

AMYNTAS  II.  King  of  Macedonia  from 
about  .394  to  309  B.C.,  son  of  Philip,  the  brother 
of  Perdiccas  II.  He  succeeded  his  father  in 
Upper  Macedonia,  and  obtained  the  crown  of 
the  entire  country  by  the  nunder  of  tlie  usur|)er, 
Pausanias  (393  n.c).  Soon  after  his  accession- 
he  was  driven  from  Macedonia  by  the  lUyrians, 
but  by  the  aid  of  the  Thessalians  was  restored 
to  his  kingdom.  Afterward  he  entered  into  an 
alliance  with  the  Spartans.  He  left  three  sons, 
Alexander,   Perdiccas,  and  Philip  the  Great. 

AMYNTAS  III.  (?-336b.c.).  Grandson  of 
Amyntas  II.,  son  of  Perdiccas.  On  the  death 
of  liis  father,  in  360  B.C.,  he  was  the  lawful  heir 
to  the  throne,  which  was  usurped  by  his  uncle, 
Philip.  He  was  put  to  death  in  the  first  year  of 
the  reign  of  Alexander  the  Great  (336  B.C.), 
who  charged  him  with  having  conspired  against 
his  life. 

AMYOT,  a'myo',  Jacques  (1513-93).  Tutor 
of  King  Charles  IX.,  of  France,  Bishop  of  Aux- 
erre,  and  Commander  of  the  Order  of  the  Holy 
Ghost.  He  was  born  at  Melun.  He  is  remem- 
bered chiefly  for  his  translations  into  exquisite 
French  of  the  Greek  romances,  Theagenes  and 
Chariclea  (1546),  and  Daphnis  and  Chloe 
(1559),  together  with  Diodoru.i  Siculus  (1554), 
Plutarch's  TAves  (1559),  and  Plutarch's  Morals 
(1572).  This  Plutarch  was  the  basis  of  North's 
English  version  (1575)  used  by  Shakespeare.  It 
was  itself  used  by  Corneille,  and  ranks  with 
Amyot's  other  translations  among  French  clas- 
sics. 

AMYOT,  a'niyo',  or  AMIOT,  Jo.seph  (1718- 
94 ) .  A  celebrated  French  Jesuit  and  Oriental 
scholar.  He  lived  as  a  missionary  in  China  from 
1750  to  the  time  of  his  death.  His  knowledge 
of  Chinese  languages  enabled  him  to  collect 
many  valuable  notices  of  antiquities,  history, 
language,  and  arts  in  China.  His  writings  in- 
clude large  contributions  to  the  Mcmoires  cnn- 
cernants  I'histoire,  les  sciences  et  les  arts  des 
C/miois  '  (1776-1814) .  His  Dictionnaire  Tatar- 
Manchu-Frangais  (1789-90)  was  edited  by 
Langl^s. 

AM'YRAL'DISM.     See  Amtbaut. 

AMYRAUT,  a'me'rA',  MoisE.  (1596-1664).  A 
French  Protestant  theologian  and  metaphysician. 
He  was  born  at  Bourgueil.nearTours.  His  father 
set  him  to  study  law,  and  he  made  rapid  progress 
in  the  University  of  Poitiers.  He  became  a 
licentiate  in  law  (1016),  but  the  reading  of 
Calvin's  Institutes  induced  him  to  leave  law  for 
theology,  and  he  studied  at  Saumur,  and  "sat 
at  the  feet  of  the  great  Cameron,"  a  pupil  as 
great  as  his  master.  There  he  became  a  pastor 
in  1620;  in  1033  professor  of  theology.  He  was 
co-professor  with  Louis  Capel  and  Josua  de  la 
Place.  Their  life-long  friendship  was  beautiful 
and  remarkable,  as  is  their  memory  as  joint  au- 
thors of  the  Theses  Salmuriensis.  In  1031  Aray- 
raut  published  Traitcs  des  religions  (Saumur), 
still  a  living  work ;  and  thenceforward  he  was 
foremost  in  provincial  and  national  synods.  The 
esteem  in  which  he  was  held  was  shown  when 
the  Charenton  synod  of  1031  chose  him  to  present 
to  the  King  the  Copy  of  the  Complaints  and 
Grievances  for  the  Infractions  and  Violations  of 


AMYRATJT. 


488 


ANABAPTISTS. 


the  Edict  of  Nantes.  Before  tliis  time  all  save 
Roman  Catholic  deputies  had  addressed  the  King 
on  their  knees ;  but  Amyraut  refused  to  speak 
unless  he  could  stand  as  did  the  Romanists,  and 
carried  the  day,  his  rehearsal  charming  even  his 
adversaries.  His  oration  is  an  historic  landmark 
of  French  Protestantism.  He  held  fast  to  Calvin- 
ism, but  with  an  unusual  liberality.  He  was  re- 
peatedly accused,  but  never  convicted,  of  heresy, 
because  in  his  Trnitc  de  la  predestination  (1634) 
he  advocates  a  modification  of  the  strong  predes- 
tination theory  of  the  Synod  of  Dort  by  the 
"Universalismus  hypotheticus,"  i.e..  the  theory 
that  God  offers  salvation  to  all  under  the  con- 
ditions of  faith.  This  is  known  as  Amyraldism, 
and  found  many  adherents — among  them  Baxter, 
Andrew  Fuller,  and  the  New  England  divines. 
He  died  at  Saumur,  January  8,  1604.  He  left 
many  religious  works. 

AN,  or  ON.  The  Egyptian  name  of  Helio- 
polis   (q.v.). 

A'NA.  A  termination  added  to  the  names  of 
remarkable  men,  to  designate  collections  of  their 
sayings,  anecdotes,  etc. ;  as  in  the  works  entitled 
Baconiana,  Johnsoniava.  Such  titles  were  first 
used  in  France,  where  they  became  common  after 
the  publication  of  Scaligcrana  by  the  brothers 
Dupuy  (The  Hague,  1066).  In  English  litera- 
ture there  are  many  works  of  this  kind.  Amer- 
ica, also,  has  its  \Vashingtonia»a,  and  Jefferson's 
Anas  are  well  kno^^^l  to  students  of  our  history. 

AN'ABAP'TISTS  (Gk.  uvaffa-nTillHv,  anahap- 
tizein,  to  rcbaptize).  A  terra  applied  generally 
in  Reformation  times  to  those  Christians  who 
rejected  infant  baptism  and  administered  the 
rite  only  to  adults;  so  that  when  a  new  member 
joined  them,  he  or  she  was  baptized,  the  rite  as 
administered  in  infancy  being  considered  no  bap- 
tism. Still,  because  all  other  branches  of  the 
church  considered  this  a  second  baptism,  the 
term  Anabaptist,  i.e.,  one  who  baptizes  again, 
was  naturally  applied  to  them.  The  name  is, 
liowever,  not  now  used  b.y  the  present  Baptists. 

The  primitive  baptism  was  doubtless  of  adults 
only,  but  infant  baptism  earl.y  became  the 
Church  practice.  Opposition  to  it  was  kept  up 
by  a  number  of  minor  and  obscure  sects  in  the 
Middle  Ages.  When  the  Reformation  unshackled 
the  popular  mind  it  came  into  prominence.  Un- 
fortunately, it  was  linked  with  other  unpopular 
ideas  of  a  revolutionary  character,  and  adopted 
by  a  set  of  fanatical  enthusiasts  called  the 
prophets  of  Zwickau,  in  Saxony,  at  whose  head 
were  Thomas  Miinzer  (q.v.)  (1520)  and  others. 
Miinzcr  went  to  Waldshut,  on  the  borders  of 
Switzerland,  which  soon  became  a  chief  seat  of 
Anabaptism,  and  a  centre  whence  visionaries  and 
fanati<'s  spread  over  Switzerland.  They  pre- 
tended to  new  revelations,  dreamed  of  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  kingdom  of  heaven  on  earth, 
and  summoned  princes  to  join  them,  on  pain  of 
losing  their  temporal  power.  The.y  rejected 
infant  baptism,  and  taught  that  those  who 
joined  them  must  be  baptized  anew  with  the 
baptism  of  the  Spirit;  the.y  also  proclaimed  the 
community  of  goods,  and  the  equality  of  all 
Christians.  These  doctrines  naturally  fell  in 
with  and  supported  tlie  "Peasant  War"  (q.v.) 
that  had  alnnit  that  time  (l.'iS.'j)  broken  out  from 
real  causes  of  oppression.  The  sect  spread  raiiid- 
ly  through  Westphalia.  Holstein,  and  the  Neth- 
erlands, in  spite  of  the  severest  persecuticms. 
The    battle    of    Frankcnhausen     (see    Munzer) 


crushed  their  progress  in  Saxony  and  Franeonia. 
Still  scattered  adherents  of  the  doctrines  con- 
tinued, and  were  again  brought  together  in  vari- 
ous places  by  traveling  preachers.  In  this  capa- 
city Melchior  Hoffmann,  a  furrier  of  Swaliia,  dis- 
tinguished himself,  who  appeared  as  a  visionary 
preacher  in  Kiel  in  1527,  and  in  Emden  in  1528. 
In  the  last  town  he  installed  a  baker,  John  Mat- 
thiesen,  of  Haarlem,  as  bishop,  and  then  went 
to  Strassburg,  where  he  died  in  prison.  Matthie- 
sen  began  to  send  out  apostles  of  the  new  doc- 
trine. Two  of  these  went  to  Miinster,  where 
they  found  fanatical  coadjutors  in  the  Protes- 
tant minister  Rothniann,  and  the  burghers  Knip- 
perdolling  and  Krechting,  and  were  shortly 
joined  by  the  tailor  Bockhold.  of  Lcyden.  and 
Gerrit  Kippenbrock,  of  Amsterdam,  a  bookbind- 
er, and  at  last  by  Matthiesen  himself.  With 
their  adherents  they  soon  made  themselves 
masters  of  the  city;  Matthiesen  set  up  as  a 
prophet,  and  when  he  lost  his  life  in  a  sally 
against  the  Bishop  of  Jliinster,  who  was  besieg- 
ing the  town.  Bockhold  and  Knipperdolling  took 
his  place.  The  churches  were  now  destroyed, 
and  twelve  judges  were  appointed  over  the 
tribes,  as  among  the  Israelites;  and  Bockhold 
(1534)  had  himself  crowned  king  of  the  "New 
Sion,"  under  the  name  of  John  of  Leyden.  The 
Anabaptist  madness  in  IMiinster  now  went  be- 
yond all  bounds.  The  city  became  the  scene  of 
the  wildest  licentiousness,  until  several  Prot- 
estant princes,  uniting  with  the  bishop,  took  the 
plan,  and  by  executing  the  leaders  put  an  end  to 
the  new  kingdom    (1535). 

But  tlie  principles  disseminated  by  the  fanati- 
cal Anabaptists  were  not  so  easily  obliterated. 
As  early  as  1533  the  adherents  of  the  sect  had 
been  driven  from  Emden  and  taken  refuge  in 
the  Netlierlands,  and  in  Amsterdam  the  doc- 
trine took  root  and  spread.  Bockhold  also  had 
sent  out  apostles,  some  of  whom  had  given  up 
the  wild  fanaticism  of  their  master;  they  let 
alone  the  conununity  of  goods  and  women,  and 
taught  the  other  doctrines  of  the  Anabaptists, 
and  the  establishment  of  a  new  kingdom  of  pure 
Christians.  They  grounded  their  doctrines  chief- 
l.V'on  the  Apocal.vpse.  One  of  the  most  distin- 
guished of  this  class  was  David  Joris,  a  glass 
painter  of  Delft  (1501-56).  Joris  united  liber- 
alism with  Anabaptism,  devoted  himself  to  mys- 
tic theology,  and  sought  to  effect  a  union  of 
parties.  He  acquired  many  adherents,  who 
studied  his  book  of  miracles  (Wttiuierbiich) . 
which  appeared  at  Deventer  in  1542,  and  looked 
upon  him  as  a  sort  of  new  Messiah.  Being  per- 
secuted, he  withdrew  from  his  party,  lived  inof- 
fensively at  Basel,  under  the  name  of  John  of 
Bruges,  and  died  there  in  the  communion  of  the 
Reformed  Church.  It  was  only  in  1559,  when  his 
heretical  docirines  had  come  to  li,ght.  that  the 
coiuicil  of  Basel  had  the  bones  of  Joris  dug  up 
and  burned  under  the  gallows. 

Contemporary  with  these  fanatical  Anabap- 
tists there  were  those  who  united  denial  of  the 
validity  of  infant  baptism  with  m.ystical  views, 
and  even  with  denial  of  the  deity  of  Christ.  But 
in  Switzerland  and  South  Germany  the  Anti- 
pa'do-Baptists,  who  date  from  1523,  and  were 
dominated  by  the  theological  views  of  Balthazar 
Hubmeier,  though  reckoned  with  the  other  Ana- 
baptists and  cruelly  persecuted  and  suppressed, 
held  only  at  worst  defective  political  views,  but 
had  no  part  or  parcel  with  any  inmioral  prac- 
tices.    Their  creed  can  be  learned  from  Zwingli's 


ANABAPTISTS. 


489 


ANACAONA. 


attack  upon  them.  See  the  Enirlish  translation 
in  .JaoUson's  Hclections  from  Ziriiifili,  pp.  123- 
258  ("New  York.  1001).  Tliis  humble  folk  were 
treated  like  eriminal-s,  because  the  authorities 
recognized  that  their  principles,  though  in  no 
way  sinful,  were  subversive  of  the  tyrannical 
government  they  exercised.  Anabaptists  must 
die  because  they  would  not  submit  to  the  estab- 
lished order.  To  this  daj'  the  advocates  of  the 
State  Church  look  askance  at  them.  At  first 
among  them  the  mode  of  baptism  was  not  con- 
sidered important,  and  so  not  much  discussed. 
It  was  by  pouring  or  sprinkling. 

A  new  era  for  the  Anabaptists  begins  with 
Menno  Simons.  (See  IMenno. )  Surrounded  by 
dangers,  Jlenno  succeeded,  by  prudent  zeal,  in 
collecting  the  scattered  adherents  of  the  sect, 
and  in  founding  congregations  in  the  Nether- 
lands and  in  various  parts  of  Germany.  He 
called  the  members  of  the  comnumity  "God's 
congregation,  poor,  unarmed  Christians,  bro- 
thers;" later,  they  took  the  name  of  Mennonites, 
and  at  present  they  call  themselves,  in  Ciermany, 
Taufgesinnte ;  in  Holland,  Doopsgezinden — cor- 
responding very  nearly  to  the  English  designa- 
tion Baptists.  This,  besides  being  a  more  appro- 
priate designation,  avoids  offensive  association 
with  the  early  Anabaptists.  INIcnno  expounded 
his  principles  in  liis  Elements  of  the  True  Chris- 
tian Faith  in  Dutch.  This  book  is  still  an 
authority  among  the  body,  who  lay  particular 
stress  on  receiving  the  doctrines  of  the  Scrip- 
ture with  simple  faith,  and  acting  strictly  up 
to  them,  setting  no  value  on  learning  and  the 
seientifie  elaboration  pi  doctrines.  They  reject 
the  taking  of  oaths,  war,  every  kind  of  revenge, 
divorce  (except  for  adultery),  infant  baptism, 
and  tlie  undertaking  of  the  office  of  magistrate; 
magistracy  they  hold  to  be  an  institution  neces- 
sary for  the  present,  but  foreign  to  the  kingdom 
of  Christ ;  the  Church  is  the  connnunity  of  the 
saints,  which  must  be  kept  pure  by  strict  disci- 
pline. With  regard  to  grace,  they  hold  it  to 
be  designed  for  all.  and  their  views  of  the  Lord's 
Supper  fall  in  with  those  of  Zwingli;  in  its  cele- 
bration the  rite  of  feet-washing  is  retained.  In 
Germany.  Switzerland,  and  Alsace  their  form  of 
worship"  differs  little  from  the  Lutheran.  Their 
bishops,  elders,  and  teachers  serve  without  pay. 
Children  receive  their  name  at  birth,  baptism  is 
performed  in  the  place  of  worship,  and  adults 
that  join  the  .sect  are  rebaptized.  (See  Mkn- 
NONITES.) 

Almost  the  only  split  among  the  early  Conti- 
nental Baptists  on  doctrinal  grounds  was  that 
which  took  place  in  Amsterdam  in  16(54.  Ar- 
minianism  had  not  been  without  its  influence, 
especially  among  the  Waterliindcrs,  originally 
more  liberal  in  their  views.  A  leading  congrega- 
tion accordingly  divided  into  two  parties,  one 
((ialenists,  from  Galenus,  their  leader)  advo- 
cating freer  views  in  doctrine  and  discipline; 
the  other  ( Apostoolists,  from  Samuel  Apostool) 
adhering  to  absolute  predestination  and  the  dis- 
cipline "of  Menno.  The  liberal  party  rejected 
creeds  as  of  human  invention,  adopted  much  of 
the  philosophy  and  theology  of  England,  and 
exercised  no  little  influence  on  the  intellectual 
[irogress  of  Holland.  These  two  parties  grad- 
ually absorbed  the  other  sections  of  the  Baptists 
in  the  Netherlands:  and  about  the  beginning 
of  the  nineteenth  century  a  union  took  place  by 
which  all  the  congregations  now  belong  to  one 
body. 

Vol.  I.— 33. 


For  the  modern  denomination  called  Baptists, 
which  continues  the  same  ]>rotest  against  infant 
baptism,  but  has  little,  or,  as  some  claim,  no 
genetic  connection  witli  the  Anabaptists,  see 
Bapti.sts. 

ANABARA,  a-nii'ba-rii'.  A  river  in  Siberia, 
emptying  into  the  Arctic  Ocean  (Map:  Asia, 
LI),  and  forming  the  boundary  between  the  gov- 
ernment of  Yeniseisk  and  the  territory  of 
Yakutsk. 

A'NABAS,  AN'ABAT'ID,ffi.  See  Climbing 
Fish. 

ANAB'ASIS  (Gk.  ai«i,3n(T/f,  from  ai'd,  OJin,  up 
-f  jiaivtiv,  bainein,  to  go) .  The  name  of  two  his- 
torical works.  (1.)  The  Anofcasis  o/' Cyras,  writ- 
ten by  Xenophon  early  in  the  fourth  century 
B.C.,  which  gives  a  narrative  of  the  unfortunate 
expedition  of  the  younger  Cyrus  against  his 
brother,  the  Persian  King  Artaxeixes,  and  of 
the  retreat  of  his  10.000  Greek  allies  under  the 
command  of  Xenophon.  (2.)  The  Anabasis  of 
Alexander,  written  by  Arrian  160-168  A.D.,  and 
giving  an  account  of  the  campaigns  of  Alexander 
the  Great. 

AN'ABLEPS  (Gk.  avaJAFTTSiv,  anablepein,  to 
look  up).  A  genus  of  cyprinodont  fishes,  the 
four-eyes,  remarkable  for  the  incomplete  division 
of  the  eye  into  an  up|)er  smaller  and  a  lower 
larger  part.  This  division  is  effected  by  the 
growth  of  two  processes  of  the  iris  toward  each 
other  across  the  pupil,  and  a  corresponding  band 
of  the  conjunctiva  across  the  cornea.     As  they 


ANABLEP3   TETHAOeHTHALMDS. 

A.  Attitude  in  swimming.  B.  Vt-rtica!  section  of  ttie  eye 
througii  tlie  lens,  sh'uviiiir  tlic  It'iiticiliir  form  of  the  upper 
lialf  receiving  liglit  ttiroimn  tin-  nir.  and  itii'  sul)ort)icular  shape 
of  the  lower  half  recei\intr  lii^ht  iliron;rh  vsatcr.  L\  Diagram  of 
the  eye  across  the  front,  showing  exteruul  clarlc  band.  (After 
Tegetmeier.) 

are  surface  fish,  and  swim  with  their  eyes  partly 
projecting  above  the  water,  the  upper  part  serves 
the  purpose  of  seeing  in  the  air  and  the  lower 
for  seeing  in  the  water.  They  occur  in  shallow 
water  along  the  coast,  and  in  the  rivers  of  trop- 
ical -America. 

ANAB'OLISM  (Gk.  avapoli/,  anaboU;  some- 
thing heaped  up ) ,  and  Constructive  Metabol- 
ism. Terms  applied  to  the  chemical  processes 
of  the  living  body,  which  result  in  the  formation 
of  more  complex  compounds  from  simpler  ones. 
See  Metabolism. 

AWAB'EUS.     See  Locust. 

ANACAONA,  ii'na-kii'fl-na,  or  Golden  Flow- 
er. An  Indian  princess,  sister  and  wife  re- 
spectively of  Behechio  and  of  Caonabo,  caciques 
of  Haiti  when   Columbus  discovered  the   island 


ANACAONA. 


490 


ANACLETUS. 


(1492).  She  succeeded  her  brother  as  ruler  of 
his  tribe,  and  after  the  death  of  C'aonabo  was  on 
friendly  terms  with  the  Spanish  until  1503.  In 
the  latter  year  she  gave  a  feast  in  honor  of  Ovan- 
do,  the  Spanish  governor,  but  in  the  midst  of  the 
festivities  was  arrested  and  put  to  death  by  his 
order. 

AN'ACAR'DIA'CE,ffi  (Gk.  avd,  ana,  [like] 
unto  +  hapdia,  kaidia,  heart).  Sumach  Familt. 
An  order  of  dicotyledonous  plants  consisting 
mostly"  of  trees  and  shrubs,  with  acrid,  resinous, 
or  milky  sap,  in  some  instances  very  irritating 
and  poisonous.  The  leaves  are  usually  alternate, 
rarely  opposite;  flowers  small,  polygamous,  dice- 
cious  or  perfect:  caly.x  small,  usually  five- 
parted;  petals  of  the  same  number  as  the  sepals; 
stamens  as  numerous  as  the  petals  and  opposite 
them,  or  twice  as  many,  rarely  fewer:  ovaries 
of  the  staminate  flowers  one-celled,  of  the  pistil- 
late flowers  three  to  seven-celled,  with  a  single 
ovule  in  each  cell ;  fruit  generally  a  drupe ;  seeds 
bon}',  endosperm  little  or  none;  cotyledons  fleshy. 
This  family  embraces  about  50  genera  and 
500  species,  most  of  which  occur  in  the 
tropics  of  both  hemispheres,  the  only  prominent 
genus  indigenous  to  tlie  United  States  being 
Rhus;  the  Sumach  and  Poison  oak  (q.v. ).  The 
genera  of  the  family  are  giouped  into  a  number 
of  sections,  the  more  important  of  whicli  are: 
Mangiferip,  of  which  Mangifera  and  Anacardium 
are  the  principal  genera ;  Spondiese,  represented 
by  Spondias;  Rhoidee,  the  chief  genera  of  which 
are  Pistacia,  Rhus,  Cotinus,  and  Sehinus;  and 
Semecarpese,  represented  by  Semecarpus.  The 
entire  order  abounds  in  resins  and  tannins,  fur- 
nishing the  source  whence  some  of  the  most  val- 
uable lacquers,  varnishes,  and  tanning  materials 
are  obtained,  while  some  species  produce  whole- 
some and  pleasant  fruits,  some  of  which  are 
extensively  grown  in  the  tropics.  For  detailed 
economic  descriptions,  see  Cashew  Nut  ;  Pista- 
cia :  JIastic  ;  Hog  Pluji  ;  Poisoxous  Plants  ; 
Makgo;  Sumach,  and  other  names  mentioned 
above. 

AN'ACAR'DIUM.    See  Cashew  Nut. 

ANACHARIS,  :i-n;-ik'a-r!s  (Neo-Lat.  from 
Gk.  dvii,  ana,  up  +  x^P'C,  charts,  grace).  An 
aqiiatic  jilant  (Aiiachnris  Canadensis) .  native  of 
North  America,  where  it  grows  entirely  sub- 
merged in  tlie  water  of  ponds  and  slow-llowing 
streams.  The  plant  is  a  much-branched  peren- 
nial, with  long,  slender  stems  that  bear  numerous 
small  sessile,  linear-oblong  leaves  arranged 
either  in  whorls  or  oppositely  upon  the  axis. 
The  small  flowers  appear  upon  the  surface  of  the 
water  for  a  short  period  of  time  sufficient  for 
pollination,  after  the  accomplishment  of  which 
act  the  female  flowers  are  withdrawn  beneath  the 
surface;  a  case  similar  to  tliat  in  the  eel-grass 
(Vallisneria,  q.v.).  This  plant  was  intro- 
duced into  Great  Britain  about  1842.  and  because 
of  its  rapid  growth  lias  become  a  serious  obstacle 
to  navigation  in  many  of  the  tide  water  streams. 
Anacharis  is  a  good  example  of  a  plant,  innoc- 
uous in  its  native  country,  which  has  been  intro- 
duced elsewhere,  and  found  tliere  such  congenial 
habitat  as  to  enable  it  to  become  a  most  ob- 
noxious weed.  It  is  also  known  as  Elodea  Cana- 
densis. 

ANACHARSIS,  anVi-kJir'sIs  (Gk.  'Avd- 
Xnpair).  A  Scythian,  the  brother  of  King  Saul- 
ius,  said  by  Plutarch  and  Diogenes  Laertius  to 
have  visited  Solon  at  Athens,  to  have  lived  with 


him  on  terms  of  intimacy,  and  also  to  have  been 
initiated  into  the  Mysteries.  From  the  early 
fourth  century  B.C.,  the  tendency  to  idealize  the 
barbarian  peoples  of  the  North  assigned  to  him 
the  highest  qualities;  his  love  of  learning  is  said 
to  have  caused  him  to  travel  through  many 
lands;  he  was  numbered  among  the  Seven  Wise 
Men;  and  from  Aristotle's  time  many  wise 
sayings  and  proverbs  were  attributed  to  him. 
They  are  edited  by  Mullaeh,  Philosophorum  Grw- 
coriini  Fraymenta  (Paris,  18G0-81).  Under  the 
title  Voyage  du  jeune  Anacharsis  en  Gricc,  Jean 
.Jacques  B.arthelemy,  a  well-known  French 
author  (q.v.),  wrote  in  1789  a  description 
of  Greek  life  and  manners,  displaying  learn- 
ing and  good  taste,  but  disfigured  by  many 
anachronisms.  Anacharsis  is  made  to  visit 
Athens  only  a  few  years  before  the  birth  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  and  the  features  of  several 
distinct  periods  in  Grecian  history  are  confused- 
ly regarded  as  having  been  contemporaneous. 
Tlie  book,  tlierefore,  will  not  bear  a  critical 
examination ;  but  it  has  contributed  its  share 
toward  an  improved  knowledge  of  ancient  life, 
and  has  given  rise  to  several  similar  works, 
such  as  the  Irallus  and  the  Charicles  of  Becker. 

ANACH'RONISM  (Gk.  ivaxpov'iCea^ai,  ana- 
chronhesthai.  to  refer  to  wrong  time,  from 
ava,  una,  back,  against -H  xp'^''"C,  c'i»'0)iOS,  time) . 
An  error  in  chronolog}'.  Sometimes  an  anach- 
ronism is  purjiosely  made  for  the  sake  of  effect, 
or  to  bring  certain  events  within  convenient 
compass  for  dramatic  purposes.  Shakespeare, 
in  his  Jvllns  Ci.esar,  makes  the  "clock"  strike 
three:  and  Schiller,  in  his  Piccolomini,  speaks  of 
a  "lightning-conductor"'  a?  known  a  hundred 
and  fifty  years  before  its  invention.  These  dis- 
crepancies, however,  do  not  seriously  injure  the 
general  truth  of  a  poetical  work.  Tlie  anach- 
ronism is  more  olTensive  when,  in  a  work  which 
pedantically  adheres  to  the  costumes  and  other 
external  features  of  old  times,  we  find  a  modern 
style  of  thought  and  language,  as  in  the  old 
French  dramas  of  Corneille  and  Racine.  In  pop- 
ular epic  poetry  anachronism  is  a  common  fea-  ■ 
ture.  Achilles  is  always  young;  Helena,  always  S 
beautiful.  In  their  versions  of  old  classic  tra-  U 
ditions,  the  writers  of  the  Middle  Ages  converted  ■ 
Alexander,  ^"Eneas,  and  other  ancient  heroes 
into  good  Christian  knights  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury. In  the  Nibelungenlied,  Attila  and  Theo- 
doric  are  good  friends  and  allies,  though  the  _ 
latter  began  to  reign  some  forty  years  after  the  • 
former.  At  the  end  of  the  poem,  the  heroine, 
who  must  have  been  nearly  sixty  years  old,  and 
had  passed  through  great  aflliction  and  sorrow,  is 
still  the  "beautiful  Queen  Kriemhild."  Many 
ludicrous  examples  of  anachronism  may  be  found 
in  old  Dutch  paintings;  e.g.,  Abraliam,  Isaac, 
and  .Jacob  in  modern  costumes,  and  Adam  in 
Paradise  armed   with  a  musket. 

ANACLACHE,  a'na-kla'cha.  One  of  the 
mountains  of  Bolivia,  in  lat.  18°  12'  S.,  long. 
69°  20'  W.,  about  four  miles  high,  and  always 
covered  with  snow. 

AN'ACLE'TUS  I.,  Saixt,  otherwise  Cletus. 
Second  or  third  bishop  of  Rome.  A  martyr  under 
Domitian.  Others  say  that  he  succeeded  Clement 
I.  as  fifth  bishop  of  Rome,  and  was  martyred 
under  Trajan.     His  day  is  July  13th. 

ANACLETUS  II.  (?— 1138).  Anti-pope,  by 
name  Peter  Pierleoni.  He  sprang  from  a  rich  and 


ANACLETUS. 


491 


ANJESTHESIA. 


powerful  Roman  Jewisli  family,  studied  in  Paris, 
became  cardinal  in  1116,  was  chosen  Pope  in 
ll-'iO  by  a  faction  of  cardinals  opposed  to  Inno- 
cent II.,  and  was  sustained  by  the  Roman  and 
some  otiier  States.  He  maintained  himself  at 
Rome  ajjainst  the  arms  of  Lothaire,  the  opposi- 
tion of  other  kings,  and  the  clergy  in  general, 
lie   died   January   '2.").    1138. 

AN'AC0LU'TH0N(C4k.  hv,  an.  priv.-f  dodPlou. 
■dii(,  ukolouthos,  following,  attending).  A  term 
employed  both  in  grammar  and  in  rhetoric  to 
denote  the  absence  of  strict  logical  sequence  in 
the  grammatical  construction.  In  colloquial 
speech,  nothing  is  more  common  than  anacolu- 
thon:  but  careful  writers  shun  it.  The  follow- 
ing from  Disraeli  illustrates  the  term:  "Lost 
in  profound  reverie,  the  hours  flew  on." 

AN' AGON 'DA  (Origin  unknown;  possibly 
native  name).  Any  large  crushing  snake,  a  boa. 
Jlore  especially  the  great  South  American  water- 
boa  (Eiiiiectes  miirinus),  called  in  Brazil  Suc- 
uriu,  which  is  closely  allied  to  the  boa  con- 
strictor, and  is  sometimes  30  feet  long.  Its  nos- 
trils are  capable  of  being  closed  while  in  the 
water.  It  haunts  the  banks  of  streams  in  Guiana 
and  Brazil,  wheie  it  prejs  on  the  animals  that 
live  i)i  tlie  water  or  come  to  the  banks  to  drink. 
When  on  land  it  is  rather  helpless.  It  is  rich 
brown,  beautifully  decorated  by  a  double  series 
of  dorsal  blotches  and  with  irregvilar  ring-.spots 
along  the  sides.  Consult  Molls  and  Ulrieh, 
Proceedings  Zoological  Society  of  London  ( 1894) . 
See  Bo.\,  and  plate  of  Boas. 

ANACONDA.  A  city  and  county  seat  of 
Deer  Lodge  t'o..  Mont.,  27  miles  west  by  north  of 
Butte,  on  tiie  Xorthern  Pacific,  the  tireat  North- 
ern, and  the  Butte,  Anaconda  and  Pacific  rail- 
roads (Map:  Montana,  C  2).  It  has  parks,  driv- 
ing park  grounds,  the  Hearst  Free  Library  of 
about  5500  volumes,  and  two  commodious  opera 
houses.  Deposits  of  graphite  and  sapphires  are 
found  in  the  vicinit.y,  and  the  eit.v  is  noted  for 
its  gi-eat  copper-smelting  works,  which  are 
among  the  largest  in  the  world,  having  a  daily 
capacity  of  some  5500  tons  of  ore.  Railroad 
shops,  foundries,  machine  shops,  and  brick  works 
further  represent  the  industrial  interests. 
Founded  in  1884,  when  the  reduction  works  were 
established.  Anaconda  has  developed  with  the 
copper  industry.     Pop.,   1890,   3975;    1900,   9453. 

ANA'CBEON  (Gk.  'AvoKpeai',  Anakreon) 
(561-470  B.C.).  One  of  the  most  esteemed  lyric 
poets  of  Greece.  He  was  born  at  Teos,  a  seaport 
of  Ionia,  and  spent  part  of  his  youtli  in  Abdera, 
to  which  place  most  of  his  fellow- townsmen  emi- 
grated when  their  city  was  taken  by  the  Persians 
in  545  B.C.  He  was  patronized  by  Polycrates, 
the  ruler  of  Samos  (533-522),  who  invited  him 
to  his  court;  and  there  he  sang  in  light  and 
flowing  strains  the  praise  of  wine  and  love.  After 
the  death  of  Polycrates,  he  went  to  Athens  (521 
B.C.)  and  was  received  with  distinguished  honor 
by  Hipparchus.  After  the  fall  of  Ilipparcli\is,  he 
accepted  an  invitation  from  Echecrates.  a  Thes- 
salian  prince,  to  make  his  home  with  him.  He 
died  in  470  B.C..  at  the  age  of  eighty-five.  Great 
honors  were  paid  to  him  after  his  death.  Teos 
put  his  likeness  upon  its  coins,  and  Pausanias 
saw  a  statue  to  him  on  the  Acropolis  of  Athens, 
which  represented  him  in  a  half-drunken  con- 
dition. The  Alexandrians  knew  five  books  of  his 
poems ;  but  we  have  only  two  poems  complete, 
and  a  few  scanty  fragments.     The  collection  of 


poems  known  as  Anacreontics  are  weak  imita- 
tions of  his  work,  dating  from  the  Alexandrine 
period  to  late  Byzantine  times.  The  genuine 
fragments  are  published  in  Bergk's  Poetcs  Lyrici 
Grwci  (fifth  edition  Volume  III.,  Leipzig,  li)00). 
They  have  been  paraphrased  in  English  by 
Thomas  Moore. 

AN'ACYC'LTJS.     See  Pellitort  op  Spain. 

ANADIR,  li'nd-dir',  or  Anadyr  Bay.  A  sea 
or  large  gulf  of  northeastern  Asia,  constituting 
the  northwestern  part  of  Bering  Sea  (Map:  Asia, 
Siberia,  R  2).  It  is  about  480  miles  in  circum- 
ference and  about  250  miles  wide.  It  is  fre- 
quented by  whalers. 

ANADIR.  A  river  in  the  extreme  northeast 
of  Siberia,  rising  in  the  mountain-lake  Ivash- 
kino,  and  flowing,  first  in  a  southwesterly,  and 
then  in  an  easterly,  direction,  mostly  through 
rocky,  snowy  regions,  for  a  distance  of  about  300 
miles,  and  empt3'ing  itself  into  the  gulf  of  the 
.same  name,  in  lat.  04°  40'  N.  It  drains  an  area 
of  about  115,000square  miles.  Itsprincipal  tribu- 
taries are  the  Mayin,  the  Bielaya,  and  the  Kras- 
naya.  Consult  Krahmer,  "Der  Anadyr-Bezirk 
naeh  A.  W.  Olssufjew,"  in  Volume  XLV.  Peter- 
mann's  Mitteilungen.   (Gotha,   1879). 

AN'ADYOM'ENE  (Gk.  avaSvo/iivTi,  from 
avttdma()ai,  anadycsthai,  to  rise).  A  name  ap- 
plied to  Aphrodite  emerging  from  the  sea.  The 
ancients  used  the  word  to  denote  a  celebrated 
painting  by  Apelles  (q.v.),  representing  the  god- 
dess at  this  moment.  It  was  painted  for  the  tem- 
ple of  Asclepius  on  the  island  of  Cos.  Augustus 
Ijought  it  for  a  hundred  talents  of  remitted 
taxes,  and  placed  it  in  the  temple  of  Julius 
Caesar.  It  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Greek 
Anthology,  but  the  allusions  do  not  furnish  the 
data,  for  accurate  reconstruction  of  the  painting. 
The  name  is  frequently  applied  to  similar  repre- 
sentations of  Aphrodite  rising  from  the  waves  or 
standing  in  a  shell  and  wringing  the  water  from 
her  hair. 

ANADYR,  ii'na-dir'.     See  Anadir. 

AN.ffi'MIA  (Gk.  av,  an,  priv.  -|-  alfia,  haima, 
blood).  The  condition  generally  termed  pov- 
erty of  blood.  In  medicine  two  distinct  kinds  of 
anjemia  are  recognized — primary  and  secondary. 
Primary  antrinia.  or  pernicious  anwmia,  is  a 
rare,  generally  fatal  disease  of  the  blood-making 
organs,  notabl.v  either  of  the  spleen,  the  marrow 
of  the  long  bones,  or  of  the  l.vmph  glands.  Its 
cause  is  unknown.  The  chief  changes  consist  in 
a  marked  reduction  of  the  number  of  the  red- 
blood  cells,  a  diminution  in  the  percentage  of  the 
haemoglobin,  and  changes  in  the  heart,  liver,  and 
blood-making  organs.  There  is  usually  gi-eat  pal- 
lor, shortness  of  breath,  weakness,  and  palpita- 
tion of  the  heart.  Secondary  ancemia  is  a  symp- 
tom found  in  many  diseases  .and  conditions,  as 
malaria,  hemorrhage,  jaundice,  poisoning  by  lead, 
mercury,  copper,  or  arsenic:  further,  it  may  be 
due  to  improper  food,  insufficient  sunlight,  or 
animal  parasites ;  or,  finally,  it  may  occur  during 
Bright's  disease  (q.v.),  diabetes  (q.v.),  or  can- 
cer. The  symptoms  are  similar  but  less 
severe.  The  curative  treatment  of  the  sec- 
ondary anaemias  consists  in  allowing  the  patient 
fresh  air,  good  nourishment,  and  those  materials 
which  proniote  the  formation  of  the  deficient  ele- 
ments of  the  blood.  Of  these  the  principal  are 
iron  and  arsenic.     See  Ciilokosi.s. 

AN'.ffiSTHE'SIA  ( Gk.  av,  an,  priv.  +  altrdr/aic, 


ANESTHESIA. 


492 


ANAGNI. 


aisthesls,  feeling,  sensibility),  or  Analgesia. 
A  loss  of  sensibility  to  external  impression.  An- 
aesthesia means,  properly,  the  loss  of  the  sense  of 
touch ;  analgesia,  the  loss  of  the  sense  of  pain. 
The  terms  are  often  used  interchangeably,  and 
aniesthesia  has  come  to  mean  the  loss  of  sensi- 
bilitj'  to  all  kinds  of  sensory  impressions.  Tac- 
tile, pain,  heat,  cold,  and  muscular  senses  are 
those  usually  affected.  All  these  sensations  are 
received  by  special  sense  organs  situated  on  the 
outside  of  the  body  or  in  mucous  membranes. 
From  the  sensory  end  organs  the  paths  for  these 
/Sensations  pass  into  the  spinal  cord,  and  thence 
up  to  moi'e  or  less  distinct  areas  of  the  brain. 
Disease  or  injury  in  any  part  of  the  path  may 
produce  a  loss  of  these  sensations.  Thus,  if  a 
nerve  which  contains  sensorj'  fibres  is  injured, 
the  parts  whose  sensory  nerves  are  detached  from 
the  brain  lose  all  sensibility.  In  certain  diseases 
of  the  spinal  cord  tlie  sensory  fibres  are  affected, 
and  all  parts  below  the  site  of  the  morbid  process 
lose  their  sensibility.  In  a  certain  rare  disease 
(syringomyelia),  there  is  loss  of  pain  sense  and 
of' the  sense  of  heat  and  cold,  but  not  of  tactile 
sense.  Should  accident  or  disease  occur  still 
higher  up  in  the  sensory  area  of  the  brain,  or  in 
areas  where  sensory  filires  come  together,  as  in 
the  medulla  and  internal  capsule,  one  side  of  the 
entire  body  may  become  ana>sthetic.  Such  ex- 
treme grades  of  ana>sthesia  are  infrequent,  but 
there  is  almost  no  area  in  the  body  which  may 
not  lose  its  sensibility  by  accident  or  disease. 
Even  in  "functional"  diseases,  as  hysteria,  in 
which  no  known  changes  have  taken  place  in  the 
nervous  tissues,  loss  of  sensibility  may  occur. 
Certain  drugs,  which,  when  locally  applied,  or 
taken  into  the  body,  produce  similar  diminution 
or  loss  of  sensibility,  are  termed  auEesthetics. 
See  An.5:sthetic  ;  Sensation. 

AN'iESTHET'IC  (for  derivation,  see  An- 
.SSTIIESIA).  Any  remedy  used  to  relieve  pain  or 
other  hyjiera'sth'etie  conditions  of  the  sensory 
nerves.  Those  that  relieve  pain  alone  are  fre- 
quently termed  analgesics.  The  broader  terra  is 
used  indiscriminately,  including  two  great  groups 
of  aniesthetics :  ( 1 )  Local  ansesthetics,  affecting 
a  restricted  area;  (2)  general  auEesthetics,  tem- 
porarily affecting  the  sensibility  of  the  entire 
body.  Cold  is  one  of  the  safest  local  anresthet- 
ics."  in  the  form  of  cold  water  or  cracked  ice. 
Various  freezing  mixtures,  such  as  ether  spray 
or  ethyl  chloride  spray,  are  even  more  valuable, 
but  require  skill  and"  experience  in  use,  or  the 
part  may  be  frozen  and  thus  injured.  Carbolic 
acid  and  its  allies,  creosote,  thymol,  and  other 
volatile  oils,  containing  phenol-like  bodies,  are 
powerful  aniesthetics.  These,  when  applied  local- 
ly, have  the  power  of  paralyzing  the  sense  or- 
gans of  the  skin  ai\d  mucous  membranes.  Their 
use  is  attended  with  danger,  however,  and  should 
be  administered  by  a  physician  only.  The  most 
important  of  the"  local  aniesthetics-  is  cocaine 
(q.v.),  which  has  the  peculiar  and  useful  prop- 
erty of  being  able  to  paralyze  sensoiy  nerves 
alone.  In  a  weak  solution,  it  is  injected  under 
the  skin,  which  it  renders  ana?sthetie,  relieving 
pain,  as  in  neuralgia,  and  permitting  operations 
on  the  part.  Applied  to  the  mucous  membrane, 
it  destroys  all  feeling,  and  can  be  used  in  the 
eye,  ear,  nose,  mouth,  rectum,  vagina,  uretlira, 
and  bladder,  to  overcome  pain  or  permit  oper- 
ations. Dr.  J.  Leonard  Corning,  of  New  York, 
in  1885,  discovered  that  when  injected  in  weak 


solution  into  the  spinal  canal,  it  produced  a  loss 
of  all  sensation  below  the  place  of  injection.  Ex- 
tensive operations  have  been  performed  under 
cocaine,  and  children  have  been  born  without 
pain  to  the  mother;  but  there  are  some  serious 
disadvantages  in  this  medullary  narcosis.  Eu- 
caine,  holocaine,  and  orthoform  have  been  used 
for  the  same  purpose  as  cocaine. 

It  is  probable  that  for  thousands  of  years  the 
natives  of  India  have  used  Indian  hemp  for  the 
relief  of  pain,  while  the  inhabitants  of  China 
have  used  opium  from  the  poppy  plant.  In  all 
ages  and  among  all  peoples,  as  far  back  as  his- 
tory records,  people  have  used  alcoholic  drinks  to 
produce  diminished  sensibility  to  pain.  Within 
recent  years  the  pharmaceutical  chemist  has  been 
industrious  in  making  new  compounds  to  relieve 
pain.  There  are  scores  of  such  substances  now 
in  use,  among  which  are  acetanilid  (q.v.),  anti- 
pyrine  (q.v.),  methacetine.  phenacetine  (q.v.), 
thallin,  plienetidin,  phenocoll,  and  salocoll. 

In  1800,  Sir  Humphry  Da\'y,  experimenting 
with  nitrous  oxide  (q.v.)  or  laughing-ga.s,  sug- 
gested its  usefulness  as  an  anipsthetic.  In  1844, 
Dr.  Horace  Wells  (q.v.).  an  American  dentist, 
demonstrated  that  the  gas  may  be  actually  em- 
ployed for  painless  extraction  of  teeth.  In  1828, 
Dr.  Hickman  suggested  carbonic  acid  gas.  As 
early  as  1795,  Dr.  Pearson  had  used  the  vapor 
of  sulphuric  ether  for  the  relief  of  spasmodic 
affections  of  the  respiration.  The  fact  that  sul- 
phuric ether  could  produce  insensibility  w'as 
known  to  Faraday  in  1818,  and  was  shown 
bv  the  American  phvsicians,  Godwin  (1822), 
Mitchell  (1832),  .Tackson  (1833),  Wood  and 
Bache  (1834)  ;  but  it  was  first  used  to  prevent 
the  pain  of. an  operation  by  Dr.  Crawford  W. 
Long  (q.v.),  of  Georgia,  who  removed  a  tu- 
mor from  a  patient  under  ether  in  1842.  Un- 
fortunately. Long  did  not  publish  his  discovery 
to  the  medical  world,  and  failed  to  utilize  his 
opportunity.  Upon  the  suggestion  of  Dr.  Jack- 
son, Dr.  W.  T.  G.  Morton  (q.v.).  a  dentist  of 
Boston,  after  experimenting  privately,  introduced 
ether  anipsthesia  into  general  use  in  1840.  At 
the  request  of  Dr.  John  C.  Warren,  Morton  ad- 
ministered ether  in  an  operation  at  the  Massa- 
chusetts General  Hospital  on  October  16,  184G. 
The  fiftieth  anniversarv  of  this  event  was  cele- 
brated in  Boston  on  October  16,  1896.  In  De- 
cember. 1846,  Robinson  and  Liston,  in  England, 
operated  on  patients  rendered  insensible  by  the 
inhalation  of  ether  vapor.  This  substance  was 
extensively  used  for  a  year,  when  Sir  J.  Y.  Simp- 
son, of  Edinburgh,  discovered  the  auiiesthetic 
powers  of  chloroform  (see  Chloroform),  and 
introduced  the  use  of  it  into  his  own  department, 
midwifery.  Since  that  time,  chloroform  has  been 
the  anaesthetic  in  general  use  in  Europe ;  but 
ether  is  jireferred  in  America,  except  for  chil- 
dren and  parturient  women.  Chloroform  should 
not  be  given  where  there  is  weak  action  of  the 
heart  from  disease.  No  aniesthetic  should  be 
given  in  case  of  chronic  or  severe  kidney  disease. 
Consult  Probyn- Williams,  Guide  to  Administra- 
tion of  Anwsthetics    (New  Y'ork,   1901). 

ANAGAL'LIS.     See  Pimpernel. 

ANAGNI,  a-nii'nye.  An  episcopal  city  in 
South  Italy,  situated  on  a  hill  36  miles  southeast 
of  Rome  (Map:  Italy,  H  6).  Four  popes  were 
born  here,  and  four.  Gelasius  II.,  Adrian  IV., 
.Alexander  III.,  and  Boniface  VIII.,  sought  refuge 
here  from  persecution,  while  many  noble  Italian 


I 

I 


ANAGNI. 


493 


ANAITIS. 


families  still  have  homes  here.  The  cathedral 
of  Santa  Maria  dates  from  the  eleventh  century, 
ami  contains  many  interesting  antiquities.  Papal 
and  cither.  Vergil  speaks  of  the  ancient  Anag- 
nia,  at  one  time  the  capital  of  the  llernici,  as 
••wealthy  Anagnia."  Pop.,  1881,  8023;  1901, 
10,059. 

AN'AGRAM  (Gk.urd,  ana,  backward -)- }/jn(i<- 
'uri,  iiniinina,  writing).  The  transposition  of  the 
letters  of  a  word,  phrase,  or  short  sentence,  so  as 
to  form  a  new  word  or  sentence.  It  originally 
signified  a  simple  reversal  of  the  order  of  letters, 
but  has  long  borne  the  sense  in  which  it  is  now 
used.  The  Cabalists  attached  great  imjxirtance 
to  anagrams,  believing  in  some  relation  of  them 
to  the  character  or  destiny  of  the  persons  from 
whose  names  they  were  formed.  Plato  enter- 
tained a  similar  notion,  and  the  later  Platonists 
rivaled  the  Cabalists  in  ascribing  to  them  mys- 
terious virtues.  Although  now  classed  among 
follies,  or  at  best  among  ingenious  trifles,  ana- 
grams formerly  employed  the  most  serious  minds, 
and  some  of  the  Puritan  writers  even  commend- 
ed the  use  of  them.  Cotton  Mather,  in  his  elegy 
on  the  death  of  John  Wilson,  the  first  pastor  of 
Boston,  in  New  England,  mentions : 

His  care  to  guide  his  flock  and  feed  hie  jamhe 

By  worde,  works,  prayers,  psalms,  alms,  and  anagrams. 

The  best  anagi"ams  are  such  as  have,  in  the  new 
order  of  letters,  some  signification  appropriate 
to  that  from  which  they  are  formed.  It  was  a 
great  triumph  of  the  mediijeval  anagrammatist  to 
find  in  Pilate's  question,  "Quid  est  Veritas?" 
(What  is  truth?)  its  own  answer:  "Est  vir  qui 
adcst"  (It  is  the  man  who  is  here).  Anagi'ams, 
in  the  da^'s  of  their  popularity,  were  much  em- 
ployed, both  for  complimentary  and  for  satirical 
purposes;  and  a  little  straining  was  often  em- 
ployed in  the  omission,  addition,  or  alteration 
of  letters,  although,  of  cour.se,  the  merit  of  an 
anagram  depends  much  upon  its  accuracy. 

Isaac  D'lsraeli  {Curiosities  of  Literature,  Vol- 
ume 111.)  has  a  chapter  on  anagrams,  which,  as 
an  exercise  of  ingenuity,  he  ranks  far  above  acros- 
tics. Among  a  great  many  considered  by  him 
worthy  of  record,  are  the  following:  the  mis- 
tress of  Charles  IX.  of  France  was  named  ]Marie 
Touchet;  this  became  Te  charme  tout  ("I  charm 
every  one"').  The  flatterers  of  James  I.  of  Eng- 
land proved  his  right  to  the  British  monarchy, 
as  t)ie  descendant  of  the  mythical  King  Arthur, 
from  his  name  Charles  James  Stuart,  which  be- 
comes elaims  Arthur's  seat.  An  author,  in  dedi- 
cating a  book  to  the  same  monarch,  finds  that  in 
James  Stuart  he  has  a  just  master.  But  per- 
hajis  the  happiest  of  anagrams  was  produced 
on  a  singular  person  and  occasion.  Lady  Elea- 
nor Davies,  the  wife  of  the  celebrated  Sir  .Tohn 
Davies,  the  poet,  was  a  very  extraordinary  char- 
acter. She  was  the  Cassandra  of  her  age,  and 
several  of  her  predictions  induced  her  to  imagine 
that  she  was  a  prophetess.  As  her  prophecies 
in  the  troubled  times  of  Charles  I.  were  usually 
against  the  Government,  she  was  at  length 
brought  by  them  into  the  Court  of  High  Commis- 
sion. The  prophetess  was  not  a  little  mad,  and 
fancied  the  spirit  of  Daniel  was  in  her,  from  an 
anagram  she  had  formed  of  her  name, 

ELEiNon  Davies. 
Herenl,  O  Daniel! 

The  anagram  had  too  much  by  an  I,  and  too  little 
byan-s,-yet  Daniel  and  reveal  were  in  it, and  that 


was  sufficient  to  satisfy  her  inspirations.  The 
Court  attempted  to  dispossess  the  lady  of  the 
spirit,  while  the  bishops  were  in  vain  reason- 
ing the  point  with  her  out  of  the  Scriptures,  to 
no  purpose,  she  poising  text  against  text;  one 
of  tlie  Deans  of  the  Arches,  says  Heylin,  shot  her 
through  and  through  with  an  arrow  borrowed 
from  her  own  quiver ;  he  took  a  pen,  and 
at  last  hit  upon  this  excellent  anagram: 

Dame  Eleanor  Davies. 
Necer  so  mad  a  Ladiel 

The  happy  fancy  put  the  solemn  court 
into  laughter,  and  Cassandra  into  the  ut- 
most dejection  of  spirit.  Foiled  by  her  own 
weapons,  her  spirit  suddenly  forsook  her,  and 
either  she  never  afterward  ventured  on  proph- 
esying, or  the  anagram  perpetually  reminded 
her  hearers  of  her  state,  for  we  hear  no  more 
of  this  prophetess.  On  a  visit  to  King's  New- 
ton Hall,  in  Derbyshire,  Charles  II.  is  said  to 
have  written  on  one  of  the  windows,  Cras  ero 
lux  (To-morrow  I  shall  be  light),  which  is  the 
anagram  of  Carolus  Rex. 

Anagrams  have  now  gone  out  of  fashion,  or 
rather  have  been  relegated  to  the  puzzle  column 
of  the  magazine  for  the  household.  And  yet  even 
in  this  century,  writers  have  formed  their  pen- 
names  by  recombining  the  letters  of  their  real 
names.  For  example,  Bryan  Waller  Proctor  is 
still  called  Barry  Cornwall;  add  poet,  and  the 
anagram  becomes  complete.  Besides  D'lsraeli, 
cited  above,  consult  \Vheatley,  On  Anagrams 
(Hartford,  ISB'2). 

AN'AHEIM.  A  city  in  Orange  Co.,  Cal.,  27 
miles  southeast  of  Los  Angeles;  on  the  Santa  Ana 
River,  and  on  the  Southern  California  Railroad 
(Map:  California,  E  5).  It  is  in  a  fertile  val- 
ley, manufactures  beer,  wines,  and  brandies,  and 
has  fruit  canning  and  drying  interests,  and  a 
large  trade  in  oranges,  lemons,  walnuts,  and 
farm  and  dairy  products.  The  water  works  and 
electric  light  plant  are  owned  and  operated  by 
the  municipality.  Anaheim  was  settled  by  fifty 
German  families  in  1857  on  cooperative  princi- 
ples, and  in  1878  was  incorporated  as  a  town. 
An  interesting  account  of  its  early  history  is 
given  in  Nordhoff,  Communistic  Societies  of  the 
United  fitates  (New  York,  1875).  Pop.,  in  1890, 
1273;    in   1900,    1-15(). 

ANAHTJAC,  a'na-wiik'.  A  Mexican  term 
applied  to  the  great  central  plateau  of  Mexico, 
which  comprises  nearly  half  of  the  total  area  of 
the  Republic.  Roughly  speaking,  it  lies  between 
15°  and  31°  N.  lat.  and  long.  95°  and  110° 
W. ;  while  its  altitude  ranges  between  GOOO 
and  9000  feet.  The  plateau  is  the  granary  and 
stock-raising  centre  for  the  country,  whose  chief 
cities  are  mainly  situated  upon  it.  The  name 
Anahuac  was  the  Aztec  term  for  all  Mexico. 

ANAITIS,  a-nii'i-tis.  The  ancient  Persian 
goddess  of  waters,  whose  worship  was  widely 
spread  in  the  East  in  early  times.  The  Avesta 
(q.v.)  celebrates  her  praise  as  the  celestial 
stream  Ardvi  Sura  Anahita  "the  lofty,  mighty, 
and  undefiled."  and  describes  her  descent  from 
the  heavens,  as  well  as  the  worship  that  is  due 
her.  She  appears  as  .inahata  in  the  cuneiform 
inscriptions  of  the  Persian  king  Artaxerxes  11. 
( fourth  century  B.C. ) .  Her  name  as  'Avainc, 
Ana'itis,  is  in  Strabo,  Plutarch,  and  elsewhere,  and 
she  became  familiar  in  Greece  as  Venus  Anahita 
(' .'^(ppoSiTT)  'Avalrif,  .Aphrodite  AtiaUis) .  Con- 
sult: Windischmann,  Die  Persische  Anahita  oder 


ANAITIS. 


494 


ANALYSIS. 


Ana'itis  (Munich,  1S5G)  ;  Jackson,  Iranische  Re- 
ligion  (Strassburg,  11)00). 

AN'AKIM  (Heb.  children  of  Anak,  i.e.,  the 
long-necked,  a  giant).  Represented  in  the  Old 
Testament  as  a  race  of  giants  (Numbers  xiii  : 
33;  Deuteronomy  ii  :  10-12,  etc.),  one  of  whose 
strongholds  was  Kirjath-Arba  or  Hebron  in 
southern  Palestine  (Joshua  xiv:  12-1.5).  but 
who  were  spread  over  the  mountains  of  Judah 
and  Israel  in  Onal.  Anakim  is  an  indefinite 
designation  like  Rephai'm  for  miscellaneous 
groups  of  the  pre-Israelitish  inhabitants  of  Pal- 
estine. They  were  conquered  by  Joshua  together 
with  the  rest  of  the  Canaanitish  peoples  (Joshua 
xi  :  21),  though  according  to  verse  22  a  remnant 
survived  in  the  Philistine  cities  of  Gaza,  Gath, 
and  Ashdod. 

ANAL'CITE,  Analcime,  or  Cubicite  (Gk. 
dv,  an  priv.  -\-  a/.K?/,  alkS,  strength:  refers 
to  its  weak  electricity  when  heated  or  rubbed). 
A  zeolite  mineral,  consisting  of  sodium  and 
aluminum  silicate,  found  in  the  Bergen  tunnel. 
New  .Jersey,  in  the  Lake  Superior  copper  region, 
and  with  other  zeolites  in  Colorado.  It  crystal- 
lizes in  the  isometric  system,  frequently  occur- 
ring in  the  form  of  twenty-four-sided  crystals. 

AN'ALEM'MA  (Gk.  avd'Aii/ifia,  a  support, 
prop;  a  sun-dial).  A  name  given  to  an  ortho- 
gi'aphic  projection  of  a  sphere  upon  the  plane 
of  a  meridian,  the  point  of  sight  being  assumed 
at  an  infinite  distance  on  a  line  normal  to  the 
given  plane  and  passing  through  the  centre  of 
the  sphere.  The  term  was  also  applied  to  the 
sun-dial,  but  more  often  to  an  instrument  of 
brass  or  wood,  on  which  the  above  projection 
could  be  drawn,  and  which  was  used  for  astro- 
nomical purposes.  The  term  is  further  employed 
to  designate  a  scale,  often  seen  on  terrestrial 
globes,  showing  the  declination  of  the  sun  and 
the  equation  of  time  for  various  days  of  the 
year. 

AN'ALGE'SIA.     See  An.bsthesia. 

ANALOGISTS.     See  Philology. 

AN'AIjOGUE  (Gk.  ava,  ana,  according  to 
-|-  ?.6yo(,  logos,  due  ratio).  A  term  in  compara- 
tive anatomy.  Organs  are  nnalof/ous  to  one  an- 
other, or  are  analogues,  when  they  perform  the 
same  function,  though  they  may  be  altogether 
different  in  structure ;  as  the  wings  of  a  bird 
and  the  wings  of  an  insect.  Organs,  again,  are 
homologous,  or  homologues,  when  they  are  con- 
structed on  the  same  plan,  undergo  a  similar 
development,  and  bear  the  same  relative  posi- 
tion, and  this  independent  of  either  form  or 
function.  Thus,  the  arms  of  a  man  and  the 
wings  of  a  bird  are  homologues  of  one  another. 
See  Homology. 

ANAL'OGY  (Gk.  avaXoyia,  analogia,  equality 
of  ratios).  In  general,  an  agreement  or  corres- 
pondence in  certain  respects  between  things  in 
other  respects  different.  Euclid  employed  it  to 
signify  proportion,  or  the  equality  of  ratios,  and 
it  has  retained  this  sense  in  mathematics;  biit  it 
is  a  term  little  used  in  the  exact  sciences,  and 
of  very  frequent  use  in  every  other  department 
of  knowledge  and  in  human  affairs.  In  gi-animar 
we  speak  of  the  analogy  of  language;  i.e.,  the 
rorrespondence  of  a  word  or  phrase  with  the 
genius  of  the  language,  as  learne<l  from  the  man- 
ner in  which  its  words  and  phrases  are  ordi- 
narily formed.  Analogy,  in  fact,  supposes  a  rule 
inferred  from  observation  of  instances,  and  is  the 


application  of  this  rule  to  other  instances  not  pre- 
cisely, but  somewhat,  similar.  We  venture  upon 
this  application  with  more  or  less  confidence, 
according  to  the  degree  of  ascertained  similarity, 
and  according  to  the  extent  of  observation  from 
which  our  knowledge  of  the  rule  has  been  de- 
rived. John  Stuart  Mill,  in  his  Logic,  states 
the  formula  of  analogy  in  this  way:  "Two 
things  resemble  each  other  in  one  or  more  re- 
spects; a  certain  proposition  is  true  of  the  one, 
therefore  it  is  true  of  the  other."  What  makes 
analogical  reasoning  successful  at  all  is  the  fact 
that  superficial  resemblances  often  point  to  fun- 
damental identity  in  type.  Analogical  reasoning 
is  the  assumption  of  a  deeper  significance  in 
similarities  than  our  knowledge  of  the  facts 
warrants.  When  this  assumption  is  justified  by 
the  event,  the  analogy  has  been  fruitfully  sug- 
gestive ;  when  it  is  not,  the  analogy  has  been 
misleading.  Even  when  analogy  leads  to  dis- 
covery, it  does  this  merely  by  suggestiveness ; 
the  final  establishment  of  the  truth  analogically 
adumbrated  is  never  accomplished  by  analogy, 
but  by  some  stricter  logical  method.  Thus,  rea- 
soning from  analogy  indeed  warrants  only  prob- 
able conclusions ;  but  the  probability  may  be- 
come of  a  very  high  degree,  and  in  the  affairs 
of  life  we  must  often  act  upon  conclusions  thus 
attained.  Reasoning  from  analogy,  however,  re- 
quires much  caution  in  the  reasoner.  Yet  even 
when  its  conclusions  are  very  uncertain,  they 
often  serve  to  guide  inquiry  and  lead  to  dis- 
covery. Many  of  the  most  brilliant  discoveries 
recently  made  in  natural  science  were  the  result 
of  investigations  thus  directed.  In  law,  reason- 
ing from  analogy  must  often,  to  a  certain  extent, 
be  admitted  in  the  application  of  statutes  to 
particular  cases.  Upon  similar  reasoning,  the 
jiractice  of  medicine  very  much  depends.  In 
literary  criticism,  it  is  also  often  necessary  for 
purposes  of  interpretation,  the  sense  of  the  auth- 
or in  a  passage  somewhat  obscure  being  in  some 
measure  determined  according  to  passages  in 
which  he  has  expressed  himself  more  clearly. 
The  application  of  this  rule  to  the  interpretation 
of  Scripture  is  a  point  of  difference  between 
Protestants  and  Catholics,  the  latter  insisting 
upon  the  interpretation  of  diflicult  passages  by 
ecclesiastical  tradition  and  authority.  Prot- 
estant theologians  have  very  generally  employed, 
with  reference  to  this  rule  of  interpretation,  the 
phrase  "analogy  of  faith,"  deriving  it  from 
Romans  xii.  Hi;  but  the  meaning  of  the  ex- 
pression in  that  verse  is  disputed.  ( See  Phonet- 
ic Laws.)  The  opposite  of  analogy  is  anomaly 
(Gk.  irregularity)  ;  and  this  term  is  used  not 
only  in  grammar,  but  with  reference  to  objects 
of  natural  history  which  in  any  respect  are  ex- 
ceptions to  the  ordinary  rule  of  their  class  or 
kind.  In  physiology,  analogy  is  similarity  of 
function  between  organs  which  are  structurally 
or  morphologically  different;  e.g.,  the  tail  of 
a  fish  and  that  of  a  whale  are  analogous  organs; 
in  this  usage  analogy  is  opposed  to  homology, 
which  refers  to  the  structural  similarity  of  or- 
gans that  may  even  perform  different  functions; 
e.g..  the  wing  of  a  bird  and  the  arms  of  a  man. 

ANAL'YSIS  (Gk.  am/vaiq.  a  resolution  into 
parts,  from  uva,  ana,  up  -|-  2veir,  Igrin.  to 
loosen).  A  term  frequently  employed  in  general 
philosophy  and  in  the  sciences,  as  the  opposite 
of  the  term  synthesis.  In  philosophy  the  terra 
analysis  is  generally  applied  to  the  mental  act 
of  distinguishing  within  a  given  object  its  vari- 


ANALYSIS. 


495 


ANALYSIS. 


cus  eharactpristios ;  thus,  the  process  by  \vhicli 
we  recognize  tliat  an  apple  is  a  tiling  whose 
attributes  are  sweetness,  roundness,  rosiness, 
etc.,  is  said  to  be  a  process  of  analysis.  On 
the  contrary,  the  process  by  which  we  recognize 
that  various  properties  together  form  the  char- 
acteristics of  a  single  object,  is  termed  synthe- 
sis; thus  the  consolidation,  in  our  mind,  of  the 
several  characteristics  of  an  apple  into  a  single 
concept,  is  a  synthesis.  The  two  processes  are 
coinplementar}'  aspects  of  the  same  mental  act. 
It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  analJ^sis  does  not 
really  destroy  the  unitj-  of  a  given  object;  it 
merely  recognizes  various  distinctions  within 
that  unity.  Nor  does  synthesis  fuse  into  indis- 
tinguisliableness  the  characteristics  it  starts 
with:  it  correlates  them  into  a  unity,  but  in  that 
unity  the  identity  of  each  part  is  full}'  preserved. 

In  mathematics  the  term  analysis  is  employed, 
on  the  one  hand,  to  denote  a  potent  method  of 
discovery  and  demonstration:  on  the  other  hand, 
and  more  or  less  inaptly,  to  designate  collectively 
several  important  branches  of  modern  mathe- 
matics. 

The  method  said  to  be  analytic  consists  in 
resolving  a  given  relation  into  its  mathematical 
elements.  Analysis  in  this  sense  of  the  term  is 
sometimes  applied  to  the  solution  of  geometric 
questions.  It  consists  in  assuming  a  certain 
relation  to  be  the  true  answer  to  the  question, 
and  resolving  that  relation  into  simple  truths. 
Euclid  {Elements,  Book  XIII.),  formulates  this 
idea  as  follows:  "Analysis  is  the  obtaining  of 
the  thing  sought  by  assuming  it  and  so  reason- 
ing up  to  an  admitted  truth."  For  example, 
let  the  question  be,  In  what  ratio  does  the  alti- 
tude of   an   isosceles   triangle    divide  its    base? 


The  simple  answer  that  siiggests  itself  through 
the  inspection  of  a  figure  is,  that  the  base  is 
bisected.  Assume  this  to  be  so.  In  that  case 
the  two  triangles  into  which  the  altitude  divides 
the  given  triangle  are  identically  equal,  because 
their  sides  are  respectively  equal ;  and  therefore 
the  two  angles  made  by  the  altitude  and  the 
base  are  also  c(]ual.  But  the  latter  conclusion 
is  an  evident  truth,  if  we  remember  that  the 
altitude  of  a  triangle  is  a  line  perpendicular  to 
its  base.  We  therefore  infer  that  our  assump- 
tion was  correct  and  that  the  base  is  really 
bisected.  Furthermore,  by  reversing  the  above 
piocess  we  can  now  demonstrate  our  assumed 
truth  synthetically;  i.e.,  reconstruct  it  from  the 
simple,  admitted  truths,  to  which  the  analysis 
has  led. 

_  Now,  although  the  demonstrations  of  geomet- 
ric theorems  and  perhaps  most  of  the  theorems 
them.selves,  were  originally  discovered  in  the 
manner  just  indicated,  bj-  analysis,  most  of  the 
ordinary  text-book  demonstrations  are  undoubt- 
edly syntheses,  for  they  gradually  lead  from  the 
mathematical  elements — the  axioms — to  more  or 


less  complex  trutlis.  Geometry  is  therefore 
spoken  of  as  a  synthetic  science.  However,  the 
rcdiictio  ad  uhsiin'Kin,  which  is  not  infrequently 
employed,  is  a  purely  analytical  method,  differ- 
ing only  in  form  from  the  type  of  analysis  con- 
sidered above.  The  suggested  relation  is,  name- 
ly, assumed  to  be  not  true,  but  false,  and  this 
is  shown  to  lead  to  absurd  conclusions — the  in- 
ference being  that  the  suggested  relation  is  nec- 
essarily true. 

In  designating  a  part  of  mathematical  science, 
the  term  analysis  is  applied,  on  the  one  hand, 
to  the  theory  of  functions  (including  series, 
logarithms,  curves,  etc.),  on  the  other  hand, 
to  the  mathematics  of  infinite  quantities,  com- 
prising the  differential  calculus,  the  integral 
calculus,  and  the  calculus  of  variations.  Alge- 
bra, although  usually  limited  to  equations,  in- 
cludes in  the  wider  sense  of  its  name  the 
branches  just  enumerated.  Indeed,  it  is  because 
of  their  relation  to  algebra  that  these  branches 
have  lieen  united  under  the  general  term  of  math- 
ematical analysis.  Algebra  itself,  however,  is 
far  from  being  uniformly  analytical,  and  many 
an  instance  of  pure  synthesis  may  be  found  in 
any  of  the  branches  of  applied  algebra,  say  in 
analytical  geometry.  In  general,  there  is  no 
branch  of  human  thought  in  which  the  method 
of  analysis,  or  that  of  synthesis,  is  used  exclu- 
sively. The  complete  abolition  of  either  of  these 
methods  would  involve  not  a  small  diminution 
in  our  power  of  establishing  interesting  truths. 

In  discussions  concerning  the  methods  of 
science,  the  processes  of  analysis  and  synthesis 
are  often  erroneously  identified  with  those  of 
induction  and  deduction.  The  reason  of  this  lies 
mainly  in  the  fact  that  there  has  been  consider- 
able disagi'eement  as  to  the  proper  definition 
of  the  terms  in  question.  The  distinction  be- 
tween the  t\io  pairs  of  antithetic  terms  becomes 
perfectly  clear,  however,  if  we  define  analysis 
as  leading  from  the  compound  to  the  ele- 
mentary, and  synthesis  as  leading  from  the 
elementary  to  the  compound;  induction  as  lead- 
ing from  the  particular  to  the  general,  and 
deduction  as  leading  from  the  general  to  the 
particular.  As  thus  defined,  analysis,  as  well 
as  synthesis,  may  be  coincident,  though  not 
identical,  with  either  induction  or  deduction. 
Thus,  to  turn  for  an  illustration  again  to  math- 
enuitics,  the  ordinary  demonstration  of  a  geo- 
metric theorem  is .  a  deduction ;  for  what  can  be 
more  general  in  character  than  the  axiomatic 
truths  from  which  the  theorem  is  deduced?  But 
the  demonstration  is  also  a  synthesis;  for  what 
can  be  more  elementary  than  those  axioms  which 
are  used  in  reasoning  up  to  the  theorem?  On 
the  other  hand.  Newton's  binomial  theorem,  as 
often  demonstrated  in  text-books  of  algebra,  pre- 
sents an  instance  of  synthesis  coincident  with 
induction.  The  general  relation  expressed  by 
that  theorem  is  induced  by  the  examination  of  a 
number  of  particular  instances.  But  the  demon- 
stration is  also  a  true  synthesis,  for  it  combines 
a  number  of  relations  into  one. 

More  or  less  extensive  discussions  of  the  ana- 
lytical processes  of  philosophy  may  be  found  in 
tlie  following  woiks:  R.  H.  Lotze.  Logic.  Eng- 
lish translation  (Oxford.  1888):  F.  H.' Bradley, 
Principles  of  Logic  (London,  188.3)  ;  L.  T.  Hob- 
house,  Tlieorij  of  Knowledge  (London,  1896), 
and  Bosanquet,  Logic  (O.xfoi'd,  18S8).  See  also 
articles.  Analytic  Judgment;  Judgment; 
Knowledge,  Theory  of,  and  Logic. 


ANALYSIS. 


496 


ANALYSIS. 


ANALYSIS,  Chemical.  The  art  of  deter- 
mining tlie  chemical  composition  of  substances. 
The  derivation  of  the  word  analysis  (see  preced- 
ing article)  suggests  that  chemical  analysis 
necessarih'  requires  the  breaking  up  of  substances 
into  their  constituent  parts.  In  practice  the 
term  is  used  in  a  wider  sense,  and  is  often  ap- 
plied to  methods  of  testing  that  involve  no 
processes  of  separation.  In  most  eases,  however, 
one  or  the  other  constituent  is  actually  isolated, 
or  some  constituents  of  the  original  substance, 
which  would  interfere  with  the  examination,  are 
actually  removed. 

An  analyst  may  restrict  himself  to  merely  de- 
termining what  are  the  constituents  of  the  sub- 
stance submitted  to  him;  in  that  case  the  an- 
alysis is  qualitative.  Or  he  may  also  determine 
the  relative  amounts  of  some  or  all  of  the  con- 
stituents; then  the  analysis  becomes  quantita- 
tive. In  some  eases  he  can  only  state  what  ele- 
ments are  present,  and  in  what  quantities  they 
enter  into  the  composition  of  the  given  substance. 
The  analysis  is  then  said  to  be  ultimate.  In 
most  cases,  however,  he  further  tries  to  deter- 
mine in  what  combinations  and  in  what  condi- 
tions in  respect  to  their  capacity  of  forming 
combinations  the  elements  exist  in  the  given  sub- 
stance; and  then  the  analysis  is  termed  proxi- 
mate. The  ultimate  analysis  of  organic  sub- 
stances is  of  great  importance,  and  has  been 
brought  to  high  perfection.  (See  Cakbon  Com- 
pounds.) On  the  other  hand,  the  proximate 
analj'sis  of  organic  substances  is  often  a  task 
beyond  the  power  of  analytical  chemistry.  At- 
tempts, however,  have  been  made  to  treat  this 
subject,  too,  in  a  systematic  manner. 

Pr^LIMINARY      EXAJIINATION       OF       INORGANIC 

SuBSTA.xcES.  When  a  substance  is  submitted  for 
qualitative  analysis,  the  chemist  first  notes  its 
color  and  form — the  latter  with  the  aid  of  a 
simple  magnifying  glass.  The  substance  is  then 
usually  sulijected  to  an  examination  by  means  of 
the  blowpipe  (q.v. )  or  the  non-luminous  gas- 
flame.  (See  Flame.)  Blowpipe  analysis  has  been 
elaborated  into  a  systematic  scheme  for  the  de- 
tection of  all  the  important  metallic  and  of  some 
acidic  radicals,  and  has  proved  of-  gi'eat  value, 
especially  to  the  mineralogist.  The  chemist,  as 
a  rule,  makes  only  a  brief  examination  to  deter- 
mine the  general  nature  of  the  substance,  and 
to  answer  such  questions  as  whether  water,  or- 
ganic matter,  silicates,  complex  cyanides,  large 
quantities  of  an  easily  reducible  metal,  sulphur 
and  arsenic,  are  or  are  not  present,  such  con- 
stituents often  rendering  necessary  a  modification 
of  the  usual  scheme  of  systematic  analysis. 
Heating  a  small  portion  of  the  substance  in  a 
closed  glass  tube  reveals  the  presence  of  most 
kinds  of  organic  matter  by  the  smell  and  separa- 
tion of  carbon,  and  the  presence  of  water  by  the 
drops  which  condense  in  the  cooler  part  of  the 
tube.  Heating  on  charcoal  with  a  reducing  flame, 
sometimes  with  the  aid  of  fluxes,  shows  the  pres- 
ence of  metals  that  give  volatile  oxides,  the  latter 
forming  characteristic  coats  on  the  charcoal; 
and  the  same  test  makes  it  possible  to  detect 
any  important  quantity  of  an  easily  reducible 
metal,  metals  in  the  free  state  being  readily 
identified  l)y  their  lustre  and  physical  properties. 
The  behavior  of  the  substance  when  fused  with  a 
bead  of  sodium  metaphosphate  or  of  sodium  car- 
bonate shows  whether  a  silicate  or  much  silica 
is  present,  etc.  Often  additional  special  tests  are 
made.    For  example,  gently  warming  a  small  por- 


tion of  the  substance  with  concentrated  sulphuric 
acid  may  serve  to  detect  volatile  acidic  sub- 
stances, such  as  sulphurous  acid  and  nitrous  acid, 
which  might  be  lost  in  the  regular  processes  or 
appear  in  another  form. 

If  the  substance  submitted  for  analysis  is  a 
liquid,  its  color  and  odor  are  noted,  its  reaction 
toward  litmus  is  ascertained,  a  portion  is  evapo- 
rated to  dryness,  and  the  solid  residue,  if  there 
is  any,  is  subjected  to  the  preliminary  examina- 
tion as  in  the  case  of  an}'  other  solid.' 

Qu.\i.iT.\TivE  Inorganic  Analysis.  Before  a 
systematic  qualitative  analysis  of  a  solid  sub- 
stance can  be  undertaken,  the  substance  must  be 
obtained  in  solution.  Sometimes  substances  sub- 
mitted for  analysis  are  found  to  be  directly  sol- 
uble in  water.  In  most  cases,  however,  substances 
cannot  be  dissolved  unless  transformed  chemi- 
cally. Since  most  chlorides  and  most  inorganic 
acids  are  soluble  in  water,  the  desired  transfor- 
mation can  usually  be  efl'ected  by  treating  the 
finely  powdered  substances  with  aqueous  hydro- 
chloric acid,  which  converts  the  metals  or  metal- 
lic oxides  present  into  chlorides,  while  the  acids 
originally  combined  in  the  substance  aie  set  free. 
In  ease  metals  (such  as  silver)  are  present,  which 
form  insoluble  chlorides,  or  in  case  non-metals 
(such  as  sulphur  or  arsenic)  are  present,  or  in 
case  hydrochloiic  acid  does  not  attack  the  sub- 
stance, nitric  acid  is  used.  By  this  the  metallic 
compounds  present  in  tlie  substance  are  trans- 
formed into  nitrates,  and  all  normal  nitrates 
are  soluble  in  water;  on  the  other  hand,  the  non- 
metals  present  are  mostly  changed  into  the  cor- 
responding oxygen  acids,  which  are  likewise 
soluble  in  water — sulphur,  for  instance,  being 
transformed  into  sulphuric  acid.  Many  impor- 
tant and  familiar  substances,  however,  resist 
the  action  of  both  of  these  acids.  A  few,  as  gold 
and  platinum,  will  dissolve,  forming  soluble  com- 
pounds in  a  mixture  of  hydrochloric  and  nitric 
acids,  the  so-called  aqua  regia,  which,  on  warm- 
ing, gives  off  free  chlorine.  But  other  substances, 
such  as  glass,  porcelain,  and  many  natural 
silicates,  resist  the  action  of  acids  almost  en- 
tirely. Such  substances  are  usually  broken  up 
by  melting  them  with  carbonates  of  the  alkali 
metals  and  potassium  nitrate,  or  by  treatment 
with  hydrofluoric  acid.  Subsequent  treatment 
with  water  and  hydrochloric  acid  then  usually 
yields  the  required  solutions. 

Let  us  suppose  that  we  have  obtained  a  clear 
solution  in  nitric  acid,  which  may  contain  all 
the  more  familiar  metals  and  is  free  from  or- 
ganic matter.  To  this  solution  we  add  hydro- 
chloric acid;  if  we  obtain  a  white  solid  substance, 
which  does  not  dissolve  in  a  moderate  excess  of 
acid,  we  know  we  must  have  present  some  or  all 
of  the  three  metals,  lead,  silver,  or  mercury  in 
the  univalent  form,  since,  of  all  the  more  famil- 
iar metals,  only  these  three  form  insoluble, 
or  nearly  insoluble,  chlorides.  The  solid  precipitate 
is  separated  from  the  liquid  by  filtration,  and  we 
have  then  on  the  filter  a  solid  which  niaj'  con- 
sist of  any  or  all  of  the  chlorides  of  lead,  silver, 
and  univalent  mercury.  A  study  of  the  proper- 
ties of  these  chlorides  shows  that  lead  chloride 
is  freely  soluble  in  hot  water,  while  the  other 
two  are  not.  Therefore,  if  the  mass  is  treated 
with  hot  water,  the  lead  chloride,  if  present,  will 
dissolve,  and  can  be  filtered  off  while  the  other 
two  remain  behind.  The  liquid  is  then  examined 
for  lead,  which  is  easily  done,  since  all  metals 
which   could   interfere   with  the  test  have  been 


ANALYSIS. 


497 


ANALYSIS. 


separated.  Furtlier,  since  silver  ehloride  is 
known  to  be  easily  soluble  in  aqueous  ammonia, 
while  nierturous  chloride  is  converted  into  a 
black,  insoluble  mass  containing  free  mercury, 
one  might  assume  that  treatment  of  the  two 
chlorides  witli  ammonia  solution  would  aflfect 
an  easy  separation  of  silver  chloride  from  mer- 
curons  chloride.  This  case,  however,  well  illus- 
trates one  of  the  difficulties  of  analytical  work. 
If  the  amount  of  mercurous  chloride  is  large  in 
])roportion  to  the  amount  of  silver  chloride,  the 
metallic  mercury  set  free  b_y  the  action  of  am- 
monia causes  the  formation  of  metallic  silver, 
which  is  practically  insoluble  in  ammonia.  If, 
therefore,  ammonia  has  failed  to  extract  any- 
thing from  the  precipitate  in  question,  we  can- 
not conclude  that  silver  is  absent.  We  must, 
tlien,  treat  the  black  mass  with  a  mixture  of 
nitric  and  hydrochloric  acids,  which  dissolves  the 
black  substance  containing  mercury;  while  the 
silver,  if  at  all  present  in  the  original  substance, 
remains  behind,  again  in  the  form  of  silver  chlo- 
ride, but  this  time  unmixed  with  anything  else. 
Such  cases  frequently  occur.  So  often  is  the  be- 
havior of  a  substance  toward  a  reagent  modified 
by  the  presence  of  other  substances,  that  no 
scheme  of  analysis  worked  out  at  the  writing 
table  possesses  any  value  until  thoroughly  tested 
in  the  laboratory. 

The  filtrate  obtained  on  precipitating  out  the 
three  metals  just  spoken  of  is  treated  with  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen.  This  precipitates  a  second 
group  of  metals,  which  are  separated  from  one 
another  by  methods  analogous  to  those  employed 
for  tlie  first  group.  The  filtrate  obtained  on  pre- 
cipitating out  the  metals  of  the  second  group 
is  usually  treated  with  ammonium  sulphide,  and 
the  filtrate  from  the  anuuonium  sulphide  group 
with  ammonium  carbonate.  Thus  the  metals 
that  may  be  present  in  the  original  substance 
are  separated  into  several  groups,  and  then 
special  .methods  are  employed  to  separate  and 
test  for  the  several  metals  composing  each  group. 

The  acid  radicals  are  tested  for  in  a  somewhat 
similar  manner,  but  usually  less  systematically; 
because  by  the  time  all  the  metals  present  have 
been  identified,  the  analyst  usuallj'  is  able  to  ex- 
clude the  possibility  of  the  presence  of  a  large 
number  of  acids. 

The  spectroscope  (q.v. )  is  usually  applied  to 
identify  the  metals  potassium  and  lithium,  and 
is  quite  indispensable  when  substances  are  to  be 
examined  to  ascertain  whether  they  are  in  the 
purest  condition  possible,  since  the  instrument  is 
'  capable  of  revealing  the  presence  of  the  merest 
traces  of  substances.     See  SpECTRrM  Analysis. 

The  system  of  analysis  usually  followed  may 
be  carried  out  mechanically  and  almost  without 
intelligence,  if  the  substance  examined  contains 
only  the  more  familiar  metals  and  acids,  and 
those  in  considerable  quantities.  In  fact,  quali- 
tative analysis  is  criticised  by  teachers  on  this 
account,  wlien  used  as  a  discipline,  or  as  a  means 
of  acquiring  a  scientific  knowledge  of  chemistry. 
The  ordinary  scheme,  however,  overlooks  even 
some  elements  of  common  occurrence,  as  tita- 
nium ;  and  when  the  chemist  has  to  take  into 
consideration  small  amounts  and  the  less  famil- 
iar elements,  all  his  chemical  knowledge  and 
acuteness  find  full  field  for  exercise. 

It  may  be  seen  from  the  above  that  the  chem- 
ist relies  on  two  sets  of  properties  for  the  identi- 
fication of  a  substance.  First,  those  that  belong 
to   the   substance    itself   under   ordinary   condi- 


tions; for  example,  the  yellow  color  and  the 
lightness  of  sulphur.  Such  properties  may  be 
called  properties  of  condition.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  sulphur  is  heated  sufficiently  without 
access  of  air,  it  assumes  the  form  of  a  red  vapor ; 
if  heated  with  access  of  air,  it  forms  with  the 
oxygen  of  the  air  a  colorless  gas  possessing  a 
characteristic  odor.  The  first  of  these  changes 
is  physical;  the  second,  chemical.  Physical  or 
chemical  changes  uuiy  thus  serve  to  Ijring  out 
certain  properties  that  are  just  as  characteristic 
of  the  substance  as  the  properties  of  condition. 
Such  properties  may  be  called  jiroperties  of  re- 
action. They  are  far  more  niunerous  than  prop- 
erties of  condition,  and  far  more  useful  to 
the  analyst.  In  the  case  of  sulphur,  for  instance, 
the  properties  of  condition  are  only  apparent 
when  the  stil]ihur  is  in  a  nearly  pure  form;  but 
the  two  properties  of  reaction  just  mentioned  as 
an  example  enable  us  to  identify  sulphur  even 
when  mixed  with  so  much  foreign  matter  that 
the  characteristic  color  and  lightness  are  quite 
masked. 

Quantitative  Analysis.  Before  beginning  a 
quantitative  analysis  the  chemist  must  knowj  in 
part  at  least,  the  qualitative  composition  of  the 
substance  to  be  analyzed.  This  knowledge  may 
be  obtained  by  a  special  qualitative  analysis,  or, 
more  frequently,  from  the  results  of  numerous 
analyses  of  similar  substances. 

Methods  of  quantitative  analysis  which  involve 
weighing  (see  B.vlance)  are  termed  gravimetric. 
Methods  that  involve  measuring  the  volumes  of 
solutions  are  termed  volumetric.  Finally,  meth- 
ods involving  the  decomposition  of  substances 
by  means  of  an  electric  current  are  termed  clec- 
trolyiic. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  methods  of  gravi- 
metric analysis,  we  may  take  the  analysis  of  an 
alloy  of  silver  and  copper,  such  as  is"  used  for 
silver  coins  in  the  United  States.  If  high-class 
w-eights  and  a  balance  are  at  the  disposal  of  the 
analyst,  not  more  than  half  a  gram  (less  than 
one-fourth  of  a  dime)  is  the  most  suitable  weight 
to  be  taken  of  the  alloy.  If  the  weights  or  the 
balance  is  inferior,  a  larger  amount  must  be 
taken,  so  that  the  errors  of  weighing  may  remain 
proportionately  small.  The  alloy  is  dissolved  in 
nitric  acid,  the  insoluble  residue  (carbon  and 
tin  oxide)  filtered  oft'  and  weighed,  and  the  fil- 
trate is  treated  with  hydrochloric  acid  to  pre- 
cipitate silver  chloride,  just  as  in  qualitative 
work.  In  quantitative  work,  however,  certain 
precautions  nuist  be  taken  in  carrying  out  this 
simple  operation.  Thus,  only  a  slight  excess  of 
hydrochloric  acid  must  be  added,  since  silver 
chloride  is  somewhat  soluble  in  a  large  excess  of 
that  acid ;  the  liquid  must  be  vigorously  stirred 
and  warmed  to  cause  the  precipitate  to  assume 
a  form  in  which  it  can  be  easily  filtered  and 
washed,  etc.  The  silver  chloride  is  then  filtered 
ofl',  dried,  and  weighed,  proper  corrections  being 
made  for  the  weight  of  the  ash  of  the  filter.  The 
amount  of  silver  in  the  alloy  is  then  readily  cal- 
culated from  the  weight  of  silver  chloride  yi(?lded. 
The  filtrate  from  the  silver  chloride  contains 
copper  and  usually  a  small  amount  of  lead.  The 
exact  amount  of  copper  contained  in  this  filtrate 
may  be  best  determined  by  electrolysis.  For  this 
purpose  the  filtrate  is  first  evaporated  to  dryness, 
in  order  to  get  rid  of  the  hydrochloric  acid;  the 
residue  is  taken  up  with  dilute  nitric  acid,  and 
the  solution  thus  obtained  is  subjected  to  the 
action  of  an  electric  current  passing  between  two 


ANALYSIS. 


498 


ANALYSIS. 


carefully  weighed  platinum  terminals  immersed 
in  the  iiijuid.  Tlie  copper  is  thus  deposited  in 
the  metallic  state  on  the  electro-negative  termi- 
nal, while  the  lead  is  deposited  in  the  form  of 
lead  dioxide  on  the  terminal  connected  with  the 
positive  pole.  The  gain  in  weight  of  the  ter- 
minals gives  directly  the  weight  of  copper  and 
permits  the  calcuhxtion  of  the  weight  of  the  lead. 

Another  metliod,  involving  the  fusion  of  sub- 
stances by  heat,  and  usually  termed  the  "fire 
method,"  is  applied  chiellj'  to  the  determination 
of  metals  in  ores,  and  is  especially  useful  in  the 
case  of  gold  and  silver  ores.  Thus,  the  amount  of 
silver  in  an  ore  free  from  gold  may  be  easily 
and  quickly  found  by  heating  a  weighed  portion 
of  the  ore  with  metallic  lead  and  a  little  fused 
borax  in  an  oxidizing  atmosphere.  The  lead 
melts,  the  ore  floats  on  the  surface,  sulphur  and 
arsenic  are  volatilized  as  oxides,  the  lead  is 
partly  oxidized,  and  the  oxide  of  lead  forms  a 
liquid  slag  with  most  of  the  constituents  of  the 
ore.  At  the  end  of  the  operation  a  lead  button 
is  obtained,  containing  the  silver.  This  button  is 
placed  on  a  porous  support  made  of  bone-dust 
(calcium  phosphfite),  and  again  heated  in  an 
oxidizing  atmosphere.  The  lead  melts  and  oxi- 
dizes, part  of  the  oxide  passes  off  as  gas  and 
part  sinks  into  the  porous  support,  while  the  sil- 
ver remains  behind  as  a  metallic  button,  which 
can  be  weighed.  If  gold  is  present,  it  is  found 
and  weighed  with  the  silver,  and  then  separated 
by  a  wet  process. 

Although  gravimetric  methods  are  the  more 
generally  applicable,  volumetric  methods  are 
much  more  commonly  used  in  the  everyday  work 
of  the  technical  analytical  chemist.  Hundreds  of 
volumetric  determinations  are  made  daily  in  all 
great  manufacturing  centres  for  ever}'  one  gravi- 
metric determination.  As  an  illustration  of  volu- 
metric analysis,  we  may  take  a  method  used  for 
the  determination  of  iron  in  iron  ores,  and  ap- 
plicable to  all  iron  ores  found  in  the  United 
States,  except  those  containing  titanium.  The 
process  depends  on  the  fact  that  when  a  solution 
of  potassium  permanganate  is  added  to  an  acid 
solution  of  iron  in  the  ferrous  state,  the  iron  is 
changed  into  the  ferric  state,  while  the  strongly 
colored  permanganate  is  transformed  into  an  al- 
most colorless  manganous  salt,  the  volume  of 
potassium  permanganate  solution  thus  decolor- 
ized being  proportional  to  the  amount  of  ferrous 
iron  present  in  the  acid  solution.  This  fact  is 
made  iise  of  by  the  analyst  in  the  following  man- 
ner :  He  first  determines  the  maximum  volume  of 
the  given  permanganate  solution  which  can  be 
completely  deeoloiized  by  a  known  amount  of 
iron.  For  this  purpose,  say,  300  milligiams  of 
pure  iron  are  dissolved  in  hydrochloric  acid  and 
some  metallic  zinc  is  added  in  order  to  make 
certain  that  all  the  iron  is  present  as  ferrous 
chloride,  FeCL  (and  not  as  ferric  chloride,  FeClj) . 
The  given  permanganate  solution  is  then  slowly 
added  from  a  burette  to  the  solution  of  iron 
until  the  disappearance  of  the  color  has  ceased 
to  take  ])lace.  The  burette  then  shows  what  vol- 
ume of  the  permanganate  solution  can  be  decol- 
orized by  300  milligrams  of  iron  dissolved  as  a 
ferrous  salt.  Suppose  the  volume  of  permanga- 
nate solution  thus  measured  is  40  cubic  centi- 
meters. Then  it  is  cvidenc  that  one  cubic  centi- 
meter of  the  solution  could  be  decolorized  by 
7. .5  milligrams  of  iron.  A  weighed  portion  of  the 
ore  to  be  examined,  say,  500  milligrams  of  it.  is 
now  treated  in  exactly  the  same  manner  as  were 


the  300  milligrams  of  iron;  i.e.,  the  ore  is  dis- 
solved in  hydrochloric  acid,  its  iron  is  carefully 
reduced  to  the  ferrous  state,  and  the  perman- 
ganate solution  is  slowly  added  from  the  burette 
until  no  more  can  be  decolorized.  Suppose  the 
volume  of  the  permanganate  solution  decolorized 
this  time  is  41  cubic  centimeters.  Then,  since 
7.5  milligrams  of  iron  are  required  to  decolorize 
every  cubic  centimeter  of  the  permanganate  solu- 
tion, it  is  evident  that  the  500  milligrams  of  the 
ore  must  contain  307.5  (i.e.,  7.5X41)  milli- 
grams of  iron,  and  hence  the  ore  is  reported  to 
contain  01.5   per  cent,  of  iron. 

Special  JlETiions  of  Analysis.  Any  physical 
property'  which  depends  on  the  amount  of  sub- 
stance present,  and  is  capable  of  measurement, 
may  be  used  for  quantitative  determinations. 
Tints,  the  specific  gravity  of  liquids,  which  can  be 
readily  determined  with  great  accuracy,  is  ex- 
tensively used  to  determine  the  amount  of  tlie 
dissolved  substance  in  pure  or  nearly  pure  solu- 
tions. In  this  manner  the  amotmt  of  alcohol, 
potassium  or  sodium  hydro-xide,  common  salt, 
and,  indeed,  of  all  the  more  familiar  salts  con- 
tained in  aqueous  soltitions  may  be  determined 
more  readily  than  in  anj-  other  way.  For 
determinations  of  this  kind,  when  no  high  degree 
of  accuracy  is  required,  the  hydrometer  is  ex- 
tensively used  in  chemical  laboratories.  (See 
Hydrometer,  and  Alcoholometry.  )  Among  other 
properties  used  maj-  be  mentioned  the  coefficient 
of  refraction,  the  optical  rotatory  power — much 
used  in  determining  the  strength  of  sugar  solu- 
tions (see  SuG.\R),  the  intensity  of  the  color  or 
the  degree  of  ojiacity  of  solutions  and  of  liquids 
containing  solids  in  suspension,  the  electrical 
conductivity,  the  boiling  point  of  solutions,  the 
melting  point  of  solids,  etc. 

Analysis  of  Gases.  The  analysis  of  gases 
differs  from  that  of  solids  and  liquids  in  that  it 
is  more  easy  to  measure  than  to  weigh  gases, 
and  hence  the  results  are  usually  given  in  per- 
centages by  volume.  For  many  gases  reagents  are 
known  which  absorb  tlie  gas  readily  and  com- 
pletely. Thus,  a  mixture  of  carbon  dioxide,  ethy- 
lene, oxygen,  carbon  monoxide,  and  nitrogen  may 
be  analyzed  by  bringing  a  measured  volume  into 
contact  with  caustic  potash  (which  alisorbs  the 
carbon  dioxide),  then  with  fuming  sulphuric  acid 
(which  absorbs  the  ethylene),  then  with  an  al- 
kaline solution  of  pyrogallol  (which  absorbs  the 
oxygen ) ,  then  w-ith  a  solution  of  cuprous 
chloride  (which  absorbs  the  carbon  monoxide), 
and  noting  the  contraction  caused  by  each  treat- 
ment. The  nitrogen  remains  behind  unabsorbed. 
Hydrogen  and  marsli-gas  are  usually  determined 
by  combustion  with  oxygen.  Gases  very  soluble 
in  water,  such  as  sulpliur  dioxide,  are  absorbed 
in  that  liquid,  and  then  the  amount  dissolved  is 
determined  by  a  volumetric  process.  Carbon 
dioxide  in  air  offers  a  special  case.  As  in  nor- 
mal air  only  3  parts  in  10.000  are  present,  the 
ordinary  process  of  measuring  the  volume  before 
and  after  treatment  with  caustic  potash  requires 
special  apparatus  and  great  care  to  get  good  re- 
sults. Usually  a  large  volume  is  treated  with  a 
measiu-cd  quantity  of  a  solution  of  barium  hy- 
droxide of  kno«n  strength,  a  portion  of  the 
barium  hydroxide  being  thus  converted  into  in- 
soluble barium  carbonate,  and  the  rest  estimated 
voluinctrically. 

\Mien  the  highest  degree  of  accuracy  in  gas 
analysis  is  required,  the  gases  must  be  confined 
over    mercury;    further,    only    solid    absorbents 


ANALYSIS. 


499 


ANALYTIC  GEOMETBY. 


must  be  used,  and  ciircful  cori'ections  must  be 
made  for  chaiifjes  of  pressure  and  temperature. 
When  water  is  used  to  eontine  the  gas,  some  in- 
accuracy is  introduced,  since  all  gases  are  more 
or  less  soluble  in  water.  In  technical  work,  how- 
ever, a  very  high  degree  of  accuracy  is  but  rarely 
required.  The  technical  analysis  of  gases  has 
assumed  great  practical  importance,  owing  to 
the  extension  of  the  use  of  gaseous  fuels. 

AcciRACY.  Tlie  accuracy  of  analytical  work 
varies  witliin  wide  limits,  according  to  the  pur- 
pose wliicli  an  analysis  is  intended  to  serve.  The 
most  accurate  analyses  are  those  made  to  deter- 
mine the  proportions  by  weight,  in  which  the 
various  elements  unite  with  each  other.  Thus, 
the  proportion  in  which  silver  and  chlorine  unite 
forms  one  of  tlie  best  determined  constants  of 
nature.  In  determining  the  proportion  in  which 
magnesium  unites  witli  chlorine,  a  series  of  de- 
terminations has  been  obtained,  agi'eeing  so  per- 
fectly with  each  other  tliat  a  loss  or  gain  of  only 
one-twentieth  of  a  milligram  of  the  magnesium 
chloride  analyzed  corresponds  to  the  difference 
between  the  highest  or  lowest  results  and  the 
average.  Xo  such  accuracy  is  attainable  in  com- 
mercial or  technical  work.  Nor,  if  attainable, 
would  it  he  of  any  value,  since  it  is  but  seldom 
possible  to  obtain  samples  representing  precisely 
the  average  composition  of  large  quantities  of 
material. 

The  aim  of  the  commercial  and  technical  ana- 
lyst is  usuallj-  not  to  attain  extreme  accuracy, 
but  to  olitain  results  which  he  knows  to  be  cor- 
rect within  certain  limits.  Thus,  if  an  analyst 
is  required  to  find  the  percentage  of  copper  in 
a  .sample  representing  a  large  cargo  of  ore,  in 
order  to  fix  its  commercial  value,  he  can  deter- 
mine tlie  copper  by  the  electrolytic  method  to 
within  about  one  part  in  four  hundred  without 
undue  expenditure  of  time  or  labor.  If  the  ob- 
ject of  the  analysis  is  to  enable  the  superin- 
tendent of  the  smelting  furnace  to  make  up 
charges  of  a  suitable  content  of  copper,  a  much 
quicker  volumetric  process  is  used :  the  results 
are  then  less  accurate  than  those  of  the  electro- 
lytic ])rocess,  but  still  much  more  accurate  than 
is  necessary  for  the  purposes  of  the  smelter. 
When  it  becomes  necessary  to  determine  the 
amount  of  substances  which  occur  in  relatively 
very  small  quantities,  it  is  impossible  to  avoid 
relatively  large  errors.  For  instance,  in  deter- 
mining the  amount  of  phosphorus  in  a  specimen 
of  steel,  where  the  total  amount  is  only  about 
one  part  in  a  thousand,  the  analyst  is  not  sur- 
prised to  find  that,  in  spite  of  all  care,  differences 
of  2  per  cent,  occur  between  the  results  of  deter- 
minations made  carefully  and  under  exactly  the 
same  conditions. 

History.  Systematic  chemical  analysis  only 
dates  from  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, although  chemists  of  an  earlier  period  had 
accumulated  observations  which  made  it  possible 
to  test  for  the  presence  of  many  substances. 
Bergman  (173.5-84)  first  attempted  to  give  a 
plan  for  systematic  qualitative  analysis  of  in- 
organic substances  in  the  wet  way.  Until  the 
work  of  Lavoisier  (1743-94)  had  shown  the  im- 
portance of  relations  by  weight,  quantitative  de- 
terminations attracted  little  attention,  although 
such  determinations  were  by  no  means  entirely 
wanting.  After  the  triumph  of  Lavoisier's 
views,  the  importance  of  quantitative  analysis 
was  fully  seen ;  and  the  labors  of  Klaproth  ( 1743- 


1SI7),  Proust  (17o.5-lS2(i),and  Vauquelin  (1763- 
1829),  rapidly  enriclied  chemistry  with  new 
methods.  But  it  is  to  Berzelius "( 1779-1848) 
that  quantitative  analysis  owes  the  heaviest 
debt.  Berzelius  published  tables  of  the  atomic 
weights  of  all  the  elements  well  known  at  that 
time,  and  some  of  his  values  for  these  important 
constants  have  scarcely  been  improved  on  since. 
In  the  course  of  these  researches  an  immense 
number  of  new  methods  were  developed.  Two  of 
his  pupils,  Heinrich  Rose  (179.5-1864)  and  Fried- 
rich  Wfihler  (1800-82),  not  only  added  to  the 
meth.ods  in  use,  but  published  comprehensive 
works  on  inorganic  analysis.  The  final  edition 
of  Rose's  work,  published  after  his  death  by  his 
pupil,  R.  Finkener,  remains  an  invaluable  work 
to  the  analyst  of  to-day.  Although  K.  R.  Fre- 
senius  (1818-97)  added  many  new  methods,  his 
gi'eat  service,  which  secures  him  a  conspicu- 
ous place  in  the  histoi-y  of  analytical  chemistry, 
was  the  collection  and  comparison  of  the  various 
methods  in  use,  the  publication  of  text-books, 
\^'hich  ha^'e  formed  the  models  of  most  others 
since  published,  and  the  founding  of  a  periodical 
devoted  to  analytical  chemistry.  The  last  edi- 
tions of  his  standard  works  are  in  the  hands 
of  every  analyst. 

Volumetric  analysis  was  introduced  by  Gay- 
Lussae  (1778-1850)  :  but  although  he  gave  the 
first  of  his  important  processes  to  the  world  as 
early  as  1824.  it  was  not  until  the  publication 
of  Fr.  Mohr's  text-book  on  the  subject  that 
volumetric  analysis  began  to  rank  in  importance 
with  gravimetric  methods.  The  ultimate  an- 
alysis of  organic  bodies  was  attempted  with  some 
success  by  Lavoisier  and  Berzelius.  Gay-Lussac, 
in  1815,  introduced  the  use  of  cupric  oxide,  and 
Liebig  (1803-73)  gave  the  process  essentially  its 
present  form.  Dumas  (1800-84)  introduced,  in 
1830,  the  method  for  the  determination  of  nitro- 
gen by  direct  measurement  of  the  liberated  gas, 
which  is  still  preferred  in  strictly  scientific  work 
to  the  easier  method  devised  by  Kjeldahl. 

Many  attempts  were  made  to  analyze  gases  in 
the  eighteenth  ceTitury  and  in  the  beginning  of 
the  nineteenth,  but  it  is  to  Bunsen  (1811-99) 
that  we  owe  the  perfection  of  the  methods  at 
present  in  use  for  gas  analysis.  The  first  edition 
of  his  text-book,  Gasometnsche  Methoden,  w"as 
published  in  1857.  The  improvements  since 
that  time  have  been  principally  in  the  direction 
of  adapting  the  methods  to  rapid  work  for  tech- 
nical purposes. 

Bibliography.  Rose,  Handbuch  der  analy- 
tischen  f'hemir.  completed  by  Finkener  (Leipzig, 
1867-71):  Mohr,  Lehrhuch  der  chemisch-analy- 
tischrn  Tilriniirtliodrn,  edited  by  Classen 
(Brunswick,  1886),  and  Chemifsrh-tecluufiche 
TJntcrsnclnmgs-Methoden,  edited  by  Lunge  (Ber- 
lin, 1900)  ;  Fresenius,  Manual  of  Qualitative 
Chemical  Anab/sis,  translated  by  Wells  (New 
York,  1897)  :  Fresenius,  Anleitxinq  sur  qiianti- 
tativen  chemischen  Anahi-ic  (Brunswick,  1875- 
87)  ;  Hempel,  iletlioda  of  fla.i  Aiialysin,  trans- 
lated by  Dennis  (New  York,  1892)  ;  Treadwell, 
Kiirzcs  Lehrhuch  der  anaUjtischen  Chemie  (Leip- 
zig and  Vienna,   1899). 

AN'ALYT'IC  GEOM'ETRY.  Geometry  treat- 
ed by  means  of  algebra.  Geometric  conditions 
are  expressed  by  equations  which,  after  certain 
transformations,  are  interpreted  again  in  geo- 
metric concepts.  The  powerful  algebraic  method 
is  thus  made  use  of  for  discovering  and  demon- 


ANALYTIC  GEOMETRY. 


500 


ANALYTIC  JTJDGMENT. 


strating  in  a  simple  and  easy  manner  the  most 
complicated  relations  existing  between  quantities 
in  space. 

The  interpretation  of  geometric  relations  in 
algebraic  terms  is  efl'ected  by  the  use  of  some  sys- 
tem of  coordinates  (q.v. ).  The  primitive  system 
of  coordinates,  called  rectangular  coordinates,  is 
due  to  Descartes  (Lat.  Cartesius),  from  which 
fact  they  are  often  called  Cartesian.  In  this  sys- 
tem the  position  of  a  point  (as  P„  in  the  figure) 


an  hyperbola  whose  equation  is  b^'jr  —  a,-^-  =  k'. 
It  the  equations  a;^  +  y''  =  »~  and  b^-x-  —  a'y-  =: 
A-,^  are  solved  for  x,  y,  their  roots  are  the  coordi- 
nates of  the  points  of  intersection  of  tlie  curves 
c,  h.  These  values  may  be  real  or  imaginary; 
if  real,  the  curves  cut  in  real  points,  as  in  the 
case  of  c,  h;  if  imaginary,  the  curves  are  said 
to  cut  in  imaginary  points,  as  in  the  case  of  c,  h. 
The  practical  work  of  plotting  a  curve  may 
be  explained  by  referring  to  a  particular  exam- 
ple; thus,  to  represent  graphically  the  equation 
2ar  —  3i/-=:10.  Rearranging  and  solving  the 
equation  for  y,  y=  ±  I/3  V  6  ( ar  —  5 ) .  Therefore, 
by  giving  x  various  values   (noticing  that  a;-  >  ^ 


for    real    values    of    y) 
values  of  y  as  follow-s: 

X  =  ±  i/5,  ±       \/W,  ± 

y=        0,  ±  i  Vey  ± 


is  determined  by  its  distance  from  the  fixed  axes 
in  the  plane,  called  axes  of  coordinates,  which 
intersect  at  right  angles  in  a  point  called  the 
origin.  The  distance  x-^  of  P,  from  YY'  is 
called  the  abscissa  of  P,,  and  the  distance  3/1 
from  XX',  is  called  the  ordinate.  The  two  lines 
a-,,  ;/i,  are  called  the  coordinates  of  F^.  Similarly, 
the  coordinates  of  i'.  are  aj,,  1/2.  Pi,  P^,  or  the 
points  (x,,  y,),  (a?,,  1/2)  are  sufficient  to  deter- 
mine the  straight  line  AB.  The  algebraic  func- 
tion (q.v.),  y  =  ax+b,  a,  b,  being  constants, 
will  have  different  values  according  to  the  va- 
rious values  given  to  a;.  The  various  values  of  x,  as 
a?],  X2,  X3 — taken  with  the  corresponding  values 
of  y,  as  1/j,  2/2.  2/3 — will  represent  a  series  of  points 
(a;,,  j/i),  {X,,  y~),  (x,,  y,) ,  lying  in  a  straight 
line.  That  is,  an  algebraic  equation  of  the  first 
degi'ee  is  represented  by  a  straight  line.  In  a 
similar  manner  a  function  of  the  second  degi'ee 


is  represented  by  a  curve.  In  the  figure,  c  is  a 
circle  whose  equation  is  «;■  +  »/''  = »-,  r  be- 
ing the  radius  of  the  circle.  This  is  evident  by 
reference  to  the  figure,  since  the  coordinates  of 
any  point  (x,  y)  form  the  sides  of  a  right-angle 
triangle  of  hypotenuse  r,  so  that  x-  -^  y-^=:  r'. 
Hero  the  function  of  x  is  Vr"  —  x'-,  since  i/  = 
V  r-  —  •jr'.  The  curve  e  is  an  ellipse  whose  equa- 
tion is  b'.ir  +  a'y'  =  k',  a  being  the  semi-major 
axis  and  6  the  semi-minor  axis.     The  curve  h  is 


we   have   corresponding 


|/3]  ±  \/2',  ±    f  ye. 

Taking  the  approximate  square  roots,  and  laying 
off  the  abscissas  and  ordinates  as  indicated,  and 
then  connecting  the  successive  points,  the  graph 
is  the  hyperbola  h,  shown  in  the  figure. 

The  power  of  the  analytic  forms  to  express 
geometric  relations  may  be  seen  from  the  follow- 
mg;  Let  r,  =  0  and  i,  =  0  represent  the  equa- 
tions a-iX"  +  b^y-  —  Cj  =  0  and  a.jX-  -\-  b^y,-  —  c,  = 
0.  Any  values  of  x,  y  satisfying  these  two  equa- 
tions will  evidently  satisfy  the  equation 
( a,a^ -)- fell/'  —  Ci) — k  (a^- -\- bjf  —  cA  =  0,  fc 
being  any  constant.  But  this  equation  is  z^  — 
fcaa  =  0.  Hence,  if  3  =  0,  e.  =  0  are  the  equa- 
tions of  any  two  curves,  any  point  common  to  the 
two  satisfies  the  equation  z^  —  /,~2  =  0,  and, 
therefore,  this  is  the  equation  of  the  curve  pass- 
ing through  all  intersections  of  the  given  curves. 
In  the  same  way,  equations  of  any  degi'ee  may  be 
represented  and  discussed. 

The  position  of  a  point  in  space  of  three  dimen- 
sions may  be  expressed  in  terms  of  its  distances 
from  three  fixed  planes.  In  this  way  the  prop- 
erties of  spheres,  ellipsoids,  and  other  solids  are 
expressed  by  equations.  In  space  of  four  dimen- 
sions the  coordinates  of  a  point  are  (.t,  y,  z,  w) , 

and  in  space  of  n  dimensions    (,r.  _!/.  ~ n 

quantities) ,  although  we  cannot  draw  the  figures. 

The  ellipse,  hyperbola,  a.nd  parabola  being  sec- 
tions of  a  right  circular  cone,  are  known  as  conic 
sections  (q.v.).  They  were  chiefly  investigated  by 
purely  geometric  methods  until  the  appearance 
of  Descartes's  Discours  (1637).  In  the  exten- 
sive development  of  analytic  geometry  since 
Descartes,  a  large  number  of  coordinate  systems 
have  been  introduced,  the  most  important  being 
the  polar,  generalized,  homogeneous,  Lagrangian, 
Eulerian,  barycentric,  and  trilinear  coordinates. 

The  most  comprehensive  English  works  are 
those  by  Salmon,  Treatise  on  the  Conic  Sections 
(Dublin,  1869);  Higher  Plane  Currcs  (1873); 
Treatise  on  the  Analytic  Geometry  of  Three 
Dimensions  (Dublin.  1874).  Other  noteworthy 
w"orks  are:  R.  F.  A.  riebsch,  Vorlcsiingen  iibcr 
Geometric  (Leipzig,  1876)  ;  M.  Chasles,  Traitd 
de  geomitrie  supirieure  (Paris,  18S0)  ;  and 
among  recent  elementary  works  are  those  of 
Steiner,  Briot,  Bouquet,  Townsend,  and  Scott. 
For  a  further  discussion,  see  Geoiietrt  and 
Coordinates. 

ANALYTIC  JUDGEMENT.  In  Kantian 
philosophy,  a  judgment  in  which  the  predicate 
is  the  definition  (q.v.)  or  part  of  the  definition 
of  the  subject.  All  other  judgments  are  syn- 
thetic.     The    distinction    between   analytic    and 


ANALYTIC  JUDGMENT. 


501 


ANAPHRODISIACS. 


synthetic  judgments  is  open  to  serious  objec- 
tions, if  the  distinction  is  to  be  made  absolute. 
Concepts  (q.v. )  vary  from  mind  to  mind,  and 
even  in  the  same  mind  from  time  to  time.  To 
the  laboratory  chemist,  perhaps  tlie  most  essen- 
tial mark  in  the  concept  water  is  expressed  in 
the  formula  H,0;  i.e.,  water  is  conceived  to  be 
a  chemical  union  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen  in 
definite  proportions.  But  the  non-scientific  man 
may  have  a  clear  idea  of  what  he  means  by 
water  and  can  perhaps  define  his  concept.  Tn 
such  a  case  the  definition  would  not  include 
any  reference  to  oxygen  and  liydrogen.  Thus, 
the  judgment  that  water  is  a  certain  chemical 
combination  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  while  an 
analytic  judgment  for  the  chemist,  may  be  a 
synthetic  judgment  for  the  person  who  has  not 
yet  studied  chemistry.  This  shows  that  concepts 
are  not  necessarily  fixed,  but  may  be  capable  of 
growing  and  changing.  Analysis  and  synthesis 
in  logic  are  concomitant  aspects  of  the  same 
operation;  every  analytic  judgment  may  be 
viewed  as  at  the  same  time  synthetic,  and  every 
synthetic  judgment  as  at  the  same  time  analytic. 
Consult:  E.  Caird,  The  Critical  Philosophy  of 
Immanuel  Kant,  2  volumes  (New  York  and 
London,  1889).  See  also  bibliography  under 
Analysis. 

AN'ALYT'IC  LAN'GUAGES.  See  Philol- 
ogy. 

AN'ALY'ZER.  That  part  of  a  polariscope 
(q.v.)  which  is  used  for  examining  light  after 
it  has  been  polarized.  (See  Light.)  It  may  be 
a  movable  mirror,  a  plate  of  tourmaline,  a 
doubly  refracting  crystal,  or  a  Nicol  prism. 
The  latter  is  most  frequently  employed  for  this 
purpose. 

ANAM'.     See  Annam. 

ANAM'ESITE.     See  Basalt. 

ANAMIRTA,     an'a-mlr'ta.      See     CoccuLUS 

Ikdicus. 

ANAMMELECH,  a-nSm'e-lek.  A  god  wor- 
shiped by  the  inhabitants  of  Sepharvaim,  who 
were  deported  to  Samaria  (IL  Kings  xvii  :  31). 
This  city  is  probably  identical  with  Shabarain, 
or  Sibra'im.  near  Damascus:  and  the  deity  may 
be  Anath.  the  Syrian  goddess,  rather  than  Anu. 

AN'AMO'SA.  A  city  and  county  seat  of 
.Tones  Co..  la..  5.'i  miles  southwest  of  Dubuque, 
on  the  \yapsipinicon  and  Buffalo  rivers,  and  on 
tiie  Chicago  and  Northwestern  and  the  Chiclgo, 
Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  railroads  (Map:  Iowa, 
F  2).  It  is  the  seat  of  a  State  penitentiary. 
The  adjacent  country  is  largely  agricultural, 
and  contains  quarries  of  building  stone,  in  which 
the  city  has  a  considerable  trade.  The  indus- 
trial establishments  include  flour  mills,  grain 
elevators,  foundry,  carriage,  and  wagon  works, 
etc.     Pop.,  1890,  2078;  1900,  2891. 

ANA'NAS.     See  Pineapple. 

AN'ANI'AS  (Gk.  'AraWac).  (1)  One  of  the 
members  of  the  young  Church  at  Jerusalem  who 
conspired  with  his  wife,  Sapphira,  to  make  a 
false  pretense  respecting  their  gift  of  property 
to  the  community  of  the  brethren,  and  was,  with 
his  wife,  struck  dead  (Acts  v:  1-11).  (2)  A 
disciple  at  Damascus  (Acts  ix  :  10-17;  xxii  :  12) 
mentioned  in  connection  with  SauPs  experience 
in  that  place.  (3)  A  high  priest  at  Jerusalem 
(Acts  xxiii  :  2;   xxiv  :  1)    mentioned  in  connec- 


tion with  Paul  before  the  Sanhedrin  and  at 
Caesarea. 

ANANIEV,  or  ANANYEV,  a-nUn'ySf.  A 
town  in  the  government  of  Kherson,  Russia, 
about  220  miles  northwest  of  Kherson,  on  the 
banks  of  the  Tiligula  (Map:  Russia,  C  5).  Very 
little  manufacturing  is  carried  on,  but  there  is 
some  trade  in  agricultural  products.  It  has  a 
mi-xed  population  of  Russians,  Jews,  and  Ru- 
mans,  numbering  in  all  about  17,000  in  1897, 
as  against  14,200  in  1885.  Ananiev  w-as  annexed 
to  Russia  in  1792. 

ANAPA,  a-nii'pik.  A  small  seaport  on  the 
Black  Sea,  in  the  Kuban  territory,  Russia  (Map: 
Russia,  E  6).  An  old  rampart,  now  serving 
as  a  promenade,  is  a  feature  of  the  town.  A 
trade  in  grain  and  fish  is  carried  on.  Popu- 
lation, about  7600.  Founded  as  a  fortress  in 
1771.  Anapa  was  repeatedly  attacked  by  the 
Russians  in  their  wars  with  Turkey.  It  be- 
came Russian  in  1829.  In  1854,  at  the  ap- 
proach of  the  allied  fleet,  Russia  evacuated  it, 
after  destroying  its  fortifications. 

AN' AP  JEST  (Gk.  dniTroto-Tos,  anapaistos, 
struck  back,  i.e.,  a  dactyl  [q.v.]  reversed,  from 
avd,  ana,  back  -|-  TaUiv,  paiein,  to  strike).  Tlie 
name  of  a  measure,  or  foot,  in  Greek  verse,  con- 
sisting of  two  short  syllables  and  one  long  syl- 
lable ;  thus  ^^ — .  It  has  been  called  the  march- 
ing rhythm,  as  the  language  of  the  chorus  in 
Greek  tragedy  fell  into  anapaests  on  entering  or 
leaving  the  orchestra.  It  was  also  the  prevailing 
measure  in  the  parabasis  of  Aristophanic  com- 
edy. By  analogy,  the  name  is  also  employed  to 
designate  in  modern  verse  a  tri.syllabic  measure 
of  two  unstressed  syllables  followed  by  a  stressed 
syllable;  for  example:  "/  am  mon  |  arch  of  all  \ 
I  siirrei/."     See  Versification. 

ANAPHRODISIACS,  rm-af'r6diz1-aks  (Gk. 
dv,  an,  priv.  -j-  d(ppodi<naK6!,  aphrodisiakos,  per- 
taining to  Aphrodite,  goddess  of  love) .  Sub- 
stances used  to  lessen  the  sexual  desire.  In  the 
first  place,  all  causes  of  genital  irritation  should 
be  removed.  Careful  cleansing  should  be  insisted 
on.  and  in  many  cases  circumcision  is  needed. 
Saccharine  or  highly  acid  urine  should  be  cor- 
rected. Distention  of  the  bladder  should  be 
avoided  if  possible.  Vesical  calculus,  worms, 
hemorrhoids,  and  anal  fissure  may  all  act  as 
causes  of  sexual  excitement,  and  should  be  treat- 
ed if  present.  Other  rarer  lesions  in  this  neigh- 
boihood  may  cause  it.  Constipation  should  be 
relieved.  The  clothing,  especially  at  night, 
should  not  be  too  warm.  The  bed  should  be 
hard.  The  diet  should  be  restricted  in  amount, 
and  ehieflyvegetable;  while  spices  and  stimulants 
of  all  kinds  should  be  avoided.  Hard  mental 
work  and  abundant  exercise,  especially  with  the 
arms,  are  strongly  indicated.  Ice,  applied  locally, 
and  cold  baths,  local  or  general,  are  very  potent  in 
alla.ying  sexual  excitement  for  the  time.  Besides 
these  measures,  some  drugs  are  of  value.  The 
best  are  probably  the  bromides.  They  should  be 
given  in  full  doses,  and  if  necessary  pushed  to 
the  physiological  limit.  Next  to  these  comes 
camphor,  which  should  be  used  in  the  same  way. 
The  nauseants  are  valuable  temporary  expedi- 
ents, but  cannot  be  used  in  a  prolonged  treat- 
ment. It  must  be  remembered  that  nympho- 
mania and  satyriasis  are  due  to  cerebral  condi- 
tions, and  occur  during  attacks  of  insanity  or 
during  delirium  produced  by  alcohol  and  other 
drugs. 


ANABCHIDAS. 


503 


ANARCHIST. 


ANABCHIDAS,  a-niir'ki-das.  See  Wolf- 
Fish. 

AKT'AIICHIST  ( Gk.  av,  an,  priv.  +  apxv, 
arche,  power,  sovereignty).  One  who  believes 
that  all  authority,  government,  and  control  of 
one  individual  or  gioup  of  individuals  over  an- 
other is  necessarily  evil. 

Definitions.  The  word  "anarchy,"  first  used 
in  its  French  form  by  Proudhon  in  an  essay  en- 
titled What  is  Property  1  (1840),  has  served 
to  designate  a  group  of  theories,  some  of  them 
very  old,  and  the  best  of  them  formulated  in 
definite  language  by  Proudlion  and  his  personal 
followers.  There  are  several  definitions  of  an- 
archy representing  different  gi-oups  of  anar- 
chists: (1)  Anarchy  is  the  result  of  absolute 
individualism  in  thought  as  well  as  in  social 
activity.  This  might  be  called  idealistic  anarchy. 
(2)  Anarchy  is  an  economic  and  social  system 
whereby  the  individual  is  free  to  produce  what 
he  pleases,  gets  the  full  product  of  his  labor,  and 
is  under  no  compulsion  of  social  regulation  or 
law  in  any  of  his  economic  relations  to  his  fel- 
lows. This  is  Proudlion's  theory,  and  while  less 
idealistic  than  the  first  definition,  was  regarded 
by  Proudhon  himself  as  impossible  of  realization. 
He  regarded  a  federation  of  small  autonomous 
groups  as  the  best  attainable  result  in  govern- 
ment. (3)  Anarchy  represents  a  communistic 
organization  of  individuals  in  society  having 
perfect  freedom  and  equality  as  between  them- 
selves in  the  production  and  consumption  of 
goods,  and  offering  a  combined  resistance  to  all 
existing  forms  of  social  order,  law,  and  govern- 
ment. This  definition  covers  anarchists  of  the 
Bakunin  type,  who  have  much  in  sympathy  with 
some  Socialists,  though  theoretically  Socialism 
and  Anarchism,  in  their  main  tenets  and  under- 
lying philosophy,  stand  at  opposite  poles  of 
thought.  (4)  Anarchy  comprises  all  attempts 
to  destroy  the  existing  social  order,  without  ref- 
erence to  any  theory  of  reconstruction,  and  by 
the  use  of  any  means,  fair  or  foul,  by  which  in- 
dividuals or  institutions  representing  constitut- 
ed authority  may  be  destroyed.  This  represents 
the  popular  concept  of  all  Anarchists.  It  de- 
scribes tlie  ultra-radicals,  who  are  the  uncom- 
promising enemies  of  public  order  and  decency, 
who  plan  murders  and  reckless  public  calamities. 
They  are  the  fanatics  who  have  been  most  in  evi- 
dence in  recent  years. 

History  of  the  Theory.  Greek  philosophy, 
while  in  its  main  currents  rather  socialistic,  and 
certainly  constructive,  was  not  without  its  repre- 
sentatives of  extreme  individualistic  theory 
(Zeno,  and  among  the  early  Christian  philoso- 
phers, the  Gnostics).  A  mystical  theory  of  the 
rights  of  the  individual,  which  resembles  ideal- 
istic anarchy,  was  held  by  some  of  the  Christian 
writers  of  the  Middle  Ages  (Joachim,  1200; 
Amalric  of  B6ne;  the  Adamites,  1421;  Chel- 
cicky,  1420;  and  others).  The  first  modern 
writer  of  scientific  repute  is  Godwin,  who.  in  his 
Political  jKnticr  (170.3),  proceeds  on  the  doc- 
trine of  natural  rights,  and  regards  all  govern- 
ment as  a  sort  of  necessary  tyranny,  to  be  re- 
duced to  its  lowest  terms.  This  doctrine  can  be 
traced  through  a  large  number  of  writings,  down 
to  Herbert  Spencer's  ideas  of  liberty  and  the 
sphere  of  the  State.  Ideal  anarchy,  of  the  Proud- 
hon type,  is  sometimes  called  scientific  anarchy. 
Proudhon  thought  he  saw  in  it  the  only  way  to 
free  tlie  laborer  from  the  encroachments  of  the 
capitalist   and   to  guarantee   to   every   man   the 


right  to  development.  To  Proudhon's  mind  an- 
archy was  a  step  similar  in  motive  but  opposite 
in  principle  to  the  present  efforts  of  State  Social- 
ists in  the  interests  of  labor  and  in  opposition 
to  monopoly.  He  was  blind  to  all  practical  diffi- 
culties, and  when  he  attempted  to  secure  freedom 
of  exchange,  through  a  proposition  to  establish 
exchange  banks  in  Paris,  he  failed  utterly  in 
practical  plans.  Proudhon's  ideas  found  disci- 
ples in  Germany  in  Moses  Hess,  who  published 
Philosophic  dcr  That  and  Hozialisinus  (1843), 
and  Karl  Griin,  both  of  whom  developed  the  bet- 
ter side  of  Proudhon's  teaching,  and  proposed 
needed  radical  reforms.  In  the  United  States, 
Proudhon's  doctrine  was  taken  up  by  B.  R.  Tuck- 
er, of  Boston,  who  published  a  translation 
of  Proudhon's  What  is  Property?  (1876),  and 
Economic  Contradictions  (1888),  and  also  a 
translation  of  Bakunin's  God  and  the  State 
(1883).  Tucker  edited  a  periodical  entitled 
Liberty,  which  began  publication  in  Boston  in 
1881,  but  was  afterward  removed  to  New  York 
City.  Individualistic  Anarchism  has  always 
been  the  strongest  in  the  United  States.  As 
pure  egoism  it  became  an  immoral  doctrine  in 
the  liands  of  a  German  school-teacher.  Max  Stir- 
ner.  whose  real  name  was  Kaspar  Schmidt  (born 
at  Bayi-euth,  Germany,  1806;  died,  1857).  Stir- 
ncr  had  a  large  temporary  following,  Ijut  was 
soon  forgotten. 

Anarchistic  Attempts.  Anarchism  as  a  po- 
litical movement  began  with  Bakunin  (q.v.), 
who  tried  to  incite  the  working  classes  through- 
out Europe  to  organized  rebellion  against  all  law 
and  government,  and  to  resistance  by  force 
against  all  authority.  With  this  movement 
began  anarchist  communism,  with  which  the 
philosophical  and  individualistic  Anarchists  will 
have  nothing  to  do.  In  its  theoretical  aspects 
anarchistic  communism  has  been  developed  by  Ee- 
clus  and  Prince  Krapotkin  (q.v.),  both  noted 
travelers  and  explorers,  who  have,  however,  fre- 
quenth'  denounced  bomb-llirowers  and  attempts 
to  assassinate  rulers.  During  the  last  fifteen 
years  there  have  tieen  numerous  outrages  and 
assassinations  committed  by  those  calling  them- 
selves Anarchists.  In  most  cases  these  have  been 
the  acts  of  individuals  and  not  the  results  of 
any  genera!  conspiracy.  They  have  been  directed 
against  the  representatives  of  the  State,  and  have 
been  ins])ired  by  tlie  spirit  of  anarchy. 

United  States.  America  has  witnessed  but 
two  such  outrages.  The  first  was  the  famous 
Hayftiarket  explosion  at  Chicago  on  May  4,  1886. 
This  occurred  at  a  large  assembly  of' working- 
men.  The  speakers  began  uttering  revolutionary 
sentiments,  and  the  gathering  was  ordered  to 
disperse  by  the  police.  A  l)omb  w-as  thrown,  kill- 
ing seven  policemen  and  wounding  sixty.  In  the 
mel^e  following,  some  workmen  were  killed  and 
others  wounded.  For  this  sewn  were  condemned 
to  death,  and  one  (Neebe)  to  fifteen  years'  im- 
prisonment. Ling  committed  suicide  the  day 
before  the  time  set  for  the  execution.  Spies, 
Parsons,  Fischer,  Engel  were  hanged  November 
II,  1887,  the  sentences  of  Schwab  and  Fielden 
having  been  commuted  to  life  imprisonment. 
Later  Governor  Altgeld  pardoned  Neebe,  Schwab, 
and  Fielden.  It  is  not  known  who  threw  the 
bomb.  The  second  was  the  murder  of  President 
William  McKinley,  at  Buft'alo,  N.  Y.,  September 
6,  inOl,  by  Leon  F.  Czolgosz,  who  was  executed 
by  electricity  October  29.  1901. 

Europe.     England  has  been  entirely  free  from 


ANARCHIST. 


503 


ANASTASIUS. 


these  outrages,  the  nearest  approach  being  a  riot 
at  Trafalgar  Square.  London.  Xoveniber  13,  1887. 

The  Continent  of  Europe  has  not  fared  so 
well.  In  JIarch.  1892,  there  was  a  series  of 
explosions  in  France.  For  one  of  these  Eava- 
cliol  was  executed  (.June  11,  1892),  and  others 
imprisoned.  A  plot  to  blow  up  the  Paris  Bourse 
was  frustrated.  .Manifestos  urging  armed  up- 
risings were  issued  by  anarchists.  There  were 
serious  disturbances  and  explosions  in  Spain  and 
Italy.  In  February,  1893,  bombs  were  exploded 
at  Rome.  At  Barcelona,  on  September  23d,  a 
bomb  was  tbrown  into  a  grou])  of  stair  officers 
at  a  military  review,  which  wounded  several 
(illicers,  one  of  whom  was  Captain-General  Mar- 
tinez Campos,  and  killed  one  guard.  For  this, 
Cddina  and  five  accomplices  were  shot  Jlay  21, 
1804.  A  general  conspiracy  was  unearthed  at  Vi- 
enna, September  23d.  On  November  7th  a  bomb 
was  thrown  into  the  pit  of  a  Barcelona  theatre, 
whii  h  killed  thirty  and  wounded  eighty.  Salvada 
French  was  executed  for  this  crime.  On  December 
9th,  at  Paris,  during  a  session  of  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies,  a  bomb  was  thrown  from  the  gallery. 
A  woman,  perceiving  the  intentions  of  the 
thrower,  grasped  his  arm.  causing  the  bomb  to 
strike  a  chandelier  and  explode  harmlessly. 
Vaillant,  whose  real  name  was  Kiinigstein,  a 
man  of  German  descent,  was  immediately  identi- 
fied as  the  tbrower,  and  was  executed  January 
10,  1894'.  his  last  words  being  "Vive  Tanarchie!" 
Tlie  Frencli  Government  had  previously  passed 
a  law  making  such  attem])ts  capital  offenses, 
oven  though  no  one  was  killed.  A  week  after 
the  execution  of  Vaillant.  and  in  revenge  for  his 
execution,  a  man  named  Emile  Henry  exploded 
a  bomb  in  the  cafg  of  the  Hotel  Terminus,  severe- 
ly wounding  manv  guests.  Henrv  was  executed 
ilay  21.  1894. 

There  were  outrages  at  Jlarseilles  and  other 
cities.  An  infernal  machine  was  sent  to  Count 
Caprivi,  the  imperial  German  Chancellor  and 
Foreign  Minister.  In  March,  1894.  a  bomb  ex- 
ploded before  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  at  Rome, 
but  did  no  great  harm.  On  June  Itith  an  attem])t 
was  made  on  the  life  of  Crispi.  For  this  Paul 
Fega  was  sentenced  to  twenty  years'  imprison- 
ment. President  Carnot  of  France  was  assassi- 
nated June  24th  by  an  Italian  Anarchist,  Santo 
Caserio.  He  died  the  following  day.  Caserio 
was  guillotined  August  15th.  A  plot  against  the 
French  Premier  Dupuy  was  frustrated.  Active 
measures  were  taken  against  the  anarchists,  par- 
ticularly in  Italy,  w'here  some  2000  suspects 
were  arrested  during  the  summer.  The  year 
1895  was  comparatively  quiet.  In  1890  eleven 
were  killed  and  forty  wounded  by  an  explosion  at 
Barcelona.  For  this,  w'hich  was  the  result  of  a 
conspiracy,  five  men  were  shot,  thirteen  im- 
prisoned for  over  ten  years,  and  seven  for  less 
than  ten  years.  The  premier  of  Spain,  Sefior 
CSnovas  del  Castillo,  was  assassin.ated  August  8, 
1897,  by  an  Italian,  ilichele  Angiolillo,  who  was 
executed  eleven  days  after  the  crime.  On  Sep- 
tember 10.  1898,  the  Empress  of  Austria  was  as- 
sassinated in  Switzerland  by  an  Italian,  Luc- 
chcni,  who  had  come  thither  intending  to  kill 
the  Duke  of  York.  but.  not  finding  him,  vented 
his  fury  upon  the  Empress.  Luccheni  was  im- 
nipdiiitcly  apprehended  and  sentenced  to  solitary 
confinement  for  life.  The  death' of  the  Empress 
caused  the  summoning  of  an  anti-anarchist  con- 
ference, attended  by  representatives  of  the  vari- 
ous   governments.      The   sessions   were   held   at 


Home,  November  24th  to  December  21st.  The  re- 
sults were  not  made  public.  King  Humbert  of 
Italy  was  assassinated  July  29,  1900,  by  a  coun- 
trj-man,  Angelo  Bresci.  Bresci  had  been  living  in 
America,  and  went  to  Italy  intending  to  assassi- 
nate the  King.  The  murderer  was  sentenced  to 
life  imprisonment. 

BiBLioGRAi'UY.  E.  V.  Zenker,  Anarchism,  A 
Criticism  and  History  of  the  Anarchist  Theory 
(New  York,  1897)  ;  B.  R.  Tucker,  Instead  of  a 
Book  (New  York,  1893);  Yarros,  Anarehism: 
Its  Aims  and  Methods  (Boston,  1887)  :  Adler, 
"Anarchismus,"  in  Conrad's  Uandirorterbuch  der 
Staatsicissenschaften  (.Jena,  1901);  Stammler, 
Die  Theorie  des  Anarchismus  (Berlin,  1894)  ; 
.  Shaw,  The  Imjwssibilities  of  Anarchism  (Fabian 
tract  No.  45,  London,  1895).  Consult  also  Nett- 
lau,  Bihliographie  de  I'anarchie  (Paris,  1897). 
See  Communism;   Socialism. 

AN'ASTA'SIA  (?-597).  A  Greek  saint. 
Her  beauty  attracted  the  Emperor  .Justinian, 
and  in  order  to  escape  his  dishonorable  atten- 
tions she  retired  to  Alexandria,  where  she  lived 
twenty-eight  years,  disguised  as  a  monk.  The 
date  of  her  commemoration  is  March  10th. 

ANASTASIA,  Saixt.  A  Christian  martyr, 
slain  during  the  reign  of  Nero  (54-08  A.D.). 
She  is  said  to  have  been  a  pupil  of  St.  Peter 
and  St.  Paul.  The  date  of  her  commemoration 
is   April    loth. 

ANASTASIA  THE  YOUNGr'ER.  A  noble 
Roman  woman  who  suffered  martyrdom  during 
the  Diocletian  persecution  (303  a.d.  )  ;  the  wife 
of  Publius,  a  pagan,  who  informed  against  her 
as  a  Christian.  Two  letters  written  by  her  in 
prison  are  preserved  in  Suidas.  The  Greeks 
commemorate  her  as  a  saint  on  December  22d; 
the  Latins,  on  December  25th. 

AN'ASTA'SIXJS  I.  (c.  438-518).  Emperor  of 
the  East.  He  was  proclaimed  emperor  at  Con- 
stantinople on  the  death  of  Zeno,  in  491.  He 
was  a  native  of  Dyrrachium,  but  had  spent 
most  of  his  life  in  public  office  at  Constanti- 
nople. He  was  about  fifty-three  years  old  at 
his  accession,  and  was  noted  for  his  ability, 
integrity,  and  justice.  "Reign  as  you  have 
lived"  was  the  cry  with  which  he  was  greeted 
on  his  first  public  appearance.  He  married  the 
widow  of  Zeno.  but  had  no  children.  His  reign 
was  troubled  by  local  revolts,  by  a  war  with 
Persia  in  503-505,  and  by  invasions  of  Huns, 
Slavs,  and  Bulgarians.  To  check  the  last,  Anas- 
tasius  built,  in  512.  the  wall  which  bears  his 
name,  35  miles  west  of  Constantinople.  Yet 
his  reign  was  a  very  prosperous  one.  He  was 
unpopular  with  some,  because  he  was  suspected 
of  being  addicted  to  the  Monophysite  heresy 
(q.v. )  ;  with  others,  because  he  was  thought  to 
be  too  puritanical.  He  suppressed  gladiatorial 
combats  with  wild  beasts  and  licentious  dances. 
He  erected  fortresses  on  the  boundaries,  restored 
ruined  cities,  suppressed  some  of  the  most  obnox- 
ious taxes :  yet  he  left  the  treasury,  which  he  had 
found  empty,  filled  with  320.000  pounds  of  gold ; 
and  a  well-disciplined  army  of  150,000  men. 
He  preserved  the  Empire  intact,  having  governed 
it  wisely,  leniently,  and  justly. 

ANASTASIUS  II.  (died  719?).  Emperor  of 
the  East,  elected  to  the  throne  of  Constantinople 
by  the  Senate  and  people  in  713.  He  organized 
a  formidable  naval  force,  which  mutinied  at 
Rhodes  and  proclaimed  Theodosius,  a  low  person, 
emperor.     Theodosius    took    Constantinople    six 


ANASTASIUS. 


504 


ANATOLIA. 


months  later,  and  deposed  Anastasius  (716) ,  who 
escaped  to  Thessalonica  and  became  a  monk. 
He  was  a  man  of  wisdom  and  experience,  who 
attempted  various  reforms,  and  thereby  excited 
■  the  wratli  of  many  who  saw  tlieir  person  or 
property  eiidanecred. 

ANASTASIUS.  Tlie  name  of  four  popes 
and  one  antipope. — Anastasius  I.,  Pope  from 
3R8  to  about  402.  He  healed  an  unseemly  strife 
at  Rome  by  ordering  the  priests  as  well  as  the 
deacons  to  stand  bowed  while  the  Gospel  was 
read  in  tlie  Churcli  service.  He  was  vehemently 
opposed  to  the  doctrines  of  Origen,  one  of  whose 
works  (Peri  Archoii,  i.e.,  Concerning  Principles) 
he  condemned  as  heretical.  He  is  praised  by 
Jerome,  who  calls  him  a  man  of  a  holy  life,  of  a 
"rich  poverty,"  and  of  an  apostolic  earnestness. 
He  died  December,  401,  or  April,  402.  His  letters 
and  decretals  are  in  Migne,  Patrol.  Lat.,  xx. — An- 
astasius II.,  Pope  from  496  to  498.  He  was  born 
in  Rome;  consecrated  Pope  November  24,  496. 
He  endeavored  to  heal  the  breach  with  the  East- 
ern Church,  but  the  attempt  was  so  ill-judged 
that  Dante  puts  him  in  hell.  He  died  in  Novem- 
ber, 498.  Two  genuine  letters  of  his  are  extant, 
one  informing  Emperor  Anastasius  of  his  ac- 
cession, the  other  congratulating  Clovis  on  his 
conversion  to  Christianity. — Anastasius  III., 
Pope  from  911  to  913.  He  was  born  in  Rome. 
— Anastasius  IV.,  Pope  from  1153  to  1154.  He 
healed  two  important  ecclesiastical  quarrels  by 
recognizing  Wichmann  as  Archbishop  of  Magde- 
burg, and  William  as  Archbishop  of  York.  He 
died  in  Rome  December  3,  1154.  His  letters  are 
in  Migne,  Patrol.  Lat.,  clxxxviii. — The  Antipope 
An.\stasius  was  opposed  to  Benedict  III.  in  855, 
but  s]jecdilv  degraded. 

ANASTASIUS  THE  LIBRA'RIAN  (  Biblio- 
tiiecarius)  (?-886).  A  librarian  of  the  Vati- 
can, and  abbot  of  Sta.  Maria  Trans-Tiberim, 
Rome.  He  was  present  in  869  at  the  eighth 
Council  of  Constantinople,  whose  canons  he 
translated  into  Latin.  He  wrote  a  Historia 
Ecclesiastica  (edited  by  Fabretti,  1649),  and 
the  Liber  Pontificalis,  biographies  of  the  popes 
from  St.  Peter  to  Nicolas  I. 

ANAS'TOMO'SIS  (Gk.  dvaaTiiiuaic,  an  open- 
ing of  the  mouth,  from  urii,  ana,  again  +  CTo/ia, 
stoma,  mouth).  An  anatomical  term  used  to 
express  the  union  of  the  vessels  which  carry 
blood  or  other  fluids,  and  also,  for  convenience' 
sake,   the   junction    of   nerves.     The   veins    and 


ARTERIES  AXASTOMOSING. 


lymphatics  anastomose  to  form  large  single 
trunks  as  they  approach  their  ultimate  destina- 
tions. The  arteries  break  up  into  small  branches, 
for  the  supply  of  the  tissues,  and  each  small 
vessel  again  communicates  with  others  given  off 
above  and  below.  At  each  large  joint  there  is  a 
very  free  anastomosis,  so  that  the  safety  of  the 
limb  beyond  may  not  be  entirely  dependent  on 


the  single  arterial  trunk  passing  into  it,  exposed 
as  it  is  to  all  the  obstructive  influences  of  the 
diflTerent  motions  of  the  limb.  After  the  main 
artery  has  been  permanently  obstructed,  the 
anastomosing  vessel.-;  enlarge,  so  as  to  compen- 
sate for  the  loss ;  but  after  a  time,  only  those 
whose  course  most  resembles  the  parent  trunk 
continue  enlarged,  and  the  others  gradually  re- 
gain their  ordinary  dimensions. 

AN'ATASE.     See  Octaiiedrite. 

ANATH'EMA  (Gk.  dvdde/ia,  or  avden/ia, 
anathema,  that  which  is  set  up,  offered,  or  dedi- 
cated, from  dvu,  ana,  up  -f-  ri&hai,  tithenai,  to 
put,  set,  place).  A  word  originally  signifying 
some  offering  or  gift  to  Deity,  generally  suspend- 
ed in  the  Temple.  Thus,  we  read  in  Luke  xxi  :  5 
that  the  Temple  was  adorned  "witli  goodly  stones 
and  gifts"  (anathemasi) .  It  also  signifies  a 
sacrifice  to  God ;  and,  as  the  animals  devoted  to 
be  sacrificed  could  not  be  redeemed  from  death,  the 
word  was  ultimately  used  in  its  strongest  sense, 
implying  eternal  perdition,  as  in  Romans  ix  :  3, 
Galatians  i  ;  8-9,  and  other  places.  In  the  Cath- 
olic Church  a  distinction  has  been  made  between 
excommunication  and  anathematizing;  the  lat- 
ter being  the  extreme  form  of  denunciation 
against  obstinate  offenders.  The  synod  of  Elvi- 
ra (306)  anathematized  those  who  placed  libel- 
ous writings  in  the  Church  and  those  who  read 
them ;  the  Nicene  Council  ( 325 ) ,  the  Arians ; 
and  so  later  councils  and  synods  those  who  seri- 
ously offended.  Thus  that  of  Paris  (846)  forbids 
anathematization,  on  account  of  its  being  a  "con- 
demnation to  eternal  death,"  to  bishops  without 
the  consent  of  their  archbishop  and  fellow  bish' 
ops. 

AN'ATHOTH,  A  town  in  Palestine,  two  and 
one-half  miles  northeast  of  Jerusalem,  and  one  of 
the  places  assigned  to  the  I^evites  (Joshua  xxi:  I. 
Chronicles  vi  :  60).  It  was  the  birthplace  of 
Jeremiah  (Jeremiah  i  :  I ) ,  as  well  as  the  home  of 
Abiathar,  the  high  priest  (I.  Kings  ii  :  26),  of 
x\biezer  (II.  Samuel  xxiii  :27),  and  of  Jehu 
(I.  Chronicles  xii  :  3),  all  prominent  in  the  days 
of  David.  The  name  appears  to  be  the  plural 
of  Anat,  and  it  is  of  some  significance  to  note 
that  there  was  a  goddess  .4natuni  in  Babylonia, 
the  consort  of  the  sky-god  Ann.  though  tlie  evi- 
dence is  not  sufficient  to  assume  a  connection 
between  the  supposed  worship  of  this  goddess 
in  Canaan  and  the  Babylonian  goddess.  It  was 
an  important  place,  being  reoccupied  after  the 
exile  (Ezra  ii  :  23 :  Nehemiah  vii  :  27).  On  its 
site  stands  at  present  tlie  little  village  of  Anata, 
at  tlie  top  of  a  hill  commanding  a  view  of  the 
Dead  Sea.  Building  stortes  for  Jerusalem  are 
still  sujiplied  from  a  quarry  at  Anata.  It  was 
at  Anathoth  that  .Jeremiah  bought  a  field,  as  a 
symbol  of  the  assured  return  from  the  Baby- 
lonian captivity   (Jeremiah  xxxii  :  7). 

ANAT'ID.^;  (Lat.  anas,  duck).  The  family 
of  ducks,  geese  and  swans  (qq.v.)      See  Anseres. 

AN'ATO'LIA  (Gk.  'AvanXf/,  Anatoli,  a  rising, 
east,  i.e,,  from  Constantinople;  from  dvu,  ana, 
up -f- 7f A^eit',  tellein,  to  make  to  arise,  to  rise). 
The  modern  name  for  Asia  Minor;  Turkish, 
Anadoli.  It  embraces  the  western  peninsula  of 
Asia,  bounded  by  the  Armenian  highlands  on  the 
east,  the  Mediterranean  on  the  south,  the  ^45gean 
Sea  on  the  west,  and  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Sea 
of  Marmora  on  the  north.  Its  area  is  about 
195,000  square  miles  (Map:  Turkey  in  Asia,  D  3). 


ANATOLIA. 


505 


ANATOMY. 


It  constitutes  the  western  prolonjiation  of  the 
high  table-land  of  Armenia,  with  its  border 
mountain  ranges.  The  interior  consists  of  a 
jrreat  plateau,  or  rather  series  of  plateaus,  hav- 
ini;  an  average  elevation  of  about  .3000  feet,  with 
bare  steppes,  salt  plains,  marshes,  and  lakes;  the 
structure  is  volcanic,  and  there  are  several  con- 
ical mountains,  one  of  which,  the  Argish  (or 
Ergish)  Dagh  (Argaeus),  with  two  craters,  rises 
about  10,000  feet  above  the  plain  of  Kaisariyeh, 
which  has  itself  an  elevation  of  between  2000 
and  3000  feet.  The  plateau  is  liordered  on  the 
north  by  a  long  train  of  parallel  mountains,  which 
skirt  the  coast  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  extend  all 
the  way  to  the  Mediterranean,  and  wliich  are  cut 
up  into  groups  by  cross  valleys.  These  ranges  vary 
greatly  in  height,  the  greatest  elevation  in  the 
extreme  east  being  about  12,000  feet.  Tliey  sink 
abruptly  down  on  the  north  side  to  a  narrow 
strip  of  coast ;  their  slopes  toward  the  interior 
are  gentler  and  bare  of  wood.  Similar  is  the 
character  of  the  border  ranges  on  the  south,  the 
ancient  Taurus,  onl}'  that  they  are  more  uniform 
and  on  the  average  much  higher,  although  their 
loftiest  summits  do  not  rise  above  the  highest 
I)eak  of  the  Jiorthern  mountains.  The  western 
border  is  intersected  by  numerous  valleys,  open- 
ing upon  tlie  Archipelago,  through  the  highlands 
of  the  ancient  Caria,  Lydia,  and  Jlysia.  to  the 
northern  part  of  which  mounts  Ida  and  Olympus 
belong.  I5etwcen  the  highlands  and  the  sea  lie 
the  fertile  coast  lands  of  the  Levant.  The  west- 
ern coast  of  Anatolia  is  remarkably  indented  and 
fringed  with  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago. 
The  rivers  of  Anatolia  are  not  navigable:  the 
largest  are  the  Yeshil-Irmak  (Iris),  the  Kizil- 
Trmnk  (Halys),  and  the  Sakariah  (Sangarius). 
flowing  into  the  Black  Sea ;  and  the  Ghediz-Tchai 
(Hermus).  and  Alenderes  (JIa>ander),  into  the 
.■Egean.  The  largest  of  the  salt  lakes  are  Tuz- 
Tchollii,  Bei-Shehr,  and  Egerdir. 

The  climate  bears  on  the  whole  a  south  Euro- 
pean character;  but  a  distinction  must  be  made 
of  four  regions.  The  central  plateau,  nearly 
destitute  of  wood  and  water,  has  a  hot  climate 
in  siunnier  and  a  cold  one  in  winter ;  the  southern 
coast  has  mild  winters  and  scorching  sununers ; 
while  on  the  coast  of  the  ^Egean  there  is  the 
mildest  of  climates  and  a  magnificent  vegeta- 
tion. On  the  northern  side  the  climate  is  not 
so  mild  as  on  the  western ;  yet  the  vegetation  is 
most  luxuriant,  and  a  more  delightful  or  richer 
tract  than  the  coast  from  the  Sea  of  Marmora 
to  Trebizond  is  hardly  to  he  found.  The  whole 
peninsula  is  subject  to  earthquakes. 

In  its  flora  and  fauna.  Anatolia  forms  the 
transition  from  the  continental  character  of  the 
East  to  the  maritime  character  of  the  West.  The 
forest  trees  and  cultivated  plants  of  Europe  are 
seen  mingled  with  the  forms  peculiar  to  the  East. 
The  central  plateau,  which  is  barren,  except 
when  assisted  by  ii'rigation,  has  the  character  of 
an  .Asiatic  steppe,  more  adapted  for  the  flocks 
and  herds  of  nomadic  tribes  than  for  agricul- 
ture :  the  southern  and  western  coasts,  on  the 
contrary,  are  characterized  b_v  a  luxuriant  veg- 
etation, which  includes  the  southern  fruits  of 
Europe  with  a  slight  admixture  of  the  tropical 
plants  of  Africa. 

The  minerals  of  Anatolia  are  of  considerable 
variety,  including  coal,  lead,  manganese,  copper, 
meerschaum,  and  a  few  others.  Salt  and  petro- 
leum also  exist,  but  are  not  ex])orted  to  any 
extent.     The   agricultural   products   include  the 

Vol.  I.— 34. 


common  grains,  fruits  in  great  variety  and 
abundance,  tobacco,  cotton,  and  poppy-seed. 
Much  silk  is  produced.  Among  the  exports  are 
prunes,  figs,  olives,  jjoultry,  eggs,  skins,  cattle, 
carpets,  silk,  gums,  wax,  and  minerals.  Trans- 
portation facilities  are  still  inadequate,  and  the 
railroads  have  a  total  length  of  about  1300  miles. 

The  population  of  Anatolia,  according  to 
recent  estimates,  is  over  9,000,000,  composed  of 
a  number  of  different  races.  The  Turks  are 
found  all  over  the  country,  in  which  they  occupy 
the  foremost  position,  both  in  commercial  and  in 
political  life.  The  Turkomans,  who  are  akin  to 
the  Turks,  are  mostly  nomadic.  The  Greeks  and 
Armenians  constitute  a  considerable  fraction  of 
the  population,  and  commerce  is  to  a  great  extent 
in  their  hands.  Among  other  elements  in  the 
population  are  Kurds,  Yuruks,  Lazes,  Jews, 
Circassians,  and  Bulgarians.  It  is  estimated 
that  about  four-fifths  of  the  inhabitants  are  agri- 
culturists or  herdsmen.  Among  the  cities  of 
Anatolia  are  Smyrna,  Scutari.  Brussa,  Kaisar- 
iyeh, Adana,  Konieh.  Sivas,  Manissa  (Magne- 
sia), Aidin,  Trebizond,  Amasia,  Tokat,  Angora, 
Adalia,  Ismid,  and  Kutaieh. 

This  region  was  an  early  seat  of  civilization. 
The  countiy  has  passed  under  the  supremacj-  of 
one  race  after  another,  and  it  has  been  the  scene 
of  numerous  wars,  both  in  ancient  and  in  modern 
times.  The  west  coast  was  early  lined  with 
opulent  Greek  cities,  the  seats  of  poetry,  learn- 
ing, and  the  arts,  and  great  centres  of  coloniza- 
tion. In  the  first  half  of  the  sixth  century  B.C. 
tlie  kingdom  of  Lydia,  under  Croesus,  attained 
the  heiglit  of  its  splendor.  Croe.sus  was  con- 
quered by  the  Persians,  who  extended  their  sway 
over  the  whole  peninsula.  The  rule  of  Macedon 
succeeded  that  of  Persia.  After  the  disrup- 
tion of  Alexander's  empire  the  Seleucid  kings 
of  Syria  were  dominant  in  Asia  Minor.  By  the 
side  of  the  Seleucid  realm,  various  states  arose 
in  the  peninsula,  Pergamon,  Bithynia,  Cappa- 
docia,  and  Pontus.  The  Romans  first  carried 
their  arms  into  Asia  Minor  at  the  beginning  of 
the  second  century  B.C.,  when  they  vanquished 
Antiochus  the  Great  of  Syria.  In  the  following 
century  Pontus  was  a  mighty  realm  under  Jlitli- 
ridates  the  Great,  who  succumbed  to  the  arms 
of  Pompey.  .-\fter  39.5  .\.n.  Asia  Minor  formed 
part  of  the  Greek,  or  Byzantine,  Empire.  Under 
the  Byzantines,  it  received  the  name  of  Anatolia. 
In  the  eleventh  century  the  Seljuks  made  them- 
selves masters  of  the  region,  where  they  estab- 
lished the  sultanate  of  Rum.  The  close  of  the 
thirteenth  century  witnessed  the  beginnings  of 
the  power  of  the  Ottoman  Turks,  wdio  in  the 
course  of  the  following  century  established  their 
sway  over  Asia  Minor,  which  now  became  a 
great  base  whence  Mohammedan  conquests  were 
carried  on  in  Europe.  Since  14.53  the  Ottoman 
Turks  have  ruled  Anatolia  from  Constantinople. 
The  ancient  divisions  of  this  region  were  Pontus, 
Paphlagonia.  Bithynia.  Galatia,  Lycaonia. 
Phrygia,  Cilicia,  Caria,  Pisidia,  Pamphylia,  Cap- 
padocia,  Mysia,  and  Lydia. 

Consult:  Percy.  The  TJiijMnnds  of  Axiatic  Tiir- 
Icy  (London,  1901);  Oberhuminer  and  /^immei-- 
er,  Durch  Syrien  und  Elciiiasien  (Leipzig,  1898)  ; 
K.  Kaunenberg.  Eleinnsiens  Naturschiit::e  (Ber- 
lin. 1897)  ;  J.  Bryce,  Trans-Caucasia  and  Ararat 
(London,  1896)  ;"H.  C.  Barkley.  A  Ride  Through 
Asia  Minor  and  Armenia   (London,  IS9I). 

ANAT'OMY.  The  science  that  treats  of  the 
structure  of  organic  forms ;   so  called  from  dis- 


ANATOMY. 


506 


ANATOMY. 


section  (Gk.  avd,  ana,  apart  +  ri/iveiv.  temnein, 
to  cut),  formerly  the  sole  method  of  investiga- 
tion. It  is  distinguished  as  Human,  Animal,  or 
Plant  Anatomy,  according  to  the  organisms  under 
consideration;  as  Normal  or  Pathological  Anato- 
my according  as  these  are  in  health  or  diseased; 
as  Macroscopic  or  Gross  Anatomy  when  it  deals 
with  structure  visible  to  the  naked  e.ye ;  and  as 
Microscopic  or  Minute  Anatomy  when  the  micro- 
scope is  used  as  a  means  of  research.  This  last 
division  is  often  more  aptly  called  General  Anat- 
omy because  of  its  generalization,  or  histology-, 
in  view  of  the  delicate  webs  of  structure  or 
tissues  (lardc,  histos,  web)  it  investigates.  Com- 
parative Anatomy  involves  a  comparison  of  the 
different  forms  of  animals  and  plants,  and  Devel- 
opmental Anatomy  or  Embryology  an  account  of 
the  different  forms  assumed  by  a  single  indi- 
viduiil  during  its  growth. 

Other  designations  applied  to  anatomy  have 
reference  to  its  application.  Dissection  and  the 
preparation  of  anatomical  specimens  is  often 
called  Practical  Anatomy;  the  arrangement  of 
the  facts  of  structure  according  to  their  bearing 
upon  the  diagnosis  and  treatment  of  disorders 
is  Applied  Anatomy,  which  may  be  divided  into 
Surgical  Anatomy,  that  deals  witlr  structure 
accessible  for  surgical  operations,  and  Medical 
Anatomy,  that  relates  to  structure  which  can  be 
reached  only  indirectly.  Physiological  Anatomy 
gives  the  facts  of  structure  that  explain  the 
function  of  organs ;  Artistic  or  Plastic  Anatomy 
gives  such  facts  as  may  be  useful  to  the  artist 
or  the  sculptor;  Plastic  Anatomy  is  a  term  some- 
times used  to  designate  the  teaching  of  the 
science  by  means  of  artificial  models  composed 
of  sepai"able  parts.  The  consideration  of  the 
deeper  relations  and  causes  of  structure  is  called 
Philosophical  .Anatomy,  or  Morphology,  and  a 
purely  speculative  or  theoretical  disquisition  of 
this  kind  is  termed  Transcendental  Anatomy. 

Anatomy  may  be  treated  in  two  different 
ways:  as  Descriptive  or  Systematic  Anatomy, 
that  arranges  the  facts  of  the  science  with  refer- 
ence to  the  structural  affinities  of  organs  form- 
ing the  systems  of  the  body,  or  as  Topographical 
or  Regional  Anatoiny,  that  considers  the  organs 
merely  with  reference  to  their  exact  situation 
and  relations  to  each  other.  Descriptive  Anat- 
omy is  usually  subdivided  into  Osteology,  that 
treats  of  the  osseous  system;  Syndesmology,  that 
treats  of  the  ligaments;  or  Arthrology,  that  con- 
siders the  ligaments  and  joints;  Myology,  that 
treats  of  the  muscles ;  Neurology,  of  the  nerves ; 
Angeiology,  of  the  vessels;  Splanchnology,  of  the 
viscera. 

HISTORY. 

The  knowledge  of  anatomy  possessed  by  the 
ancients  was  slight.  The  importance  of  exact 
information  not  being  generally  recognized,  and 
the  dead  body  being  held  especially  sacred,  exam- 
ination of  the  cadaver  was  rare,  and  attended 
with  great  difficulties.  It  is  among  the  Greeks 
that  the  first  traces  of  the  science  are  found. 
Hippocrates  (460-300  B.C.)  and  his  school 
appear  to  have  had  some  knowledge  of  the  skel- 
eton and  cf  the  larger  viscera;  Aristotle  (.384-323 
B.C.)  examined  a  large  number  of  animals, 
and  had  some  remarkably  Jiist  ideas  as  to  their 
genetic  relationships:  Herophilus  (c.  300  B.C.) 
and  Rrasistratus  of  Alexandria  investigated  the 
vessels  and  the  glandular  organs.  At  the  Alex- 
andrian School. dissection  was  first  publicly  prac- 
ticed, and  there  a  considerable  advance  was  made 


in  the  knowledge  of  tlie  human  body.  Only  frag- 
ments of  the  writings  of  this  time  have  come 
down  to  us.  Heropliilus  described  the  sinuses 
of  the  dura  mater,  the  retina,  the  lacteals,  and 
the  lymphatics,  and  admitted  that  the  arteries 
contained  blood,  his  predecessors  having  held 
that,  like  the  air-tubes  of  the  lungs,  they  nor- 
mally carried  air  during  life.  Erasistratus  con- 
sidered the  brain  as  an  organ  for  the  transforma- 
tion of  the  "vital  spirits"  received  from  the  air 
into  "animal  spirits,"  and  distinguished  be- 
tween nerves  of  motion  and  those  of  sensation. 

The  prejudice  against  dissection  appears  to 
have  flnalh'  overcome  the  progress  achieved  by 
the  Alexandrian  School,  and  the  belief  became 
current  that  the  healing  art  depended  upon 
metaphysical  conditions  impossible  to  elucidate 
by  an  examination  of  structure.  The  next  con- 
siderable advance  was  made  by  Claudius  Galen 
(q.v.)  of  Pergamus  (131-201  A.D.),  who  com- 
piled mucli  from  his  predecessors,  and  was  the 
author  of  the  first  systematic  treatise  that  has 
come  down  to  us.  He  appears  to  have  examined 
apes  rather  than  man,  but  correctly  described 
most  of  the  bones,  joints,  muscles,  cranial  and 
spinal  nerves,  and  many  features  about  the  brain 
and  its  membranes.  He  performed  a  great  ser- 
vice for  anatomy  Ijy  clearly  and  exactly  describ- 
ing what  he  had  actually  inspected  and  by  re- 
cording his  ob.servations  in  a  methodical  manner. 
These  very  merits,  however,  caused  the  almost 
universal  acceptance  of  his  erroneous  physio- 
logical speculations,  which  gave  rise  to  false 
ideas  of  the  structure  of  the  circulatory  appara- 
tus that  prevailed  until  the  middle  of  the  seven- 
teenth century.  He  taught  that  after  digestion, 
food  is  carried  to  the  liver  by  the  portal  vein, 
and  there  converted  into  crude  blood  having 
nutritive  properties  due  to  "natural  spirits:" 
that  from  the  liver  it  passes  to  the  right  side 
of  the  heart,  where  a  portion  enters  the  venous 
system,  in  which  it  ebbs  and  flows,  affording 
nutrition  to  the  bod.v,  another  portion  passing 
through  invisible  pores  in  the  septum  of  the 
heart  to  its  left  side,  where  it  becomes  mixed 
with  air  drawn  in  from  the  lungs  by  the  pul- 
monary veins,  and  tluis  receives  the  "vital  spir- 
its," and  is  freed  from  impurities  (fuliginous 
vapors)  by  the  "innate  heat"  of  the  heart;  thus 
vitalized  and  clarified,  it  passes  into  the  arterial 
system,  in  which  it  also  has  a,n  oscillatory  mo- 
tion, endowing  the  body  with  the  higher  func- 
tions of  life,  while  in  the  brain  it  is  further 
elaborated  to  "animal  spirits"  that  arc  con- 
veyed throughout  the  body  by  the  tubular 
nerves  to  impart  movement. 

The  irruption  of  the  northern  barbarians 
arrested  all  attempts  at  scientific  research,  and 
it  was  not  until  after  the  renaissance  of  letters 
and  science  at  the  hands  of  the  Arabs,  who  resus- 
citated the  learning  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  that 
further  advances  were  nurde.  At  Salerno  and 
Montpellier  active  medical  schools  were  estab- 
lished, and  some  attempt  was  made  to  revive  the 
study  of  anatomy.  Frederick  II.,  Emperor  of 
Germany  (1215-50),  is  said  to  have  forbidden 
anyone  to  practice  surgery  without  a  competent 
knowledge  of  anatomy,  and  to  have  provided 
that  every  five  years  there  should  be  held  at 
Salerno  a  public  dissection,  to  which  physicians 
and  surgeons  from  all  parts  of  the  Empire  were 
invited.  At  Montpellier  the  cadavers  of  crimi- 
nals were  regularly  dissected.  The  Senate  of 
Venice  decreed  in  1308  that  a  human  body  should 


ANATOMY. 


507 


ANATOMY. 


be  dissected  annually.  Doubtless  autopsies  were 
occasionall}'  held  to  determine  deaths  by  poison- 
ing, which  were  not  infrequent  at  this  period. 
At  the  Universit}'  of  Bolo<;na,  Jlundinus  dissect- 
ed .several  bodies  publicly,  and  published,  in 
1315,  an  imperfect  little  handbook  based  upon 
Galen  and  Arabian  authors.  At  Prague  dissec- 
tion was  practiced  from  the  very  foundation  of 
the  University  (l.'MS),  at  Vienna  as  early  as 
1404,  at  Tubingen  from  1482.  and  at  London 
from  1540.  At  Padua  (1490)  Benedctti  erected 
an  anatomical  amphitheatre,  and  made  public  de- 
monstrations. Somewhat  later  Berengarius  of 
Carpi  is  said  to  have  dissected  more  than  a 
hundred  cadavers.  Vidius,  from  whom  the  Vi- 
dian nerve  and  Vidian  canal  are  named,  pro- 
fessor at  Pisa,  Guintherius  of  Andernaeh  (1487- 
1574),  professor  at  Louvain,  and  Jacobus  Syl- 
vius (1478-1555),  professor  at  Paris,  as  well 
as  many  others,  dissected  from  time  to  time. 
There  was,  however,  nothing  like  a  careful  and 
systematic  examination  of  the  structure  of  the 
body.  It  was  considered  sufficient  to  open  the 
great  cavities  and  display  the  viscera,  which 
were  examined  in  the  most  su|ierficial  manner. 
Great  reliance  was  placed  upon  Galen  and  Hip- 
pocrates, supplemented  by  their  Arabian  oom- 
mentators,  and  their  authority  was  rarely  ques- 
tioned. 

Andreas  Vesalius  (1514-1364)  (q.v.)  of 
Brussels  was  the  first  to  proclaim  openly  the 
new  doctrine,  that  the  structure  of  man  sliould 
be  learned  by  a  thorough  inspection  of  the  hu- 
man body  rather  than  by  reference  to  ancient 
authorities.  He  dissected  frequently  in  public 
at  Padua,  Pisa,  and  Verona,  and  published,  in 
1543,  his  great  work,  De  Humani  Corporis  Fnh- 
rica,  the  first  careful  and  complete  description 
of  the  body  of  man  based  upoji  actual  observa- 
tion. This  work  was  illustrated  by  excellent 
plates  made  by  Stephen  von  C'alcar,  a  pupil  of 
Titian.  Man}'  of  Galen's  errors  were  corrected, 
and  the  student  was  urged  again  and  again  to 
verify  each  statement  by  reference  to  the  only 
prime  authority,  the  body  of  man  itself. 

A  storm  of  opposition  was  at  once  raised. 
Sylvius,  a  pronounced  Galenist,  declared  Vesa- 
lius to  be  an  impious  madman,  whose  breath 
poisoned  Europe,  and  he  strove  in  every  way  to 
discredit  his  work.  Others,  more  rational  in 
their  opposition,  pointed  out  errors  in  Vesalius's 
own  book.  The  ardent  young  Fleming,  impa- 
tient and  chagrined  at  this,  resigned  his  chair 
at  Padua,  and  retired  to  the  court  of  Philip  II., 
at  Madrid,  where  he  tried  to  continue  his  stud- 
ies. His  enemies  did  not  scruple  to  attempt 
to  rouse  the  Inquisition  against  him.  Philip 
interrogated  the  faculty  of  the  University  of  Sal- 
amanca, then  the  leading  theological  school  in 
Europe,  as  to  whether  dissection  was  permis- 
sible. After  due  deliberation  a  reply  was  given, 
that  since  a  knowledge  of  anatomy  is  useful  to 
man,  dissection  may  be  allowed   (155G). 

The  atmosphere  of  the  Spanish  court  was  far 
from  congenial  to  scientific  pursuits.  Vesalius 
contemplated  a  return  to  Italy;  but  coming  back 
from  Palestine,  whither  he  had  gone,  as  is  sup- 
posed, in  fulfillment  of  some  vow,  he  was  ship- 
wrecked, and  died  on  the  island  of  Zante.  He 
was  the  founder  of  modern  anatomy  in  the  sense 
that  he  broke  with  tradition  and  substituted 
actual  investigation  for  reliance  on  authority. 

The  contemporaries  and  successors  of  Vesa- 
lius aided  much  in  placing  Gross  Anatomy  upon 


secure  and  lasting  foundaiions.  The  most  illus- 
trious among  these  were  Eustachio  (c.  1520- 
74)  (q.v.),  Fallopio  (c.  1523-U2)  (q.v.),  and 
Fabricius    (1537-101!)). 

Eustachio  made  many  corrections  of  the  work 
of  Vesalius,  and  was  besides  an  original  investi- 
gator of  great  force.  From  plates  prepared  by 
him  (but  not  published  until  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury), it  appears  that  he  anticipated  many  dis- 
coveries ordinarily  ascribed  to  anatomists  of  a 
later  period;  but  the  Eustachian  tube,  which  he 
accurately  described,  is  sai<l  to  have  been  pre- 
viously discovered  by  Alcnneon  about  500  B.C. 

Fallopio  named  the  Fallopian  tubes  (previ- 
ously discovered  by  Herophilus)  and  the  seminal 
ducts,  and  gave  a  good  description  of  the  organ 
of  hearing,  discovering  in  the  temporal  bone 
the  aqueduct  and  hiatus  that  commonly  bear 
his  name. 

Fabricius  of  Aquapendente  erected  at  Padua 
an  anatomical  amphitheatre.  He  studied  the 
development  of  the  fcetus  and  of  the  embryo 
chick,  described  the  muscular  coat  of  the  alimen- 
tary canal  and  of  the  bladder,  and  especially  the 
valves  of  the  veins  first  discovered  by  Stephanus 
of  Paris  in  1545  and  in  some  situations  figured 
by  Vesalius  in  the  second  edition  of  his  work. 
Fabricius  supposed  that  they  were  for  the  pur- 
pose of  retarding  the  oscillatory  flow  of  the 
venous  blood. 

It  fell  to  a  pupil  of  Fabricius,  William  Har- 
vey, to  explain  them  more  satisfactorily,  and  to 
free  anatomy  from  some  of  the  false  notions 
that  survived  from  the  Galenical  ieaching.  From 
about  1615  to  1028  Harvey  demonstrated  by 
public  lectures  and  by  published  experiments 
the  true  circulation  of  the  blood.  The  lesser  or 
pulmonary  circulation  had  been  mentioned  by 
Servetus  in  1533  in  an  obscure  pamphlet,  and 
by  Realdus  Columbus  in  1359,  but  was  not  gen- 
ci'ally  accepted.  C:esalpinus,  in  some  controver- 
sial works  published  in  1571  and  1593,  suggested 
the  probability  of  a  systemic  as  well  as  of  a 
pulmonary  circulation,  and  was  the  first  to  use 
the  term  circulatlo  in  this  qonnection.  Yet  the 
Galenical  theory  of  the  oscillator}'  movement  of 
the  two  kinds  of  blood  and  the  necessary  stip- 
position  of  orifices  in  the  septum  between  the 
cavities  of  the  heart  were  still  taught.  Vesa- 
lius, it  is  true,  had  said  that  he  could  not  find 
the  orifices,  and  somewhat  satirically  wondered 
at  the  wisdom  of  the  Almighty,  who  had  made 
them  so  small  that  they  could  not  be  seen.  Har- 
vey, to  use  his  own  words,  "taught  anatomy,  not 
from  books,  but  from  dissections ;  not  from  the 
suppositions  of  philosophers,  but  from  the  fabric 
of  Nature,"  and  in  a  series  of  most  carefully 
conducted  investigations  and  vivisections  suc- 
ceeded in  showing  that  the  blood  makes  a  com- 
plete circuit  of  the  body  as  well  as  of  the  lungs. 
Harvey's  work  led  to  a  more  careful  examina- 
tion of  the  heart  and  blood  vessels.  Stephen 
Blancaard,  in  1675,  first  efTeetivcly  demonsti'ated 
the  finer  vessels  by  injection,  a  method  used 
by  Frederick  Ruysch  (1638-1731)  to  show  their 
presence  in  great  numbers  in  almost  every  part 
of  the  body.  The  lymphatics,  casually  seen  by 
sever.ll  ancient  observers,  were  first  carefully 
studied  by  Gaspare  Aselli  in  1022.  The  tho- 
racic duct,  discovered  first  by  Eustaehius  in  the 
horse,  was  seen  in  the  dog  by  Pecquet  (1622-74) 
and  traced  through  the  diaphragm  to  the  recep- 
taeulum  chijU.  It  was  first  observed  in  man  by 
Jan  van  Home   (1621-70),  professor  at  Leyden. 


ANATOMY. 


508 


ANATOMY. 


Still  under  the  hallucination  caused  by  the 
Galenical  theories,  anatomists  thought  that  hoth 
lacteals  and  thoracic  duct  could  be  traced  to  the 
liver.  Rudbeck  discovered  the  general  lym- 
phatics in  1051. 

A  clearer  idea  of  the  gross  anatomy  of  the 
brain,  especially  of  its  internal  cavities,  was  due 
to  the  descriptions  of  Francis  Boe,  usually 
kno\vn  as  Franciscus  Sylvius  (1614-72),  pro- 
fessor at  Leyden,  whose  name  survives  in  the 
aqueduct,  fissure,  fossa,  and  artery  of  Sylvius. 
The  science  of  chemistry  was  at  this  time  grad- 
ually emerging  from  the  superstitions  of  al- 
chemy, and  Sylvius  is  also  famous  for  being 
among  the  first  to  attempt  to  diiTerentiate  the 
structures  and  fluids  of  the  body  by  means  of 
their  chemical  reactions.  Vieussens  (1641-1715) 
of  Montpellier  also  increased  the  knowledge  of 
the  nervous  system,  both  central  and  peripheral, 
describing  the  anterior  pyramids,  the  olive,  and 
the  anterior  medullary  velum  which  sometimes 
bears  his  name.  To  Thomas  Willis  (1622-75) 
(q.v. )  of  London,  sometime  professor  at  Oxford, 
is  due  a  systematic  description  of  the  brain  and 
its  cavities,  together  with  a  classification  of  the 
cranial  nerves  in  which  he  finally  separated 
the  sympathetic  cord  from  that  series.  He  rec- 
ognized that  the  brain  becomes  gradually  more 
complicated  as  we  ascend  the  animal  scale,  and 
that  it  is  more  easily  understood  by  a  study  of 
the  lower  and  more  simple  forms.  Tlie  decussa- 
tion of  the  pyramids  was  first  described  by 
Duverney  (1648-70),  demonstrator  at  the  Jar- 
din  du  Eoi,  afterward  the  Jardin  des  Plantes. 
at  Paris.  The  doctrine  of  the  "animal  spirits," 
supposed  to  fill  the  ventricles  of  the  brain  and 
to  be  distributed  by  the  nerves,  was  first  seri- 
ously  attacked   by   Wepffer    (1658). 

The  advance  of  the  physical  sciences  insti- 
tuted by  Galileo  (1564-1642)  had  a  profound 
effect  upon  anatomy.  The  new  develojnnents 
in  optics  were  now  called  on  to  contribute 
to  the  problems  of  structure.  Tlie  optical  prop- 
erties of  the  crystalline  lens  were  now  described 
by  Kepler  (1571-1630)  (q.v.),  the  eminent  as- 
tronomer, who  denied  that  it  is  the  seat  of 
vision  as  supposed  by  Hippocrates :  the  image 
on  the  retina  was  demonstrated  by  Scheiner 
(1575-1650);  Descartes  (1596-1650)  showed 
the  eye  to  be  a  camera  obscura,  and  suggested 
that  accommodation  is  produced  by  a  change  in 
the  convexity  of  the  lens.  He  also  made  some 
very  acute  observations  on  the  structure  and 
functions  of  the  nervous  system. marred,  however, 
by  metaphysical  speculations  that  were  attacked 
by  Stensen,  who  declared  tliat  in  order  to  deter- 
mine the  functions  of  organs  we  must  first  ascer- 
tain their  structure. 

A  new  instrument  of  research  which  the  Ital- 
ians, impelled  by  the  zeal  imparted  by  Galileo, 
were  the  first  to  apply  to  scientific  uses,  was  now 
introduced.  Tliis  was  the  microscope,  hitherto 
merely  an  optical  curiosity.  The  magnifying 
power  of  convex  lenses  was  known  to  the  an- 
cients, for  even  in  the  ruins  of  Nineveh  a  pol- 
ished rock  crystal  lens  has  been  found,  and 
there  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  similar 
instruments  were  used  in  ancient  Egypt  and  in 
Greece.  Spectacles  were  used  in  Europe  .as  early 
as  the  thirteenth  century,  and  the  compound  mi- 
croscope was  invented  about  1590  by  Hans  and 
Zacharias  Janssen  of  Middelhurg.  Holland.  No 
means  for  correcting  chromatic  and  spherical 
aberration  being  then   known,   the   first   instru- 


ments were  clumsy  and  imperfect ;  consequently, 
ma-ny  investigators  preferred  to  use  the  simple 
microscope,  especially  after  Leeuwenhoek  had 
shown  what  excellent  results  could  be  obtained 
with   small  but  accurate  lenses. 

Among  the  first  and  most  acute  observers  was 
Jlarcello  Malpighi  (1628-94),  professor  at  Bo- 
logna, Pisa,  and  Messina,  a  man  of  extraordinary 
acuteness  of  intellect,  combined  with  an  indom- 
itable zeal  for  natural  research.  He  left  his 
mark  in  almost  all  departments  of  biology.  He 
was  an  accomplished  botanist,  and  by  his  re- 
searches among  plants  laid  the  foundations  of 
the  modern  cell-theory;  he  was  an  entomologist, 
devoting  himself  to  an  exhaustive  study  of  the 
anatomy  and  development  of  the  silk-worm ;  he 
was  an  embryologist,  being  the  first  to  build 
upon  the  incomplete  studies  of  Harvey  and  Fab- 
ricius  and  describe  adequately  the  changes  of 
the  chick  in  the  egg ;  he  was  a  pathologist, 
studying  carefully  post  -  mortem  appearances 
and  the  causes  of  disease;  he  was  also  a  compar- 
ative anatomist,  drawing  many  of  his  conclu- 
sions as  to  the  structure  of  man  from  an  exam- 
ination of  animals. 

Before  Malpighi's  time  but  little  was  known 
regarding  the  structure  of  glands.  Under  this 
designation  were  included  many  non-glandular 
organs,  like  the  tongue  and  the  brain,  the  latter 
being  supposed  to  secrete  not  only  the  animal 
spirits  but  the  nasal  mucus  or  pituita  which  was 
believed  to  pass  down  through  holes  in  the  crib- 
riform plate  of  the  ethmoid  bone.  Sylvius  had, 
it  is  true,  distinguished  as  conglomerate  glands 
aggregations  like  the  pancreas  and  the  salivary 
glands,  and  as  conglobate  glands  those  of 
the  lymphatic  system.  The  ducts  of  some  of 
the  larger  glands  were  unknown,  the  liver  was 
considered  a  great  blood-making  organ  that  re- 
ceived the  bile  elaborated  by  the  gall-bladder  for 
the  purpose  of  combining  it  with  the  blood,  and 
the  mechanism  of  secretion  was  wholly  misun- 
derstood. Wii'sung  discovered  the  pancreatic 
duct  in  1642,  but  supposed  it  to  be  a  lymphatic 
leading  to  the  liver ;  Wharton  described  the 
submaxillary  duct  in  1652;  Stensen  the  parotid 
duct  (previously  thought  to  be  a  tendon)  in 
1661;  Bartholin  the  sublingual  duct;  Bellini 
the  straight  tubules  of  the  kidney  in  1662; 
Peyer  the  closed  follicles  of  the  intestines  in 
1677,  and  Brunner  the  duodenal  glands  in  1682. 
Schneider  (1614-80),  professor  at  W^ittenberg, 
finally  described  the  pituitary  membrane  of  the 
nasal  passages  and  settled  the  origin  of  the  nasal 
mucus.  It  was  JIalpighi,  however,  who  first 
united  these  scattered  observations  and  gave  a 
clear  idea  of  the  structure  of  acinous  glands. 
It  was  during  his  researches  on  tliis  subject 
that  he  discovered  the  acinous  structure  of  the 
lung,  and  demonstrated  that  there  are  no  visible 
orifices  by  which  air  can  pass  from  the  vesicles 
into  the  pulmonary  veins.  Here,  too,  he  first 
observed,  in  the  lung  of  the  frog,  the  capillary 
blood  vessels  "distributed  in  a  ring-like  fashion," 
thus  justifying  Harvey  and  forever  settling  the 
question  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood.  He 
described  most  of  the  structure  of  the  kidney 
as  it  is  known  to  us  to-day.  and  in  the  spleen 
discovered  the  bodies  that  bear  his  name.  He 
saw  and  described  the  red  blood  corpuscles, 
unaw\are  that  they  had  been  previously  discov- 
ered l\y  Swanunerdam,  a  Dutch  anatomist,  in 
1658.  "Extending  his  researches  to  the  skin,  he 
discovered    the    rete    mucosum,    or    Malpighian 


J 


ANATOMY. 


509 


ANATOMY. 


layer,  and  the  papilla',  wliifh  he  surmised  were 
organs  of  touch.  He  elucidated  the  structure 
of  the  liver,  which  Glisson  (1597-1077),  pro- 
fessor at  Cambridge,  had  already  carefully  de- 
scribed, showing  that  it  is  an  acinous  gland  of 
peculiar  construction,  and,  by  tying  the  bile 
duct,  demonstrated  that  the  bile  is  formed  in 
the  liver  and  not  in  the  gall-bladder. 

As  a  consequence  of  the  increase  of  the  power 
of  vision  by  the  use  of  the  microscope,  the  phe- 
nomena of  fecundation  and  the  development  of 
the  embryo  began  to  receive  attention.  Sper- 
matozoa were  discovered  in  1677  by  a  pupil  of 
Lceuwenlioek.  and  De  Graaf,  discovering  the  ovi- 
sacs (Graafian  follicles)  about  1072,  supposed 
them  at  first  to  be  ova.  Naboth,  too,  discovering 
the  closed  follicles  of  the  neck  of  the  uterus, 
sui)posed  them  to  be  ova  {Ovula  Naiothi).  The 
ova  of  the  lower  vertebrates  were,  of  course, 
well  known,  and  the  phenomena  of  their  devel- 
opment were  specially  investigated  by  Malpighi. 
Van  Home,  of  Leyden,  probably  saw  the  human 
ovum  in  1068,  but  it  was  not  unmistakably  rec- 
ognized until  Von  Bar  demonstrated  it  in  1827. 

During  the  course  of  this  investigation  two 
schools  arose — the  Animalculists  and  the  Ovists, 
that  respectively  maintained  the  superior  efli- 
cacy  of  the  male  or  female  elements.  Attempts 
were  made  to  explain  the  transmission  of  heredi- 
tary qualities  from  parent  to  child.  Aristotle, 
having  studied  the  development  of  the  egg,  had 
declared  that  the  embryo  primitively  consisted 
of  simple,  undifferentiated  material,  from  which, 
by  successive  stages,  the  adult  was  formed  (the- 
ory of  post-formation  or  epigenesis).  Opposed 
to  this  was  another  contention,  that  either  the 
male  or  the  female  elements  must  possess  in 
miniature  all  the  organs  of  the  adult  (theory  of 
preformation) . 

A  further  result  of  microscopic  research  was 
an  enlarged  view  as  to  the  distribution  of  living 
things.  The  discovery  by  Leeuwenhoek  (1032- 
172.'i)  that  organic  infusions  soon  become  replete 
with  living  forms  when  exposed  to  the  air,  led 
to  the  revival  of  the  ancient  notion  of  the  spon- 
taneous generation  of  living  from  non-living 
matter.  This  led  to  fanciful  theories  regarding 
fecundation  that  were  not  overthrown  until 
Spallanzani  (1729-99)  showed  that  living  forms 
do  not  develop  in  infusions  tluit  have  been  boiled 
and  then  excluded  from  the  air,  and  that  filtered 
seminal  fluid  has  lost  the  power  of  impregnation. 
Following  up  the  researches  of  Hartsoeker(  16.50- 
172.5)  he  also  demonstrated  that  ordinary  air 
teems  with  living  particles  that  enter  the  human 
body  and  pass  into  infusions.  This  doctrine 
was  termed  panspermatism,  and  developed  after- 
ward into  the  modern  "germ  theory."  which  has 
had  a  profound  influence  upon  pathological  anat- 

niliy. 

Tile  following  discoveries  of  this  period  may 
be  briefly  noted:  Ole  Worm  (1588-1654),  pro- 
fessor at  Copeidiagen.  discovered  the  intercalary 
hones  of  the  skull ;  Clopton  Havers  of  England, 
in  1602,  the  Haversian  canals  and  the  iutimate 
structure  of  bone;  Hooke  (1635-170."!),  the  prim- 
itive fibrilla?  of  muscle;  Kerkring  (1640-93),  the 
valvulse  conniventes  of  the  small  intestine;  Win- 
slow  (1609-1700),  of  Paris,  the  foramen  con- 
necting the  two  cavities  of  the  peritoneum; 
Douglas  (1075-1742),  of  London,  the  recto-uter- 
ine pouch  and  several  other  features  of  the  peri- 
toneum and  the  abdominal  wall. 

The  classification  of  animals  by  their  anatom- 


ical structure,  attempted  first  by  Aristotle,  was 
revived  by  several  authors  during  the  eighteenth 
century,  and  notably  by  Karl  von  Linng  (Lin- 
naeus) of  Rashult,  in  Sweden  (1707-78),  who 
considered  that  each  particular  species  was  im- 
mutably established  at  the  creation,  man  being 
placed'  at  the  head  in  the  order  Primates. 
Buffon  (1707-88),  however,  siipposed  that  varia- 
tions occur  from  changes  of  environment,  and 
even  hinted  that  all  species  may  have  origi- 
nated from  a  primitive  common  stock.  This  was 
afterward  more  boldly  advocated  by  Lamarck 
(1744-1829),  who  was  the  first  to  maintain  sys- 
tematically the  mutability  of  species,  and  to  look 
upon  man  as  derived  from  a  conunon  stock  with 
other  organisms,  conceiving  that  the  ancestral 
record  of  all  might  be  represented  as  a  branching 
tree.  To  this  was  opposed  the  authority  of  the 
great  comparative  anatomist  Cuvier  ( 1769-1832), 
who  caused  these  views  to  sink  into  obscurity 
for  a  time. 

The  controversy  concerning  the  early  develop- 
ment of  the  human  body  was  renewed  during 
this  period.  The  weight  of  authority  was  over- 
whelmingly in  favor  of  the  theory  of  preforma- 
tion, notwithstanding  the  absurdities  to  which 
it  committed  its  advocates.  Its  most  earnest 
supporter  was  Haller  (1708-77)  (q.v.) ,  professor 
at  Gottingen,  a  man  of  remarkable  learning  and 
indefatigable  research,  who  did  much  to  further 
exactitude  in  anatomical  knowledge,  and  was  the 
leading  physiologist  of  his  time.  He  made  many 
anatomical  discoveries  in  all  parts  of  the  body, 
and  finally  overthrew  the  doctrine  of  "animal 
spirits,"  which  had  ruled  all  investigations  of 
the  nervous  system  since  the  days  of  Hippocra- 
tes. He  declared,  however,  that  the  body  of  our 
primitive  mother  Eve  must  have  contained  in 
miniature  all  individuals  of  the  human  race 
that  had  existed  since  her  time  and  that  were 
hereafter  to  exist!  This  was  the  less  excusable, 
as  Kaspar  Friedrich  Wolff,  a  young  medical  stu- 
dent, had  published  in  1759,  as  his  graduation 
thesis,  a  remarkable  essay,  the  Theoria  Gcnera- 
tionis,  in  which  he  showed  by  accurate  and  con- 
clusive observations  that  the  organs  of  the  body 
are  developed  from  membranous  sheets  (the  blas- 
todermic membranes),  and  not  from  preformed 
rudiments.  He  even  anticipated  the  cell-theory 
of  the  next  century  by  stating  that  these  mem- 
branes are  themselves  composed  of  globules 
(cells).  Wolff  made  many  other  important  in- 
vestigations, and  his  name  has  been  perpetuated 
in  that  of  the  Wolffian  body  or  primordial  kid- 
ney. Such  was  the  opposition  with  which  his 
views  were  received  that  he  was  unable  to  obtain 
a  professorship  in  Germany  and  went  to  Russia. 
It  was  not  until  Meckel  called  attention  to  his 
work  in  1812  that  his  merits  were  fully  recog- 
nized. 

Aristotle,  Eustachio,  and  Fallopio  had  sur- 
mised that  the  organs  of  the  body  might  be 
composed  of  simpler  elements:  Boerhaave  (1668- 
1738)  supposed  that  everything  could  be  reduced 
to  vessels  and  fibres;  Haller  (1708-77)  classified 
structures  according  to  their  properties;  Bonn 
(1738-1818)  considered  that  membranes  are  the 
anatomical  basis  of  structure.  It  remained, 
however,  for  Bichat  (1771-1802)  to  establish 
clearly  the  doctrine  that  the  body  with  all  its 
organs  is  made  up  of  a  small  number  of  simple 
tissues.  This  he  did  by  an  examination  of  their 
chemical,  physical,  and  vital  properties,  dispens- 
ing wholly  with  the  use  of  the  microscope,  then 


ANATOMY. 


510 


ANATOMY. 


a  very  imperfect  instrun\ent.  He  applied  these 
views  to  the  elucidation  of  the  anatomy  of 
oj'gans  att'ected  b3'  disease,  a  subject  previously 
studied  bv  Morgagni  (1G82-1771)  and  bv  John 
Hunter  (1728-93).  Bichat's  death,  at  the  early 
age  of  thirty-one,  caused  by  imprudent  exposure 
in  the  dissecting-room,  was  a  great  loss  to  ana- 
tomical science. 

The  science  of  chemistry  had  now  advanced  to 
a  ]ioint  where  it  could  throw  much  light  upon 
the  composition  of  the  animal  body.  Four  great 
organic  gases  had  been  discovered :  carbon  di- 
oxide ( imperfectly  known  to  Van  Helmont  in 
1640)  by  Black  in  1757,  hydrogen  by  Cavendish 
in  17GG,  nitrogen  by  Rutherford  in  1772,  oxygen 
by  Priestley  in  1774.  Lavoisier  (1743-94) 
showed  the  importance  of  all  these  gases  to  the 
animal  economy.  Fourcroy  (1755-1809)  was 
practically  the  first  to  investigate  the  composi- 
tion of  organic  products. 

The  investigation  of  the  human  body  by  so 
many  competent  and  careful  observers  gave  a 
new  scope  to  anatomical  teaching.  It  was  seen 
that  no  proper  knowledge  of  anatomy  or  surgery 
could  be  obtained  without  the  use  of  the  cadaver. 
At  first,  legal  enactments  and  social  ostracism 
were  directed  against  those  who  practiced  dissec- 
tion; but  on  tlie  Continent  of  Europe  public  dis- 
sections were  frequently  held  from  the  time  of 
Vesalius,  and  as  men  of  commanding  intellect 
like  Malpighi,  Stensen,  Boerhaave,  Morgagni, 
Haller,  Bichat,  Hunter,  and  many  otliers  devoted 
themselves  to  the  pursuit  of  anatomy,  the  social 
stigma  was  gradually  removed.  On  the  Conti- 
nent, laws  were  early  enacted  by  which  the  bodies 
of  prisoners  and  paupers  were  turned  over  for 
anatomical  purposes.  In  Great  Britain,  how- 
ever, this  was  not  done,  and  bodies  were  quite 
commonly  obtained  by  robbing  graves.  Wlien, 
in  1S27,  the  Universitj'  of  Edinburgh  made 
dissection  compulsory,  and  this  example  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  other  large  schools  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  the  demand  for  cadavers  became  so 
great  that  it  was  practically  impossible  to  sup- 
ply it  without  breaking  the  law.  A  set  of  ruf- 
fians known  as  "resurrectionists"  became  estab- 
lished in  every  large  city,  and  no  cemetery  was 
safe  from  their  depredations.  In  Edinburgh 
two  scoundrels  named  Burke  and  Hare  made  a 
business  of  enticing  poor  and  friendless  persons 
into  their  haunts,  smothering  them,  and  selling 
their  bodies  to  the  medical  schools  for  dissection. 
Similar  cases  were  those  of  Bishop  and  Williams 
in  London.  A  remedy  for  this  was  found  in  an 
anatomy  act  passed  in  1832.  which  legalized  dis- 
section, and  authorized  the  use  of  available 
material  under  certain  restrictions. 

Iiuprovements  in  the  microscope  made  about 
1824  gave  a  new  impetus  to  research.  Earlier 
observers  (Hooke,  KiOo;  Grew  and  Malpighi, 
1671;  Wolff,  1759)  had  dimly  surmised  that 
organic  forms  were  composed  of  elementary 
units,  but  Schwann,  in  1839,  was  the  first  to 
demonstrate  this  for  animals  in  a  satisfactory 
manner.  Observations  by  Von  JIolil,  Purkinje, 
Leydig,  KoUiker,  Virchow.  and  Max  Schultze 
soon  placed  this  fact  beyond  cavil,  and  thus  was 
established  the  celebrated  cell-theory,  wliich  de- 
clared all  organized  beings  to  be  composed  of 
essentially  similar  minute  units.  This  led  to 
great  improvements  in  microscopical  technique 
and  the  investigation  of  the  chemical  properties 
of  cells.  Stilling  invented  section  cutting  in 
1842;  Gerlach,  carmine  staining  in  1S58;  Reck- 


linghausen, silver  staining  in  1800;  Waldeyer, 
double  staining  with  aniline  dyes  in  1803.  and 
Golgi,  bichromate  of  silver  staining  in   1873. 

With  the  establishment  of  the  cell-tlieory  came 
some  remarkable  generalizations,  which  have 
had  a  profound  effect  upon  anatomy.  Accord- 
ing to  the  views  advanced  by  Herbert  Spencer, 
Milne-Edwards,  and  others,  the  human  body  is 
to  be  considered  as  a  cell-community,  in  which 
the  laws  of  division  of  labor  and  of  differentia- 
tion that  in  human  society  cause  specialization 
into  trades,  classes,  and  employments  are  ap- 
plied to  the  morphological  units,  tlie  cells.  Cer- 
tain cells  become  specialized  for  special  func- 
tions, and  thus  are  produced  the  diversified 
forms  of  the  tissues  of  the  body. 

Another  remarkable  result  of  the  improved 
methods  of  investigation  was,  that  the  body  of 
animals  was  shown  to  be  developed  from  a  single 
cell,  the  ovum.  Tlie  series  of  phases  by  which 
this  astonishing  change  is  effected  occupied  the 
attention  of  many  investigators,  notably  Pander, 
Von  Bar,  who  established  tlie  theory  of  the 
germinal  laj'ers  or  blastodermic  membranes; 
Serres,  who  pointed  out  tlie  great  similarity 
between  the  successive  phases  of  the  embryo  and  J 
the  series  of  animal  forms  now  existent  on  the  m 
globe,  and  a  great  number  of  others  in  all  civ- 
ilized nations.  Many  details  of  this  wonderful 
series  of  changes  have  yet  to  be  supplied,  but  the 
general  features  of  it  are  now  firmly  established. 

A  great  impulse  was  also  given  to  Pathological 
Anatomy.  The  phenomena  of  disease  were  now 
traced  to  the  cells,  and  a  knowledge  of  their  ana- 
tomical changes  was  found  to  be  essential.  In 
1836  Cagniard  de  la  Tour  discovered  the  yeast 
plant,  and  many  fanciful  theories  of  fermenta- 
tion and  disease  were  overtluown.  Pasteur 
(1822-1895)  demonstrated  that  all  fermenta- 
tions and  putrefactions  are  caused  by  minute 
spores  that  swarm  in  ordinary  air.  The  para- 
sitic character  of  many  disorders  now  became 
evident,  and  the  foundation  was  laid  for  modern 
aseptic  surgery.     See  Hi.stology  and  Pathology. 

It  was  not  until  1859  that  the  knowledge  hitli- 
erto  obtained  was  fully  applied  to  the  elucida- 
tion of  the  causes  of  bodily  structure.  In  that 
year  Charles  Darwin  published  the  Oriciin  of 
Species,  and  followed  it  in  1871  with  The  De- 
scent of  Man.  These  works  advanced  beyond 
the  position  of  Lamarck,  in  that  they  showed 
an  elficient  cause  for  the  cumulative  variation 
of  structure  among  organisms.  This  is  the 
"struggle  for  existence"'  which  results  in  the 
extinction  of  those  forms  not  suited  to  the  envi- 
ronment. LTnlike  the  speculations  of  many  ])re- 
vious  writers,  these  views  were  advanced  with 
extreme  caution  and  supported  by  a  great  num- 
ber of  careful  observations.  They  were  acce]ited 
by  a  large  body  of  naturalists,  and  caused  a 
renewal  of  activity  in  anatomy  and  the  allied 
sciences.  It  became  evident  that  to  fully  under- 
stand the  structure  of  man  it  was  necessary  to 
ascertain  the  laws  of  development  both  in  the 
embryo  and  in  the  animals  from  which  the 
human  stock  may  be  derived.  Comparative 
Anatomy,  Embryology',  and  Paleontolog;^'  thvrs  be- 
came powerful  coadjutors  to  Human  Anatomy. 

The  importance  of  the  study  of  the  varieties 
of  man  now  became  recognized.  Previous  work- 
ers in  this  field  were  Camper  (1722-89),  the  in- 
ventor of  the  facial  angle;  Blumenbach  (1752- 
1840),  who  divided  mankind  into  five  races;  and 
Retzius  (179C-18G0),  the  inventor  of  the  cephalic 


ANATOMY. 


511 


ANATOMY. 


index  for  comparing  crania.  In  America  Sam- 
uel G.  Morton  Ijecame  widely  known  by  his  great 
collection  of  crania,  now  in  the  Academy  of  Nat- 
ural Sciences  in  Philadelphia.  His  Crania  Amer- 
icana and  Crania  .^gyptiaca  were  important  con- 
tributions. His  collections  were,  in  18.56,  de- 
scribed and  commented  on  by  another  anatomist, 
J.  Aitken  Meigs,  who  did  much  to  establish  the 
modern  methods  of  the  mensuration  of  the  skull. 
No  account  of  this  period  is  complete  without 
a  reference  to  the  work  of  Jeffries  WjTuan,  of 
Harvard  University,  who  was  a  man  of  great 
erudition  and  philosophical  insight.  As  a  mor- 
phologist  he  had  no  superior  among  the  anato- 
mists of  his  day.  He  was  the  first  to  describe 
the  arrangement  of  the  bou}'  spiculoe  in  the  neck 
of  the  human  femur,  and  to  contrast  it  with 
that  in  those  animals  that  do  not  assume  the 
erect  posture.  He  gave  the  first  scientific  de- 
scription of  the  anatomy  of  the  gorilla,  and 
wrote  on  symmetry  and  homology  in  the  limbs, 
on  the  vertebral  theory  of  the  skull,  on  terato- 
logical  subjects,  on  spontaneous  generation,  and 
on  the  anatomy  of  the  Hottentot.  The  question 
of  the  unity  or  diversity  of  origin  of  the  human 
race,  which  was  closely  connected  with  the 
origin  of  species,  excited  considerable  attention 
in  America  about  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  J.  C.  Nott  and  George  R.  Gliddon 
were  the  Joint  auth.ors  of  two  important  works 
on  this  .subject,  entitled  Types  of  Manlcind  and 
Inilificnou.i  Races  of  the  Earth.  This  study  was 
greatly  stimulated  by  the  discovery  of  human 
remains  in  strata  belonging  to  previous  geologic 
epochs,  particularly  at  Engis  and  Spy  in  Bel- 
gium, Neanderthal  near  Diisseldorf,  at  many 
places  in  France,  and  in  South  America.  Fi- 
nally the  prediction  of  Morton,  made  forty  years 
before,  was  verified  by  Dubois,  who  found,  in 
the  Eocene  strata  of  Java,  fossil  remains  of  a 
remarkable  transition  form  between  apes  and 
man  (1S90-95).  This  department  of  anatomy 
was  gi'eatly  advanced  by  the  zeal  and  energy 
of  Paul  Broca  (1824-80)  of  Paris,  who  system- 
atized the  methods  in  vogue,  and  invented  many 
new  ones  for  the  examination  of  the  human  body. 
The  localization  of  all  active  properties  in  the 
cells  gave  renewed  impetus  to  the  study  of  the 
structure  of  those  "elementary  organisms."  At 
first  this  structure  was  believed  to  be  compara- 
tively simple,  the  protoplasm  of  which  the  living 
substance  is  composed  being  apparently  a  struc- 
tureless jelly  having  peculiar  physical  and  chem- 
ical ]n'oiiertics.  Further  advances  toward  per- 
fecting the  microscope  and  microscopic  technique 
have  shown  this  to  be  a  mistake.  That  proto- 
plasm has  definite  structure  is  now  agreed  by 
all:  the  details  of  the  structure  are  still  in  dis- 
pute. Eminent  in  this  investigation  were  Carl 
Heitzmann  of  New  York,  Flemming  of  Kiel,  and 
Biitschli  of  Heidelberg.  The  phenomena  of  indi- 
rect cell-division  (kariiol'iiirsis)  were  first  con- 
nectedly observed  by  Schneider  in  1873,  and  have 
been  especially  investigated  by  Van  Beneden, 
Boveri,  Oscar  Hertwig,  and  Rabl.  The  ulti- 
mate constitution  of  the  cell  received  a  great 
deal  of  attention.  Niigeli,  in  1884,  framed  an 
hypothesis  that  protoplasm  is  composed  of  cer- 
tain elementary  units,  termed  micellw.  whose 
combination  produces  its  physical  and  vital 
properties  much  as  a  combination  of  molecules 
produces  the  physical  properties  of  inorganic 
bodies.  Similar,  more  widely  developed  theories 
were  framed  by  De  Vries,  Hertwig,  Weismann, 


and  others.  Weismann  attempts  to  explain  the 
phenomena  of  heredity  by  supposing  that  bodily 
characters  are  caused  by  architectural  peculiari- 
ties inherent  in  the  original  generative  cells. 
This  is,  therefore,  a  reappearance  of  the  theory  of 
preformation  so  prevalent  during  the  eighteenth 
centui'V.  Experiments  by  Hertwig  appear  to 
have  disproved  \\'cisniann's  views.  Great  activity 
in  the  investigation  of  the  structure  of  cells  still 
continues.  In  America,  Wilson  of  New  York 
and  Whitman  of  Cliicago  have  made  important 
contributions  to  our  knowledge  of  this  subject. 
Heitzmann,  of  New  York,  is  well  known  for  his 
attack  upon  the  cell-theory  as  commonly  taught, 
holding  that  the  cells  of  the  body  are  connected 
by  min\ite  threads  of  protoplasm;  a  theory 
that  has  recently  been  confirmed  to  a  limited 
degree. 

The  great  strides  made  in  our  general  knowl- 
edge of  structure  during  the  nineteenth  century 
can  only  be  briefly  mentioned.  The  structure 
and  development  of  bone  was  elucidated  by 
Goodsir,  Purkinje.  Sharpey,  and  Kolliker,  the 
osteoblasts  being  discovered  by  Gegenbaur  in 
1S64.  The  mechanism  and  development  of  joints 
were  studied  l)y  Braune  of  Leipzig,  Sutton  of 
London,  Dwight  of  Boston,  and  Bernays  of  St. 
Louis.  The  minute  anatomy  of  muscle  is  still 
under  consideration,  and  has  been  investigated 
by  Krause,  Pianvier,  Cohnheim,  and  many  others  : 
Humphrey  and  Huxley  (q.v. )  in  England  and 
Gegenbaur  in  Germany  have  written  on  the  gen- 
eral morphology  of  the  muscular  system,  and 
Gruber,  Theile,  Testut,  and  Lcdouble  have  inves- 
tigated muscular  anomalies.  The  structure  of 
the  capillary  blood  vessels  was  first  correctly 
demonstrated  by  Treviranus  in  1830.  The  blood 
platelets  or  hematoblasts  were  discovered  by 
Max  Schultze  in  1865.  The  lymphatics  were 
investigated  by  Kolliker,  Ranvier,  and  Sappey. 

In  the  nervous  s_ystem  the  discoveries  have 
been  many  and  brilliant,  completely  revolution- 
izing previous  notions  of  its  structure.  Gratio- 
let  first  showed  the  convolutionary  pattern  of 
the  brain;  Broca  was  the  first  to  prove  that 
certain  motor  faculties  may  be  localized  upon  the 
cerebral  cortex;  a  subject  upon  which  extensive 
researches  have  been  made  by  Fritsch  and 
Hitzig,  Ferrier  and  Horsley.  Ehrenberg  ol 
Berlin  appears  to  have  been  the  first  to  describe, 
in  1833,  the  large  cells  of  the  cerebral  cortex 
and  of  the  spinal  cord.  The  axis  cylinder  process 
of  nerve  cells  was  discovered  by  Wagner  of  Got- 
tingen,  Marshall  Hall  (q.v.)  of  London  was  the 
first  to  demonstrate  reflex  movements.  Prochaska 
to  discover  the  diff'erential  function  of  the  ante- 
rior and  the  posterior  roots  of  the  spinal  nerves. 
By  degeneration  experiments  instituted  by  Wal- 
ler, by  noting  the  myelination  of  nerve  filu'es  as 
done  by  Flechsig.  and  by  comparative  studies 
it  became  possible  to  trace  in  the  central  nervous 
system  the  paths  by  which  sensations  are  re- 
ceived and   motor   influences   discharged. 

Improvements  in  technical  methods  finally 
made  it  possible  to  trace  the  processes  of  nerve 
cells  to  their  iiMnutest  ramifications.  This  gave 
rise  to  the  neurone  theory,  which  holds  that 
the  nervous  tissue  is  composed  of  independent 
cells  or  neurones  that  may  ramify  extensively, 
some  of  the  ramifications  passing  into  nerve 
fibres  and  forming  their  active  conducting  ele- 
ments. This  theory  has  been  applied  with  suc- 
cess to  explain  the  architecture  of  the  nervous 
system;  a  subject  that  is  widely  engrossing  the 


ANATOMY. 


513 


ANATOMY    OP    PLANTS. 


minds  of  anatomists,  and  from  which  important 
results  are  expected  in  the  future. 

In  the  organs  of  special  sense  the  new  ideas 
of  the  constitution  of  the  nervous  system  have 
elucidated  many  difficult  problems.  The  anat- 
omy of  the  ear  has  been  studied  by  Riidinger, 
Helmholtz  (q.v. )  of  Berlin,  Retzius  of  Copenha- 
gen, and  Ayers  of  Cincinnati.  The  organ  of 
Corti  was  discovered  by  the  Marchese  di  Corti 
in  IS.il.  Schwalbe  of  Strassburg  first  saw  the 
taste-buds  of  the  tongue  in  1867,  Meissner  and 
Wagner  the  tactile  corpuscles  in  1852.  The 
teeth  have  been  a  special  object  of  research  with 
the  American  anatomists  Ryder,  Osborn,  and 
Cope,  especially  with  reference  to  the  mechanics 
of  their   development. 

The  researches  of  American  anatomists  have 
borne  fruit  in  other  fields.  W.  E.  Horner  of 
Philadelphia  discovered  the  tensor  tarsi  or  deep 
layer  of  the  orbicularis  palpebrarum,  and  Wil- 
liam Clay  Wallace  of  New  York  was  the  first  to 
show  the  real  nature  of  the  ciliary  muscle 
(1835).  It  is  to  Henry  J.  Bigelow,  of  Harvard 
University,  that  we  owe  the  first  accurate  de- 
scription of  the  ilio-femoral  ligament  of  the  hip- 
joint  and  its  application  to  the  reduction  of  dis- 
locations. His  work  on  the  hip.  published  in 
18U9.  completely  revolutionized  surgical  practice 
in  this  matter.  It  should  not  be  forgotten,  how- 
ever, that  Reid,  of  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  had  previ- 
ously, in  1851,  shown  many  of  the  facts  after- 
ward more  completely  stated  by  Bigelow.  In 
the  realm  of  comparative  anatomy,  and  espe- 
cially of  paleontology,  Joseph  Leidy,  O.  C. 
Marsh,  Harrison  Allen,  and  Edward  D.  Cope 
have  done  much  to  extend  the  fame  of  American 
science. 

BiBLiOGR.\PHT.  Among  the  recent  works  on 
human  descriptive  anatomy  may  be  mentioned: 
Quain,  Gray,  and  Morris,  in  English ;  Testut  and 
Poirier,  in  French ;  Gegenbaur  and  Rauber,  in 
German.  Bardeleben  is  editing  a  large  work  in 
German,  in  eight  volumes,  by  various  authors. 
On  topographical  anatomy,  McClellan  and  Treves, 
in  English :  Tillaux,  in  French,  and  Hyrtl,  Ger- 
lach,  and  Jlerkel,  in  German,  are  good  works. 
There  is  no  satisfactory  treatise  on  the  history 
of  anatomy.  A  fairly  complete  rgsumf  is  found 
in  Volume  I.  of  The  Reference  Handbook  of  Medi- 
cal Hciritcrs   {second  edition.  New  York,  1900). 

ANATOMY,  Comparative.  The  science  that 
treats  of  the  structure  of  organisms  with  the 
aim  of  discovering  their  evolutionary  history  and 
of  determining  what  parts  are  fundamental  and 
priniarv  and  what  have  undergone  modifications 
due  to  functional  changes.  This,  at  least,  has 
been  the  aim  of  comparative  anatomy  since  the 
doctrine  of  evolution  has  guided  anatomical  re- 
search. In  the  early  half  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury the  aim  of  comparative  anatomy  was  to 
assist  taxonomy,  or  the  natural  classification 
of  organisms,  liy  giving  a  basis  for  separating 
the  more  essential  parts  (to  be  used  as  the  basis 
of  the  larger  groups)  from  the  less  essential 
parts  (the  basis  of  the  smaller  groups).  In  the 
latter  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  aims  of 
comparative  anatomy  were  fostered  by  the  newer 
science  of  comparative  emliryology,  which  added 
anew  source  of  evidence  for  tracing  evolutionary 
history.  Together  these  sciences  constitute  com- 
parative _  morphology.  In  this  work  the  facts 
which  might  have  been  brought  together  into  a 
general  article  under  this  title  are  distributed 
under  more  special  headings.     Thus,  for  the  his- 


tory and  general  scope  of  comparative  anatomy, 
see  Anatomy;  for  the  comparative  anatomy  of 
the  several  parts  of  the  body,  see  respectively 
Skeleton  ;  Alimentary  System  ;  Mu.scular  Sys- 
tem ;  Nervous  System  ;  Circulatory  System  ; 
Re.spir.\tory  System  ;  REPRODUCTn'E  System  ; 
Excretory'  System,  and  similar  titles  in  connec- 
tion w-ith  human  anatomy  and  physiology,  and  in 
zoology  and  embryology.  Consult:  Cuvier, /jcfons 
d'aiiatomie  comparee  (first  edition,  5  volumes, 
Paris,  1800-05;  second  edition,  8  volumes, 
183G-44)  ;  Meckel,  System  der  vergleichenden 
Anatomic  (Halle,  1821-20)  ;  Owen,  Comparative 
Anatomy  of  Vertebrate  Animals  (fourth  edition, 
London,  1871);  Huxley,  Anatomy  of  Inverte- 
brates (London,  1877)  ;  id..  Anatomy  of  Verte- 
brate Animals  (London,  1871)  ;  Gegenbaur,  Ele- 
ments of  Comparative  Anatomy  (translation, 
London,  1878)  ;  Wiedersheim,  Comparative  Anat- 
orrt.y  of  Vertebrates  (translation,  London.  1898)  ; 
id.,  Lehrbuch  der  verglcichenden  Anatomie(3eT\a,, 
18()G)  ;  Lang,  A.,  Textbook  of  Comparative 
Anatomy  (of  Invertebrates)  (translation,  Lon- 
don.  lS91-0(i). 

ANATOMY  OF  ABUS'ES,  The.  A  work 
by  the  Puritan  Philip  Stubbes,  published  in  1583, 
condemning  many  of  the  customary  amusements 
of  the  time.  A  reply  to  it,  by  Nashe,  was  en- 
titled Anatomie  of  Ahsurditie    (1589). 

ANATOMY  OF  MEL'ANCHOLY,  The. 
A  celebrated  and  curious  work  bv  Robert  Burton 
(1577-1640),  first  published  in  "l621  and  many 
times  thereafter.  '  It  treats,  as  its  full  title  ex- 
plains, of  "all  the  Kindes,  Causes.  Symptomes, 
Prognostickes,  and  Severall  Cures"  of  melan- 
choly. It  appeared  under  the  pseudonym  of 
Democritus  Junior,  a  name  which  indicates  its 
author's  attitude.  There  is  an  extended  preface, 
not  the  less  interesting  for  being  autobiographi- 
cal. The  body  of  the  book  is  in  three  methodical- 
ly arranged  parts,  dealing  successively  with  (1) 
the  causes  and  symptoms  of  melancholy;  (2) 
its  cure;  (3)  amorous  and  religious  melancholy. 
Throughout  there  is  a  wealth  of  historical  and 
literary  lore  and  a  quaint  and  penetrating  hu- 
mor, which  have  made  the  book  a  favorite  with 
many  of  the  finest  minds.  Dr.  Johnson  and 
Charles  Lamb  especially  have  recorded  their 
admiration  of  it.  The  five  editions  succeediiig 
the  first  one  included  changes  of  text  by  Burton 
himself.  Since  his  time  it  has  been  variously 
abridged. 

ANATOMY  OF  PLANTS.  That  part  of  bot- 
any which  treats  of  the  structure  of  plants.  Gross 
anatomy  relates  only  to  those  parts,  external  or 
interna],  which  can  be  observed  with  the  unaided 
eye.  Minute  or  microscopical  anatomy,  treating 
of  the  tissues,  the  cells  of  which  they  are  com- 
posed, and  their  relation  to  one  another,  is  tech- 
nically called  histology  (q.v.).  For  purposes  of 
description,  the  plant  body  is  divided  into  parts, 
called  "members"  or  "organs,"  according  as  one 
wishes  to  emphasize  the  idea  that  they  constitute 
portions  of  the  body,  or  that  they  do  something, 
jlembers  or  organs  are  of  various  ranks  with  re- 
spect to  the  body  or  to  each  other.  Thus,  one 
may  speak  of  the  root  and  the  shoot  as  members 
of  the  plant;  axis  and  leaves  are  members  of  the 
shoot,  and  so  on,  each  part  being  resolvable  into 
subordinate  parts.  Analysis  ceases  only  with 
the  component  cells,  each  of  which  has  definite 
organs,  such  as  nucleus,  chloroplasts,  etc.  See 
Cell   (in  plants). 


ANATOMY   OF    PLANTS. 


513 


ANATOMY   OF   PLANTS. 


ExTERXAi,  Anatojiy.  The  foniintioii  of  ex- 
ternal organs  depends  on  the  unecnuil  j^rowth  of 
tlie  cells  composing  the  body,  or  of  delinite  groups 
(if  them.  Thus  arise  lobes  or  segments  liaving 
their  own  special  forms.  In  the  simplest  algte 
and  fungi  the  external  segmentation  of  the  body 
is  slight  or  wanting.  The  entire  body  may  be 
represented  by  a  single  spherical  or  oblong  cell. 
Sometimes  these  cells  are  branched.  In  certain 
ilesmids  the  branching  is  elaborate,  and  so  sym- 
metrical as  to  make  the  body  an  object  of  great 
beauty.  In  all  these  cases,  however,  the  branch 
lias,  in  itself,  a  structure  precisely  like  the  main 
liiidy.  In  somewhat  more  complex  plants  the 
liody  consists  of  a  row  or  filament  of  cells. 
Among  these  plants  it  is  very  common  to  find 
branches  arising  Avhich  are  themselves  branched, 
and  repeat  in  all  essential  characters  the  main 
axis.  Other  plants  have  their  cells  arranged  in 
the  form  of  a  flat  plate.     This  plate  may  become 


An  al^a,  showing  nearly  nndifferentiatod  body  ;  ter- 
minal and  sesnal  cells  only  unlike  the  rest. 


more  extended  in  one  direction,  producing  a 
band-like  form.  If  branching  occurs,  it  is  likely 
to  take  place  in  the  plane  of  the  flattening.  The 
branch  ma}'  be  essentially  like  the  main  axis,  or 
it  may  take  on  a  special  form.  Sometimes  the 
more  extended  growth  occurs  in  several  direc- 
tions, when  the  body  becomes  more  or  less  regu- 
larly lobed.  Unequal  growth  of  any  part  of  the 
llat  body  will  produce  a  fluted  or  frilled  form. 

It  is  only  when  the  plants  become  massive,  so 
that  some  cells  are  exposed  on  the  surface  and 
others  hidden  in  the  interior,  that  marked  dis- 
similarity arises.  Then  the  external  parts  are 
likely  to  be  differentiated  from  the  internal,  be- 


cause of  the  unlike  conditions  under  which  the 
two  exist.  However  little  or  nuich  the  body  may 
be  lobed,  there  will  be  an  unequal  exposure  to 
light,  and  the  side  best  illuminated,  whether  of 
organ  or  whole  plant,  will  take  on  a  different 
structure  from  the  shaded  one.  Thus  the  whole 
body  of  liverworts  and  the  leaves  of  seed  plant3 
become  dorsiventral.  Other  factors  also  deter- 
mine the  mode  of  growth ;  e.g.,  an  erect  position 
and  the  consequent  exposure  of  the  body  to  the 
loss  of  water  demands  organs  for  absorption,  for 
conduction,  and  ior  protection  against  excessive 
evaporation;  again,  the  cells  in  the  int;erior.  re- 
moved from  the  air,  must  be  supplied  with  it 
by  the  development  of  an  aerating  system. 

TuALLOPHYTES.  The  vegetative  body  of  the 
lower  plants  is  the  ganietophyte,  i.e.,  the  phase 
in  the  life  history  which  produces  sex  organs. 
(See  Alternation  of  Generations.)  The  ex- 
ternal anatomy  of  the  gametophyte  is  tlierefore 
first  considered.  Among  the  algte  and  fungi 
there  is  little  ditYercntiation  of  the  body,  because 
it  is  usually  slender,  and  all  parts  are  equally 
fitted  to  carry  on  independently  the  life  work. 
Among  the  highest  algoe,  the  lower  part  of  the 
body  is  often  so  constructed  as  to  form  (a)  hold- 
fasts, by  which  the  plant  is  anchored  to  the  sur- 
face on  which  it  grows;  (b)  a  roundish  stalk  of 
greater  or  less  length;  and  (c)  thinner  flattened 
parts,  which  expose  a  large  surface  to  tlie  water 
and  light,  and  so  imitate  leaves.  (See  Alq.e.) 
Among  the  higher  fungi  the  body  is  segmented 
into  a  nutritive  portion,  the  mycelium,  which 
usually  ramifies  extensively  through  the  sub- 
stratum, and  a  reproductive  part,  which  rises 
into  the  air  and  produces  spores.  The  aerial 
part  of  the  body  may  be  club-shaped,  umbrella- 
like,  diffusely  branched,  spherical,  etc.  See 
Fungi. 

Bryophytes.  Among  the  liverworts  the  body 
is  either  a  flat  ribbon,  more  or  less  branched,  or 


.V  thalliis  of  a  liverwort,   Bl.Hsia,  showing  a 
simple  ribbon-like  body,  with  lobed  edge. 

is  segmented  into  a  roundish  axis  with  thin, 
scale-like  outgrowths  on  upper  and  under  sur- 
faces, the  upper  ones  being  relatively  large,  con- 
spicuous, ,Tnd  green,  whence  they  are  called 
leaves;  while  the  under  ones  are  small,  incon- 
spicuous, and  pale.  From  various  parts  of  the 
body  on  the  under  side  arise  hold-fasts  in  the 
form  of  slender  hairs    (rhizoids).     Similar  out- 


ANATOMY    or    PLANTS. 


514 


ANATOMY    OF    PLANTS. 


growths,  but  of  varied  form,  are  not  infrequently 
found  on  otlier  parts  of  the  body.  (See  Hepa- 
Tic.E.)  In  mosses,  the  body,  wlien  young,  is  a 
niuch-branclied  filament,  usually  transient,  from 
which  there  arises  a  more  permanent  cylindrioal 
axis,  erect,  witli  few  branches,  or  horizontal  and 
much  branched,  on  whose  sides  are  developed 
green  thin  outgrowths,  the  leaves.  These  are 
usually  a  single  slieet  of  cells,  except  near  the 
middle  line,  where  several  layers  of  cells  con- 
stitute a  midrib.  The  sliapes  of  the  leaves  are 
extremely  varied.     See  Mrsci. 

PTERIDOPHYTE.S  AND  SpERMATOPIIYTES.  The 
gametopliyte  of  the  ferns  is  a  thin,  roundish, 
heart-shaped  body,  seldom  exceeding  a  quarter  of 
an  inch  in  diameter,  and  transient.  In  fern  allies 
it  is  reduced  to  a  few  cells,  and  is  not  visible 
without  microscopic  observation.  The  vegeta- 
tive body,  which  is  long  lived,  does  not  bear 
se.x  organs  as  in  the  lower  plants,  bvit  gives 
rise  only  to  non-sexual  reproductive  bodies  of 
various  kinds  called  spores ;  whence  it  is  kno\^■n 
as  the  sporophyte.  (See  Alternation  of  Gen- 
EKATIONS. )  The  external  anatomy  of  the  sporo- 
phyte in  the  pteridophytes  (ferns  and  their 
allies)  and  spermatophytes  (seed  plants  or 
flowering  plants)  is  much  alike.  It  is  almost 
without  exception  segmented  into  two  distinct 
parts,  the  root  and  the  shoot.  The  root  is  usually 
much  branclied,  and  bears  on  its  newer  parts  sur- 
face outgrowths  called  root-hairs.  Tlie  tips  of 
the  branches,  at  ^\■l^ch  the  growing  points  are  lo- 
cated, are  protected  by  somewhat  older  cells, 
which  constitute  a  root-cap.  (See  Root.)  The 
shoot  is  usually  dill'erentiated  into  a  central  axis, 
tlie  stem,  with  lateral  outgrowths  of  two 
kinds :  ( 1 )  Those  having  unlimited  growth :  i.e., 
branches,  which  are  similar  in  all  essential  re- 
spects to  the  main  axis,  though  they  may  be  spe- 
cialized in  form  and  function.  (For  further  de- 
tails respecting  tlie  strvicture  of  the  stem  and  the 
forms  which  it  assinnes,  see  Stem.)  (2)  Seg- 
ments with  limited  growth,  usually  flat,  thin, 
and  broad;  i.e.,  leaves,  which  are  developed  in  a 
variety  of  forms.  (See  Leaf.)  Simple  out- 
gi-owths  of  various  forms,  arising  from  single 
cells  or  small  groups  of  cells,  may  develop  on  any 
part  of  the  shoot  as  scales,  hairs,  etc. 

Intern.\l  Anatoiiy.  The  internal  anatomy  of 
plants  can  only  be  ascertained  by  the  study  of 
thin  sections,  crossing  the  body  in  various  planes, 
and  by  dissection  of  the  parts.  In  the  lower 
plants  the  internal  anatomy  is  as  simple  as  the 
external  form,  no  differentiation  of  the  cells 
being  observable.  In  the  higher  plants,  however, 
groups  of  cells  are  difl'ercntiated  into  tissues, 
and  the  tissues  are  arranged  into  systems,  each 
of  which  has  a  particular  function  to  fulfill. 
Tliese  tissue  systems  are  named  according  to 
their  function.  The  most  important  are  the 
following:  (1)  The  protective  system;  (2)  the 
absorptive  system;  (3)  the  conducting  system; 
(4)  the  nutritive  system;  (5)  the  aerating  sys- 
tem; (0)  the  secreting  system;  (7)  the  storage 
system;   (8)  the  iliechanical  system. 

The  tissues  and  tissue  systems  all  arise  in  an 
uns])ccialized  formative  tissue.  Every  plant  be- 
gins its  development  as  a  single  cell.  Repeated 
divisions  of  this  cell  and  its  segments  give  rise 
to  others  essentially  similar.  For  a  time  these 
cells  ret.ain  the  same  general  form  and  powers, 
noteworthy  among  which  is  the  capacity  of  divis- 
ion. .\s  tlie  cells  become  older  they  grow  unlike, 
and  change  not  only  in  form  but  in  function.  Some 


maintain  throughout  their  entire  existence  the 
form  and  appearance  of  the  j'oungest  cells.  These 
constitute  a  formative  region  (meristem),  which, 
by  its  growth,  gives  rise  constantly  to  new  tis- 
sues and  new  organs.  This  primarj'  formative 
tissue  is  found  in  the  larger  plants  at  the  ex- 
ti-emities  of  the  main  axis  and  branches  of  the 
roots  and  shoots,  where  it  constitutes  the  grow- 
ing points.  It  is  possible,  however,  for  cells  wliich 
have  ceased  to  divide  to  regain  this  power  and 
to  resume  tlie  character  of  formative  tissue.  To 
distinguish  this  latter  from  the  pi'imary  meri- 
stem of  the  growing  points,  it  is  called  secondary 
meristem,  or  cambium.  Secondary  meristem  is 
often  formed  in  one  or  more  concentric  zones  in 
the  stems  of  those  plants  which  increase  in  thick- 
ness as  they  become  older,  in  the  vicinity  of 
wounds,  and  at  various  ])oints  which  cannot  al- 
ways be  predicted.  At  these  points  its  activity 
I'esults  in  the  making  of  new  tissues,  or  even  new 
organs,  in  a  maner  essentially  like  that  in  the 
growing  points.  A  short  distance  behind  each 
growing  point  the  cylinder  of  newh'  formed  tis- 
sues differentiates  enough  to  show  three  regions: 
( 1 )  The  outer  cell  layer,  the  "dermatogen," 
which  gives  rise  to  the  epidermis,  and  all  its 
structures;  (2)  the  central  mass,  the  "plerome," 
which  develops  the  central  cylinder  or  stele,  in- 
cluding tlie  vascular  strands  and  pith;  (3)  be- 
tween these,  the  "periblem.''  whicli  jiroduces  the 
cortex.  The  distinction  lietween  these  regions  is 
permanent,  becoming  more  marlced  with  age. 

( 1 )  TiiE  Protective  Sy'steii.  In  alga;  and 
fungi,  which  live  in  water  or  moist  places,  the 
need  for  protection  is  seldom  of  moment.  The 
transformation  of  the  surface  walls  into  a  gela- 
tinous material  is  common  among  even  the  sim- 
plest algae,  and  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  protec- 
tive measure.  Some  of  tlie  larger  alga?  have  the 
cells  near  the  surface  of  the  body  smaller  and 
more  compact  than  those  of  the  interior.  In  the 
aerial  parts  of  some  fungi  a  comjjact  arrange- 
ment or  coalescence  of  the  filaments,  and  some- 
times the  thickening  of  their  walls,  makes  the 
surface  firm  or  even  hard.  In  the  larger  plants, 
however,  the  surface  tissues  are  usually  organized 
into  a  continuous  membrane,  the  e])idermis,  in 
places  perforated  by  numerous  but  minute  open- 
ings, the  stomata,  which  are  bounded  by  special 
cells,  and  guard  cells.     (See  Stomata.)     The  epi- 


Oork  cells  ipfridfrin)  developed  under 
the  epiderniii*  (the  outer  layer  of  cells)  by 
divisions  ijariillel  to  the  Burface  iu  the 
cork  canibiuiji  iphcUogen),  next  the 
rounded  cells  of  the  cortex. 

dermis  sometimes  becomes  more  than  one  layer  j 
of  cells  in  thickness.     This  is  regularly  the  ease] 
at  the  tip  of  the  root,  where  it  forms  a  thimble- 
shaped   cap.      The   outer   wall    of   the   epidermal  I 
cells   is   frequently  much   thickened,  and   is  usu- 
ally partially  occupied  by  a  wax-like  substance,] 


ANATOMY    OF    PLANTS. 


515 


ANATOMY   OF   PLANTS. 


ciilin,  whioli  lendors  the  wall  partially  water- 
proof. The  extreme  outer  portion  of  the  wall 
may  be  completely  transformeil  into  eutin,  con- 
stituting the  cuticle.  Besides  this,  the  epidermal 
cells,  when  young  and  active,  are  capable  of  ex- 
creting upon  the  surface  a  lajer  of  waxy  or 
resinous  material,  which  interferes  still  more 
with  the  exit  or  entrance  of  water.  Outgrowths 
from  the  epidermal  cells  in  the  form  of  hairs  or 
scales,  with  which  the  surface  is  sometimes  com- 
pletely covered,  also  retard  evaporation.  On  the 
twigs  of  perennial  plants  the  epidermis  dies  and 
withers  away.  Its  place  is  then  taken  by  sev- 
eral or  many  laj'ers  of  dead  cells  of  a  tabular 
form  with  waterproof  walls,  called  cork.  This 
is  the  product  of  a  zone  of  secondary  meristem 
developed  vmder,  or,  more  rarely,  in  the  epider- 
mis itself.  Cork  gives  to  the  stems  or  twigs  of 
trees  their  yellowish  or  brownish  color.  On 
older  parts  it  forms  the  outer  parts  of  the  bark 
(q.v.). 

(2)  The  Absorptive  System.  (See  Absorp- 
tion.) The  absorptive  system  of  the  fungi  con- 
sists mainly  of  the  Mycelium  ( q.v. ) .  The  Algse 
(q.v.)  may  take  up  materials  by  any  part  of  the 
surface  exposed  to  the  water.  In  mosses  and 
liverworts  the  hair-like  outgrowths  by  which 
they  are  anchored  (rhizoids)  are  supposed  to  be 
absorptive,  but  sufficient  proof  of  this  is  lacking. 

The  leaves  or  even  the 
general  surface  of  the  body 
are  the  most  efficient  ab- 
sorbing regions.  In  the 
higher  plants  the  absorp- 
tive system  for  water  and 
its  solutes  is  represented 
mainly  by  the  root,  and 
especially  by  the  root- 
hairs.  For  gases,  the  ab- 
sorptive system  is  the 
whole  surface  of  the  aerial 
parts,  but  notably  that  of 
the  leaves.  In  a  few  plants 
there  are  special  out- 
growths on  aerial  parts  in 
the  form  of  hairs,  which 
U.mt-hairs  (not  yet  full-  »•"<=  able  to  absorb  water, 
grown)  on  the  root  of  or  even  solutions  of  or- 
whwit  Bcedling  The  pro-  ganie  material;  but  as  a 
toplasm   of  cells  is  not        ,      .u  i.      e         ^ 

shown.  The  hairs  adhered  ''"'«  the  amount  of  water 
eo  firmly  to  certain  soil  which  mav  be  absorbed  by 
particles  that  they  could  the  aerial  part  of  a  plant  is 
not  he  washed  off.  ,,     ^    .     ,  ^,.    .,  , 

so  small  as  to  be  negligible. 

Very  young  plants  ( embryos )  often  have  special 
organs  for  absorbing  the  food  materials  stored 
around  tlieni  in  the  seed.  These  organs,  however, 
are  transient  and  disappear  with  the  exhaustion 
of  the  food  supply. 

(3)  T"he  Conducting  System.  Water  and 
foods  may  be  transferred  from  one  part  of  the 
body  to  the  other  through  any  of  its  living  tis- 
sues by  dili'erences  in  osmotic  pressure.  (See  Os- 
mosis.) In  the  smaller  plants,  these  osmotic 
movements  probably  suffice,  but  in  the  large 
forms  they  are  too  slow,  and  special  conducting 
systems  have  therefore  been  developed.  These 
consist  of  strands  of  elongated  cells  extending 
from  the  neighborhood  of  the  absorbing  or  food- 
making  regions  throughout  the  body  and  reaching 
all  its  parts.  The  conducting  sj'stem  is  often 
called  the  fibro-vascylar  system,  because  its  es- 
sential elements  were  formerly  called  "vessels" 
(after  the  analogy  of  blood  "vessels"),  and  these 


are   frequently   acconi])anied   by   mechanical  ele- 
ments  in   the   form   of   fibres.     The   conduction 


Diagram  of  the  transverse  section  of  a 
monocotyJedonons  stem  (.-I.sy/rtrtfr/w*').  The 
ovate  bodies  scattered  tliroiigh  the  section 
indicate  the  sheathed  pairs  of  xyiem  and 
phloem  bundles. 

(q.v.)    of  water  and  foods  is  carried  on  in  the 
main  by  separate  strands.    The  water-conducting 


Diagrammatic  longitudinal  tangential  section 
of  a  xylem  bundle  of  Corn  (Zea  mayf),  showing 
the  surrounding  parenchyma  (tliin,  isodianietric 
cells) ;  the  sheath  (thick-walled,  elongated, 
pointed  cells) ;  two  pitted  vessels  (tracnese) ; 
and  in  the  centre  an  annular  vessel. 

strands  are  the  xylem  strands,  the  food-conduct- 
ing ones  the  phloem  strands. 

The  xylem  strands  consist  of  trachese,  or  tra- 
cheids,  accompanied  by  variable  amounts  of 
parenchyma  cells  and  often  fibres.  The  tracheae 
are  formed  by  the  fusion  of  rows  of  elongated 
cells  through  the  absorption  of  most  of  the  abut- 
ting end  walls.  They  thus  become  long  tubes 
(1  to  3  meters),  emptied  of  protoplasm  at  ma- 
turity, and  with  their  walls  irregularly  thick- 
ened, often  in  elaborate  patterns.  The  tracheids 
are  similar,  but  do  not  suffer  the  absorption  of 
the  end  walls,  so  that  each  is  a  cell  and  not  a 
cell-fusion.  The  phloem  strands  consist  essen- 
tially of  sieve  tubes  and  varying  amounts  of  elon- 
gated parenchyma-cells.  The  sieve  tubes  resem- 
ble the  tracheae  in  the  loss  of  living  contents, 
but  differ  from  them  in  the  more  uniform  thick- 
ness of  their  walls,  and  particularly  in  having 
only  portions  of  the  end  walls  (or  even  the  side 
walls   between   adjacent   sieve   tubes)    absorbed. 


ANATOMY    OF    PLANTS. 


516 


ANATOMY    OF    PLANTS. 


so   that   they   are   perforated   by   many   minute 
openings. 


Transverse  section  of  a  sheathed  bundle-pair  from 
Corn  (Zea  mays),  p,  parencliyraa  cells  ;  within  these 
the  sclerenchyma  sheath  ;  i\'ti  pitted  vessel  with  its 
fellow  opposite,  and  two  annular  vessels  between, 
with  the  adjacent  tissues  mark  the  sylem  bundle ; 
the  area  above  and  between  the  pitted  vessels  is  the 
phloem  bundle. 

The  xylem-  and  phloem-strands  have  a  definite 
relation  to  one  another  in  position.  In  the 
pteridophytes,  the  phloem-region  often  envelops 
file  xylem  region  completely,  though  in  a  few 
cases  it  is  enveloped  by  the  xylem.  In  most  of 
the  spermatophytes,  however,  these  strands  lie 
side  by  side,  the  xylem  as  a  rule  nearest  the  cen- 
tre and  the  phloem  nearest  the  periphery  of  the 


Cross-section  of  a  single  bundle  pair,  pa,  in- 
closing parenchyma ;  p,  phloem  bundle  ;  ^,  xylem 
bundle;  c,  cambium;  a,  accompanying  scleren- 
chyma, sometimes  called  bast  fibres. 

axis.  They  extend  into  the  leaves,  in  which 
they  occupy  the  so-called  ribs  or  veins,  the  xylem 
nearest  the  upper  side,  the  phloem  nearest  the 
tnider  side.  Together  they  form  the  smaller  vein- 
lets,  becoming  slenderer  and  having  fewer  ele- 
mentswith  successive  branching,  until  the  phloem- 
strand  disappears,  leaving  the  xylem-strand  to 
form  the  finest  veinlets,  invisible  to  the  naked 
eye,  which  end  'blindly  amongst  the  green  cells, 
or  form  a  network  with  other  small  strands. 
Near  its  ending  in  the  leaf  the  xylem-strand  is 


composed  exclusively  of  tracheids.  The  xylem- 
and  phloem-strands  originate  near  the  growing 
points  by  the  ditl'erentiation  of  the  tissues  which 
arise  from  the  plerome.  Taken  all  together,  they 
constitute  a  central  cylinder  in  the  root  and 
stem,  known  as  the  stele.  In  some  stems,  espe- 
cially among  the  pteridophytes,  there  are  sev- 
eral independent  steles,  but  more  often  this  ap- 
pearance   is   produced   by   the   branching   of   the 


Diagram  of  a  cross  section  of  dicotyledonous 
stem,  showing  a  single  circle  of  bundle  pairs  (the 
cross-hatched  region — phloem  bundle,  the  rest — 
xylem  bundle)  dividing  the  outer  region  (cortex) 
from  the  central  (pith). 

stele,  as  in  the  stalks  of  leaves.  In  the  stems 
of  many  plants,  especially  dicotyledons,  a  for- 
mative region,  the  stelar  cambium,  arises  in  the 
stele  between  the  .xylem-  and  phloem-strands. 
This  may  give  rise  to  additional  xylem-  and 
phloem-tisstie,  and  so  increase  the  size  of  these 
strands.  More  often,  however,  it  extends  from 
one  pair  of  strands  to  another,  and  so  eonstittites 
a  complete  zone,  by  means  of  which  not  only  is 
the  thickness  of  the  original  strands  increased, 
but  that  of  the  intervening  tissues  as  well.  Usu- 
ally new  xylem-  and  phloem-strands  are  produced 
by  the  stelar  cambium  between  the  older  ones. 
Thus  it  may  come  about  that  the  stele  shows  a 
massive  development  of  secondary  xylem  in  the 
centre  and  secondary  phloem  around  it,  the  two 
separated  by  a  thin  sheet  of  cambium.  This  is 
the  condition  in  all  deciduous  and  coniferous 
trees.  The  centre  of  the  trunk  is  composed  of  old 
and  dead  xylem-tissue,  its  outside  of  bark,  most 
of  which  is  likewise  dead,  the  only  living  parts 
being  the  cambium  and  adjacent  tissues. 

(4)  The  Nutritive  System.  The  ntitritive 
system  consists  of  cells,  usually  thin-walled, 
among  whose  organs  are  found  one  or  more 
chloroplasts  (q.v.;.  The  massing  of  these  cells 
gives  the  green  color  to  the  nutritive  regions. 
If  the  plant  body  be  more  than  a  few  cells  in 
thickness  the  nutritive  tissues  are  limited  to  the 
surface,  because  the  green  coloring  matter,  chlo- 
rophyll (q.v.).  can  be  produced  and  maintained 
only'under  adequate  illumination.  The  interior 
tissues,  therefore,  are  colorless,  because  of  the 
absorption  of  light  by  the  outer  ones.  The  nu- 
tritive tissues  may  occupy  the  surface  of  the 
stem  only,  but  their  most  effective  disposition 
is  in  the  leaves.  In  some  liverworts  and  in  the 
mosses,  .the  so-called  leaf  consists  of  a  single  layer 
of  cells:  thev  are  not  lik?  the  leaves  of  the 
higher  plants  "either  in  mode  of  origin  or  in  struc- 
ture, although  thev  serve  the  same  function. 
(For  structure  of  the  leaf  of  the  higher  plants, 


ANATOMY   OF    PLANTS. 


517 


ANATOMY    OF    PLANTS. 


see  Leaf.)  The  manufacture  of  food  can  only 
take  place  in  cells  containing  chloroplasts,  when 
these  are  adequately  illuminated.  (See  Photo- 
synthesis.) The  food  produced  by  the  nutri- 
tive tissue  is  primarily  carbohydrates.  This  may 
be  used  at  once  for  the  formation  of  proteid 
foods,  and  since  the  supplj'  of  carbohydrates  is 
most  abundant  in  the  leaves,  they  are  also  the 
jirincipal  seat  of  proteid  formation.  (See  Food 
OF  Plants.)  Foods  produced  in  the  leaves  may  be 
transported  to  other  parts  of  the  plant  and  stored 
for  a  time.  ( See  Storage.  )  In  those  plants  which 
lack  foliage  leaves  the  surface  of  the  stem  only  is 
occupied  by  the  nutritive  tissue,  and  by  its  pro- 
fuse branching  it  may  expose  a  considerable  area 
of  these  tissues  to  light  and  air.  In  some  eases, 
however,  the  necessity  for  protecting  the  plant 
against  excessive  evaporation  is  so  urgent  that 
the  liody  has  no  outgi'owths,  being  cylindrical  or 
spherical,  as  in  the  cactaceoe ;  in  such  a  case  the 
nutritive  tissue  is  limited  to  the  surface  of  the 
compact  stem,  and  is  at  a  minimum. 

(.5)  The  AiiRATiNG  System.  The  aerating 
system  consists  of  irregular  passages  amongst 
the  cells  of  the  plant  body,  formed  by  the  sepa- 
ration of  the  cells  as  they  mature.  These  pas- 
sages comnumicate  with  the  outside  air  by  spe- 
cial opening  through  the  epidermis,  called 
stomata  (q.v.).  If  the  epidermis  dies  and  is  re- 
placed by  cork,  as  on  the  surface  of  twigs,  com- 
nmnication  of  the  aerating  system  with  the  air 
is  maintained  for  a  few  years  through  lenticels 
(q.v.).  The  intercellular  spaces  are  largest  in 
the  water  plants,  where  they  often  form  exten- 
sive canals  easily  visible  to  the  naked  eye.  In 
most    land    plants,    however,    they    are    narrow, 


Transverse  section  of  the  central  part 
of  the  root  of  Calamus  (Ac(yi'us  cala- 
wiws),  showing  the  cential  cylinder  of 
sylem  and  phloem  bundles  and  huge 
air-chambers,  separated  by  plates  of 
cells. 

tortuous  passages.  Through  these  gases  dif- 
fuse, but  there  is  little  or  no  flow,  i.e.,  mass 
movement.  Carbon  dioxide  and  oxygen  are  sup- 
plied to  the  cells  in  requisite  amount  by  the 
aerating  system,  the  former  for  food-making  and 
the  latter  for  respiration.     See  Aeration. 

(())  The  Secreting  System.  There  is  no 
sharp  distinction  to  be  made  between  secretion 
and  excretion  in  plants.  Many  substances,  use- 
less to  the  plant  except  incidentally,  are  stored 
in  special  receptacles,  and  are  thus  removed 
from  the  general  course  of  activity.  In  other 
cases  the  material  is  poured  out  u])on  the  sur- 
face of  the  plant  and  is  thus  gotten  rid  of.  The 
secreting  system  consists  of  ( 1 )  single  secreting 
cells  or  groups  of  them,  called  glands    (q.v.); 


(2)    receptacles  for   secretions.     Gland-cells  dif- 
fer  in  appearance  from   the  other  cells  by  the 


Hairs  from  leaf  of  Centaurea,  terminating  in  glands 
h.    At  «,  a  stoma. 


Emergences  of  tlie  Hemp  ( Cannabis  safiva),  capped 
by  glands,  showmg  the  cuticle  lifted  into  a  vesicle  by 
the  secretion. 

very  granular  character  of  their  protoplasm. 
Single  glandular  cells  are  common  both  in  the 
interior   of  various  organs  and  at  the   surface. 


A  cross  section  of  a  resin  duct  in  a  young  pine 
leaf,  f,  receptacle  for  the  resin,  formed  by  the 
separation  of  the  secreting  cells,  z.  Later  the 
ceils  surrounding  z  become  thick-walled  and 
prevent  collapse  of  the  duct. 

On  the  surface  they  are  not  infrequently  raised 
upon  a  longer  or  shorter  stalk,  in  which  case 
they  constitute  glandular  hairs. 

Receptacles  for  secretions  are  produced  either 
by  the  unusual  enlargement  of  an  intercellular 
space  aiuong  the  gland-cells,  or  by  the  degenera- 
tion of  the  gland  itself,  leaving  the  secretion 
lying  amongst  the  tissues  originally  enveloping 
the  gland. 

(7)  The  Storage  System.  The  storage  sys- 
tem consists  of  masses  of  thin-walled  cells,  which 
are  usually  extraordinarily  developed  in  certain 
organs.  Any  organ,  root,  stem,  leaf,  or  even 
a  flower-bud,  may  thus  be  specially  adapted  to 
storage.  The  storage-cells  retain  their  vitality, 
and  have  the  power  of  organizing  the  food  ma- 
terials coming  to  them  into  permanent  storage 


ANATOMY   OF   PLANTS. 


518 


ANATOMY   OF   PLANTS. 


forms.     The    reserve    foods    consist    chiefly    of 
starch,  iniilin,  cellulose,  sugars,  oils,  and  proteid 


of  the  elements.    The  mechanical  tissues  are  dis- 
posed in  the  plant  body  in  such  a  way  as  to  be 


«,  a  glandular  lobe  of  the  leaf  of  Drosera,  with 
the  clear  secretion  in  situ.  In  the  centre  of  lobe  a 
water-conducting  bundle. 

6,  a  glandular  hair  from  the  leaf  of  tobacco. 
The  secreting  cells  are  shaded. 

materials  of  divers  kinds.  The  proteids  are 
stored  in  the  form  of  granules.  (See  Aleurone.) 
Starch  is  also  stored  in  granular  form,  each 
grain  being  organized  as  a  sphere-crystal  by  a 


A  bit  of  the  section  of  a  potato  tuber,  showing  paren- 
chyma cells,  with  starch  grains  in  place. 


leucoplast  (q.v.).  Sugars  are  accumulated  in 
solution  in  the  cell-sap,  which  may  contain  5 
to  20  per  cent.  Oils  are  stored  usually  in  liquid 
form,  as  droplets  in  the  protoplasm. 

In  a  few  cases  tissues  are  devoted  to  water 
storage.  Water-storing  tissues  are  found  in 
plants  which  inhabit  regions  ^^■here  they  must 
provide  against  excessive  water  loss.  The  leaves 
of  Begonia  and  the  stems  of  Caetaceae  furnish 
illustrations. 

(8)  The  Mechaxical  System.  The  mechani- 
cal sj'stem  consists  of  cells  called  stereids,  some- 
times short,  sometimes  elongated,  whose  walls 
have  become  much  thickened.  The  living  con- 
tents of  mechanical  cells  usually  disappear  when 
the  walls  become  excessively  thick.  Short  (iso- 
diametric)  stereids,  developed  in  mass,  afford  re- 
sistance to  crushing,  as  in  fruits  and  seeds.  Elon- 
gated stereids  are  called  fibres.  They  impart 
elasticity,  extensibility,  flexibility,  and  tensile 
strength  to  the  body.  All  these  qualities  depend 
solely  upon  the  cell  walls  and  the  mode  of  union 


Diagrams  of  cross-sections  of  stems  to  show  the 
distribution  of  mechanical  tissues  (black),  a,  shows 
the  I-bt-am  principle  ;  6,  the  hollow  column  ;  c,  the 
built-up  girder. 

highh'  efiicient,  conforming  in  their  distribution 
to  the  best  modes  of  mechanical  construction  for 
imparting  rigidit}'  and  strength.  In  cylindrical 
organs  like  the  stem  they  are  placed  near  the 
periphery,  on  the  principle  of  the  hollow  colunm, 
or  the  built-up  column  of  latticed  girders.     In 


..I.../? 


Elaioplasts  from  a  plant  with  the  milky  sap, 
showing  0,  oil  droplets,  which  sometimes  accumu- 
late at  one  side  of  the  elaioplast. 

bilateral  organs,  like  leaves,  where  tearing  is  pos- 
sible from  wind  strains,  the  mechanical  tissues 
are  so  developed  as  to  att'ord  protection  to  the 
edge  against  tearing,  and  in  the  ribs  they  are  so 
placed  as  to  maintain  the  softer  tissues  in  the 
expanded  position. 

The  development  of  mechanical  tissues  depends, 
in  large  measure,  upon  the  infltience  of  external 
agents,  particularly  stresses  acting  in  various  di- 
rections. Thus  it  comes  about  that  the  dift'erent 
organs  attain  the  strength  necessar.v  to  main- 
tain their  position,  or  to  hold  the  attached  parts 
as  they  increase  in  size  and  weight. 

For  a  description  of  the  difl^erent  kinds  of  tis- 
sties  involved  in  the  foregoing  systems,  see  His- 
tology. 

Bibliography.  For  elementary  works,  con- 
sult: Barnes,  PUnt  Life  (New  York.  1898); 
Bessey,  Botany  (Xew  York,  1892),  For  more 
advanced  works:  De  Bary,  Comparative  Anatomy 
of  the  Vegetative  Organs  of  the  Phanerogams  and 
Ferns,  translated  by  Bower  and  Scott    (Oxford, 


ANATOMY    OF    PLANTS.  519 

1884)  ;  Coebol  and  tiarnsfv,  Uulliiics  of  Classi- 
firiitioii  uitd  Siieciul  Morplwloijy  (Oxford,  1887)  ; 
ytiaslmi'f;!-'!',  Noll,  Schcnok,  and  Schimper,  A 
Text  ilooh-  of  Botany,  translated  by  Porter  (New 
York,  1898)  ;  Vines,  fitudents'  Text  Book  of 
Butaiiii  (New  York,  1895). 

AN'AXAG'ORAS  (Gk.  'AvainyOfm)  (c.  500- 
428  B.C.).  The  last  great  philosopher  of  the 
Ionian  School.  He  was  born  between  500  and 
496  B.C.  at  Clazomenie,  in  Ionia,  the  son  of  Hege- 
siluilus.  His  faniily  was  wealthy  and  distin- 
gxiished,  so  that  the  young  Anaxagoras  was  able 
to  devote  himself  to  intellectual  pursuits.  Soon 
after  the  Persian  Wars  he  moved  to  Athens, 
where  he  lived  and-  taught  many  years,  thus 
transplanting  philosophy  from  Ionia  to  Attica, 
Axhicli  was  destined  to  be  its  home  for  many 
centuries.  Among  his  pupils  were  some  of  the 
most  distinguished  Athenians,  Pericles,  Euripi- 
des, possibly  Socrates  and  Archelaus.  But  after 
about  thirty  years'  residence  lie  was  charged 
with  impiety  toward  the  gods,  a])parently  by  the 
opponents  of  Pericles,  who  took  advantage  of 
Anaxagoras's  novel  e.xplanations  of  natural  phe- 
nomena to  injure  the  statesman  through  his 
friend.  The  eloquence  of  Pericles,  however,  se- 
cured a  reduction  of  the  sentence  from  death  to 
banishment  for  life,  and  Anaxagoras,  after  some 
wanderings,  settled  at  Lanipsacus,  on  the  Helles- 
])ont.  where  he  died  in  428  B.C. 

The  teachings  of  Anaxagoras  cannot  be  ex- 
actly determined  in  all  points.  Of  his  work  On 
Nature,  in  which  he  set  forth  his  system,  we  have 
only  fragments.  But  it  is  clear  that  he  made  a 
distinct  advance  over  the  earlier  Ionian  philoso- 
phers in  that  he  defined  a  new  principle,  intelli- 
gence or  mind  (vovq),  as  operating  on  matter, 
thus  introducing  a  dvuilistic  explanation  of  the 
universe  in  contrast  to  the  materialistic  monism 
of  his  predecessors.  This  dualism  was  further 
developed  by  Plato  and  Aristotle.  The  varied 
processes  of  change,  growth,  and  decay  were  ap- 
parently explained  to  be  the  combining  and  sepa- 
rating of  matter  under  the  directing  influence  of 
intelligence.  It  was  taught  that  matter  is 
single  in  its  nature,  and  consists  of  an  infinite 
number  of  invisible  atoms  inconceivably  small 
(dTTtpfiaTa,  "seeds,"  named  o^wiofitpf/  by  Aris- 
totle) :  these  in  their  original  condition  make  the 
luiformed  primitive  material,  possessing  no  char- 
acteristics. When  acted  on  by  intelligence,  they 
form  individual  objects  we  see  about  us;  i.e., 
liars  of  gold,  or  iron,  or  copper  are  made  up  of 
the  same  material,  but  in  each  case  intelligence 
has  caused  a  result  different  from  the  others ; 
and  further,  the  processes  of  change  produced  by 
the  spiritual  principle  are  what  we  call  natural 
lihenomena.  Intelligence  acts  from  a  jioint,  the 
pole,  setting  the  "seeds  of  matter"  into  spherical 
motion.  By  this  movement  the  lighter  parts  are 
separated  from  the  heavier,  the  former  to  be 
the  clear,  glowing  upper  air  (ether),  the  latter 
to  gather  in  the  centre,  and,  by  cooling,  to  become 
water,  land,  stones,  and  minerals.  The  heavenly 
Iwidies  are  masses  of  stone  cast  from  the  revolv- 
ing earth  into  the  fiery  ether,  where  they  are 
heated  and  continue  their  courses,  the  sun  being 
a  mass  larger  than  the  Peloponnesus.  Anaxa- 
goras's notions  witli  regard  to  the  moon's  light, 
the  cause  of  the  rainbow,  of  winds,  and  of  sound 
were  fairly  accurate.  Plants,  the  lower  animals, 
and  man  owe  their  existence  and  continued  life 
to  the  Supreme  Intelligence  which  resides  in 
them.     In  his  doctrine  of  atoms,  his  "seeds,"  An- 


ANAXIMENES. 


axagoras  approaches  the  teaching  of  the  Atomic 
School.  (See  Democriti;.s.)  Xaturally  Anaxa- 
goras did  not  conceive  the  nature  of  his  spiritual 
principle  clearly  enough  to  be  able  to  explain  de- 
tails satisfactorily,  as  Aristotle  remarks  in  his 
Metaphysics;  but  his  great  service  was  that  he 
turned  philosophy  from  thought  about  things  to 
the  consideration  of  thought  itself,  and  made 
that  one  of  the  most  important  subjects  of  specu- 
lative inquiry  thereafter.  Anaxagoras  was  also 
classed  by  Eudemus  among  the  Greek  geometri- 
cians. Plutarch  ascribes  to  him  a  work  on  the 
quadrature  of  the  circle,  and  asserts  on  the  au- 
thority of  Vitruvius  that  he  wrote  a  theory  on 
perspective.  Consult  Zeller,  ficschichtc  der  gric- 
chischen  PhiJosophie  (Leipzig,  1893) .  The  frag- 
ments are  edited  by  Schauliach  (Leipzig,  1827)  ; 
Sehorn  (Bonn,  1829)  :  Ritter  and  Preller,  His- 
ioria  Fhilosophiw  (seventh  edition, Gotha,  1888)  ; 
and  Lange,  History  of  Materialism,  Eng.  trans. 
(Boston,  188G). 

AN'AXAR'CHXJS  (Gk.  'Avafnp,rof,  Anaxar- 
clios).  A  native  of  Abdera,  who  accompanied 
Alexander  in  the  Asian  expedition,  and  was 
highly  prized  by  him  as  a  counselor  and  friend. 
He  was  cruelly  put  to  death  by  the  Cyprian 
prince  Nicocreon.  Consult  Zeller,  Gcschichte 
der  gricchischcn    Philosophic    (Leipzig,    1893). 

ANAX'IMAN'DEK  ((;k.  •Al^aii^mr6pn^,  An- 
aximandros)  (610-54G  B.C.).  A  Greek  mathe- 
matician, astronomer,  and  philosopher.  He  was 
born  at  Miletus,  the  son  of  Praxiades,  and  was 
a  disciple  and  friend  of  Thales,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded as  the  head  of  the  Ionian  School.  He  is 
said  to  have  discovered  the  obliquity  of  the  eclip- 
tic, and  certainlj'  taught  it.  He  appears  to  have 
been  the  first  to  introduce  in  Greece  the  gno- 
mon (an  instrument  for  determining  the  sol- 
stices),  and  the  poios  (sun-dial).  The  invention 
of  geographical  maps  is  also  ascribed  to  him. 
According  to  Simplicius  and  Diogenes,  Anax- 
imandcr  approximated  the  size  and  distances  of 
the  planets,  constructed  astronomical  globes,  and 
wrote  a  work  on  geometrj'  in  ])rose.  He  seems  to 
have  conceived  of  the  universe  as  a  number  of 
concentric  cylinders,  of  which  the  outer  is  the 
sun,  the  middle  the  moon,  and  the  innermost  the 
stars.  Within  these  all  is  the  cylindrical  earth. 
As  a  philosopher,  he  speculated  on  the  origin 
(17  apxi?,  he  arche)  of  the  phenomenal  world:  and 
this  principle  he  held  to  be  the  infinite  or  inde- 
terminate {TO  aTTcipuv,  to  apeiron) .  This  indeter- 
minate principle  of  Anaximander  is  generally 
supposed  to  have  been  much  tlie  same  with  the 
chaos  of  other  philosophers.  From  it  he  con- 
ceived all  opposites,  such  as  hot  and  cold,  dry 
and  moist,  to  proceed  through  a  perpetual  mo- 
tion, and  to  return  to  it  again.  Of  the  manner 
in  which  he  imagined  these  opposites  to  be 
formed,  and  of  his  hypothesis  concerning  the 
formation  of  the  heavenly  bodies  from  them, 
we  have  no  accurate  information.  It  would 
seem,  however,  that  he  did  not  believe  in  the 
generation  of  anything  in  the  proper  sense  of 
the  word,  but  supposed  that  the  infinite  atoms 
or  units  of  which  the  apxv,  or  primary 
matter,  is  composed,  merely  change  their  relative 
positions  in  obedience  to  a  moving  power  resid- 
ing in  it.  Consult  Zeller,  Gcschichte  der  grie- 
chischcn  Philosophic    (Leipzig,  1893). 

AN'AXIM'ENES  (Gk.  'Avaitpernc).  A  Greek 
historian,  born  in  Lampsacus,  Asia  Minor,  in  the 
fourth  century  B.C.     He  was  a  pupil  of  Zoilus 


ANAXIMENES. 


520 


ANCHITHERIUM. 


and  Diogenes;  is  said  to  have  taught  Alexander 
rhetoric,  and  to  have  accompanied  him  in  tlie 
Persian  expedition.  He  wrote  histories  of  Philip 
of  Macedon,  of  Alexander,  and  of  Greece,  of 
which  a  few  fragments  exist.  The  rhetoric  ad- 
dressed to  Alexander,  found  among  the  writings 
of  Aristotle,  is  also  attributed  to  him. 

ANAXIMENES.  A  Greek  philosopher,  who 
was  burn  at  Miletus,  in  Asia  Minor,  and  flour- 
ished about  546  B.C.  He  held  air  to  be  the  first 
cause  of  all  things,  or  the  primar.v  form  of  mat- 
ter, from  which  all  things  are  formed  by  com- 
pression. Consult  Zeller,  Geschichte  der  grie- 
chischcn  Philosophic  (Leipzig,  1893). 

ANAYA,  a-nii'ya,  Pkdro  Mama  (1795-1854). 
A  ]\Iexican  general.  He  was  born  at  Huichapan, 
and  in  18irjoined  the  Mexican  arm.y,  in  which 
he  attained  the  rank  of  brigadier-general  in  1833. 
During  the  Mexican  War  General  Anaya  took 
part  in  the  battle  of  Churubusco  (q.v.),  on  Au- 
gust 20.  1847.  He  was  Minister  of  War  under  Her- 
rera.  in  1845 ;  was  Secretary  of  War  under  Arista, 
in  1852;  was  Acting  President  of  Mexico  while 
Santa  Anna  was  resisting  the  advance  of 
Scott  (April  2— May  20,  1847),  and  during  the 
absence  of  President  Peua  y  Peua  (September 
26,  1847 — January  8,  1848).  '  Upon  Santa  Anna's 
restoration  (1853)  he  became  Postmaster-Gen- 
eral, and  retained  that  post  until  his  death. 

AN'BURY  (i)robably  from  A.  S.  ange,  vexa- 
tion, trouble  +  herry ) .  A  disease  of  cabbage, 
turnips,  and  other  cruciferous  plants.  See  Club 
Root. 

ANCACHS,  an-kitch'.  A  maritime  depart- 
ment of  Peru,  bounded  b.v  the  dejiartment  of 
Libertad  on  the  north.  Hufmuco  and  .lunin  on  the 
east,  Lima  on  the  south,  and  the  Pacific  on  the 
west  (Map:  Peru,  B  5).  Area,  16,562  square 
miles.  The  greater  portion  of  the  surface  is 
mountainous,  but  there  is  some  good  agricultural 
land.  The  mineral  deposits  are  supposed  to  be 
verv  important,  but  are  little  worked.  Tliere  is 
a  railway  line  running  through  the  State  from 
Chimbote  to  Huaraz,  the  capital.  The  popula- 
tion was  estimated  in  1896  at  428,703. 

ANCffi'trS  (Gk.  'AjxaZoc,  Anl-aios).  A 
name  of  two  of  the  Argonauts  of  Greek  legend. 
( 1 )  A  son  of  Poseidon,  who  became  steersman 
of  the  Argn.  He  is  noted  for  the  prophecy  that 
he  should  not  live  to  taste  wine  from  his  own 
vineyard.  At  the  moment  when  at  length  he 
did  lift  a  cup  of  its  vintage  he  was  told  that 
"there's  many  a  slip  'twixt  the  cup  and  the  lip," 
and  just  then  the  noise  of  a  wild  boar  which  had 
got  into  the  vineyard  called  him  away.  He  was 
killed  by  the  animal,  and  so  fulfilled  the  predic- 
tion. (2)  A  son  of  Lycurgus  the  Arcadian.  He 
was  killed  by  the  Calvdonian  boar. 

ANCELOT,  iixs'lo',  Jacques  Arsi>xe  Poly- 
CARPE  (1794-1854).  French  dramatist,  novelist, 
and  poet,  bom  at  Havre,  who  won  fame  and  a 
pension  in  1819  Ity  his  tragedy  Louis  IX.  His 
other  serious  dramas  are  not  noteworthy:  but  an 
epic,  Marie  de  Brdbant.  and  a  novel,  L'hommc  dii 
monde  (1829)  attracted  attention.  The  Revolu- 
tion of  1830  cost  him  his  pension,  and  he  became 
a  fertile  purveyor  of  light  dramas,  farces,  and 
vaudevilles  of  doubtful  moralitj'.  Verv  readable 
are  the  graceful  verses  of  his  epigrammatic 
satires,  Kpitres  familiires  (1842)  ;  but  Louis  IX., 
his  first  considerable  work,  remains  his  best.    His 


wife.  Marguerite  Louise  Virginie  Chardon 
(1792-1875),  collaborated  with  him,  and  wrote 
independently  plays  and  novels. 

AIT'CESTOK  (M.  Engl,  ancessour.  from  Lat. 
antecessor,  a  predecessor,  foregoer).  In  the 
English  law  of  inheritance,  the  person  from 
whom  one  may  inherit  real  property.  It  is  the 
correlative  of  heir.  The  term  is  sometimes 
loosel.y  used  as  signifying  a  progenitor;  but 
properly,  in  this  legal  usage,  an  ancestor  need 
not  be  a  progenitor,  as  one  may  inJierit  from  his 
collateral  relatives  as  well  as  from  an  ancestor 
in  the  direct  line.     See  Heir;  Succession. 

ANCESTOR  WOR'SHIP.  See  Man,  Sci- 
ence OF. 

AWCHIETA,  an-shy:i't:i.  Jos£  DE  (1533-97). 
A  Portuguese  .Jesuit  missionary,  called  "Apostle 
of  Brazil;"  related  to  Lo.vola.  He  was  born 
at  Luguna,  in  Teneriffe.  Canar.v  Islands,  and  in 
1553  went  to  Brazil,  where  he  founded  the  first 
college  for  the  conversion  of  natives,  and  was 
appointed  governor  of  the  converted  Indians. 
Both  the  Portuguese  and  savages  ascribed  to  him 
the  working  of  miracles.  He  died  near  Espirito 
Santo.  His  work  on  the  Nattira}  Productions  of 
Brazil  was  published  by  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
at  Madrid.  Consult:  Rodriguez.  Vida  del  Padre 
J.  de  Anchieta  (1618).  and  Vaseoneellos,  Yida 
do  Padre  Joseph  de  Anchieta  (1620). 

ANCHISAURUS,  :-in'ki-sa'rus  (Gk.  avxt,  an- 
chi,  near  +  arwpo;,  sauros,  lizard).  The  best 
known  of  the  dinosaurian  reptiles  that  lived  on 
the  marshes,  flood-plains  and  beaches  of  the  Con- 
necticut estuarv  during  the  Triassie  Period.  Two 
species  are  known,  quite  perfect  skeletons  of  both 
of  which  have  been  found;  the  larger,  Anchisauriis 
colurus,  having  had  a  slender,  delicate  body  about 
six  feet  long,  which  length  is  hardl.v  one-tenth 
that  of  many  of  the  enormous  dinosaurs  found  in 
the  .Jurassic  rocks  of  the  Western  States.  These 
carnivorous  Anchisauri  had  small,  bird-like 
heads  with  large  e.ves,  and  beaked  jaws,  each 
provided  with  eighteen  teeth.-  and  had  long, 
slender,  bird-like  necks.  The  form  and  number 
of  the  bones  of  the  tail  indicate  that  this  mem- 
ber was  slender,  round,  and  usuall.v  carried  free 
from  the  .around.  Anchisaurus.  with  its  short 
fore  legs,  that  seldom  touched  the  ground,  and  its 
four-toed  hind  feet,  the  first  digits  of  which  were 
so  weak  as  to  render  them  incapable  of  making 
impressions  U])on  the  firm,  moist  sands  of  the 
beach,  was  in  all  probabilit.v  the  reptile  that 
made  many  of  the  well-known  "bird-tracks"  of 
the  Connecticut  Valley  sandstone.  See  DiNO- 
sauria. 

ANCHISES,  an-kl'sez  (Gk.  'Ayxi<^'K.  Anchi- 
Sf's) .  In  Grecian  legend,  a  descendant  of  the 
royal  house  of  Ilium  (Troy),  and  the  father  by 
Aphrodite  (Venus)  of  the  Trojan  hero  .^Cneas 
(q.v.).  He  had  been  commanded  not  to  reveal 
the  maternit.v  of  the  child,  but  disclosed  the 
secret  to  his  companions,  and  was  made  blind 
(one  legend  says  killed)  by  lightning  from  Zeus. 
At  the  fall  of  Troy,  his  son  bore  him  awa.y  on  his 
shoulders,  and  Vergil  describes  their  voyage  to 
Italy  and  Sicily,  where  the  old  father  died  and 
was  buried  at  Drepaiuun   (Trapani). 

ANCHITHERIUM,  an'kl-the'ri-um  (Gk. 
ai>xi,  anchi,  near  -{- t>i/piov,  fhrrion,  wild  beast). 
One  of  the  three-toed  fossil  horses  of  Middle  Mio- 
cene Tertiary  time,  reuniins  of  which  have  been 
found  in  North  America  and  Europe.     The  ani- 


ANCHITHERIUM. 


521 


ANCHOR. 


nial  was  of  tlie  size  of  tlio  Sliotlaiul  ponj',  and 
had  tlie  middle  toe  of  each  foot  well  developed, 
while  the  lateral  toes,  one  on  each  side  of  the 
middle  toe,  though  of  a  length  sullicient  to  reach 
the  ground,  were  of  such  delicate  construction 
as  to  lie  incapable  of  supporting  any  weight. 
Anchitheriiun  was  at  one  time  thought  to  be  one 
of  the  ancestors  of  the  modern  horse,  but  is  now 
considered  to  represent  an  oH'shoot  from  the 
main  line  of  evolution  of  the  horse,  although  it 
lived  at  the  same  time  and  in  company  with  the 
direct  horse  ancestors.  A  complete  skeleton  of 
Anchitherium  affine,  found  at  Pawnee  Buttes, 
Colorado,  in  1001,  is  on  exliibition  in  the  Ameri- 
can Museum  of  Natural  History  in  New  York 
City.  For  descriptions  of  other  forms  of  fossil 
horses,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  article  on 
Hok.se.  Fossil. 

AN'CHOR  (Lat.  ancora,  Gk..  ayiwpa,  anicyra, 
akin  to  Engl,  anyle ;  literal  meaning,  '"something 
crooked,  hooked").  A  heavy  instrument  designed 
to  rest  on  the  sea  bottom,  and,  by  means  of  a 
cable  or  rope,  hold  a  vessel,  buoy,  or  other  float- 
ing object  in  a  desii'ed  position.  Anchors  for 
buoys  frequently  consist  merely  of  heavy  blocks 
of  stone,  but  those  for  ships  arc  now  almost  in- 
variably of  iron  or  steel.  Many  forms  of  anchors 
were  used  by  the  ancients.  The  earliest  consisted 
of  stones,  or  baskets  of  stones,  which  acted  mere- 
ly as  weights  without  hooking  into  the  ground ; 
these  were  followed  bj'  hooked  sticks,  weighted 
to  make  them  sink,  and  having  only  one  arm. 
Other  arms  were  eventually  added,  so  that  the 
anchors  resembled  the  modern  grapnel.  The 
earliest  recorded  use  of  anchors  was  by  the  Egyp- 
tians on  tlicir  Red  Sea  galleys,  while  the  Greeks 
are  cr'.'dited  with  having  used  the  first  iron  an- 
chor. Greek  vessels  had  several  anchors,  one  of 
which,  called  the  "sacred  anchor,"  was  never  let 
go  until  the  ship  was  in  dire  distress;  and  a 
similar  custom  was,  for  many  years,  observed  in 
the  British  Navy.  All  sea-going  vessels  ordi- 
narily carry  several  anchors.  Two  of  these,  at 
least,  are  carried  well  forward,  one  on  each  bow, 
and  are  therefore  called  boicers,  and  are  desig- 
nated as  the  2iort  boivcr  or  starboard  bower,  ac- 
cording to  the  side  of  the  ship  on  which  they  are 
carrieil.  In  addition  to  these,  large  vessels  carry 
one  or  two  anchors  of  about  the  same  size,  called 
shrct  anchors.  They  are  stowed  like  the  bowers, 
but  usually  some  distance  further  aft,  and,  not 
being  intended  for  immediate  use,  are  generally 
securely  lashed  in  place. 

A  stream  anchor  is  a  light  anchor,  not  more 
than  half  as  heavy  as  one  of  the  bowers,  and 
usually  about  one-fourth.  It  is  often  very  use- 
ful. Very  light  anchors  are  called  ked;ies.  In  the 
United  States  Navy  the  weight  of  a  battleship's 
bower  or  sheet  anchor  is  from  14,000  to  18.000 
pounds.  Stream  anchors  (the  term  "stream"  is 
not  now  much  used)  weigh  from  1,000  to  ,3,000 
pounds,  and  kedges  from  100  to  1,000  pounds. 
Smaller  anchors  are  carried  for  the  boats.  For 
the  purpose  of  grappling  and  holding  to  such 
objects  as  a  vessel's  rigging,  trees  on  shore, 
chains  and  the  like,  a  small  instrument  called  a 
grapnel  is  used.  It  has  no  stock,  but  has  several 
arms,  each  sharply  pointed.  They  were  nuich 
used  in  "cutting  out;"  expeditions  in  the  days 
when  such  enterprises  were  common.  The  grap- 
nel, with  a  short  length  of  chain  attached,  as 
the  enemy  would  have  severed  a  rope  with  their 
cutlasses,  was  thrown  into  the  rigging  of  the 
ship  attacked.  This  enabled  those  of  the  attack- 
VoL.  I.— 35. 


ing  partj',  in  a  tideway,  or  when  the  ship  at- 
tacked was  moving,  to  keep  alongside  until  they 
could  clamber  on  board.  Grapnels  are  still  is- 
sued for  use  in  boats  in  the  United  States  Navy, 
and  a  large  folding  grapnel,  with  straight  hinged 
arms,  is  used  to  some  extent  in  naval  boats  in 
place  of  an  anchor  of  the  customary  shape.  An- 
chors were  formerly  made  of  wrought  iron,  but 
are  now  very  largely  made  of  cast  steel.  There 
are  two  types  in  use,  the  old,  or  ordinary  type, 
in  which  the  stock  is  at  right  angles  to  the  arms, 
and  patent  anchors,  which  have  no  stock  at  all, 
or  if  they  have,  it  lies  in  the  same  plane  with  the 
arms.  The  shape  of  the  ordinary  anchor  is  fa- 
miliar, and  is  shown  in  Fiu:.  1.     The  main  body  is 


A  Ring 

B  Stock 

('  Shank 

IJ  Crown 

E  Palm 


ANCHOR. 

J?  Fluke 

O  Ann 

n  Bill 

K  Shackle  or  Jewsharp 

L  C'hib-link 


called  the  shank;  at  one  end  it  joins  the  arms, 
and  at  the  other  is  pierced  by  a  hole  through 
which  passes  the  iron  (or  steel)  stoek.  The  lat- 
ter has  a  ball  cast  on  one  end ;  the  other  end 
is  bent  at  right  angles  a  few  inches  from  its  ex- 
tremity, and  also  terminates  in  a  ball,  but  the 
ball  is  removable.^  The  stock  is  held  in  position 
in  the  shank  by  a  raised  lug,  or  shoulder,  on  one 
side,  and  by  a  key  on  the  other.  The  bend  at  the 
end  permits  it  to  be  partly  drawn  out  and  folded 
down  along  the  shank.  At  the  other  end  of  the 
shank  from  the  stock  are  the  arms,  which  are 
cast  or  forged  in  one  piece  with  it.  They  taper 
slightly  toward  their  ends,  which  are  called  pees, 
or  6t7/s,  and  on  the  side  toward  the  shank  have 
shield-shaped  pieces  called  the  flukes.     The  f.aces 


PIG.   2.     PATENT  ANtliuK. 


A    Ring 
B    Shank 


S    Pivot 


C    Crown 
DP    Flukes 


of  the  flukes  are  called  palms.  The  middle  of  the 
curve  of  the  arms,  opposite  to  and  in  line  with 
the  shank,  is  called  the  crown. 


ANCHOR. 


522 


ANCHOR. 


Patent  anchors  ditt'er  in  details  of  design, 
but  in  all  of  them  the  arms  are  pivoted  to 
the  shank,  usually  by  a  very  heavy  bolt. 
The  flukes  are  enlarged,  and  lie  in  the  same 
plane  with  the  arms  and  shank  when  the  former 
are  in  mid-position.  When  the  anchor  is  on 
the  bottom,  the  arms  turn,  the  flukes  droop, 
and.  ])ointed  downward,  are  forced  into  the 
ground.  To  assist  in  preventing  the  anchor  from 
being  capsized  by  a  side  pull  on  the  chain,  some 
patent  anchors  are  fitted  with  short  stocks,  which 
lie  in  the  same  plane  as  the  arms  when  the  latter 
are  in  mid-position.  When  an  anchor  of  ordinary 
type  is  let  go,  it  strikes  on  the  crown  and  then 
falls  over  and  rests  on  one  end  of  the  stock. 
The  first  pull  of  the  chain  cants  it  (i.e.,  tilts  it 
over),  laying  the  stock  flat  on  the  bottom  and 
pointing  one  of  the  bills  fair  for  entering  the 
ground.  Additional  pulls  serve  to  drive  the  bill 
and  fluke  into  the  ground  to  a  depth  which  de- 
pends upon  the  strain  upon  the  chain  and  the 
softness  of  the  bottom.  The  principal  points  of 
e.\cellenee  in  an  anchor  are:  Holding-power 
under  various  conditions,  strength,  quick-holding, 
quick-tripping,  exemption  from  fouling,  facility 
of  stowing,  facilit}'  of  sweeping,  canting,  facility 
of  fishing  in  a  heavy  sea,  and  facility  of  trans- 
port in,  or  by,  boats.  Slight  differences  of  design 
make  considerable  difference  in  the  holding- 
power  of  anchors.  For  an  ordinary  anchor  the 
most  favorable  angle  for  the  palm  is  thought  to 
be  a  little  less  than  45  degrees  from  the  middle 
line  of  the  shank,  but  in  most  patent  anchors 
the  flukes  are  permitted  to  droop  not  more  than 
35  degrees.  The  shank  of  all  anchors  projects 
a  short  distance  beyond  the  stock,  where  it  is 
fitted  with  a  heavy  ring  or  shackle  called  the 
ring;  the  ring  in  turn  is  secured  to  the  chain 
by  a  heavy  shackle  called  the  jewsharp,  the  jaws 
of  which  embrace  the  club,  or  body,  of  a  club- 
link;  beyond  this  there  is  sometimes  an  open 
link,  and  then  follows  the  chain.  The  latter  dif- 
fers from  ordinary  chain  in  having  a  cross-piece 
in  each  link  called  a  stay  pin.  the  purpose  of 
which  is  to  ])revent  the  chain  from  kinking,  to 
which  ordinary  chain  is  liable,  and  which  would 
be  a  most  serious  matter  in  aij  anchor  chain,  be- 
cause it  not  only  might  cause  the  chain  to  part 
under  the  pull  of  the  ship,  but  in  letting  go  the 
anchor  a  kink  formed  in  the  chain-locker  (the 
box  or  compartment  in  which  the  chain  is 
stowed)  might  jam  in  a  chainpipe  in  the  deck,  or 
in  the  hawsepipe,  with  disastrous  consequences. 

In  the  navy  and  in  most  vessels  of  the  mer- 
chant service  the  anchor  chain  was  formerly  di- 
vided into  lengths  of  15  fathoms  (or  121/2  fathoms 
in  England),  called  shots,  each  shot  being  joined 
to  the  succeeding  one  with  a  shackle.  At  7% 
fathoms  from  the  anchor,  and  again  at  37% 
fathoms,  were  placed  swivels,  to  prevent  the 
chain  from  getting  kinks  by  twisting.  In  the 
I'nited  States  Navy  the  present  practice  is  to 
place  a  swivel  at  5  fathoms,  and  neither  shackle 
nor  swivel  between  that  and  45  fathoms.  This 
is  to  facilitate  getting  up  the  anchor.,  Neitlier 
swivels  nor  shackles  fit  the  wildcat  closely,  and, 
if  the  pull  is  heavy,  they  are  apt  to  slip  and  cause 
delay.  Merchant  ships  anchor  less  frequently 
and  in  less  exposed  places  than  those  which  men- 
of-war  are  frequently  compelled  to  accept  for 
anchorage-ground,  consequently  less  attention  is 
paid  to  the  details  of  tlic  gronndtarkle  (i.e., 
anchors,  chains,  etc.)  of  merchantiuen.  Wlien 
e?ipecting  to   remain   in  port  for   more   than   a 


few  days,  especially  if  the  harbor  or  anchorage 
ground  is  contracted,  or  if  there  is  a  strong  tidal 
or  river  current,  mooring  is  frequently  resorted 
to.  The  length  of  chain  varies  with  the  depth 
of  water  and  other  considerations,  but  a  moor 
at  forty-five  fathoms  is  common  practice.  After 
dropping  one  anchor  the  ship  veers  (i.e.,  lets 
run  out)  chain  until  about  ninety  fathoms  are 
laid  out;  then  the  other  anchor  is  let  go;  now, 
by  heaving  in  on  the  first  chain  to  forty-five 
fathoms  and  paying  out,  or  veering  on  the  second 
to  forty-five  fathoms,  the  ship  is  brought  to  a 
middle  position  between  her  anchors,  and  in 
swinging  to  the  tide  or  wind  will  cover  very 
much  less  ground  than  if  riding  to  a  single 
anchor,  and  her  chain  cannot  sweep  over  an 
anchor  and  trip  it  (i.e.,  cause  it  to  let  go  its 
hold ) . 

When  the  ship  swings,  however,  she  may  not 
merely  move  back  and  forth,  but  may  turn  all  the 
way  around  (e.g.,  heading  north,  she  may  swing 
until  she  heads  east,  then  south,  and  then — in- 
stead of  going  back  to  east  and  then  north — con- 
tinue the  circle  by  heading  west  and  then  north)  ; 
this  will  cause  the  chains  to  cross,  or  if  the 
operation  continues,  to  wind  themselves  around 
each  other,  and  give  what  is  called  a  foul  hawse. 
This  nuist  be  cleared  by  unshackling  and  unwind- 
ing one  of  the  chains,  the  operation  being  called 
clearing  hawse.  To  avoid  the  labor  of  this,  and 
it  is  a  very  laborious  task  with  heavy  chain,  a 
mooring  swivel  is  frequently  used.  This  is  a 
swivel  having  two  shackles  at  top  and  two  at  the 
bottom ;  the  chains  leading  to  both  anchors  are 
opened  at  the  forty-five  fatliom  shackles,  and  the 
parts  leading  from  the  anchors  tient  (i.e.,  joined) 
to  the  lower  shackles  of  the  mooring  swivel  while 
the  inboard  ends  (i.e.,  those  extending  from  the 
ship)  are  bent  to  the  upper  sljackles  of  the 
swivel.  The  ship  is  now  free  to  swing  without 
fouling  her  chains,  as  the  swivel  turns  with  her. 

Patent  anchors  are  much  used,  as  they  are 
convenient  in  more  ways  than  one.  When  on  the 
bottom,  there  is  no  arm  sticking  up  in  which  the 
chain  can  catch  as  the  ship  swings,  or  on  which 
she  might  strike  if  the  water  is  shallow.  When 
hoisted,  the  absence  of  a  stock  at  right  angles 
to  tlip  arms  facilitates  storage;  and  in  some 
ships  the  anchor  is  pulled  up,  without  catting  or 
fishing,  into  a  recess  for  it  in  the  bow.  Anchors 
are  hoisted  by  means  of  a  capstan  or  windlass. 
The  former  is  shaped  somewhat  like  a  huge  hour- 
glass, but  is  stouter  in  the  middle,  and  carries 
about  its  lower  edge  a  recess,  with  ridges  on  the 
upper  and  lower  flanges;  this  arrangement,  in 
which  the  chain  fits,  is  called  the  icildcat. "  Wind- 
lasses are  like  capstans,  but  are  turned  on  the 
side,  and  usually  have  two  or  more  wildcats.  On 
vessels  in  which  steam  gear  is  not  fitted  to  the 
capstan,  the  latter  is  turned  by  hand :  long 
wooden  bars,  called  capstan  hars,  are  fitted  into 
recesses  in  the  head  of  the  capstan  and  held 
in  place  by  a  small  rope  called  the  swifter, 
which  passes  through  a  score,  or  gi'oove,  in  their 
outer  ends.  Small  windlasses  are  operated  by 
levers  like  pump  brakes,  which  turn  the  windlass 
barrel  by  means  of  racks  and  pawls.  In  the 
older  ships,  the  fir.st  operation  of  getting  up  the 
anchor  consists  in  bringing-to  the  chain  (i.e.,  in 
pulling  up  .slack  chain  from  the  locker  and 
putting  it  in  the  wildcat  of  the  capstan)  ;  large 
ships  are  now  usually  fitted  with  steam  wind- 
lasses, on  which  the  chain  is  always  in  place.  The 
next  process  is  to  release  the  chain  from  the  bitt 


ANCHOR. 


523 


ANCHORITE. 


iiml  s?o/j/)r/'.s.  The  foinier  is  a  heavy,  eylindrieal 
iron  castiiif;  seeurely  bolted  to  the  deck;  the 
chain  usually  has  one  turn  around  it,  but  when 
the  ship  is  pulling  heavily  at  licr  anchor,  owing 
to  a  strong  current  or  heavy  sea,  the  chain  i.H 
double-bitted  (i.e.,  has  two  turns) .  The  stoppers 
arc  short  lengths  of  heavy  wire  rope  hooked  to 
rings  in  the  deck  at  one  end  and  lashed  with 
rope  to  the  chain  at  the  other;  there  are  usually 
several  stoppers  on  the  chain,  and  if  there  is  no 
controller  (an  iron  contrivance  to  hold  the  chain 
from  running)  forward  of  the  bitts,  a  stopper 
must  now  be  put  on  the  chain  there.  The  chain 
is  then  unbitted  (i.e.,  thrown  off  the  bitt)  ;  the 
slack  is  taken  in  until  the  strain  is  on  the  wind- 
lass, or  capstan,  and  all  stoppers  taken  olT.  The 
heaving  hi  then  begins;  when  the  chain  has  been 
hove  in  until  any  further  pull  is  liable  to  cause 
the  anchor  to  trip,  or  the  ship  to  drag,  it  is 
said  to  be  hove  short  or  at  a  short  stay  (the 
terms  astay  and  at  a  long  stay  are  not  much 
used),  and  its  direction,  making  an  angle  of 
about  45  degrees  with  the  surface  of  the  water, 
is  about  parallel  to  the  fore  stay  of  a  rigged  ship. 

If  everything  is  ready  for  leaving  the  anchor- 
age, the  heaving  continues  until  the  chain  is 
vertical,  or,  in  nautical  terms,  up  and  doirn  (the 
anchor  is  then  said  to  be  apeak),  the  anchor  is 
broken  out  and  hoisted  to  a  convenient  position 
at  the  haw.sepipe,  when  it  is  said  to  be  up.  In 
old-type  ships,  a  tackle  called  the  cat  was  next 
used;  a  hook  on  the  lower  block  of  the  cat-fall 
was  inserted  in  the  ring  of  the  anchor,  and  the 
latter  was  catted  by  being  pulled  up  to  the 
cathead,  which  projected  slightly  from  the  ship's 
side;  the  fish  tackle  was  then  hooked  to  the 
crown,  and  the  other  end  of  the  anchor  pulled  up 
until  the  shank  was  about  horizontal  and  the 
inboard  arm  Vested  on  an  inclined  iron  plate 
called  the  bill-hoard,  the  latter  operation  con- 
stituting fishing.  The  anchor  was  now  secured 
by  small  chains,  one  in  the  ring  calleil  the  ring- 
sloppcr:  and  the  other,  around  the  shank  close 
to  the  outboard  arm,  called  the  shank  painter. 
One  end  of  each  of  these  chains  led  to 
a  trigger,  by  striking  which  the  anchor  was 
let  go  with  ease  and  certainty.  Under  some 
circmustances  it  is  desirable  to  cockbill  the 
anchor  before  letting  it  go.  This  is  done 
by  easing  away  the  shank  painter  until  the 
anchor  hangs  at  the  cathead  by  the  ring- 
stopper:  it  is  then  said  to  be  a-cockbill.  In 
most  modern  ships  there  is  secured  on  the 
shank  of  the  anchor,  at  the  balancing  point, 
a  link  called  the  balance-link.  When  the  anchor 
is  hove  up  to  the  hawsepipe  (i.e.,  the  cast- 
iron  pipe  in  the  ship's  bow  through  which  the 
chain  passes),  the  cat  is  hooked  to  tlio  balance- 
link,  and  the  anchor  is  lifted  in  a  horizontal 
position  and  put  in  place  on  the  bill-board. 
Instead  of  a  cathead,  this  form  of  cat  requires  a 
heavy  cat  davit,  or  derrick,  standing  eight  or 
ten  feet  above  the  deck,  and  mounted  upon  a 
swivel  stand.  In  letting  go  the  anchor,  it  is 
necessary  to  control  the  speed  of  the  chain  as 
it  goes  out.  For  this  purpose  it  is  bitted  (single 
bitted,  with  one  turn  around  the  bitt)  ;  this 
prevents  the  velocity  of  the  chain  from  becoming 
too  great.  When  a  sufficient  quantity  of  chain 
has  run  out,  the  brake  is  put  on  the  windlass, 
and  the  compressor  (a  curved  arm  which  grips 
and  holds  the  chain)  hauled  to.  The  stoppers 
are  then  put  on  and  the  chain  is  secure. 

A  sea-anchor  is  variously  constructed;  it  usual- 


ly floats,  and  is  then  made  up  of  spars  and  can- 
vas, or  something  that  will  not  sink  and  will 
offer  resistance  to  the  water ;  but  it  is  sometimes 
made  of  materials  too  heavy  to  float,  and  is  then 
held  up  more  or  less  by  the  pull  on  the  anchor 
rope.  Its  object  is  to  keep  a  boat  or  ship  with 
her  bow  up  to  the  seas,  and  so  enable  her  to  ride 
them  better  and  roll  and  wallow  about  less;  and 
it  accomplishes  this  by  being  in  or  below  the  sur- 
face of  the  water,  so  that  it  tends  to  drift  more 
slowly  than  the  boat  or  ship  which  is  exposed 
to  the  force  of  the  wind  and  of  the  waves. 

Mooring  anchors  are  of  various  types  and  ai;e 
designed  for  permanent  moorings ;  they  are  used 
for  holding  in  place  large  mooring  buoys  to  which 
ships  may  secure  in  lieu  of  anch- 
oring, or  as  anchors  for  buoys 
marking  a  channel  or  shoal.  As 
has  already  been  stated,  a  moor- 
ing anchor  may  consist  merely  of 
a  heavy  stone,  but  others  are  of  the 
mushroom,  or  screw,  form. 

Mushroom  anchors  of  one  type 
have  a  saucer-shaped  head,  from 
the  concave  side  of  which  extends 
the  shank,  which  has  a  shackle 
in  the  end  for  the  chain ;  the  other 
type  consists  merely  of  the  iron 
saucer,  with  the  shackle  on  the 
convex  side ;  in  this  second  type, 
the  anchor  holds  largely  by  suc- 
tion. Screw  anchors,  as  their 
name  implies,  are  shaped  like 
screws  with  very  broad  flanges,  and  are  screwed 
down  into  the  mud  by  means  of  a  long  bar  called 
the  key. 

AN'CHORAGE,  or  ANCHORAGE  GROUND. 
That  portion  of  a  harbor  or  roadstead  best  suited 
for  anchoring  vessels ;  or,  in  harbors  where  there 
is  much  commerce  or  traffic,  that  portion  in  which 
vessels  are  permitted  to  anchor.  A  good  anchor- 
age is  one  in  which  the  water  is  of  sufficient  but 
not  excessive  depth;  in  which  the  bottom  is  of 
such  a  character  as  to  enable  the  anchor  (q.v. ) 
to  enter  in  and  hold  (i.e.,  the  holding-ground  is 
good),  and  which  is  protected  from  the  open 
sea.  The  practice  of  indicating  upon  charts  by 
means  of  an  anchor  the  best  anchorage  in  any 
particular  locality  still  obtains,  but  is  falling 
somewhat  into  disuse,  owing  to  the  more  definite 
information  now  given  by  charts  and  sailing 
directions. 


AN'CHOR  CHAIN. 
ANCHOR  DAVIT. 


See  Anchor. 

See  Anchor;  Davit. 


ANCHOR  ICE.     See  Ice. 

AN'CHORITE,  or  AN'CHORET  (Gk.  avd- 
XuprjTij^,  anachoretes,  a  recluse,  retired  man, 
from  ai'd,  ana,  back  -f-  x"P':'''t  ehOrein,  to  give 
way,  retire).  Literally,  a  person  who  withdraws 
from  society;  a  hermit.  The  name  was  applied 
to  those  hermits  who  began  to  appear  in  the 
Christian  Church  in  the  third  century,  living  in 
solitude,  and  not,  like  the  monks  or  cenobites, 
in  communities.  During  the  first  two  centuries, 
Christians  generally  thought  it  enough  to  with- 
draw from  the  world  by  refusing  to  participate 
in  heathen  festivals  and  amusements;  but  ex- 
treme views  became  gradually  prevalent,  and 
were  connected  with  a  belief  in  the  merit  of 
celibacy,  of  abstinence  from  particular  kinds  of 
food,  of  self-inflicted  tortures,  etc.  The  perse- 
cutions  to     which     Christians     were     subjected 


ANCHORITE. 


524 


ANCIENT    LIGHTS. 


drove  some  into  the  solitude  of  deserts;  after- 
ward, the  glory  of  a  life  spent  in  loneliness  and 
austerity  liecame  a  substitute  for  that  of  the 
martyr's  death.  The  general  corruption  of  soci- 
ety also  caused  many  earnest  and  well-meaning 
persons  to  shun  it.  The  ascetics  (see  Asceti- 
cism) set  the  example  of  retiring  from  cities  to 
rural  districts  and  villages;  the  anchorites  went 
further,  and  sought  to  witlidrax-.'  tliemselves  al- 
together from  mankind;  and  if  the  reputation 
of  sanctity  which  was  connected  with  a  life  of 
solitude  constituted  its  chief  attraction  to  some, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  many  chose  it  in  the 
hope  of  thereby  attaining  to  real  sanctity.  Many 
of  the  anchorites  voluntarily  subjected  them- 
selves to  the  vicissitudes  of  the  weather,  without 
proper  habitation  or  clothing,  restricted  them- 
selves to  coarse  and  scanty  fare,  wore  chains  and 
iron  rings,  and  some  dwelt  on  the  top  of  pillars 
for  many  years  (see  Pillar  Saints)  as  extraor- 
dinary and  conspicuous  examples  of  mortification 
and  penance,  of  whom  the  most  famous  is  Saint 
Simeon  Stylites  in  the  early  part  of  the 
fifth  century.  Saint  Antony  (q.v. )  was  one 
of  the  first  and  most  celebrated  anchorites.  The 
anchorites  were  not  always  able  to  preserve 
their  solitude  unbroken.  The  fame  of  their 
sanctity  drew  many  to  visit  them :  their  advice 
was  often  sought;  and  the  number  of  their  vis- 
itors was  much  increased  by  the  belief  that 
diseases,  particularly  mental  diseases,  were 
cured  by  their  blessing.  Sometimes,  also,  they 
j-eturned  for  a  short  time  to  the  midst  of  their 
fellow  men  to  deliver  warnings,  instructions,  or 
encouragements,  and  were  received  as  if  they 
had  been  inspired  prophets  or  angels  from 
heaven.  The  number  of  anchorites,  however, 
gradually  diminished,  and  the  religious  life  of 
convents  was  preferred  to  that  of  the  hermitage. 
The  Western  Churcli,  indeed,  at  no  time  abounded 
in  anchorites,  like  the  Eastern,  and  perhaps  the 
reason  may  in.  part  be  found  in  tlie  difference 
of  climate,  which  renders  a  manner  of  life  im- 
possible in  most  parts  of  Europe  that  could  be 
pursued  for  many  years  in  Egypt  or  Syria. 

AN'CHOR-WATCH.  A  portion  of  the  crew 
kept  on  deck  during  the  night  when  at  anchor. 
During  prolonged  heavy  weather,  or  unfavorable 
conditions,  the  anchor-watch  may  be  kept  on 
deck  during  the  day.  In  the  merchant  service 
one  or  two  men  form  the  ordinary  anchor-watch ; 
in  tlie  navy,  four  to  ten ;  though  in  either  case 
these  numbers  may  be  increased  under  special 
circumstances.  The  duties  of  the  anchor-watch 
are  to  veer  chain  (see  Anchor),  if  occasion  de- 
mands it,  spread  or  take  in  awnings,  cover 
hatches,  secure  loose  articles  if  the  wind  and 
sea  rise;  and,  in  fact,  act  as  a  general  guard 
when  the  greater  part  of  the  crew  is  asleep. 

ANCHOVY,  rm-chr/vi  (Of  uncertain  origin, 
perhaps  literally  a  dried  or  pickled  fish,  from 
13asque  antzua,  dry).  A  small  fish  [Engraulis 
enerii.sicholus)  belonging  to  the  Stolephoridae,  a 
family  closely  related  to  the  herring.  It  resem- 
bles the  latter  in  general  appearance,  but  is 
thicker  in  proportion,  and  is  aliout  six  inches  in 
length,  having  a  pointed  liead  with  the  upper  jaw 
projecting,  and  a  widely  forked  tail.  It  abounds 
in  the  coast  waters  of  southern  Europe,  and  es- 
pecially in  the  Mediterranean,  where  extensive 
fisheries  are  carried  on,  particularly  near  Leg- 
horn. They  approach  the  coast  from  the  oceanic 
depths  to  spawn  in  early  summer,  and  are  caught 


in  seines,  to  wliich  tliey  are  attracted  by  strong 
lights  in  the  fishing-boats.  Anchovies  are  salted 
in  small  barrels,  and  have  been  much  used  for 
sauces,  etc.,  since  ancient  times.  Tliere  are  sev- 
eral nearly  related  species  both  on  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  coast  of  America  and  in  other  coun- 
tries, where  they  also  form  an  important  food- 
preparation. 

ANCHOVY     (;inclnVvil     PEAR     (so    named 

from  being  pickled.  See  Anchovy),  Grias  cavli- 
flora.  A  plant  of  the  order  Myrtacese.  It  grows 
in  boggy  places  in  the  mountainous  districts  of 
Jamaica  and  other  West  Indian  islands,  attains 
a  height  of  fifty  feet,  and  has  great  oblong 
leaves  two  or  three  feet  in  length.  The  flowers 
are  numerous,  on  short  peduncles ;  they  are 
large,  whitish,  and  sweet-scented;  the  corolla 
consists  of  four  petals,  and  the  caly.x  is  four- 
deft.  The  fruit  is  an  ovate  drupe  of  a  brownish 
russet  color,  crowned  with  the  persistent  calyx; 
the  stone  is  marked  with  eight  ridges.  Tliis 
fruit  is  pickled  and  eaten  like  the  East  Indian 
mango,  and  resembles  the  mango  in  taste. 

ANCHTT'SA,  an-ku'sa.     See  Alkanet. 

ANCHYLOSIS,  :-n_i'ki-Ir>'sIs.     See  Ankylosis. 

AN'CIENT  DEMESNE,  de-men'  (0.  F.  de- 
nunne,  Lat.  dominium,  Eng.  domain).  In  Eng- 
lish law,  estates  of  great  antiquity,  constitut- 
ing the  ancient  patrimonial  possessions  of  the 
crown.  Manors  (q.v.)  of  ancient  demesne  date 
back  to  the  reign  of  Edward  the  Confessor  or 
of  William  the  Conqueror,  and  appear  in  Domes- 
day Book  under  the  description  of  Terrce.  Regis. 
Though  they  might  be  alienated  and  held  by  a 
subject,  they  were  properly  kept  in  the  King's 
hands  for  the  maintenance  of  the  royal  dignity. 
^^'hether  held  by  a  subject  or  by  the  King,  they 
enjoyed  certain  rights  and  immunities  which 
were  not  shared  by  other  manors,  even  when 
held  by  the  King;  especially  the  right  to  admin- 
ister their  own  justice,  free  from  the  interference 
of  the  ordinary  royal  tribunals.  Two  im- 
portant and  distinctive  varieties  of  tenure  devel- 
oped on  these  ancient  demesne  lands:  one  a 
privileged  form  of  customary  tenure  (q.v.),  mid- 
way between  copj'hold  (q.v.)  and  socage  (q.v.) 
tenure,  which  came  to  be  known  as  customnri/ 
freehold;  and  the  other  a  peculiar  form  of  socage 
tenure,  which  received  the  name  of  tenure  in 
aveicnt  demesne.  Though  the.se  tenures  still 
survive  in  England,  they  have  been  shorn  of 
most  of  their  peculiar  characteristics  and  assim- 
ilated to  tlie  more  usual  tenures.  See  Pollock 
and  Maitland,  Bisiorji  of  Enfflish  Law,  second 
edition    (London  and  Boston,  1899). 

ANCIENT  LIGHTS.  W^indows  that  have 
existed  so  long  that  they  have  acquired  an  in- 
defeasible right  to  the  light  which  enters  them, 
free  from  interference  by  the  owner  of  the  prem- 
ises over  which  the  light  comes.  The  easement 
of  ancient  lights,  so  called,  is  the  right  gained 
by  the  owner  of  a  dwelling  or  other  building 
to  restrain  his  neighbor  from  interfering  with 
windows  whidi  have  been  in  existence  from  time 
immemorial.  The  term  does  not.  therefore,  de- 
scribe a  peculiar  and  distinctive  right,  but  only 
a  method  by  which  the  familiar  easement  of 
light  may.  like  other  easements,  be  acquired — 
the  method,  namely,  of  prescription  (q.v.).  An- 
cient lights  belong  to  the  class  of  negative  ease- 
ments, which  cannot  generally  be  acquired  by 
prescription  in  the  United  States.     In  England 


ANCIENT    LIGHTS. 


525 


ANCONA. 


lliey  are  now  rp},'iiIatiHl  by  statulc  (the  Prescrip- 
tion Act.  2  and  3  Will."  IV.  c.  71).  which  dis- 
penses with  the  old  requirement  of  use  and  en- 
joyment from  time  immemorial  and  ealls  for 
an  existence  of  only  twenty  years  to  create  the 
easement.  See  Easement;  Light,  Easement  of; 
Prescription.  Consult:  Gale  and  Whatley, 
Trculisc  on  the  Luw  of  Easements  (London, 
IS'JG),  and  Goddard,  Treatise  un  the  Laic  of 
ICuKeiiunts    (fifth  edition.  London,  1896). 

ANCIENT  MAB'INEB,  The.  A  poem  by 
Coleridge,  published  (1798)  in  the  Lyrical  Bal- 
lads by  himself  and  Wordsworth.  It  is  founded 
on  the  sailor's  superstition  of  the  sinfulness  of 
killing  an  albatross,  and  rehearses  the  sufferings 
consequently  undergone. 

ANCIENT  OF  DAYS.  A  designation  of  God 
in  Daniel  vii  :  9.  13,  22.  It  represents  him 
as  "the  aged,"  "the  advanced  in  days,"  possibly 
in  contrast  with  the  new  divinities  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  had  sought  to  introduce  among  the 
Jews.  In  the  Ethiopic  Enoch  it  is  represented 
bv  tlie  more  idiomatic  expression,  "head  of  days" 
(xlvi  :  2). 

ANCIENT  OR'DER  OF  HIBER'NIANS. 
See  HiKEnxiAX.s,  Ancient  (Jroer  of. 

ANCIENTS,  Council  of.  The  upper  House 
of  the  Legislative  Assembly  in  France,  under  the 
Directory,  from  179.5  to  1799.  The  chief  func- 
tion of  the  Ancients  was  the  approval  or  rejec- 
tion of  measures  submitted  by  the  lower  House, 
the  Council  of  Five  Hundred. 

ANCILLON,  jiN'se'yoN',  Joiiann  Peter 
FRiEiiiniii  (17117-1837).  A  Prussian  statesman 
and  historian.  He  was  born  in  Berlin,  a  descend- 
ant of  David  Ancillon  (1017-92),  a  French 
Protestant,  w-ho  emigi-ated  from  Metz  after  the 
revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  and  who  be- 
came pastor  of  the  French  congregation  in  Berlin. 
Intermediate  members  of  the  same  family  occu- 
pied the  same  pastorate  or  were  in  the  service 
of  the  Prussian  Government.  Friedrich  studied 
theologA'. philosophy,  and  history,  and  in  1792  was 
appointed  teacher  of  history  in  the  Berlin  Military 
Academy,  as  well  as  preacher  to  the  French  con- 
gregation. The  publication  of  his  Tableau  des 
revolutions  du  systeme  politit/ue  de  I'Europe 
depuis  le  lonie  siecle  (4  volumes.  1803-0.5)  se- 
cured him  the  appointment  as  royal  histori- 
ographer as  well  as  tutor  of  the  Crown  Prince. 
In  1832  he  became  minister  of  foreign  affairs, 
and  occupied  that  place  until  his  death.  He  was 
a  man  of  conservative  view's  and  a  defender  of 
the  monarchy. 

ANCKABSTBOM,  an'kar-strem,  Joiian  Ja- 
con  (17li2-92).  The  assassin  of  King  Gustavus 
III.  of  Sweden.  He  was  a  page  at  court  and  later 
an  ensign  in  the  Life-Guards,  but  in  1783  retired 
from  military  service  with  the  rank  of  captain. 
Of  haughty  temper,  angered  at  the  policy  of  re- 
pression pursued  by  the  crown  toward  the  nobil- 
ity, hewas  frequently  brought  to  trial  for  incendi- 
ary speeches.  In  1791,  with  Count  Horn,  Count 
Kibbing.T^ieutenant-Colonel  Liliehorn.and  others, 
he  formed  a  conspiracy  for  the  nuirder  of  the 
King.  Chosen  by  lot  to  accomplisli  the  deed, 
at  a  ball  held  in  the  Stockholm  opera-house,  he 
approached  the  King  and  mortallv  wounded  him 
with  a  shot  from  a  pistol  (Jlarch'lG,  1792).  He 
was  condemned  to  death  and  executed  at  Stock- 
holm. 


ANCONA,  an-ko'na  (The  name  alludes  to 
its  situation  at  the  bend  of  the  sea-coast;  Gk. 
aymv,  ankOn,  angle,  corner).  The  capital  of 
the  province  of  Ancona,  in  central  Italy,  in  the 
division  called  the  Jfarches.  132  miles  northeast 
of  Rome,  lat.  43°  37'  N.  and  long.  13°  31'  E.  It 
is  an  episcopal  eitj',  and,  next  to  Venice,  the  most 
important  Italian  port  on  the  Adriatic  (Map: 
Italy  H.  4).  It  is  beautifully  situated  in  the 
form  of  an  amphitheatre  between  tw'o  promon- 
tories. The  harbor  lias  been  greatly  improved  by 
the  Government  in  recent  years,  and  is  now  deep 
enough  for  large  vessels.  It  is  defended  from 
naval  attack  by  forts,  and  from  the  violence  of 
the  sea  by  two  moles.  The  ancient  mole  was 
built  by  Trajan,  and  on  it  stands  a  triumphal 
arch  of  Parian  marble  designed  by  Apollodorus. 
The  modern  mole  with  the  light-house  was  built 
by  Clement  XII.,  and  its  triumphal  arch  was  de- 
signed bvVanvitelli.  The  cathedral  of  St.  Cyriac, 
built  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  on  the 
site  of  the  temple  of  V'enus  mentioned  by  Catullus 
and  .Juvenal,  contains  ten  of  its  columns,  with  a 
very  ancient  dodecagonal  dome.  The  town  hall 
was  built  in  the  thirteenth  century,  restored  in  the 
fifteenth,  and  partially  modernized  in  1647.  The 
houses  are  in  general  mean  and  the  streets  nar- 
row. The  museum  contains  many  valuable  antiq- 
uities and  some  valuable  paintings.  The  princi- 
pal industries  are  sugar  refining,  shipbuilding, 
and  the  manufacture  of  paper,  sail  cloth,  and 
silk.  The  exports  are  small ;  the  imports  are 
salt  fish,  coffee,  iron  and  steel,  wheat,  raw  sugar, 
and  coal.  Regular  steamship  communication  is 
maintained  with  the  principal  Mediterranean 
ports.  The  United  States  maintains  there  a  con- 
sular agency.  The  vessels  leaving  the  poit  de- 
creased from  2192,  with  a  tonnage  of  842,000.  in 
1888,  to  1183,  with  a  tonnage  of  6(34.000,  in  1889. 
Ancona  is  supposed  to  have  been  founded  by 
Syracusans  who  had  fled  from  the  tyrannv  of 
Dionysius  the  Elder.  It  was  destroyed  by  the 
Goths,  rebuilt  by  Xarses,  and  again  destroyed  by 
the  Saracens  in  the  tenth  century.  It  afterward 
became  a  republic,  and  was  later  annexed  to  the 
States  of  the  Church.  In  1798  it  was  taken  by 
the  French,  who  in  1799  surrendered  it  to  the 
Russians  and  Austrians  after  a  long  and  gallant 
defense.  In  1832,  when  the  Roman  frontiers 
were  in  the  possession  of  the  Austrians,  a  French 
squadron  appeared  before  the  harbor  and  landed 
1500  men,  who  took  possession  of  the  town.  It 
remained  in  their  hands  until  1838,  when  both 
French  and  Austrians  retired  from  the  Papal 
States.  In  1849  a  revolutionary  garrison  in  An- 
cona capitulated  after  enduring  a  siege  by  the 
Austrians  of  twentv-five  davs.  Pop.,  in  1881,  48,- 
000:   in   1901,  57,000. 

ANCONA,  Alessanoro  d'  (1835—).  A  dis- 
tinguished Italian  critic,  journalist,  and  professor 
at  the  L'niversity  of  Pisa.  He  was  born  in  Pisa. 
During  the  days  preceding  the  war  of  Italian  in- 
dependence he  was  active  in  politics,  but  after  the 
peace  of  Villafranca  he  retired  from  political  life, 
and  for  awhile  edited  the  leading  Florentine  jour- 
nal. La  \azione.  Since  1860  he  has  filled  the 
chair  of  literature  at  the  university  in  his  native 
city.  His  literary  activity  began  at  the  age  of 
eighteen,  when  he  publishid  a  life  and  critical 
edition  of  the  works  of  the  Dominican  philosopher 
Tomniaso  Campanella.  Among  the  many  volumes 
which  he  has  since  produced,  special  mention 
should  be  made  of  /  preeursori  di  Dante  (1874), 


ANCONA. 


526 


ANDALUSIA. 


Origini  del  teatro  in  Italia  (1877),  and  La  poesia 
popolare  italiana    (1878). 

ANCO'BA,  (Ital.).  The  same  as  the  French 
word  encore,  again,  and  used  in  demanding  the 
repetition  of  a  song,  for  whicli,  however,  tlie 
French  use  the  word  bis,  "twice." 

ANCRE,  aN'kr'.CoNCiNO  Concini,  Marquis  d'. 
A  Florentine  adventurer,  who  went  to  the  French 
court  in  1000  with  Maria  de'  Medici,  queen  of 
Henry  IV.  With  his  wife,  Leonora  Gali^'ai,  lie 
exercised  an  unhappy  influence  in  promoting  tlie 
disagreement  between  tlie  King  and  Queen.  When, 
after  Henry's  death,  the  Queen  became  regent, 
C'oncini.as  her  favorite,  obtained  possession  of  the 
reins  of  government,  and  in  1613  was  made  a 
marshal  and  prime  minister.  He  bought  the  mar- 
quisate  of  Ancre,  in  Picardy,  and  took  his  title 
from  it.  Because  of  his  rapacity  he  became  an 
object  of  detestation  equally  to  the  nobility  and 
tlie  people.  A  conspiracy  was  formed  against 
him,  to  which  the  young  king,  Louis  XIII.,  was 
himself  privy,  and  he  was  assassinated  in  April, 
1017,  on  the  bridge  of  the  Louvre  just  as  he  was 
leaving  it.  Vitry,  a  captain  of  the  royal  body- 
guard, accomplished  the  murder.  His  wife  was 
soon  afterward  accused  of  witchcraft  and  was 
executed. 

ANCREN  RIWLE,  fuj'kreii  roiil ;  Middle 
Eng.  pron.  an'kren  ri.i'le  (Rule  of  Anchor- 
esses). An  exposition  of  duties  and  rules  of 
life,  said  to  have  been  drawn  up  bv  Simon  of 
Ghent,  Bishop  of  Salisbury  (12!)7),"for  a  relig- 
ious community  of  women  at  Tarrant-Kaines  in 
Dorsetshire. 

AN'CRTTM  MOOR.  A  moor  in  Scotland  a 
little  northwest  of  Jedburgh  (q.v.).  It  was.  in 
1.544,  the  scene  of  the  defeat  of  .5000  English 
under  Sir  Ralph  Evers  and  Sir  Brian  Latoun  by 
a  Scottish  force  under  the  Earl  of  Angus  and 
Scott  of  Buceleuch.  A  defaced  monument  marks 
the  spot  where  a  Scottish  maiden,  named  Lil- 
liard,  is  said  to  have  done  prodigies  of  valor. 

ANCTJD,  nn-kooD'  (formerly  San  Carlos). 
Capital  of  the  province  of  Chiloe,  Chile.  It  is 
situated  on  the  island  Chiloe,  which  lies  near  the 
mainland,  about  575  miles  south  from  Valparaiso, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  steamship  line.  It 
has  an  excellent  harbor,  some  manufactures  and 
fishing  interests.  It  was  settled  in  1768;  was 
the  last  stronghold  of  the  Spaniards  in  Chile 
during  the  war  of  the  rebellion,  surrendering  to 
the  revolutionists  in  1826.     Pop.   1895,  3,182. 

AN'CUS  MAR'CIUS  (  ?— 614  B.C.).  The  son 
of  Pompilia,  daughter  of  King  Numa  Pompilius, 
and  the  fourth  king  of  Rome.  Following  the  exam- 
ple of  Numa,  he  endeavored  to  restore  the  almost 
forgotten  worship  of  the  gods  and  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  arts  of  peace  among  the  Romans. 
But,  despite  his  inclination  for  peace,  he  was  en- 
gaged in  several  wars  with  the  neighboring  Latin 
tribes,  whom  he  subdued  and  reduced  to  order. 
These  Latins  Niebuhr  considers  to  have  formed 
the  original  plebeians.  Against  the  Etruscans  he 
fortified  the  .Janieulum,  connected  it  with  Rome 
by  a  wooden  bridge,  and  gained  possession  of  both 
banks  of  the  Tiber  as  far  as  its  mouth,  where  he 
founded  Ostia  as  the  port  of  Rome.  He  built  the 
first  Roman  prison  of  which  we  read,  a  proof  that 
civilization  had  really  commenced,  inasmuch  as 
offenses  then  formally  ceased  to  be  regarded  as 
private  and  personal  matters  and  were  treated 
as  crimes  against  the  community.    A  prison,  said 


to  be  his,  is  still  in  existence  near  the  Forum. 
He  died  in  614  B.C.,  after  reigning  twenty-four 
years.  It  is  needless  to  add  that  the  kings  of 
Rome,  as  we  know  them,  are  not  historical  char- 
acters. 

ANCY'RA.     See  Angora. 

ANCZYC,  an'chits,  Wladyslaw  Ludwik 
(1823-83).  A  Polish  writer,  born  at  Vilna.  He 
studied  pharmacy,  but  turned  to  literature,  and 
\vrote  a  number  of  popular  Polish  comedies, 
which  are  marked  by  keen  characterization  and 
forceful  style.  His  works  include  The  Peasant 
Arislocmts  (1851),  The  Raftsmen  (1875),  and 
The  Peasant  Emigration  (1876). 

AN'DA.  A  genus  of  jilants  of  the  natural 
order  Euphorbiaeefe,  the  onlj'  species  of  which, 
Anda  brasiliensis,  is  a  Brazilian  tree  with  large 
yellow  flowers  and  an  angular  fruit  about  the 
size  of  an  orange,  containing  two  roundish  seeds 
like  small  chestnuts.  The  .seeds  are  called  in 
Brazil  Purga  dos  Paulistas,  are  used  medicinally 
in  that  country,  and  are  more  purgative  than 
those  of  the  castor-oil  plant.  This  quality  seems 
to  depend  upon  a  fixed  oil.  which  is  obtained  by 
pressure.  The  bark  of  the  tree  roasted  in  the 
fire  is  accounted  in  Brazil  a  certain  remedy  for 
diarrhea  brought  on  by  cold.  The  fresh  bark 
throw-n  into  ponds  is  said  to  stupefy  fish. 

ANDALUSIA,     an'da-loo'zl-a      (Sp.     Anda- 
liicia    for    Vandalusia,    the    Land    of    the    Van- 
dals I .      A     region     in     the     southern     part     of  i 
Spain,    a    part    of    the    old    Roman    province    ofj 
Bsetica,   which   comprises   the   present   provincesl 
of    Granada,    Almeria,    Malaga,    Cadiz,    Huelva,! 
Seville,  Cordova,  and  Jaen   (Map:   Spain,  C  4) 
Its  area  is  33,663   square  miles.     The  region   is] 
divided  into  Upper  and  Lower  Andalusia.      Thel 
former  comprises  the  mountainous  regions  of  the! 
Sierra  JMorena  on  the  north  and  the  Sierra  Nevada! 
on  the  south,  with  the  valley  of  the  upper  stream! 
of  the  Guadalquivir.      Lower  Andalusia  consists! 
chiefly  of  the  valley  on  both   sides  of  the  lower! 
Guadalquivir.      The   lower   regions   have   a    very! 
mild,  almost  African,  climate.     On  the  Atlantic 
coast  the  temperature  is  much  lower,  and  in  thel 
highlands  snow   is   not  infrequent.       The  soil   is] 
very  fertile,  both  in  the  mountain  valleys  of  Up- 
per Andalusia  and  in  the  deep  valleys  along  thel 
Guadalquivir,   and   the   warm   climate   allows   ofj 
the  cultivation   of   many   southern   fruits.      Or- 
anges,   olives,    and    sugar    are    cultivated    suc- 
cessfully,   while    wheat,    corn,    and    other    grains | 
ripen  as  early  as  April  and  yield  abundant  crops. 
The  districts  along  the  coast  are  generally  un- 
fruitful, and  in  some  cases  utterly  unfit  for  cul-l 
tivation.       In     ancient     times     the     fertility     ofj 
Andalusia  was  proverbial,  as  evidenced  by  the  J 
diff'erent  epithets  applied  to  the  region,  such   as  J 
"gianary,"    "wine   cellar,"   and    "gold    purse"    of 
Spain.     Even  at  present  Andalusia  is  considered] 
one  of  the  most  fertile  parts  of  Spain.     Cattle- 
raising  is  highly  developed,  and  the  AndalusianI 
breeds  of  horses,  mules,  and  bulls  have  long  beenj 
famous.     The  population  was  3,450.209  in   1897, 
and  3.283,436  in   1877.     The  Andalusians  are  a| 
verj'  graceful  people  and  picturesque  in  their  at- 
tire.    Their  language  is  Spanish  with   a   slight  | 
admixture  of  ,\rabic. 

HrsTORY.     Andalusia,   which  was  overrun   by] 
the  Vandals  in  the  early  part  of  the  fifth  century, 
was  probably  the  Tarshish  of  the  Bible,  its  namel 
in   classical   geography   being  Tartessis    (a   very] 
ancient  town  near  the  mouth  of  the  Guadalquivir,  I 


ANDALUSIA. 


527 


ANDAQUI. 


liaving  borne  the  name  of  Tartessus) .  From 
tlie  Carthaginians,  wlio  established  themselves 
lliere  in  the  third  century  B.C.,  the  country 
(lassed  to  the  Romans,  who  called  it  Boetica, 
from  the  river  Ba>tis  (Guadalquivir).  Under  the 
Empire  it  attained  great  prosperity  and  assim- 
ilated rapidly  the  civilization  of  the  Romans. 
The  Vandals  remained  but  a  short  time  in  the 
country  and  were  succeeded  by  the  Visigoths,  who 
ruled  Spain  till  the  invasion  of  the  Arabs,  in  711. 
'I'he  name  of  Andalusia  is  inseparably  connected 
with  the  glory  of  Saracen  and  Moorish  civiliza- 
tion in  mediaeval  Spain.  Within  its  borders  were 
situated  Cordova,  Seville,  Granada,  and  Jaen,  the 
centres  of  Mohammedan  culture,  industry,  and 
commerce.  By  contrast  with  the  gloom  and 
emptiness  of  the  Dark  Ages  in  northern  Europe, 
history  has  cast  almost  a  fairy  light  on  the 
plains  of  "smiling"  Andalusia,  the  nome  of  learn- 
ing and  art,  of  chivahy  and  humane  toleration. 
Cordova  was  the  Athens  of  the  West,  the  seat  of 
the  arts  and  .sciences;  and  later  still,  under  the 
Spaniards  even,  "when  the  sun  of  Raphael  set 
in  Italy,  painting  here  arose  in  a  new  form  in 
the  Velazquez,  Murillo,  and  Cano  schools  of  Se- 
ville, the  finest  in  the  Peninsula."  The  decadence 
of  .\ndalusia  set  in  with  the  downfall  of  the 
Caliphate  of  C'ordova  in  the  eleventh  century 
and  tlie  disruption  of  Spanish  Islam  into 
a  number  of  independent  principalities.  One 
liy  one  the  cities  of  Andalusia  passed  into  the 
power  of  Castile.  Granada  alone  and  the  sur- 
rounding vcya  held  out  for  two  centuries  after 
Cordova,  Seville,  and  Cadiz  had  fallen.  The 
noblest  of  the  Moorish  race,  fleeing  before  tlie 
Christian  advance,  crowded  into  Granada,  and 
the  genius  of  an  entire  nation  made  its  home 
within  the  walls  of  a  city;  the  lustre  which  it 
shed  over  (iranada,  however,  was  but  the  hec- 
tic Hush  of  the  dying  Moorish  civilization.  In 
1492  (iranada  was  taken  by  the  forces  of  united 
Christian  Spain.  Con.iult:  Murray,  The  Cities 
and  Wilds  of  Andalusia  (London,  1853)  ;  Laine, 
"Sur  les  routes  d'Andalousie"  in  La  Noiieellc 
Revue,  No.  115  (Paris,  1898). 

ANDALUSITE,  an'da-lu'sit  (Discovered  in 
Andalusia).  .\n  anhydrous  aluminum  silicate 
that  crystallizes  in  the  orthorhombie  system,  and 
is  usually  found  in  coarse,  square,  prismatic 
forms.  A  variety  known  as  chiastolite  or  made, 
consisting  of  stout  crystals  with  the  axis  and 
angles  of  a  different  color  from  the  rest,  showing 
a  colored  cross,  has  been  found  in  several  locali- 
ties, as  Lancaster  and  Sterling,  Mass. 

ANDAMANS,  an'da-manz.  A  chain  of  is- 
lands politically  attached  to  British  India,  situ- 
ated toward  the  east  side  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal, 
between  10°  and  14°  N.  lat.  and  about  93°  E. 
long.,  (ISO  miles  south  of  the  mouth  of  the 
(Janges  ( Map :  Asia,  J  7 ) .  The  group  covers  an 
area  of  2508  square  miles,  and  consists  of  the 
Great  and  Little  Andanians,  divided  by  the  Dun- 
can Passage.  Three  large  islands,  the  North,  Mid- 
dle, and  South,  and  several  smaller  ones  constitute 
the  Great  Andamans;  the  chief  of  the  Little  An- 
damans  are  Interview,  Outram,  and  Henry  Law- 
rence. With  the  Nicobar  Islands  (q.v.),  they 
form  a  province  under  a  chief  commissioner  resi- 
dent at  Port  Blair.  Since  1858  the  islands  have 
been  a  penal  settlement  of  India.  Except  where 
clearings  have  been  made,  the  surface  is  densely 
covered  with  forests  yielding  valuable  timber. 
Corn,  rice,  manioc,  tea,  potatoes,  and  artichokes 


are  the  chief  agricultural  products,  and  the  cul- 
tivation of  cacao,  indigo,  and  coffee  is  being  in- 
troduced. Port  Blair,  on  the  east  side  of  South 
Island,  and  Port  Cornwallis,  on  the  same  side  of 
North  Island,  are  two  fine  natural  harbors.  The 
principal  islands  have  monthly  steamboat  com- 
munication with  Calcutta.  The  Andamanese, 
also  called  Mincopies,  are  a  physically  uniform 
Negrito  race,  whoso  stature,  however,  has  a  wider 
range  than  generally  thought.  Their  head-form 
teiuls  to  be  brachycephalic,  suggesting  relation- 
shi|)  with  some  of  the  natives  of  the  Nicobar 
Islands  to  the  south,  and  with  broad-headed  Ne- 
gritos elsewhere.  Their  language,  which  has  sev- 
eral dialects,  seems  to  be  unrelated  to  any  other 
tongue.  Their  culture  is  verj'  primitive,  but  their 
weapons  and  industrial  and  art  products 
show  that  they  have  not  neglected  their  environ- 
ment. They  have  also,  though  known  only  to 
some  of  the  older  members  of  the  moi'e  secluded 
communities,  a  mytholog}',  with  characteristic 
folk-lore  tales.  The  intelligence  of  these  people 
has  been  underestimated.  The  census  of  1901 
gives  the  aborigines  as  1882,  of  whom  842  were 
females,  divided  into  twelve  small  tribes.  Lying 
in  the  route  of  the  Arabs  eastward  and  of  the 
Malays  westward,  these  islands  bear  traces  of  the 
influence  of  both,  and  since  the  establishment  of 
the  British  penal  colony,  there  is  growing  up 
a  very  mixed  race  of  hybrids.  The  Andama- 
nese have  inhabited  their  territory  since  pre-his- 
toric  times.  Flower  (1879)  and"Keane  (1896) 
both  hold  that  they  represent  a  primitive  or  gen- 
eralized type,  from  which,  on  the  one  hand,  the 
African  negroes,  and  on  the  other  the  Melane- 
sians,  may  have  proceeded.  (See  Negritos.) 
Population,  1891,  15,609;  1901,  18,190,  of  which 
the  convict  element  constitutes  four-tifths.  The 
convicts,  are  employed  in  reclaiming  land  and 
erecting  government  buildings.  They  are  po- 
liced by  a  force  of  645  men.  The  Andamans  are 
mentioned  by  Arabic  geographers  of  the  ninth 
century,  by  Marco  Polo  in  the  thirteenth,  and 
Conti  in  the  fifteenth  century,  who  gives  the  sig- 
nification of  the  name  as  "Gold  Islands."  Hope- 
town,  on  Viper  Island,  was  the  scene  of  the 
assassination  by  a  Mohammedan  convict  of  Earl 
Mayo,  Governor-General  of  India,  while  on  an  of- 
ficial tour  of  inspection  in  1872.  Consult:  Man, 
The  Ahorigines  of  the  Andaman  Islands  (Lon- 
don, 1885),  and  "The  Andaman  Islands,"  in  The 
Indian  Antiquari),  Volumes  XXVIII.  and  XXX. 
(Bombay,   1899  .-ind  1900). 

ANDANTE,  an-dan'ti  (Ital.,  going,  moving, 
from  andare,  to  walk,  go).  In  nuisic,  one  of  the 
five  principal  tempos  (q.v.).  It  implies  a  some- 
what slow  and  gentle  movement,  intermediate 
between  adagio  (than  which  it  is  faster)  and 
allegro  (than  which  it  is  slower).  This  term 
is  often  modified,  both  as  to  time  and  style,  by 
the  addition  of  other  words — as  andante  aflTettu- 
oso,  slow,  but  pathetically;  andante  cantabile, 
slow,  but  in  a  singing  style;  andante  con  moto, 
slow,  but  with  energy;  andante  grazioso,  slow, 
but  gracefully;  andante  maestoso,  slow,  with  ma- 
jesty ;  andante  ma  non  troppo,  slow,  but  not  too 
slow;  andante  pastorale,  slow,  and  with  pas- 
toral simplicity.  Andante  also  means  the  slow 
movement  or  section  of  a  musical  composition. 

ANDAQUI,  an-dii'ki*.  An  important  Indian 
confederacy  formerly  holding  the  head-streams  of 
the  Caqueta  and  Magdalena  rivers  and  the  ad- 
joining mountain  region   in  Southern  Colombia. 


ANDAQUI. 


528 


ANDERSEN. 


Before  the  period  of  tlie  Spanish  conquest  the 
tribes  had  attained  a  high  degree  of  civilization, 
attested  by  the  ruins  of  temples  and  otlier  edi- 
fices, with  gigantic  statues  carved  from  the  liv- 
ing rock  yet  to  be  seen  in  their  ancient  territory. 
A  wild  and  warlike  remnant  survives  in  the  in- 
accessible fastnesses  at  the  head  of  Fragua  River, 
still  guarding,  according  to  a  local  legend,  a 
cavern  in  which  are  piled  up  the  golden  treasures 
of  their  ancestors.  The  language  shows  some 
similarities  to  the  Chibcha,  but  appears  to  con- 
stitute a  distinct  stock. 

ANDAS'TEE.      See  Conestoqa. 

ANDELYS,  Les,  la'zilN'd'-l*'.  An  imj)ort- 
ant  town  in  the  department  of  Eure,  France, 
20  miles  northeast  of  Evreux,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Seine.  It  consists  of  Grand  and  Petit 
Andelys.  The  former  dates  from  the  sixth  cen- 
tury, and  contains  the  fine  collegiate  church-  of 
Notre  Dame,  built  from  the  thirteenth  to  the 
sixteenth  centuries,  noted  for  its  superb  stained 
glass  windows  and  valuable  paintings.  Petit 
Andelys  clusters  around  the  famous  Norman  cas- 
tle of  Gaillard,  built  by  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion  in 
1195,  which  was  once  one  of  the  strongholds  of 
France.  The  church  of  St.  Sauveur,  at  Petit 
Andelys,  is  also  a  splendid  structure,  dating  from 
the  twelfth  to  the  fourteenth  centuries.  Tlie 
chief  trade  is  in  cloth,  and  there  are  manufac- 
tures of  thread  and  leather.     Pop.,  1896,  5923. 

ANDENNE,  iiN'den'.  A  town  of  Belgium,  in 
the  province  of  Namur,  10  miles  east  of  Namur, 
and  nearly  two  miles  south  of  the  Maas  (Map: 
Belgium,  D  4).  It  has  manufactures  of  paper, 
porcelain,  and  tobacco-pipes,  the  latter  being  its 
most  famous  product.  There  are  beds  of  pipe- 
clay, quarries  of  marble,  and  lead,  iron,  and  coal 
mines  in  the  neighborhood.     Pop.,  1899,  7829. 

ANDER,  Jin'der,  Aloys  (1821-64).  An  Aus- 
trian tenor,  born  at  Liebititz,  Bohemia.  He  ap- 
peared at  Vienna  in  1845,  and  was  first  to  sing 
there  the  role  of  Jean  de  Leyde  in  Meyerbeer's 
he  Prophete.  His  voice  was  not  strong,  but  of 
excellent  quality. 

ANDERAB,  iin'der-iib',  or  INDERAB,  In'- 
der-iib'.  A  town  of  Afghanistan,  on  the  northern 
slope  of  the  Hindu-Kush  Mountains,  and  on  the 
northern  bank  of  the  Anderab,  or  Inderab,  River 
(Map:  Afghanistan,  L  3).  It  is  surrounded  by 
gardens,  orchards,  and  vineyards.  It  is  an  im- 
portant post  in  the  commerce  between  Persia  and 
India.     Pop.,  estimated  at  6000. 

ANDERLECHT,  an'dcr-lcKt.  A  manufactur- 
ing suburb  of  Brussels,  Belgium  (Map:  Belgium, 
C  4).  It  has  numerous  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments, consisting  mostly  of  spinning  and 
weaving  mills,  dveing  works,  and  breweries. 
Pop.,  in  1890,  32,300;  in  1900,  47,700. 

ANDERLEDY,  iin'der-la'de,  Antonius  (1819- 
92).  A  general  of  the  Jesuits,  born  at  Brieg 
(Valais),  Switzerland.  He  entered  the  order  of 
Jesuits  in  1838,  and  studied  philosophy  and 
theology  at  Rome  and  Freiburg.  In  1848  he  came 
to  the  United  States,  where  he  was  pastor  at 
Green  Bay,  Wis.;  and  in  1851  returned  to  Ger- 
many, where,  until  1853.  he  directed  Jesuit  mis- 
sions. From  1853  to  1856  he  was  rector  of  the 
Jesuit  seminary  at  Cologne.  In  1856  he  was  ap- 
pointed rector  of  the  seminary  at  Paderborn,  and 
in  1865  assumed  the  professorship  of  moral  the- 
ology at  the  Seminary  of  Maria-Laach.  of  which 
he  was  made  rector  iii  1809.     He  was  appointed. 


in  1870,  assistant  to  J.  P.  Beckx,  general  of  the 
Jesuits,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1884. 

ANDERMATT,  iin'der-mat,  or  Urseren 
(the  Italian  Orscra).  The  chief  town  of  the 
Andermatt  Valley,  in  the  canton  of  Uri,  Switzer- 
land, four  miles  south  of  Giischenen.  It  is  4700 
feet  above  sea  level,  and  is  at  the  intersection  of 
three  of  the  most  important  Alpine  highways, 
the  road  through  the  St.  Gotthard  Pass,  that  to 
the  Rhone  Valley,  and  the  upper  Alps  road 
going  toward  the  valley  of  the  Rhine.  The 
St.  Gotthard  tunnel  passes  underneath  the  val- 
ley of  Andermatt.  For  the  protection  of  Ander- 
matt, a  strong  fort  has  been  built  to  the  north. 
The  town  has  an  active  transit  trade,  and  is  a 
summer  and  winter  health  resort.     Pop.,  700. 

ANDERNACH,  iiu'der-niiG.  A  town  in  the 
Prussian  Rhine  province,  situated  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Rhine,  about  10  miles  northwest  of 
Coblentz,  and  near  the  mouth  of  the  Nette  (Map: 
Prussia,  B  3).  Its  old  walls  and  gates  give  it 
quite  a  mediaeval  appearance.  Among  its  in- 
teresting buildings  are  the  parish  church  of  St. 
Genoveva,  with  four  towers,  one  of  which  dates 
back  to  the  Carlovingian  period,  the  ruins  of 
the  old  castles  of  the  archbishops  of  Cologne, 
the  quaint  watch  tower,  and  the  Rhine  Gate.  The 
town  luis  manufactures  of  chemicals,  perfumeries, 
cigars,  millstones,  exported  to  distant  parts  of 
the  world,  and  tiiffstciti,  or  trass,  an  indurated 
volcanic  mud,  which,  when  pulverized  and  mixed 
with  lime,  makes  a  mortar  or  cement  for  con- 
structions under  water.  Pop.,  in  1890,  about 
6000;  in  1900,  8000.  The  town  was  founded  by 
the  Romans  under  the  name  of  Antunnacum. 

ANDERSEN,  iin'dersrn,  Han.s  Chkistiax  M 
(1805-75).  A  celebrated  Danish  writer,  styled  fl 
the  "children's  poet,''  whose  best  poetry  is  his 
prose.  He  was  born  at  Odense.  Denmark,  April 
2,  1805.  The  child  of  poor  and  shiftless  parents, 
he  had  little  instruction  and  few  associates, 
but  his  dramatic  instinct  was  stimulated  by 
La  Fontaine  and  the  Arabian  Nights,  and  a 
visit  of  a  theatrical  company  to  Odense,  in  ISIS, 
led  him  to  seek  his  dramatic  fortune  in  Copen- 
hagen (1819),  where  for  four  years  he  worked 
diligently,  luit  luoduced  nothing  of  note.  He 
gained  a  scholarship,  however,  and  friends,  who 
in  1829  enabled  him  to  publish  .4.  Journey  on 
Foot  from  Holm  Canal  to  tlie  East  Point  of 
Amager,  an  arabesque  naively  plagiarized  and 
parodied  from  the  German  romanticists.  Fan- 
tasies and  Sketches,  sentimental  and  rather 
mawkish  poems,  followed  in  1831,  after  which 
he  made  a  tour  of  (»ermany,  the  first  of  many 
wanderings.  This  inspired  8ilhoiiettcs,  a  book 
with  admirable  pages  of  description.  In  1835 
he  essayed  the  Fairi/  Talcs,  by  wliich  he  was 
to  achieve  world-wide  recognition.  The  classic 
Tinderhox  and  Big  Claus  and  Little  Clans 
are  also  of  this  year.  He  was,  however,  disposed 
to  underrate  his  "sleight  of  hand  with  fancy's 
golden  apples,"  devoting  himself  to  novels.  I'he 
Improvvisatore  (1835),  O.  T.  (1836),  and  Only  a 
Fiddler  (1837),  which  gave  him  a  European 
reputation  for  picturesque  description,  humor, 
and  pathos  of  tlie  romantic  type.  In  the  last, 
there  are  interesting  autobiographical  touches; 
but  there  is  no  clear  character-drawing  in  any 
of  them,  and  this  lack  made  his  repeated  dra- 
matic essays  uniform  failures.  He  Was  still  to 
write  delightful  impressions  of  travel,  as  in 
.1  Poet's  Bazaar  (1842),  In  Sweden  (1849),  and 


ANDERSEN. 


529 


ANDERSON. 


In  t<pain  (18(iO).  He  wrote  otlier  novels,  The 
Two  liuroiicsses  (184!))  and  To  lie  or  Not  To  Be 
(1857),  and  an  epic  failure,  Ahasucrus  (1847)  ; 
but  the  Picture  Book  Without  Pictures  (1840) 
had  revealed  his  best  talent  to  him  as  an  inter- 
[ireter  of  child  nature.  Between  18o:i  and  18G2 
he  printed  nine  small  volumes  of  stories,  and  fin- 
ished the  last  of  them  in  1872.  His  last  years 
were  unliarassed  by  criticism,  and  attended  by 
all  the  honor  and  love  that  should  accompany  old 
age.  His  literary  jubilee  occurred  in  1869,  and 
he  died  at  Copenhagen,  August  4,  1875,  after  a 
brief  and  painless  illness. 

In  appearance,  Andersen  was  limp  and  very 
ungainl}'.  His  nose  was  large,  his  neck  and 
limbs  long  and  lank,  and  his  hands  and  feet  very 
large;  yet  he  fancied  himself  distinguished-look- 
ing, and  had  a  child's  delight  in  dress  and  deco- 
ration. His  character,  too,  hovered  between  the 
childlike  and  the  childish.  He  never  realized 
the  limitations  of  his  genius.  He  did  not  like 
children,  and  he  was  not  personally  attractive 
to  them.  He  was  a  shrewd  observer,  but  self- 
absorbed  and  out  of  touch  with  his  political  gen- 
eration. His  literary  style  is  faulty,  but  it  re- 
flects marvelously  the  vivid  imagery  of  juvenile 
fancy.  He  had  at  his  finger-tips  all  the  vener- 
able devices  of  the  nursery  to  spur  attention  and 
kindle  sympathy.  No  writer  looks  at  nature  so 
wholly  with  the  child's  eyes  as  he,  none  so  inter- 
penetrates narration  with  the  smiles,  the  fears, 
and  the  very  intonations  of  childhood.  His  per- 
sonifications may  tease  the  adult  fancy,  but  they 
are  the  natural  drama  of  children.  Andersen's 
works  are  Englished  in  ten  uniform  but  unnum- 
bered volumes.  JIary  llowitt's  is  still  the  best 
of  many  translations  of  the  Tales,  though  it  is 
far  from  faultless.  A  sumptuous  centenary  edi- 
tion of  the  Tales  appeared  (1900)  under  the  pa- 
tronage of  the  Danish  Government  simultane- 
onsly  in  six  languages.  Andersen's  Autobiogra- 
phy was  compiled  by  Jonas  (Berlin,  1879). 
R.  Nisbet  Bain's  Life  of  Andersen  (New  York, 
1895)    is  the  best  in  English. 

ANDERSEN,  an'der-scn,  Karl  (1828-83).  A 
Danish  poet.  He  was  born  at  Copenhagen,  stud- 
ied law  there,  and  was  subsequently  appointed 
curator  of  the  royal  museums  at  the  castle  of 
Rosenborg.  He  first  became  known  through  his 
Kraiids  paa  en  Arbejders  Kiste  ("A  Wreath  for 
a  Laborer's  Coffin,"  1875).  He  also  published 
Lyriske  Smaadiqie  ("Shorter  Lvrics,"  1863), 
Poesier  ("Poems'."  1870),  Genrehillcdcr  ("Genre- 
Pictures,"  1876-81),  and  other  works.  He  made 
a  collection  of  Icelandic  sagas  (1864)  and  trans- 
lations of  Servian  folk-songs. 

AN'DERSON.  A  city  and  railroad  centre, 
the  county  seat  of  Madison  Co..  Ind.,  30  miles 
northeast  of  Indianapolis,  on  the  west  fork  of  the 
White  River,  and  the  Chicago  and  Southeastern, 
tlie  Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chicago  and  St.  Louis, 
and  other  railroads  (ilap:  Indiana,  D  2).  An 
abundant  supply  of  natural  gas  promotes  the 
maniifacturing  industries,  which  include  iron, 
steel,  glass,  wire  nails,  strawboards,  tiles,  etc. 
The  city  is  the  centre  of  an  extensive  system  of 
interurban  electric  railways,  the  power  for  the 
operation  of  which  is  supplied  by  a  million- 
dollar  plant.  Anderson  owns  and  operates  its 
water  works,  gas.  and  electric  light  plants,  has 
several  small  parks  and  a  public  library.  Near 
the  city  are  the  historic  mounds  of  the  so-called 
"mound    builders."     Anderson    was    settled     in 


1823,  incorporated  in  1865,  and  is  governed  un- 
der the  charter  of  1865,  which  provides  for  a 
mayor,  elected  every  four  years,  and  a  city  coun- 
cil of  six  member?,  controlling  all  the  appoint- 
ments. Its  rapid  growth  is  showft  by  the  follow- 
ing figures  of  populalion;  ISSO,  4126:  1890, 
10,741;    1900,  20,178. 

ANDERSON.  A  city  and  county  seat  of 
Anderson  Co.,  S.  C,  about  125  miles  northwest 
of  the  State  capital,  Columbia,  on  the  .Southern, 
the  Blue  Ridge,  and  tlie  Charleston  and  Western 
Carolina  railroads  (Map:  South  Carolina,  B  2). 
It  has  city  and  school  libraries,  and  there  are 
handsome  school  buildings  and  churclies,  and  a 
fine  city  hall  and  county  court-house.  The  city 
is  in  a  fertile  cotton-growing  and  somewhat 
diversified  agricultural  region,  and  has  several 
large  wholesale  stores,  while  among  its  indus- 
trial establishments  are  cotton  and  cottonseed 
oil  mills,  factories  for  the  manufacture  of  fer- 
tilizers, spring  beds  and  mattresses,  overalls,  col- 
lars, and  otlier  articles  of  apparel,  lumber  and 
flour  mills,  and  machine  shops.  A  notable  feat- 
ure of  the  city  is  a  superb  electric  power  station, 
ten  miles  distant  on  the  Seneca  River,  and  con- 
trolled by  a  private  corporation,  which  supplies 
to  the  city  and  vicinity  electric  power  for  in- 
dustrial enterprises  as  well  as  light.  Tliis  com- 
pany also  controls  the  city's  water  supply.  The 
government,  under  a  charter  of  1882,  is  adminis- 
tered by  a  mayor,  elected  every  tw'o  years,  and 
a  municipal  council.  Town  meetings  are  held 
when  necessary.  Anderson  was  settled  in  1827. 
Pop.,   1890,  3018;    1900,  5498. 

ANDERSON,  Alexander  (177.5-1870).  The 
earliest  wood-engraver  in  the  United  States.  He 
was  born  in  New  York  Citj',  and  in  1796  received 
his  medical  degree  from  Columbia  College,  but 
after  two  years  he  gave  up  his  medical  work  and 
devoted  his  entire  attention  to  wood-engraving. 
Among  his  best  known  productions  are  his  forty 
illustrations  of  Shakespeare's  plays,  and  the  cuts 
for  Webster's  HpcUinfiBook.  He  was  commissioned 
by  the  Government  to  engrave  plates  for  paper 
currency.  Consult  Lossing,  Memorial  Address 
on  Alexander  Anderson,  published  by  the  New 
York  Historical  Society. 

ANDERSON,  Sir  Edmund  (1530-1605).  An 
English  jurist.  Chief  Justice  of  the  Court  of 
Common  Pleas  in  1582,  distinguished  for  zeal  in 
the  cause  of  the  Established  Church,  and  for 
harshness  toward  Catholics  and  other  dissenters. 
In  his  attitude  at  the  trials  of  Robert  Brown, 
the  founder  of  the  Brownists,  and  of  John  Udall, 
concerned  in  the  authorship  of  the  ]\Iartin  Mar- 
prelate  pamphlets,  he  showed  a  spirit  of  brutal 
vindictiveness  bent  on  conviction.  He  was  one 
of  the  commissioners  in  1586  to  try  Queen  Mary 
of  Scotland,  and  afterward  to  try  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh.  He  was  a  man  of  extraordinary  legal 
learning. 

ANDERSON,  Gau-sha  (1832—).  An  Amer- 
ican theologian.  He  was  born  at  North  Bergen, 
N.  Y..  and  was  educated  at  Rochester  University 
and  Baptist  Theological  Seminary.  He  held  sev- 
eral pastorates,  and  afterward  became  president 
successively  of  the  universities  of  Chicago  (1878- 
85)  and  Denison,  0.  (1887-90).  .Afterward  he 
took  the  chair  of  homiletics  and  theology  at 
Chicago  University. 

ANDERSON,  George  B.  (1831-62).  A  Con- 
federate soldier.     He  was  born  at  Wilmington, 


ANDEBSON. 


530 


ANDERSON. 


N.  C,  gi-aduated  at  West  Point  in  1S52,  and  in 
1855  was  appointed  first  lieutenant,  serving  as 
regimental  adjutant  after  1858.  He  resigned  in 
1861  to  enter  the  Confederate  service,  and  soon 
became  a  brigadier-general  and  was  placed  in 
general  command  of  the  North  Carolina  coast 
defenses.  While  leading  a  brigade  at  the  battle 
of  Antietam  (September  17,  1862),  he  was  fa- 
tally wounded,  and  died  on  October  16th. 

ANDERSON,  James,  LL.D.   (1730-1808).     A 
Scotoli  writer  on  political  economy  and  agricul- 
ture.    He  was  born  at  the  village  of  Hermiston, 
near  Edinburgh,  and  lost  both  his  parents  when 
very  young,  so  that  the  management  of  a  large 
farm,'  which   had  been   in  the  possession  of   tlie 
family  for  a  long  time,  devolved  upon  him.     Rec- 
ognizing the  practical  importance  of  a  knowledge 
of  cliemistry  to  a  farmer,  he  attended  the  cliem- 
istry  class  "in  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  and 
brought  the  results  of  his  study  to  bear  on  his 
profession.     He  invented,  at  an  early  period  of 
life,   the   small   two-horse   plow   witliout   wheels, 
commonly    called    the    Scotch    plow,    which    is 
generally  admitted  to  have  been  one  of  the  most 
useful  improvements  of  agricultural  implements 
ever   introduced.     When  only  twenty-four  years 
old  he  went  to  Aberdeenshire,  where  he  rented  a 
large  moorland  farm  of  1300  acres.     Here  he  re- 
mained   for    a    considerable    time,    devoting    his 
leisure  hours  to  writing  upon  agriculture.     His 
first  attempt  was  a  series  of  essays  upon  plant- 
ing, which,  under  the  signature  of  "Agricola,"  lie 
contributed  to  the  Edinburgh  Weekly  Magazine. 
In  1780  the  University  of  Aberdeen  bestowed  on 
him  the  degi'ee  of  doctor  of  laws.     In   1784,  on 
account  of  his  pamphlet,  entitled  Encouragement 
of  the  Is'ational  Fisheries,  he  was  engaged  by  the 
Government  to   make   a   survey  of   the   western 
coast  of  Scotland,  with  special  reference  to  that 
object.     He  next  began,  in  1791,  the  publication 
of  a  periodical  called  The  Bee,  which  was  con- 
tinued for  three  years.    In  1797  he  went  to  Lon- 
don, where  he  pursued  his  literary  occupations 
with  such  intense  assiduity  that  his  health  grad- 
ually gave  way.     He  died  on  October   15,  ISOS. 
Anderson   well   deserves   a   place  in  any   record 
which  details  the  remarkable  advances  made  by 
Scotland    in    agriculture    and    other    sources    of 
wealth  in  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury.    His  Bee  was  the  type  of  many  periodical 
miscellanies   of   a   popular   nature,   mingling   in- 
struction with   entertainment,   which  have  since 
been  published.     He  also  published:  An  Inquiry 
Into  the  Xatnrc  of  the  Corn  Laws,  With  a  View 
of  the  Corn  Bill  Proposed  for  Scotland   (1777)  ; 
Observations  on  the  Means  of  Inciting  a  Spirit 
of  National  Industry  (1777)  ;  An  Account  of  the 
Present  State  of  the  /7e6ridfs   (1785)  :  Observa- 
tions on   Slavery    (1789);    Recreations  in  Agri- 
culture, Natural  History,  Arts,  and  Miscellaneous 
Literature,  6  volumes  "( 1799-1S02) .     Several   of 
the    doctrines    of   later    economists,    notably   the 
Eicardian   theory  of  rent,  are   foieshadowed  in 
Anderson's  writings. 

ANDERSON,  Sir  James  ( 1824—) .  A  Scotch 
navigator.  He  was  born  at  Dumfries,  and  in 
1851  entered  the  service  of  the  Cunard  company. 
He  commanded  successively  four  vessels  of  that 
line,  and  so  distinguished  himself  by  his  excellent 
judgment  and  high  skill  that,  in  1805,  he  was 
selected  to  command  the  Oreat  Eastern  when  that 
vessel  was  chartered  to  lay  the  Atlantic  cable 
(see  Atlantic  Telegraph)",  and  thenceforth  his 


name    becomes    intimately    associated    with    the 
achievements  of  that  celebrated  cable  transport. 

ANDERSON,  Joiijt,  F.R.S.  (1720-96).  A 
Scotch  professor  of  natural  philosophy  in  the 
University  of  Glasgow,  and  founder  of  the  insti- 
tution in  that  city  bearing  his  name.  He  was 
born  in  the  parish  of  Roseneath,  Dumbarton- 
shire. He  studied  at  the  University  of  Glasgow, 
in  which,  in  his  thirtieth  jear,  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  Oriental  languages.  Four  years 
later  (1760)  he  was  transferred  to  the  chair  of 
natural  philosophy.  He  was  greatly  interested 
in  the  practical  application  of  science,  and  in 
a  spirit  of  philanthropy  he  instituted  a  lecture 
course  for  artisans,  in  addition  to  his  usual  lec- 
tures, which  were  erudite  and  technical.  He 
continued  these  twice  every  week  during  the  ses- 
sion to  the  end  of  his  life.  His  valuable  work, 
entitled  Institutes  of  Physics,  appeai-ed  in 
1786.  Shortl}-  before  the  French  Revolution  he 
invented  a  form  of  gun  whose  recoil  was  stopped 
by  the  condensation  of  air  within  the  body  of 
the  carriage;  but,  after  having  endeavored  in 
vain  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  British  Gov- 
ernment to  it,  he  proceeded  to  Paris  in  1791. 
and,  being  a  sympathizer  witli  the  Revolution, 
presented  his  model  to  the  National  Convention. 
It  was  hung  up  in  their  hall  with  the  following 
inscription  over  it:  "The  gift  of  Science  to  Lib- 
ERTT."  Afterward,  when  the  allied  forces  had 
drawn  a  military  cordon  around  tlie  frontiers  of 
France  to  prevent  the  introduction  of  French 
newspapers  into  Germany,  Anderson  ingeniously 
suggested  the  expedient,  which  was  adopted  and 
proved  quite  successful,  of  making  small  balloons 
of  paper,  to  which  newspapers  and  manifestoes 
were  tied,  and  letting  them  off,  when  the  wind 
was  favorable,  for  Germany.  By  his  will  he 
directed  that  the  whole  of  his  effects,  of  every 
kind,  should  be  devoted  to  the  establishment  of 
an  educational  institution  in  Glasgow  to  be 
known  as  Anderson's  University. 

ANDERSON,  John  (18.33-1900).  A  Scotch 
scientist,  born  at  Edinburgh.  He  studied  at  Ed- 
inburgh University,  and  from  1864  to  1886  was 
professor  of  comparative  anatomy  at  the  Cal- 
cutta Medical  College  and  curator  of  the  gov- 
ernment museum.  As  scientific  officer,  he  ac- 
companied expeditions  to  western  China  in  1868- 
69  and  in  1874-75.  In  1881  he  was  commissioned 
to  make  an  investigation  of  the  marine  animals 
of  the  Mergui  archipelago.  He  was  a  fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  and  a  contributor  to  scien- 
tific journals,  and  published  Mnndelay  to  Momen 
(1875),  Anatomical  and  Zoological  Researcheif 
(1878),  Two  Expeditions  to  Western  China 
(1876),  Fauna  of  Mergui  and  its  Archipel- 
ago (1889),  and  Herpetology  of  Arabia,  xvith  a 
Preliminary  List  of  the  Repiiles  and  Batrachians 
of  Egypt  ("1896).  His  observations  in  thellcrgui 
archipelago  appeared  '  in  Volumes  XXI.  and 
XXII.  of  the  Journal  of  the  Linniean  Society. 

ANDERSON,  John  Jacob  (1821 — ).  An 
American  author.  He  was  born  in  New  York 
City,  and  graduated  at  the  Normal  School  there. 
For  thirty  years  he  was  attached  to,  and  for 
twenty  years  was  principal  of,  a  large  grammar 
school  in  New  York.  He  has  a  wide  reputation 
as  an  author  of  text-books  of  history,  among  his 
numerous  publications  of  this  description  being 
the  following:  Pictorial  School  History  of  the 
United  States  (1863),  A  School  History  of  Eng- 


ANDERSON. 


531 


ANDERSON. 


land  (1870),  Manual  of  General  Uistorii,  The 
United  States  Reader,  and  A  History  of  Franee. 
ANDERSON,  Larz  (1805-78).  An  Amer- 
ican capitalist  and  philanthropist,  a  brother  of 
Major  Anderson  of  Fort  Sumter  fame.  He  was 
born  at  the  "Soldiers'  Retreat,"  near  Louisville, 
Ky.,  and  was  educated  at  Harvard  College.  He 
was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  citizens  of 
Cincinnati  in  his  day,  being  widely  celebrated  for 
his  piililio  enterprise  and  numerous  charities. 

ANDERSON,  Martin  Brewhk  ( 181.5-'.tO) .  An 
American  educator.  He  was  born  at  JJrunswick, 
Me.,  graduated  at  Waterville  College,  now  Colby 
University,  in  1840,  was  tutor  of  Latin  for 
two  years,  and  for  seven  years  professor  of 
rhetoric  in  the  same  institution.  In  1850  he  be- 
came editor  of  the  New  York  It'ccorder,  a  weekly 
Baptist  paper.  In  1853  he  was  called  to  the 
presidency  of  the  University  of  Rochester,  where 
he  remained  until  18SS.  In  1868  he  declined  the 
presidency  of  Brown  University.  He  was  a  vig- 
orous and  popular  preacher,  though  never  or- 
dained to  the  ministi'y.  Selections  from  his 
numerous  Papers  and  Addresses  were  published 
in  two'volumes  in  1895. 

ANDERSON,  Mary  Antoinette  (1859—). 
An  American  actress,  born  at  Sacramento,  Cal. 
Her  fatlier.  General  Anderson,  was  killed  in  the 
Civil  War,  while  serving  on  the  Confederate  side. 
Her  mother  married  Dr.  Hamilton  Griliin,  and 
removed  with  him  to  Louisville,  Ky.  She  was 
educated  at  the  Ursuline  Convent  and  the  Acad- 
emy of  the  Presentation  Nuns  in  Louisville,  and 
at  the  age  of  thirteen  began  to  study  for  the 
stage  under  Charlotte  Cushnian.  She  made  her 
d^but  in  the  character  of  Juliet  at  Louisville,  No- 
vember 27,  1875,  with  such  success  that  she 
was  engaged  for  other  roles.  In  1876  she  trav- 
eled through  the  West,  and  in  the  .season  of  1877- 
78  appeared  in  Philadelphia,  New  York,  and 
Boston.  In  1884-85  she  played  at  the  Lyceum 
Theatre,  London,  and  in  the  character  of  Rosa- 
lind, in  As  You  Like  It,  opened  the  Memorial 
Theatre  at  Stratford-on-Avon.  From  1885  to 
1880  she  played  in  Great  Britain,  her  chief 
parts  being  .Juliet,  Bianca  in  Fazio,  Julia  in 
The  Ilunehbach;  Evadne.  Meg  Merrilies,  Pau- 
line, Galatea,  Clarice,  in  Comedy  and  Tragedy; 
Parthenia.  Rosalind,  and  Perdita,  in  A  Winter's 
Tale,  in  which  she  achieved  her  greatest  suc- 
cess. Illness  in  1889  compelled  her  to  retire 
from  the  stage.  In  1890  she  married  Antonio 
Navarro  de  Viana,  of  New  Y'ork,  and  soon  de- 
cided not  to  return  to  the  stage. 

ANDERSON,  Rasmus  Bjorn,  LL.D.  (1846 
— ).  An  American  .scholar  and  author.  He 
was  born  at  Albion,  Wis.,  graduated  in 
1866  at  Luther  College  (Decorah,  la.),  and  in 
1869  at  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  where  from 
1875  to  188.3  he  was  professor  of  Scandinavian 
languages  and  literature.  From  1885  to  1889 
he  was  United  States  minister  to  Denmark. 
In  1898  he  became  editor  at  Madison.  Wis.,  of 
Amerika.  a  Norwegian  journal.  His  publications 
include  The  Scandinavian  Lnnynni/es  (1873), 
America  Not  Discovered  by  Columhus  (1874), 
Vikiny  Tales  of  the  Xorth  (1877),  and  transla- 
tions of  Brande^'s  Eminent  Authors  in  the  \ine- 
teenth  Century,  and  of  the  works  of  Bjiirnson  (7 
volumes). 

ANDERSON,  Richard  Hkxry  (1821-79).  A 
Confederate  soldier.    He  was  born  in  South  Caro- 


lina, graduated  from  West  Point  in  1842,  and 
served  as  second  lieutenant  in  the  Mexican  War. 
He  took  part  in  the  .southern  line  of  operations, 
and  became  first  lieutenant  in  1848  and  captain 
in  1855.  He  resigned  from  the  regular  army 
(May,  1861),  became  a  Confederate  brigadier, 
assisted  in  the  bombardment  of  Fort  Sumter, 
and  served  with  great  gallantry  throughout  the 
war,  distinguishing  hini.self  especially  at  Fair 
Oaks.  Gaines's  Mill,  Frazicr's  Farm,  Bull  Run, 
and  Gettysburg,  where  he  conuuandcd  a  division. 
He  rose  to  the  rank  of  major-general  (August, 
1862),  and  of  lieutenant-general  (May,  1804). 
In  the  final  campaign  he  commanded  the  fourth 
corps  of  tJcncral  Lee's  army. 

ANDERSON,  Robert  (180.5-71).  An  Amer- 
ican soldier.  He  was  born  near  Louisville,  Ky., 
and  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1825,  and  served 
in  the  Black  Hawk  War  of  1832  as  colonel  of  the 
Illinois  volunteers.  He  was  instructor  of  ar- 
tillery practice  at  West  Point,  1835-37;  served 
in  the  second  Seminole  War,  1837-38,  and  in  1838 
was  brevetted  captain  and  became  assistant  ad- 
jutant-general on  General  Scott's  stall'.  He  took 
part  in  the  Mexican  War,  and  was  severely 
wounded  at  Molino  del  Rcy.  In  November.  1860, 
he  took  command  in  Charleston  harbor,  and  was 
for  fifteen  weeks  confined  to  Fort  Sumter  by 
the  Confederates.  On  April  14th,  after  a  bom- 
bardment of  36  hours,  he  was  compelled  to  evac- 
uate the  fort.  (See  Fort  Sumter.)  He  was  ap- 
pointed brigadier-general  in  the  LTnited  States 
Armj'  in  May,  1861,  and  sent  to  command  the 
Department  of  the  Cumberland ;  but,  owing  to 
the  failure  of  his  health,  he  was  relieved  from 
active  duty  in  October,  1861,  and  was  retired 
from  the  service  in  October,  1863.  In  1865  he 
was  brevetted  major-general.  He  translated  and 
adapted  from  the  French  Inirtructions  for  Field 
Artillery  (1840)  and  Erolufious  of  Field  Batter- 
ies   (1860).     He  died  in  France. 

ANDERSON,  Robert  (17.50-1830).  A  Scotch 
editor  and  biographer  of  the  English  poets.  He 
was  born  at  Carnwath,  Lanarkshire;  studied  the- 
ology and  afterward  medicine  in  tlie  University 
of  Edinburgh,  and  became  a  physician,  but  soon 
after  his  marriage  ceased  practicing,  and  from 
that  time  devoted  himself  to  literature.  His 
most  important  work  was  the  compilation  of  A 
Complete  Edition  of  the  Poets  of  Great  Britain 
(14  volumes,  1792-1807).  He  edited  the  Edin- 
burgh Magazine,  and  in  that  capacity  became  the 
friend  of  many  young  writers,  notably  Thomas 
Campbell,  who  dedicated  his  first  volume  of 
verses  to  him.  Consult  Beattie,  Life  and  Let- 
ters of  Campbell   (1849). 

ANDERSON,  RuFu.s,  D.D.,  LL.D.  (1796- 
1880).  Secretary  of  the  American  Board  of 
Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions.  He  was 
graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  (1818)  and  An- 
dover  Theological  Seminary  (1822),  and  after 
acting  as  assistant  (1822-1832),  became  full  sec- 
retary, and  so  continued  until  1866,  when  he  re- 
tired. He  was  lecturer  on  Foreign  Missions  in 
Andover  Theological  Seminary  1867-69.  He  was 
one  of  the  great  missionary  secretaries,  and  his- 
torian of  the  American  Board  (1872-74,  3  vol- 
umes.) He  inspected  the  Board's  stations,  and 
has  left  the  memorial  in  his  Observations  Upon 
the  Peloponnesus  and  Greek  fslands  (1830),  A 
Heathen  Nation  (the  Hawaiians)  Civilized 
(1870),  and  in  the  history  mentioned  above.  He 
died  in  Boston,  May  30,  1880. 


ANDERSONVILLE. 


AN'DERSONVILLE.  A  village  in  Sumter 
Co.,  Ga..  t)'2  miles  soutli  of  ilaeon.  notable  as 
tlie  site  of  a  Confederate  military  prison  during 
the  Civil  War.  When  established  in  November, 
18G3,  the  prison  was  an  unsheltered  inclosure 
occupying  about  twenty-two  acres,  and  crossed  by 
a  small  stream  about  five  feet  wide  and  one  foot 
deep.  Subsequently  the  area  was  increased  to 
about  twenty-seven  acres,  though  a  part  of  this 
was  rendered  unavailable  by  the  establishjuent  of 
a  "dead  line,"  the  crossing  of  which  by  a  pris- 
oner meant  immediate  death.  Into  this  area  some- 
times as  many  as  33,000  Federal  soldiers  were 
crowded,  forced  for  the  most  part  to  live  without 
shelter,  fully  exposed  to  the  heat  of  summer,  the 
frosts  of  winter,  and  the  frequent  storms,  while 
they  suffered  terribly  from  the  effects  of  insuffi- 
cient and  improper  food.  Amid  surroundings  of 
indescribable  filth,  they  died  by  thousands,  of 
diarrhea,  scurvy,  dysentery,  and  fevers.  The 
first  prisoners  arrived  on  February  15,  1804,  and 
the  last  in  April,  1865,  the  total  amounting  to 
40,485,  of  whom  more  than  12,800  or  26  per  cent, 
died  in  confinement.  In  the  autumn  of  1864 
many  of  the  prisoners  were  removed  to  ilillen, 
Ga.,  and  Florence,  S.  C,  where  the  conditions 
were  much  less  severe.  A  Confederate  medical 
commission,  composed  of  Dr.  G.  S.  Hopkins  and 
Surgeon  H.  E.  Watkins,  reported  in  1804  that 
the  abnormal  death  rate  was  due  ( 1 )  to  "the 
large  number  of  prisoners  crowded  together,"  (2) 
to  "the  entire  absence  of  all  vegetables  as  diet, 
so  necessary  as  a  preventive  to  scurvy,"  (3)  to 
"the  want  of  barracks  to  .shelter  the  prisoners 
from  sun  and  rain,"  (4)  to  "the  inadequate  sup- 
ply of  wood  and  good  water,"  ( 5 )  to  "badly 
cooked  food,"  (6)  to  "the  filthy  condition  of 
the  prisoners  and  prison  generally,"  and  (7)  to 
"the  morbific  emanations  from  the  branch,  or 
ravine  passing  through  the  prison,  the  condition 
of  which  cannot  be  better  explained  than  by 
naming  it  a  morass  of  hunuin  excrement  and 
mud."  The  post  was  in  command  of  General 
W.  S.  Winder,  while  Henry  Wirz,  a  Swiss,  was 
the  prison  superintendent.  The  latter  was  con- 
victed by  a  special  military  court,  in  session  from 
August  to  October,  1865,  of  "maliciously,  wil- 
fully, and  traitorously  conspiring  to  injure  the 
health  and  destroy  the  lives"  of  Union  soldiers 
at  Andersonville,  and  of  "murder  in  violation  of 
the  laws  of  war,"  and  on  November  10  was 
hanged.  Subsequently,  the  tract  of  land  where 
the  bodies  had  been  hastily  buried  was  turned 
into  a  national  cemetery.  Of  the  graves,  12.789 
have  been  identified  and  marked  with  tablets, 
while  025  remain  unknown.  Consult:  Chip- 
man,  The  Horrors  of  Andfrsonville  Rebel  Prison 
(San  Francisco,  ISill):  Spencer,  A  y<irrative 
of  AndersonriUe  (New  York,  1866)  ;  and  Steven- 
son, The  Soiitlirrn  Side,  or  Andersonville  Prison 
(Baltimore.   1S76). 

ANDEESSEN,  an'der-sen,ADOLF  ( 1818-1879) . 
A  faiiHJUs  (iiriiian  chess  player,  born  in  Breslau, 
He  studied  philosophy  and  mathematics  at  Bres- 
lau and  taught  at  the  Friedrichs-Gymnasium 
there.  In  1851  he  defeated  Staunton  at  London. 
In  1858  he  lost  to  Morphy,  at  Paris.  He  won  two 
first  prizes  in  the  VN'orld's  Tournament  at  London 
in  1862,  and  was  victorious  in  a  number  of  other 
tournaments  and  matches.  He  was  noted  for  the 
brilliancy  of  his  style  of  play.  His  "Sixty  Chess 
Problems"  are  full  of  deep  and  ingenious  com- 
binations. He  also  wrote  several  papers  on  the 
theory  of  chess. 


533  ANDES. 

ANDERSSON,      iin'der-son,      Kari.      Joh.\n 

( 1827-67  I .  A  Swedish  naturalist  and  South  Af- 
rican traveler.  In  1850  he  joined  Francis  Gal- 
ton  ill  a  journey  in  southwest  Africa,  continued 
alone  through  1853-54,  and  on  his  return  to 
England  published  Lair  X;i<imi;  or.  Explorations 
and  Discoveries  during  Four  Years'  Wanderings 
in  ihe  Wilds  of  South-icestern  Africa  (1855). 
He  made  a  journey  to  Lake  Ngami  in  1858  with 
Gieen,  the  elephant  hunter.  On  his  retiirn  he 
published  a  book  on  the  Okavango  River  ( 1861 ) . 
In  May,  1806,  he  went  on  an  exploration  to  the 
Kunene  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  com- 
mercial intercourse  with  the  Portuguese  settle- 
ments north  of  that  river.  He  came  in  sight  of 
the  stream,  but  was  too  feeble  to  cross  it,  and 
died  in  trying  to  return  to  Cape  Town.  After 
his  death,  his  \otcs  of  Travel  in  South  Africa 

(1876)    were  published. 

ANDERSSON,  Nils  Johan  (1821-80).  A 
Swedish  botanist,  born  at  Giirdserum,  Smfdand. 
In  1846  he  was  an  instructor  in  botany  at 
Upsala,  and  in  1847  taught  in  an  elementary 
school  at  Stockholm.  From  1851  to  1853  he  was 
botanist  to  the  Swedish  eireumnavigator_f  expe- 
dition, which  he  described  in  En  Verld-soniJieg- 
ling  (three  volumes,  1853-54).  He  was  appointed 
an  adjunct  professor  and  demonstrator  of  botany 
at  Lund  in  1855,  and  in  1856  professor  and 
curator  of  the  botanical  collections  at  the  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences,  Stockholm,  and  instructor  in 
the  Bergiani  horticultural  school.  He  also  pub- 
lished Salices  Lapponice  (1845),  Conspectus  Veg- 
etationis  Lnpponiw  (1846),  Atlas  bfver  den 
ficandinaviska  Florans  Xaturliga  Familjer 
(1849),  ilonographia  Salicu7n  Hucusque  Cogni- 
tiiriim    (1867),  and  other  works. 

AN'DERTON,  Thomas  (1836—).  An  Eng- 
lish composer,  born  in  Birmingliam,  April  15, 
1836.  Aithough  an  amateur,  his  works  are  fre- 
quently played  at  musical  festivals  and  concerts. 
These  include  a  symphony  and  overtures  for 
orchestra,  string-quartets,  pianoforte  music,  and 
cantatas  on  Cowper's  i7o/i«  (lilpin  and  on  Long- 
fellow's Wreck  of  the  Hesperus.  His  cantata. 
Yule  Tide,  has  had  a  considerable  success  in 
America. 

ANDES,  an'dez  (Deriv.  uncertain,  usually  ex- 
plained as  Copper  Mountains,  from  the  Peruvian 
word  anti.  copper:  cf.  in  Germany  Er^gebirge, 
Ore-ilountains,  and  Rleibcrg,  Lead-Mountain). 
The  great  mountain  chain  of  South  America, 
extending  closely  parallel  with  the  Pacific  coast, 
and  nowhere  far  from  it,  from  Cape  Horn  to  the 
northwest  coast  of  the  South  American  continent. 
Its  length  is  abo)it  4.500  miles,  extending  in 
latitude  from  56°  30'  S.  to  11°  N.  In  a  way, 
it  may  be  regarded  as  continuous  with  the  Cor- 
dilleras of  North  America,  the  two  forming  a 
well-nigh  continuous  mountain  systenr  9000 
miles  in  length,  stretching  from  Cape  Horn  to 
the  Aleutian  Islands.  The  average  breadth  may 
be  set  at  150  miles,  although  this  differs  greatly 
in  different  parts  of  the  system.  Its  average 
height  of  12,000  feet  is  subject  to  the  same 
qualification.  Following  the  coast,  the  system 
trends  a  little  west  of  south  through  Colombia 
and  Ecuador,  but  on  entering  Peru  it  turns  to 
the  southeast,  in  which  direction  it  extends 
through  that  country  and  part  of  Bolivia. 
Through  south  Bolivia,  Chile,  and  Argentina,  ita 
trend  is  nearly  south,  but  it  swings  in  a  broad 
eurve"to  the  eastward  near  Magellan  Strait. 


ANDES. 


533 


ANDES. 


Tlie  mountain  system  rises  abruptly  on  both 
sides  throujrhout  its  course.  Everywliere  it  pre- 
sents a  steep  wall  to  the  Pacifie,  and  on  the  east 
it  drops  abruptly  to  the  Amazon  Valley;  farther 
south,  in  Argentina,  the  land  rises  somewhat 
to  meet  it,  and  there  are  outlying  ridges,  but 
the  main  ascent  is  everywhere  steep.  The  south- 
ern part  of  the  system  consists  of  a  single  range, 
with  here  and  there  outliers  of  comparatively 
little  height,  but  from  northern  Chile  and  Argen- 
tina to  Colombia,  it  consists  of  a  high,  broad 
])latertu,  capped  by  two  or  three  ranges,  witli 
hundreds  of  high  volcanic  peaks,  some  active, 
others   dormant  or  extinct. 

Geologically,  the  system  is  of  recent  origin, 
although  its  age  has  not  been  closely  determined. 
The  material  of  which  it  is  composed  is  in  the 
main  granites,  with  schists,  slates,  and  other 
metamorphic  rocks  and  the  oldest  of  stratified 
rocks;  here  and  there  upturned  beds  of  more 
recent  formation,  up  to  the  Jurassic,  lie  upon  the 
flanks  of  the  ranges,  while  in  Peru,  the  eastern 
range  is  composed  largely  of  Silurian  beds. 
Over  all,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  volcanic 
peaks,  which  are  very  numerous  in  all  parts  of 
the  range,  are  spread  lava,  pumice,  scoria,  and 
ashes,  in  many  places  burying  deeply  the  meta- 
morphic rocks.  Near  the  northern  end,  in  Co- 
lombia and  Venezuela,  the  eastern  branches  are 
composed  of  recent  stratified  rocks.  For  de- 
tailed description  it  will  be  convenient  to  refer 
to  the  countries  traversed  by  this  mountain  sys- 
tem, and  this  order  will  be  followed,  commencing 
at  the  north. 

CoLOMiiiA  Axn  Venezuela.  The  Andes  orig- 
inate on  the  north  in  Colombia  and  Venezuela 
in  several  distinct  ranges,  which,  trending  south 
to  southwest,  meet  and  coalesce  in  the  Pasto 
Knot  in  southwest  Colombia.  The  westernmost 
range  of  magnitude  is  the  Cordillera  Occidental, 
which  rises  just  east  of  the  mouth  of  the  Atrato, 
and  trends  southward,  parallel  to  the  coast, 
tliroughout  Colombia.  In  this  are  summits  10,- 
000  and  11.000  feet  in  height,  the  highest  peaks 
being  in  tlie  southern  part.  Near  the  boundary 
line  with  Ecuador  it  is  cut  through  by  the  Rio 
Patia,  which  flows  south  and  west  into  the  Pa- 
cific. East  of  the  Cordillera  Occidental,  and  sepa- 
rated from  it  by  the  narrow  valley  of  the  Cauca,  a 
branch  of  the  Magdalena,  is  the  Cordillera  Cen- 
tral. This  range  rises  from  the  lowlands  be- 
tween the  Cauca  and  the  IMagdalena,  and  attains 
a  great  height,  with  Cunibal,  1.5.715  feet;  Gua- 
cau,  10.683  feet;  .Guican.  15,748  feet:  Santa 
Marta,  19.020  feet;  Santa  Isabel,  16.732  feet; 
Herveo.  18.045  feet:  Ruiz,  17,388  feet;  Sugar- 
loaf,  16,000  feet;  Tolima,  18,425  feet,  and  many 
others  of  equal  height.  The  range  is  composed 
mainly  of  crystalline  schists,  while  the  higher 
peaks  are  volcanoes,  which  have  spread  lava  and 
a.slies  over  many  parts  of  the  range.  East  of  the 
Cordillera  Occidental  and  across  the  valley  of  the 
Magdalena,  is  the  Cordillera  de  Bogota,  origi- 
nating in  several  ranges  in  the  north  of  Vene- 
zuela, which  trend  in  a  general  southwest  direc- 
tion and  come  together  at  various  points;  the 
principal  ones  are  the  Parija  and  Merida  ranges, 
which  unite  near  Bogota,  beyond  which  point  the 
range  is  single.  Its  highest  peak  is  Cocui,  16,680 
feet  high.  The  range  is  in  the  main  composed 
of  strongly  folded  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  beds, 
and  contains   no  volcanoes. 

Ecuador.  The  Andes  of  Ecuador  form  two 
riinges,  the  Cordillera  Occidental,  the  continua- 


tion of  the  range  of  the  same  name  in  Colombia, 
and  the  Cordillera  Oriental,  or  Real ;  the  two  are 
separated  by  a  high  plateau,  from  70  to  100 
miles  wide,  with  an  average  elevation  of  8000 
feet;  connecting  cross  ranges  divide  this  plateau 
into  ten  basins  or  high  mountain  valleys.  The 
western  range  is  composed  of  porphyries,  dio- 
rites,  and  greenstone,  and  the  eastern  and  higher 
range  is  composed  of  gneiss,  schist,  and  granite. 
Above  them  tower  many  high  volcanic  cones, 
which  have  s])read  lava  and  ashes  over  great 
.areas.  The  great  peak  of  the  western  range  is 
Chimborazo.  20,498  feet;  with  Cotocachi,  16,300 
feet;  and  Pichincha,  15,918  feet,  the  last  named 
near  the  city  of  Quito,  while  in  the  eastern  range 
are  Cotopaxi,  19,613  feet;  Antisana,  19,335  feet; 
Cayambe,  19,186  feet;  Altar,  17,736  feet;  lUiniza, 
17,023  feet;  and  Carahuairazo,  16,515  feet,  with 
the  .active  volcanoes  Tunguragua,  16,690  feet, 
and  Sangai,  17,464  feet.  The  cross  ranges  also 
contain  many  volcanic  peaks,  indicating  that 
the  whole  region  must  once  have  been  the  centre 
of  tremendous   volcanic  activity. 

Peru.  In  Peru,  Bolivia,  and  the  northern 
part  of  Chile,  the  system  is  much  broader  and 
more  complex.  The  Andes  of  Peru  consist  of 
three  ranges,  the  two  westernmost  being  the 
Maritime  or  Black,  and  the  Central  Cordillera, 
trending  parallel  to  one  another  and  to  the  coast, 
and  in  the  north  separated  only  by  a  narrow, 
high  plateau,  known  as  the  Puna,  with  an  aver- 
age height  of  12.500  feet,  and  in  the  south  by 
the  narrow  valley  of  the  Rio  Huay.  The  East- 
ern Cordillera,  though  otherwise  continuous,  is 
cut  through  by  no  less  than  six  of  the  head  tribu- 
taries of  the  Amazon.  The  broad,  elevated  region 
lying  between  this  and  the  Cordillera  Central, 
known  as  the  Sierra,  is  broken  by  mountain 
spurs,  with  broad  valleys  and  plateaus.  East 
of  the  Eastern  Cordillera,  or  the  Andes,  as  it  is 
locally  known,  are  several  lower  ranges,  trend- 
ing parallel  with  the  .system,  and  separating 
tributaries  of  the  Amazon.  The  Maritime  and 
Central  Cordillera  are  composed  of  crystalline 
and  volcanic  rocks,  with  stratified  beds  of  Juras- 
sic age  resting  upon  their  outer  flanks.  The 
Eastern  Cordillera  is  composed  mainly  of  strati- 
fied beds  of  Silurian  age,  with  some  intrusions  of 
granite.  These  ranges  are  connected  at  the 
mountain  knot  of  Cerro  de  Pasco,  14,293  feet 
high,  and  again  further  to  the  southeast,  at  the 
Knot  of  Vilcanota,  17,390  feet.  South  of  this 
latter  peak  the  Central  and  Eastern  Cordillera 
enclose  the  lofty  plateau  on  which  is  Lake  Titi- 
caca,  situated  partl.y  in  Peru  and  partly  in 
Bolivia,  and  12,545  feet  above  the  sea.  North 
of  the  Cerro  de  Pasco,  the  .Sierra  comprises  the 
upper  valley  of  the  Marafion,  the  largest  and 
longest  of  the  head  branches  of  the  Amazon, 
which  cuts  through  the  Eastern  Cordillera  just 
south  of  the  Ecuador  frontier.  Between  the 
Cerro  de  Pasco  and  the  Knot  of  Vilcanota,  the 
Sierra  is  drained  by  the  head  streams  of  the 
Ucayali,  a  large  tributary  to  the  Amazon.  These 
streams  also  cut  gorges  through  the  eastern 
range.  This  region  was  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Inca  civilization,  and  is  still  thickly  settled. 
Among  the  high  peaks  of  this  part  of  the  Andes 
are  Huascan,  22,051  feet;  Huandoy,  21,089  feet; 
Misti,  20,013;  Chaeani,  19,820  feet;  and  Tutu- 
paca,  18,960  feet. 

Bolivia.  In  Bolivia  the  system  comprises 
two  main  ranges,  one  of  which  is  formed  by  the 
coalescing  of  the  two  westernmost  of  the  Ecuador 


ANDES. 


534 


ANDES. 


ranges.  These  ranges  are  widely  separated  and 
enclose  a  broad,  greatly  elevated  plateau,  125 
miles  in  breadth  in  the  nortliern  part,  and  nearly 
300  miles  in  the  south,  with  an  altitude  of 
almost  13,000  feet.  The  plateau  of  tlie  Andes 
has  here  the  greatest  lateral  extent  and  altitude 
in  the  entire  system.  The  western  lange  has 
an  average  altitude  of  1.5.000  feet,  while  the 
Eastern,  or  Cordillera  Real,  is  still  higher,  hav- 
ing peaks  exceeding  20,000  feet:  among  them  are 
Illampu,  21,490  feet;  Illimani.  21.030  feet; 
Aneohuma,  21,490  feet:  Haina,  20,171  feet;  Pani- 
rl,  20.735  feet:  Licancaur,  19.521  feet;  Sajama, 
21,047  feet;  Isluga,  17,000  feet:  and  Caeaca,  20.- 
250  feet,  all  of  them  near  Lake  Titicaea.  East 
of  this  range  are  several  lower  subsidiary  ranges, 
which  form  a  complicated  system.  Lake  Titicaea 
drains  southeastward  into  Lake  Poopo,  a  sink 
which  collects  the  waters  from  a  large  .area  of 
the  plateau.  In  the  Cordillera  Real  and  the 
lesser  ranges  to  the  east,  rise  tributaries  of  the 
Madeira,  one  of  the  main  branches  of  the  Ama- 
zon, and  of  the  Pilcomayo,  tributary  to  the  Plata. 

Chile  and  Argentina.  The  broad,  high  pla- 
teau, with  its  bordering  ranges  and  subsidiary 
eastern  ranges  of  Bolivia,  extends  southward 
into  these  countries,  gradually  narrowing  and 
decreasing  in  altitude,  until  in  latitude  32°  the 
Andes  become  reduced  to  a  single  range,  except 
for  spurs  and  outliers,  most  of  which  are  of  com- 
paratively little  importance.  In  the  northern 
part  the  altitude  of  the  ranges  decreases  great- 
ly, Juncal,  in  latitude  26°,  having  a  height 
of  17,530  feet,  and  Copaipo  volcano,  19,700  feet. 
Farther  south,  in  the  neighborliood  of  Santiago. 
the  mountains  again  become  loftier.  Here  are 
Mercedario,  22,315  feet:  Tupungato.  20.286 
feet;  San  Jose,  20,020  feet;  and  Aconcagua,  22,- 
860  feet ;  this  latter  peak  is  the  highest  summit 
of  the  entire  system,  and  of  the  whole  continent, 
so  far  as  known.  Still  further  south,  the  range 
again  diminishes  in  height.  In  latitude  34°  is 
Maipo  volcano,  17,070  feet:  in  latitude  36°  is 
Descabezado,  12,760  feet;  in  latitude  42°  is  Tro- 
nador  volcano,  9790  feet.  Here  begins  the  re- 
markable fiord  coast,  which  extends  south  to 
Cape  Horn.  The  heavy  precipitation  on  the  west 
side  of  the  range  here  produced  in  past  times 
extensive  glaciers,  which  chiseled  the  mountains 
far  down  below  sea  level,  producing  many 
islands,  and  an  intricate  system  of  mountain- 
walled  channels.  These  glaciers  have  been  able, 
by  reason  of  their  rapid  descent,  to  cut  back 
their  heads  across  the  range  in  many  places,  so 
that  now,  after  their  recession,  many  of  the 
streams  which  have  succeeded  them  rise  far  to 
the  east  of  the  Andes,  upon  the  plains  of  Argen- 
tina, and  flow  through  the  range  to  the  Pacific. 
In  this  region  the  mountains  become  still  lower, 
their  height  ranging  from  4000  to  8000  feet, 
until  they  finally  disappear  at  Cape  Horn. 

The  lower  limit  of  perpetual  snow,  although 
an  extremely  indefinite  line,  varying  from  year 
to  year  with  exposure  and  precipitation,  has  in 
general,  in  equatorial  regions,  an  altitude  of 
about  15,500  feet,  but  ranges  a  thousand  feet  on 
each  side  of  this  figure,  being  higher  on  the  east 
and  lower  on  the  west  side  of  the  range.  In 
other  words,  it  is  higher  where  the  precipitation 
is  abundant,  and  lower  where  it  is  scanty.  It 
diminishes  as  the  latitude  increases,  being  about 
13,000  feet  in  the  latitude  of  Santiago,  and  fall- 
ing to  3000  feet  near  the  southern  point  of  the 
continent.     Glaciers  are   found  on  all   the  high 


peaks,  even  those  in  equatorial  regions,  which 
e.xceed  13,000  feet  in  lieight.  Here,  however, 
they  are  small,  descending  the  mountain  slope 
only  a  few  thousand  feet.  In  southern  Chile, 
on  the  west  side  of  the  range,  are  many  of  consid- 
erable size,  originating  upon  mountains  of  infe- 
rior height,  and  descending  to  sea  level,  even 
entering  the  sea,  at  the  heads  of  fiords. 

Volcanoes.  One  of  the  striking  features  of 
the  Andes  is  its  great  number  of  active  and 
extinct  volcanoes.  Probably  not  over  sixty  are 
now  known  to  be  active,  but  the  extinct  ones  are 
numbered  by  hundreds,  and  have  played  a  very 
important  part,  though  a  secondary  one.  in  cre- 
ating the  present  conformation  of  the  mountain 
system.  Three  principal  centres  of  volcanic  ac- 
tivity are  recognized :  one  in  the  Andes  of  the 
north,  in  Colombia  and  Ecuador,  extending  in 
latitude  from  5°  N.  to  3°  S. :  a  second  in  Peru, 
Bolivia,  and  northern  Chile,  extending  in  lati- 
tude from  15°  to  28°  S.:  and  a  third  in  central 
Chile,  extending  from  32°  to  40°  S.  The  highest 
peaks  of  the  Andes  are  of  volcanic  formation, 
and  their  peculi.ar  conical  forms  are  distinctive 
features  of  the  Andean  landscape.  Many  of  the 
most  prominent  and  highest  ones  have  been  men- 
tioned :  it  remains  to  speak  of  those  which  are 
now  active,  or  which  have  been  active  within 
historic  times,  and  briefly  describe  their  erup- 
tions. 

The  northern  group,  mainly  comprised  in 
Ecuador,  is  the  most  imposing  collection  of  ac- 
tive and  extinct  volcanoes  on  earth.  Of  these, 
Cotopaxi,  Tungur.agua,  Sangai,  and  Pichincha 
have  repeatedly  been  in  eruption  in  historic 
times,  but  most,  if  not  all,  of  the  others  have 
for  a  long  time  been  quiescent.  The  Altar,  a 
truncated  mountain,  17,736  feet  in  height,  is 
said  to  have  once  been  the  highest  in  the  region, 
but  after  a  long  period  of  eruption  it  collapsed 
within  itself.  Ruiz,  in  Colombia,  is  still  smok- 
ing, and  Tolinia  is  not  quite  extinct,  but  as  late 
as  1829  was  in  eruption.  In  1849  Purace,  in 
southern  Colombia,  suddenly  exploded,  flooding 
the  neighboring  country,  and  covering  it  with 
ashes.  A  similar  eruption  took  place  in  1869. 
Imbabura,  in  Ec^uador,  is  said  to  have  discharged 
a  deluge  of  mud  and  water  at  the  time  of  the 
great  earthquake  in  lS(iS.  Antisana  is  reported 
as  having  been  in  eruption  in  1590,  .anti  even 
now  sulphurous  fumes  arise  from  it.  Cotopaxi, 
always  smoking,  has  been  repeatedly  in  eruption, 
although  its  great  eruptions  have  occurred  at 
intervals  of  centuries.  Th§  last  one  was  in 
1877.  Tunguragua  also  is  active  at  irregular 
intervals,  the  latest  eruption  being  in  1886. 
Sangai  sends  off  steam  constantly  with  tremen- 
dous force  and  noise.  Pichincha  has,  since  its 
eruption  in  1660,  given  off  nothing  but  steam 
and  a  little  ashes. 

The  middle  volcanic  group  is  found  in  both 
the  eastern  and  western  Cordilleras;  in  Peru  it 
includes  Sarasara,  Atchatayhua,  Corupuna,  Am- 
pato,  Chachani,  and  Misti.  all  now  quiescent. 
Ornate  and  Tutupaca  have  been  in  eruption  in 
historic  times;  indeed,  the  former  was  one  of 
the  most  active  in  Peru.  In  Bolivia  are  Mount 
Sorata.  or  Illampu,  Sajama.  Aucaquilcha.  Cha- 
chaconiani,  Huiana.  Caeaca.  Mesacla,  and  Illi- 
mani, while  in  northern  Chile  are  many  volcanic 
cones,  some  of  great  height :  among  them  are 
Tacora,  19,750  feet.  Chipicani,  Pomerape,  Pariu- 
aeota,  Iquima.  20,275  feet,  and  Toroni,  21,340 
feet,  all  in  the  western  range.     In   the  eastern 


ANDES. 


535 


ANBES. 


range  are  Tuachela.  Olca,  Mino,  and  Ollagua, 
all  smoking  or  emitting  lava.  South  of  Ollagua 
are  at  least  thirty  extinct  volcanoes,  exceeding 
lti.5(IO  feet  in  height;  among  them  are  Autopalla, 
20,920  feet,  Soeompa,  19,620  feet,  and  Llullail- 
laco,  21.(;70  feet. 

In  the  central  Chilean  region  are  Tupungato, 
San  Jose,  Maipo,  Tinguiririea,  all  supposed  to 
be  extinct.  Las  Damas  and  Peteroa  are  said  to 
have  been  in  eruption  in  the  last  century.  The 
volcanoes  grouped  about  Descabezado  are  qui- 
escent, though  appearances  indicate  recent  erup- 
tion. Chilean  ranges  contain  several  vents, 
from  which  lava  and  ashes  have  been  ejected  in 
recent  years.  Autuco  also  has  had  eruptions 
within  historic  times.  Farther  south,  Villarica 
volcano  has  frequently  been  seen  in  eruption, 
in  all  probability,  other  active  volcanoes  exist  in 
tlie  fiord  region  of  South  Chile,  although  none 
has  yet  been  reported. 

Hydrography.  The  Andes  system  is  the 
source  of  most  of  the  larger  streams  of  South 
America.  Through  nearly  its  whole  extent, 
wherever  the  system  comprises  more  than  a  sin- 
gle main  range,  the  westernmost  of  these  ranges 
separates  the  drainage  to  the  Atlantic  from  that 
to  the  Paeiiic.  In  Ecuador,  however,  no  fewer 
than  seven  of  the  ten  high  valleys  between  the 
ranges  are  drained  westward,  and  in  southern 
Chile,  as  has  been  seen,  glaciers  have  eroded 
their  sources  back  across  the  whole  range  to  the 
Argentina  plains.  The  western  streams  are 
short,  and  owing  to  the  light  rainfall  on  most  of 
the  western  slope,  have  small  volume.  Hence 
their  cutting  power  is  slight.  On  the  other  hand, 
tlie  streams  to  the  east  are  long,  with  great 
drainage  basins,  and,  except  in  Argentina,  are 
supplied  with  abundant  precipitation  by  the 
trade  winds.  Hence  they  are  powerful  streams 
of  large  volume,  and  have  eroded  their  courses 
far  up  into  the  mountains. 

The  .\ndes  of  Colombia  are  drained  northward 
to  the  C^aribbean  Sea  by  the  Magdalena,  Cauea, 
and  Atrato  rivers,  and  eastward  to  the  same 
body  of  water  by  the  Orinoco,  and  to  the  Atlantic 
by  the  Negro  and  Yapura.  great  branches  of  the 
Amazon.  The  system  in  Ecuador.  Peru,  and 
most  of  Bolivia  is  drained  eastward  by  count- 
less tributaries  of  the  Amazon,  among  which 
are  the  Napo,  JIaranon,  Ucayali,  Beni,  and  Ma- 
more.  Of  these,  the  Maraiion  heads  between  the 
ranges  far  to  the  south,  near  the  Knot  of  Cerro 
de  Pasco,  flowing  nortliwest  within  the  mountain 
system  for  400  miles  before  breaking  through 
the  eastern  range  into  the  Amazon  basin.  The 
Huallaga,  Mantaro,  Apurimae,  and  Urubamba, 
tributaries  of  the  Maraiion,  also  head  between 
the  ranges,  cutting  gorges  through  the  eastern 
range.  In  Bolivia  and  northwest  Argentina  is 
a  great  region,  800  miles  in  length,  lying  between 
the  ranges,  with  an  average  altitude  of  13,000 
feet,  which  has  no  drainage  to  either  ocean.  In 
this  region  is  the  great  Lake  Titicaca,  which 
drains  by  the  Pio  Desaguadero  to  Lake  Poopo, 
where  the  drainage  of  this  semi-desert  region 
is  collected.  This  lake  in  earlier  times  drained 
to  the  Amazon,  but  by  shrinkage  in  volume  its 
outlet  has  been  closed,  and  now  it  discharges  only 
by  evaporation.  The  eastern  slope  of  the  .\nde3 
in  southern  Bolivia  and  northern  Argentina  is 
drained  to  the  Plata,  while  farther  south  short- 
er streams,  the  Rio  Colorado,  the  Negro.  Cliubut, 
and    the   Deseado,    and    the    Arrovos    Bavn    ami 


Salado,    and   other    smaller    streams,   carry    the 
drainage   directly    to    the   Atlantic. 

Climate.  The  climate  of  the  Andes  differs 
widely  in  different  parts,  with  latitude,  altitude, 
and  exposure.  The  eastern  slope  of  the  system 
from  the  northern  end  southward  to  latitude 
25°,  comprising  the  portions  drained  by  the  Ori- 
noco and  Amazon,  and  lying  almost  entirely 
within  the  tropics,  has  a  heavy,  and,  in  many 
localities,  a  profuse,  rainfall.  Farther  southward 
in  tlie  temperate  zone,  in  tlie  region  of  prevailing 
westerly  winds,  the  rainfall  on  this  side  of  the 
range  diminishes,  becoming  very  light  in  Argen- 
tina, with  only  eight  inches  or  less  in  the  driest 
parts.  On  the  west  side  of  the  system,  the  rain- 
fall conditions  are  very  nearly  reversed,  though 
in  the  north,  in  Colombia,  the  tropical  rainfall 
passes  around  the  end  of  the  range  and  extends 
down  the  western  side  for  some  distance,  giving 
to  the  valleys  of  the  Magdalena,  Cauca,  and 
Atrato  abundant  moisture,  and  extending  south- 
ward along  the  coast  as  far  as  Guayaquil,  Ecua- 
dor. Thence  southward,  the  western  coast  is  an 
arid  and  desert  region,  as  far  as  latitude  30°  S. 
Below  this  point  the  precipitation  increases,  as 
the  westerly  winds  bring  moisture,  and  the  south- 
ern coast  is  well  watered. 

From  Guayaquil  a  cooler  climate  is  reached 
either  by  going  south  or  by  going  directly  up  the 
mountains.  The  base  of  the  mountains,  within 
the  tropics,  has  a  mean  annual  temperature  of 
80°  F.  or  more,  wliile  in  southern  Argentina 
it  is  not  more  than  23°.  Within  the  tropics  the 
temperature  ranges  from  80°  at  the  base  of  the 
mountains  to  20°  or  less  at  their  summits,  a 
range  due  to  altitude  alone.  LTpon  the  Titicaca 
plateau  Arctic  conditions  prevail,  with  frost 
every  month  of  the  year.  Where  the  rainfall  is 
copious,  as  it  is  on  the  eastern  side  within  the 
tropics,  the  range  of  temperature  between  sum- 
mer and  winter  is  slight,  while  upon  the  west 
coast,  in  the  same  latitudes,  where  desert  con- 
ditions prevail,  the  range  is  very  great.  In  gen- 
eral, as  the  mountains  are  ascended,  the  contrasts 
of  temperature  become  greater,  owing  to  the  rare- 
faction of  the  air.  At  great  altitudes,  even, 
the  contrast  between  day  and  night  is  great. 
South  of  the  latitude  of  Coquimbo,  30°  S.,  these 
temperature  conditions  are  reversed,  the  west 
slopes  having  the  smallest  annual  and  diurnal 
range. 

Means  of  Communication.  Routes  of  travel 
across  the  Andes  are  few  in  number,  the  passes 
are  very  high,  and  the  roads  traversing  them 
are,  as  a  rule,  very  bad.  ■  Communication  be- 
tween the  peoples  on  the  two  sides  of  the  moun- 
tains is  slight.  The  high  land  between  the 
ranges  is  the  best  settled  part  of  these  sparsely 
settled  countries,  and  the  inhabitants  of  these 
elevated  regions  have  some  intercourse  with  the 
western  seaboard,  but  very  little  with  the  low 
country  to  the  east.  But  "with  the  development 
of  the  mining  industry  in  the  mountains  and 
the  exploitation  of  the  rubber  resources  of  the 
upper  waters  of  the  Amazon,  it  nia.v  be  expected 
that  means  of  communication  across  the  range 
will  be  improved  in  the  near  future.  In  Colom- 
bia the  main  routes  of  travel  follow  the  valleys  of 
the  Cauca  and  the  Magdalena,  while  the  chief 
route  across  the  Cordillera  Central  is  via  Quin- 
dio  Pass,  connecting  Cartago,  on  the  Cauea,  with 
the  valley  of  the  Magdalena,  and  ultimately 
witli  the  capital,  Bogota.     In  Ecuador  the  main 


ANDES. 


536 


ANDESITE. 


routes  pass  north  and  south  through  the  succes- 
sion of  mountain  valleys,  connecting  with  the 
coast  at  Guayaquil,  by  railroad  from  Chimbo, 
or  northward  down  the  Cauca  and  Magdalena. 
The  most  frequented  eastward  route  crosses  the 
Kastern  Cordillera  between  Saraurcu  and  Anti- 
sana,  and  reaches  navigable  water  in  the  Napo 
at  Puerto  Napo.  In  Peru  the  plateau  within 
the  ranges  is  connected  with  the  coast  by  two 
railways,  w-hich  are  marvels  of  engineering.  The 
Oroya  Railway  connects  Lima  and  Callao  with 
Oroya  and  Concepcion,  crossing  the  Western  Cor- 
dillera at  an  altitude  of  15,665  feet,  in  a  distance 
of  106  miles  from  Lima.  The  second  railway 
connects  Slollendo  on  the  coast  with  Lake  Titi- 
caca.  It  crosses  the  Western  Cordillera  at  an 
altitude  of  14,606  feet,  and  terminates  at  the 
little  town  of  Puno,  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Titicaca, 
12,540  feet  high.  Several  other  short  lines  run 
from  the  coast  to  the  foot  of  the  mountains 
and  even  some  distance  into  them,  following 
the  stream  valleys;  among  them  is  the  line  up 
the  Rio  Santa  to  Huaraz. 

The  somewhat  broken  character  of  the  ranges 
in  Peru  and  Bolivia  has  made  the  plateau  easier 
of  access  than  it  is  farther  north,  and  there  are 
many  roads  and  trails  from  the  coast  to  the 
summit ;  but  routes  of  communication  to  the  east, 
to  the  country  about  the  upper  waters  of  tlie 
Madeira  and  Plata,  are  almost  entirely  lacking. 
From  Antofagasta  in  northern  Chile,  on  the 
coast,  a  railway  has  been  constructed  to  Oruro, 
on  the  plateau,  north  of  l^ake  Poopo.  This  road 
has  a  total  length  of  560  miles,  making  it  mucli 
the  longest  of  the  Andean  lines.  In  central 
Chile  and  Argentina  a  transcontinental  railway 
•  has  long  been  in  course  of  construction,  which  is 
to  cross  the  Andes  at  Uspallata  or  Cunibre  Pass, 
not  far  from  Santiago,  at  an  altitude  of  12.340 
feet.  This  is  the  most  frequented  pass  in  Chile, 
as  almost  all  the  transcontinental  travel  goes 
over  it. 

Flora.  In  plant  life  the  Andes  is  the  rich- 
est of  any  mountain  system  in  the  world. 
Not  only  do  these  mountains  sustain  at  their 
bases  the  flora  of  all  climates,  from  the  equa- 
torial zone  at  the  north  to  the  cold  zone  at  the 
south,  but  they  possess  these  zones  in  altitude 
as  well;  and  moreover,  certain  species  of  plant 
life  are  peculiar  to  this  special  region.  Plant 
life  is  especially  prolific  in  the  rainy  regions 
of  Venezuela,  Colombia,  Chile,  and  Bolivia. 
In  Colombia  the  palms  and  their  associated 
tropical  flora  extend  upward  on  the  Andean 
slopes  to  an  altitude  of  about  4500  feet,  while 
above  this  is  a  mixed  sub-tropical  be'.t,  ex- 
tending to  an  altitude  of  nearly  10,000  feet,  in 
which  glow  the  cinchona,  tree  fern,  and  wax 
palm,  and  still  higher  up,  at  an  altitude  of  10,- 
000  to  12.000  feet,  the  higher  Andean  bush 
growth,  including  the  Andean  rose;  a  species  of 
Bamboo  also  grows  at  these  high  altitudes. 

Farther  to  the  south,  in  the  region  of  less  rain- 
fall, the  flora  on  tlie  east  and  west  sides  of  the 
Andes  is  quite  difl'erent.  On  the  west  side,  in 
lower  Ecuador  and  Peru,  the  plant  life  is  poor, 
and  is  that  peculiar  to  a  semi-desert  region; 
but  it  extends  up  to  high  altitudes,  lichens 
being  found  at  18,500  feet  altitude;  while  on  the 
moister  Bolivian  and  Brazilian  side  the  various 
altitudinal  zones  occur,  beginning  with  the  rich 
flora  of  western  tropical  Brazil  and  extending  up 
to  the  true  Andean  flora.  In  northern  Chile  and 
western  Argentina,  where  there  is  a  rather  light 


rainfall  on  both  sides  of  the  Andes,  there  is  a 
continuation  of  the  sparser  vegetation  of  the 
relatively  dry  region,  and  the  flora  of  the  two 
sides  of  tlie  Andes  differs  less  than  elsewhere. 
In  the  Chile-Argentina  region  there  is  a  great 
contrast  between  the  rich  vegetation  on  the  moist 
Cliilean  side  and  the  thin  vegetation  on  the  dry 
slopes  of  Argentina.  In  the  southern  part  of 
this  Andean  region  great  forests  of  stunted  beech 
and  firs  occur  in  the  lowlands  and  extend  part 
way  up  the  mountain  slopes.  Southward  along 
the  Andean  chain  the  altitudinal  zones  diminish 
in  width  in  about  the  same  ratio  as  the  decrease 
in  altitude  of  the  snow-line,  so  that  in  the  south, 
by  making  an  ascent  of  less  than  a  vertical  mile, 
one  can  pass  through  as  many  vegetation  zones 
as  would  be  encountered  in  an  ascent  of  three 
miles  under  the  equator.  The  upper  limit  of  tree 
growth,  or  the  timber  line,  is  a  far  more  definite 
line  than  the  snow  line,  yet  in  many  places  it 
is  not  easy  to  define.  It  ranges  in  the  Andes 
from  an  average  of  1 1 ,500  feet  under  the  equator, 
down  to  about  3000  feet  near  Cape  Horn.  It 
is  higher,  for  apparent  reasons,  on  the  moist, 
than  on  the  dry,  side  of  the  range;  thus,  in 
Keuador  it  ranges  nearly  1000  feet  higher  upon 
the  east  side  than  upon  the  west. 

Fauna.  In  the  northern  Andes  of  Venezuela 
and  Colombia,  where  the  tropical  and  sub-trop- 
ical forests  extend  up  to  an  altitude  of  10,000 
feet,  we  find  the  fauna  of  tropical  America  ex- 
isting up  to  similar  high  altitudes.  The  jaguar, 
puma,  bear,  ocelot,  monkey,  tapir,  ant-eater, 
and  capibara  are  found  in  these  forests.  Bird 
life  is  abundant,  and  the  bat  family  is  well  rep- 
resented. Snakes,  saurians,  and  turtles  are  met 
in  great  numbers  at  lower  altitudes.  Above 
6000  feet  in  altitude  there  is  a  great  diminution 
of  animal  life.  In  Ecuador  there  occur  certain 
representative  species  of  the  southern  Andes, 
such  as  the  llama  and  the  condor.  Insect  life 
also  continues  very  abundant,  and  fish  are  found 
up  to  an  altitude  of  14,500  feet.  In  the  Peruvian 
and  Bolivian  Andco  on  the  Pacific  side,  the 
fauna,  like  the  flora,  is  limited,  but  on  the  east- 
ern or  Brazilian  slope  is  exceedingly  rich.  The 
vicuna,  guanaco.  and  alpaca  are  still  found  in  the 
wild  state,  and  with  tlieni  are  found  the  chin- 
chilla and  viscacha.  On  the  Bolivian  slopes  the 
fauna  is  much  more  abundant  than  in  Peru.  Fur- 
ther south  on  the  Andean  chain  the  fauna  is  less 
rich,  and  especially  there  is  to  be  noticed  the  dis- 
appearance of  the  larger  animals  of  the  north- 
ern Andes.  Herds  of  guanacos  are  numerous, 
and  birds  are  present  in  great  variety  and 
large  numbers,  but  the  reptiles  show  a  decided 
change  of  form.  At  the  extreme  south  the  land 
fauna  is  but  poorly  represented. 

BiBLlOQRAPiiv.  Orton,  The  Andes  and  the 
Amazon  (New  York,  1870)  ;  Crawford,  Across 
the  Pampas  and  Andes  (London,  1884)  ;  Giiss- 
fcldt,  Ixeisc  in  den  Andes  (Berlin,  1888)  ;  Whyni- 
per,  Travels  Amonp  the  fivnt  Andes  of  the  Equa- 
tor (London,  1892)  ;  Fitzgerald,  The  Hiqhest 
Andes  (New  York,  1890)  ;  Conway,  The  Boliv- 
ian Andes  (New  York,  1901)  ;  Reclus,  Physical 
Ocographti,  translated  and  edited  by  Keane  and 
Ravenstein  (London,  1890-95). 

AN'DESITE.  A  volcanic  effusive  rock  of  por- 
phyritic  texture  composed  essentially  of  lime- 
soda  feldspar  (andesinc)  with  bhick  mica  (bio- 
tite) .  hornblende,  or  augite  imbedded  in  a  ground 
mass  of  smaller  crystals  or  rock  glass.  The 
structure  may  he,  but  is  not  necessarily,  porous; 


ANDESITE. 


537 


ANDORRA. 


in  most  oases  the  erystals  of  aiulpsine  are  ar- 
raiijiioil  ioni,'hly  parallel,  giving  tlie  rot-k  its  char- 
acteristic Ihixion  or  andesitic  structure.  This 
'•tructure  is  due  to  the  flow  of  the  once  molten 
mass  in  the  form  of  lava.  In  composition  this 
family  of  rocks  shows  wide  variations,  limited, 
liowever,  by  the  rhyolites  (q.v.)  and  trachytes 
({(.v.)  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  basalts  on  the 
nthtr.  Fairly  rich  in  silica  and  alumina,  they 
contain  moderate  amounts  only  of  the  heavier 
and  darker  bases,  viz.,  iron,  lime,  and  magnesia. 
Tlicy  contain  from  CO  to  70  per  cent,  of  silica, 
13  to  18  per  cent,  of  alumina,  4  to  9  per  cent. 
of  iron,  3  to  6  per  cent,  of  lime,  5  to  9  per  cent, 
of  alkalies,  and  smaller  percentages  of  magnesia. 
They  owe  tlicir  name  to  their  extensive  develop- 
ment in  the  Andes  of  South  America,  though 
they  occur  extensively  throughout  the  entire  Cor- 
dilleran  system  of  mountains,  in  South,  Central, 
and  North  America.     See  Rhtolite;  Trachyte. 

ANDI'RA(Neo-Lat.,  probably  from  the  native 
Urazilian  name).  A  genus  of  about  twenty 
species  of  tropical  American  trees  of  the  natural 
order  Leguminosa;,  having  almost  orbicular,  one- 
celled,  one-seeded  pods.  Andira  inerniis  grows 
in  low  savannahs  in  the  West  Indies,  and  is  there 
called  cabbage  tree  or  cabbage-bark  tree.  It  is 
a  tree  of  considerable  height,  haVing  pinnate 
leaves,  with  thirteen  to  fifteen  ovato-lanceolate 
leaflets  and  panicles  of  reddish  lilac  flowers. 
Its  bark,  called  cabbage  bark,  or  worm  bark,  is  a 
powerful  anthelmintic,  and  although  it  has  re- 
cently been  discarded  from  the  pharmacopoeias 
of  tireat  Britain,  still  finds  a  place  in  those  of 
other  countries,  along  with  Surinam  bark,  the 
bark  of  Andira  retusa  of  Surinam.  Similar 
properties  reside  in  the  bark  of  several  specie.'? 
of  the  allied  genus  GeofTroya.  A  single  fossil 
species  of  Andira  has  been  described  from  the 
middle  Tertiary  rocks  of  Europe. 

AND'IRON  (0.  P.  aiidier,  from  Low  Lat. 
anilcria,  a  fire-dog;  the  Fr.  Irnulirr  stands  for 
randier).  A  metal  utensil  used  in  burning  wood 
in  an  open  fireplaee.  It  consists  of  a  horizontal 
bar  supported  on  three  short  legs  with  an  up- 
right standard  at  one  end.  Andirons  are  cm- 
ployed  in  pairs,  one  andiron  being  placed  on  each 
side  of  the  hearth,  with  the  uprights  in  front 
and  the  horizontal  bars  extending  backward  into 
the  fireplace,  the  logs  or  sticks  of  wood  resting 
across  the  horizontal  bars.  It  is  usual  to  make 
the  uprights  of  various  ornamental  designs,  and, 
often,  to  cover  them  with  copper,  brass  or  silver. 
Andirons  are  manufactured  by  forging,  wrought 
iron  being  the  material  of  which  they  are  most 
commonly  made.  Handirons,  fire-dogs  and  dog- 
irons  are  colloquial  names  for  andirons. 

AWDIZHjAN,  iin'de-zhan'.  Capital  of  the 
district  of  Andizhan,  territory  of  Ferghana, 
Russian  Turkestan  (Map:  Central  Asia,  Afghan- 
istan, il  1) .  It  is  about  42  miles  from  Margelan, 
the  capital  of  the  territory,  and  has  about 
47,000  inhabitants.  Cotton  is  the  principal 
article  of  commerce.  Until  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury it  was  the  principal  town  of  Ferghana.  The 
Russians  obtained  pcsession  of  it  in  187i>. 

ANDKHTJI,  and-Koo'e.  A  toAvn  of  Afghan 
Turkestan,  situated  in  the  province  of  Maimcne, 
about  -200  miles  south  of  Bokhara  (Map:  Central 
Asia,  Afghanistan,  K  3).  It  lies  on  the  trade 
route  between  Bokhara  and  Afghanistan,  and 
has  a  population  of  about  15,000. 
Vol.  l.—X. 


ANDLATJ,  iixMli/,  (i.vsxoN  .Joseph  Har- 
DOUIN,  CoMTE  D'  (1824-94).  A  French  general, 
born  at  Nancy.  He  attended,  for  a  time,  the  mil- 
itary school  at  St.  Cyr,  and  later,  in  active  ser- 
vice, distinguished  himself  as  a  captain  in  the 
Crimean  War.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Franco- 
Prussian  War  he  was  ajjpointcd  a  colonel  on  the 
general  staff  of  the  Army  of  the  Rhine,  and  sub- 
sequently he  fought  in  the  battles  before  Metz. 
He  was  elected  a  senator  in  1870,  and  promoted 
to  be  a  general  of  brigade  in  1879.  He  was 
involved  in  the  so-called  affaire  des  decorations, 
in  which  General  Callarel  was  found  guilty  of 
selling  decorations  of  merit,  and  fled  to  South 
America.  He  published  De  la  cavalerie  dans 
le  passe  et  dans  I'avenir  (1809)  and  Organisa- 
tion et  taetique  de  Vinfanterie  fran^aise  depuis 
son  origine  (1872). 

ANDLAW-BIRSECK,  iint'lav-ber'sek,  Franz 
Xavieu,  Baro.\  von  (1799-1876).  A  German 
diplomat  and  author.  He  was  born  at  Freiburg, 
and  in  early  life  studied  Jurisprudence  at  the 
rmiversity  there  and  at  Landshut  and  Heidelberg, 
and  in  1824  entered  the  public  service  of  Baden. 
From  1826  to  1830,  and  again  from  1832  to  1835, 
he  was  secretary  of  the  embassy  at  Vienna. 
He  was  appointed  minister  at  Munich  in  1838 ; 
minister  at  Paris  in  1843,  and  in  1846  ambassa- 
dor extraordinary  at  Vienna.  He  retired  in 
1856,  and  subsequently  published  Erinnerungs- 
hliitter  aus  den  Papieren  fines  Diplomalen 
(1857),  Meiti  Tagebuch  1811-61  (1862),  Die  hy- 
zantinischen  Kaiser  (1865),  Sleben  heilige  Fiirs- 
ten    (1865). 

ANDOCIDES,  an-dosl-dez  (Gk.  '\vdoicid7i(, 
Andokidcs)  (c.  440  B.C.).  The  least  of  the  Ten 
Attic  Orators.  In  415  he  was  involved  with  the 
younger  members  of  the  aristocratic  party  in 
lihe  charge  of  mutilating  the  Herma?.  To  protect 
himself,  he  betrayed  some  of  his  associates,  but 
suffered  partial  loss  of  civic  rights,  and  went  to 
Rhodes,  where  he  engaged  in  trade.  From  407 
he  lived  in  Elis.  The  amnesty  of  403  allowed 
him  to  return  to  Athens.  In  391  he  was  sent  to 
Sparta  to  negotiate  a  peace.  On  his  return  he 
was  unable  to  persuade  the  Athenians  to  accept 
the  treaty,  was  charged  with  mismanagement, 
and  banished.  The  date  of  his  death  is  un- 
known. Three  of  his  speeches  are  extant:  On 
His  Return  (407),  On  the  Mysteries  (399),  On 
the  Peaee  (391).  The  oration  Against  Alci- 
biades  is  spurious,  and  the  authenticity  of  On 
the  Peace  is  doubted.  Consult:  Jebb,  Attic  Ora- 
tors (London,  1876-80)  ;  Blass,  Attische  Bered- 
samUcil    (Leipzig,  1887-98). 

ANDORRA,  an-dor'ra.  A  republic  in  the  val- 
ley of  the  same  name  in  the  eastern  Pyrenees, 
between  the  French  department  of  Ariege  and 
Catalonia,  in  Spain  (Map:  Spain,  F  1).  The 
valley  is  inclosed  by  mountains,  through  which 
its  river,  the  Balira,  breaks  to  join  the  Segi'e  at 
Urgel :  and  its  inaccessibility  naturally  fits  it 
for  being  the  seat  of  the  interesting  little  repub- 
lic, which  leads  a  semi-independent  existence 
under  the  protection  of  France  and  the  Bishop 
of  Urgel.  Its  area  is  about  175  square  miles,  and 
it  is  divided  into  the  six  parishes  of  Santa  Julia, 
Andorra-Vieilla,  Encamp,  Canillo,  La  Massana, 
and  Ordino.  The  former  abundant  forests  are 
being  exhausted  from  use  as  fuel :  there  is  much 
excellent  pasture;  vines  and  fruit  trees  flourish 
on  the  lower  grounds,  and  the  mountains  con- 
tain rich  iron  mines.     The  limited  area  of  arable 


ANDOBRA. 


538 


ANDRASSY. 


land  makes  the  republic  partly  depend  vipon 
France  for  its  grain.  The  chief  industry  is  the 
production  of  coarse  cloth,  and  the  exports  con- 
sist of  wood,  metal  ores,  cloth,  and  some  dairy 
products. 

Andorra  was  declared  an  independent  btate  by 
Charlemagne,  in  reward  for  services  rendered  to 
him  by  its  inhabitants  when  he  was  marching 
aoainst  the  Moors.     In  1278  Andorra  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  Comte  de  Foix  and  the  Bishop  of 
Urgel,    and   was   administered   by   two   vigmers 
appointed  by  them.     During  the  French  Revolu- 
tion the  relations  between  Andorra  and  France 
■were   interrupted  on  account  of   the  latter's   re- 
fusal  to   accept   the   annual   tribute,   which   was 
considered  incompatible  with  a  republican  form 
of   government.     In    1806,   however,   the   former 
relations  were  renewed,  and  the  free  importation 
of  cereals  from  France  was  allowed  in  considera- 
tion of  an  annual   tribute  of  960   francs.     The 
Republic  is   governed  by  a  sovereign  council   of 
twenty-four  members,  chosen  for  a  period  of  four 
years' by   the   heads   of   the   communities.     The 
council   is   presided   over  by   two   syndics,   both 
chosen  by  the  members  of  the  council,  one  for 
life   and   the   other   for   a   term   of   four   years. 
There  are  two  judges  called  figuicrs,  of  whom 
the    first,    a    French    subject,    is    appointed    by 
France,  and  the  second,  a  native,  by  the  Bishop 
of  Urgel.     There  is  also  a  civil  judge,  appointed 
by  France  and  the  Bishop  of  Urgel  alternately. 
Under  each  viguicr  is  an  inferior  judge  called  a 
lailie;   there  "is   an   appeal   from   his   judgment 
to  the  civil  judge,  and  finally  to  the  Court  of 
Cassation  at  Paris,  or  to  the  episcopal  college 
at  Urgel.     In  criminal  cases  there  is  no  appeal 
from  the  Court  of  the  Republic  itself,  in  which  the 
first  vif/uier  presides.     The  revenue  of  the  State 
is  derived  from  lands  and  from  some  inconsid- 
erable taxes.     The  Bishop  sf  Urgel  receives  from 
the  Republic  an  annual  sum  of  460  francs.     The 
manner  of  life  of  the  Andorrans  is  very  simple. 
There    are    schools,    but   education    is    in    a    low 
state.     Every  able-bodied  citizen  of  the  Republic 
is  liable  to  military  service  between  the  ages  of 
sixteen  and  sixty.     In  the  Carlist  wars  the  neu- 
trality of  Andorra  was  strictly  respected,  though 
various  complications  resulted  from  its  connec- 
tion   with    the    Bishop    of    Urgel.     The    capital, 
Andorra,  is  situated  in  the  mountains,  and  has  a 
population    of    about    1000.     The    population    of 
the    Republic    is    estimated    at    6000.     Consult: 
Spender,    Through    the   High  Pyrenees    (London, 
1898)  ;  Deverell,  History  of  the  Republic  of  An- 
dorra   (Bristol,    1885)  :    Tucker,   The    Valley   of 
Andorra   (Cambridge,  Mass.,  1882). 

AN'DOVER.  A  town  of  Essex  Co.,  Mass. 
It  includes  several  villages,  and  lies  south  of  the 
Merrimac.  The  town  proper  is  22  miles  north  of 
Boston,  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Shawsheen, 
and  on  the  Boston  and  Maine  Railroad  (Map: 
Massachusetts,  E  2).  It  produces  twine  and 
thread,  woolen  goods,  shoes,  rubber  goods,  print- 
ers' ink,  and  other  manufactures.  Andover  is 
noted  for  its  educational  institutions,  namely, 
the  Phillips  Academy  for  boys,  founded  in  1778; 
Andover  Theological'Seminary,  and  AVibot  A<Mde- 
my  for  young  Indies.  It  has  a  public  library,  and 
owns  and  operates  its  water  works.  The  covern- 
ment  is  administered  by  town  meetings,  annual 
and  special,  which  elect  as  executive  officers  three 
selectmen,  make  appropriations,  and  transact 
other  business.  First  settled  in  1643,  Andover 
was   incorporated   as   a   town   in    1646.     It   was 


within  the  area  especially  affected  by  the  witch- 
craft delusion  of  1092,  and  three  of  its  citizens 
were  convicted  and  executed  at  Salem,  many 
more  being  tried  and  acquitted.  On  March  .5, 
1698,  it  was  attacked  by  Indians,  who  killed 
five  of  the  inhabitants  and  burned  a  number  of 
the  buildings.  Consult:  Abbot,  History  of  An- 
dorer  (Andover,  1829),  and  Bailey,  Historical 
Hketches  of  Andover  (Boston.  1880).  Popula- 
tion, in  1890,  6142;  in  1900,  6813. 

ANDOVER  THE'OLOG'ICAL  SEM'INA- 
RY.  One  of  the  oldest  and  most  famous  theo- 
logical schools  in  America.  It  was  founded  in 
1807,  and,  although  under  the  control  of  Con- 
gregationalists,  is  free  to  Protestants  of  all 
denominations.  Applicants  for  the  regular 
three  years'  course  are  required,  except  in  special 
cases,  to  present  a  college  diploma.  No  charge 
is  made  for  tuition  or  for  room-rent  in  the  semi- 
nary buildings.  The  endowment  fund  amounted 
in  iOOl  to  about  $850,000.  and  the  value  of  the 
college  property  to  ,$250,000.  The  library  con- 
tains over  30,000  volumes.  In  1900  there  were 
six  professors  and  five  lecturers  and  instructors. 
President,  Charles  Orrin  Day,  D.D.  Consult 
Woods,  A  History  of  Aiidorer  (Boston,  1884). 

ANDOVER  THEOL'OGY.    See  New  Theol- 
ogy. 

ANDRADA  E  SILVA,  an-drii'da  e  sel'va, 
Jose  Bonifacio  d'  (1765-1838).  A  Brazilian 
statesman  and  author,  born  at  Santos.  He 
studied  in  Europe,  became  professor  of  geognosy 
and  metallurgy  in  the  University  of  Coimbra. 
Portugal,  and 'was  in  1812  appointed  perpetual 
secretary  of  the  Acadenr-  of  Sciences  at  Lisbon. 
Having 'returned  to  Brazil  in  1819,  hevvas  a 
prominent  advocate  of  independence,  and  in  1822 
and  1823  was  Minister  of  the  Interior  in  the  Cab- 
inet of  Dom  Pedro  I.  From  1823  to  1829  he  was 
in  banishment  in  France  by  reason  of  his  liberal 
views.  He  published  Poesias  d'Americo  Elyseo 
(Bordeaux,  1825),  and  writings  on  mineralogy. 

ANDRAL,  a.N'drar,  Gabriel  (1797-1876).  A 
celebrated  French  physician,  member  of  the  Insti- 
tute, He  was  born  in  Paris.  In  1823  he  estab- 
lished his  reputation  by  the  publication  of  tlic 
first  of  the  four  volumes  of  his  Clinique  medicate. 
In  1827  he  was  ap])ointed  professor  of  hygiene  in 
the  University  of  Paris,  and  in  1830  was  advance<l 
to  the  chair 'of  internal  patholog}'.  His  paper 
.S'ur  Vanatomie  puthologique  du  tube  digestif 
(on  the  pathological  anatomy  of  the  alimeiitaiy 
canal)  was  greatly  admired,  and  in  1829  lie 
produced  a  Precis  clcmcntaire  on  the  same  sci- 
ence. His  Clinique  mcdicale  treats  principally  of 
diseases  of  the  chest,  of  the  abdomen,  and  of  the 
brain.  In  1839  Andral  was  elected  by  his  col- 
leagues to  succeed  Broussais  in  the  chair  of  pa- 
thology and  general  1  herapeutics,  the  highest  in 
the  school.  His  other  works  include  Projet  d'lin 
essai  sur  la  vitalitc  (1835),  an  edition  of  La-n- 
nec"s  Traitc  de  lUmseultation  mediate  ou  traitr 
du  diagnostic  des  poumons  et  du  cccur  (1830), 
Cours  de  pathologic  vnterne  (1836-37),  Sur  le 
traitement  de  la  fiirre  typhoidc  par  les  pur- 
qalUs  (1837).  In  1843  he  presented  to  the 
institute  his  Traitf.  flementaire  de  pathologic 
et  de  therapeutique  generate.  His  father,  Guil- 
lauine  Andral.  was  also  a  physician  of  note. 

ANDRAsSY.  iinMni-shi,  Gvula  (.Julius), 
(^orxT  {  1823-90).  An  Hungarian  statesman.  Irorii 
at   Zemplen.     He  was   in  the  Presburg  Diet   iir 


ANDRASSY. 


539 


ANDRE. 


1847-48.  In  the  levulution  of  1848  he  was  an 
earnest  adherent  of  the  popuhir  cause,  and  spent 
the  years  1840-57  an  exile  in  France  and  Eng- 
land. Retiirninj;  home,  lie  was  elected  a  member 
f]f  the  Diet  in  1801,  and  became  its  vice-president 
from  ISlio  to  18(i6.  After  the  reconstruction  of 
Austria-Hungary  on  a  dual  basis,  De;'ik  procured 
the  appointment  of  Andrassy  as  prime  minister 
of  Hungary  in  18G7,  and  his  administration  was 
thoroughly  popular  as  well  as  eminently  success- 
ful in  carrying  througli  financial,  judicial,  and 
military  reforms.  He  succeeded  Count  Beust  in 
1871  as  minister  of  foreign  atl'airs  of  the  Austro- 
Hungarian  Empire.  He  was  tlic  chief  representa- 
tive of  Austria-Hungary  at  the  Congress  of  Ber- 
lin in  1878,  and  .secured  for  Austria-Hungary  the 
mandate  for  the  occupation  of  liosnia  anil  Herze- 
govina. He  negotiated  with  Bismarck  in  187S 
the  Austro-German  alliance.  He  resigned  in  that 
year. 

ANDRE,  aN'dra',  Charles  (1842 — ).  A 
French  astronomer,  born  at  Chauny  (Aisne). 
In  1877  he  became  professor  of  astronomy  at 
Lyons,  and  director  of  the  observatory  in  that 
city,  in  which  capacity  he  visited  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  Australia  to  observe  the  transit 
of  Venus.  His  principal  works  are:  L'astron- 
oiiiif  pratique  ct  Ics  tihsrrrations  f'n  Europe 
ct  Amcrifiue  depuis  le  tuilicu  <lu  SVIIc  siecle 
jusqu'a  nos  jours  (5  volumes,  1874-78),  Re- 
cherclws  sur  le  cliniat  du  Liionnais    (1881). 

ANDRE,  Chrlstian  Karl  {170;M8:?1).  A 
German  educator,  agriculturist,  and  author.  He 
was  born  at  Hildburghau.sen,  was  an  instructor 
at  Schnepfenthal,  and  in  1708  became  director  of 
the  Protestant  school  at  Briinn.  He  was  ap- 
pointed manager  of  the  estates  of  Prince  Salra, 
at  Briinn,  in  1812,  and  in  1821  became  secretary 
of  tlie  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  .\griculture 
in  Moravia.  With  Becker  he  founded  the  AUye- 
niciner  Reichsanzeiger  (Ciotha,  1707).  He  was 
at  ditferent  times  an  editor  of  various  periodi- 
cals, and  in  collaboration  published  the  series 
(lemeinniitzige  tipaziergiinye  uiif  alle  Tage  iin 
Jtthr  (1790-05),  and  Kompendinne  BihUothek  der 
gememniitzUchen  Kenntnisse   (1700-98). 

ANDRE,  an'dra  or  an'dri,  .John  (1751-80). 
An  English  soldier  in  the  American  Revolution 
wlio  met  his  death  under  circumstances  which 
have  given  his  name  a  place  in  history.  He 
was  born  in  London  of  Genevese  and  French 
parentage,  entered  the  English  army  at  the  age 
of  twenty,  and  in  1774  joined  his  regiment  in 
Canada.  He  was  captured  by  General  Mont- 
gomery in  November,  1775,  at  St.  Johns,  and 
until  December,  1776,  when  he  was  exchanged, 
he  was  held  as  a  prisoner  at  Lancaster,  Pa.  He 
was  promoted  to  be  captain  in  1777,  and  soon 
afterward  became  an  aide  to  General  Charles 
Grey.  In  the  following  year  he  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  major,  and  was  appointed  adjutant- 
general  of  the  English  army  in  America  and  aide 
to  Sir  Henry  Clinton.  During  the  negptiations 
between  Clinton  and  General  Arnold,  in  1780, 
for  the  betrayal  into  the  hands  of  the  British 
of  West  Point,  with  its  stores  and  magazines, 
including  nearly  the  whole  stock  of  powder  of 
the  American  army.  Major  Andr(^  acted  as  the 
confidential  agent  of  General  Clinton,  and  at- 
tended to  most  of  the  correspondence.  In  order 
to  perfect  plans  for  carrying  out  the  jdot.  Andr^. 
under  the  assumed  name  of  "John  Anderson." 
left  New  York  on  September   20,  ascended   the 


Hudson  in  the  Britisli  sloop-of-war  Vulture,  and 
on  the  21st  and  22d  met  Arn<dd  in  secret  and 
made  the  necessary  arrangements.  During  their 
interview,  the  Vulture  was  forced  down  stream 
by  the  fire  of  an  American  battery,  and  Andre, 
armed  with  a  pass  from  Arnold,  and  disguised 
(against  General  Clinton's  explicit  instructions) 
as  a  civilian,  started  on  horseback  for  New  York, 
carrying  several  incriminating  papers,  in  Ar- 
nold's handwriting,  concealed  in  his  boots.  Near 
Tarrytown  at  9  a.m.  on  the  2:U\ — when  almost 
within  sight  of  the  Britisli  lines — he  was  cap- 
tured by  three  American  militiamen  (John  Paul- 
ding, David  Williams,  and  Isaac  Van  Wart),  who 
found  the  documents,  and  refusing  all  bribes, 
handed  their  prisoner  over  to  Lieutenant-Colonel 
Jameson,  by  whom  Arnold  was  blunderingly 
notified,  and  thus  enabled  to  escape.  A  military 
court,  presided  over  by  General  Nathanael 
Greene,  and  consisting  of  six  major-generals  and 
eight  brigadiers,  convened  on  September  29th,  at 
Washington's  request,  and  unanimously  convict- 
ed Andr^  of  being  an  Englisli  spy.  In  accordance 
with  military  usage,  he  was  therefore  condemned 
to  be  hanged,  and  on  October  2d  the  sentence 
was  carried  out  at  Tappan,  New  York,  AndriS 
behaving  with  the  utmost  courage  and  serenity, 
and  calling  upon  the  American  officers  to  witness 
that  he  died  like  a  brave  man.  His  fate  aroused 
much  sympathy  everywhere,  and  his  death  has 
pas.sed  into  history  as  one  of  the  most  pathetic 
incidents  of  the  Revolutionary  War;  but  it  is 
now  generally  recognized  both  in  this  country 
and  in  England  that  Washington  could  not  have 
acted  otherwise  than  as  he  did.  and  that,  by  the 
rules  of  war,  AndrS  clearly  brought  upon  himself 
the  punishment  he  received.  A  monument  was 
erected  to  Andre's  memory  in  Westminster  Ab- 
bey, and  in  1821  his  body  was  disinterred  at  Tap- 
pan  and  conveyed  to  a  grave  near  the  monument. 

Andre  had  a  singularly  attractive  personality, 
which  has  added  much  to  the  general  interest  in 
his  fate.  Vivacious,  witty,  and  strikingly  hand- 
some, he  had,  moreo\er,  a  charm  of  manner 
which  made  him  a  general  favorite  in  the  English 
army  and  endeared  him  even  to  the  American 
officers  who  came  in  contact  with  him  during  his 
captivity.  He  was,  besides,  remarkably  ver- 
.satile,  and,  in  particular,  had  considerable  lit- 
erary, artistic,  and  musical  talent.  A  facile  and 
pleasing  writer,  he  carried  on  much  of  Clinton's 
correspondence,  and  wrote  many  fugitive  verses, 
some  of  which,  such  as  The  Coie  Chase,  Yankee 
Doodle's  EiCpedition  to  Rhode  Island,  and  The 
Affair  between  Generals  Howe  and  Gadsden, 
were  very  popular  at  the  time  in  the  English 
army.  During  the  winter  spent  by  the  English 
in  Philadelphia,  he  was  the  life  and  soul  of  all 
the  gaj'eties  and  festivities  there,  and  took  the 
leading  part  in  the  famous  "Mischianza"  —  a 
pageant  given  in  honor  of  the  departing  Lord 
Howe.  Interest  in  Andre  has  been  much  height- 
ened, also,  by  the  romantic  story  of  his  early 
attachment  to  a  Miss  Honora  Sneyd,  of  Lich 
field,  England,  who  was  subsequently  married  to 
the  father  of  Maria  F.dgeworth. 

In  Volume  VI.  of  the  Memoirs  of  the  Historical 
Society  of  Peniisi/lrania  (1858)  is  the  "Case  of 
Major  Andre,  with  a  Review  iff  the  Statement 
of  it  in  Lord  Mahon's  History  of  England,"  bv 
Charles  J.  Biddle — an  essay  containing  a  full 
narrative  of  the  case,  with  a  discussion  of  all 
the  questions  of  law  and  duty  raised  in  connec- 
tion with  it.     Consult  also  an  excellent  work  bv 


ANDBE. 


5i0 


ANDREE, 


Sargent,  Life  and  Career  of  Major  John  Andre 
(Boston,  1861),  and  Lossing,  Two  Spies  (New 
York,  1886).  Many  of  the  documents  relating 
to  Andre's  capture,  trial,  and  conviction  are  con- 
tained in  H.  \V.  Smith's  J^ndrcaHa  (Philadelphia, 
1865),  and  in  Dawson,  Papers  Concerning  the 
Capture  and  Detention  of  Major  John  Andre 
(Yonkers,    1866). 

ANDREA,  andra'a,  Girolamo,  SIakchese  d' 
(1812-68).  An  Italian  cardinal.  He  was  born 
at  Naples,  educated  at  the  College  La  Fleche, 
France,  and  was  early  appointed  Archbisliop  of 
Mytilene  in  pnrtibiis  infidrlium.  In  1852  he  was 
appointed  Cardinal-abbot  of  Subiaeo,  and  prefect 
of  the  Congregation  of  the  Index,  and  in  1800 
Bishop  of  Sabina.  He  took  sides  with  the  Patri- 
otic Party  in  1859  on  the  question  of  the  national 
unity  of  Italy,  and  at  the  same  time  counseled 
extensive  liberal  reforms  in  Cluireh  policy. 
Under  papal  disfavor  he  went  to  Naples,  and 
having  refused,  after  repeated  summons,  to  return 
thence  to  Rome,  was  first  suspended  from  his 
diocese  and  abbacy  and  then  threatened  with  per- 
manent deposition  from  office.  He  ultimately 
submitted,  and  in  1868  was  rehabilitated,  with- 
out, however,  being  restored  to  his  diocese  and 
the  abbacy  of  Subiaeo. 

ANDREA  DI  TJGOLINO,  de  oo'g6-le'n6, 
called  ANDREA  PISANO,  pe-za'no  (1270- 
c.  1349).  An  Italian  architect  and  sculptor.  He 
was  the  third  great  artist  of  the  Pisan  School, 
which  then  had  the  lead  in  Italy,  succeeding  Gio- 
vanni Pisano,  who  himself  followed  his  father, 
Nicola.  His  greatest  work  is  the  bronze  door  of 
the  baptistery  of  Florence,  seldom  equaled  and 
never  surpassed  in  Italian  Gothic  sculpture 
(1330).  He  shows  the  influence  of  Giotto  in  his 
love  of  allegory,  his  dignified  compositions  (con- 
trasted with  Giovanni's  over-dramatic  action), 
and  his  broad  style.  He  also  executed  the  bas- 
reliefs  on  the  lower  part  of  Giotto's  campanile  at 
Florence,  and  was  the  chief  designer  of  the  cathe- 
dral at  Orvieto.  He  had  a  paramount  influence 
on  art  throughout  Tuscany. 

ANDREJE,  an'dra,  Jakob,  called  Schmidt- 
LEIN  (1528-90).  A  German  theologian.  He  was 
born  at  'Waiblingen,  March  25,  1528.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Tubingen;  preached  in  Stuttgart  and 
Tilbingcn,  and  was  very  active  in  promoting 
the  Reformation  throughout  Wurttemberg,  where 
he  was  court  preacher.  He  attended  the  diets  of 
Ratisbon  and  Frankfort  (1557)  and  Augsburg 
(1559),  became  professor  of  theologj-  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Tubingen  (1502),  and  provost  of  the 
church  of  St.  George.  He  took  a  leading  part  in 
Protestant  discussions  and  movements,  particu- 
larly in  the  adoption  of  a  common  declaration  of 
faitii  by  the  two  parties,  the  Formula  of  Con- 
cord (1577).  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he 
traveled  in  Bohemia  and  Germany,  working  for 
the  consolidation  of  the  Reformation,  conferring 
with  pastors,  magistrates,  and  princes.  He  was 
the  author  of  more  than  150  works,  nearly  all 
polemical  and  vigorously  written,  for  the  most 
part  directed  against  Calvinism.  By  his  first 
wife  (died  1583)  he  had  eighteen  children.  He 
married  again  in  1585.  He  died  at  Tubingen, 
January  7,  1590. 

ANDRE.ffi,  Joitann  Vaientin  (1586-1654). 
A  German  theologian,  born  at  Herrenberg,  near 
Tvibingen.  He  studied  at  Tiibingen.  and  obtained 
ecclesiastical     preferments     in     the     Protestant 


Church  of  his  native  countrj-,  and  became  chap- 
lain to  the  court  at  Stuttgart,  where  he  died. 
He  was  grieved  to  see  the  principles  of  Chris- 
tianity made  the  subject  of  empty  disputations. 
His  WTitings  are  remarkable  for  the  wit  and 
humor,  as  well  as  for  the  learning,  acuteness,  and 
moral  power  which  they  display.  He  was  errone- 
ously regarded  as  the  founder,  or  at  least  the  re- 
storer, of  the  order  of  the  Rosicrucians  (q.v. ), 
and  this  opinion  seemed  to  be  supported  by  refer- 
ence to  three  publications:  the  Cln/iiiische  Hoch- 
zeit  Christiani  Roscnkreuz  (1010),  the  Fa  ma 
fraternitatis  R.C.,  i.e.,  liosiicce  Criicis  (1614), and 
the  Confessio  fraternitatis  K.  C.  (1015),  of  the 
first  of  which  he  acknowledged  liimself  the  au- 
thor, and  the  other  two  have  so  much  resemblance 
to  it  as  to  be  evidently  from  the  same  pen.  His 
intention  in  these  works  seems  to  have  been  not 
to  originate  or  promote  secret  societies  of  mys- 
tics and  enthusiasts,  but  to  ridicule  the  follies 
of  the  age.  He  attacked  Rosicrucianism  itself  in 
some  of  his  later  writings  with  great  severity. 
Among  the  best  of  his  works  are  his  Meiiippiis 
s.  Satyricorum  Dialorioriim  Centuria  (1017)  and 
Mi/thologia  Christiana  (1019).  He  wrote  an 
allegoric  poem  called  Die  Christenbiirg  (Stutt- 
gart, 1830),  and  an  autobiography  (Winterthur, 
1799) .  Herder  has  done  much  to  extend  a  knowl- 
edge of  Andres's  works  in  the  present  age.  For 
his  life,  consult  GlJikler   (Stuttgart,  1866). 

ANDRE.ffi,  Laurentius,  or  Lars  Anders.son 
(1480-1552).  A  Swedish  reformer.  He  was 
born  at  Strengnjis,  about  40  miles  west  of  Stock- 
holm, 1480;  died  there  April  20,  1552.  He  stud- 
ied at  Rome,  but  came  home  a  Protestant,  and 
introduced  the  reformed  faith  into  Sweden,  1523. 
He  was  made  chancellor  by  Gustavus  Vasa,  who 
desired  him  to  translate  the  Bible,  in  which 
work  he  was  assisted  by  Olaus  Petri  ( New  Testa- 
ment, 1526;  Old  Testament,  1540).  Andrea;  was 
in  high  favor  until  he  was  charged  with  having 
neglected  to  disclose  a  conspiracy  against  the 
King,  of  which  he  had  knowledge,  for  which  he 
was  sentenced  to  death,  but  he  was  pardoned, 
after  being  heavily  fined  (1540).  Afterward  he 
lived   in   retirement. 

ANDREANI,  iin'dra-a'ne,  Andrea  (c.  1560- 
1023).  An  Italian  engraver  on  wood  and  copper. 
Some  of  the  most  notable  of  his  works  are 
"Pharaoh's  Host  Destroved  in  the  Red  Sea" 
(after  Titian),  "The  Triumph  of  C.Tsar"  (after 
Mantegna),  and  "The  Triumph  of  Christ"  (after 
Titian).  From  using  a  similar  monogram,  his 
work  has  sometimes  been  mistaken  for  that  of 
Altdorfer. 

AN'DREAS  CHES'NIUS.      See  Duchesne, 

Andre. 

ANDREE,  an'dra,  Karl  Tiieodor  (1808-75). 
A  German  geographer  and  journalist.  He  stud- 
ied history  at  Jena,  Gottingen,  and  Berlin, 
and  from  1830  to  1855  was  active  in  journalism, 
being  connected  with  such  publications  as  the 
Deutsche  Reichszcitiinij  and  the  Bremer  flan- 
delsblatt.  He  then  gave  his  attention  to  geograph- 
ical and  ethnological  studies,  publisliing  among 
other  works,  T^ordameriha  (second  edition, 
1854)  ;  Buenos  Aires  und  die  Argent inixrhe  Re- 
publik  (1856),  and  Geographic  des  WcUhandds 
(1863-72).  In  1861  he  founded  the  Globus,  a 
geographical  and  ethnological   publication. 

ANDREE,  Ric-hard  (1835—).  A  German 
etiuiographer  and  geographer,  son  of  the  preced- 


ANDREE. 


541 


ANDREW. 


iiig,  born  in  BiunswioU.  Ho  studied  natural 
sciences  at  Leipzig;,  and  from  1S59  to  18G3  worked 
as  a  foundr_^^nan  in  Bohemia,  for  the  purpose  of 
sludyint;  the  German-Czech  race  conflict.  He  is 
l<no\vn  as  a  writer  upon  ethno<;raphy,  jieograpliy, 
and,  occasionally,  other  subjects.  He  became 
editor  of  the  (llobiis  in  1801.  The  books  embody- 
ing  the  results  of  his  observations  in  Bohemia 
.  are  written  from  the  rierman  nationalist  point 
of  view.  They  include  XalionnJitiitst'erlviiUnisse 
mid  )<pr(ichfircn.~e  in  Bulinwii  { 1S70)  and  Tscfwch- 
i.tche  Grin  fie  (1872).  His  later  and  better- 
known  works  comprise  Ziir  Volkskundc  dcr  Ju- 
den  (1881),  Die  MttaUe  bei  den  Xaturvolkern 
(1884),  Die  Masker,  in  dcr  Volkerkundc  (1886), 
Die  Flutsagcn  ( 1891 ), and  Bniunschweigcr  Volks- 
kumle    (IsilO). 

ANDREE,  S.M.oMON  August  (1854 — ).  A 
Swedish  sc-ientist  and  aeronaut,  born  at  Grenna. 
He  studied  at  the  technical  college  in  Stockholm, 
and  was  a  member  of  the  Swedish  meteorological 
expedition  in  1882-83.  Between  1892  and  1895 
he  made  several  balloon  journeys,  and  finally  de- 
cided to  attempt  to  reach  the  North  Pole  by 
means  of  a  balloon,  partly  directed  by  sails  and 
guide-ropes.  On  .luly  11,  1S97.  accompanied  by 
two  friends,  Strindberg  and  Friinkel,  he  made 
the  start  from  Dane  Island,  northwestern  Spitz- 
bergen.  Four  days  after\vard  a  carrier  pigeon, 
shot  on  the  sealer  .4//i-tH,  was  found  to  convey  in 
a  small  tube  a  message  written  by  Andree  two 
days  after  the  ascent.  The  message  gave  the 
position  of  the  party  as  lat.  82°  2',  long.  15°  3' 
E.,  or  145  miles  north  and  45  miles  east  of  the 
starting  point.  Of  the  thirteen  buoys  carried  in 
the  balloon,  five  have  been  discovered  on  coasts 
near  Spitzbergen.  Two  contained  dispatches, 
both  dated  July  11.  The  "polar  buoy,"  which 
was  to  be  cast  overboard  from  the  highest  lati- 
tude attained,  was  found  empty,  at  Spitzbergen, 
September  11,  1899.  Several  expeditions  to 
Spitzbergen,  Franz  Josef  Land,  and  East  tirecn- 
land  have  failed  to  discover  other  traces  of  the 
e.xplorer.  In  1901,  N.  Persson,  Swedish  consul 
at  Helsingfors,  Kussia,  offered  a  reward  for  each 
of  the  eight  remaining  buoys  that  should  be 
found  before  1905;  500  kroner  (about  .$130)  for 
each  buoy  containing  intelligence;  200  kroner 
for  empty  buoys  or  other  relics  of  the  expedition. 
Consult:  Kullenl)ergh,  .4)i(/rfe,  hans  Lif  och  Per- 
son (CiiJteborg,  1898),  and  Annual  Report  of  the 
Smithsonian.  Institution  for  1S9S  (Washington, 
1898). 

ANDREINI,  an'dra-6'ne,  Francesco.  An 
Italian  comedian  of  about  the  end  of  the  six- 
teenth century.  He  was  head  of  the  traveling 
company  "dei  C4efosi,''  and  published  several 
plays,  among  them  Ragionamenti  fantastici 
(iei2). 

ANDREINI,  CiiAMBATTiSTA  (1578—?).  An 
Italian  actor  and  author,  son  of  Francesco  and 
Isabella  Andreini.  Born  at  Florence,  he  went  in 
the  course  of  his  dramatic  career  to  Paris,  where, 
during  the  reign  of  Louis  XIII.,  he  gained  dis- 
tinction, especially  in  lovers'  roles.  The  time  and 
place  of  his  death  are  unknown.  The  most  noted 
of  his  works  Is  a  religious  drama  entitled  V Ada- 
mo  (1613),  to  which  it  has  often  been  said 
Milton  owed  the  idea  of  Paradise  Lost.  Andreini 
wrote,  besides  occasional  poems,  a  number  of 
other  plays.  His  Teatro  celeste  was  published 
at  Paris  in  1625. 


ANDREINI,  Isabella  (1562-1604).  A  popu- 
lar Italian  actress  and  author,  born  at  Padua. 
She  was  the  wife  of  Francesco  Andreini,  and  in 
his  company  won  an  even  greater  reputation 
than  her  liusband.  She  was  distinguished  both 
for  her  brilliant  acting  and  for  her  virtues  of 
character  throughout  the  cities  of  Italy  and 
France,  and  when  she  died  at  Lyons  a  medal 
was  struck  in  her  honor,  bearing  the  words, 
.Tlternii  Fama.  Her  writings  include  the  pas- 
toral drama  MirtiUa,  a  numl)er  of  lyrics,  and  a 
collection  of  letters  published  after  her  death. 

ANDREOLI,  an'dra-0'le,  GiORGio.  An  Italian 
ceramic  [jainter  of  the  early  si.xteenth  centui'y, 
born  at  Pavia.  He  had  a  studio  at  Gubbio.  His 
niajolica-ware  is  remarkable  for  its  brilliant  col- 
oring and  lustre.  Specimens  of  it  are  in  the 
South  Kensington  jMuseum,  London. 

ANDREOSSI,  iiN'dra'o'se',  Antoine  Fran- 
cois, CoiXT  (1761-1828).  A  French  statesman, 
born  at  Castelnaudary,  in  Languedoc.  He  was 
the  gieat-grandson  of  Francois  Andrtossi,  who, 
with  Riquet,  constructed  the  canal  of  Languedoc 
in  the  seventeenth  century.  He  entered  the  army 
as  a  lieutenant  of  artillery  in  1781,  joined  the 
revolutionists,  rose  rapidly  in  military  rank, 
served  under  Bonaparte  in  Italy  and  Egypt,  ac- 
companied him  on  his  return  to  France,  and  took 
part  in  the  coup  d'etat  of  the  eighteenth  Bru- 
niaire.  He  was  ambassador  at  London  during 
the  Peace  of  Amiens,  and  was  made  governor  of 
Vienna  after  the  battle  of  Wagram.  He  was  for 
some  time  ambassador  at  Constantinople,  from 
which  he  was  recalled  by  Louis  XV^III.  He  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  by  Napoleon  after  the  re- 
turn from  Elba.  After  the  battle  of  Waterloo  he 
advocated  the  recall  of  the  Bourbons,  but  as 
deputy  from  the  department  of  Aude  he  generally 
sided  with  the  opposition.  He  died  at  Mon- 
tauban.  He  was  a  man  of  eminent  scientific  at- 
tainments, and  distinguished  himself  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  institute  founded  at  Cairo.  One  of 
his  first  works  was  the  Histoirc  d>i  Canal  du 
Midi  (Paris,  1800;  new  edition,  2  volumes, 
1804),  in  which  he  asserted  the  right  of  his 
great-gi-andfather  to  honors  long  enjoyed  by 
Riquet.  Consult  Marion,  Notice  necrologique 
snr  le  Comte  Andreossi  (Paris,  1846). 

ANDRES,  an-drfis',  Juan  (1740-1817).  A 
Spanish  scholar,  born  at  Planes  (Valencia).  He 
entered  the  Jesuit  order,  and  after  its  expulsion 
from  Spain  withdre\\-  to  Italy,  where  for  a  time 
he  taught  philosophy  in  the  College  of  Ferrara. 
Afterwaid  he  was  royal  liluarian  at  Naples. 
In  1815  he  became  blind.  His  works  are:  Pros- 
pectus Philosophiw  Universw  Puhliee  Dispiita- 
tioni  Proposita!  Templo  Ferrariensi  (Ferrara, 
1773),  S^aggio  della  filosojia  di  Galileo  (1776), 
and  DeW  origine,  dci  progressi  e  dello  staio  at- 
tnale  d'oqm  letteratura  (Parma,  7  volumes, 
1782-99). 

AN'DREW  (Gk.  'AvSpia^,  Andreas).  An 
apostle,  brother  of  Simon  Peter,  born  in 
Bethsaida  of  Galilee.  He  was  originally  a  dis- 
ciple of  John  the  Baptist,  but  was  one  of  the 
first  called  of  the  disciples  of  Jesus,  and  was 
finally  chosen  by  him  from  among  his  larger  fol- 
lowing to  the  apostolic  office.  (See  list  of  apos- 
tles in  Mark  iii:  13-19,  with  Matthew  and  Luke 
parallels.)  During  the  ministry  of  Jesus  he 
figures  in  the  feeding  of  the  five  thousand.  He 
called  attention  to  the  lad  who  had  the  five  bar- 
ley loaves  and  the  two  fishes    (John  vi  ;8),  in 


ANDREW. 


543 


ANDREWES. 


the  visit  of  the  Greeks,  witli  Philip,  he  told  Jesus 
of  the  Greeks'  desire  to  see  him  (John  xii  :  22), 
and  in  the  questions  put  to  Jesus  by  some  of  his 
disciples  regarding  the  last  things,  with  Peter, 
James,  and  John,  he  asked  him  privately:  "Tell 
us  when  shall  these  things  be?"  (Mark  xii:  3). 
There  is  no  mention  of  him  in  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles.  Subsequent  tradition  regarding  his 
preaching  in  Scythia.  Northern  Greece,  and 
Epirus,  and  suffering  martyrdom  on  a  cross 
shaped  like  the  letter  X  about  70  A.D.  is  worth- 
less.    See  Apostle.s. 

ANDREW  I.  King  of  Hungary  from  1046 
to  1001,  and  cousin  of  St.  Stephen,  the  apostle  of 
Christianity  in  Hungary.  He  represented  the 
party  in  opposition  to  German  influence  and  the 
spread  of  Christianity.  Andrew  fouglit  with 
varying  fortunes  against  Henry  III.  of  Germany, 
and"  against  his  own  brother,  Bela,  whom  he  had 
exiled^  He  was  finally  defeated  by  his  Polish 
and  Hungarian  opponents. 

ANDREW  II.  (1176-1236)..  A  king  of  Hun- 
gary who  ascended  the  throne  in  1205,  after  a 
civil  war  with  his  nephew.  Ladislas  III.  In  1217 
he  conducted  an  unsuccessful  crusade  against  the 
Moslem  powers.  In  1222  he  granted  the  Golden 
Bull,  called  the  Magna  Charta  of  Hungary,  which 
defined  and  confirmed  the  rights  and  titles  of  the 
bishops  and  nobles  whose  revolts  had  disturbed 
his  reign.     See  Golden  BrLL. 

ANDREW  III.  ('—1301).  The  last  Hun- 
garian King  of  the  Aipad  family,  grandson  of 
Andrew  II.  He  was  born  in  Venice,  while  his 
father  was  in  exile,  and  succeeded  Ladislas 
IV.  in  121)0.  He  had  to  defend  his  crown  against 
the  pretensions  of  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg  and 
Pope  Nicholas  IV.,  both  being  claimants,  and  also 
against  a  son  of  the  Iving  of  Naples,  who  claimed 
to  be  of  the  house  of  Arpad  through  his  mother. 
Andrew  made  some  efforts  to  develop  trade,  but 
his  reign  was  brief  and  disturbed  by  rebellion. 

ANDREW,  J.VMES  Osgood,  D.D.  (1794-1871). 
A  Methodist  bishop.  He  was  born  in  Wilkes  Co., 
Ga.,  May  3,  1794,  became  (1816)  an  itinerant 
Methodist  Episcopal  preacher  of  South  Carolina 
Conference,  until  consecrated  bishoj)  at  Philadel- 
phia in  May,  1832.  On  his  relations  to  slav- 
ery began  the  first  territorial  cleavage  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Cliurch.  His  second 
wife,  whom  he  married  in  1844,  was  a  slave- 
holder, and  in  the  general  conference  of  1844 
it  was  declared  that  "this  would  greatly  emb.ir- 
rass  the  exercise  of  his  olhce  as  an  itinerant  gen- 
eral superintendent,  if  not  in  some  places  entirely 
prevent  it,"  and  it  was  resolved  "that  it  is  the 
sense  of  this  general  conference  that  he  should 
desist  from  the  exercise  of  this  oflice  so  long  as 
this  impediment  remains."  The  Southern  dele- 
gates protested  that  the  action  was  extra-judicial 
and  unconstitutional,  and  the  difficulty  was  fi- 
nally settled  bv  dividing  the  churches  and  prop- 
erty' a  Church 'being  formed  called  the  IMethodist 
Ep'iscopal  Church,  South.  Bishop  Andrew  ad- 
hered to  the  South,  and  continued  his  episcopal 
work  until  1868,  retiring  then  from  age.  He  died 
in  Mobile,  Ala.,  March  1,  1871. 

ANDREW,  John  Amion.LL.D.  ( 1818-67) .  An 
American  statesman,  "war  Governor"  of  Massa- 
chusetts. He  was  born  in  Windham.  Me.,  gradu- 
ated at  Bowdoin  in  1837,  was  admitted  to  the 
Boston  bar  in  1840,  practiced  there  twenty  years, 
and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  cases  which 


arose  under  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law.  In  1858  he 
was  a  member  of  the  Legislature,  and  in  1860  was 
a  delegate  in  the  Republican  National  Conven- 
tion, and  was  himself  elected  Governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts by  tlie  largest  popular  majority  ever 
given  to  a  candidate.  He  foresaw  the  danger  of 
civil  war  and  took  immediate  steps  to  perfect  the 
organization  of  the  militia  of  his  State.  Witliin 
a  week  after  the  first  call  for  troops  he  sent  for- 
ward five  infantry  regiments,  a  battalion  of  rifle- 
men, and  a  battery  of  artillerj'.  In  1861.  and 
yearly  until  he  insisted  on  retiring  in  1866,  he 
was  "reelected  Governor,  and  was  probably  tlie 
most  efticient  of  all  the  "war  Governors,"  continu- 
ally- organizing  militia  companies,  and  lending 
aid  in  every  possible  way  to  the  Administration. 
He  was  at  the  conference  of  loyal  Governors  at 
Altoona,  Pa.,  in  September,  1862,  and  wrote  the 
address  presented  by  them  to  the  President.  He 
obtained  permission  from  the  Secretary  of  War 
in  January,  1863,  to  organize  colored  troo])s, 
raised  the  first  colored  regiment  ( the  Fif- 
ty-fourth Massachusetts  Infantry)  which  par- 
ticipated in  the  war,  and  sent  it  to  the  front  early 
in  May.  After  the  war  he  contended  for  a  policy 
of  conciliation,  and  vigorously  opposed  all  meas- 
ures likely  to  humiliate  the  South.  In  religion 
he  was  Unitarian,  and  presided  at  the  first  na- 
tional convention  of  that  denomination  in  186."). 
He  declined  the  presidency  of  Antioch  (Ohio) 
College,  which  was  offered  to  him  in  1866.  After 
that  time  he  continued  the  practice  of  law  in 
Boston.  Consult  Chandler,  Memoir,  With  Per- 
sonal Reminiscences  (Boston,  1880). 

ANDREW,     ST.,     or  The     Thistle.       See 
Thistle,  Oiuiei:  of. 

ANDREW,  ST.,  The  Russian  Order  of.  The 
most  distinguished  order  in  the  Russian  Empire. 
It  was  founded  on  December  10  (N.  S.),  1698. 
by  Peter  the  Great,  and  membership  in  it  is  con- 
fined to  members  of  the  imperial  family,  princes, 
generals-in-chief,  and  those  of  similarly  high 
rank.  Grand  dukes  become  Knights  of  St.  An- 
drew at  baptism,  and  other  imperial  princes  upon 
obtaining  their  majority.  Membership  in  St. 
Andrew's  carries  with  it  rights  to  the  important 
orders  of  St.  .Vnno,  Alexander  Nevski,  and  St. 
Stanislaus.  The  badge  of  the  order  of  St.  An- 
drew is  a  double  spread  eagle  surmounted  by  the 
Russian  crown.  On  the  obverse  of  the  med.il  is 
an  enameled  cross  upon  which  is  borne  the  fig- 
ure of  St.  Andrew,  and  at  the  four  corners  of 
the  cross  are  the  letters  S.  A.  P.  R.  {Satictus 
Andreas  Palronus  lliissifF).  On  the  reverse  of 
the  badge  is  the  inscription  (in  Russian)  "For 
Faith  and  Loyalty."    See  Orders. 

ANDREWES,  Lancelot-  (15.55-1626).  An 
eminent  English  prelate.  He  was  born  in  London, 
September  25,  1555,  and  educated  successively 
at  the  Coopers'  Free  Grammar  School,  Ratclifie. 
Merchant  Taylors'  School,  London,  and  Pem- 
broke Hall,  Cambridge,  of  which  college,  afU-r 
having  greatly  distinguished  himself  by  his  in- 
dustry and  acquirements,  he  was  in  1576  electeil 
a  fellow.  On  taking  orders,  1580,  he  accompa- 
nied thef^arl  of  Huntingdon  to  the  North  of  Eng- 
land. His  talents  attracted  the  notice  of  Wal- 
singhani.  Queen  Elizabeth's  Secretary  of  State, 
who  appointed  him  successively,  in  1589,  to  the 
vicarage  of  St.  Giles,  Cripplegate,  a  prebendary 
and  canon  residentiary  of  St.  Paul's,  a  prelien 
dary  of  the  Collegiate' Church  of  Southwell,  and 
master  of  Pembroke  Hall.     The  Queen  next  testi- 


ANDREWES. 


543 


ANDREWS. 


fird  her  esteem  for  his  gifts  ami  piet.v  liy  :i]>- 
I>(]inting  him  one  of  her  chaphiins  in  ordinary 
and  Dean  of  Westminster.  He  rose  still  hi^:hpr  in 
favor  with  King  James,  who  was  well  qua li tied 
to  appreciate  his  extensive  learning  and  peculiar 
style  of  oratory.  He  attended  the  Hampton 
Court  Conference, as  one  of  the  ecclesiastical  com- 
missioners, and  took  part  in  the  translation  of 
the  Bible.  The  portion  on  whicli  he  was  engaged 
was  the  first  twelve  books  of  the  Old  Testament. 
In  KiUo  he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Chichester. 
In  ItiOO  he  was  translated  to  the  see  of  Ely,  and 
appointed  one  of  his  Majesty's  privy  councillors 
both  for  England  and  Scotland.  To  the  latter 
country  he  accompanied  the  King  in  1017,  as  one 
of  the  royal  instruments  for  persuading  the 
Scotch  of  the  siiperioritj'  of  episcopacy  over  pres- 
bytery. In  1019  he  was  translated  to  Winches- 
ter. He  died  in  Winchester  House,  Southwark, 
London,  on  September  25,  1626.  Bishop  An- 
drewes  was,  with  the  exception  of  Ussher,  the 
most  learned  English  theologian  of  his  time.  As 
a  preacher  he  was  regarded  by  his  contemporaries 
as  unrivaled;  but  the  excellent  qualities  of  his 
discourses  are  apt  to  suffer  much  depreciation 
in  modern  judgment  from  the  extremely  arti- 
ficial and  frigid  character  of  the  style.  His  prin- 
cipal works  published  during  his  life  were  two 
treatises  in  reply  to  Cardinal  Bellarmin,  in  de- 
fense of  the  right  of  princes  over  ecclesiastical 
assemblies.  His  other  works  consist  of  sermons, 
lectures,  and  manuals  of  devotion.  Bishop  An- 
drewes  was  the  most  eminent  of  that  Anglican 
school  in  the  seventeenth  ccntur,y  of  which  the 
nineteenth  witnessed  a  revival  under  the  name  of 
Puseyism.  Its  distinctive  peculiarities  were  high 
views  of  ecclesiastical  authority,  and  of  the  effi- 
cacy of  sacraments,  ceremonies,  and  apostolic 
succession,  and  extreme  opposition  to  Puritan- 
Ism.  His  works  are  in  the  Librar.v  of  Anglo- 
Catholic  Theologj',  Oxford,  1S41-54,  "ll  volumes. 
Of  most  fame  are  his  Deiwtions  (many  editions, 
London,  1898)  ;  Seventeen  Sermons  on  Ihe  Ka- 
tivitii  (1887).  For  his  life,  consult:  Whvte 
(K(linl>ursh,  1896),  and  M,  Wood  (N'ew  York, 
1898). 

AN'DREWS,  Charles  McLean  (1863—). 
.An  American  historian.  He  was  born  at  Weth- 
ersfield.  Conn.,  and  was  educated  at  Trinitv  Col- 
lege, Conn.  He  has  been  professor  of  history  at 
Bryn  Mawr  College  since  1889,  and  is  the  author 
of  a  valuable  and  very  reliable  work  on  The  IJis- 
lorical  Development  of  Modern  Europe  (2  vol- 
umes, 1890-98). 

ANDREWS,  CnMSTOPHER  Columbus  (1829 
— ).  An  American  soldier  and  diplomat.  He 
was  born  in  Hillsboro,  N.  H..  but  lived  chiefly 
in  Minnesota  after  18.56.  During  the  Civil 
War  he  rose  to  the  regular  rank  of  brigadier- 
general,  and  at  its  close  was  brevettcd  major- 
,ceneral.  He  was  United  States  Minister  to 
Sweden  from  1809  to  1870,  and  Uniteil  States 
Consul-general  to  Brazil  from  1882  to  1S8.5.  His 
publications  include  a  History  of  the  Campaign 
of  Mobile  (1S07),  and  Bra:;il,  Its  Condition  and 
I'roxpcrls    (1887;    third  edition,   1895). 

ANDREWS,  Edmund  (1824—).  An  Amer- 
ican surgeon,  born  at  Putney,  Vt.  He 
studied  medicine  at  the  University  of  Michigan, 
where  he  was  afterward  made  professor  of  com- 
parative anatomy.  In  1856  he  removed  to  Chi- 
cago. He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Chi- 
cago Medical  College,  which  at  present  forms  the 


medical  department  of  the  Northwestern  Uni- 
versit.v  of  Chicago.  Dr.  Andrews  was  a  surgeon 
during  the  Civil  War,  and  has  been  consulting 
surgeon  to  several  Chicago  hospitals.  He  haa 
introduced  a  number  of  valuable  improvements 
in  surgery,  and  pultlished  a  work  on  rectal  sur. 
gery. 

ANDREWS,  Edward  Gayer,  D.D.,  LL.D. 
(1825 — ).  An  American  clerg.yman;  appointed 
bishop  of  the  Jlelhodist  Episcopal  Church  in 
1872.  He  was  born  at  New  Hartford,  N.  Y., 
and  after  graduating  at  Wesle,yan  University, 
Connecticut  (1847),  entered  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal ministry  (1848).  He  served  as  pastor  at 
Brooklyn,  N.'Y.,  from  1804-72,  after  which  he 
spent  many  years  visiting  foreign  missions.  Bish- 
op Andrews  delivered  the  address  at  the  state 
funeral  of  President  McKinlev  in  Washington, 
September   17,   1901. 

ANDREWS,  Elisha  Benjamin,  D.D.,  LL.D. 
( 1844 — ) .  An  American  educator,  born  at  Hins- 
dale, N.  H.  He  served  in  Connecticut  reg- 
iments during  the  Civil  War,  losing  an  eye.  He 
graduated  at  Brown  University  in  1870,  and  at 
the  Newton  Theological  Institution  in  1874.  He 
preached  for  one  ,ycar,  and  then  was  president 
of  Denison  Universit.y,  1875-79.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  homiletics  at  Newton  Theological  In- 
stitution, 1879-82;  professor  of  history  and  po- 
litical economy  in  Brown  Universit.y,  1882-88 ; 
professor  of  political  economy  and  finance  in 
Cornell  tT„iveisity.  1888-89.  and  president  of 
Brown  University,  1889-98.  He  resigned  as  pres- 
ident of  Brown  in  1897  because  of  criticism  by 
trustees  of  his  advocac.v  of  free  silver,  Imt  at 
that  time  withdrew  his  resignation.  He  was  su- 
perintendent of  .schools,  Chicago,  1898-1900,  and 
then  became  chancellor  of  the  University  of  Ne- 
braska. In  1892  he  was  a  United  States  com- 
missioner to  the  Brussels  monetary  conference, 
and  was  a  strong  supporter  of  international  bi- 
metallism. He  has  published  nuiny  college  text- 
books on  history  and  economics;  also.  An  Hon- 
est Dollar  (1889),  Wealth  and  Moral  Law 
(1894),  History  of  the  United  States  (two  vol- 
umes, 1894),  and  7'he  History  of  the  Last  Quar- 
ter Century  in  the  United  States,  1S70-95  ( 1896) . 

ANDREWS,  Ethan  Allen  (1787-1858).  An 
American  educator.  He  was  born  in  Connecticut, 
and  graduated  at  Yale  in  1810.  He  practiced  law 
for  several  years,  then  was  ])rofessor  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  North  Carolina,  after  which  he  taught 
in  New  Haven  and  Boston.  He  published  a  num- 
ber of  Latin  text-books,  and  in  1850  a  Latin- 
English  lexicon,  based  on  Freund,  and  ^vith 
Solomon  Stoddard,  a  Latin  grammar  long  very 
popular. 

ANDREWS,  George  Leonard  (1828-99).  An 
American  soldier.  He  was  born  in  Bridgewater, 
Mass.,  and  in  1851  graduated  at  West  Point  at 
the  head  of  his  class.  For  two  years  (1854-50) 
he  was  assistant  professor  of  engineering  at  West 
Point.  He  then  resigned  from  the  service,  and 
was  enga,a:ed  in  engineering  work  imtil  the  be- 
gijming  of  the  Civil  War,  when  he  entered  the 
Union  Arm.v  as  lieutenant-colonel.  He  served 
in  the  Shenandoah  Valley  in  1801,  took  part  in 
Pope's  campaign  in  1802,  was  raised  to  the  rank 
of  brigadier-general  in  November.  1802,  and  bore 
a  prominent  part  in  General  Banks's  expedition 
to  New  Orleans.  He  was  commander  of  the 
Corps  d'Afrique  from  1863  to  1805,  and  for 
"faithful   and   meritorious   services  in  the  cam- 


ANDBEWS. 


bii 


ANDREWS. 


paign  against  Jlobile"  was  brevctted  major-gen- 
eral of  volunteers  in  March,  18G5.  He  was  United 
States  marshal  in  jMassaehusetts  from  18G7  to 
1S71,  and  was  professor  of  French  at  West  Point 
from  1871  to  1882,  and  of  modern  languages  from 
1882  until  his  retirement  in  1892. 

ANDBEWS,  LoKEN  (1819-61).  An  Amer- 
ican educator  and  sixth  president  of  Kenyon 
College.  He  was  born  in  Ashland  Co.,  Ohio, 
and  was  educated  at  Kenyon  College.  He  took 
an  active  interest  in  the  common  schools,  and  it 
is  said  that  much  of  the  present  excellence 
of  the  Ohio  school  sj-stem  is  due  to  him.  His 
administration  at  Kenyon  College  was  also  very 
successful.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War 
President  Andrews  raised  a  company  in  Knox 
County  and  was  made  captain.  Afterward,  as 
colonel  of  the  Fourth  Ohio  Volunteers,  he  saw 
severe  service  in  Virginia.  He  died  of  camp 
fever  while  in  active  service. 

ANDREWS,  LORRIN  (1795-18G8).  An  Amer- 
ican educator.  He  was  born  in  East  Windsor, 
Conn.,  educated  at  Jefferson  College.  Pa.,  and 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary,  and  went  as 
missionary  to  the  Sandwich  Islands  in  1827.  In 
1831  he  founded  what  became  the  Hawaiian  Uni- 
versity, in  which  he  was  professor.  He  was  long 
privy  councillor  and  judge  under  the  native  gov- 
ernment. He  wrote  a  Hawaiian  dictionary,  and 
published  jnirt  of  the  Bible  in  that  tongue. 
ANDREWS,  ST.  See  St.  Andrews. 
ANDREWS,  ST.  University  of.  See  St. 
Anurkws.  University  of, 

ANDREWS,  S.wiUEL  James  (1817 — ) .  Anlr- 
vingite  divine.  He  \vas  born  at  Danbury,  Conn., 
July  31,  1817,  graduated  at  Williams  College, 
1839;  practiced  law  for  some  years,  but  turned 
his  attention  to  theolog}',  and  was  a  Congrega- 
tional pastor  from  1848  to  1855.  In  1856  he  be- 
came pastor  of  the  Catholic  and  Apostolic  Church 
(Irvingite)  at  Hartford,  Conn.  His  publica- 
tions embrace:  Life  of  Ovr  Lord  Upon  llw  Earth, 
Considered  in  Its  Historical,  Chronological,  and 
(Geographical  Helations  (New  York,  1863;  new 
and  whollv  revised  edition,  1891)  ;  Gnd's  Revela- 
tions of  'Himself  to  Men  (1885),  Christianity 
and  Anti-Christianity  in  Their  Final  Confiict 
(1898),- y;i,c  Church  and  Its  Organic  Ministry 
(1899),  Willium  Watson  Andi-ews:  A  Religions 
liiographii    (1900). 

ANDBEWS,  Stephen  Pearl  (1812-86).  An 
eccentric  writer  and  originator  of  a  system  of 
stenographic  reporting.  He  was  born  in  Temple- 
ton,  Mass.,  studied  for  the  law,  and  became  in- 
volved in  the  abolition  agitation,  for  which  he 
undertook  a  mission  to  England.  While  there 
he  learned  phtmography,  and  on  his  return  to 
America  devised  a  popular  system  of  phono- 
graphic reporting.  To  further  this  he  published 
a  series  of  instruction  books  and  edited  two  jour- 
nals, the  Anglo-Saxon  and  the  Propagandist. 
He  was  a  remarkable  linguist,  but  an  erratic 
scholar  and  writer.  He  devised  a  "scientific" 
language,  "Alwato."  in  which  he  was  wont  to 
converse  and  correspond  with  pupils.  At  the 
time  of  his  death  he  was  compiling  a  dictionary 
of  it,  which  was  published  posthumously. 

ANDBEWS,  Thomas  (1813-85).  An  Irish 
chemist  and  physicist,  born  at  Belfast.  He  stud- 
ied medicine  aiul  the  physical  sciences  at  Glas- 
gow, Paris.  Edinburgh,  and  Dublin.  After  prac- 
ticing medicine   for   several   years   in  his   native 


city,  he  became,  in  18  45,  professor  of  chemistry 
at  Queen's  College,  which  position  he  resigned 
in  1879.  Andrews  carried  out  a  number  of  im- 
portant researches  on  the  heat  developed  during 
various  chemical  transformations,  and  on  the 
natuie  of  ozone.  His  most  important  contribu- 
tion to  science,  however,  was  the  discovery 
(1861)  of  the  continuity  of  the  liquid  and  gas- 
eous states.  He  was  the  tirst  to  find  that  for 
eveiy  gas  there  is  a  temperature  (called  the 
critical  temperature)  above  which  the  gas  cannot 
be  liquefied,  no  matter  how  great  the  pressure  ex- 
erted upon  it.  Below  that  temperature  the  gas 
may  be  partly  liquefied,  gas  and  liquid  being 
separated  by  the  surface  of  the  latter.  Precisely 
at  the  critical  temperature,  however,  the  surface 
of  separation  disappears,  and  the  substance  en- 
ters into  a  homogeneous  state,  coml>ining  the 
properties  both  of  the  liquid  and  the  gaseous 
states.  This  continuity  of  states  renders  it  pos- 
sible to  extend  to  liquids  the  laws  of  gases,  and 
thus  establishes  an  intimate  relationship  between 
the  properties  of  matter  in  the  two  states. 
See  Critical  Point. 

ANDBEWS,  William  (1848—).  An  English 
author.  He  was  born  at  Kirkby-Woodhouse, 
England,  and  was  educated  at  private  academies. 
In  1890  he  established  the  Press,  one  of  the  lead- 
ing papers  of  Hull,  which  he  conducted  until 
1900,  in  which  year  he  was  appointed  chief  li- 
brarian of  the  Hull  Subscription  Library.  He  is 
also  a  member  of  the  Yorkshire  Dialect  Society 
and  of  the  East  Biding  Antiquarian  Society. 
Among  his  principal  publications  are:  Bygone 
England  (1892),  Literary  Byways,  Ecclesias- 
tical Curiosities  (1899),  Old  Church  Lore 
(1891),  Legal  Lore  and  North  Country  Poets 
(1888). 

ANDREWS,  William  Draper  (1818-96). 
An  American  inventor.  He  was  born  at  Grafton, 
Mass.  In  1844  he  invented  the  centrifugal  pump, 
which  made  it  possible  to  save  from  abandoned 
Avreeks  goods  not  injured  by  water.  This  pump, 
patented  here  in  1846,  was  manufactured  in  Eng- 
land as  the  Gwynne  pump.  Afterward  he  in- 
vented and  patented  the  anti-friction  centrifugal 
pump,  made  various  modifications  of  the  centri- 
fugal pumps,  of  which  the  "Catai-act"  is  the 
mcist  important,  and  patented  a  widely  used  sys- 
tem of  gangs  of  tul)e  wells. 

ANDREWS,  William  Watson  (1810-97). 
An  .American  clergyman  of  the  Catholic  Apos- 
tolic Church.  He  was  born  at  Windham,  Wind- 
ham County.  Conn.,  graduated  in  1831  at  Yale, 
and  in  1834  was  ordained  and  installed  pastor  of 
the  Congiegational  church  at  Kent.  Conn.  He 
early  accepted  the  tenet  of  the  Catholic  Apostolic 
Church,  commonly  spoken  of  as  the  "Irvingites," 
and  in  1849.  having  given  up  his  charge  at  Kent, 
he  assumed  charge  of  the  Catholic  Apostolic 
congregation  in  Potsdam,  N.  Y.  He  subsequently 
made  his  home  in  Wcthersfield,  Conn.,  and  trav- 
eled much  in  the  Eastern  and  Middle  Stales 
as  evangelist.  Among  the  congregations^  estab- 
lished under  his  direction  was  one  organized  at 
Hartford  in  1868.  He  was  an  eloquent  preacher, 
and  a  clear  and  forceful  writer.  He  contributed 
articles  on  the  Catholic  Apostolic  Church  to  the 
Bihliotheca  Sacra  and  McClintock  and  Strong's 
Cyclopwdia,  jiropaied  for  the  Life  of  President 
Porter  a  chapter  on  Dr.  Porter  as  "A  Student  at 
Yale,"  and  published  many  reviews,  orations 
sermons  and  addresses.  andT/ie  Miscellanies  and 


ANDREWS. 


545 


ANDBONICUS. 


Corresi'Oiulciitc  of  Jluii.  Jolm  Cottnn  Smith 
(1847).  Consult  Andrews,  Willidm  Wutsoii  An- 
drews: A  Memorial    (New  York,  1900). 

ANDRIA,  UnMic-a.  An  episcopiil  city  in 
south  Italy,  five  miles  fi-oniBarletta  and  31  miles 
west  of  iiari.  with  botli  of  which  it  is  connected  by 
a  street  railway  (Map:  Italy,  L  0).  The  chief 
trade  is  in  almonds,  for  wliich  the  country  is 
famous,  grain,  cattle,  and  majolica.  Andria 
was  founded  by  the  Normans,  and  was  once  a 
flourishing  city,  but  war  and  earthcjuakes  con- 
spired to  lay  it  waste.  Nine  miles  south  is  the 
nias^nificent  "and  still  well-preserved  Castello  del 
Monte  built  by  Frederick  II.  Pop.,  1901  (com- 
mune), 49,.509. 

AN'DRIA.  The  earliest  extant  comedy  of 
Terence,  adapted  in  l(iO  B.C.  from  the  Andria  of 
Menander. 

ANDRIETJX,  iiN'dre-e',  Francois  Guillaume 
Jean  Stanisla.s  (1759-1833).  A  French  dra- 
matist and  idyllic  poet,  born  at  Strassburg.  He 
took  an  active  part  in  the  Revolution,  was  of  the 
t'oimcil  of  the  Five  Hundred  (1798),  professor 
in  the  Polytechnic  School  (1803),  in  the  College 
de  France  (1814),  member  of  the  French  Acad- 
emy (181(i),  and  its  perpetual  secretary  (1829), 
collaborating  actively  in  its  Dictionary.  He  also 
wrote  several  comedies,  of  which  the  best  is 
Moliere  avec  ses  amis  (1804)  ;  a  tragedy,  Brutus 
(1794),  and  poems  distinguished  for  purity  of 
)irosod,v  and  diction.  Of  these,  Le  meunier  de 
Knns-Souri   (1797)   is  still  remembered. 

ANDRIS'CTJS  (Gk.  'AvSpicKo^,  Andriskos) . 
A  man  of  low  origin,  wlio  pictended  to  be  the 
son  of  Perseus,  King  of  Macedonia.  He  was 
seized,  sent  to  Rome,  and  imprisoned ;  but  escap- 
ing, he  assumed  the  name  of  Philip,  and  in  149 
B.C.  defeated  the  praetor  .Juventius  in  battle.  He 
reigned  as  a  cruel  and  oppressive  tyrant  for 
about  a  year,  but  was  linall.y  conquered  in  148 
n.c.  by  Quintus  Csecilius  Metellus,  and  again 
taken  to  Rome,  where  he  was  put  to  death. 

AN'DROCLUS  (Aulus  Gellius,  v  :  14),  or 
ANDROCLES  (.Elian,  vii  -.48).  The  slave  of 
a  Roman  consul  of  the  Early  Empire,  wlio  com- 
pelled him  to  fight  with  a  ferocious  lion  in  the 
Circus  Maxinuis.  The  beast,  far  from  hurting 
him,  fondled  him  like  a  playful  dog.  The  Em- 
peror and  people  demanded  an  explanation  of 
such  strange  actions,  and  it  transpired  that  An- 
droclus  had  escaped  from  a  cruel  master  in 
Africa  and  taken  refuge  in  a  desert  cave.  One 
day,  a  lion  entered  the  cave  limping  painfully 
and  holding  up  his  paw,  from  which  Androclus 
extracted  a  large  thorn.  The  grateful  beast  never 
forgot  this,  and  when  they  met  again  in  the 
fatal  Circus  at  Rome  he  testified  his  recogni- 
tion. Both  slave  and  lion  were  freed,  and  after- 
ward were  exhibited  in  the  streets  of  Rome. 

ANDROGYNOUS,  an-droj'I-nus.  See  Flower, 
and  Kei'Uddiction. 

ANDROMACHE,  an-drom'a-ke  (Gk.  'Av-V- 
fidxi,  Andromache).  The  wife  of  Hector  and 
motlier  of  Astyauax,  daughter  of  King  Eetion  of 
Asiatic  Thebes.  Her  fatfier  and  seven  brothers 
were  killed  by  Achilles,  and  from  that  time  she 
clung  to  Hector  with  a  love  whose  tenderness  and 
pathos  are  beautifully  depicted  in  Homer"s  Iliad, 
especially  in  her  parting  with  her  husband  (Book 
vi.),  and  her  lament  over  his  body  (Book  xxiv.). 
At  the  capture  of  Troy,  her  son  was  dashed  from 
the  walls,  and  she  became  the  prize  of  Neopto- 


Icmus,  son  of  Achilles,  to  wliom  she  bore  a  son, 
Molossus.  Afterward  she  was  the  wife  of  Hel- 
enus,  Hector's  brother,  to  whom  she  bore  Ces- 
trinus.  Her  danger  from  the  jealousy  of  Her- 
mione,  wife  of  Neoptolemus,  is  tlie  subject  of  a 
tragedy  by  Euripides.  See  Hector;  Tbojan 
War. 

ANDROMACHE.  A  tragedy  by  Euripides, 
written  probably  during  the  Peloponnesian  War, 
as  it  contains  many  unfriendly  allusions  to 
Sparta.  Its  subject  is  the  part  of  the  legend  of 
Andromache  in  which  she  is  with  Neoptolemus, 
her  second  luisband. 

ANDROMAQTJE,  aN'dr6'mak'.  (1)  A  trag- 
edy by  Racine  (1607),  founded  on  the  classical 
legend.  The  story  is  adapted  from  Racine  in 
Phillips's  play  The  Distressed  Mother  (1712). 
(2)  An  opera  by  Grfitry,  presented  at  Paris  in 
1780. 

ANDROM'EDA  (Gk.  'Av<Vo/«'(i;;,  Androm- 
ede).  Daughter  of  the  Ethiopian  King  Cepheus 
and  Cassiopeia.  Like  her  mother,  she  was  re- 
markably beautiful.  \A'hen  Cassiopeia  boasted 
that  her  daughter  was  more  beautiful  than  the 
Nereids,  the  latter  prayed  Poseidon  to  revenge 
the  insult.  Accordingly,  the  territory  of  Cepheus 
was  devastated  by  a  flood,  and  a  sea-monster  ap- 
peared, wliose  wiath,  the  oracle  of  Amnion  de- 
clared, could  be  appeased  only  by  the  sacrifice  of 
jVndromeda.  Andromeda  was  fastened  to  a  rock 
near  the  sea,  and  left  as  a  prey  to  the  monster; 
but  Perseus,  returning  from  his  victorious  battle 
with  Medusa,  saw  the  beautiful  victim,  slew  the 
monster,  and  received  Andromeda  as  liis  reward. 
Our  versions  of  this  legend  seem  largely  due  to 
a  tragedy  by  Euripides,  which  ended  with  a 
prophecy  by  Athena  that  all  concerned  should  be 
placed  among  the  stars. 

ANDROMEDA.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Erieacea?.  The  species,  which  are 
pretty  numerous,  have  very  much  the  general 
appearance  of  heaths.  Most  of  them  are  small 
shrubs,  but  some  of  them  attain  a  considerable 
size.  Andromeda  polifolia,  a  small  evergreen 
shrub  with  beautiful  rose-colored  drooping 
flowers,  is  occasionally  found  in  peatbogs  in 
different  parts  of  Great  Britain,  and  common 
throughout  the  north  of  Europe  and  North 
America.  It  has  acrid  narcotic  properties,  and 
sheep  are  sometimes  killed  by  eating  it.  The 
shoots  of  Andromeda  ovalifolia  in  like  man- 
ner poison  goats  in  Nepal,  and  similar  effects 
are  a.scribed  to  the  .stagger-bush  (Andromeda 
mariana  or  Pieris  mariana)  and  other  species  in 
the  United  States.  (See  Sobrel  Tree.)  The 
genus  Andromeda  is  known  in  a  fossil  state  by 
leaves,  flowers,  and  fruit,  referred  to  several  ex- 
tinct and  to  some  living  species,  from  rocks  of 
Tertiary  age  in  North  America  and  Europe. 

ANDROMEDA.  A  constellation  in  the 
Northern  Hemisphere,  fancied  to  resemble  the 
form  of  a  woman  in  chains.  Its  principal  star 
is  Alpheratz,  of  the  second  magnitude.  Neigh- 
boring groups  are  Perseus,  Cassiopeia,  Pegasus, 
etc. 

AN'DRONI'CUS.  The  name  of  four  Byzan- 
tine emperors. — Akdronicus  I.  (1110-8.5)  was  the 
son  of  Isaac  Comnenus.  His  lite  was  full  of 
vicissitudes.  During  part  of  his  youth  he  was  a 
prisoner  of  the  Turks  in  Asia  Minor.  He  after- 
ward spent  some  time  at  the  court  of  his  cou.sin, 
the  Emperor  Manuel,  and  a  niece  of  the  Emperor 


ANDBONICTJS. 


5i6 


ANDBOPOGON. 


became  his  mistress.  He  was  appointed  to  a  mil- 
itary command  in  Cilicia;  but,  although  the 
favorite  of  the  arm}',  his  imprudence  and  waste 
of  time  in  dissolute  pleasures  involved  him  in  de- 
feat. Having  engaged  in  a  treasonable  corre- 
spondence with  the  King  of  Hungary  and  the 
German  Emperor,  he  was  thrown  into  prison  by 
JIanuel,  and  remained  there  more  than  twelve 
years.  At  last  he  succeeded  in  making  his 
escape,  and  reached  Kiev,  tlie  lesidence  of 
Prince  Yaroslav.  He  regained  the  favor  of  his 
cousin  by  persuading  tlie  Russian  Prince  to 
join  in  the  invasion  of  Hungary,  but  incurred 
his  cousin's  displeasure  again  by  refusing  to  take 
the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  Prince  of  Hungary, 
the  intended  husband  of  Manuel's  daughter,  as 
presumptive  heir  to  the  Empire.  He  was  sent 
in  honorable  banishment  to  Cilicia,  where  he 
found  a  new  mistress  in  a  sister  of  the  Empress. 
The  resentment  of  the  Emperor  breaking  out 
against  him,  he  sought  refuge  in  a  pilgrimage  to 
Jerusalem.  His  professions  of  zeal  caused  his 
former  conduct  to  be  forgotten,  and  he  was  in- 
vested with  the  lordship  of  Berytus ;  but  his  prof- 
ligacy became,  if  possible,  more  scandalous  than 
ever.  He  seduced  Theodora,  tlie  widow  of  Baldwin, 
King  of  .Jerusalem,  who  lived  with  Iiim  for  years 
as  his  mistress.  The  Emperor's  anger  made  the 
Syrian  coast  unsafe  for  liim,  and  he  tied  with 
Theodora  to  Damascus,  and  finally  settled  down 
among  the  Turks  in  Asia  Minor,  with  a  band  of 
outlaws,  making  frequent  inroads  into  the 
Roman  province  of  Trebizond,  from  which  lie 
carried  away  spoil  and  slaves.  Theodora 
and  her  children  were  at  last  taken  and 
sent  to  Constantinople,  and  thither  he  fol- 
lowed, imploring  the  forgiveness  of  the  Em- 
peror, which  he  obtained:  but  he  was  sent  to 
(Eno'e,  in  Pontus.  After  the  death  of  Manuel, 
popular  indignation  was  excited  again.st  the  Em- 
press, who  acted  as  regent  for  her  son,  Alexius 
II.,  and  Andronicus  was  recalled,  in  1182,  to  de- 
liver the  Empire  from  her  tyranny.  He  was  ap- 
pointed guardian  of  the  young  Emperor,  and  soon 
after  his  colleague  in  the  Empire.  He  caused  the 
Empress-mother  to  be  strangled,  and  afterward 
Alexius  himself,  whose  widow  he  married.  His 
reign,  though  short,  was  vigorous,  and  restored 
prosperity  to  the  provinces;  but  tyranny  and 
murder  were  its  characteristics  in  the  capital. 
He  set  no  bounds  to  the  gratification  of  his  re- 
venge against  all  who  had  ever  ofi'ended  him,  and 
hisjealousyof  possible  rivals  was  equally  sanguin- 
ary. At  last,  a  destined  victim,  Isaac  Angelus, 
one  of  his  relatives,  having  fled  to  the  church  of 
St.  Sophia  for  sanctuary,  a  crowd  gathered,  and  a 
sudden  insurrection  placed  Isaac  on  the  throne, 
while  Andronicus  was  put  to  death  by  the  in- 
furiated populace,  after  horrible  mutilations 
and  tortures,  on  September  12,  1185.  He  was 
the  last  of  the  Comneni  that  sat  on  the  throne 
of  Constantinople ;  but  the  succeeding  dukes  and 
emperors  of  Trebizond  were  descendants  of  his 
son,  Manuel.— Anuro^-icus  II.  (1200-1332),  the 
son  of  Michael  Pahrologus,  ascended  the  throne 
in  12S2;  but,  after  a  weak  and  inglorious  reign, 
was  driven  from  it,  in  1328,  by  his  grandson. — 
Andko.nicus  III.  (  12i«i-1341 ) ,  after  a.  reign  equal- 
ly inglorious,  died  in  1341. — Andronicus  IV.,  as 
the  result  of  a  conspiracy  against  his  father, 
■Tohn  Pala-ologus,  was  proclaimed  Emperor, 
1377,  but  was  obliged  to  abdicate  and  beg  forgive- 
ness the  following  year.  Consult  Gibbon,  De- 
cline and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire. 


ANDRONICUS  (tik.  'AvdpunKog,  Androni- 
kos) ,  also  called  Cyrrhestes,  from  his  birth- 
place, Cyrrhus,  in  Syria.  A  Greek  archi- 
tect, who  erected  the  so-cr.lled  Tower  of  the 
Winds  at  Athens,  a  building  dating  from  the  first 
century  B.C.  This  tower  was  an  octagonal  struc- 
ture, made  of  Pentelic  marble  and  surmounted  by 
a  figme  of  Triton,  which  moved  with  the  wind  and 
pointed  to  the  direction  from  which  the  wind 
came.  On  the  eight  sides  of  the  tower  were 
sculptured  in  relief  figures  representing  the  eight 
principal  winds,  and  beneath  these  was  a  sun- 
dial. The  interior  contained  a  water-clock.  In 
the  Middle  Ages  this  structure  was  called  "The 
Lantern  of  Demosthenes." 

ANDRONICUS  (Gk.  'Avi'ip6viKo(,  Andronikos) 
OF  Rhodes.  A  peripatetic  philosopher,  who 
lived  at  Rome  in  Cicero's  time  and  employed 
himself  in  criticising  and  explaining  the  works  of 
Aristotle  (q.v.),  a  great  number  of  which  he  was 
probabl.y  the  means  of  preserving  to  us.  None  of 
the  writings  of  Andronicus  are  extant;  a  work  On 
the  Passions,  attributed  to  him,  is  a  compilation 
of  the  Roman  imperial  period ;  a  paraphrase  of 
the  Nicomachean  Ethics  is  the  work  of  Constan- 
tine  Palaeocappa  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Con- 
sult, in  general,  Zeller,  Geschichte  der  griech- 
ischcn  I'hiloxojihic  (Leipzig,  1893). 

ANDRONICUS,  Livius.  See  Livius  Andro- 
Kicrs. 

ANDRONICUS,  Tixrs.  The  hero  of  the 
Shakespearean  play  Titus  Andronicus  (q.v.). 

AN'DROPO'GON  (called  so  from  the  barbed 
male  flowers,  from  the  Gk.  ai't/p,  aner,  man  -f- 
nuyav,  pogOn,  beard).  A  cosmopolitan  genus 
of  grasses,  including  about  150  species,  the  rela- 
tive merits  of  which  vary  widely.  Some  are  high- 
ly prized  for  hay  and  pasturage,  as  Andropogon 
hah'pense,  or  Johnson  grass,  which  has  been  un- 
der cultivation  in  the  United  States  since  about 
1830.  It  yields  large  quantities  of  hay,  and  in 
the  Southern  States  may  be  cut  three  or  four 
times  a  year.  On  account  of  its  habit  of  growth 
— it  spreads  by  its  rhizomes — when  once  estab- 
lished it  is  difficult  of  eradication.  It  is  some- 
what sensitive  to  cold,  and  will  not  persist  as  a 
perennial  excejit  in  warm  regions.  A  number  of 
species  of  .\ndropogon  are  well  known  in  the 
semi-arid  region  of  the  LTnited  States  under  the 
name  of  blue-stem  grasses,  and  in  these  regions 
are  of  value.  The  principal  of  these  species  are: 
Andropogon  nutans,  Andropogon  provincialis, 
and  Andropogon  scoparius.  Other  species  are 
common  in  the  eastern  and  southern  parts  of  the 
United  States  as  broom  sedge;  of  these  Andro- 
pogon virginicus  is  one  of  the  most  widely  dis- 
tributed. If  cut  early,  the  broom  sedges  make 
good  luiy :  but  if  left  too  long,  the  plant  becomes 
so  woody  as  to  be  refused  by  all  stock.  An- 
dropogon squarrosus,  a  native  of  India,  is 
famous  for  the  fragi-ance  of  its  roots,  which  are 
employed  in  making  fans,  and  yield  the  perfume 
known  as  rrtii^rr.  The  roots  are  sometimes 
sold  for  their  stimulant  properties  in  drug  stores 
under  the  name  of  Radix  anatheri.  In  some 
systems  of  classification  the  sorghums  are 
grouped  under  this  genus.  The  specific  name 
Andropogon  sorghum  and  its  variety,  sativus. 
comprise  under  these  classifications  the  saccha 
rine  and  non-saecharine  forms.  Among  the  lat- 
ter are  durra,  Millo  maize,  Jerusalem  corn, 
broom  corn,  etc.,  some  of  which  are  valuable  for 
forage   in   dry   countries.     Eight  or   ten   species 


ANDROPOGON. 


547 


are  considered  of  economic  importance  in  Aus- 
tralia. Two  tropical  species  are  widely  known, 
the  lemon  grass  {Andropogoii  schwnaiilhus)  and 
Andropogon  nardus.  soui'ces  of  lemon  oil  and 
citronella  oil,  both  of  which  are  largely  used  in 
making  perfumery. 

AN'DROS  (Gk.  'Avdpo^).  One  of  the  islands 
of  the  Greek  Archipelago,  the  most  northern  of 
the  Cyclades,  separated  from  Euboea  by  the 
Doro  Channel,  six  miles  broad  (Map:  Greece,  F. 
4).  The  island  is  25  miles  long,  about  nine 
miles  in  its  greatest  breadth,  and  covers  a  total 
area  of  about  100  square  miles.  The  island  is 
traversed  by  several  mountain  chains,  separated 
from  one  another  by  deep  valleys,  which  yield 
grain,  olives,  and  other  southern  fruits,  silk,  and 
common  vegetables.  Domestic  animals  are  raised 
e.x'tensively  in  the  northern  pavt,  which  is  in- 
habited chiefly  by  Albanians.  The  chief  seaports 
are  Gavrion,  Korthion  and  Andros,  the  capital. 
The  last  mentioned  carries  on  a  large  trade,  is 
the  seat  of  Greek  and  Roman  Catholic  bishops, 
and  has  a  population  of  about  2000.  The  island 
was  originally  settled  by  pirates  and  subsequent- 
ly by  lonians.  It  was  successively  in  the  hands 
of  the  Athenians.  Macedonians,  and  Romans, 
and,  in  1207,  had  a  prince  of  its  choosing, 
the  Venetian  nobleman  Marino  Dandolo.  In 
1566  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks,  whose 
rule,  however,  was  chiefly  restricted  to  the  levy- 
ing of  an  annual  tribute  of  30,000  piasters.  At 
present  the  island  forms  a  part  of  Greece.  Its 
population  (1896)  was  19,000.  Consult  Kopf, 
(lc<iliiilile  der  Inscl  Andros    (Vienna,  185.5). 

ANDROS,  Sin  Edmund  (1637-1714).  A 
colonial  governor  in  America,  the  son  of  an  of- 
ficer in  the  English  royal  household.  In  1674 
he  was  sent  to  America  as  go\'ernor  of  the  colony 
of  New  York,  and  to  him  Sir  Anthony  Colve,  the 
governor  during  the  temporary  Dutch  supremacy, 
surrendered  without  forcible  opposition.  His 
commission  gave  him  jurisdiction  over  Long  Is- 
land, Pemaquid,  and  the  region  between  the  Con- 
necticut River  and  the  Delaware  River.  He  was 
thus  brought  into  embarrassing  relations  with  the 
proprietary  government  of  East  Jersey,  an<l  also 
became  engaged  in  controversies  with  the  author- 
ities of  Connecticut.  After  the  charters  of 
the  New  England  provinces  had  been  declared 
forfeited  by  the  English  courts,  the  policy 
cf  the  English  administration  in  furtherance 
of  a  strongly  centralized  colonial  system  was 
illustrated  by  the  steps  taken  to  consolidate 
the  lands  of  New  England  into  one  province, 
over  which,  in  1686,  Andros  was  made  Gov- 
ernor-General with  large  powers.  He  was 
to  admit  religious  toleration.  but  could 
suppress  all  printing,  name  and  change  his 
council  at  will,  and,  with  their  consent,  levy 
taxes,  and  control  the  militia.  When  Connecticut 
refused  to  recognize  his  authority,  he  appeared 
in  the  council  chamber  at  Hartford,  in  October, 
1687,  with  an  armed  guard,  and  demanded  the 
surrender  of  the  colony's  charter.  There  long 
survived  a  tradition  of  the  hiding  of  the  char- 
ter in  an  oak  tree.  The  leaders,  both  in  Con- 
necticut and  in  Rhode  Island,  deemed  it  prudent 
to  render  perfunctory  obedience  to  the  one  in 
forcible  control  of  the  political  situation.  In 
1688  New  York  and  New  .Jersey  were  attached 
to  New  England,  and  Andros's  rule  was  extended 
over  all  territory  between  the  St.  Croix  and  the 
Delaware.     On  hearing  of  the  revolution  in  Eng- 


ANDtrjAR. 

land,  the  people  of  Boston  imprisoned  Andros  and 
some  of  his  officers,  April  18,  1689,  and  Leisler 
set  up  a  rebel  government  in  New  York.  In  July 
Andros  and  a  committee  of  accusers  were  or- 
dered to  England,  but  the  charges  were  never 
pressed  to  a  formal  trial.  The  accession  of 
William  III.  made  possible  the  undoing  of  the 
work  of  Andros.  The  charters  of  Connecticut  and 
Rhode  Island  were  recognized  as  in  force.  JMas- 
sachusetts  received  from  the  King  an  acceptable 
charter,  and  New  Hampshire  was  organized  as  a 
distinct  royal  province.  In  1692  Andros  came 
back  as  Governor  of  Virginia,  where  he  was 
popular, retiring  in  1698,  and  acting  as  Governor 
of  Guernsey,  1704-06.  In  1691  he  published  an 
account  of  his  proceedings  in  New  England.  The 
Prince  Society  has  published  a  Mciiioir,  by  Whit- 
more  (Boston,  1868-74),  and  an  extensive  series 
of  the  Andros  Tracts,  3  volumes  (Boston,  1868- 
74). 

AN'DROSCOG'GIN.  A  river  rising  in  Um- 
bagog  Lake,  which  lies  on  the  State  lines  of 
New  Hampshire  and  Maine.  It  is  157  miles  long, 
and  flows  through  both  States,  emptying  into 
the  estuary  of  the  Kennebec  above  Bath  (Map: 
Maine,  B  7).  Its  value  for  navigation  is  small, 
but  as  the  elevation  of  its  source  at  Lake  Umb.a- 
gog  is  over  2000  feet,  and  as  the  descent  is  abrupt 
at  many  places,  until  at  Auburn,  Me.,  the  eleva- 
tion is  but  210  feet,  it  affords  extensive  power  to 
the  many  industries  established  on  its  banks. 

ANDROUET  DTT  CERCEAtT,  ii.N'droo'a'  du 
sar'siV.  A  famous  family  of  French  architects 
of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries, 
founded  by  Jacques  Androuct  (c.  1510-84) .  called 
du  Cerceau  from  the  circle  used  as  the  sign  over 
his  workshop.  Jacques  was  one  of  the  leaders  in 
introducing  the  Italian  Renaissance  style  into 
France  through  his  works,  his  writings,  and 
his  numerous  drawings.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
two  sons,  Baptiste  (c.  1544-1602)  and  Jacques  II. 
(died  1614),  who  took  part  in  many  of  the  great 
constructions  of  the  time  in  France,  such  as  the 
Louvre,  the  Tuileries,  the  Pont  Neuf,  St.  Denis 
(chapel),  etc.  The  third  generation  was  repre- 
sented by  Baptiste's  son,  Jean  (e.  1600-16), 
chiefly  noted  for  the  private  palaces  he  built  in 
Paris,  such  as  the  Sully  and  Hellegarde  mansions. 

ANDRYANE,  iiN'dre'an',  Alexandre  Phi- 
lippe (1797-1863).  A  French  soldier  noted  for 
his  captivity  in  the  fortress  of  Spielberg.  He  was 
born  in  Paris,  and  after  serving  as  an  artillery 
officer  until  1815,  went  to  Italy  and  attempted 
to  incite  an  insurrection  against  Austria.  He 
was  arrested  and  condemned  to  death,  but  his 
sentence  was  commuted  by  the  Emperor  of  Aus- 
tria to  perpetual  imprisonment  in  the  fortress 
of  Spielberg,  where  for  eight  years  he  led  a  life 
of  torture,  vividly  described  in  his  Memoires  d'un 
prisonnier  d'etat  (Paris,  1837-38) .  He  was  par- 
doned in  1832.  and  afterward  served  with  the 
French  army  in  Italy.  After  the  battle  of 
Magenta  he  was  appointed  commissary  general 
by  Napoleon  III.  In  addition  to  the  before 
mentioned  work  he  published  Souvenirs  de  Ge- 
neve, complement  des  memoires  d'un  prisonnier 
d'etat    (1839). 

ANDirJAR,  an-doi5'Har.  A  town  of  Anda- 
lusia, Spain,  in  the  province  of  Jaen,  24  miles 
north-northwest  of  Jaen,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Guadalquivir,  at  the  base  of  the  Sierra 
Morena  (Map:  Spain,  C  3).  It  stands  on  the 
high  road  at  the  head  of  a  pass  over  the  Sierra 


ANDUJAR. 


548 


ANEMOMETEB. 


Jtoiena.  It  is  quite  a  prosperous,  modern- 
looking  city,  with  tine  churches,  four  nunneries, 
six  monasteries  for  men,  three  hospitals,  and  a 
tlieatre.  A  fine  promenade  runs  through  the 
town.  There  is  some  trade  in  grain,  cattle,  and 
wine.  Andujar  is  frequented  for  the  mineral 
springs  in  its  neighborhood.     Pop.,  1900,  lli,411. 

ANDVARI,  and-va're.  In  Norse  mythol- 
ogy, the  name  of  the  fish-shaped  dwarf  who 
owned  the  ring,  with  the  curse  of  ill-obtained 
gold,  fatal  to  the  possessor.  This  is  the  key-note 
of  the  remarkable  stories  of  Sigurd  Fafnisbane 
and  the  German  legends  presented  in  musical 
form  by  Wagner  in  an  elaborate  tetralogy,  con- 
sisting of  Das  Rheingold  (the  temptation). 
Die  Walkiiie  (Fate),  f^kfifried  (the  hero),  and 
Die  Gotterdummerun(i  (the  "Twilight  of  the 
Gods,"  or  end  of  all  things) . 

AlfECDOTE  (Gk.  aw/ttJo-or,  anekdotos,  un- 
published, from  av,  ati,  negat.  +  t/t,  ek,  out  -|-  di66. 
rni,  didonai,  to  give).  Procopius  called  his  secret 
history  of  .Justinian's  court  Anecdota.  The  name 
is  applied  also  to  portions  of  ancient  writings 
long  unpublished,  and  a  number  of  such  Anecdota 
have  been  collected  in  volumes  and  printed.  As 
ordinarily  used,  anecdote  now  means  some  iso- 
lated fact,  usually  of  a  personal  nature,  which 
A\'ould  interest  a  listener.  There  are  a  great  many 
books  of  anecdotes,  the  most  celebrated  in  Eng- 
lish being  the  Percy  Anecdotes. 

ANEL'IDA  AND  AR'CITE.  A  poem  by 
Chaucer,  called  also  Queen  Anelida  and  False 
Arcite.  Anelida  is  an  Armenian  queen;  Areite 
a  knight  of  Thebes.  The  work  is  unfinished, 
but  was  printed  by  Caxton.  Parts  of  it  have 
been  recognized  as  taken  from  Statius's  Tlicbaid 
and  Boccaccio's  Teseide.  Chaucer  himself  ac- 
knowledged obligation  to  Statins  and  Corinna. 
a  Greek  poetess  of  the  fifth  century  B.C.  There 
is  a  modern  version  by  Elizabeth  Barrett  Brown- 
ing. 

ANEM'OGBAPH  (Gk.  uve/w^,  anemos,  wind 
-|-  ypaipciv.  yraphcin,  to  write,  record),  ^^1len 
a  wind-vane  is  attached  to  self-recording  ap- 
paratus it  becomes  an  anemograph.  Frequent- 
ly the  anemometer  for  measuring  the  velocity  of 
the  wind  is  also  made  to  register  upon  the  same 
sheet  of  paper  and  the  apparatus  becomes  a  com- 
jilete  anemograph.  As  the  paper  moves  uni- 
formh'  by  clock-work,  every  change  of  the  wind 
as  to  direction  or  velocity  is  registered  at  the 
])roper  time.  The  anemograph  is  called  a  wind- 
register  in  the  Weather  Bureau,  but  the  word 
itself  is  retained  in  European  literature. 

AN'SMOMrETEB  (Gk.  aveiw^,  anemos,  wind 
+  fifTpop,  metron,  measure).  An  instrument 
used  to  measure  the  velocity  of  the  wind,  its 
pressure,  or  other  efTects  produced  by  it.  The 
first  instrument  of  this  kind  is  commonly  known 
as  Hooke's  pendulum  anemometer,  and  is  men- 
tioned as  early  as  1667.  It  is,  however,  likely  to 
have  been  the  common  product  of  the  members 
of  the  first  meteorological  committee  of  the  Roy- 
al Society  of  London,  among  whom  Hooke  and 
Sir  Christopher  Wren  were  prominent  luembers. 
This  form  of  instrument  was  revived  in  1S(U  by 
Professor  H.  Wild,  and  is  now  used  in  Switzer- 
land and  Russia,  where  it  is  known  as  Wild's 
tablet  anemometer.  In  this  instrument  a  plane 
squflre  tablet  is  suspended  vertically  from  a 
horizontal  axis  which  is  kept  by  a  wind-vane 
alwavs  at  right   angles  to  the  direction   of  the 


wind ;  the  tablet  is  raised  by  the  wind  to  an  in- 
clined jiosition  of  temporary  rest,  and  its  angular 
inclination  to  the  vertical  is  noted  on  a  grad- 
uated arc;  circular  plates,  and  especially 
spheres,  have  been  sometimes  used  instead  of  the 
plate.  About  1724  the  use  of  a  vertical  pressure 
plate,  having  springs  or  weights  at  its  back 
against  wdiich  the  plate  is  pushed  by  the  wind, 
was  introduced  by  Leupold;  at  the  present  time 
the  pressure  plate  anemometer  is  used  at  a  few 
Euro])ean  observatories  in  the  form  arranged  by 
Osier  for  the  British  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science.  Theoretically,  the  most  per- 
fect modification  of  Leupold's  anemometer  is  that 
devised  by  Jelinek  in  1.S.50,  in  which  the  springs 
behind  the  pressure  plate  are  inclosed  in  a  cylin- 
drical ease,  which  eliminates  the  action  of  the 
wind  or  the  partial  vacuum  at  the  back  of  the 
plate.  A  third  class  of  pressure-anemometers 
is  that  of  Lind,  in  which  the  wind-pressure 
acts  on  the  surface  of  a  liquid  in  a  U-shaped 
tube,  raising  it  in  one  leg  of  the  U  and  depress- 
ing it  in  the  other. 

Various  other  forms  of  pressure-anemometers 
have  occasionally  been  used  by  meteorologists, 
but  at  the  present  time  the  tendency  is  to  aban- 
don all  these  in  favor  of  instruments  that  rotate 
and  give  more  or  less  correctly  the  velocity  of 
the  wind.  This  tendency  is  justified  by  the 
consideration  that  in  meteorology  we  need  only 
the  velocity  of  the  wind,  and  by  the  fact  that,  al- 
though the  engineer  needs  to  know  the  pressure 
of  the  wind  against  engineering  structures,  yet 
he  cannot  obtain  this  with  sufficient  accuracy 
from  the  pressures  recorded  by  the  small  flat 
surfaces  that  are  used  in  ordinary  anemometers. 
In  fact,  the  pressure  of  the  wind  against  an  ob- 
stacle depends  not  merely  on  the  area  of  the 
transverse  section  of  that  obstacle,  but  on  the 
shape  of  that  section,  and  even  still  more  on  the 
longitudinal  section  in  the  direction  of  the  wind. 
Thus,  the  pressure  of  the  wind  on  wires,  ropes, 
and  rods  is  much  greater  than  on  globes  of  the 
same  transverse  section ;  the  pressure  on  a  tri- 
angle is  greater  than  that  on  a  square  or  circle 
of  the  same  area.  In  general,  it  is  more  impor- 
tant to  know  the  velocity  of  the  average  wind 
and  of  its  maximum  gusts  than  to  know  its 
pressure  on  some  assumed  arbitrary  solid.  When 
rain  is  driven  with  the  wind,  the  combined  pres- 
sure due  to  both  is  needed  in  engineering  studies. 

Anemometers  for  measuring  wind  velocity 
include  both  the  suction-anemometers  and  the 
rotation-anemometers.  In  the  former  the  open 
end  of  a  long,  vertical  tiibe  is  freely  exposed 
to  the  wind  in  such  a  way  that  it  blows  as  nearly 
as  may  be  transverse  to  the  axis  of  the  tube.  The 
end  may  be  fitted  into  the  side  of  a  horizontal 
contracted  tube  as  in  Venturi's  instrument;  or 
may  end  conically  in  the  air,  or  squarely,  and 
without  any  adjunct.  The  passage  of  the  wind 
across  the  open  end  of  the  tube  produces  a  dimi- 
nution of  barometric  pressure  within  it,  which 
increases  with  the  velocity.  The  exact  measure- 
ment of  this  depression  gives  the  basis  for  com- 
putation of  the  velocity  of  the  wind.  This  prin- 
ciple was  known  to  the  experimenters  of  the 
American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences  (sec 
their  report  for  1847) ,  and  to  those  of  the  Frank- 
lin Institiite  (see  their  report  of  1842),  and  is 
that  which  explains  the  draught  up  a  good  chim- 
ney; but  it  was  first  applied  to  the  measure- 
ment of  the  wind  in  England  by  Fletcher  in  1867. 
The     modifications     of     Fletcher's     anemometer 


ANEMOMETER. 


549 


ANEMOMETER. 


made  by  Hagemann,  of  DenmaiU,  and  by  Dines, 
of  England,  ajjpear  to  be  especially  appropiiate  to 
the  measurements  of  gusts.  The  combination  of 
suction-anemonietei',  pressui'e-anemometer,  and 
aneroid  barometer  recommended  by  Professor 
Cleveland  Abbe  in  18S2,  and  especially  the  ap- 
plication to  tlie  tube  of  parallel  plates  that  en- 
tirely annul  the  wind  effects  seem  to  be  essential 
if  we  would  determine  the  true  barometric  pres- 
sure with  a  barometer  exposed  to  the  wind,  as, 
for  instance,  on  a  mountain  top. 

Kotation-arienionieters  are  those  in  which  the 
wind  sets  in  motion  plane  or  curved  metallic 
blades.  The  earliest  form  resembled  that  of 
Dinglinger,  mentioned  by  Leupold  in  1724,  in  that 
it  used  the  Polish  water-wheel  with  vertical  axis, 
but  differed  essentially  in  that  Dinglinger  pre- 
vented the  rotation  of  the  arms  and  measured  the 
pressure  required  to  keep  them  quiet,  whereas 
d'Ons-en-Bray,  in  1734,  allowed  them  to  rotate 
continuously.  Since  that  time  two  essentially 
different  varieties  of  the  rotation-anemometer 
have  been  developed,  namely  (a)  those  of  Scho- 
ber  and  Woltmann,  Combes,  Casella,  Whewell, 
or  Biram,  in  all  which  sets  of  plane  plates  in- 
clined to  an  axis  are  forced  to  revolve  about  it 
by  the  wind  blowing  in  the  direction  of  the  axis. 
This  form  is  much  used  in  studies  on  ventilation 
of  mines  and  buildings.  The  most  imjjortant 
meteorological  application  of  this  style  is  that 
manufactured  by  Richard  for  use  at  the  French 

observing  stations. 
(  b  )  The  Robin- 
s  o  n  anemometer, 
brought  out  by  Dr. 
Robin.son  in  1846, 
b  u  t  suggested  t  o 
him  by  Edgeworth 
many  years  before. 
This  has  come  into 
very  general  use 
by  English  and 
American  meteoro- 
logical observers  as 
the  Robinson  hemi- 
spherical cup  ane- 
mometer. In  this 
instrument  a  ver- 
tical spindle  car- 
ries at  its  upper  end  four  horizontal  arms  at  right 
angles  to  each  other ;  each  arm  carries  at  its  ex- 
tremity a  hollow  hemispherical  cup  of  thin  sheet 
metal  whose  circular  rim  is  in  a  vertical  plane 
passing  through  the  common  vertical  axis  of  ro- 
tation of  the  spindle.  The  wind  rotates  these 
cups  so  that  the  convex  side  of  each  cup  goes  for- 
ward. Numerous  experiments  have  been  made 
to  determine  the  relation  between  the  velocity 
of  the  wind  and  that  of  the  cups.  The  instru- 
ment makers  have  generally  followed  Dr.  Rob- 
inson's conclusion,  that  the  linear  motion  of  the 
centre  of  the  cup  is  one-third  of  that  of  the  wind ; 
but  observation  and  experiment,  as  well  as  the- 
ory, show  that  this  cannot  be  true.  The  most 
intelligent  and  satisfactory  investigation  of  this 
important  subject  has  been  carried  out  by  Pro- 
fessor C.  F.  JIarvin,  of  the  United  States  Weath- 
er Bureau.  Combining  his  results  with  tliose 
of  European  students,  we  must  conclude  that  in 
perfectly  uniform  winds  the  general  average  ra- 
tio between  the  velocity  of  the  wind  and  that 
of  the  cups  varies  with  the  length  of  the  arm  and 
the  size  of  the  cups  between  2.5  and  3.5,  so  that 
it  is  necessary  to  determine  the  ratio  by  actual 


ROBINSON   ANEMOMETER. 


experiment   upon   each   respective   type   of   ane- 
mometer. 

Professor  Marvin  shows,  besides,  that  the  ratio 
varies  according  as  the  anemometer  is  exposed 
to  a  uniform  wind  or  to  one  that  is 
variable  and  gusty.  He  finds  that  in  the  latter 
case  the  ratio  depends  not  merely  upon  the  di- 
mensions of  the  arms  and  cups,  but  especially 
upon  the  moment  of  inertia  of  the  revolving  sys- 
tem ;  that  is  to  say.  on  the  mass  of  the  cups.  For 
gusty  winds,  the  recorded  wind  velocity  is  always 
too  great.  This  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  the 
gusts  give  to  the  revolving  cups  a  great  velocity, 
which  they,  by  reason  of  their  momentum,  retain 
after  the  gust  has  ceased.  It  would  seem,  there 
fore,  that  rotating  anemometers  should  be  stand- 
ardized not  merely  in  quiet  air,  but  also  out  of 
doors  in  ordinary  gusty  winds.  By  such  compari- 
sons Professor  Marvin  has  compiled  a  table,  of 
which  the  following  is  an  abstract,  showing  the 
correct  wind  velocity  for  records  of  anemome- 
ters in  the  ordinary  or  average  gustiness  of  the 
wind  at  Washington.  If  the  observed  wind  ve- 
locities are  indicated  on  dials  constructed  on 
the  assumption  that  the  centres  of  the  cups  move 
with  one-third  the  velocity  of  the  wind,  then  the 
corrected  wind  velocities  are  given  by  the  follow- 
ing table: 


WeathtT  Bureau 

Marvin's     Equiva- 

Correspond ing 

Anemometer.    In- 

lent.   Correct  Ve- 

Pressure in  pounds 

dicated    ^  elocity. 

locity.    Miles  per 

on  one  square  foot 

Miles  per  hour. 

hour. 

of  area. 

5 

5.1 

0.1 

15 

1.3.8 

0.8 

25 

21.8 

1.9 

35 

29.6 

3.6 

45 

37.1 

5.5 

55 

44.4 

7.9 

65 

51.6 

10.6 

75 

58.7 

13.6 

85 

65.8 

17.2 

Observations  on  strong  winds  on  the  summit 
of  Mount  Washington  indicate  that  the  velocities 
given  in  this  table  apply  also  to  that  high  ele- 
yation,  so  that  there  is  no  evidence  that  the  Rob- 
inson anemometer  is  appreciably  influenced  by 
changes  in  the  density  of  the  air;  but,  of  course, 
the  wind  pressures  for  a  given  velocity  are 
smaller  in  proportion  to  the  density.  In  order  to 
determine  the  coeflieicnt  for  computing  wind 
pressure  at  high  velocities,  Marvin  conducted 
special  measurements  at  the  summit  of  Mount 
Washington,  using  both  large  and  small-pressure 
plates,  and  obtaining  automatic  simultaneous  rec- 
ords on  the  same  sheet  of  paper  for  both  the 
pressure  and  the  velocity.  He  finds  that  when 
the  air  has  the  standard  density  for  32°  F.  and 
30  inches  of  pressure,  the  wind  pressure  on  a 
plane  flat  surface  is  equal  to  0.0040  pound  to 
the  square  foot  multiplied  by  the  square  of  the 
velocitv  of  the  wind  in  miles  per  hour  and 
by  the  area  of  the  plate;  this  formula  gives 
the  pressures  printed  in  the  preceding  table. 
(For  further  details,  see  Professor  ilarvin's 
paper  on  wind-pressures  and  wind-velocities, 
printed  in  the  annual  report  of  the  chief  sig- 
nal officer  of  the  army  for  1890.)  A  gen- 
eral review  of  the  subject  of  anemometry  is 
given  in  Abbe's  Trciitixc  on  Meteorolof/ical'  Ap- 
paratus and  Methods  (Washington.  1887).  The 
Robinson  anemometer,  as  originally  manufac- 
tured by  James  Green,  of  New  York,  and  reduced 


ANEMOMETER. 


550 


ANEROID. 


by  Professor  Marvin's  table  of  wind  velocities,  is 
that  adopted  at  all  Weather  Bureau  stations.  In 
order  to  obtain  the  general  velocity  of  the  wind, 
free  from  all  local  effects,  these  anemometers  are, 
if  in  a  city,  placed  as  high  as  practicable  above 
tlie  roofs  of  tall  buildings,  or  if  located  in  the 
country,  on  the  tallest  available  support.  The 
velocities  thus  obtained  are  considerably  higher 
than  the  average  at  the  surface  of  the  earth,  but 
the  winds  at  the  surface  are  much  weakened  by 
resistances,  and  these  higher  locations  are  needed 
in  order  to  give  us  a  clear  idea  of  the  gen- 
eral motion  of  the  air  under  the  action  of  the 
barometric  pressures  indicated  by  the  isobars. 
When  no  anemometer  is  available,  the  pressure 
velocity  or  force  of  the  wind  is  estimated  and 
recorded  on  some  arbitrary  scale,  such  as  that 
which  was  introduced  into  the  British  navy  by 
Admiral  Beaufort  about  1800,  and  is  almost  uni- 
versally used  at  sea.  (See  Beaufort  Scale.) 
The  Weather  Bureau  has  used  various  scales  ot 
numbers  and  terms,  but  the  tendency  is  not  to  de- 
part from  the  Beaufort  scale.  The  anemometer 
is  easily  made  to  register  its  own  indications 
on  a  sheet  of  paper,  and  thus  becomes  an  anemo- 
graph. This  is  done  mechanically  in  the  Kew 
pattern  used  at  British  stations  of  the  first  order, 
but  is  done  electrically  at  the  Weather  Bureau 
stations. 

ANEMONE,  Lat.  an'e-mo'ne;   Engl,  a-nem'6- 
ne    (Gk.    ai'fuuv;;,    the   wind-flower,   from  avc/iuc, 
aiicmos!,   wind),    or   Wikd-Flower.     A   genus   of 
plants   of   the   order    Eanunculacca-,   having   an 
involucre  of   three  divided  leaves,  more   or   less 
remote     from     the     flower;     a     petaloid     calyx, 
scarcely    distinguishable    from    the    corolla,    and 
soft,   woolly   aehenia    (see   Achene),   which    in 
some  species  have  tails.      The  name  is  said  to 
be  derived  from  the  fact  that  many  of  the  species 
prefer  very  exposed  situations.   The  species  num- 
ber about  eighty-five,   and  arc  generally  beauti- 
ful.    Most  of  them  flower  early  in  spring.     They 
are  natives  of  temperate  and  cold  climates,  chief- 
ly  of   the   northern    hemisphere.        One    species, 
Anemone  quinquefoUa,  the  Wood  Anemone,  is  a 
common  native  of  all  parts  of  Great  Britain  and 
eastern   North    America,   and    its   white   flowers, 
externally  tinged  with  purjile,  are  an  ornament 
of  many  "a  woodland  scene  and  mountain  pasture 
in  April  and  May.      Another    species.    Anemone 
jiiilsniilla,    or    P'ahaiilUi    vitU/uris.    the    Basque 
flower,  adorns  chalky  pastures  in  some  parts  of 
England   at   the    same   season.       Its   flowers   are 
purple   and   externally   silky.       Anemone  patens 
nnttaliana,  or   I'uJsatilla  hirsutissima,   is  called 
the  American  Basque  flower,  and  resembles  the 
European   species.     The   Garden   Anemone    is    a 
favorite  florist's   flower ;   the  varieties  are  very 
numerous,  and  whole  works  have  been  published 
on  them  and  their  cultivation,  which  is  most  ex- 
tensively  carried   on   in   Holland   and   has   pre- 
vailed from  a  very  early  period.     It  is  generally 
supposed  that  all  these  varieties  have  originated 
from  two  species,  Anemone  coronaria  and  Anem- 
one hortensis,  or  stellata.  Both  are  natives  of  the 
Levant;  the  latter  is  found  also  in  Italy  and  the 
south  of  France.     By  cultivation,  the  size  of  the 
flower  is  increased,  its  form  and  colors  are  mod- 
ified, and  many  of  the  stamens  are  often  changed 
into  small  petals  forming  a  doubled  flower.     The 
lultivation  of  the  anemone  requires  great  atten- 
tion, the  plant  preferring  light  soil.     The  root, 
which  consists  of  clustered  tubers,  is  taken  up  af- 
ter flowering.  The  plant  is  propagated  by  parting 


the  roots  or  by  seed.  In  tlie  latter  way  new  va- 
rieties are  obtained.  Seedling  plants  do  not  flow- 
er till  the  second  or  third  year.  Besides  the 
species  which  have  been  named,  others  oc- 
casionally appear  as  ornaments  of  our  flower- 
gardens.  Anemone  Ajiennina  and  Anemone  pra- 
tensis  have  beautiful  l)lue  flowers.  The^  are  both 
natives  of  the  south  of  Europe.  Anemone  Ja- 
ponica,  a  most  beautiful  species,  has  been  in- 
troduced from  Japan.  A  nunflier  of  species 
are  common  in  the  United  States,  among  them 
Anemone  quinquefolia.  Anemone  Caroliniana, 
Anemone  Canadensis,  and  Anemone  narcissiflora 
in  mountainous  regions.  The  species  of  this 
genus  are  characterized  by  the  acridity  prevalent 
in  the  natural  order  to  which  they  belong,  the 
rhizomes  of  Anemone  nemorosa  and  others  hav- 
ing been  recommended  in  cases  of  obstinate  rheu- 
matism and  in  tienia. 
ANEMONE,  Sea.  See  Sea- Anemone. 
AN'EMOPH'ILOUS  PLANTS  (Gk.  aie- 
jioq,  unenios,  wind  +  (i/Aw;,  pliilos,  loving, 
friend).  Plants  whose  flowers  receive  pollen  liy 
means  of  wind,  in  contrast  with  entoraopliilous 
plants,  whose  agents  of  pollination  are  insects. 
See  PoLLix.\Tiox. 

ANEM'OSCOPE  (Gk.  aw/wc,  anemos,  wind 
+  o/ioTTta',  .s/,o/>f'iH,  to  look  at,  consider) .  A  wind- 
vane  or  other  instrument  which  shows  the  di- 
rection of  the  wind.  In  its  simplest  and  usual 
form  it  is  an  arrow  balanced  nicely  on  an  up- 
right rod  and  free  to  revolve.  The  arrow  may 
be  attached  to  a  spindle  connected  with  an  index 
or  compass  scale,  which  may  be  either  at  the  bot- 
tom ot  the  vertical  staft'  or  at  any  convenient  dis- 
tance. In  the  wind-vane  used  by  the  United 
States  Weather  Bureau  the  arrow  head  consists 
of  a  pointer  or  rod  about  six  feet  in  length  th.it 
balances  a  tail-piece  which  is  formed  by  two  thin 
boards  ten  inches  wide,  joined  so  as  to  inclose 
an  angle  of  about  ten  d'egi'ces.  The  wind-vane 
should  be  set  up  in  a  free  and  open  space  at  a 
sufficient  height  .above  surrounding  buildings  to 
enable  it  to  show  the  true  local  wind.  Other 
forms  of  construction  and  the  mechanical  ex- 
planation of  their  action  are  given  in  Abbe's 
Meteorological  Apparutua  and  Methods  (18S7); 
and  in  United  States  Weather  Bureau  Instruc- 
tions to  Observers. 

A'NER.  One  of  the  three  chiefs  making  a 
covenant  with  Abraham  in  Hebron  (Genesis 
xiv  :  13,  24).  Like  JIamre  and  Eschol.  this 
eponym  hero  probably  owes  his  name  to  that  of  a 
locality.  A  hill  near' Hebron  still  bears  the  name 
Ne'r.  There  was  also  a  city  in  Manasseh  named 
Aner  (I.  Chronicles  vi  :  70). 

ANERIO,  a-nfi're-o,  Felice  (1500—?).  An 
Italian  composer,  thought  to  have  been  a  pupil 
of  Mario  Nanini.  In  1594  he  succeeded  Pale- 
strina  as  composer  of  the  Royal  Chapel.  Ten 
books  of  his  composition  were  published  in 
1585-1022,  but  many  unpublished  manuscripts  re- 
main in  the  archives  of  the  Papal  Chapel.  He 
was  highly  esteemed  among  the  composers  of  the 
Italian  Ecnaissance. 

AN'EROID  (containing  no  liquid,  from  Gk. 
a  a,  priv.  +  vr/p6c,  neros.  liquid  +  eldog.  cidos, 
form)  A  barometer  first  made  in  serviceable 
form  by  M.  Vidi,  of  Paris,  in  1848,  ;n 
which  the  pressure  of  the  air  is  measured  by  the 
change  of  form  undergone  by  an  exhausted  me- 
tallii^box  under  the  influence  of  the  atmospheric 
pressure.  In  the  diagram,  Fig.  2,  AA,  is  a  circu- 


ANEMONE,     ETC, 


1.  THE   ARETriUSA    (Arethusa    bulbosa). 

2.  WIND  FLOWER   (Anemone   nemerosa). 

3.  MOORWORT  (Andromeda   Polifolia). 


4.  BETEL   NUT  (Areca   Catechu). 

5.  FLAMINGO   FLOWER    (Anthurium   Andraeanum). 

6.  POPPY  ANEMONE    (Anemone   coronarial. 


ANEROID. 


551 


ANEUBIN. 


lar  metal  box  which  has  been  nearly  exhausted 
of  air  and  then  hermetically  sealed.  The  sides 
are  corrugated  in  concentric  rings,  so  as  to  in- 
crease their  elasticity,  and  one  of  them  is  fixed 
to  the  back  of  the  brass  case  which  contains  the 


FIG.   1.     ANEROID   BAROMETEU. 

whole.  The  amount  of  exhaustion  is  such  that 
if  the  sides  of  the  box  were  allowed  to  take  their 
natural  position  they  would  be  pressed  in  upon 
each  other,  and  to  prevent  this  they  arc  kept  dis- 
tended, to  a  certain  extent,  by  a  stiong  spring,  8, 
fi.xed  to  the  case,  which  acts  uijon  the  head  of 
the  pillar,  B,  attached  to  the  side  next  the  face. 
When  the  pressure  of  the  air  increases,  there  be- 
ing little  or  no  air  inside  the  box  to  resist  it, 
the  corrugated  sides  are 
forced  inward,  and  when  it 
diminishes  again,  tlieir  elas- 
ticity restores  them  to  their 
former  place,  the  box  being 
extremely  sensitive  to  the 
varying  pressure  of  the  ex- 
ternal atmosphere.  Suppos- 
ing the  two  sides  ]iressed 
inward,  the  end  of  the 
spring,  E,  will  be  drawni 
toward  the  back  of  the  case, 
— &  ^/      \  ''"''  '■"'"■'y  with   it   the  rod, 

EO,  which  is  firmly  fixed 
into  it.  E(f,  by  the  link 
GH,  acts  on  the  bent  lever, 
HKL,  which  has  its  axis  at 
K,  so  that,  while  the  arm. 
KH,  is  pushed  to  the  right, 
LK  is  moved  downward.  By 
this  motion  a  watch-chain, 
0,  attached  at  /y,  is  drawn 
oiT  the  little  drum,  ,U,  and 
the  index-hand,  PP,  which 
is  fixed  to  it,  would  move 
from  the  position  repre- 
sented in  Fig.  1  to  one 
toward  the  right.  When  the  contrary  motion 
takes  place,  a  hair-spring  moves  tiie  drum  and 
the  hand  in  the  opposite  way.  By  this  or  similar 
mechanism  a  very  small  motion  of  the  corrugated 
sides  produces  a  large  deviation  of  the  index- 
hand. 

The    aneroid    is    graduated    to    represent    the 
inches  or  millimeters  of  the  mercurial  barometer. 


It  may  be  made  to  agree  very  closely  with  such 
an  instrument,  but,  owing  to  the  imperfect  elas- 
ticity of  the  box  and  the  steel  spring,  it  is  quite 
apt  to  disagree  after  a  few  months  or  years,  and 
especially  when  exposed  to  rapid  variations  of 
pressure,  being  in  this  respect  quite  analogous 
to  the  ordinary  thermometer,  whose  glass  bulb 
has  also  a  defective  elastic  reaction.  Although 
the  aneroid  is  very  convenient,  very  sensitive, 
and  unafieeted  by  variations  in  gravity,  yet  its 
defects  prevent  it  from  becoming  a  very  reliable 
instrument,  and  it  must  be  fr(!quently  compared 
with  the  standard  mercurial.  It  is  often  used 
in  ascertaining  altitude,  especially  by  engineers 
and  surveyors,  where  extreme  accuracy  is  not 
required.  The  holosteric  aneroid  made  by  Naudet 
and  the  bo.x-aneroid  made  by  Goldschmid  bear 
the  highest  reputation. 

The  Bourdon  aneroid,  or  pressure  gauge,  has 
about  the  same  advantages  and  defects  as  the 
Vidi  aneroid.  It  consists  essentially  of  a  portion 
of  a  thin  hollow  ring  whose  section  is  a  very 
flat  ellipse.  The  ring,  or  curved  tube,  is  made  of 
elastic  metal,  exhausted  of  air  and  then  hermet- 
ically sealed,  and  is,  therefore,  a  vacuum-cham- 
ber. Changes  of  pressure  alter  the  curvature  ot 
this  ring,  whose  changes  of  shape  are  shown  on  a 
magnified  scale  by  a  delicate  pointer. 


PIG.  2.       CROSS-SECTION 
OP  ANEROID. 


PIG.  3.     BAROGRAPH,  OR  RECORDING  ANEROID. 

The  aneroid  barometer  is  also  easily  arranged 
to  be  self-registering,  and  is  tlien  known  as  a 
barograph.  Instruments  of  this  kind,  made  by 
Richard  cSt  Son,  of  Paris,  are  especially  applicable 
for  use  at  sea,  and  are  also  widely  used  at  land 
stations.  For  fuller  details  of  the  construction 
and  use  of  the  aneroid,  consult  Ablie's  Trcutixc 
on  M'eteorological  Instruincitts  (Washington, 
IS87),  and  the  works  referred  to  therein,  or  any 
of  the  larger  treatises  on  experimental  physics. 
See  Barometer. 

AN'ETJRIN.  A  Welsh  poet,  who  probably 
lived  e.  603.  According  to  the  received  account, 
hewas  the  son  of  Caw  ab  Geraint,  the  chief  of  the 
Otadini;  while  others  have  identified  him  with 
Gildas,  the  historian,  and  Mr.  Stephens,  the 
translator  of  his  poem,  makes  him  .GiUlas's  son. 
He  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Cattraeth  as 
bard  and  taken  prisoner.  After  his  release  he 
returned  to  Llancarvan,  and  later  in  life  lived 
at  Galloway.  He  is  said  to  have  perished  at 
the  hands  of  Eidyn  ab  Einygan.  His  epic  poem 
Gododin.  which  "in  its  present  form  contains 
over  nine  hundred  lines,  tells  of  the  defeat  of 
the  Britons  by  the  Saxons  at  Cattraeth  :  but  the 
obscurity  of  the  language  has  made  it  impossible 
to  gain  from  it  a  clear  account  of  the  defeat, 


ANEURIN. 


552 


ANGEL. 


and  it  has  even  been  maintained  that  the  subject 
of  the  poem  is  the  massacre  of  the  Britons  at 
Stonehenge  (472).  Stephens  connects  the  event 
with  the  battle  of  Dagstan  ( 603 ) .  The  Gododin 
was  published  with  an  liinglish  version  and  notes 
in  18.')2,  by  Rev.  J.  Williams  ab  Ithel,  and  the 
text  appears  with  a  translation  in  F.  Skene's 
Four  Ancient  Hooks  of  Wales  (1866).  The 
Cymmrodorion  Society  published  in  1855  a  new 
edition,  with  translation  by  Thomas  Stephens. 
Aneurin  is  the  reputed  author  of  one  other  poem. 
See  Welsu  Language  and  Literature. 

AN'ETJEISM:  (Gk.  avel'pvana,  aneurysma,  a 
dilatation,  from  dm,  ana,  up  +  d'pv^,  eurys, 
wide).  A  pulsating  tumor,  consisting  of  a  sac 
or  pouch  into  which  blood  Hows  through  an  open- 
ing in  an  artery.  The  sac  of  an  arterial  an- 
eurism may  be  formed  in  the  first  instance  by 
one  or  more  of  the  tunics  of  the  vessel,  generally 
the  outer  one,  the  two  inner  having  given  way. 
This  is  called  a  true  aneurism,  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  the  false.  The  pathological  condition 
underlying  most  aneurisms  is  a  weakening  of  the 
arteria"l  walls  from  disease.  Thus,  in  the  early 
stages  of  the  disease  of  the  arteries  known  as 
arterio-sclerosis,  the  walls  of  the  vessels  are  weak- 
ened, and  so  less  resistant.  The  changes  in  the 
vessel  walls  being  uniform,  the  resulting  an- 
eurism is  apt  to  consist  of  an  even  dilatation  of 
the  entire  vessel,  making  what  is  called  a 
fusiform  aneurism.  If,  however,  there  is  one 
particularly  weak  point  in  the  coats  of  the  ar- 
tery, the  distention  is  greatest  at  that  point  and 
an  aneurismal  sac  is  formed.  Such  an  aneurism 
is  described  as  a  saccular  aneurism.  An  aneurism 
may  occur  at  a  point  where  an  artery  branches, 
and  be  irregiilar  in  shape  from  involvement  of 
both  main  trunk  and  one  or  more  of  the  branches, 
cirsoid  aneurism.  Owing  to  injury  to  the  inter- 
nal coat  of  an  artery,  the  blood  may  get  in  be- 
tween the  layers  of  the  vessel  walls  and  work 
its  way  up  or  down  between  them.  This  form  of 
aneurism  is  called  a  disficcfnifj  aneurism.  Some- 
times a  direct  communication  is  found  between 
an  artery  and  a  vein,  in  which  case  the  latter, 
being  exposed  to  unusual  pressure,  is  apt  to  be- 
come distended  and  tortuous.  Such  a  condition 
is  called  aneurismal  varix.  A  false  aneurism  is 
one  in  which  there  is  rupture  of  the  entire  wall 
of  an  artery  and  the  blood  comes  in  direct  con- 
tact with  tlie  surrounding  tissues.  This  is  some- 
times called  a  diffuse  aneurism.  Aneurisms 
prove  fatal  by  their  pressure  on  some  important 
part,  or  by  bursting  and  allowing  a  sudden  es- 
cape of  blood.  They  are  cured  by  the  deposit, 
within  the  sac,  of  fibrin  from  the  blood,  a  result 
the  surgeon  can  promote  by  obstructing  the 
artery  above  the  aneurism  by  compression  or  by 
ligature,  applying  the  latter  close  to  the  sac  if 
the  aneurism  is  of  the  "false"  variety,  but  at  a 
distance  if  it  is  the  result  of  disease;  by  inserting 
needles  into  the  tumor ;  or  by  inserting  and  coil- 
ing silver  wire  within  the  sac  and  passing  an 
electric  current  through  it.  Internal  aneurisms 
are  treated  by  those  remedies  which  moderate  the 
hcarfs  action,  as  digitalis,  rest,  etc. 

ANEOSSI,  an-fos'se,  Pasquale  (17'2!)-07). 
An  Italian  composer.  lie  was  born  at  Naples, 
was  a  pupil  of  Sacchini  and  Piccini,  and  wrote  II 
finto  medico  (presented  in  1764)  as  his  first 
operatic  composition.  He  was  apointed  chapel- 
master  at  Venice  in  1775.  and  directed  the  opera 
at  Tiondon  from  1782  to  1787.     Siibse(|ucntly  he 


was  choirmaster  in  the  church  of  St.  John 
Lateran,  Rome.  Of  his  numerous  operas,  which 
are  marked  rather  by  skillful  arrangement  than 
by  much  originality,  the  best  known  were 
L'aiaro,  II  curioso  indiscreto,  and  /  viaggiatori 
felioi.  His  sacred  compositions  are  considered 
less  important. 

ANGARA,  an'garii'.  A  river  in  Siberia,  the 
most  important  affluent  of  the  Yenisei  on  its 
right  (Map:  Asia,  J  3).  Properly  speak- 
ing, there  are  two  rivers  by  that  name :  the  Up- 
per Angara,  rising  among  the  ridges  of  the  Olek- 
ma  and  Vitim  Mountains,  in  lat.  57°  N.  and  long. 
114°  56'  E.,  and  emptynig  into  the  northern  end 
of  Lake  Baikal ;  and  the  Lower  Angara,  an  outlet 
of  the  lake,  whence  it  issues  as  a  stream  of  clear, 
transparent  water,  flowing  by  the  city  of  Irkutsk 
toward  the  north,  then  to  the  west,  for  a  dis- 
tance of  about  1300  miles.  The  river  is  about 
9000  feet  wide  at  its  broadest  part,  and  1600  feet 
at  its  narrowest.  It  is  of  sufficient  depth  for 
navigation,  but  has  numerous  rapids  in  the  mid- 
dle of  its  course.  Works  for  the  improvement  of 
navigation  have  been  started  by  the  combined 
efforts  of  the  Government  and  private  persons. 
It  is  propo.sed  to  clear  the  stream  of  its  sub- 
merged rocks  and  to  dig  a  canal  about  two  miles 
long  to  circumvent  the  Paduna,  the  most  dan- 
gerous rapids  on  the  stream,  and  a  continuous 
waterway  will  thus  be  formed  between  the  lake 
of  Baikal  and  the  Yenisei  River.  Into  the  An- 
gara fall  numerous  considerable  trilnitari&s — the 
largest  of  which  are  IrUut.  Kitai,  Hielaya,  Oka, 
and  Tasserva  on  the  left,  and  Kunda,  Yanda, 
Ilim,  and  Tchadobetz  on  the  right.  It  was  dis- 
covered by  the  Cossack  traders  early  in  the  sev- 
enteenth century;  in  1645,  Kolenikoff  ascended  it 
as  far  as  the  lake  of  Baikal.  The  Lower  Angara 
is  also  called  Upper  Tunguska. 

AN'GEL.  An  antiquated  English  gold  coin, 
varvina:  in  value  from  .$1.60  to  $2.50.  It  was  si 
called  from  the  figure  upon  its  obverse  of  the 
Archangel  !Mieliael  piercing  the  dragon.  Angels 
\veie  coined  from  Edward  IV.  to  Charles  I. 

ANGEL  (Gk.  ayye>.o^,  angelos.  messenger). 
The  English  word  denotes  a  superhuman  being 
intermediate  between  God  and  man.  But  the 
original  meaning  was  simply  that  of  a  "messen- 
ger," either  human  or  superhuman.  It  is  doubt- 
ful whether  the  word  was  used  at  all  in  prc- 
exilic  times  as  a  designation  of  a  being  greater 
than  man.  In  Genesis  vi  :  2,  the  term  "sons  of 
God"  was  rendered  "angels"  by  the  Greek  ver- 
sion ;  in  earlier  days  they  were  no  doubt  regarded 
as  divine  beings.  The  "angel  of  Yaliweh"  is 
thought  by  many  scholars  to  be  a  manifestation 
of  this  deity,  and  it  was  probably  so  understood 
in  antiquity;  but  the  "angel"  is  likely  to  have 
been  brought  into  the  text  as  a  substitute  for 
Yahweh  himself,  appearing  in  the  original  form 
of  the  narrative.  In  Jacob's  vision  the  "angels" 
seem  also  to  have  been  originally  "gods"  or  "sons 
of  gods.  '  As  long  as  Yahweh  manifested  himself 
in  human  shape,  he  had  no  need  of  a  messenger. 
There  wore  beside  him  "gods  many  and  lords 
many"  with  their  habitat  in  the  sky  or  on  the 
eartii,  in  trees  and  fountains  and  stones,  by  the 
hearth  and  in  the  tomb;  but  they  were  not  mes- 
sengers. Some  of  them  appear  to  liave  been  asso- 
ciated with  Yahweh  as  his  council  or  retinue.  In 
the  story  of  the  Garden  of  Eden.  Yahweh  says: 
"Man  has  become  like  one  of  us."  Possibly  the 
title  "Yahweh  of  hosts"  refers  to  armies  of  such 


ANGEL. 


553 


ANGEL    FISH. 


spirits.  But  they  were  simply  called  Elohim,  or 
"sons  of  gods,"  not  "angels." 

It  was  tlie  growth  of  monotheism  that  forced 
reflection  upon  the  character  of  these  superhuman 
beings.  The  second  Isaiah  looked  upon  the  gods 
of  the  nations  as  mere  lifeless  statues.  This  view 
could  not  gain  permanent  ascendency.  It  was  too 
superlii  ial.  Only  the  subordination  of  all  spirits 
to  Yahweh  was  essential.  The  gods  of  tlie  peoples 
ceased  to  be  independent  rulers  and  became  Yali- 
weh's  scr\ants,  licnceforth  to  do  his  bidding  in 
connection  with  tlie  natural  forces  and  elements 
with  which  they  had  been  previously  associated, 
or  as  guardians  of  the  nations  they  had  once 
governed.  In  Daniel  the  celestial  princes  of 
Persia  and  Greece  are  mentioned.  The  sons  of 
the  gods  have  become  angels  in  the  prologue  to 
Job.  An  increasing  emphasis  on  the  divine  tran- 
scendence caused  a  reluctance  to  ascribe  to  him 
certain  activities.  He  no  longer  reveals  himself 
directly,  but  through  an  angel,  to  his  prophets; 
he  does  not  tight  his  people's  battles,  but  his  chief 
angel  stands  up  for  Israel :  he  no  longer  tempts 
to  evil  or  infli<  ts  it  himself,  but  allows  an  angel, 
the  Satan,  to  do  this.  Angels  receive  individual 
names.  Michael,  Gabriel,  Raphael,  Uriel.  Under 
the  influence  of  Persian  thought  the  conception 
of  seven  archangels  is  introtluccd,  corresponding 
to  the  seven  (unesha  upentns,  and  these  angels 
arc  spoken  of  as  "watchers."  The  i<lea  of  a  fall 
of  angels  is  not  found  in  the  Hebrew  Bible,  but 
is  distinctly  taught  in  the  Book  of  Enoch. 

.lesus  ill  his  discourses  mentions  angels,  and, 
indeed,  represents  each  human  being  as  having 
a  celestial  patron  (Matthew  xviii  :  10)  ;  pictures 
the  angels  as  rejoicing  over  the  repentance  of 
sinners  (Luke  xv  :  10),  and  states  that  those 
who  are  permitted  to  share  in  the  resurrection 
will  be  like  angels,  having  no  conjugal  relations 
(Matthew  xxii:  .'>0).  Tlie  Evangelists  expected 
his  return  upon  the  clouds  of  heaven  as  the  Mes- 
siah accompanied  by  his  holy  angels.  In  the 
Apocalypse  angels  figure  prominently.  They 
also  occur  frequently  in  Paiil's  writings.  Angels 
are  said  to  be  created  (Colossians  i  :  IG),  and 
should  not  lie  worshiped  (Colossians  ii  :  IS); 
they  were  the  agencies  through  which  the  law 
was  given  (Galatians  iii  :  10)  ;  on  account  of 
their  sensibility  to  female  beauty  women  should 
wear  veils  (I.  Corinthians  xi  :  10)  ;  they  are 
powerful  beings,  "thrones"  and  "principalities," 
and  men  should  not  turn  away  from  Christ  to 
these  "elementary  spirits  of  the  world"  (Gala- 
tians iv  :  .3) . 

In  the  Christian  Church  the  belief  in  angels 
has  continued  until  the  present  time,  though 
gradually  losing  its  intensity  through  the  acces- 
sion of  martyrs  and  saints  to  the  class  of  inter- 
mediaries between  God  and  man,  and  in  more 
recent  times  through  the  spread  of  rationalistic 
tendencies  of  thought.  An  excellent  summary 
of  our  present  knowledge  of  Jewish  angelology 
is  fiiund  in  Dr.  Tv.  Kolilcr's  article  on  this  subject 
in  The  Jeirish  Encyclopcedia ;  the  relations  to 
Babylonian  tliought  are  well  treated  in  R. 
Stiil)e's  JiuJIxcli-lhibijloiiixrhe  Zriiihrifrjrfc  (Hal- 
le, 18'.i.")),  and  the  relations  to  Mazdaism  in 
Nathan  Siidcrblom's  La  vie  future  dans  le  Ma::- 
dfisme  (Paris,  1(101). 

The  creation  of  the  angels  was  placed,  by  the 

Platonizing  Church    Fathers,  before   that  o"f  the 

material  world ;   others  assigned  to  it  some  one 

of  the  six  days.     Equally  various  were  the  opin- 

TOL.  I.— 37. 


ions  as  to  the  nature  of  the  angels.  The  second 
Synod  of  Xice  (TS7)  assigned  them  a  subtle,  ethe- 
real, or  fire-like  body;  the  scliolastics,  on  the 
other  hand,  and  the  Lateran  Council  of  1215, 
maintained  their  innnateriality ;  while  others, 
owing  to  the  appearing  of  angels,  mentioned  in 
Scriiilure,  attributed  to  tliem  the  power  of  assum- 
ing momentarily  the  corporeal  form. 

Some  of  the  Fathers  also  spoke  of  good  and 
bad  guardian  angels,  the  former  of  whom  were 
always  ready  to  prompt  to  good  actions,  and  to 
avert  evil,  while  the  latter  were  equally  quick 
in  bringing  about  miscliief,  wickedness,  and 
calamity.  From  the  belief  in  the  guardianship 
of  angels,  and  their  participation  in  the  govern- 
ment of  the  world,  arose  naturally  the  practice  of 
invoking  and  worshiping  them.  Many  Chris- 
tian teachers  condemned  it,  appealing  to  Colos- 
sians ii  :  IS;  and  the  Council  of  Laodicea  (300) 
called  it  disguised  idolatry.  But  after  the  Coun- 
cil of  Nice  had  conceded  that,  thougli  angels  were 
not  to  receive  divine  worship,  they  might  receive 
reverential  obeisance,  the  practice  mentioned  be- 
came more  and  more  rooted,  and  continues  in  the 
Gireek  and  Roman  Catholic  Churches  to  this  day. 

ANGEL,  Ben,i.imin  Franklix  ( 1815-94) .  An 
American  diplomat,  born  at  Burlington,  N.  Y. 
He  studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and 
served  as  surrogate  in  1838-41  and  1844-47.  He 
was  sent  as  United  States  consul  to  Honolulu  in 
1853.  The  same  year  he  was  special  commis- 
sioner to  China  for  the  settlement  of  difl'erences 
between  the  Chinese  Government  and  American 
merchants  with  regard  to  the  levying  of  export 
duties.  He  was  minister  to  Sweden  and  Norway 
in  1S.57-G2. 

AN'GELA  MERICI,  ma-re'che.  Saint  (1470- 
1540).  Founder  of  the  Roman  Catholic  order  of 
I'rsulines  (q.v. ).  She  was  born  at  Desenzano, 
near  Brescia,  was  of  the  Franci.scan  tertiaries 
when  she  founded  in  Brescia  the  order  in  1535, 
and  died  there,  January  27,  1540.  See  her  life 
by  Sintzel  (Regensburg,  1842),  and  by  J.  A.  At 
(Notre  Dame  d'Alet.   1885). 

AN'GEL  FISH  (Alluding  to  its  large,  wing- 
like fins),  or  AxoEL  Shark,  or  Monk  Fisii.  An 
elasmobranch  {Sfjvaliiia  anr/clus)  very  closely 
related  to  the  shark,  with  a  broad  and  flat- 
tened body  and  with  the  much  enlarged  pectoral 
fins  expanded  laterally  like  wings.  It  attains  a 
size  of  three  to  four  feet,  and  is  harmless.  It 
is  found  in  tropical  seas,  is  common  in  the 
Mediterranean,,  and  also  occurs  upon  both  the 
eastern  and  western  shores  of  the  warmer  parts 
of  North  America,  keeping  near  the  bottom  and 
being  nowhere  niunerous.  It  is  also  known  to 
American  fishermen  as  "monk  fish." 

.\nother  angel  fish  in  the  United  States  is  one 
of  the  porgies   (Chwlodiptrms  faher).     See  PoR- 

OY. 

In  Bermuda  the  name  is  ajiplied  to  choetodonts 
of  the  genus  Holacanthus,  and  especially  to  the 
widely  distributed  enqieror  fish  (Holacanthus 
cilini'if:).  Goode  says  that  it  attains  a  weight 
of  four  pounds  and  "far  surpasses  all  the  other 
fishes  of  the  region  in  the  delicious  flavor,  and 
in  its  lovely  hues."  A  second  species  is  the 
black  angel  fish  {Holacanthus  tricolor),  which, 
like  the  other,  is  connnon  throughout  West  Indi- 
an waters.  See  Cokal  Fish,  and  plate  of  Coral 
Fishes. 


ANGELI. 


554 


ANGELL. 


ANGELI,  iin'ge-li,  Heinricii  vox  (1840—). 
A  painter  of  historical  pictures  and  portraits, 
born  at  Odenbure.  Hungary.  He  studied  witli 
Leutze  at  Diisseldorf,  where  he  painted  the  famous 
picture  "Mary  Stuart  at  the  Reading  of  the 
Death  Warrant"  (1857).  In  ISG'2  he  made  Ins 
home  in  Vienna,  where  he  soon  won  recognition 
as  a  painter  of  portraits,  particularly  those  of 
the  royalty.  Some  of  the  best  of  his  portraits 
are  those  of  the  Crown  Prince  Frederick  \\  illiara 
(1874),  Field  Marshal  yon  Jloltke  (Museum  of 
Breslau.  1884).  "Queen  Victoria  Seated  on  the 
Throne"'  (1885),  "Emperor  William  11.  in  the 
rnifonn  of  a  General"    (1888). 

ANGEL'ICA   (Lat.  angelic.  I.e.,  plant  or  herb, 
in  allusion  to  its  medicinal  qualities).     A  genus 
of  plants  of  the  natural   order  I'mbelliferaN  by 
some   botanists  divided  into  two,  Angelica  and 
Archangelica.     The  species  are  mostly  herbaceous 
and    perennial,    natives    of    the    temperate    and 
colder  regions  of  the  northern  hemisphere.     They 
have  bipinnate  or  tripinnate  leaves.     Wild  angel- 
ica   {Angelica  sylvestris)    is  a  common  plant  in 
moist  meadows,  by  the  sides  of  brooks,   and   in 
woods   throughout    many   parts    of    Eurojie    and 
Asia.     The  root  is  perennial,  short,  ringed,  and 
branched;    it   is    white    within,    and   contains    a 
yellow,  milky  juice.     The  stem  is  hollow,  IVa  to 
5  feet  high,  often  flecked  with,  red;  the  umbel  is 
convex.     Garden    angelica     {Archangelica    offici- 
nalis)   is   a   biennial    plant,   becoming   perennial 
when   not    allowed    to    ripen    its    seeds.     It    has 
"reenish  flowers  in  almost  spherical  umbels.    The 
stem   is  as  high   as  a  man.     The  fruit  is  long 
and   straw-colored.     The   root    is  long   and   fusi- 
form, an  inch  or  more  in  thickness,  with  thick, 
irregular  rugose  rootlets.     The  whole  plant,  and 
especially  the  root,  is  aromatic  and  bitter,  con- 
taining much  resin  and  essential  oil.     The  root 
has  been  admitted  into  the  pharmacopoeias  as  an 
aromatic  stimulant  and  tonic,  and  used  in  nerv- 
ous ailments,  and   in  indigestion  and   flatulence. 
It  is  very  little  used.     The  root  of  Angelica  syl- 
ycstris    i's   sometimes   substituted   for    it,   but    is 
much  weaker.     The  garden  angelica  was  at  one 
time   inuch   cultivated   for   the  blanched   stalks, 
which  -.\ere  used  as  celery  now  is:  but  its  cultiva- 
tion  for  this   purpose  has  been   almost   entirely 
discontinued.     The  tender  stalks  and  midribs  of 
the   leaves,   candied,   are   still,   however,   a   well- 
known  article  of  confectionery  and  an  agreeable 
stomachic:   the  roots  and  seeds  are  employed  in 
the    preparation    of   gin    and   of   "bitters."     The 
plant  is  a  very  doubtful  native  of  Great  Britain, 
but   is   common    in   many   parts   of   Europe,   and 
even  in  Lapland  and  Iceland.     The  Laplanders 
not  only  use  it  as  food,  but  regard  the  stalks 
roasted  "in  hot  ashes  as  an  efficacious  remedy  m 
l)Cctoral   disorders.     The   powdered   seeds   of   the 
wild    angelica    are   used   by    the   country    people 
in   some   parts   of   Europe   to   kill   lice.     Several 
species  of   Angelica   are  natives  of  North  Amer- 
ica,  Angelica   hirsuta   and   Angelica   atropurpu- 
rea  being  the  best  known  in  the  eastern  United 
States.     They   are   perhaps   without   any   impor- 
tant economic  value. 


ANGEL'ICA.  (1.)  In  P.oiardo's  Orlando  In- 
namoralo  and  .Vriosto's  Orlando  FurioKO,  a  beau- 
tiful and  faithlessOricntal  princess, the  mischief- 
maker  who  beguiles  Orlando.  She  is  noted  for 
her  mai'ic  ring,  which  had  the  i)Ower  of  making 
its  wearer  invisible.  (2.)  In  Congreve's  Love  for 
Love,  an  attractive  heiress.    (3.)   A  character  in 


Faniuhar's  The  Constant  Couple  and  Sir  Barry 
Wihiair. 
ANGELICA  TREE.     See  Ak.vlia. 
ANGEL'IC  DOCTOR,  The   (Lat.  Doctor  An- 
gelieus  I .    Thomas  Aipiinas,  so  called  by  his  admir- 
ers; known  also  as  "The  Angel  of  tlie  Schools." 

ANGELIC   HYMN.     Another  name  for  the 
Gloria  in  L'xeelsis   (q.v. ). 

ANGEL'ICO,    Fr.\    (1387-1455).     The   name 
applied  to  Guido  di  Pietro  da  Mugello,  also  known 
as  Fra  Giovanni   da   Fiesole.     He   was  born  at 
Viechio    (Mugello),   and  entered   the   Dominican 
order  at  San  Domenico  near  Fiesole  in  1407.     Be- 
cause they  sided  with  Gregory  XII.  in  tlie  papal 
schism,  the  community  went  to  Foligno  and  tlien 
to  Cortona.     Returning  to  Fiesole  in   1418.  tliey 
removed  in  143(i  to  tlie  convent  of  San  Jlarco  in 
Florence.     Angelico  was  employed  in  decorating 
the  walls  of  this  convent  until  "about  1445,  when 
he  was  summoned  to  Rome  by  Pope  Eugenius  IV. 
Except  for  a  short  stay  in  Cortona.  he  remained 
in  Rome  until  his  death'.   His  master  in  painting  is 
not  known.     He  began  as  a  miniaturist  and  later 
was  influenced  by  Masaceio.     His  earliest  works 
are  at  Cortona  and  in  the  Florentine  Academy. 
Among  the  principal  paintings  of  his  best  period 
is  his  "Last  Judgment"  (Florentine  Academy  I.  in 
whicli  the  representation  of  Paradise  is  particu- 
larly delectable.     Others  are  the  "Coronation  of 
the  Virgin"   (Florentine  Academy),  a  larger  rep- 
resentation of  the  same  sub,iect  in  the  Louvre,  and 
the  celebrated  Madonna  surrounded  by  saints  and 
the  angels   (UlRzi).    The  convent  of  San  Marco  is 
a  veritable  museum  of  his  frescoes.     The  cloister 
is  decorated  witli  representations  of  great  Domin- 
icans.   The  chapter-house  has  a  large  "Crucifixion," 
and  in  forty-three  rooms  of  the  upper   floor  are 
frescoes  from  the  life  of  Christ.     His  principal 
\vorks  at  Rome  are  the  decorations  of  the  cluipel  of 
Nicholas  V.  in  the  Vatican,  from  the  life  of  Saints 
Stephen  and  Lawrence,  which  sliow  the  influence  of 
the  new  realistic  school.  He  is  the  last  and  greate  ,t 
of  the  painters  of  the  transitional  period  from  the 
Middle  Ages  to  the  Renaissance.    His  ideas  are  uic- 
dia"val,liut  his  methods  of  expression  are  modern. 
Although  he  had  no  knowledge  of  the  nude,  and  was 
unable  to  render  dramatic  action,  his  iiaintings  are 
effective  through  the  wonderful  exiiression  of  the 
faces,  and  the  beauty  of  color  and  arrangement. 
No  painter  has  succeeded  better  in  expressing  fer- 
vid religious  sentiment.   "Surely,"  says  Michelan- 
gelo, "the  good  brotlier  visited  Paradise,  and  was 
allowed  to  choose  his  models  there."    Consult  the 
biographies    by    Cartier     (Paris,    1857),    Frh-ster 
(Ren-ensburg,  "l85<J).    Goodwin    (London,    1861), 
PhiHimore    (ib.    1881),   Ley    (ib.    1880),   Beissel 
(Freiburg,   1895),  Supino    (Florence,   1808).  and 
Douglas   (London,  1000),  and  the  monograph  of 
Rotlics    (Strasshurg.   1002), 

ANGELIC  SALUTATION.  See  Ave  ilARi.v. 
AN'GELI'NA.  (1.)  In  The  Riral  jAidies,  Uy 
Drydcu,  a  sister  of  Don  Rhodorigo.  (2.)  In 
Goidsmitli's  l)allad  of  "Edwin  and  Angelina"  in 
The  Vicar  of  Wakefield,  the  heroine.  (3.)  A  pseu- 
donym used  by  Harriet  Martineau. 

ANGELIQ'CJE,  ax'zha'lek'.  (1.)  In  :\toli&re's 
Lc  innladc-  intat/inairc  (q.v.),  the  daughter  of 
the  "invalid"  Argan.  (2.)  In  Moli^l•c's  Georges 
Dandin  (q.v.),  the  aristocratic  wife  of  the  rich 
peasant  wlio  is  the  principal  character. 

ANGELL,  fin'jcl,  George  Tiiorndike  1 1820 — ) . 
An   American   philantliropist.      He   was   born   at 


FRA  ANGELICO 

MADONNA  OF  THE  STAR,   IN   THE  CONVENT  OF  SAN   MARCO,   FLORENCE 


ANGELL. 


555 


ANGELY. 


Soutlibiidgo,  Mass.,  and  was  oducated  at  Brown 
University  and  at  Dartmouth  College.  In 
18GS,  with  several  other  inlluential  persons,  he 
founded  tlie  Massaehusetts  Society  for  the  Pre- 
vention of  Cruelty  to  Animals,  of  which  associa- 
tion he  was  later  elected  president.  In  the  same 
j'Car  he  established  the  publication  entitled  Our 
Dumb  Animals,  the  first  periodical  of  its  kind. 
During  a  visit  to  England  in  18G9  he  urged  the 
Royal  Society  to  publish  the  Aiiiinal  Woild,  and 
induced  the  I'aroncss  Burdett-Coutts  to  organize 
the  Ladies'  Humane  Educational  Committee  of 
England;  and  he  has  been  instrumental  in  the 
formation. of  many  similar  societies  throughout 
the  United  States.  In  1889  he  was  empowered 
by  the  Massachusetts  Legislature  to  incorporate 
the  American  Humane  Education  Society.  Mr. 
Angell  has  also  been  instrumental  in  establishing 
several  public  health  associations,  and  in  promot- 
ing the  movement  directed  against  the  sale  of 
poisonous  and  adulterated  foods.  Many  of  his 
publications  have  been  translated  into  foreign 
languages.  One  of  his  more  recent  productions 
is  the  entertaining  volume  entitled  Autobiograph- 
ical {^ketches  and  Personal  Recollections  (Boston, 
1S91). 

ANGELL,  James  Burrill.  LL.D.  (1829—). 
An  American  educator  and  diplomat.  He  was 
born  in  Seituate,  R.  I.,  graduated  at  Brown  Uni- 
versity in  1849,  and  after  travel  in  the  South 
and  in  Europe  became,  in  1853,  professor  of  mod- 
ern languages  and  literature  in  Brown  Univer- 
sity. He  was  the  editor  of  the  Providence  Daily 
Journal  from  1800  to  1806,  when  he  was  appoint- 
ed to  the  presidency  of  the  University  of  Ver- 
mont. In  1871  he  became  president  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan,  which  under  his  continued 
administration  has  come  to  be  one  of  the  fore- 
most universities  in  the  country.  He  was  United 
States  minister  to  China  from  1880  to  1881,  at 
the  same  time  acting  as  one  of  three  commission- 
ers to  negotiate  a  new  treaty  with  that  govern- 
inent.  Dr.  Angell  was  a  member  of  the  Anglo- 
American  International  Commission  on  Canadian 
Fisheries  in  1887,  and  in  189C  he  was  chairman 
of  the  Canadian-.^meriean  commission  on  a  deep 
waterway  from  the  great  lakes  to  the  sea.  He 
was  appointed  Minister  to  Turkey  in  1897,  but 
resigned  in  May,  1898.  In  1887  he  became  a 
regent  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  Besides 
numerous  addresses  and  frequent  contributions 
to  magazines.  President  Angell  has  published 
text-books,  such  as  Progress  in  International 
Law  (1875),  and  he  wrote  the  article  on  "The  Di- 
plomacy of  the  United  States''  for  the  Narrative 
and  Critical  History  of  America   (1888). 

ANGELL,  .losEPH  Kinnicut  (1794-1857).  An 
-American  lawyer.  He  was  born  in  Providence, 
R.  I.,  and  graduated  at  Brown  University  in 
1813.  He  published  a  Treatise  on  the  Common 
Lav:  in  Hehition  to  ^Yater  Courses,  with  an  ap- 
pendix (fifth  edition,  Boston,  1850)  ;  A  Practical 
Summary  of  the  Laio  of  Assignments  (Boston, 
1835),  and  other  valuable  treatises  on  legal  sub- 
.jects,  and  edited  the  United  States  Law  Intelli- 
riencer  and  Review  (1829-31). 

ANGELO,  Michael.    See  Michelangelo. 

AN'GELO.  (1.)  In  Shakespeare's  .l/cfl.5!(re  for 
Measure,  the  duke's  hypocritical  deputy.  The 
duke  frustrates  his  evil  designs,  compelling  him 
to  give  up  Isabella  and  marry  Mariana,  whom 
he  has  deserted.  (2.)  A  character  in  Shake- 
speare's Comedy  of  Errors. 


ANGELO,  TvRAN  de  Padoie.  A  drama  in 
prose  by  \^ictor  Hugo,  produced  by  the  Com^die 
Frangaise,  April  28,  1835.  It  was  produced  later 
in  London  (translated  by  G.  H.  Davidson)  as 
Angelo  and  the  Actress  of  Padua.  The  period 
of   the   action    is   the   sixteenth   century. 

ANGEL  OF  THE  CHURCH.  The  term  ap- 
plied in  Revelation  to  each  of  the  recipients 
of  the  Saviour's  messages  to  the  Seven  Churches 
of  Asia.  It  is  perhaps  best  to  understand  it  as 
meaning  the  presiding  officer  of  the  Church,  who 
would  naturally  lie  the  one  to  whom  a  message 
would  be  sent,  and  who  may  fairly  be  considered 
re|)resentative  of  the  churches  (cf.  Rev.  i.  20). 
Sec  Churches  or  Asia,  the  Seven. 

AN'GELUS,  The.  A  well-knoAvn  painting  by 
.1.  F.  Millet  (1859).  It  represents  two  French 
jjeasants  stopped  in  their  field  work  for  a  moment 
of  prayer  at  dusk  by  the  Angelus  bell,  which 
the  artist  has  suggested  by  the  church  spire  in 
the  distance.  It  was  sold  by  the  artist  for  a 
small  sum,  but  in  1889  was  bought  by  the  Anier- 
icaii  Art  Association  for  more  than  580,000 
francs,  and  exhibited  in  this  country.  The  next 
year  M.  Chauchard  bought  it  for  $150,000 ;  it  is 
understood  that  it  will  ultimately  find  a  j^lace  in 
the  Louvre. 

ANGELUS  BELL,  The.  A  bell  rung  in  all 
Catholic  countries  morning,  noon,  and  night  to 
invite  the  faithful  to  the  recitation  of  the  angelic 
salutation.  Formerly  the  hours  for  the  ringing 
of  the  Angelus  were  at  sunrise,  noon,  and  sunset, 
but  it  is  now  more  generally  heard  at  the  ap- 
pointed hours  of  noon,  and  six  o'clock  both  morn- 
ing and  evening.  The  bell  receives  its  name 
from  the  title  given  the  prayer  recited  at  this 
time,  Angelus  Domini,  also  called  Ave  Maria 
(q.v.). 

ANGELUS  DOM'INI  ( Lat.  The  Angel  of  the 
Lord).  The  name  of  a  brief  prayer  repeated  by 
Roman  Catholics  nt  the  sound  of  the  Angelus 
bell,  at  sunrise,  noon,  and  sunset. 

ANGELUS  SILE'SIUS,  .Johann  Schef- 
fler  (1024-77).  A  German  poet.  He  was  born 
in  Breslau,  studied  medicine  at  Strassburg  and 
Padua,  and  in  1053  entered  the  Catholic  Churcli. 
In  1601  he  joined  the  Minorites  and  was  or- 
dained priest.  His  earlier  writings  include  a 
number  of  pronouncedly  mystical  poems,  such 
as  the  Cherubinisclicr  ]yandrrsm(nin  (1057),  a 
profound  and  pantheistic  description  of  the  way 
to  God.  Subsequently  he  became  a  fanatical 
controversialist.  He  wrote  some  stirring  hymns, 
of  which  many  found  their  way  into  Protestant 
hymnals.  There  is  an  edition  of  his  works,  by 
Rosenthal,  in  two  volumes  (1802).  Consult  also: 
Schrader,  Angelus  Silesius  und  seine  Mystik 
(1853)  ;  Kahlert,  Angelus  Silesius:  Eine  litterar- 
historische  Inlersiichung  (1853)  :  and  the  biog- 
raphy by  C.  Seltmann   (Breslau,  1890). 

ANGELY,  iiN'zh'Ie',  Louis  (c.  1788-1835).  A 
German  actor  and  dramatist.  He  was  born  in 
Berlin,  and  began  his  career  as  an  actor  early  in 
life.  He  was  at  first  a  comedian  at  the  German 
theatre  at  St.  Petersburg,  and  in  1828  went  to 
Berlin,  where  for  two  years  he  was  an  actor,  and 
afterward  skillfully  adapted  French  plays  to 
German  conditions.  Among  his  best  pi-oductions 
are  Paris  in  Pommern,  Die  Hasen  in  dcr  Hasen- 
hcide,  Wohnungen  zu  vermieten,  Sieben  MSdchen 
in  Uniform  (very  successful).  Von  Sieben  die 
Htisslichste,  and  Das  Fest  der  Handwerker.     His 


ANGELY. 


556 


ANGEKS. 


plays  have  been  collected  and  published  under 
the"  titles  of  Vaudevilles  und  Liistspielc  (4  vol- 
umes. Berlin.  1828-42),  and  yeuestcs  Eomisches 
Theatre,  3  volumes    (Hamburg,  1830-41). 

AN'GEB  (leel.  angr,  grief,  straits;  0.  H.  G. 
anf/iist :  Ger.  Aiiffst,  anxiety;  Lat.  angor,  a  chok- 
ing, strangling,  anguish,  from  the  root  ang,  seen 
in  Lat.  angustus,  narrow,  close;  Gk.  avxi,  anchi, 
near;  Ger.  eng,  narrow,  close;  A,  S.  ange,  onge, 
narrow,  strait,  troubled).  An  emotion  (q.v.) 
characterized  by  a  peculiar,  aggressive  attitude 
toward  its  object  (usually  a  person)  and  by  the 
large  number  of  expressive  bodily  movements 
which  accompany  it.  Bain  finds  the  essential 
element  in  anger  to  be  '"an  impulse  knowingly  to 
intliet  suffering  upon  another  sentient  being,  and 
to  derive  a  positive  gratification  therefrom." 
This  impulse  is  usually  connected,  at  least  in  the 
experience  of  the  human  adult,  with  a  vivid  con- 
sciousness of  self  and  the  sense  of  injury  to 
person  or  property.  There  are  several  varieties 
of  anger,  differing  in  the  motives  which  introduce 
them,  the  pleasantness  or  unpleasantness  of  the 
motive  consciousness,  and  the  avenues  of  acti\'ity 
through  which  the  emotion  works  itself  out. 
Language  bears  witness  to  the  great  number  of 
shades  of  anger  in  the  words  rage,  ire,  fury, 
wrath,  temper,  gall,  frenzy,  and  in  a  host  of 
descriptive  adjeeti\es,  such  as  bitter,  defiant, 
frantic,  demoniacal,  hot,  indignant,  violent, 
vicious,  furious,  malignant,  raving,  resentful, 
mad.  volcanic. 

The  anger  known  as  "righteous  indignation" 
is  aroused  by  strong  ethical  motives.  The  angry 
individual  is  persuaded  that  a  wrong  has  been 
done  himself,  or  some  object,  or  another  person. 
This  is  a  resentful  anger,  and  includes  a  moral 
judgment  of  condemnation.  The  emotion  is 
pleasant  (except  where  it  is  introduced  by  too 
great  a  shock,  or  where  the  consciousness  of 
moral  obliquity  counteracts  the  pleasantness) 
and  develops  by  an  expansion — both  mental  and 
physical — of  the  individual.  As  the  agent  of  jus- 
tice, the  angered  person  acquires  an  amount  of 
self-esteem,  which  is  reflected  in  a  tendency  to 
muscular  activity,  deepened  respiration,  and  ag- 
gressive postures.  On  the  other  hand,  when 
anger  is  complicated  by  the  emotions  of  fear, 
hatred,  envy,  or  jealousy,  or  when  it  is  baSied, 
it  acquires  a  different  character.  It  then  be- 
comes unpleasantly  toned,  is  accompanied  by 
choking  and  stuffiness,  trembling  and  weakness, 
and  a  loss  of  muscular  force.  But  even  in  anger 
which  is  intrinsically  unpleasant,  a  successful 
termination  of  the  attempt  to  injure  the  object 
of  the  emotion  brings  a  moment  of  satisfaction 
and  pleasure,  as  in  the  humiliation  of  a   rival. 

The  most  common  bodily  accompaniments  of 
anger  are  vaso-motor  disturbances  (most  easily 
seen  in  flushing  and  pallor),  glandular  secretion 
(such  as  tears  and  saliva),  modifications  of  res- 
piration, and  involuntary  movements.  Other  more 
or  less  specific  bodily  signs  are  screaming,  cry- 
ing, threatening  articulations,  trembling,  stamp- 
ing, facial  contortions,  scratching,  striking.  The 
coarser  bodily  expressions  of  anger  are  more 
modernte  in  the  adult  and  the  cultured  than  in 
the  child  and  primitive  man.  The  efl'orts  of 
society  to  secure  justice  and  well-being  for  the 
individual  destroy  many  of  the  sanctions  for 
anger  and  also  control  its  manifestations. 
Doubtless  the  value  of  anger  in  the  history  of 
the  race  has  been  great.  It  has  prevented  the 
encroachments  upon  the  individual  which  tend 


toward  extermination.  Consult  A.  Bain,  The 
Emotions  and  the  Will   (London,  1880). 

ANG'EEBO'DA.  In  Xorse  mythology,  a 
giantess,  mother  of  Fenrir  (q.v.). 

ANGERMANELF,  ong'erman-elf.  A  river 
in  Sweden,  rising  on  its  western  boundary 
(Map:  Sweden,  G  5).  After  passing  numerous 
lakes,  it  enters  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  by  a  large 
estuary,  above  Hernijsand.  It  is  about  150  miles 
long,  navigable  for  75  miles,  and  celebrated  for 
the  beautiful  scenery  of  its  banks. 

ANGERMANLAND.  A  former  division  of 
Sweden,  now  chiefly  comprised  in  the  liin  of 
Ve.sternorrland.  It  extends  along  the  Gulf  of 
Bothnia  and  is  watered  by  the  River  Angcr- 
mann.  The  district  exhibits  great  variety 
ol  wild  and  beautiful  landscape — wood,  mount, 
stream,  and  lake.  It  is  under  a  high  state  of 
cultivation,  producing  barley,  rye,  and  pease, 
and  abounding  in  excellent  pasturage.  The  in- 
habitants are  favorably  kno^vn  for  their  sobriety, 
industrious  habits,  and  general  prosperity.  The 
chief  town,  Hernosand,  with  a  population  of 
5800,  stands  on  the  small  island  of  Hernij,  and 
has  weekly  steam  communication  with  Stock- 
holm. It  is  the  see  of  a  bishop.  It  has  a  literary 
and  printing  establishment  with  Lappish  type. 
Tliere  are  public  baths  and  graving  docks.  It 
exports  linen  fabrics,  and  the  Baltic  products 
generally. 

ANGERMtJNBE,  ang'er-mnn'de.  A  garri- 
son town  and  railway  junction,  capital  of  a 
circle  of  the  same  name  in  the  province  of 
Brandenburg.  Prussia,  45  miles  northeast  of 
Berlin  by  rail.  It  has  manufactures  of  woolen 
and  linen  goods.  Its  principal  public  building  is 
St.  Marv's  Church,  a  loftv  Gothic  structure  of  the 
thirteenth  century.     Pop.'  1895,  7334;  1900.  7406. 

AN'GERO'NA.  An  early  Roman  divinity  in 
some  way  connected  with  silence  and  always 
represented  with  her  finger  on  her  lips  or  the 
mouth  bound  with  a  fillet.  Her  festival,  which 
was  celebrated  on  the  21st  of  December,  would 
seem  to  indicate  some  relationship  with  the 
winter  solstice.  Later  she  took  on  the  nature 
of  a  goddess  of  sorrow  and  disease. 

ANGERS,  iix'zha'  (the  ancient  Andes,  capital 
of  a  (iallic  tribe,  known  under  the  Lat.  form 
Andecavi) .  Formerly  the  capital  of  the  Duchy 
of  Anjou,  and  now  of  the  French  Department  of 
Maine-et-Loire,  situated  on  both  sides  of  the 
navigable  river  Mayenne,  not  far  from  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Sarthe  with  it,  and  about  five  miles 
from  its  confluence  with  the  Loire  (Map:  France, 
F  4).  Old  Augers.  "The  Black  City."  is  fast 
disappearing,  and  a  new,  bright  town  taking  its 
place.  The  ancient  walls  are  changed  into  shady 
boulevards:  new-fashioned  buildings  and  bridges 
are  appearing.  The  cathedral  of  St.  Maurice  is 
one  of  the  oldest  surviving  structures,  and  is  a 
fine  specimen  of  thirteenth  century  Gothic.  The 
castle  of  Philip  Augustus  still  stands,  with  its 
round  towers.  Angers  is  the  sec  of  a  bishop. 
It  has  also  a  Catholic  school,  with  faculties  of 
law,  mathematics,  science,  and  philosophy,  a 
school  of  art.  and  theological  seminary,  an  insti- 
tution for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  a  botanical  garden. 
a  large  picture  gallery,  and  a  public  library. 
The  ruins  of  the  ancient  castle  of  Angers,  built 
by  St.  Louis  about  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  are  situated  on  a  projecting  rock  above 
the  river.  Sail-making,  cotton-spinning,  stocking- 


ANGEBS. 


557 


ANGIOSPERMS. 


weaving,  etc.,  are  carried  on  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent, and  a  trade  in  corn,  wine,  brandy,  flax, 
hemp,  lioney,  etc.  There  are  slate  quarries  in 
the  neighborhood.  Angers  is  the  birlhjihu'c  of 
Ren^  of  Anjou,  the  learned  Mfnaj^e,  the  publicist 
J.  Uodin,  and  the  sculptor  David,  whose  statue 
was  unveiled  in  the  Place  de  Lorraine,  October 
24,  18S0.  Pop.  in  1901,  82,,398.  Consult  A.  De- 
bidour,  La  Fronde  angevinc;  la  vie  municipale 
(lu  17c  siMc   (Paris,  1877). 

AN'GEVIN  LINE,  or  DY'NASTY.  The 
English  kings  from  Henry  II.  to  John,  since  their 
family,  the  Plantagenets,  came  from  Anjou  in 
France. 

ANGHIERA,  an-gya'ra  or  ANGHERA, 
iin-gri'ra.  Pietko  Maetike  de.  See  Peter  Maktyb. 

AN'GILBERT,  S.^int  (c.  740-814).  A  friend 
and  privy  councillor  of  Charlemagne,  and  the 
most  distinguished  poet  of  his  age.  He  filled 
the  highest  offices,  and  in  790  became  Abbot  of 
Centula  (the  present  St.  Riquierl.  In  800  he 
assisted  in  Rome  at  the  coronation  of  the  Empe- 
ror, who  called  him  the  "Homer  of  the  age."  By 
Bertha,  the  daughter  of  Charlemagne,  he  was 
father  of  two  sons,  Harnid,  and  Nithard,  the 
historian. 

ANGI'NA  PECTORIS  (Lat.  tightening  of 
the  chest  or  heart),  or  Heakt-stroke.  It  is 
characterized  by  intense  pain  and  sense  of  con- 
striction, which  occur  in  paroxysms  begin- 
ning o\er  the  region  of  the  heart,  or  deep  in  the 
chest,  and  extending  toward  the  left  shoulder. 
The  attacks  are  apt  to  appear  in  succession,  and 
ultimately  they  kill  the  patient.  As  to  the  true 
pathological  basis  of  angina  pectoris  we  are  still 
uncertain.  Changes  in  the  heart,  aorta,  and 
arteries,  varying  from  extensive  valvular  disease 
to  a  mild  arterio-sclerosis,  have  been  described. 
These  changes  are,  however, not  constant,  and  are 
also  found  in  cases  which  die  with  no  symptoms 
of  angina.  There  is  usuall3'  disease  of  the  coro- 
nary or  heart  arteries,  of  the  nature  of  an  arte- 
rio-sclerosis or  thickening  of  the  walls.  This 
may  be  especially  marked  at  the  origin  of  the 
vessels,  and  leads  to  a  diminution  in  lumen. 
A'^arious  theories  have  been  advanced  as  to  the 
true  nature  of  angina.  It  has  been  considered 
as  a  neuralgia  of  the  cardiac  nerves,  as  a  cramp 
of  the  heart  muscle,  as  due  to  extreme  dilatation 
of  the  heart — the  tense  muscle  pressing  the  nerve 
endings — and  as  a  temporary  ananiia  of  the 
heart  muscle  due  to  disease  or  spasm  of  the  ves- 
sels supplying  it  with  blood.  It  must  be  admit- 
ted, however,  that  such  suggestions  are  purely 
theoretical,  and  that  a  definite  patliological  basis 
of  angina  is  as  yet  undetermined.  Angina  pec- 
toris is  a  disease  of  adult  life,  occurring  most 
frequently  between  the  ages  of  forty  and  fifty. 
The  paroxysms  may  be  induced  by  any  excess  in 
diet,  by  exertion,  as  walking  uphill  or  against  a 
strong  wind,  or  by  mental  emotions.  It  is  there- 
fore advisable  for  those  who  have  had  an  attack 
of  angina  to  lead  a  quiet,  regular  life,  avoid  ex- 
cesses of  all  kinds,  and  particularly  refrain  from 
mental  excitement.  During  an  attack  the  physi- 
cian usually  administers  morphine,  nitrite  of 
amyl.  nitroglycerin,  or  chloroform. 

ANGIOLIERI,  an'jo-lya'rj,  Cecco  (e.  1250- 
c.  1312).  An  Italian  humorous  poet  of  Dante's 
time,  born  at  Siena,  not  earlier  than  l^fiO.  He 
sang  of  his  quarrels  with  his  father,  his  misad- 
ventures in  love,  and  the  poverty  under  which  he 


suffered.  His  verse  is  original  in  form.  No  fewer 
than  three  sonnets  are  devoted  to  Dante,  who,  it 
is  inferred,  charged  him  with  being  a  parasite, 
for  in  the  last  of  these  sonnets  Cecco  hurls  the 
epithet  back  at  him  with  a  vigor  which  must 
have  severed  their  relations  once  for  all.  Cecco 
himself  figures  in  one  of  the  tales  of  the  Decam- 
eron (IX.  4).  He  is  supposed  to  have  died 
about  1312.  Consult  Gaspary,  Italian  Litera- 
ture, Oelsner's  translation   (London,  1901). 

AN'GIO'MA.     See  Tumok. 

ANGIOSPERMS,  an'ji-o-spcrmz  (Gk.  ay. 
ysJoVj  angetoH,  vessel  -j-  cTTtpfia,  spcrina,  seed). 
A  name  applied  to  the  greatest  group  of  seed- 
plants,  Spermatophytes,  as  distinguished  from 
the  other  group,  Gymnosperms,  in  which  the 
"seeds  are  naked."  The  two  great  divisions 
of  Angiosperms  are  the  Monocotyledons  and  Di- 
cotyledons, once  called  the  "Endogens"  and  "Ex- 
ogens"  respectively.  The  Monocotyledons  are 
characterized  by  the  single  terminal  seed  leaf 
(cotyledon)  of  the  embrj'o,  the  scattered  woody 
bundles  of  the  stem,  the  closed  venation  (often 
called  "parallel  veined"),  and  the  three-parted 
flowers.  To  the  group  belong  such  forms  as  the 
common  pondweeds,  grasses,  palms,  aroids, 
lilies,  and  orchids.  The  Dicotyledons  are  char- 
acterized by  the  lateral  cotyledons,  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  woody  bundles  of  the  stem  into  a  hol- 
low cylinder,  the  open  venation  (often  called 
"net-veined"),  and  the  five-  or  four-parted  flow- 
ers. To  this  group  belong  such  forms  as  the 
common  trees  (poplars,  oaks,  elms,  etc.),  but- 
tercups, roses,  peas,  umbellifers,  heaths,  mints, 
composites,  etc.  The  Angiosperms  are  estimated 
to  comprise  over  100,000  species,  and  they  form 
the  most  conspicuous  part  of  the  vegetation  of 
the  earth.  Since  the  Gymnosperms  comprise 
only  about  400  living  species,  it  is  evident  that 
the  Angiosperms  are  the  chief  modern  represent- 
atives of  seed-plants.  It  is  among  Angiosperms 
also  that  the  true  flowers  are  developed,  with 
elaborate  relations  with  insects  for  securing  pol- 
lination. The  group  is  often  called  "true  flower- 
ing plants,"  because  it  is  ehai-acterized  by  the 
ordinary  conspicuous  flower. 

The  members  of  the  group  are  of  every  possible 
variety  of  habit,  from  minute  floating  forms  to 
gigantic  trees.  The  roots,  stems,  and  leaves  are 
more  elaborately  and  variously  organized  for 
work  than  those  of  any  other  plant  groups,  and 
the  whole  structure  of  the  body  is  the  most  com- 
plex found  in  the  plant  kingdom. 

It  is  among  the  Angiosperms  that  "stamens" 
and  "carpels"  become  definite  and  distinctly  de- 
veloped. The  stamen  of  the  Angiosperm  corre- 
sponds to  a  spore-bearing  leaf  of  the  fern-plants, 
but  shows  no  resemblance  to  an  ordinary  leaf  in 
form.  The  region  devoted  to  producing  the 
spores  is  called  the  "anther."  In  observing  the 
development  of  an  anther  it  is  found  that  four 
sporangia  usually  appear,  and  that  as  these  ap- 
proach maturity  they  fuse  in  pairs,  resulting  in 
the  appearance  of  two  pollen-sacs,  each  of  which 
has  been  derived  from  two  sporangia.  Occasion- 
ally in  Angiosperms  tlie  four  original  sporangia 
of  the  stamen  remain  distinct. 

The  carpels  of  Angiosperms  give  name  to  the 
group,  for  these  structures  inclose  the  ovules 
that  become  seeds,  the  name  angiosperms  mean- 
ing, as  has  been  said,  "seeds  in  a  case."  In  this 
regard  they  diff'er  decidedly  from  any  carpels 
which  exist  among  the  Gymnosperms,  in  which 


ANGIOSPERMS. 


558 


ANGLE. 


"loiip  thev  are  flat  and  open,  exposing  the  ovules, 
and  giving  rise  to  the  name,  wliich  means  "seeds 

naked."  ,,      . 

In  order  to  understand  the  following  state- 
ment of  the  technical  eharaoters  of  angiosperms, 
it  will  be' necessary  to  read  the  articles  Alterna- 
tion OF  Genek.\ti'ons,  and  Heterospoky. 

In   its   germination   the   pollen   grain    (micro- 


A  ma'ure  embrvo-sac  (c).  showing  the  three  antipodal 
cells  («i,  the  two  polar  nuclei  fusing  to  form  the  endosperm 
nucleus  (/)i,  the  two  synergids  (s),  the  egg  (o),  and  the  jiollen- 
tube  entering  to  discharge  its  sperm  cells.  The  two  integu- 
ments (!)  of  the  ovule  are  also  shown. 

spore)  produces  within  itself  usually  three  cells, 

which  represent    a    very    much    reduced    male 

plant.  One    of    these    cells    later    develops    the 

pollen  tube,  which  penetrates  to  the  egg,  while 


ciated  with  it  are  two  otlier  cells  called  syner- 
r-ids  (helpers).  This  group  of  three  cells  is 
called  tlie  egg  apparatus.  At  the  opposite  end  of 
the  sac  is  a  group  of  sterile  cells,  usually  three 
in  number,  and  called  the  antipodal  cells.  More 
centrally  placed  in  the  sac  is  the  seventh  cell, 
that  lias  been  formed  by  the  fusing  of  two  cells, 
and,  after  the  fertilization  of  the  egg,  is  to  de- 
velop the  endosperm  (nutritive  tissue  of  the 
seed) .  This  cell  is  called  the  "definitive  nucleus" 
or  "primary  endosperm  nucleus."  Before  fer- 
tilization, the  pollen  grain  containing  the  male 
plant  is  transferred  by  the  wind  or  by  insects  to 
the  stigma  (receptive  region  of  the  pistil),  the 
process  of  transfer  being  called  pollination 
(q.v.).  After  pollination  the  pollen  tube  is  de- 
veloped, which  penetrates  the  pistil  and  finally 
reaches  the  ovule,  carrying  in  its  tip  tlie  two 
male  cells  or  sperms,  the  tip  of  the  tube  then 
enters  the  micropyle,  crowds  its  way  to  the  egg, 
and  discharges  its'  contents.  One  sperm  passes  to 
the  egg  and  fuses  with  it,  this  act  being  called 
fertilization.  The  other  sperm  has  recently  been 
observed  to  pass  on  in  the  sac  and  fuse  with  the 
endosperm  nucleus;  but  it  remains  to  be  seen 
how  general  this  phenomenon,  called  double  fer- 
tilization, may  be  in  the  group. 

ANGLAISE,  iiN'glaz'.  An  English  country 
dance  {coutiedansc) ,  in  2-4,  3-4,  or  3-8  time. 
It  is  gay,  and  probably  originated  in  the  older 
form  of  the  French  ric/audnn.    See    Rigadoon. 

AN'GLE  (Lat.  angulus,  a  corner,  GIv. 
ayKv'/.oc:,  aiilijlos.  bent).  One  of  the  common 
geometric  concepts.  If  two  lines  meet,  they  are 
said  to  form  v.n  angle,  the  lines  being  called 
the  arms,  sides,  or  legs,  and  the  point  of  meet- 
ing the  vertex  of  the  angle.  The  size  of  the 
angle  is  determined  by  the  amount  of  turning 
necessary  to  carry  a  moving  radius  from  one 
arm  to  "the  other,"  and  hence  is  independent  of 
tlie  length  of  the  arms. 

If  the  arms  of  an  angle  are  in  the  same 
straight  line  on  opjjosite  sides  of  the  vertex,  a 


An  embryo  sac  (e),  showing  the  young  embryo  (w),  en- 
dosperm cells  (zy,  and  the  three  disorganizing  antipodal 
cells  (a). 

the  other  two  cells  are  tlie  sperms.  Tlie  embryo 
sac  within  the  ovule,  which  represents  a  single 
unshed  spore,  produces  within  itself  a  group  of 
cells,  usually  seven  in  number,  which  represent 
a  reduced  female  plant.  In  the  end  of  the  sac 
toward  the  micropyle  {the  opening  left  by  in- 
tegument)  the  single  egg  is  situated,  and  asso- 


straight  angle  (fig.  I)  is  formed;  half  of  a 
straight  angle  is  called  a  right  angle  (fig.  2); 
two  straight  angles  equal  a  perigon  or  angle  of 
3(i()°  (fig.  3).  Angles  are  also  conceived  exceed- 
ing 3(i0°;  tluis  an  angle  of  720°  is  described 
when  a  screw  is  turned  twice  around.  An  angle 
between  0°  and  00°  is  said  to  be  acute  (fig.  4)  ; 
one  between  90°  and  180°.  obtuse  (fig.  5); 
one  between  180°  and  3(30°.  reflex  (fig.  6).  An- 
gles are  considered  as  positive  if  generated  by 
a  radius  moving  counter-clockwise,  and  negative 


ANGLE. 


559 


ANGLESEY. 


if  tlio  radius  moves  clockwise.  If  the  arms  are 
s(r;\iL;lit.  the  an<;le  is  said  to  be  rcrlilhicai- : 
if  euived.  curvilinear;  if  arcs  of  great  circles 
on  a  sphere,  spherical.  Curvilinear  angles  have 
the  same  measure  as  the  rectilinear  angles 
formed  by  tangents  to  the  curves  at  the 
vertex.  If  two  planes  meet,  they  are  said 
to  form  a  dihedral  (C4k.  two-seated)  angle;  this 
lias  the  same  measure  as  the  rectilinear  angle 
fnniicd  by  two  lines  in  the  planes  that  are  per- 
|>i'iidicular  to  the  line  of  intersection  of  the 
planes.  If  three  or  more  ])lanes  meet  in  one 
point,  the.y  are  said  to  form  a  solid  angle,  the 
nieastiie  of  which  is  the  ratio  of  the  intercepted 
surface  to  the  entire  surface  of  any  sphere  hav- 
ing the  vertex  of  the  angle  as  its  centre.  A 
solid  angle  is  trihedral,  tctrahedral,  etc.,  accord- 
ing as  it  is  formed  by  3,  4,  etc..  planes.  For  the 
various  attempts  made  to  define  the  simple  con- 
cept angle,  consult  Schotten,  Inh<ilt  uiid  Mc- 
thoilc  (/(■*  planiiiietrischcn  Unl(-rrichts  (Leipzig, 
ISM). 

ANGLE.   Facial.     See  Anthropometry. 

ANGLE  I'RON.  See  Rolling  Mills,  for  a 
desciiplion  of  this  and  other  steel  shapes. 

ANGLE  OF  EL'EVA'TION,  Angle  of  De- 
PARTiRE,  and  other  terms  in  Gunnery.  See  Bal- 
listics, anil  GuN.XERY. 

AN'GLER  (The  name  alludes  to  its  seeming 
to  "angle"  for  its  pre}';  see  below).  A  singu- 
larly ugl}'  and  voracious  marine  fish  (Lophius 
jiisralorins) .  also  known  as  goose-fish,  monk-fish, 
all-mouth,  and  fishing-frog.  It  is  of  the  order 
I'cdiculati,  chiefly  characterized  by  the  greatly 
elongated  carpel  bones,  which  form  a  kind  of 
arm  supporting  the  pectoral  fins.  The  angler  is 
a  large  fish,  three  to  five  feet  in  length,  having 
the  large,  flattened  head  with  its  wide  nioutli 
and  luojecting  lower  jaw.  and  the  anterior  part 
of  the  body,  greatly  out  of  proportion  to  the  pos- 
terior tapering  part.  The  three  anterior  spines 
lLa\e  become  widely  separated  from  the  dorsal 
iln,  and  shifted  forward  onto  the  head,  where  the 
most  anterior  is  much  elongated,  bar))el-like,  and 
fleshy  at  the  tip.  It  is  bj'  the  brilliant  color  of 
this  and  other  worm-like  appendages  about  the 
mouth  that  the  fish  is  said  to  attract  smaller 
fishes  and  thus  make  them  easy  prey.  The  name 
goose-fish  refers  to  the  popular  belief  that  it  will 
seize  geese  and  other  swinnuing  birds.  It  is  a 
very  hardy  fish,  and  does  not  suffer  from  being 
out  of  the  water  as  readily  as  most  fishes.  It 
occurs  on  the  European  shores,  and  on  the  Amer- 
ican coast  from  Nova  Scotia  to  the  Barbadoes. 
Some  deep-sea  fishes  of  a  closely  related  family 
( -Vntennariida;)  are  sometimes  included  under 
the  same  name,  and  apparently  have  similar 
habits.  See  Fkog-fish,  and  plate  of  Anglers 
AXu  Batfish. 

AN'GLES.  A  Low  German  tribe  who  occu- 
pied the  district  of  Angeln  in  Schleswig-Hol- 
stein.  and  extended  to  the  west  as  far  as  the 
North  Sea.  With  the  .Jutes  and  the  Saxons, 
the  .Angles  passed  over  in  great  numbers  to 
Britain  during  the  fifth  century,  and  settled  in 
East  Anglia.  Xorthumbria.  and  Mcrcia.  From 
them  England  derives  its  name  fLat.  Anfilia, 
A.  S..  Eiif/la-laitd) .  After  these  migrations  from 
Schleswig.  the  Danes  from  the  north  entered 
the  deserted  districts,  and  mingled  with  the 
Angles  who  remained  there.     The  German  lan- 


by  immigrant  nobles  from  Holstein,  and  pre- 
vailed among  the  higher  classes;  but  until  the 
nineteenth  century  the  Danish  was  still  gener- 
ally spoken  by  the  common  peojjle.  During  the 
nineteenth  century  the  German  gained  the  as- 
cendency. The  mf)(lcrn  Angles  are  of  a  more 
passive  disposition  than  the  Frieslanders  and  the 
people  of  Ditmarschen,  and  religious  sentiment 
is  very  strongly  manifested  among  them.  The 
district  called  Angeln  extends  from  the  Schlei  on 
the  south  to  the  Flcnsburg  hills  on  the  north, 
contains  about  330  square  miles,  and  a  popula- 
tion of  about  38,000.  Kappeln  is  the  chief 
town.  The  name  has  no  political  or  administra- 
tive significance.  Consult  Erdmann,  Vbcr  die 
Heiinat  und  den  Kainen  der  Angeln  (Upsala, 
1891). 

ANGLESEY,  riu'gl'-se,  orANGLESEA  (A.  S. 
Angles  eg,  the  Angles  island).  A  county  and 
island  of  Wales,  separated  from  the  mainland  by 
the  ilenai  Strait  (Map:  Wales,  B  3).  Its 
length  is  about  20  miles,  breadth  about  17,  coast 
line  about  SO.  area  27.5  square  miles.  The 
count}-  is  divided  into  three  districts,  called  ean- 
trefs,  each  subdivided  into  two  cwmwds.  The 
market  towns  are  Amlwch  (a  flourishing  little 
seaport  of  5306  inhabitants),  Beaumaris  (q.v.), 
the  countv  town,  Holyhead  (q.v.),  Llangefni, 
and  Llanerchy-medd.  Pop.,  1891,  .50,01)8 ;  in  1901, 
50,590.  The  surface  is  generally  flat,  and  the 
.soil  of  indift'erent  fertility  and  only  partially 
cultivated,  Ijy  far  the  largest  part  being  under 
pasture.  The  ])rincipal  products  are  wheat,  bar- 
lej',  oats,  and  potatoes.  The  mineral  deposits  of 
the  island  are  still  important,  though  not  so  ex- 
tensive as  100  years  ago,  when  the  Parys  and 
Mona  copper  mines  were  considered  the  most  pro- 
ductive in  England.  Among  the  minerals  the 
most  important  at  present  are  copper,  lead, 
silver,  marble,  limestone,  asbestos,  and  coal.  The 
island  is  connected  with  the  mainland  by  one  sus- 
pension bridge  and  the  Britannia  tubular  bridge 
on  the  route  of  the  Chester  and  Holyhead  Rail- 
way. The  island  is  traversed  by  two  railway 
lines.  There  are  still  to  be  found  some  ancient 
relics  of  Druidism,  which  once  flourished  on  the 
island.  The  Welsh  language  is  largely  spoken  by 
the  peasantry.  Consult  H.  L.  Jones,  "The  Medi- 
seval  Antiquities  of  Anglesey,"  in  Volume  V., 
Archaeological  Journal    (London,   1844). 

ANGLESEY,  Henrt  William  Paget,  first 
marquis  of  (171)8-1854).  A  British  general  and 
statesman.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford  and  en- 
tered Parliament  in  1790.  He  commanded  a 
volunteer  corps  in  Flanders,  and  acquired  a  high 
reputation  as  a  cavalry  oflicer  in  the  Peninsu- 
lar War.  At  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  where  he 
commanded  the  British  cavalry,  he  lost  a 
leg.  On  his  return  to  P^ngland  he  re- 
ceived a  vote  of  thanks  from  Parliament,  and 
was  made  Marquis  of  Anglesey.  In  1828  he  was 
appointed  Lord-Lieutenant  of  Irelaiul  at  a  period 
when  that  country  was  greatly  agitated  over  the 
question  of  Catholic  emancipation.  This  he  at 
first  opposed,  but  afterward  advocated  it,  and  in 
consequence  was  recalled  by  Wellington  in  1829. 
lie  was  again  appointed  to  the  same  olRce  under 
Lord  Grey's  administration  in  1830;  but  his  co- 
ercive measures  destroyed  his  popularity,  and  he 
resigned  his  position  in  1833.  He  founded  the 
Irish  Board  of  Education.  In  1846  he  was  pro- 
moted a  field-marshal. 


ANGLESITE. 


5G0 


ANGLING. 


ANGLESITE.  aij'gle-sit.  A  lead  sulpliate 
that  crystallizes  in  the  orthorhombic  system,  and 
occurs  in  white, light-yellow, green. and  sonietinios 
blue  colors.  It  is  formed  as  a  result  of  the  de- 
composition of  galena,  and  was  originally  found 
in  Anglcsea.  England,  whence  its  name:  it  also 
occurs  in  Cornwall,  Derbyshire,  and  Cumberland: 
at  various  localities  in  the  Hartz:  in  Hungary: 
and  in  the  United  States,  at  Phcnixville,  Pa.,  at 
various  points  in  the  Missouri  lead  mines,  at 
Rossie,  N.  Y.,  and  elsewhere.  Anglesite  is  use- 
ful as  an  ore  of  lead   (q.v. ). 

AN'GLEWOKM'.  An  earthworm,  when  used 
as  fish-bait.     See  Eabthwokm. 

AN'GLIA,  East.  A  kingdom  founded  by  the 
Angles  before  the  middle  of  the  sixth  centiu-y,  in 
the  eastern  part  of  central  England,  comprising 
the  modern  counties  of  Norfolk  and  Suffolk,  and 
equivalent  in  extent  to  the  modern  see  of  Nor- 
wich. It  was  somewhat  dependent  on  Kent;  but 
about  G54,  Anglia  fell  under  the  sway  of  Jlercia, 
and  so  continued  till  Egbert.  King  of  Wessex.  con- 
quered Mercia  and  E:ist  Anglia.  in  82.5.  Alfred 
the  Great  gave  Anglia  to  the  Danes  under  Guth- 
rum  in  878;  but  Edward,  his  son  and  successor, 
forced  the  Danes  to  acknowledge  him  in  921. 
Anglia  soon  became  a  part  of  the  West  Saxon 
kingdom. 

AN'GEICAN.  Belonging  to  the  Church  of 
England  or  to  the  other  churches  in  communion 
with  it,  in  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  the  United 
States.  The  term  is  sometimes  ap])lied  to  the 
High  Church  party.  See  Anglican  Communion, 
and  Engi.axd,  Cnrr.cn  of. 

ANGLICAN  church;.  See  England, 
Chvucii  of. 

ANGLICAN  COMMTT'NION.  A  term  com- 
ing to  be  recognized  as  the  semi-official  title  of 
the  now  world-wide  body  which  is  in  communion 
with  the  Church  of  England  (q.v.)  as  repre- 
sented in  its  centre  of  unity,  the  see  of  Canter- 
bury. It  is  only  in  com])aratively  recent  years 
that  this  body  has  come  to  have  anything  like 
a  concrete  existence,  which  by  the  logic  of  events 
is  crystallizing  more  and  more,  in  contradiction 
though  it  be  to  the  famous  Branch  Tlieory  on 
which  the  claims  of  the  body  to  be  considered  a 
part  of  the  Catholic  or  Universal  Church  are 
based.  Its  component  parts  are  the  Episcopal 
Churches  of  England,  Scotland.  Ireland,  the 
British  colonies,  and  the  United  States,  with  a 
few  sporadic  organizations  on  similar  lines  in 
the  Latin  countries.  It  coheres  loosely  by  means 
of  general  agi-eement  in  worship  and  terms  of 
communion,  and  as  an  integial  body  is  repre- 
sented by  its  bishops  from  all  parts  of  the  world 
in  the  Lambeth  Conference  (q.v.)  at  irregular 
intervals. 

AN'GLIN,  IMargabet  (1876—).  An  Ameri- 
can actress,  daughter  of  the  Hon.  T.  \V.  Anglin, 
who  at  the  time  of  her  birth,  at  Ottawa,  Can- 
aaa,  was  Speaker  of  tlie  Canadian  House  of 
Commons.  After  studying  at  the  Empire 
School  of  Dramatic  Acting  (New  York  City), 
she  made  her  dfbut  at  New  York  in  Shen- 
andoah in  1894.  .\mong  her  roles  were  Roxane, 
in  Richard  Mansfield"s  p)esent.ation  of  Cyrano  <lr 
Jirrqcrar  ( 1SH8)  ;  iMimi.in  The  Onh|^Vn^|  ( 1809)  ; 
Mrs.  Dane,  in  Mrs.  Dane's  Defence  (1900)  ;  and 
Mabel  Va\ighn  in  The  Wihlerncss  (1901).  Con- 
sult Strang,  Famous  Acti-esses  of  the  Day  in 
America  (Boston,  1890). 


AN'GLING  (A.  S.  angel,  fish-hook,  akin  to 
Engl,  angle,  a  corner,  bend).  The  term  angling 
has,  by  common  understanding,  become  re- 
stricted to  the  catching  of  fish  as  a  source  of 
recreation,  while  the  word  fishing  expresses  it 
as  a  commercial  enterprise.  The  term  "angle" 
and  its  cognate  woids  in  most  languages  are 
limited  to  the  hook;  but  it  is  quite  clear  that  in 
Anglo-Saxon  the  word  includes  as  well  the  line 
and  rod;  a  definition  pjroljaljly  suggested  by  the 
position  a  rod  and  pendent  line  take  when  being 
used  for  bait  fishing,  at  which  time  they  form 
a  right  angle.  Shakespeare  refers  to  the  angle 
in  the  sense  of  rod,  line,  and  hook  in  Antony  and 
Cleopatra,  and  he  had  good  historic  basis  for 
selecting  angling  as  a  recreation  in  Egvpt,  for 
the  mural  paintings  of  the  Egyptians  make  it 
clear  that  angling  was  a  favorite  pastime  of 
their  men  of  rank.  So  accurately  is  the  spawn- 
ing of  fish  described  in  the  Bunduhish,  a  Pahlavi 
work  relating  to  the  creation,  as  to  suggest  the 
existence  of  angler  naturalists  among  the  fol- 
lowers of  Zoroaster.  Both  Greeks  and  Romans 
pursued  angling  for  diversion's  sake.  Many  al- 
lusions in  classical  authors  justify  the  inference 
that  tlie  idea  expressed  by  our  word  sportsman 
had  defined  shape  in  antiquity.     From  Homer  to  ', 

Oppian  there  were  piscatory  poets,  who  dwelt  on 
the    exciting    delights    of    the    craft.      Ojipian's 
Halieutica,   a   poem   of  the  second   century   a.d.. 
treats  of  the  natural  history  of  fishes,  and  of  the         ' 
fishing    methods    of    the    ancients.      The    perfect  ; 

angler  is  lierein  defined  as  "a  well-made,  active 
man,  patient,  vigilant,  enterprising,  courageous, 
and  full  of  exjiedients ; "  and  his  outfit  is  sum- 
med uji  in  a  couplet — 

"  The  glender  woven  net,  the  osier  creel. 
The  tapering  reed,  tlie  line,  and  barbed  steel." 

The  earliest  mention  of  fly-fishing  occurs  in 
the  Epirjrnms  of  Martial,  wherein  is  sung  the 
rising  (>}  the  wrasse  "decoyed  bv  fraiidful  flies;"' 
but  -Elian,  the  author  of  a  zoology-,  written  al>oiit 
200  A.D.,  gives  a  consummate  description  of  this 
method  of  taking  a  certain  species  of  trout  as 
practiced  by  the  Macedonians.  From  the  angling 
pictures  of  Ausonius  in  the  fourth  century, 
there  is,  w  ith  the  exception  of  a  brief  allusion  in 
Piers  Fulham.  written  about  the  year  1420,  a 
break  in  the  literature  relatin.g  to  this  sulijcct, 
until  we  reach  tiie  interesting  work  of  Dame 
Juliana  Berners.  prioress  of  Sopwell  Nunnery — 
A  Treatysc  of  Fysshynge  U'yth  on  Angle,  printed 
in  England  in  1496.  This  treatise  presents  de- 
tailed instructions  for  the  manufacture  of  tackle, 
gives  faultless  directions  for  fly-fishing,  and  de- 
scribes minutelv  "xij  flyes  wyth  wyche  ye  shall 
angle  to  ye  trought  &  grayllying."  The  flies  have 
been  tied  by  a  modern  expert,  in  accordance  witti 
the  directions  given  in  the  treatise,  and  they  do 
credit  to  the  taste  of  the  first  English  authoress. 
Leonard  Mascall's  4  Booke  of  Fishing  trilh 
Hooke  d-  Line  (1590),  the  next  work  of  impor- 
tance in  English,  is  largely  a  reproduction  of  the 
essay  of  the  literary  prioress.  The  Secrets  of 
A  ngling,  a  delightful  poem  liy  .lolni  Dcnuys, 
appeared  in  101,"i.  and  in  Uiol  Theinas  Barker's 
The  .4r<  of  .ingVnig,  the  first  work  in  which  fhe 
reel  is  recognized  as  essential  to  success  in  the 
capture  of  large  fish  with  rod  and  line.  Two 
years  later.  Walton's  The  Compleat  Angler:  or, 
'ihe  Conlemplatire  Ulari's  Recreation,  was  given 
to  the  world.     It  was  of  this  book  that  Charles 


ANGLING. 


561 


ANGLO-SAXON    ART. 


Lamb  \vrote:  '"It  would  sweeten  .a  man's  temiJer 
at  any  time  to  read  it;  it  would  Tliristianize 
every  discordant,  angry  passion."  Angling  is 
one  of  t)ie  richest  departments  of  English  letters. 
W'estwood  and  Satchel's  Bibliotheca  I'iscatoria, 
published  as  long  ago  as  18S3,  catalogues  over 
three  thousand  works  more  or  less  concerning 
fish  and  fishing.  Angling  will  be  found  treated 
in  detail  under  three  heads,  viz.:  fly-casting, 
bail-fishing,  and  trolling.  To  such  as  wish  to 
understand  the  natural  history  of  the  objects  of 
their  pursuit  as  Avell  as  to  master  the  various 
methods  of  capture,  the  following  instructive 
monographs  are  recommended  in  addition  to  the 
volumes  referred  to  in  this  article:  Izaak  Wal- 
ton, Viiiiipleat  Anijlcr;  or  the  Contemplative 
Miin'f:  Itecreation  (first  New  York  edition,  1847)  ; 
Giinther,  An  Introduction  to  the  iSVwrfi/  of 
Fishes:  Day,  British  and  Irisli  S(ilmonid<r ;  G. 
B.  Goode.  Ame^-iciin  Fishes  (New  York,  ISSS); 
Seth  Green,  Home  Fishing  mid  Home  Waters 
(New  York.  1888)  ;  Green  and  Roosevelt,  Fish 
Batching  and  Fish  Catching;  Wright,  Fishes, 
Their  Loves,  Passions,  and  lntcU<-cts;  Cholmon- 
deley-Pennell,  Modern  Improvements  in  Fishing 
Taclde  (London,  1887)  ;  The  Angler  yatvralist, 
and  the  two  volumes  of  the  Badminton  Library 
of  Sports,  entitled  Fishing:  Nobbe,  Art  of  Troll- 
ing, and  J.  J.  JIanley,  Literature  of  Sea  and 
h'iver  Fishing  (London,  1883).  See  Flt-Cast- 
ING;  Bait-Fishikg  ;  Tbolijxg. 

AN'GLO  IS'RAELITE       THE'ORT.         An 

opinion  as  to  the  origin  of  the  English  people, 
held  quite  extensively  in  both  Britain  and  Ameri- 
ca. It  is  maintained  that  the  Englisli  are  de- 
scended from  the  Israelites,  who  were  made  cap- 
tives by  the  Assyrians  under  Sargon  (c.  722  r.c.) 
— the  so-called  Lost  Ten  Tribes — and  brought 
into  Media,  where  they  are  identified  with  the 
Sac£e  or  Scythians,  who  appeared  as  a  conquering 
horde  there  aliout  the  same  time.  The\-  next 
swarmed  westward  into  northern  Europe,  and  be- 
came progenitors  in  particular  of  the  Saxon  in- 
vaders of  England.  The  theory  is  destitute  of 
scientific  proof.  The  Ten  Tribes  were  never  lost; 
they  were  absorbed  in  the  surrounding  po])ula- 
tion,  and  so  disappeared.  But  the  vitality  of  the 
Anglo-Israelite  theory  is  sho%vn  by  the  appear- 
ance of  the  book  bj'  Jl.  L.  Streator,  The  Anglo- 
Alliance  in  Propheci/ ;  or,  The  Promises  to  the 
Fathers  (New  HaTen,  Conn.,  1000,  two  volumes). 

AN'GLOMA'NIA    (A  hybrid  formation  from 

Anglo,  Englisli  -;-  Gk.  fiarin,  munia,  madness, 
frenzy,  enthusiasm).  A  term  which  designates, 
in  America  and  other  countries,  a  weak  imitation 
of  English  manners,  customs,  etc.,  or  an  indis- 
criminate admiration  of  English  institutions. 
In  German  literature,  an  Anglomania  was  especi- 
;illy  prevalent  in  the  eighteenth  century,  wlien 
translations  of  English  books  became  numerous, 
and  were  read  with  great  admiration.  The  Ger- 
mans have  ascribed  the  sentimental  and  affected 
style  of  some  parts  of  their  literature  to  the  in- 
fluence of  the  English  literature  of  that  century. 
But  the  .\nglomania  was  harmless  in  comparison 
with  the  Gallomania,  or  imitation  of  French  lit- 
erature and  customs,  which  prevailed  in  the  time 
of  Fredej'ick  II.  of  Piussia,  and  was  developed  in 
the  writings  of  Wieland.  A  remarkable  .Anglo- 
mania prevailed  in  France  for  some  time  before 
the  commencement  of  the  Revolution.  It  arose 
out  of  political  considerations  and  admiration  of 
English  free  institutions,  biit  extended  to  trifles 


even  of  fashions  and  manners,  and  often  became 
very  ridiculous.  Gallomania  was  prevalent  in  the 
United  States  during  the  last  few  years  of  the 
Third  Empire,  from  1804  to  1870.  the  Empress 
Eugenie  set  the  fashions  for  American  women, 
and  everything  French  was  admired  and  imit:>ted 
by  the  'smart"  set  in  New  York  and  other  .\mer- 
ican  cities.  It  was  at  this  time  that  the  famous 
saying  originated  which  declares  that  "when  good 
Americans  die,  they  go  to  Paris."  Since  the 
garish  and  somewhat  vulgar  court  of  the  Third 
Napoleon  has  been  replaced  in  France  by  the 
more  sober  regime  of  the  Rejmblic,  Anglomania 
has  replaced  Gallomania  with  our  fashionable 
set,  and  the  devotion  of  certain  people  to  the 
cult  of  British  manners  has  for  some  time  been 
a  fruitful  theme  of  ])opular  satire. 

AN'GLO-SAX'ON  ART.  X  term  used  to 
describe  whatever  works  of  art  were  produced 
in  England  during  the  period  of  about  six  cen- 
turies between  the  time  of  the  concjucst  by  the 
Angles,  Saxons,  and  other  Germanic  tribes  and 
the  time  of  the  Norman  coiKjuest  in  the  eleventh 
century.  They  found  a  combination  f)f  distinct 
Roman  and  Celtic  art  traditions,  and  were  influ- 
enced by  them,  and  subsequently  by  Christian  art 
from  Rome  and  Byzantium.  Their  originality 
was  shown  principally  in  their  jewelry  (especi- 
ally the  c7o)so)i?ip)  and  arms,  in  which,  however, 
they  had  borrowed  what  they  knew  from  the 
Goths,  whose  works  of  the  same  kind  were  far 
more  artistic.  In  architecture,  the  .\nglo-Saxons 
used  principally  wood,  and  relied  entirely  on 
foreign  workmen  for  their  rare  buildings  in 
stone,  which  were  extremely  plain,  and  this,  which 
can  hardly  be  called  a  "style,"  was  influenced 
and  partly  superseded  by  the  Norman  style  even 
before  the  Conquest.  The  .\ngl()-Saxons  excelled 
in  the  illuminating  of  MSS.,  and  in  this  they  bor- 
roAved  from  the  Irish  Celts,  and  in  their  turn  as- 
sisted the  Irish  monks  in  teaching  the  Carlovin- 
gian  artists;  for  the  gieat  Anglo-Saxon  monas- 
teries sent  masters  to  those  in  Gaul  before  and 
after  the  time  of  Alcuin. 

Of  the  stone  churches,  hardly  a  single  one  sur- 
vives intact,  all  those  of  any  importance  having 
been  reconstructed  ^hen  the  Norman  or  the 
Gothic  style  was  favored.  The  stone-masons, 
who  were  brought  from  Gaul  and  Rome  in 
the  seventh  century  to  build  the  first  stone 
churches,  erected  for  Benedict  Biseop  the  fa- 
mous monasteries  of  Wearmouth  and  Yarrow: 
small  parts  of  them  remain.  The  little  hall 
chinch  at  Bradford,  entirely  without  columns,  is 
almost  the  only  complete  structure  remaining 
(70.5  A.D.).  To  about  the  same  time  belong 
the  crypts  at  Ripon  and  Hexham.  After  these 
early  works,  which  retain  something  of  a  Con- 
tinental and  Roman  style,  the  later  monu- 
ments of  the  ninth,  tenth  and  early  eleventh 
centuries,  show  an  increase  of  Celtic  peculiar- 
ities. The  church  towers  have  sometimes  sur- 
vived where  the  churches  themselves  have  been 
renovated,  and  they  form  the  most  interest- 
ing group  of  Anglo-Saxon  monuments,  from 
such  simple  ones  as  that  of  Barton-on-Humber, 
through  the  more  architectural  examples  at 
Barnack  and  Sompting,  to  the  richer  towers 
of  Earl's  Barton  and  Deerhurst.  They  are  built 
of  crude,  irregular  masonry — a  few  large  blocks 
set  in  the  midst  of  a  mass  of  small  stones.  The 
corners  are  formed  of  long-and-short  work,  the 
high  and  narrow  stones  alternating  with  the  flat, 
long  ones  bonded  into  the  wall.     In  the   more 


ANGLO-SAXON    ABT. 


5G2 


ANGLO-SAXON   LAW. 


elaborate  examples  tlie  surface  is  decorated  with 
a  series  of  vertical  lines  of  pilaster  strips  occa- 
sionally joined  by  arched  or  gabled  connecting 
strips,"  and  the  few  windows  are  sometimes 
arched,  sometimes  topped  with  two  slanting 
straight  pieces  forming  gables;  while  their  jambs, 
or  divisions  (in  two-light  windows),  are  either 
pilasters  or  the  peculiar  baluster  colonnettes  not 
found  except  in  this  style.  There  are  very  few 
mohlings  and  verv  little  sculpture — none  of  it 
being  figured.  In  fact,  tlie  style  is  so  rude  as 
hardly  to  rise  to  the  dignity  of  art. 

The   Saxons  were  entirely   without  monumen- 
tal sculpture  or  painting  of  native  growth,  and 
it    is    only    in    their    industrial    arts    that    their 
character' emerges  at  all  clearly.     Even  here  they 
are  inferior  to  "the  Goths  in  their  jewelry,  enam- 
eling, and  goldsmith  work,  and  to  the  Irish  in 
their  illuminating  of  manuscripts.     Comparison 
with    the    Book    of   Kells,    the    Gospels    of    Mac- 
Kegol,  and  other   Irish  illuminations  will  prove 
this.     It  is  true  that  the  Gospels  of  Lindisfarne 
(British  JIuseum)  are  equal  to  these  works,  but 
they  were  executed  by  Saxon  pupils  of  the  Irish 
monks.     Another   remarkably   fine   work   is   the 
Bencdictional  of  St.  Athelwold.     In  one  particu- 
lar the  Saxon  works  are  superior — in  the  treat- 
ment of  the  human  figure,  which  in  Irish  works 
is   a  mere  piece  of   decorative   scroll-work  with- 
out a  trace  of  resemblance  to  the  human  form  or 
real  drapery.     The  influence  of  the  pictures  and 
illuminated'    WSS.     brought    to     England     from 
Rome,  and  of  the  Byzantine  MSS.,  gave  the  Sax- 
ons the  advantage  of  good  models  for  subjects  of 
religious  art,  as  is  shown  in  such  works  as  the 
Cuthbert  Gospels  (British  Jluseum) .     There  are 
three  stvles  in  Anglo-Saxon  illuminations :    ( 1 ) 
stage  of' Roman  influence,  seventh  century,  when 
the  missionaries  from  Rome  and  Benedict  Biscop 
gave   Roman  models    (illustrated  by  the  Golden 
Stockholm  Gospels  and  the  Psalter  of  St.  Augus- 
tine, British  Museum)  :   (2)   stage  of  Irish  influ- 
ence, with  predominance  of  the  geometric  orna- 
ment of  beautiful  elaborate  designs  taken   from 
textile  fabrics,  metal  work,  and  conventionalized 
animal     forms,     seventh     and     eighth     centuries 
(Durham  Gospels,  Gospels  of  St.  Cuthbert,  Brit- 
ish Museum,  Athel  wold's  Book  of  Prayers  at  Cam- 
bridge) ;   (.3)  stage  of  reactive  influence  of  Carlo- 
ving'ian     (Frankish)     and    Byzantine    art,    with 
re- introduction    of    figured   composition   and   the 
placing  of  ornament  in  the  backgiound.     This  late 
development   was    rapid    under    the    direction    of 
SS.   Athelwold  and  Dunstan.  in  the  ninth   and 
tenth    centuries     (Psalters    of    King    Athelstan, 
British  Museum;   Missal  of  Leofric,  Oxford:  Gos- 
pels   and    Psalter    of    Boulogne;    Gospels    called 
"Bib.  Greg."  in   British  Museum:   Ca^dmon,  Ox- 
ford:  Cotton  Psalter,  etc.).     Certainly  the  pecu- 
liar interest  of  all  the  Saxon   illumination  lies 
in    its    immense    initial    letters    and    full-page 
geometric   ornamentation,   in   which   the   artists 
rivaled  the  Irish  in  a  field  where  neither  Italian 
nor  Byzantine  illuminations  had  preceded  them. 
They  "blazed   a   way  which   was   followed   by   all 
subsequent  illuminators  in  varying  degrees:  and 
for    delicacy    and    precision    of    touch,    judicious 
treatment  of  surface,  and  balance  of  composition, 
their  geometric  work  has  never  been  surpassed. 
In   their   good   thouch   simple  color   scheme,   one 
point  is  remarkal)le— that  they  never  used  gold 
leaf.    In  this  they  influenced  Carlovingian  illumi- 
nators in  direct  opposition  to  the  Byzantine  style 
of  profuse  gold  grounds  and  ornaments.    In  so  far 


as  similarities  have  been  noticed  in  Scandina- 
vian works,  it  is  probable  that  they  are  due  to 
influences  from  Great  Britain  rather  than  rirc 
versa.  When  Charlemagne  encouraged  art,  he 
found  the  British  monasteries  a  great  resource. 
The  great  Bible  of  St.  Denis  (British  Museum) 
and  the  Leipzig  Psalter  are  examples  of  this  Brit- 
ish influence  on  illumination  among  the  "Franks. 
Durins  the  last  stage,  when  the  geometric  style 
was  abandoned,  extensive  composition  in  pen-and- 
ink  outline  became  a  favorite  method  of  illustra- 
tion Consult:  Rickman,  An  Attempt  to  Dis- 
criminate  the  Styles  of  Architecture  in  England 
(London,  IS48)  ;  De  Baye,  The  Industrial  Arts 
of  the  Anglo-Saxons  (London,  1893)  ;  Akerman, 
Remains  of  Saxon  Saxondom  (London,  1853)  ; 
Kemble,  Borw  Fcralcs  (London,  1863)  ;  Parker, 
Introdnetion  to  the  Study  of  Gothic  Arehiteeture 
(London,  1847)  ;  Westwood,  Facsimiles  of  the 
Miniatures  and  Ornaments  of  Anglo-Saxon  and 
Irish  Manuscripts  (London,  1868)  ;  also  volumes 
oi  the  Archo'ologia    (London,  1770  /o»). 

ANGLO-SAXON  LAN'GUAGE  AND  LIT'- 
EKATURE.     The  term  Anglo-Saxon  is  employ- 
ed, in  popular  speech  and  to  some  extent  among 
scholars,  to  designate  the   language  of  the  Ger- 
manic peoples  in  England  before  the  coming  of 
the   Normans    (1066).     Such,   however,   was   not 
the  usage  of  those  who   wrote  in   the  lau.guage. 
Alfred,  .Elfric.  and  others  repeatedly  called  it 
Eualise,    i.e.,    English.     True,     the     expressions 
Angli  Saxones  aiid   Saxoncs  Angli,  i.e.,   English 
Saxons,  occur  in  mediaeval  Latin  literature,  but 
they  were  used  to  distinguish  the  Saxons  in  Eng- 
land from  those  on  the  Continent.     It  was  not 
until  the  revival  of  interest  in  England's  earliest 
history  and  literature,  which  dates  from  Camden's 
Britannia    (1586),   that   the   compound   ".\nglo- 
Saxon"  made  its  appearance,  to  denote,  without 
any  reference  to  their  Continental  kinsmen,  the 
entire  English  people  and  their  language.     This 
designation  was  generally  followed  by  historians 
and'^philologists  "down   t'o   1875.     Since   then   an 
increasing    number    of    them    have    adopted    the 
usage  of  King  Alfred.     To  the  earliest  period  in 
the   history  of   the   English   language  they   have 
given  the  name  Old  English.     The  term  Anglo- 
t^axon,  it  is  argued,  is  misleading;   for  it  seems 
to  imply  that  our   language  before  the  Norman 
conquest  was  not  English.     It  is,  of  course,  ad- 
mitted  that   the   English    language     underwent 
gieat   phonetic    and   inflectional   changes   in    the 
twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries;   and  yet  Eng- 
lish has  alwavs  remained  English.     On  this  con- 
tinuity  in  the  development  of  our   speech,   the 
proper  emphasis  is  laid  by  the  term  Old  English. 
For  this  and  other  reasons,  it  has  seemed  best  to 
treat  the  so-called  Anglo-Saxon  language  and  lit- 
erature under  English  Language,  and  Engli.sii 

LlTEUATCUE. 


AN'GLO-SAX'ON  LAW.  The  body  of  law 
of  the  Anfflo-Saxons.  It  was  not  until  the  close 
of  the  nineteenth  century  that  historical  inves- 
ti-'ation  enabled  one  to  form  even  a  tolerably 
clear  conception  of  the  legal  system  that  pre- 
vailed in  England  prior  to  the  Norman  conquest. 
The  earliest  written  records  of  that  system  are 
the  Anglo-Saxon  "dooms,"  or  judgments,  which 
o-o  back  to  the  sixth  century  of  our  era.  From 
the  time  of  Ethelbert  of  Kent  to  that  of  Ed- 
ward the  Confessor  these  records,  though  frag- 
mentary, appear  in  an  almost  unbroken  series, 
supplemented  by  land  charters  and  wills,  collect- 


ANGLO-SAXON    LAW. 


r,t]3 


ANGLO-SAXONS. 


ed  tlirough  tlie  industry  of  iiiodcin  spliolnrs. 
These  give  us  a  far  from  eomplele,  but  yet  a 
fairly  consistent,  idea  of  the  principles  and  pro- 
<edu"re  of  Anglo-Saxon  law.  This  was,  even  at 
the  time  of  the  Conquest,  a  primitive  law,  con- 
cerning itself  mostly  with  the  personal  relations 
of  free  and  unfree  men,  liegemen  and  lordless 
men,  or  outlaws,  with  crimes  of  violence — homi- 
cide, wimniling,  and  cattle-stealing — and  with  a 
simple  and  slowly  developing  law  of  real  pvop- 
crtv.  Contract  law,  as  we  understand  the  term, 
did"  not  exist.  Thei-e  was  no  distinction  be- 
tween willful  and  accidental  homicide  or  maim- 
ing, and  all  crimes  were  punished  by  the  inflic- 
tion of  heav,v  fines,  which  were  graduated,  not 
according  to  the  atrocity  of  the  deed,  but  aecord- 
ing  to  the  personal  status  or  dignit.v  of  the  per- 
son injured.  Indeed,  the  law  of  persons  con- 
sisted almost  entirely  of  a  graded  valuation  of 
the  individual's  life  or  limb,  and  the  terms 
'■  twelve-hundred-shilling  man,"  "  two-hundred- 
shilling  man."  were  the  well-understood  equiva- 
lents of  terms  of  rank  or  personal  status. 

Anglo-Saxon  land  law  was  a  composite  of  Teu- 
tonic customary  law  and  the  rules  growing  out 
of  the  personal  and  property  relations  of  lord  and 
vassal,  the  former  probably  predominating. 
Folc-land  (q.v. )  was  tlie  name  given  to  land 
the  title  of  which  rested  on  the  common,  cus- 
tomary, and  unwritten  law.  Land  derived  bv 
grant  from  the  King  was  known  as  boc-land 
( q.v. ) ,  the  title  resting  on  the  book,  or  written 
instrument,  creating  it.  It  is  in  the  latter  that 
the  elements  of  a  feudal  form  of  tenure  existed; 
but  it  is  probable  that  all  forms  of  tenure  were 
move  or  less  dependent;  though  of  feudal  tenure, 
in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term,  there  are  only 
a  few  traces  before  the  Conquest.  The  allodial 
ownership,  referred  to  in  the  books,  was  not  the 
"absolute  and  unqualified  property"  in  land 
which  Blaekstone  and  other  later  writers  had  in 
mind  when  the.v  used  the  term.  Sometimes  it  is 
employed  as  the  equivalent  of  boc-land,  and  more 
often  merelv  as  signifving  an  inheritable  estate. 
See  Allodiim;  Feudali-sm ;  Tenure. 

The  Anglo-Saxon  judicial  system  was  of  the 
loosest  p{)ssible  description.  Tlie  public  courts — 
the  hundred  court  and  the  countv  court — were 
popular  and  local  in  character,  and  bad  no  ef- 
fective process  for  carrying  their  judgments  into 
effect.  There  was  no  supreme  judicial  tribunal, 
no  curia  reffis,  such  as  developed  in  the  Norman 
period;  and  when  the  king's  justice  was  invoked 
to  remedy  an  act  of  injustice  committed  bv  the 
regular  tribunals,  it  was  an  irregular  and  extra- 
legal, or  at  least  extra-judicial,  power  which  he 
was  called  upon  to  exercise.  Toward  the  close 
of  the  Saxon  period,  a  multiplicity  of  private 
courts  sprang  up,  the  predecessors  of  the  courts- 
baron  of  a  later  date.  See  M.vnor;  Court- 
Baron  ;  CuRi.v  Regis;  King's  Bench.  Consult; 
Pollock  and  JIaitland,  Historii  of  English  Law 
(Boston,  ISOfl),  for  a  brief  but  comprehensive 
description  of  Anglo-Saxon  law  and  its  adminis- 
tration;  also  Lee,  Hialoricnl  Juri.ipriidcnre  (New 
"Vork.  1900).  and  Holmes,  The  Common  Law 
(Boston.  IS.Sl). 

ANGLO-SAXONS.  The  collective  name  gen- 
erally given  by  historians  to  the  variovis  Teu- 
tonic or  German  tribes  which  settled  in  Kngland, 
chieflv  in  the  fifth  century,  and  founded  the 
kingdoms  which  were  ultimately  comljined  into 
the  English  monarchy  and  nation.  Various 
groups  of  them  were  known  as  .Vngles,  Saxons, 


and  .Jutes.  The  traditional  statement  is,  that 
the  first  of  these  invaders  made  their  appear- 
ance in  Britain  in  449,  having  Hengist  and 
Horsa  as  their  leaders.  But  \inder  the  more 
searching  scrutiny  of  later  writers,  these  famous 
leaders  have  come  to  be  looked  upon  as  ni,vthical 
heroes  of  romance,  common  to  most  of  the  Ger- 
manic nations;  and  though  the  fact  of  a  gi'cat 
CJermanic  invasion  in  the  middle  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tur,v  is  not  doubted,  it  is  believed  that  tliis  was 
by  no  means  tlie  earliest  period  at  which  Ger- 
manic settlements  were  effected  in  England. 
Long  pievious  to  this  period,  a  portion  of  the 
coast,  extending  from  Portsmouth  to  Wells  in 
Norfolk,  was  known  as  the  Tjitus  Saxonicum;  but 
whether  in  reference  to  Saxons  by  whom  it  was 
settled,  or  to  roving  adventurers  of  that  race 
by  whom  it  was  ravaged,  is  still  a  subject  of 
dispute.  Of  the  three  tribes  mentioned  above, 
the  Jutes  are  stated  to  have  been  the  first 
comers.  Their  earliest  home  was  in  what  is  now 
Schleswlg,  North  Germany,  and  the  portions  of 
England  of  which  they  ])ossessed  themselves  were 
Kent,  the  Isle  of  \\  ight,  and  the  opposite  coast 
of  Hampshire.  The  Saxons  settled  chiefly  in 
the  southern  parts  of  England — in  Sussex,  Es- 
sex, Middlesex,  the  south  of  Hertford,  Surrey, 
the  part  of  Hampshire  not  possessed  b}'  the 
Jutes;  also  Berkshire,  Wiltshire,  Dorset,  Som- 
erset, Devon,  and  the  portion  of  Cornwall  \\hich 
did  not  remain  in  the  possession  of  its  former 
(Celtic  inhabitants.  The  Saxons  who  invaded  . 
England  probably  belonged  chiefly  to  the  portion 
of  that  great  nation,  or  confederacy  of  nations, 
whose  territories  lay  on  the  shores  of  the  Bal- 
tic and  about  the  lower  Elbe,  occupying  a  region 
corresponding  to  Holstein,  the  north  of  Hanover, 
and  the  west  of  Jlccklenburg.  Of  the  settlements 
of  the  third  tribe  «e  have  no  knowledge,  until 
we  find  them  established  along  the  eastern  coast 
of  Britain.  Whether,  as  some  recent  historians 
maintain,  they  were  Enger-Saxons,  from  the 
lower  Weser,  or,  as  most  assert.  Angles  (q.v.) 
from  Schleswig,  a  corner  of  which  is  at  the  pres- 
ent lime  called  Angcht,  it  is  certain  that  they 
made  a  succession  of  descents  on  the  coasts 
of  Suffolk  and  Norfolk,  on  the  country  to  the 
noi'th  of  the  Humber,  and  the  southern  part  of 
Scotland  between  the  Tweed  and  the  Forth. 
From  these  coasts  they  made  their  way  inland, 
and  eventually  obtained  possession  of  the  whole 
of  England,  except  the  portions  already  men- 
tioned ;  that  is  to  say,  of  all  the  part  to  the 
north  of  the  Avon,  on  the  one  side,  and  the 
Thames  on  the  other,  Essex,  Middlesex,  and 
part  of  Hertford  excepted.  The  union  of  dif- 
ferent bands  of  these  conquerors  among  them- 
selves, M'ith  their  countrymen  who  had  preceded 
them,  and  with  the  Celtic  population  which, 
though  conquered,  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose 
was  exterminated,  gave  rise  to  the  so-called 
Heptarchy  (q.v.),  the  kingdoms  of  Northum- 
bria  (originallv  Bernieia  and  Deira),  Kent,  Sus- 
.sex,  Wessex,  Essex,  East  Anglia,  and  Mercia. 

The  various  independent  States  into  which  Eng- 
land had  till  then  been  divided  were  united  by 
Egbert,  King  of  Wessex,  in  S27,  into  one  king- 
dom. The  royal  family  of  Wessex,  which  was 
thus  raised  to  the  kinglv  dignity  over  the  whole 
country,  never  again  lost  its  supremacy  till  the 
Norman  Conquest,  except  during  the  periods 
from  878  to  9.18,  when  the  Danes  ruled  the  king- 
doms north  of  the  Thames,  and  from  lOK)  to 
1042,  when  Danish  kings  ruled  over  all  of  Eng- 


ANGLO-SAXONS. 


564 


ANGLO-SAXONS. 


land.  Indeed,  all  the  later  luleis  of  England, 
except  the  four  kings  of  the  Norman  house,  have 
been  descended  from  the  same  line.  Alfred  the 
Great  (q.v. )  was  the  most  famous  king  during 
the  Saxon  period.  The  whole  ruling  race  even- 
tually came  to  be  known  among  themselves  from 
the  most  numerous  element  in  it,  the  English, 
and  their  land  as  Angle-land,  or  England.  The 
Celtic  races  in  Wales,  Scotland,  and  Ireland, 
however,   have   always   known   them   as    Saxons. 

Christianity  was  introduced  among  the  new- 
comers in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixth  century 
by  missionaries  from  the  Christian  Scotch  and 
Irish,  to  the  northward,  and  at  the  same  time  by 
St.  Augustine,  a  missionary  sent  by  Pope  Greg- 
ory I.,  and  b.y  his  companions  and  successors. 
Augustine  became  the  first  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury: the  Roman  missionary  movement  gi-ad- 
lially  superseded  the  Celtic,  and  before  the  close 
of  the  seventh  century  the  wliole  of  England  was 
a  Christian  country  under  one  metro])olitan. 
Etlielbert,  King  of  Kent,  was  the  first  sovereign 
who  embraced  tlie  Christian  religion.  Bringing 
with  them  the  traditions  and  feelings  of  the 
empire,  the  whole  influence  of  the  clergy  was 
thrown  into  the  scale  of  monarchy,  and  greatly 
tended  to  its  consolidation.  Their  custom  of  hold- 
ing councils  of  prelates  from  all  over  England, 
and  of  adopting  regulations  for  the  English 
Church  at  large,  also  exercised  a  strong  influence 
on  the  growth  of  a  feeling  of  national  unity. 
The  English  clergy  in  general  were  not  very  sub- 
missive to  the  authority  of  the  Popes,  and  the 
connection  with  Rome  was  a  very  tenuous  one 
during  the  whole  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  period.  St. 
Dunstan  (q.v.)  was  proliably  the  most  famous 
churchman  of  this  period.  The  early  English 
Church  was  distinguished  for  the  learning  and 
laboriousness  of  its  clergj'.  Bcde  (q.v.)  is  the 
most  eminent  author  whom  it  produced.  Be- 
tween his  time  and  that  of  Alfred,  a  very  great 
degeneracy  had  taken  place  both  in  the  learning 
and  ellicieney  of  the  clergy,  which  that  active 
and  enlightened  sovereign  labored  to  restore,  but 
with  only  partial  success.  St.  Boniface  (q.v.) 
and  many  other  English  and  Scottish  mission- 
aries labored  with  success  in  the  propagation  of 
Chiistianity   in   Germany. 

The  monastic  system  took  strong  hold  on  the 
Anglo-Saxons,  and  a  number  of  Benedictine  ab- 
beys A\ere  founded  and  endowed  with  exten- 
sive landed  possessions.  Most  of  the  bishoprics 
which  were  to  remain  the  pei'manent  adminis- 
trative divisions  of  the  English  national  Church 
were  organized,  and  the  prim.acy  of  the  two 
metropolitan  sees  of  Canterbury  and  York  was 
acknowledged. 

The  political  organization  of  the  Anglo-Saxons 
before  they  were  united  under  one  government  is 
almost  unknown,  and  must  have  been  e.xceed- 
ingly  crude,  being  scarcely  developed  beyond 
tribal  conditions.  After  the  union  under  the 
West  Saxon  monarchy,  however,  they  attained 
a  considerable  degree  of  constitutional  develop- 
ment. The  most  marked  characteristic  was  the 
large  amount  of  power  possessed  by  local  as- 
semblies or  motx.  The  township  existed  as  an 
economic  and  administi'ativc.  but  scarcely  as  a 
political,  body.  The  political  unit  of  the  coun- 
try was  the  hundred.  It  was  a  certain  stretch 
of  country  or  a  certain  body  of  the  population 
whose  members  met  from  time  to  time  for  vari- 
ous  public   functions,   principally  judicial.     The 


significance  of  the  numerical  expression  applied 
to  it  is  quite  unknown.  There  was  an  official 
known  as  the  hundred's  caldor,  who  seems  to 
have  presided  at  the  hundred-mot  and  exercised 
certain  police  functions.  Just  as  a  gioup  of 
townships  made  up  the  hundred,  so  a  group  of 
hundreds  made  up  a  shire,  the  later  count;/.  The 
inhabitants  of  tlie  shire  also  held  a  meeting,  the 
shire-mot,  at  which  judicial  cases  were  settled 
as  ^^■ell  as  at  the  hundred-mot.  but  which  seems 
to  have  existed  more  normally  for  fiscal  and  mili- 
tary purposes.  The  aide-bodied  men  of  the  shire 
when  called  out  for  fighting  purposes  were  known 
as  the  fyrd.  The  administrative  and  military 
head  of  the  shire  was  the  ealdorman,  called  later, 
in  imitation  of  the  Danish  term  jarl.  the  earl. 
An  equally  important  if  not  so  exalted  official  of 
the  shire  was  the  .ihirc-recve  or  sheriff,  the  rep- 
resentative of  the  King's  power  and  interests  in 
the  shire,  as  the  ealdorman  was  the  representa- 
tive of   local   independence   and   self-government. 

At  the  head  of  the  wliolc  system  of  govern- 
ment was  the  King,  although  ordinarily  he  took 
no  important  political  action  except  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  icitan,  that  is  to  say,  the  great 
men  of  the  country — the  prelates,  the  ealdor- 
men,  members  of  the  rojal  family,  and  various 
royal  officials.  The  gatherings  of  these  mag- 
nates to  determine,  along  with  the  King,  on  im- 
portant affairs  of  the  nation,  was  called  the 
icitenageinot,  and  was  the  direct  predecessor  of 
the  royal  council  of  the  Norman  period  and  of 
the  House  of  Lords  of  later  times.  The  authority 
of  the  kingship  was  increasing  through  the  whole 
Anglo-Saxon  period,  and  in  the  hands  of  a 
vigorous  king  overrode  all  limitations  by  the 
icitan  ;  although  in  case  of  inefficiency  or  doubt- 
ful succession,  the  latter  body  exercised  a  real 
power  of  deposition  and  selection.  The  form 
of  election  and  popular.. acceptance  was  always 
carried  out. 

In  early  times  a  fundamental  distinction  of 
clas.ses  existed.  The  ceorl  class  were  the  gieat 
body  of  the  people;  the  eorl  class  were  the  no- 
bility by  blood.  The  term  eorl  is  not  to  be  con- 
fused with  earl,  mentioned  above,  with  which  it 
has  no  historical  connection.  Tliis  distinction 
of  classes  was  reflected  in  the  amount  of  the 
monej'-fine  imposed  for  murder  or  other  vio- 
lence, the  payment  to  the  injured  person  or  to 
his  relatives  being  greater  in  case  he  were  of  eorl 
lank  than  if  he  were  ceorl.  Members  of  the 
royal  family  wei'e  kno\VTi  as  wthelings.  Below 
all  these  classes  were  the  theoirs,  or  slaves.  -Vn- 
other  distinction  which  seems  to  have  grown  up 
later  and  superseded  the  division  into  eorl  and 
ceorl.  was  one  dependent  on  military  service  or 
personal  relationsnip  to  the  king  or  other  gi'cnt 
man.  A  gcsith  or  ther/n  was  a  personal  follower 
of  a  powerful  man,  who  usually  obtained  land 
and  privileges  as  a  result  of  service.  Ultimately. 
thegn  seems  to  have  become  a  general  expression 
for  any  member  of  the  class  of  gentry  who  was 
not  known  M'  the  higher  title  of  earl,  ealdorman 
or  a;theling. 

BiRLiOGKAPHY.  Green.  The  Makijifj  of  Eng- 
land (London.  18S3),  and  The  Conquest  of 
England  (London,  1SS4)  :  Ramsay,  The  Fonti- 
daiions  of  England  (London,  1898)  ;  Stubbs, 
Constitutional  Hiitorji  of  England  (Oxford, 
1880)  :  Taylor.  History  of  the  Anglo-Haxons. 
For  a  full  bibliography  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  see 
Gross,    Hotirees  and  Literature  of  English    Tlis- 


ANGLO-SAXONS.  565 

tory    (London,    I'JUO)  ;    'rmiiiT,    History   of   the 
Aniiln-Saxons    (London.    17!)!l-1805) .      See    Eng- 

L.V.ND. 

ANGLO-SAXON  VER'SION.     See  Bible. 

ANGOL,  an-ijul'.  Tlie  capital  of  a  department 
of  the  same  name,  and  of  the  province  of  Mal- 
leco,  Chile,  70  miles  southeast  of  Coneepeion.  It 
is  on  a  branch  railway  line  which  extends  4.5 
miles  southward  to  Traiguen.  Pop.  in  1885, 
(i:!.31;  ISn.i,  70.56. 

ANGOLA,  au-go'la  (Portug.  for  the  native 
name  Xyola).  A  Portuguese  colony  in  West  Af- 
rica, extending  from  0°  to  17°  S.  lat.  and  from 
12°  to  about  25°  E.  long.  (Map:  Africa,  PC).  It 
is  bounded  by  German  Southwest  Africa  on  the 
south,  British  Central  Africa  on  the  east,  and 
Congo  Free  State  on  the  east  and  north.  Its 
coastlineontheAtlantic  is  about  1000  miles  long, 
and  its  entire  area,  including  the  small  posses- 
sion of  Kabinda,  north  of  the  Congo,  is  nearly 
485.000  square  miles.  The  surface  is  very 
mountainous  in  the  west,  where  some  of  the 
peaks  reach  an  altitude  of  about  8000  feet.  In 
the  interior  there  is  also  an  e.\tended  range  of 
mountains.  The  coast  line  forms  a  great  num- 
ber of  harbors,  the  most  important  of  which  are 
Loanda,  Lobito.  Benguela,  and  ilossamedes.  The 
rivers  are  mostly  short,  and  usually  dry  up  dvir- 
ing  the  arid  season.  The  two  most  important 
and  only  navigable  rivers  are  the  Kwanza  and 
Kuncne,  both  flowing  into  the  Atlantic.  The 
temperature  varies  considerably,  owing  to  the 
uneven  formation  of  the  surface.  The  rain- 
fall is  heavier  in  the  northern  part  and 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  coast  than  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  colony.  The  agricultural 
products  of  Angola  consist  of  manioc,  coffee, 
bananas,  sugar  cane,  tobacco,  and  cereals.  The 
land  is  held  mostly  in  very  large  plantations  by 
the  Portuguese,  and  the  condition  of  the  native 
farm    laborers    is   very   close   to    actual    slavery. 

The  trade  is  chiefly  with  Portugal.  The 
chief  articles  exported  are  coffee,  rubber,  ivory, 
wax,  and  fish.  The  imports  consist  mainlj'  of  food 
products  and  textiles.  The  total  value  of  the  im- 
ports and  exports  for  1809  was  0,314,840  railreis 
($6,820,000)  and  7,035,414  ($7,598,247).  The 
principal  port  is  Loanda,  the  capital  of  the  col- 
ony, with  a  very  considerable  shipping.  There  is 
a  railway  line  about  250  miles  long  connect- 
ing Loanda  with  AmbaUa,  which  is  planned  to 
be  extended  to  Malanje.  Several  lines  are  also 
planned  to  be  constructed  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  country.  The  telegraph  lines  of  Angola 
had  a  total  length  of  over  800  miles  at  the  end 
of  1899.  The  finances  of  the  colony  are  in  a 
rather  strained  condition,  in  spite  of  heavy  tax- 
ation. The  budget  for  1839-1900  gives  the  rev- 
enue as  1.073.111  niilreis  ($1,800,9.59),  expendi- 
tures 2.013.671  (.$2,174,704).  For  administra- 
tive purposes  the  colony  is  divided  into  five  dis- 
tricts, which  are  controlled  by  the  Portuguese 
(iovernment,  but  the  greater  part  of  Angola 
is  under  the  rule  of  native  chiefs.  At  the  head 
of  the  colony  is  a  governor,  appointed  by  the 
Portuguese  Government.  The  population  of  An- 
gola can  be  hardly  given  with  any  degree  of  ac- 
curacy, estimates  ranging  all  the  way  from  four 
to  twelve  millions.  The  btilk  of  the  population 
consists  of  Bundus.  The  number  of  Europeans 
is  comparatively  smaH.only  about  4000;  but  they 
have  exercised  a  great  modifying  influence  on 
the    native    population    inhabiting    the    western 


ANGOSTURA   BABK. 


part  of  the  colony  as  regards  their  customs  and 
economic  condition.  The  aborigines  in  the  in- 
terior have  retained  their  ancient  institutions 
intact.  The  authority  of  Portugal  in  the  west- 
ern part  of  Africa  was  first  established  by  the 
Portuguese  explorer  Diogo  Cam,  who  visited  the 
estuary  of  the  Congo  in  1484.  Very  little,  how- 
ever, was  done  by  the  Portuguese  Government  to 
extend  its  rule  further  inland,  and  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  sixteenth  century  it  was  almost  en- 
tirely superseded  by  the  IJutch.  Gradually,  by 
definite  treaties,  the  Portuguese  possessions  in 
West  Africa  were  extended  to  their  pi'esent  pro- 
portions. The  claim  of  Portugal  to  the  lower 
Congo  was  settled  by  compromise  at  the  Berlin 
Conference  of  1885,  when  she  was  awai-ded  the 
territory  of  Kabinda  north  of  the  Congo. 

Consult:  J.  de  Vasconcellos,  .4s  f'oloiiias  Por- 
tuque-as  (Lisbon,  1897);  Chatelaine,  Angola 
(Washington,   1893). 

ANGO'EA  (ancient  Gk.  "Ajxiyxi,  Ankyra; 
Lat.  Ancyra;  Turk.  Engiiri).  The  capital  of  the 
Turkish  vilayet  of  the  same  name,  in  the  moun- 
tainous interior  of  Asia  Minor,  and  distant  from 
Constantinople  about  220  miles.  The  city  is 
fabled  to  have  been  built  by  Midas,  the  son  of  the 
Phrygian  Gordius.  It  was  a  flourishing  city 
under  the  Persians;  became  the  capital  city  of 
the  Gallic  Tectosages,  who  settled  in  Asia  Minor 
about  227  B.C. ;  was  a  principal  seat  of  eastern 
trade  under  the  Romans,  and  was  made  the  capi- 
tal of  the  Roman  province  of  Galatia  Prima.  It 
was  the  seat  of  one  of  the  early  churches  of 
Galatia,  and  the  scene  of  two  Christian  councils, 
held  in  314  and  358.  A  decisive  battle  between 
the  Turks  and  Tartars  was  fought  near  Angora  in 
1402,  in  which  Timur  defeated  and  took  prisoner 
the  Sultan  Bajazet  I.  A  temple  of  white  marble 
was  erected  by  the  citizens  of  Ancyra  to  the  Em- 
peror Augustus,  who  had  greatly  beautified  the 
city,  and  his  deeds  were  recorded  in  inscriptions 
upon  a  number  of  tablets  and  the  columns  of  an 
altar.  These  inscriptions,  the  Moniniientuin  An- 
cyrnntim,  discovered  by  Busbeeq  in  1553,  are  im- 
portant for  the  elucidation  of  ancient  history. 
They  w-ere  first  printed  in  Schott's  edition  of  Au- 
relius  Victor  (Antwerp,  1.579),  and  have  been 
edited  by  Mommsen  (Berlin.  1883),  and  Willing 
(Halle,  1897) .  The  present  .Angora  contains  about 
30,000  .inhabitants,  of  whom  one-third  are  Ar- 
menians. The  district  is  famous  for  its  breed  of 
goats,  with  beautiful  silky  hair  eight  inches  long. 
Of  this  goat-hair  a  kind  of  yarn  is  made,  known 
as  Turkish  yarn  or  camel  yarn,  of  which  a  man- 
ufacture of  camlets  is  extensively  carried  on  in 
Angora  itself.  The  Angora  goat  is  bred  for  its 
hair  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Ho])e  and  in  Victoria, 
and  has  also  been  successfully  introduced  into  the 
United  Sta"tes.  Of  the  skin  of  the  Angora  goat 
the  fine  oriental  Morocco  leather  is  made.  Many 
of  the  animals  in  this  region  are  characterized  by 
the  length  and  softness  of  their  hair,  especially 
the  dogs,  rabbits,  and  eats.  This  peculiarity 
seems  to  depend  upon  the  climate,  an<l  soon  dis- 
appears in  Europe. 

ANGOBA  CAT,  GOAT,  etc.  See  Cat;  Goat, 
etc. 

ANGOENTJ,  an'g6r-noo'.     See  Ngobnu. 

ANGOSTURA,  an'gos-too'rft.  See  Ciudad 
BoLiv.\R. 

ANGOSTURA  BARK,  or  ANGUSTURA 
BARK,  or  Cusparia  Bark.     The  aromatic  bit- 


ANGOSTURA  BAEK. 


566 


ANGRA   PEQXJENA. 


ter  bark  of  certain  trees  of  tlie  natural  order 
Kubiaoea;  and  tribe  Cuspariea;,  natives  of  Vene- 
zncla    and    other    countries    of    South    America. 
It  derives  its  name  from  the  town  of  Angostura, 
whence  it  is  exported.     It  is  said  to  have  been 
used  in  Spain  as  early  as  1759.     It  has  been  era- 
ployed  as  a  remedv  for  weakness  of  digestion,  di- 
arrhea,  dysenterv;   and   fevers.      It   is   tonic   and 
stimulant.     The  most  important  of  the  trees  pro- 
ducing it  is  the  Galipea  officinalis,  which  grows 
upon  the  mountains  of  Colombia  and  near  the 
Orinoco.      It  is  a  tree  12  to  20  feet  high  and  3 
to  5  feet  in  diameter,  having  a  gray  bark,  tri- 
foliate   leaves,    with    oblong    leaflets    about    10 
inches  long,  which,  when  fresh,  have  the  odor  of 
tobacco,    and    flowers    about    an    inch    long,    in 
racemes,  white,  hairy,  and  fragrant.     The  bark 
contains  a  chemical  substance  called  angostiiriii. 
ciisparin,  or  qalipcin,  to  which  its  medicinal  effi- 
cacy is  ascribed.      It  is  supposed  that  a  variety 
of  Angostura  bark  is  produced  by  Galipea  ous- 
paria   (called  bv  some  Bonplandia  trifoliata),  a 
majestic  tree  of   60  to  SO  feet  in  height,  with 
fragrant  trifoliate  leaves  liiore  than  2  feet  long. 
Angostura  bark  was  formerly  believed  to  be  one 
of  the  most  valuable  of  febrifuges;   but  its  use 
is   at  present  very   limited,   and   has,   indeed,   m 
some  countries  of  Europe  lieen  prohibited,  in  con- 
sequence  of    its   frequent   adulteration   with    the 
poisonous  bark  of  the  Strychnos  nux  vomica,  or 
the  substitution  of  that  bark  for  it.      This  poi- 
sonous bark  is  sometimes  called  false  Angostura 
bark.     It  differs  from  the  true  Angostura  bark 
in  having  no  odor,  in  its  much  greater  weight 
and  compactness,   in  its  inner   surface  being  in- 
capable of  separation  into  small  lamiuir,  and  in 
the  effects  which  are  produced  upon  it  by  acids 
and  other  tests,  particularly  in  its  outer  surface 
being  rendered  dark-green  or  blackish  by  nitric 
acid,  while  that  of  the  true  Angostura  bark   is 
rendered  slightly  orange-red. 

ANGOTJLEME,  liN'goo'lam'.  The  capital  of 
the  department  of  Charente  in  France,  and 
formerly  of  the  province  of  Angoumois.  It  is  built 
upon  a"  ridge,  down  the  north  slope  of  which 
straggle  the  quaint  houses  and  crooked  streets 
of  the  old  town  (Map:  France,  GO).  The  new 
towm  occupies  the  south  slope.  It  is  situated  on 
the  Charente,  and  among  its  industries  are  a 
number  of  paper  mills  and  manufactures  of  wine, 
brandy,  woolen  stuff's,  linen,  and  earthenware. 
It  possesses  a  royal  college,  a  museum  of  nat- 
ural history,  a  naval  academy,  a  theological  sem- 
inary, and  a  library  of  22,000  volumes.  It  is 
the  see  of  a  bishop,  and  the  cathedral  of  St.  Pe- 
ter dates  from  1101.  The  founding  of  the  see 
took  place  in  37!),  and  Clovis  built  the  earliest 
cathedral  in  307.  In  the  centre  of  the  town 
stands  the  remnant  of  the  ancient  castle  of  An- 
gouleme,  in  whicli  was  born  Margaret  of  Na- 
varre the  author  of  the  Tleptameron  and  other 
works'.  Pop.,  1901,  37,030.  Consult:  Castaigne, 
La  CatMdrale  d'AtujouUme  (Angouleme.  1834)  ; 
Nant'lard  Fovillc  historique  du  diocdse  d'Anf/ou- 
fcme'  (Angouleme,  1894-97);  Babinet  de  Ren- 
cogne,  L'Histoire  du  commerce  et  de  I'indiistne 
en  Angoumois    (Angouleme,   1878-79). 

ANGOTJLEME,  Ciiari.es  de  Valois,  Due  d' 
(1573-1030).  The  illegitimate  son  of  Charles 
IX.  of  France  and  Marie  Touihet.  Tntil  1019, 
he  was  known  as  Comtc  d'Auvergnc.  He  was  im- 
l)risoned  in  the  Bastille  from  1C05  to  IGIO  for 
having  plotted  against  Henry  IV.     He  was  then 


released  by  Louis  XIII.  and  restored  to  his  rank 
in  the  army,  which  he  commanded  at  the  siege 
of  La  Hoclielle  in  1027.  He  left  some  memoirs 
of  the  reigns  of  Henry  III.  and  Henry  IV. 

ANGOULEME,  Louis  Antoine  de  Bourbon, 
Due  d'    (1775-1844).     The  eldest  son  of  Charles 
X.   of   France   and   Dauphin   during  his   father's 
reign.     He  retired  from  France  with  his  father 
(who  was   then   the  Comte  d'Artois)    at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Kevolution,  and  spent  some  time 
In  miUtary  studies  at  Turin.      In  August,  1792, 
he   entered   Germany   at  the   head   of   a  body   of 
French  emigres,  and  soon  after  retired  to  Edin- 
burgh.    In    1799   he   married  his   cousin,  Marie 
Theijise  Charlotte,  daughter  of  Louis  XVI.,  with 
whom  until  1814  he  lived  in  exile.     On  the  recall 
of   his    uncle,   Louis    XVIII.,    he   was   appointed 
lieutenant-general  of  the  kingdom :  but  he  failed 
in    his    attempt    to    oppose    Napoleon    and    was 
forced  to  capitulate.     After  the  second  restora- 
tion he  was  sent  by  Louis  XVIII.  to  the  southern 
provinces  to  repress  the  political  and  religious 
o,utbreaks  there,  and  in  1823  he  led  into  Spain 
the  French  army,  which  put  an  end  to  the  consti- 
tution and  restored  Ferdinand  VII.  to  absolute 
power.     He  was  a  man  of  phlegmatic  disposition 
and  mean  abilities.     When  the  Revolution  took 
place  in  July,   1830,  he  signed,  with  his  father, 
an  abdication  in  favor  of  his  nephew,  the  Due  de 
Bordeaux   (Comte  de  Chambord)  :  and  when  the 
Chamliers  declared  the  family  of  Charles   X.  to 
hixve  forfeited  the   throne,   he   accompanied   him 
into  exile  to  Holyrood,  to  Prague,  and  to  Gorz, 
where  he  died. 

ANGOULEME,  Marie  Tiierese  Ch-vrlotte. 
DuciiESSE  d'  (1778-1851).  The  daughter  of 
Louis  XVI.  She  was  imprisoned  in  the  Temple 
with  her  parents,  but  in  1795  was  exchanged  for 
some  French  prisoners  in  the  hands  of  the  Aus- 
trians,  and  lived  at  Vienna  till  her  marriage,  in 
1709,  with  her  cousin,  the  Due  d'Angouleme. 

ANGBA  DO  HEROISMO,  iln'gra  do  a'r6-es'- 
mo  (Portug.  bav  of  heroism).  The  capital  of  the 
Azores,  a  seaport  at  the  head  of  a  deep  bay  on 
the  south  coast  of  the  island  of  Terceira,  lat.  38 
38'  N.,  long.  27°  12'  \V.(Map:  Portugal,  B.5).  It 
is  a  station  for  ships  between  Portugal  and  Bra- 
zil and  the  East  Indies,  but  the  harbor  is  very 
much  exposed.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  Portuguese 
governor-general  of  the  Azores  and  of  the  bishop; 
is  well  built,  but  dirtv;  strongly  fortified,  and 
protected  bv  a  citadel  at  the  foot  of  the  Monte 
de  Brazil;  "contains  a  military  college  and  ar- 
senal, several  scientific  and  literary  societies,  a 
cathedral,  and  numerous  churches.  There  is  a 
considerable  export  of  wine,  cheese,  honey,  and 
flax  This  city  furnished  an  asylum  for  the 
Portuguese  regency  from  1830  till  the  taking  ot 
O])()ito.  in   1S33.  l.y  Doin  Pedro.     Pop.,   11.000. 

ANGRA  PEQUENA,  iln'gri  pft-ka'nya  (Sp. 
pequei-ia,  little,  small ;  see  A:«GRA) .  A  settlement 
and  a  bav  in  German  Southwest  Africa  (q.v.). 
It  has  the  best  sheltered  harbor  in  the  German 
possessions  in  that  part  of  the  continent  CNlap: 
Africa,  F  7).  The  commercial  imiiortance  ot 
the  bay  has  almost  entirely  disa]ii>earcd  on  ac- 
count of  the  lack  ot  fresh  water  and  the  general 
barrenness  of  the  surrounding  country.  The  set- 
tlement of  Angra  Pequena  was  established  by 
the  Bremen  merchant  Liideritz,  in  1883,  and  it 
w:is  the  nucleus  of  the  present  German  South- 
west Africa.     It  was  at  Angra  Pequena  that  the 


I 


ANGRA   PEQXJENA. 


obi 


ANHALT. 


Gorman  flag  was   first  plautod  on  African  soil, 
in    1884. 

A.NGRI,  jin'frvA.  A  pity  in  soulh  Italy,  four 
miles  east  of  Pompeii  (Map:  Italy,  V  II).  It  has 
a  eastle  and  a  park,  and  sill-c  and  cotton  factories. 
South  of  the  city,  on  the  ancient  ilons  Lactarius, 
Teja,  the  last  King  of  the  Ostrofjoths.  was  de- 
feated by  Narses  in  553.  Pop.,  1881.  7700;  1901 
(eomnuine) ,  11.219. 

ANGSTROM,  iing'strem,  Axdek.s  Jiixs  (1814- 
74 ) .  A  Swedisli  physicist.  He  entered  the  Uni- 
versity of  Upsala  in  1833;  became  privat-docent 
in  physics  in  1839,  keeper  of  the  astronomical 
observatory  in  184,'!,  and  professor  of  physics  in 
1858.  From  1867  till  his  death  he  was  secre- 
tary to  the  Royal  Society  of  Sciences  at  Upsala. 
He  wrote  on  heat,  magnetism,  and  especially  on 
optics.  Among  his  works  were  Rrrhcrrhcs  sur 
Ic  spectre  solaire  (1869),  in  which  he  published 
his  determinations  of  the  wave  lengths  of  most 
of  the  dark  lines  of  the  solar  spectrnm  known  as 
the  Fraunhofer  lines:  iSiir  Ics  spectres  des  gas 
siirptes  (1871).  and  ilcmoirc  stir  la  temperature 
de  la  terre.  n871).  His  best  known  work.  Op- 
tislca  Undcrsokningnr  (1853),  treats  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  spectrum  analysis. 

ANGTJIER,  iiN'gya',  Francois,  the  elder 
(lUOt-CiO).  A  Frencli  sculptor.  He  was  born  at 
Eu,  and  was  a  pupil  of  Simon  Guillain.  After 
a  supplementary  course  of  two  years  in  Italy  he 
was  appointed  by  Louis  XIII.  guardian  of  the 
cabinet  of  antiques  at  the  Louvre.  Among  his 
sculptures  are  the  following:  "Henri  de  Chabot" 
(formerly  at  the  Celestins,  now  at  Versailles)  ; 
"Jacques  Augustin  de  Thou"  (Louvre),  "Gas- 
jiarde  de  la  Chatres"  (Versailles),  "Saint  Jac- 
ques de  Souvre"   (Salle  des  Anguier,  Louvre). 

ANGUIER,  Michel  (1614-86).  A  French 
sculjitor,  brotlier  of  Francois  Angiiier.  He  was 
born  at  Eu  and  studied  with  Simon  Guillain, 
after  which  he  took  a  course  of  six  years  at 
Kome.  ilichel  and  Francois  were  equally  gifted, 
and  their  works  exhibit  a  remarkable  similarity 
of  feature.  The  masterpiece  of  ^Michel  is  the 
statue  of  Christ,  executed  in  marble  for  the  Sor- 
bonne  and  now  in  the  church  of  St.  Roche  at 
Paris. 

ANGUILLA,  an-gwil'la.  or  Little  Snake 
(Sp.  Anguila.  an-ge'la ;  diniin.  of  Lat.  anguis, 
serpent,  snake).  t)ne  of  the  British  V\'est  In- 
dia Islands,  about  150  miles  east  of  Porto  Rico 
(Map  :  West  Indies,  Q  5).  It  is  about  17  miles 
long  and  4  miles  broad,  with  an  area  of  35  square 
miles,  and  a  population  of  (1893)  3838.  mostly 
negroes.  The  industries  are  cattle  raising  and 
tlie  production  of  salt,  obtained  from  a  lake  in 
the  centre  of  the  island. 

ANGUS,   an'gus,   Earls   of.      See  Douglas, 

FAlnLY   OF. 

ANGUS,  Joseph,  D.D.  (1816—).  A  Baptist 
educator,  born  at  Bolani,  Northumberland,  Eng- 
land. He  was  educated  at  the  T'niversitv  of  Ed- 
inburgh, and  became  president  of  the  Baptist  Re- 
gents' Park  College,  in  London,  in  1849.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  Bible  Revision  Committee,  and 
is  well  known  as  the  author  of  the  Bible  Hand- 
book (liOndon.  1854),  Handbook  of  the  English 
Tongue  (1862).  Handbook  of  English  Literature 
(1868),  Handbook  of  Specimens  of  English  Lit- 
erature (1866),  and  the  commentary  on  Hebrews 
in    Schaff's    International    Cominenlart/    (1883). 


ANGUSSOLA.an-goTT'sila,  or  ANGUISCIO- 

LA,  ;in-g\v0'sh6-la.  SopiroxiSBA  (1535  ?-I625';) . 
An  Italian  portrait-painter.  She  was  born  at 
Cremona,  where  she  studied  under  Bernardino 
Campi  and  Bernardino  tJatti.  representatives  of 
the  Eclectic  School,  and  imparted  her  own  knowl- 
edge to  five  sisters,  who  also  became  painters, 
though  they  never  attained  a  prominence  so  great 
as  that  of  Sophonisba.  Angussola's  fame  reached 
the  ears  of  Pliilip  II.,  who  invited  her  to  Spain, 
made  her  court  painter,  and  liberally  rewarded 
her  for  her  work.  She  painted  portraits  not  only 
of  the  King,  and  of  Cjueen  Isabella,  but  also  of 
many  persons  of  high  rank.  At  the  death  of  her 
first  husband,  a  Sicilian  nol)leman,  slu?  went  to 
Genoa,  and  here  married  Orazio  Lomenilli.  In 
later  years  she  became  l)lind.  and  it  was  then 
that  Van  Dyck  visited  her  and  professed  liimself 
enlightened  by  her  conversations  on  art.  Of  her 
portraits,  which  are  to  be  found  at  Florence, 
Madrid.  Clenoa  (Lomellini  Palace),  and  in  Eng- 
lish private  possession,  the  best-known  are  the 
numerous  portraits  of  her.self.  of  which  there  are 
examples  in  the  L^fiizi  and  at  Vienna.  One  of  her 
best  productions  is  her  "Three  Sisters  playing 
Chess"  in  the  National  Gallery,  Berlin. 

ANGWANTIBO,     ;ln'gwan-te'b6.     The     slow 
lenuir.     See  Leiiur. 

ANHALT,  an'halt.  A  duchy  of  the  CJerman 
Empire,  inclosed  within  Prussian  territory 
(provinces  of  Saxony  and  Brandenburg) , with  an 
area  of  906  square  miles  (Map:  Germany,  E  3). 
The  western  part,  adjacent  to  Brunswick,  par- 
takes of  the  mountainous  eharacter  of  the  Hartz 
region,  and  inclines  gradually  toward  the  valley 
of  the  Elbe.  The  latter  traverses  in  a  west- 
ern direction  the  main  part  of  the  Duchy,  and 
receives  the  Saale,  Mulde,  and  a  few  minor  . 
tributaries.  Anhalt  has  a  fertile  soil  well  culti- 
vated and  mostly  under  tillage.  R3'e,  wheat, 
potatoes,  oats,  and  grasses  are  grown  extensively. 
The  forests  occupy  a  considerable  area,  and  be- 
long chiefly  to  the  State.  The  chief  mineral 
product  of  Anhalt  is  salts  of  different  kinds,  which 
are  worked  exclusively  by  the  Government.  The 
output  of  metal  ore  is  very  limited,  while  coal  is 
produced  to  the  amount  of  about  1,300.000  tons 
annually.  The  manufacturing  and  mineral  in- 
dustries give  occupation  to  over  47  per  cent,  of 
the  population.  The  chief  maiuifacturcd  prod- 
ucts are  metal  articles,  sugar,  cement,  bricks,  soap 
and  other  toilet  articles,  leather,  woodenware, 
and  spirits.  Exports  are  chiefly  sugar,  spirits, 
grains,  salt,  carpets,  and  matches.  The  railway 
lines  of  Anhalt  have  a  total  length  of  about  180 
miles,  and  belong  chiefly  to  the  State.  The  con- 
stitution of  the  Duchy  vests  the  executive  power 
with  the  Duke,  who  is  assisted  by  the  Diet.  The 
latter  is  composed  of  thirty-six  members,  elected 
indirectly  for  a  period  of  six  years.  The  inuncdi- 
ate  executive  authority  is  vested  in  the  Minister 
of  State.  Anhalt  is  represented  bj'  one  member 
in  the  Bundesrath  and  two  deputies  in  the 
Reichstag  of  the  German  Empire.  For  purposes 
of  local  administration  it  is  divided  into  six 
circles.  The  budget  for  1900-01  balanced  at 
about  15,500,000  marks  (.$3,689,000).  The  rev- 
enue is  derived  from  taxes,  customs,  and  State 
domains,  mostlj'  salt  works.  The  military  organ- 
ization of  the  Duchy  is  under  the  control  of 
Prussia.  Education,  elementary  as  well  as  sec- 
ondary, is  well  provided  for  by  the  State.  The 
State"  religion   is   Protestant,  "but   the   Catholic 


ANHALT. 


568 


ANHYDRIDE. 


and  Jewish  churches  are  also  subsidized  to  some      AB-CD 
extent.     According   to   the   census   of    1900,   the      AD-BC 
poi)ulation  of  Anlialt  was  310,027,  showing  an 
increase  of  more  than  16  per  cent,  for  the  decade. 
Over  00  per  cent,  of  the  population  is  Protestant. 
Capital.  Dessau   (q.v.). 

The  reigning  house  of  Anhalt  traces  its  origin 
to  Albert  the  Bear.  Margrave  of  Brandenburg, 
upon  the  death  of  whose  grandson,  Henr.Y  I.,  in 
12.")2,  the  Anhalt  territories  of  the  family  were 
divided  into  three  parts,  which  gave  rise  to  the 
related  families  of  Bernburg,  Aschersleben,  and 
Zerbst.  The  subsequent  history  of  Anhalt  is  a 
monotonous  succession  of  reunions  and  reparcel- 
incs.  All  the  parts  were  united  between  1570 
and  1586,  and  were  then  broken  up  again  into 
four  parts.Dessau. Bernburg,  Kiithen.and  Zerbst. 
Bv  the  successive  extinction  of  the  last  three 
lines,  Anhalt  was  definitely  reunited  in   1863. 

ANHALT-BERNBUBG,  -bern'burK,  Chris- 
tian, PwxcE  of  (1508-1630).  A  German  gen- 
eral, founder  of  the  Anhalt-Bernburg  branch  of 
Anhalt.  In  1608  he  took  a  leading  part  in  the 
formation  of  the  so-called  Union  of  the  Protes- 
tant German  Princes  directed  against  the  en- 
croachments of  the  Catholics.  After  acting  as 
second  commander  of  the  army  of  that  league, 
he  entered  the  service  of  King  Frederick  of 
Bohemia,  and  led  the  army  which  was  defeated 
by  Tilly  at  Prague  ( 1620) . 

ANHALT  -  DESSAU,    -des'ou,    Leopold    I., 
fourth  Pkixce  of  ( 1006-1747 ) .     A  Prussian  field- 
marshal.     He  entered  the  Prussian  service  at  the 
age  of  twelve,  and  succeeded  his  father  five  years 
later      He   distinguished   himself   at    Hochstadt 
or    Blenheim     (1704).    and    in    Prince    Eugene's 
brilliant  campaigns  in  Italy.     After  serving  as 
a   volunteer   at   Malplaquet    (1709).  he  received 
■  command  of  the  Prussian  forces  m  the  Nether- 
lands   and  aided  Marlborough  in  his  operations 
against   Villars.        In    1712    he   was    made    field- 
marshal  and  military  counselor  to  King  Freder- 
ick T      Under  Frederick  William  I.  Marshal  Des- 
sau aided  in  the  reorganization  of  the  Prussian 
army       ^s  one  of  Frederick  the  Great's  generals, 
he  distinguished  himself  in  the  War  of  the  Aus- 
trian  Succession,   in   which  he   gained   a   bloody 
victorv  over  the  Austrians  at  Kesseldorf  in  1/45. 
To  his   soldiers   Leopold   of  Anhalt-Dessau   was 
known  as  "Der   Alte  Dessauer"    (Old   Dessau). 
Carlvle,  in  his  Frcdnick  the  (7rraf. speaks  of  him 
as  "a  man  of  vast  dumb  faculty.dumb  but  fertile, 
<lecp — no  end  of  imagination— no  end  of  ingenu- 
ities—with   as   much    mother   wit    as    m    whole 
talking  parliaments."     There  are  numerous  lives 
of   him   in   German;    the   best   ones   are   those   of 
Varnhagen  von  Ense   (Leipzig,  1872)   and  Croii- 
saz     (Berlin,    1875).      There    is    an    incomplete 
autobiography,     edited     by     Hosaus,     .^elbstbio- 
qrapliie    des    Fiirstcn.    Leopold.       Consiilt    also 
Ciirlyle,  Frederick  the  Creut    (London,  18o8). 

AN'HAKMON'IC  RATIO  (Gk.  av.  an,  priv. 
-f  apuovia,  hfirmoiiia.  harmony,  agreement)  An 
iniportant  form  of  ratio  introduced  by  Mobius 
under  the  name  DoppeJrerhiiltniss  (double  ra- 
tio), but  called  by  Chasles  rapport  anlxarmon- 
ique.  If  a  pencil  of  four  lines  with  vertex  O 
are  cut  by  any  transversal  8S  in  points  .1,  B, 

O,  D,  -^JLSlP  is  called  the  anharmonie  ratio  of  the 
points  and  also  of  the  pencil,  and  is  symbolized 
by  i  0,   ABCD  \ ,   or   simply    ]   ABCD  \ .     Since 


sin  AG B- sin  COD 


. .  the  anharmonie  ra- 

^^   ^^  sin  AOD -sin  BOG 

tio  is  the  same  for  any  transversal,  such  as  S'8', 

of  given  pencil,  so  that 


ABCD  \    =   -j  A'B'C'D'  \ 


The    anharmonie    ratio    ]  ABCD  \    admits  of 
certain  interchanges  of  letters  without  altering 


the  value  of  the  ratio.  In  fact,  of  the  twenty- 
four  permutations  of  the  letters  only  six  give 
different  anharmonie  ratios,  and  these  six  are 
thus  related :     If     \  ABCD  \ —'K  then 


\  ABDG  '•  =  4- 


:'BZ)  i  =  1  —  ;i  -■  ACDB  |-  =  y-—. 
\ADBc\^'t^     \aDCb\ 


A— 1 


When  the  segments  are  so  related  that  the 
value  of  the  anharmonie  ratio  is  1,  the  ratio  is 
called  harmonic.  The  subject  of  anharmonie  ra- 
tio plays  an  important  part  in  projective  geom- 
etry. Consult  Cremona,  Elements  of  Projective 
Oeometri/   (London,  1885).     See  GEOMETRY. 

AN'HIDROT'ICS  (Gk.  ar,  an,  priv.  +  Mpwf, 
IndrOs,  sweat).  Drugs  which  diminish  the  secre- 
tion of  sweat.  They  are  chielly  used  in  the  pro- 
fuse night-sweats  of  phthisis.  The  most  impor- 
tant are:  Atropine,  picrotoxin.  agaricin,  cam- 
phoric acid,  sulphuric  acid,  and  gallic  acid 
(qq.v.). 

ANHIMA,  aniie-ma  (Brazilian  name).  The 
homed  screamer,  one  of  the  curious  South  Amer- 
ican birds  of  the  family  Anhimida?.     See  article 

SCBE.^MER. 

ANHIN'GA.  A  generic  and  native  name  in 
South  \merica  of  the  snake-birds,  or  darters 
(familv  Anhingida-).  See  D.\rter,  and  illustra- 
tions on  plate  of  Fishing  Birds  (for  similar 
species ) . 

ANHOLT,  iinTiolt.  An  island  belonging  to 
the  district  of  Panders,  Denmark,  situated  m 
the  centre  of  the  Kattegat,  about  22  miles  fron, 
the  peninsula  of  .lutland  and  the  mainland  ot 
Sweden  (^lap:  Denmark.  E  2).  Anholt  Island 
has  an  area  of  eight  square  miles,  and  is  nearly 
twice  as  long  as  it  is  broad.  At  the  eastern  en. 
is  a  lighthouse  to  mark  the  dangerous  shoals  and 
reefs  of  the  neighborhood. 

ANHY'DRIDE  (Gk.  waterless,  from  nv.  an, 
priv  -f  vSwp.  hiidor,  water).  An  oxide  which 
combines  with  water  to  form  an  acid,  or  an  oxide 
which  combines  with  a  basic  oxide  to  form  a  salt. 


ANHYDRIDE. 


56!) 


ANILINE. 


Sulphuric  oxide  (S(K)  wlieu  added  to  water 
(ILO),  forms  sulpliiuic  acid  (H.SO,)  ;  sul- 
pluiric  oxidu  is.  therefore,  termed  the  anhy- 
dride of  sulphuric  acid.  Again,  chromic  oxide 
(CrOs)  combines  with  barium  oxide  (BaO), 
yielding  barium  ohromate  (BaCrO,)  ;  chromic 
oxide  is  therefore,  classed  as  an  anhydride. 

ANHY'DEITE  (Gk.  dc,  an,  priv.  +  Mwp, 
hydOr,  water).  \\i  anhydrous  calcium  sulphate 
that  crystallizes  in  the  orthorhomJjic  .system.  It 
is  found  crystallized,  librous,  finely  granular,  or 
scaly  granular.  A  scaly  granular  variety  from 
Yulpino,  in  I^ombardy,  Italj',  takes  a  fine  palish, 
and  has  been  used  for  sculpture.  In  the  United 
States  it  is  found  in  Loekport,  N.  Y.,  near  Nash- 
ville, Tenn.,  and  extensively  in  Nova  Scotia. 

ANI,  a'ne  (native  Brazilian  name).  A  bird 
of  the  genus  Crotophaga,  inhabiting  the  warmer 
parts  of  America,  and  related  to  the  cuckoo.  Three 
species  are  known,  the  most  common  of  which 
{Croivjihut/ti  uni)  is  found  in  Florida,  tlic  West 
Indies,  and  tropical  America,  where  it  is  known 
as  tlie  "black  witcli,"  "■savannah  blackbird,"  and 
"rain  crow."  The  anis  are  birds  of  medium  size, 
about  one  foot  in  length,  and  having  a  black,  lus- 
trous plumage  with  blue  and  violet  rellectiims. 
The  tail  contains  only  eight  feathers,  the  small- 
est number  credited  to  any  living  bird.  The  bill 
is  exceedingly  compressed,  the  upper  maiulible 
forming  a  thin  crest.  The  nests  are  built  in 
bushes,  and  the  eggs  are  greenish  overlaid  with 
a  white  clialky  .substance.  One  species  is  said  to 
be  communistic,  several  individuals  uniting  to 
form  a  large  nest,  which  they  use  in  common, 
and  the  practice  may  be  conmion  to  the  tribe. 
A  Costa  Rican  species  (Crotophaya  sulcirustris) 
is  named  "el  garapatero"  because  it  accompa- 
nies cattle  in  the  fields,  settles  on  their  backs, 
and  picks  from  their  hides  the  insect  parasites 
called  fninipatoi.     For  illustration,  see  CtiCKOO. 

ANICET-BOUBGEOIS,  ii'ne'sa'  boor'zhwil', 
AuGfSTE  ilSOIiTli.  A  French  dramatist, 
born  in  Paris.  The  splendid  success  of  a  melo- 
drama, (lustavc,  uu  le  Xapolitain  (Gaite,  1S25), 
which  he  wrote  at  the  age  of  nineteen,  induced 
him  to  follow  a  literary  career.  He  soon  became 
a  collaborator  with  some  of  the  leading  authors 
of  France,  such  as  Lockroy,  Decourcelle. 
Labiche,  and  Brisebarre.  Among  the  vaude- 
villes and  comedies  produced  in  this  way 
were:  Ppre  et  pai-ruiii  (1834),  PusHc  mi- 
nuit  (18.39),  Les  trois  epiciers  (1840),  Le 
premier  roup  de  canif  (18^8),  L'avare  en  f/antu 
jaunes  (1858),  Jjcr  mariafies  d'niijoiird'lni! 
(1861).  In  conjunction  with  Barbier.  Cornu, 
Loekroy.  Masson.  Fcval.  and  others  he  composed 
several  melodramas,  such  as:  Le  eoureni  de 
Toniungton  (1S30),  Pcrinet  Leelere  (1832), 
La  nonne  mniihinte  (183.5).  Marceau.  on  les 
enfanis  de  Ut  Ucpuhlique  (1848),  La  dame  de 
fa  F.alle  (18.52).  L'areiiijle  (18.59),  Le  hossu 
(1862).  His  independent  works  include:  La, 
Vcnitieniie  (1834.  one  of  his  best  efl'orts)  ;  La 
pauvre  fille  ( 1838) ,  and  .S7e»a  (1S43).  Anicet- 
Bonrgeois  was  a  master  of  dramatic  technique, 
and  was  unsurpassed  in  the  fieUl  of  the  melo- 
drama. He  wrote  in  all  nearly  two  hundred 
pieces,  many  of  which,  however,  were  eom])osed 
in  collaboration  with  others,  such  as  Dimias,  for 
example,  under  whose  name  many  of  .\nieet- 
Bourgeois's  productions  are  still  performed. 

AN'ICE'TUS  (?-168).  A  bishop  of  Rome 
from  about  I.'iT  to  168  \.D.  About  160  a.d.  he 
Vol.  I.— as. 


conferred  with  Polycarp  to  determine  the  proper 
time  lor  celebrating  Easter,  l)ut  they  came  to  no 
agreement.  Although  it  is  not  certain  that  he 
was  a  martyr,  he  is  so  called  in  the  Roman  and 
other  martyrologies.  He  is  commemorated  as  a 
saint  by  tlie  Roman  Church  on  April  17. 

AN'ILINE  (From  anil.  Ar.  an-nil,  for  al, 
the +  niZ,  from  Skr.  nili,  indigo).  Amido-Ben- 
ZENE,  or  Phenyl-Amine,  CoH^NH;.  A  liquid 
organic  substance  extensively  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  dj'es.  Pure  aniline  is  colorless,  has  a 
faint,  somewhat  disagreeable  odor,  and  boils  at 
183°  C.  When  exposed  to  the  action  of  air  and 
light,  it  gradually  turns  dark  red.  It  combines 
witli  acids  to  form  salts,  such  as  aniline  hydro- 
chloride, CSH5NH..HCI.  It  may  be  readily  pre- 
pared by  the  reducing  action  of  nascent  hydro- 
gen on  nitrobenzene,  according  to  the  following 
chemical  equation : 


CHjNO,     + 
Nitrobenzene 


6H 


C„Hr,NH,     +     2H.0 

Aniline 


On  a  small  scale  the  reduction  is  most  conveni- 
ently effected  by  slowly  adding  strong  hydro- 
chloric acid  to  nitrobenzene  placed  in  a  flask 
with  granulated  tin :  tlie  product  of  the  reaction, 
a  compound  of  aniline  and  chloride  of  tin.  is 
decomposed  with  soda,  and  the  aniline  thus  set 
free  is  separated  from  the  mixture  by  distilling 
with  a  current  of  steam.  On  a  large  industrial 
scale  aniline  is  made  as  follows.  A  small  quan- 
tity of  ground  scrapings  of  soft  iron  castings, 
technically  called  sirarf,  is  introduced,  together 
with  some  water,  into  a  large  cast-iron  still 
furnished  with  powerful  agitators.  Crude  hy- 
drochloric acid  is  then  added,  and  nitrobenzene 
is  allowed  slowly  to  flow  into  the  still;  at  the 
same  time,  through  another  opening,  the  rest  of 
the  swarf  to  be  employed  in  the  operation  is 
allowed  to  flow  into  the  still  in  a  steady  stream. 
After  the  first  energetic  action  has  subsided, 
the  reacting  mixture  is  heated  with  a  current  of 
steam  introduced  into  the  apparatus  through 
several  pipes.  Si.x  to  eight  hours  suffice  to  trans- 
form all  the  nitrobenzene  employed  in  one  opera- 
tion. The  process  may  be  called  continuous, 
since  the  acid  employed  serves  merely  to  start  the 
reaction,  and  might,  theoretically,  be  used  in 
reducing  an  indefinite  quantity  of  nitrobenzene, 
the  reduction  being  effected  by  the  iron  and 
water.  In  reality,  however,  a  portion  of  the 
acid  remains  combined  as  ferrous  chloride,  most 
of  the  iron  being  transformed  into  its  magnetic 
oxide.  FcjO,.  technically  called  black  stuff.  All 
the  aniline  brought  into  commerce  is  made  in 
this  manner.  Aniline  was  first  discovered  in 
1826  by  Unverdorben,  among  the  products  ob- 
tained in  the  destructive  distillation  of  indigo. 
In  1834  Runge  found  it  in  coal-tar:  in  1841 
Zinin  obtained  it  by  reducing  nitrobenzene  with 
sulphuretted  hydrogen,  and  in  1843  Hofmann 
effected  the  same  reduction  with  nascent  hydro- 
gen, by  the  reaction  of  dilute  acid  and  metals. 
The  manufacture  of  aniline  has  been  an  impor- 
tant branch  of  industry  since  18.56,  when  the 
discovery  of  mauve  was  perfected  by  Perkin, 

The  qualities  of  commercial  aniline  adapted 
to  certain  purposes  often  contain,  besides  ani- 
line, large  qtiantitics  of  other  substances.  Thus, 
crude  "aniline  for  red"  contains  only  about  25 
per  cent,  of  aniline,  the  rest  being  ortho-toluidine 
and  para-toluidine.  compounds  chemically  allied 
to  aniline.     The   presence  of  aniline   in   a   sub- 


ANILINE. 


570 


ANIMAL. 


stance  submitted  for  analysis  may  be  readily 
detected  by  dissolving  some  of  the  substance  in 
water  and  adding  a  solution  of  bleaching-powder: 
in  the  presence  of  aniline  an  intense  purple  col- 
oration is  produced.  Another  test  for  aniline 
is  afforded  by  the  so-called  carbylamine  reaction : 
a  drop  of  aniline  added  to  a  mixture  of  chloro- 
form and  a  solution  of  caustic  potash  in  ordinary 
alcohol  produces  an  intensely  nauseous  smell, 
due  to  the  formation  of  phenyl-carbylaniine 
(  phenyl  iso-cyanide) ,  CoHjXC.  For  bibliography, 
see  Coal-Tar  Colors. 

ANILINE  COL'ORS.     See  Co.\i.-Tar  Colors. 

AN'IMAL  ( Lat.  a  living  being,  from  anima, 
current  of  air,  breath  of  life,  soul,  animus,  soul, 
mind;  from  the  Skr.  root  an,  to  breathe).  A 
representative  of  one  of  the  two  great  groups 
of  organisms,  the  other  including  plants.  The 
distinction  betw-een  animal  and  plant  is  hard  to 
draw  sharply,  although  the  usual  differences  be- 
tween the  higher  representatives  of  the  two 
groups  are  obvious  enough.  Jlost  higher  ani- 
mals difter  from  most  higher  plants  in  that  their 
food  is  ehiefl.v  solid  and  organic,  in  their  capacity 
for  locomotion,  in  their  alimentary  tube,  muscles, 
nervous  system,  and  sense  organs,  in  their  lim- 
ited growth  and  greater  specialization  of  parts. 
This  list  of  differences  is  realh'  less  formidable 
than  it  appears:  it  resolves  itself  chiefly  into 
a  difference  of  food,  which  demands  that  the 
animal  shall  seek  the  food  and  be  provided  with 
organs  for  locomotion  (muscles,  nervous  system, 
and  sense  organs)  and  digestion.  The  difference 
in  general  form  of  body  is  due  to  the  different 
methods  of  getting  tlie  (dissimilar)  food.  This 
difference  in  food  (solid  and  organic,  as  opposed 
to  fluid  and  inorganic)  serves  in  a  general  way 
to  divide  even  the  lower  animals  from  the  lower 
plants.  But  most  animal  and  plant  parasites  are 
alike  in  requiring  liquid,  organic  f-ood:  even  green 
plants  use  organic  food  (some  in  large  quantities; 
see  Sundew),  and  all  animals  require  inorganic 
food. 

Locomotion  is  not  a  distinguishing  characteris- 
tic of  animals,  first,  because  great  groups  of 
animals  are  permanently  attached;  namely, 
among  protozoans,  suctoria,  sponges;  among 
ccelenterates,  most  hydroids  and  corals;  crinoids 
(sea-lilies)  ;  bryozoans,  barnacles,  and  most  as- 
cidians.  Single  casesof  attaehedauimalsare found 
in  other  groups.  Sccondl,y, bacteria, diatoms. oscil- 
laria,  certain  unicellular  green  alg«,  and  many 
plant  "swarm-spores"  are  more  or  less  locomo- 
tive. In  respect  to  irritabilit.v  there  is  little  fun- 
damental difference  even  between  the  higher  ani- 
mals and  plants,  for  plants  respond  to  the  same 
agents  as  do  animals,  but  less  perfectly.  The 
reproductive  process  is  fundamentally  the  same 
in  the  two  kingdoms.  In  their  chemical  com- 
position the  higher  animals  differ  from  most 
plants;  for  the  former  contain  no  cellulose, 
whereas  the  latter  are  largel.v  built  up  of  it.  Hut 
cellulose  is  f(!und  also  among  animals,  especially 
in  the  test  of  the  tunicates.  In  their  cell-strne- 
turc  and  cell-physiology  animals  are  almost  in- 
distinguishable from  plants.  The  fundamental 
living  substance.  Called  protoplasm,  is  substan- 
tially alike  in  the  two  kingdoms,  and»it  is  prob- 
able tliat  future  studies  will  make  dimmer  rather 
than  clearer  the  line  separating  them. 

The  |iriiicipal  functions  of  animals  are  connect- 
ed with  nutrition,  locomotion,  sensation  and  re- 
action, reproduction,  and  relation  to  other  organ- 


isms. Nutrition  involves  first  the  acquisition 
of  food.  Food  is  ( 1 )  inorganic — water,  oxygen, 
certain  salts;  or  (2)  organic — either  vegetable  or 
animal,  either  dead  or  living,  passive  or  active. 
Attached  animals  depend  mostly  on  dead  or  on 
passive  living  organisms,  brought  to  them  in  cur- 
rents of  water.  Those  which  live  on  active  ani- 
mals must  have  the  most  powerful  organs  of 
locomotion  and  sense.  Solid  food  has  to  be  trit- 
urated by  teeth  or  crushing  jaws,  and  digested  in 
a  food-canal.  The  fluids  thus  obtained  pass 
through  the  wall  of  the  food-canal  either  into 
the  general  body  spaces  or  into  blood  vessels, 
which  carry  them  to  the  tissues,  where  they  are 
assimilated  or  burned  for  heat  and  energv.  When 
the  food  is  exclusively  fluid,  it  ma}'  soak  through 
the  body  wall,  as  in  tapeworms,  which  have  no 
alimentary  tract.  The  ox.vgen  required  passes 
through  the  wall  of  the  body,  is  imbibed  with 
water,  or  enters  througli  special  tliin  wall-tracts 
of  the  body  surface  known  as  gills  or  lungs. 
The  body  space  or  blood  vessels  carry  the  oxygen 
+o  the  tissues,  where  it  is  used  in  combustion  and 
in  building  up  the  organic  compounds.  The 
waste  products  of  catabolism  in  the  tissues  are 
cast  into  the  body  spaces  (or  blood  vessels)  and 
eliminated,  either  directly  or  bv  special  excretory 
organs.  See  Anatomy  ;  Alimentary  System  ; 
EESPiRATor.T  System;  Muscular  System,  and 
similar  articles. 

Locomotion  involves  locomotive  apparatus  of 
divers  kinds,  jets  of  water,  suckers  and  contract- 
ile tubes,  lashes,  tails,  cilia,  paddles,  fins,  wings, 
and  legs.  It  involves  also  muscles  and  a  nervous 
system   to   control   them. 

All  the  protoplasm  of  the  living  body  is  irrita- 
ble, but  parts  of  the  surface  are  told  off  as  areas 
of  special  sense;  for  contact,  hearing,  taste,  smell, 
sight,  and  temperature.  To  receive  these  impres- 
sions and  to  set  in  action  appropriate  movements, 
the  central  nervous  system  has  become  special- 
ized. In  the  definite  reactions  which  accompany 
particular  situations  to  the  world  external  to 
the  animal  lie  the  first  evidences  of  a  "psvchie 
life."  All  sessile  animals  are  characterized  by 
lack  of  many  sense-organs,  reduction  of  muscular 
and  nervous  systems,  and  reduction  of  instincts. 

Owing  to  accidents,  the  number  of  individuals 
tends  constantly  to  diminish,  yet  it  must  be 
maintained.  The  single  way  that  organisms 
have  of  making  good  losses  or  increasing  their 
numbers  is  by  dividing;  this  is  the  essence  of 
reproduction  (q.v.).  Of  especial  significance  is 
the  fact  that  in  all. groups  of  animals  the  bits 
whicli  have  been  constricted  off  (gametes)  from 
time  to  time  unite  in  pairs  to  form  zygotes 
before  going  on  with  their  development.  In  all 
reproduction,  the  dividing  individuals  give  rise  to 
two  incomplete  individuals,  except  in  the  case 
where  the  division  separates  a  '"germ  cell"  from 
the  body  that  carried  it.  The  divided  pieces  or 
the  germ  cells  are  imperfect  representatives  of 
the  species:  they  must  "regenerate"  or  "develop" 
to  produce  the  adult  condition.  See  Embryol- 
ogy ;  Reproduction. 

The  relations  of  animals  to  other  organisms 
are  varied.  Many  animals,  esjjecially  in  the 
higher  groups,  care  for  their  young.  Many  pro- 
tect themselves  from  their  enemies  bv  conceal- 
ment or  by  fii,ght;  others  are  powerful  for  of- 
fense and  defense.  On  account  of  the  mating 
instincts,  many  higher  animals  have  gained  pe- 
culiar methods  of  appealing  to  the  eye  or  ear  or 
smell  of  other  members  of  the  species. 


ANIMAL    CHEMISTRY. 

ANIMAL  CHEM'ISTRY.  S.'e  Ciiemistky, 
Physiological. 

ANIMAL  COL'OBS.  The  cliief  animal  col- 
ors now  ill  use  are  coehineal,  kermes,  and  lac 
(lye   (([((.v.).     See  also  Pukple. 

AN'IMAL'CTJLE  (Dimin.  of  Lat.  animal,  liv- 
ing; lieiii;;).  A  popular  name  originally  applied 
to  any  small  animal,  but  later  restricted  to  micro- 
scopic organisms,  particularly  sucli  as  are  found 
in  water.  The  term  has  no  scientific  standing, 
and  is  now  little  used  except  in  coni])Ound  names, 
such  as  bcll-animalcuJe,  icheel-aninialcule,  hcar- 
animalciile,  very  different  sorts  of  animals  else- 
where described. 

ANIMAL  FLOWER.  A  sea-anemone  or 
similar  polyp,  wliose  expanded  colored  tentacles 
resemble  the  petals  of  a  blossom.  For  illustra- 
tion, see  Sea-Axemoxe. 

ANIMAL  HEAT.  Heat  generated  in  animal 
bodies  by  certain  of  the  changes  constantly  talcing 
place  witliin  them.  A  certain  amount  of  heat 
is  necessary  to  the  proper  performance  of  the 
functions  of  the  body,  and  any  material  increase 
or  decrease  of  it  from  the  standard  endangers 
health.  Tlie  air  and  other  objects  surrounding 
the  body  being  in  almost  all  cases  colder  than  it, 
are  constantly  stealing  part  of  its  Avarmth;  but 
within  tlie  system  there  are  processes  constantly 
going  on  which  produce  more  heat.  When  the 
heatthus  generated  is  not  dissipated  fast  enough, 
so  that  tlie  body  tends  to  become  warmer  than 
the  due  degree,  perspiration  results,  the  evapora- 
tion of  which  carries  off  the  excess.  The  power 
of  producing  heat  is  in  relation  to  the  climate 
in  wliicli  the  animal  is  accustomed  to  live.  It 
is  wealcer  in  warm  climates  than  in  cold,  and 
consequently  when  an  animal  is  removed  from 
a  warm  to  a  cold  climate  it  fiequcntly  pines  and 
dies.  In  most  fish  and  reptiles,  commonly 
termed  "cold-blooded  animals,"  tlie  temperature 
differs  but  little  from  that  of  the  water  or  air  in 
which  they  live:  the  same  is  the  case  with  hiber- 
nating animals  during  the  later  part  of  their 
torpid  condition.  It  may  thus  occur  that  the 
degree  of  temperature  of  "cold-blooded"  animals 
may  be  higher  than  that  of  man. 

Man  has  the  power,  to  a  greater  degree  than 
other  warm-blooded  animals,  of  adapting  himself 
to  cluuigcs  of  surrounding  temperature.  His 
average  standard  of  heat  is  about  98.6°  F.  (36.8° 
C),  varying  with  circumstances,  being  slightly 
higher  after  exercise  or  a  hearty  meal,  and  at 
noonday  than  at  midnight.  It  differs  slightly  in 
various  parts  of  the  body,  the  interior  being  from 
%°  F.  to  1%°  F.  higlier  than  the  exterior.  It 
also  varies  in  diseased  conditions  of  the  body, 
rising  to  106°  F..  or  even  111°  F.  to  113°  F..  in 
a  fever  or  sunstroke  or  heatstroke,  and  falling 
as  low  as  90°  F.  in  cholera.  A  temperature  of 
108°  F.,  if  maintained  for  several  hours,  is  al- 
most inevitably  fatal.  But  if  the  body  be  in 
a  healthy  condition,  the  standard  of  heat  is 
maintained,  even  when  the  person  is  exposed  to 
intense  heat,  as  in  the  case  of  men  attending 
furnaces ;  one  can  for  a  short  time  be  exposed  to 
3r)0°  F.  of  dry  heat  without  materially  raising 
the  temperature  of  his  own  body,  although  he 
will  lose  weight  by  the  copious  perspiration 
induced. 

Throughout  the  animal  kingdom  the  power  of 
generating  heat  bears  a  close  relation  to  the 
activity  or  sluggishness  of  the  animal.  Tluis, 
many  birds  whicli  are  perpetually  in  action  have 


5:1 


ANIMAL    PSYCHOLOGY. 


the  highest  temperature  (100'  F.  to  112'  F.)  ; 
and  tlie  swallow  ami  quick-liiglited  birds  higher 
than  tlie  fowls  whicli  keep  to  the  ground.  The 
higher  tlie  standard  of  animal  heat,  tlie  less  able 
is  the  animal  to  bear  a  reduction  of  its  tempera- 
ture; if  that  of  a  bird  or  mammal  be  reduced 
30°  F.  the  vital  changes  become  slower,  more 
languid,  and  death  ensues.  Fish  and  frogs,  on 
the  other  hand,  may  be  inclosed  in  ice  and  still 
survive. 

Tlie  sources  of  animal  heat  in  the  living  body 
are  the  chemical  and  physical  changes  contin- 
ually taking  place.  The  cliemical  clianges  are 
those  occurring  in  respiration,  digestion,  nutri- 
tion, secretion,  and  muscular  and  nervous  action. 
It  has  been  shown  experimentally  that  when 
those  functions  are  performed  there  is  an  in- 
crease of  temperature.  It  is  probable  that  mus- 
cular action  is  tlie  most  important  item  in  heat 
production.  The  ultimate  sources  of  heat  are 
( 1 )  the  energy  locked  up  in  the  food  consumed 
and  (2)  in  the  oxygen  inhaled  in  respiration. 
The  food,  in  the  processes  of  digestion,  is  split 
up  into  its  constituent  parts:  these  are  absorbed, 
and  may  become  parts  of  the  textures  and  fluids 
of  the  body  for  a  time:  and  these  textures,  in 
the  performance  of  their  functions,  disintegrate, 
become  redissolved,  and  are  then  eliminated  by 
various  channels  from  the  body;  all  of  these  pro- 
cesses generate  heat. 

ANIMAL  MAG'NETISM.     See  Hypnotism. 

ANIMAL  PSYCHOL'OGY.  That  depart- 
ment of  psychology  iq.v. )  which  has  for  its  sub- 
ject matter  the  composition  and  functions  of 
mind  as  it  is  found  in  animals  below  man.  As 
regards  its  problem,  one  cannot  question  the 
propriety  of  the  title  :  but  as  regards  the  methods 
which  it  employs,  animal  psychology  has  little 
in  common  with  psychology  proper.  Tlie  special 
method  of  normal  psychology  is  the  method  of 
introspection  (q.v.).  Modern  psychology  is  a 
system  of  facts  gleaned  from  the  introspective 
reports  of  trained  observers,  working  under  the 
refinements  of  experimental  conditions.  In  sharp 
contrast  with  this  is  the  position  of  animal  psy- 
chology; for  an  investigator  of  the  animal  mind 
has  no  source  of  first-hand  evidence.  Results 
can  be  obtained  only  by  a  series  of  inferences. 
The  data  at  our  disposal  are  simply  certain  move- 
ments executed  by  the  animal.  From  these 
movements  we  must  draw  our  conclusion  that 
such  and  such  mental  processes  are  present  or 
absent,  using  the  objective  as  index  or  criterion 
of  the  subjective. 

It  is  clear  that,  under  such  circumstances, 
even  the  most  conscientious,  observer  is  liable 
to  error.  And  the  most  obvious  fallacy  is  that 
of  humanizing  the  animal,  of  reading  our  own 
mind  into  his  actions,  and  so  of  endowing  him 
with  all  the  forms  of  mental  experience  that  are 
familiar  to  ourselves.  Wundt,  commenting  on 
this  attitude,  cites  an  instance  from  Romanes's 
Animal  Intelligence.  "I  have  noticed,"  w'rites 
an  English  clergyman,  "in  one  of  my  formicaria, 
a  subterranean  cemetery  where  I  have  seen  some 
ants  burying  their  dead  by  placing  earth  above 
them.  One  ant  was  evidently  much  affected, 
and  tried  to  exliume  the  bodies ;  but  the  united 
exertions  of  the  j'ellow  sextons  were  more  than 
sufllcient  to  neutralize  the  efi'ort  of  the  discon- 
solate mourner."  "How  much."  asks  Wundt.  "is 
fact,  and  how  much  imagination?  It  is  a  fact 
that  ants  carry  out  of  their  nest,  deposit  near  by, 


ANIMAL    PSYCHOLOGY.  5' 

and  cover  up  dead  bodies,  just  as  they  do  any- 
thing else  tliat  is  in  their  way.  They  can  then 
pass  to  and  fro  over  tliem  without  hindrance. 
In  the  observed  case  they  were  evidently  inter- 
rupted in  this  occupation  by  another  ant,  and 
resisted  its  interference.  The  cemetery,  the  sex- 
tons, the  feelings  of  the  disconsolate  mourner, 
which  impelled  her  to  exhume  the  body  of  the 
departed — all  this  is  a  fiction  of  the  sympathetic 
imagination  of  the  observer." 

Sometimes,  however,  the  observer's  attitude 
to  the  animal  mind  is  precisely  the  reverse:  there 
is  extreme  underestimation,  in  place  of  extreme 
overestimation.  Descartes  (159G-1050),  the 
founder  of  modern  philosophy,  after  sharply  dis- 
tinguishing bet\\een  matter  and  mind,  body  and 
soul,  asserts  that  man  is'  a  composite  being,  a 
combination  of  soul  and  body,  but  that  the  ani- 
mals are  mere  automata,  all  their  actions  and 
movements  taking  place  automatically.  It  is 
plain  that  there  can  be  no  "animal  psychology" 
for  the  Cartesians,  Tliere  were,  however,  some 
among  the  earlier  thinkers  who  did  not  deny 
consciousness  to  the  lower  creation.  Aristotle, 
the  "father  of  psychology,"  declared  that  animals 
exercise  the  functions  of  assimilation  and  repro- 
duction, and  possess  a  "faculty  of  feeling,"  to 
which  is  added  in  higher  forms  the  capacity  to 
retain  sense-impressions,  or  memory,  Man  is 
distinguished  from  the  animals  by  his  endowment 
with  the  "faculty  of  knowledge"  or  "reason," 
But,  at  the  best,  animal  psychology  was  never 
recognized  as  a  worthy — or  even  as  a  possible — 
line  of  special  inquiry. 

The  work  of  Darwin  is  admittedly  the  root  of 
our  present  interest  in  animal  intelligence.  From 
tlie  point  of  view  of  the  theory  of  evolution, 
which  regards  not  only  the  entire  physical  struc- 
ture of  the  human  body,  including  the  nervous 
system,  but  also  our  entire  mental  structure, 
which  stands  in  such  intimate  relation  to  the 
nervous  system,  as  the  result  of  a  long  period 
of  development  in  the  animal  world,  the  close 
observation  of  the  pre-human  mind  becomes  a 
matter  of  the  utmost  importance.  We  always 
understand  things  better  when  we  know  how 
they  have  grown.  Hence  the  psychologist  has 
turned  liis  attention  to  the  problem  of  genesis. 
or  the  growth  of  mind.  The  problem  may  be 
attacked  in  two  ways.  We  may  trace  tlie  growth 
of  mind  in  tlie  individual:  this  is  the  application 
of  the  genetic  method  to  child-study,  and  gives 
us  child  psychology  (q.v,).  Or,  since  man  is 
but  a  highfy  developed  animal,  we  may  trace 
the  growtli  of  mind  in  the  animal  world:  this 
is  the  application  of  the  method  to  mind  at  large, 
and  gives  us  comparative  (or  animal)  psychol- 
ogy. 

The  literature  of  animal  psychology  immedi- 
ately after  Darwin  is  cliaracterized  by  a  mass 
of  observations  industriously  collected  but  un- 
fortunately not  tempered  by  careful  and  conser- 
vative interpretation.  There  was  a  marked  ten- 
dency to  write  in  anecdotal  vein  of  the  doings 
of  pet  animals,  and  an  equally  marked  tendency 
to  that  overestinuition  of  animal  capacity  which 
we  iiavc  meritione<l  above.  Romanes  and  Lindsay 
may  be  taken  as  typical  of  this  period.  Recent 
literature  attempts  a  more  rigid  application  of 
experimental  methods,  Tlie  majority  of  present- 
day  investigators  bring  their  animals  into  the 
laboratory,  endeavoring  in  this  way,  even  at  the 
risk  of  artificiality,  to  standardize  conditions 
and  to  secure  the  possibility  of  varying  at  will 


2  ANIMAL    PSYCHOLOGY. 

the  environmental  factors  which  control  organic 
life.  This  method  of  procedure  finds  its  most 
obvious  application  in  the  case  of  those  lower 
forms  whose  life  history  can  be  followed  only 
with  difficulty,  if  at  all,  in  the  natural  state. 

The  reactions  of  micro-organisms,  e.g.,  to  me- 
chanical, chemical,  and  thermal  stimuli,  have 
been  studied  beneath  the  microscope  by  numerou-^ 
observers.  And  the  results  of  investigation  upim 
these  minute  unicellular  forms,  carried  out  by 
Gruber,  Verworn,  Jlijbius,  Balbiani,  and  other-, 
have  had  an  ini])ortant  bearing  upon  that  inter- 
esting and  fundamental  question  of  animal  psy- 
chology, the  origin  of  mind  at  large,  Binet, 
reviewing  the  work  of  these  authors,  writes  as 
follows:  "If  the  existence  of  psychological  phe- 
nomena in  lower  organisms  is  denied,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  assume  that  these  phenomena  can 
lie  supei'added  in  the  course  of  evolution,  in  pro- 
portion as  an  organism  grows  more  perfect  and 
complex,  Kothing  could  be  more  inconsistent 
with  the  teachings  of  general  physiology,  which 
sliows  us  that  ail  vital  phenomena  are  already 
present  in  undid'erentiated  cells.  Furthermore, 
it  is  interesting  to  note  to  what  conclusion  the 
admission  would  lead  .  .  ,  that  psychological 
properties  are  wanting  in  beings  of  a  low  order, 
and  appear  at  difTerent  stages  of  zoological  evolu- 
tion, Romanes  lias  minutely  particularized,  on 
a  large  chart,  the  development  of  the  intellectual 
powers,  but  it  is  done  in  quite  an  arbitrary 
manner.  .According  to  his  scheme,  only  proto- 
plasmic movements  and  the  property  of  excitabil- 
ity are  present  in  organisms  of  the  lower  class. 
Memory  begins  with  the  echinoderms;  the  pri- 
mary instincts  with  the  larvte  of  insects  and 
the  annelids;  the  secondary  instincts  with  insects 
and  spiders;  and,  finally,  reason  appears  with  the 
higher  crustaceans,  I  do  not  hesitate  to  say 
that  all  this  laborious  classification  is  artificial 
in  the  extreme,  and  perfectly  anomalous,"  For 
instance.  "Romanes  assigns  the  first  manifesta- 
tions of  surprise  and  fear  to  the  larva;  of  insects 
and  to  the  annelids.  We  may  reply  upon  this 
point,  that  there  is  not  a  single  infusorian  that 
cannot  be  frightened,  and  that  does  not  show  its 
fear  by  a  rapid  flight  through  the  liquid  of  the 
preparation.  If  a  drop  of  acetic  acid  be  intro- 
duced beneath  the  glass  slide  in  a  preparation 
containing  a  quantity  of  infusoria,  the  animals 
will  be  seen  to  lly  at  once  and  from  all  directions, 
like  a  flock  of  frightened  sheep," 

Binet's  fundamental  thought  is  probably 
sound  :  his  estimation  of  the  infusorian  conscious- 
ness is  probably  exaggerated,  Jennings,  e,g.,  ar- 
gues from  a  very  careful  study  of  the  Paramecium, 
one  of  the  protozoa,  that  the  organism,  if  we  may 
judge  by  its  reactions,  stands  at  the  very  bottom 
of  the  psychological  scale,  "We  have  in  this 
animal  perhaps  as  near  an  approach  to  the  the- 
oretical reaction  postulated  by  Spencer  and  Bain 
for  a  primitive  organism — namely,  random  mo\-e- 
ment  in  response  to  any  stimulus — as  is  likely 
to  he  found  in  any  living  organism,"  All  the 
activities  of  the  Paramecium  can  be  accounted  for 
by  "simple  irritability,  or  the  property  of  re- 
sponding to  a  stimulus  by  a  fixed  set  of  move- 
ments," Even  more  interesting,  and  fully  as 
convincing,  are  the  inferences  drawn  by  Bethe 
from  his  study  of  ants  and  bees.  We  are  accus- 
tomed to  rank  these  creatures  very  high  in  the 
mental  scale;  but  all  Bethe's  evidence  goes  to 
show  that  they  are  practically  automata.  Their 
remarkably  complicated  activities  must,  then,  be 


ANIMAL    PSYCHOLOGY. 


573 


ANIMA    MXTNDI. 


regarded  a.-,  purely  pliysiological  and  uncon- 
scious reattions  to  enviionmental  chanj^es.  A 
typical  experiment  will  illustrate  the  nature  of 
the  evidence  collected,  and  will  serve,  at  the 
same  time,  to  contrast  the  results  of  the  experi- 
mental method  with  the  results  of  simple  obser- 
vation. Ilubcr,  an  enthusiastic  observer  of  the 
habits  of  ants,  noted  that  an  ant  which  is  taken 
from  a  nest  and  returned  to  it  after  an  interval 
of  four  montlis  is  recognized  and  received  by  its 
former  companions  with  all  marks  of  friendli- 
ness. Ilulier  considered  that  this  was  good 
proof  of  the  accuracy  and  permanence  of  the  ant 
memory.  Bethe,  however,  took  an  ant  from  a 
strange  nest,  dipped  it  in  a  mess  of  impounded 
"home"  ants,  and  found  that  the  disguised 
stranger  was  received  with  every  token  of  recog- 
nition and  hospitality!  The  entire  process  of 
"recognition"  is  thus  explicable  on  the  ground  of 
a  chemo-reflex.  We  shall  see  presently  how  this 
and  similar  results  are  to  be  reconciled  with 
those  which  tell  strongly  for  the  existence  of 
mentality  in  the  lowest  forms  of  animal  life. 

Let  us  now  turn  our  attention  to  the  outcome 
of  the  experimental  method  as  applied  to  higher 
forms,  such  as  dogs,  cats,  rats,  and  chicks.  In 
general,  the  animals  are  confined  in  cages,  while 
appeal  is  made  to  their  intelligence,  ingenuity, 
and  memory  through  the  avenue  of  hunger.  The 
results  have  been  such  as  considerably  to  decrease 
our  estimate  of  the  mental  capacity  of  the  ani- 
mals. Thus  Thorndike.  after  tracing  the  forma- 
tion of  associations  in  the  animal  consciousness, 
remarks  that  his  work  "has  rejected  reason, 
comparison  or  inference,  perception  of  similarity, 
and  imitation.  It  has  denied  the  existence  in 
animal  consciousness  of  any  important  stock 
of  free  ideas  or  impulses,  and  so  has  denied  that 
animal  association  is  homologous  with  the  asso- 
ciation of  human  psychology."  A  vigorous  pro- 
test against  this  mode  of  interpretation  has.  it 
is  true,  been  entered  bj'  JNlills,  who  contends  that 
confinement  in  cages  is  essentially  an  artificial 
and  abnormal  condition,  that  hunger  is  not  the 
strongest  possible  means  of  appeal  to  animal 
intelligence,  and  that  "it  seems  more  probable 
tliat  tlie  mental  processes  of  the  highest  animals 
are  not  radically  diflferent  from  those  of  man, 
so  far  as  they  go,  but  that  the  human  mind  has 
capacities  in  the  realms  both  of  feeling  and 
intellection  to  which  animals  cannot  attain." 
The  general  trend  of  opinion  is.  apparently,  for 
Thorndike  and  against  !Mills;  but.  in  face  of  the 
divergence  of  expert  judgments,  the  layman  will 
do  well  to  hold  himself  in  suspense,  until  such 
time  as  community  of  investigation  has  brought 
about  a  substantial  agreement  on  the  main 
points  at  issue.  The  recent  puljlication  (Kline) 
of  a  laboratory  course  in  eom])arative  psychology 
is  a  hopeful  sign. 

To  return  to  the  main  problem:  we  have  to 
show  how  the  refiex  and.  to  all  appearances, 
wholly  unconscious  reactions  of  such  forms  as  ants 
and  bees  are  to  be  squared  with  the  evidence  of 
mentality  in  the  protozoa,  evidence  which  makes 
mind  coeval  with  life.  It  seems  reasonable  to 
adopt  the  view  which  sees  in  impulse  (the  con- 
sciousness accompanying  action  upon  present.a- 
tion;  see  Actiox  )  the  original  and  primitive  type 
of  consciousness.  Xow.  the  impulse  has  varied 
in  two  directions.  In  the  first  place,  by  the  grad- 
ual effacement  of  its  distinctively  mental  fea- 
tures, the  primitive  type  of  action  has  come  to 
take  the  form  of  the  reflex,  a  relatively  simple 


mechanical  answer  to  stimulation.  Here,  in  the 
light  of  Jennings's  observations,  we  must  place 
Paramecium.  In  the  second  place,  the  impulsive 
action  has,  in  certain  forms  of  organic  life, 
broadened  out  into  selective  and  volitional  action, 
^leiitality  has  grown  more  complex,  as  in  the 
other  direction  it  has  died  out.  In  this  line  of 
development  stand  the  higher  animals,  including 
man.  Lastly,  the  most  developed  forms  of  action 
exhibit  a  constant  tendency  to  become  automatic; 
so,  e.g.,  piano  playing.  hic3-cle  riding.  In  other 
words,  there  is  a  tendenej'  for  certain  phases  of 
complex  psj'cho-phj'siological  activity  to  degen- 
erate into  activity  which  is  simply  physiologicaL 
The  final  outcome  is,  therefore,  the  formation  of 
a  system  of  reflexes  which,  in  view  of  their  cir- 
cuitous development,  we  may  term  secondary 
reflexes.  Ants  and  bees,  as  they  appear  in 
Bethe's  pages,  would  then  be  types  in  which 
practically  every  vestige  of  a  once  fairly  conijUi- 
cated  mental  structure  has  disappeared,  to  make 
way  f(n-  an  elaborate  series  of  secondary  reflexes. 
Thorndike  has  even  argued,  in  similar  vein,  that 
the  present  anthropoid  apes  may  be  mentally 
degenerate ;  that  their  chattering  is  possibly  "a 
relic  of  something  like  language,"  and  not  a 
first  attempt  at  language-making. 

BiRLlOGR.iPliY.  Binet,  The  J'siirliic  Life  of 
Mirro-Orfiaiihms  (New  York,  1894);  Darwin, 
Orl()in  of  Species  (London,  IS.'JO;  New  York, 
1001);  Dencent  of  Man  (London,  1871;  New 
York,  1901);  Lubbock,  Ants,  Bees,  and  Wasps 
(New  York,  1882)  ;  Morgan,  Animal  Life  and 
Intelligence  (Boston,  1891)  ;  id..  Habit  and  In- 
stinct (London.  180(i)  ;  Romanes,  Animal  Intel- 
ligence (New  York,  1883)  :  id..  Mental  Evolu- 
tion in  Animals  (London,  1883)  :  Wundt.  Human 
and  Animal  Psi/chologi/,  translated  by  Creighton 
and  Titcliener    (New  York,   IS96). 

ANIMALS,  Cruelty  to.  See  Crxtelty  to 
-Animals. 

ANIMAL  WOE'SHIP.  See  Man,  paragraph 
Soph  iology. 

AN 'IMA  MUN'DI  (Lat.  the  soul  of  the 
world).  The  view  that  all  the  changes  in  phe- 
nomena are  due  to  the  operation  of  conscious 
beings,  conceived  on  the  analogy  of  human  con- 
sciousness, was  the  result  of  one  of  the  most 
primitive  and  most  naive  attempts  to  solve  the 
problems  presented  by  chance  and  cliange  to  ex- 
perience. (See  Mythology.)  When  the  step  was 
taken  from  a  belief  in  a  multiplicity  of  presiding 
genii  to  a  single  ordering  consciousness,  whicii 
stands  in  the  same  relation  to  the  world  as  a 
whole  as  the  human  mind  stands  to  the  human 
body,  the  doctrine  of  the  anima  mundi  was 
reached.  It  has  been  held  in  various  forms,  and 
has  survived  to  quite  recent  times.  Anaxagoras 
(q.v.),  who  believed  in  a  universal  reason  that 
gave  form  to  the  universe,  was  one  of  the  first 
Occidental  philosophers  who  held  this  doctrine. 
Aristotle  (q.v.)  escaped  animism  (i.e.,  the  doc- 
trine of  an  anima  mundi)  by  holding  that  al- 
though Nature  is  a  being  in  itself  alive,  God  is 
separated  from  nature  as  a  transcendent  .spirit. 
In  the  system  of  the  Stoics  the  anima  mundi  was 
conceived  to  be  the  sole  vital  force  in  the  uni- 
verse; it  usurped  the  office  of  pure  spirit,  and 
the  doctrine  became  indistinguishable  from  pan- 
theism. In  modern  times  Agrippa  of  Netteshcim 
(1486-1535)  revived  the  doctrine  with  a  changed 
terminology,  substituting  spiritiis  mundi  for 
anima     mundi.     Bruno,     Paracelsus,     Sebastian 


ANIMA   MUNDI. 

Fi-anck,  Boehme,  Van  Helmont,  More,  and  Cud- 
worth  (see  articles  under  these  titles)  have  advo- 
cated similar  views  with  varying  terminology. 
See  Pa?vTheism. 

ANIME,  an'i-me  (of  disputed  origin).  A 
variety  of  copal;  a  mineral  resin  soluble  in  al- 
cohol and  used,  to  some  extent,  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  sealing-wax  and  of  varnishes.  It  is  sup- 
posed to  originate  from  the  Iciea  ieieariba,  a 
tree  indigenous  to  Brazil  and  tlie  West  Indies, 
and  is  brought  into  the  market  in  the  form  of 
white,  brittle  sticks.  In  England  the  name  anime 
is  applied  to  the  soft  copal  resins  in  general. 
See  Coi'.ii,. 

AN'IMISM.  See  Man,  paragraph  Sophioh 
ogy,  and  Superstition. 

ANIMUCCIA,  a'ne-moo'eha,  Giovanni  (e. 
1.500-71).  An  Italian  musician  sometimes  called 
the  '"Fatlier  of  tlie  Oratorio."  He  became  maes- 
tro di  capella  of  the  Vatican  in  1-555.  For  the 
congregation  of  the  Oratory,  one  of  whose  objects 
it  was  to  render  religious  services  attractive  to 
young  people,  Animuecia  composed  the  Laudi, 
which  were  to  be  sung  at  the  conclusion  of  the 
regular  office,  and  from  which  the  oratorio  is  said 
to  have  developed.  Several  of  his  masses,  mag- 
nificats, motets,  and  madrigals,  etc.,  have  been 
published,  and  among  these  the  following  are  a 
few  of  the  most  noteworthy:  /(  priino  libra  di 
madrigali,  etc.  (Rome,  1595)  ;  Joannis  Animuc- 
ciw  Magistvi  Capellw  Sacrosanctw  Basilicw  Vati- 
caiirr  Misxanim  Lihri  (Rome,  1567)  ;  Magnificat 
ad  Oinncs  Modos  (Rome,  1568)  ;  II  seco'ndo  libra 
delle  laudi  ore  si  contengono  motetti,  etc.  (Rome, 
1570). 

ANIMUCCIA,  Paolo  (?-1563).  An  Italian 
musician,  lirother  of  Giovanni  Animuecia.  He 
was  one  of  tlie  ablest  contrapuntists  of  his  time 
and  occu|Med  the  position  of  maestro  di  capella 
at  the  church  of  San  Giovanni  in  Latcrano. 
Many  of  his  motets  and  madrigals  were  popular. 

ANIO,  a'ne-o,  modern  ANIENE,  ii'ne-a'na.  or 
Teverone.  a  river  in  central  Italy,  09  miles  long, 
wliich  rises  44  miles  east  of  Rome  in  the  Sabine 
Mountains,  forms  famous  waterfalls  at  Tivoli 
(q.v. ),  and  then  flows  freel.y  through  the  Cam- 
pagna  into  the  Tiber  two  miles  above  Rome. 
An  aqueduct  was  built  in  2G5  B.C.,  with  the 
proceeds  of  booty  taken  during  the  war  with 
Pyrrlius,  to  carry  water  from  Tivoli  to  Rome. 
The  water  ])ower  of  the  Anio  is  now  converted 
into  electric  energy,  which  is  transmitted  to  Tiv- 
oli and  Rome.    See  Aqueduct. 

AN'IONS.     See  Anode;  Electro-Ciiemistby. 

AN'ISE  (Lat.  ani.ium,  anethum.  Gk.  av\i']- 
ri'iin;  an[n\etlian,  anise,  dill),  (Pimpinella 
unisiiin).  -in  annual  plant  of  the  natural  order 
Umbelliferie.  The  genus  Pimpinella,  which  em- 
braces about  75  species,  found  in  nearly  all  lands 
but  Australia,  has  compound  umbels  usually 
without  involucres.  Two  species  are  natives  of 
Great  Britain:  one  of  which,  Pimpinella  sax- 
ifraga,  is  commonly  known  by  the  name  of  burnet 
saxifiage,  and  lias  no  properties  of  importance. 
Anise  is  a  native  of  Egypt  and  other  ilediterra- 
nean  regions.  It  is  an  annual  plant;  the  stem  is 
1  J4  to  2  feet  high,  dividing  into  several  slender 
branches:  the  'lower  leaves  roundish,  heart- 
shaped,  divided  into  three  lobes,  and  deeply  cut; 
those  of  the  stem  pinnate,  with  wedge-shaped 
leaflets.  The  umbels  are  large  and  loose,  with 
yellowish-white  flowers.     It  is   much   cultivated 


574 


ANJOtr. 


in  southern  Europe,  Germany,  especially  in  the 
district  around  Erfurt,  Avhere  a  large  quantity  of 
the  seed  is  annually  jiroduced,  Soutli  America, 
India,  etc.  Attempts  were  made  more  than  200 
years  ago  to  cultivate  it  in  England,  but  the  sum- 
mers are  seldom  warm  enough  to  bring  it  to  per- 
fection. It  is  occasionally  sown  in  gardens  for 
a  garnish  or  for  seasoning.  Anise-seed  is  used  as 
a  condiment  and  in  the  preparation  of  li<iueurs; 
also  in  medicine,  as  a  stimulant  stomachic,  to  re- 
lieve flatulence,  etc.,  particularly  in  infants;  and 
it  has  been  used  in  pulmonary  affections.  It  has 
an  aromatic,  agreeable  smell  and  a  warm,  sweet- 
ish taste.  It  contains  a  volatile  oil,  called  oil 
of  anise,  which  is  nearly  colorless,  has  the  odor 
and  taste  of  the  seed,  and  is  employed  for  similar 
purposes.  One  hundredweight  of  seed  yields 
about  two  pounds  of  oil,  which  is  obtained  by  dis- 
tilhition:  but  at  Erfurt  the  oil  is  made  from  the 
stems  and  leaves.  Anise-water — water  flavored 
with  the  oil  and  sugared — is  much  used  in  Italy 
as  a  cooling  drink. 

Star  anise,  or  Chinese  anise,  is  the  fruit  of 
Illicium  verum.  a  small  tree  of  the  natural 
order  ^Ingnoliacea^.     See  Illicium. 

AN'ISOPH'YLLY  (Gk.  iv.  an,  neg.  -f  IVos, 
isas,  equal  -f-  (pi'/Aor,  phyllon,  leaf).  Plants  wliose 
leaves  difler  in  form  and  size  when  they  appear 
on  opposite  sides  of  horizontal  or  oblique  stems 
are  said  to  exhibit  anisophylly.  Commonly  the 
leaves  on  the  upper  side  are  smallest,  as  in  Selag- 
inella.     See  Le.^f. 

ANJER,  iin'yer,  or  ANJIER,  iln'yer.  A 
fortified  seaport  of  Java,  on  the  Straits  of  Sunda, 
60  miles  west  of  Batavia  (Map:  East  India  Is- 
lands, C.  fi).  It  is  the  landing  place  for  passen- 
gers and  mails  for  Batavia,  and  is  frequented 
by  steamers  for  a  supjily  of  fresh  water  and  food. 
It  was  completely  destroyed  by  a  volcanic  erup- 
tion in  188.3.  but  has  been  rebuilt  since  then.  Its 
populatiiin   is  estimated  at  3000. 

ANJOU,  Engl,  an'joo;  Fr.  aN'zhiJo'  (from  An- 
devavi,  Aiidcgavi,  a  Gallic  tribe) .  A  former  prov- 
ince in  the  northwest  of  France,  now  forming  the 
departmejit  of  Maine-et-Loire,  and  small  parts 
of  the  de]iartments  of  Indre-et-Loire,  Mayenne. 
and  Sarthe.  It  was  inhabited  in  ancient  times 
by  the  Andecavi,  whose  ancient  capital  still  exists 
bearing  tlie  modern  name  of  Angers.  The  most 
celebrated  of  the  counts  of  Anjou  was  Geoffrey 
v.,  called  Plantagenet,  whose  son  by  Matilda, 
daughter  of  Henry  I.  of  England,  ascended  the 
English  throne  in  1154  as  Henry  II.  .Vnjou  re- 
mained in  the  possession  of  the  English  till  1204, 
when  it  was  seized  by  Philip  Augustus.  Some 
forty  years  later  it  Mas  liestowed  as  a  lief  upon 
Charles,  the  son  of  Louis  VIII.,  who  became  by 
conquest  in  126G  the  founder  of  the  Angevin  line 
of  kings  in  Naples  and  Sicily.  At  tliis  time  for 
nearly  half  a  century  it  was  united  witli  Pro- 
vence. From  1328  to  the  year  1360,  in  whicli 
it  was  made  a  duchy,  it  was  held  by  the 
French  crown  as  a  part  of  the  dowry  brought  by 
Slargaret  of  Anjou  to  Charles  of  Valois.  father 
of  Philip  VI.  It  was  reunited  with  Provence  un- 
der the  rule  of  the  kings  of  Naples  in  13S2.  In 
1480,  upon  the  death  of  Rene  the  Good,  it  was 
permanently  annexed  to  the  royal  dominions  by 
Louis  XI.  The  last  who  bore  the  title  of  Duke 
of  Anjou  was  the  grandson  of  Louis  XIV..  who 
became  Philip  V.  of  Spain.  Consult  Marchegay 
and  Salmon,  Chroniqiies  d'  Anjou  (Pari.s,  1856- 
1871). 


ANKARSTROM. 


575 


ANNA  COMNENA. 


ANKARSTROM,  arj'kar  stiein,  .Toiiax  Jakob. 

See    AXC'KARSTROM. 

ANKLAM,  an'klam.  A  town  of  Prussia  in 
tlic  |iriniinr  iif  Ponierania,  44  niiU's  noitlnvest  of 
Stettin,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Pecne,  and  four 
miles  from  its  mouth  in  the  Kleine  Half  (Map: 
Prussia.  E  2).  Tlie  river  is  navigable  to  Anklam, 
whieli  has  long  been  a  place  of  commercial  im- 
portance. It  was  <at  one  time  an  important 
fortress,  but  in  1762  its  fortifications  were  dis- 
mantled. Jlany  of  its  private  houses  are  excel- 
lent samples  of  German  medieval  architecture. 
It  lias  manufactures  of  linens  and  woolens;  it 
lias  also  several  breweries,  soa]i  works,  and  tan- 
neries, and  ship-building  is  actively  prosecuted. 
Anklam  was  settled  by  Germans  in  tlie  twelfth 
century,  and  joined  the  Hanseatic  League  in  1244. 
During  tlie  wars  of  the  seventeenth  and  eight- 
eenth centuries  it  was  repeatedly  sacked.  In 
1720  it  was  acquired  by  Piussia.  Pop.,  1890, 
13,000;   1900,   14,(300. 

ANiCOBAR,  an-kO'bfr,  or  ANKOBER.  A 
town  in  eastern  Africa,  the  capital  of  the  former 
Abvssinian  kingdom  of  Shoa,  situated  at  an 
altitude  of  over  8000  feet,  in  lat.  9°  34' 
X.  and  long.  39°  53'  E.  (Map:  Africa, 
J  4).  The  climate  is  very  healthful.  The  town 
is  surrounded  by  a  wall  and  contains  a  royal 
palace.  Its  population  is  estimated  at  from  7000 
to  10.000. 

ANKOLE.     See  Ankori. 

ANKO'RI  or  ANKO'LE.  A  plateau  of  the 
Uganda  Protectorate,  British  East  Africa,  lying 
between  lakes  Albert  Edward  and  Victoria.  Its 
plains  range  in  elevation  from  3000  to  7000 
feet. 

ANKYLOSIS,  an'kl-lo'sis,  (Gk.  ayKvAuaii, 
unkylOsix,  a  stiffening  of  the  joints,  from  ayni'/.Tj, 
unkyli,  the  bend  of  an  arm,  a  joint  bent  and  stifi'- 
ened  by  disease).  A  term  used  in  surgery  to 
Qenote  a  stiffness  in  joints,  which  is  not  depend- 
ent upon  muscular  rigidity.  It  is  usually  the 
result  of  disease  Avhich  has  caused  the  formation 
of  fibrous  adhesions  or  deposit  of  osseous  materi- 
al. Osseous  union  may  render  the  joint  perfectly 
rigid,  or  union  may  continue  membranous,  allow- 
ing of  a  certain  amount  of  motion.  Some  joints, 
-cspeeiallythe  elbow,  are  very  apt  to  become  anky- 
losed;  and  in  the  knee  or  hip-joints  this  os- 
seous ankylosis  is  reckoned  the  most  favorable 
termination  to  disease,  as  the  limb  can  then 
afford  a  rigid  support  for  the  trunk.  Joints  stiff 
through  a  memljranous  ankylosis  may  be  forcibly 
bent,  and  the  bond  of  union  ru])tured,  so  as  to  re- 
store mobility,  or  allow  of  their  being  placed  iir 
a  convenient  position.  Ankylosis  of  the  joints 
between  the  ribs  and  the  vertcliriu  is  common  in 
advanced  age:  and  there  are  some  cases  on  record 
of  universal  ankylosis  of  all  the  joints.  Ankyl- 
osis is  caused  by  injury,  tuberculosis,  gout,  rheu- 
matism, and  syphilis.  Passive  motion,  friction, 
massage,  douches,  and  forcible  motion  under  an 
ana'sthctie  are  methods  of  treatment. 

AN'NA  (Hind,  anu) .  An  East  Indian  coin, 
a  sixteenth  of  a  rupee,  or  about  one  and  a  quar- 
ter pence  sterling,  or  three  cents  of  United  States 
money.  It  is  money  of  aecrtunt  only.  In  Bengal 
accounts  are  kept  iu  pice,  twelve  to  an  unna,  and 
sixteen  annus  to  the  rupee. 

ANNA,  iin'na,  Doxx.\.  In  ^lozart's  opera 
Dan  (lioriinni,  the  hidy  whose  favor  Don  (Jiovanni 
and  Don  Ottavio  both  desire. 


AN'NA,  Saint.  According  to  tradition,  the 
daughter  of  Mathan,  priest  of  Bethlehem,  and 
the  wife  of  St.  Joachim.  After  twenty-one  years 
of  barrenness,  she  is  said  to  have  given  birth  to 
the  Virgin  Mary,  the  mother  of  the  Saviour. 
Nothing  positive  is  known  about  her  life:  her 
name  does  not  occur  in  the  Scriptures,  nor  even 
in  the  writings  of  the  Fathers  during  the  first 
three  centuries.  The  first  to  mention  her  is  St. 
Epiphanius,  in  the  fourth  century:  but  tgward 
the  eighth,  she  was  all  but  universally  invoked. 
Her  body  was  believed  to  have  been  transferred 
from  Palestine  to  Constantinople  in  710  A.D., 
and  her  head  to  Chartrcs,  by  Louis  de  Blois, 
about  1210  a.d.  The  inhabitants  of  Diiren,  in  the 
Prussian  Rhine  Province,  also  pretend  to 
have  a  head  of  St.  Anna:  and  a  third  is  believed 
to  be  in  possession  of  the  church  at  Ursitz,*in 
the  diocese  of  \\'iirzburg,  although  numerous 
other  churches  claim  to  be  equally  favored.  The 
Roman  Catholic  Church  has  a'  festival  in  her 
honor  on  July26th, established  in  1584;  the  Greek, 
on  December" 9th.  In  Austria,  Bavaria,  and  other 
Catholic  countries,  this  festival  is  one  of  great 
importance.  In  honor  of  St.  Anna  the  Fraternity 
of  St.  Anna  was  instituted  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury. After  the  Reformation  it  was  organized 
anew  by  the  Jesuits,  and  in  modern  times  has 
manifested  some  vitality  in  Bavaria  and  Cath- 
olic Switzerland.  She  is  the  patron  saint  of 
child-bearers  and  also  of  miners,  and  it  was 
upon  her  that  Luther  called  for  protection  w'hen 
in  the  storm,  and  to  her  he  vowed  to  become  a 
monk   if  rescued    (1.^05). 

AN'NABEL.  In  Dryden's  Absalom  and 
Aeliitopliel  (q.v.),  the  wife  of  Absalom.  She 
stands  for  the  Duchess  of  Monmouth,  who  was 
Anne  Scott  before  marriage. 

AN'NABEL'LA,  Qtieen.  In  Scott's  romance 
of  Tlir  Fair  Maid  of  Perth  (q.v.),  the  queen  of 
King  Robert  III.  of  Scotland. 

ANNABERG,  lin'na-berK.  A  town  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Saxony,  in  the  district  of  Zwickau, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Sclinia,  IS  miles  south  of 
Chemnitz  (Map:  Germany,  E  3).  It  is  situated 
1800  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  has 
extensive  manufactures  of  lace  and  of  silk  rib- 
bon. The  ribbon  manufacture  was  introduced 
here  by  Protestant  refugees  from  Belgium  who 
fled  from  the  persecutinn  carried  on  bv  the  Duke 
of  Alva.     Pop.,  1890,  about  15,000;   1900,  16,000. 

ANNA  BOLENA,  iin'na  bo-la'na.  An  Italian 
opera,  the  music  of  which  is  by  Donizetti,  text 
by  F.  Romani,  produced  at  Milan  in  1831. 

ANNA  COMNE'NA  (1083-1148?).  Author  of 
one  of  the  most  valuable  works  in  the  collection 
of  the  Byzantine  Historians.  She  was  the  daugh- 
ter of  the  Emperor  Alexius  I.  (Comnenus),  and 
was  born  on  December  I,  1083.  She  received 
the  best  education  that  Constantinople  could 
give,  and  was  betrothed  to  the  son  of  Michael 
VII.  After  the  death  of  her  fiance,  she  married 
Nicephorus  Briennius.  During  the  last  illness 
of  her  father,  she  entered  into  a  scheme,  which 
her  mother,  the  Empress  Irene,  also  fav<u'cd,  to 
induce  him  to  disinherit  his  eldest  surviving  son, 
John,  and  to  bestow  the  diadem  on  her  husband. 
As  a  punishment,  Anna,  with  her  mother,  was 
shut  up  in  a  convent,  where  she  remained  until 
the  death  of  her  brother  in  1143.  The  date  of 
her  death  is  unknown,  but  she  was  still  at  work 
on  her  history  in  1148.     She  entitled  this  work 


ANNA  COMNENA. 


576 


ANNAM. 


the  Alexiad.  The  first  two  books  treat  of  the 
history  of  the  Empire  from  the  time  of  Isaac 
Comnenus :  the  remaining  thirteen  books  are 
devoted  to  the  reign  of  Alexius.  Clironologieally, 
Anna  is  sometimes  at  fault,  and  she  omits  pur- 
posely many  events ;  but  as  a  whole  her  work 
has  great  merit.  The  best  edition  is  that  of 
Schopen  and  Reifferscheid,  2  volumes  (Bonn, 
1839-78).  Consult:  Chalandon,  Regno  d'Alexis 
I.  (Paris,  1900)  ;  and  Oster,  Anna  Komnena 
(Rastatt,  1808-71). 

ANNA  IVANOVNA,an'na  ^-vii'nov-na  ( 1093- 
17-40  1.  Empress  of  Russia.  She  was  the  second 
daughter  of  Ivan,  the  elder  brother  of  Peter  the 
Great.  She  was  married  in  1710  to  the  Duke  of 
Courland,  the  last  of  his  race,  who  died  in  the 
following  year.  The  throne  of  Russia  was  of- 
fered to  her  by  the  Supreme  Council  on  the  death 
of  Peter  II.  in  1730.  on  conditions  which  greatly 
limited  the  power  of  the  monarchy,  terms  which 
she  soon  broke.  Her  elevation  was  greatly  due 
to  the  intrigues  of  the  chancellor,  Ostermann, 
who  had  had  the  charge  of  her  education,  but 
who  was  disappointed  in  finding  her  not  so  grate- 
ful and  tractable  as  he  had  expected.  For  some 
years,  however,  her  rule  was  tolerable.  Abroad, 
Russia  fought  successfully  in  the  War  of  the 
Polish  Succession.  Internally  the  armj'  was  re- 
formed, greater  liberty  was  allowed  to  the  landed 
gentry,  and  government  debts  were  paid,  though 
to  do  so  the  peasants  were  crushed  down  with 
taxes.  But  her  paramour,  Biron,  a  German  of 
low  extraction,  for  whom  she  had  obtained  the 
Duchy  of  Courland,  having  determined  to  govern 
the  nation  as  well  as  the  Empress,  a  sudden  and 
deplorable  change  ensued.  This  man.  a  blood- 
thirsty and  avaricious  wretch,  established  some- 
thing like  a  reign  of  terror  through  the  land. 
He  is  said  to  have  banished  not  less  than  20.000 
persons  to  Siberia ;  numbers  were  knouted,  had 
their  tongues  cut  out.  or  were  broken  alive  on 
the  wheel.  Eleven  thousand  perished  in  this 
way.  Prince  Basil  Dolgoruki  and  others  of  his 
family  suffered  the  ignominy  of  the  scaffold. 
At  length  the  health  of  the  Empress  gave  \va,y. 
She  died  on  October  28,  1740.  and  left  the  throne 
to  her  grand-nephew  Ivan,  with  Biron  as  regent. 
See  Rr.ssi.\,  and  Biron. 

ANNA  KABENINA,  iui'na  ka-ra'nyf-na. 
One  of  Count  Tolstoy's  novels,  which  first  ap- 
peared serially  in  a  Moscow  publication,  from 
1875  to  1878.  It  is  a  powerful  stud.v  of  the 
effects  of  passion  upon  human  life,  and  is  bj' 
man.v  considered  the  author's  greatest  work. 

ANNA  KAELOVNA,  iin'na  kar'hiv-ni.  or 
frequently.  Anx.v  Leoi>oldovn-a  (1718-40).  Re- 
gent of  Russia  during  the  minority  of  her  son 
Ivan.  She  was  thf  daughter  of  Cliarles  Leopold, 
Duke  of  ilecklenburg.  and  of  Catharine,  sister 
of  the  Russian  Em])ress.  Anna  Ivanovna  (q.v.). 
In  1730  she  married  .Anthony  Ulric,  Duke  of 
Brunswick-Wolfenl)iittel.  Her  son,  Ivan,  born 
August  24,  1740,  was  appointed  by  the  Empress 
Anna  Ivanovna  as  her  successor.  The  Empress 
died  in  October,  1740,  and  Biron,  whom  she  had 
made  regent,  was  overthrown  within  a  month. 
Anna  Karlovna  now  proclaimed  herself  (Jrand 
Duchess  and  Regent  of  Russia:  but  slie  showed 
no  capacity  for  managing  the  affairs  of  a  great 
country,  spent  her  time  in  indolent  enjoyments, 
and  resigned  herself  very  much  to  the  g^uidance  of 
one  of  the  ladies  of  her  court,  Julia  von  Mengden. 
A  conspiracy  was  formed  by  a  party  desirous  of 


raising  to  the  throne  Elizabeth, daughter  of  Peter 
the  Great  and  Catharine,  and  this  was  accom- 
plished on  December  6,  1741.  The  infant  Ivan  was 
sent  to  the  castle  of  Schliissclbnrg,  where  he  Avas 
afterward  murdered;  Anna  and  her  husband  were 
condemned  to  prison  for  life  and  conveyed  to 
Kholmogory,  on  the  White  Sea,  where  she  died 
in  childbed.  Her  husband  remained  a  prisoner 
for  thirty-nine  years,  and  died  in  1780. 

AN'NALS  (Lat.  annales,  from  annus,  year). 
In  the  original  sense,  records  of  public  events 
arranged  year  by  year.  In  the  early  days  of 
Rome,  such  records  were  kept  by  the  priests,  and 
known  as  the  annales  pontificum,  or  annales  max- 
imi,  because  prepared  by  the  pontifex  maximus. 
In  later  times,  public  men  interested  in  history 
wrote  crude  chronicles  of  events,  also  known  as 
annales;  such  annalists  were  Fabius  Pictor  and 
Cincius  Alimentus.  When  Ennius  (q.v.),  the 
"father  of  Roman  poetry,"'  wrote  the  deeds  of 
Rome  in  heroic  ver.se,  he  called  his  poem  Annales ; 
and  finally  Tacitus  (q.v.)  thus  designated  his 
story  of  Rome  from  Tiberius  to  Xero. 

AN'NALS    OF    A    QTJI'ET    NEIGH'BOR- 

HOOD.  The  title  of  a  novel  by  George  Mac- 
Donald   (1806). 

ANNALS  OF  THE  PAR'ISH.  The  title  of 
a  novel  by  tlie  Scottish  writer  John  Gait  (1821). 

ANNAM,  an-niim'  {Nhan-nam,  Peace  of  the 
South  ) .  Tbe  central  division  of  French  Indo- 
China  and  formerly  the  designation  of  an  inde- 
pendent empire,  which  included  the  provinces  of 
Annam,  Tongking  and  Cochin  China.  It  em- 
braces the  greater  part  of  the  east  coast  of  Indo- 
China  (washed  by  the  South  China  Sea),  and 
stretches  from  Cochin  China  on  tlie  south  to 
Tongking  on  the  north,  its  southernmost  point 
being  about  lat.  10°  30'  N.  and  its  northern 
extremity  about  lat.  20°  30',  at  the  delta  of  the 
Song-koi  or  Red  River.  On  the  west  it  is  bound- 
ed by  the  countr}'  of  the  L.aos,  Siam  and  Cam- 
bodia. The  area  is  about  50.000  square  miles. 
The  much  larger  figures  until  recently  current 
for  the  area  have  been  curtailed  by  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  French  Laos  countr,v.  The  coast, 
about  750  miles  long,  is  deeply  indented  and 
fringed  with  many  islets. 

Annam  is  traversed  throughout  its  entire 
length  from  north  to  south  by  a  mountain 
chain  which  slopes  precipitously  toward  the  sea, 
but  declines  gently  toward  the  Mekong  valle.v  in 
the  interior.  It  reaches  in  the  peak  of  Pu-san  an 
elevation  of  about  9000  feet.  Pu-atuat  is  about 
1000  feet  lower.  The  country  has  two  hydro- 
graphic  zones.  On  the  west  is  the  basin  of  the 
ilekong;  on  the  east  are  numerous  coast  rivers, 
shallow  and  nearly  impracticable  for  navigation. 
The  ]\Iekong  River  rises  in  Tibet,  flows  througli 
the  extreme  south  of  China,  traverses  the  Indfi- 
Chinese  peninsula  with  a  rapid  current,  gather- 
ing many  tributaries'  on  its  way,  and  forms  tli<' 
boundary  between  Annam  and  Siam.  It  is  navi- 
gated liy  steamboats  along  the  Annam  frontier. 
The  largest  city  and  the  capital  of  Annam  i> 
Hu(^.  The  productions  of  Annam  include  rice 
and  other  cereals,  cinnamon,  sugar-cane,  coffee, 
tobacco,  tea,  and  cotton.  A  considerable  quan- 
tity of  silk  is  produced,  and  the  forests  yield 
valuable  woods.  The  buffalo  is  domesticated  and 
used  in  tillage.  The  Chinese  hog  is  reared  in 
large  numbers.  The  large  game  characteristic 
of  the  wilds  of  India  abounds  in  Annam.     One  of 


I 


ANNAM. 


577 


ANNAPOLIS. 


the  results  following  on  French  occupation  of  the 
Laos  country  has  been  to  divert  trailc  from  Bang- 
kok in  Siaiu  to  the  ilekong  valley  and  the  sea 
coast.  The  first  commercial  caravan  coming  from 
Laos  arrived  at  Hue  in  February,  1895.  The 
principal    imports    are    cotton    goods,    Chinese 

f)aper,  machinery,  metals,  Chinese  drugs,  petro- 
eum,  and  tea.  The  exports  consist  of  sugar, 
cinnamon,  horn,  ivory,  skins,  raw  silk,  wood,  etc. 
In  ISO"  the  imports  amounted  to  4,71'.)-U9 
francs  and  the  exports  to  2,552,010  francs.  The 
principal  ports  of  Annam  are  Tourane,  Fai-fu, 
Qui-nhon  and  Xuan-dai. 

The  government  is  in  theory  a  monarchy.  The 
king  is  assisted  by  a  council  of  six  members, 
though  everything  is  in  reality  subject  to  the 
French  resident  superior  at  Hue,  who  has  a 
statT  of  assistants  and  a  military  guard.  The 
country  is  divided  into  twelve  provinces,  each 
of  which  is  subdivided  into  fu  (departments) 
and  huje  (districts).  Most  of  the  actual  ad- 
ministration of  justice  and  tax  collection  ia 
under  the  native  ortieials.  Service  in  the  native 
army,  of  10,000  men,  who  are  luider  French 
ollicers,  is  compulsoiy.  The  population  of  An- 
nam is  estimated  at  about  5,000,000;  by  some  as 
high  as  6,000,000. 

The  Annamese  comprise  at  least  two  different 
stocks — the  rather  primitive  Jlois  of  the  moun- 
tainous interior,  and  tlie  Annamese  proper,  both 
of  whom  exhiljit  quite  uniform  ])hysical  types, 
notwithstanding  intermixture  witli  other  peoples 
(Khmers,  Malays,  Chinese,  .etc.)  in  prehistoric 
and  in  recent  times.  The  foreign-born  popula- 
tion, living  chiefly  in  the  towns,  comprises  5000 
Chinese  and  400  Europeans.  The  .-Ynnamese 
proper  are  sliort.  rather  slenderly  built,  braehy- 
cephalie,  and  although  belonging,  by  reason  of 
their  monosyllabic  speech,  to  the  great  group  of 
mankind  of  which  the  Chinese  are  the  best  known 
representatives,  possess  a  certain  physical  indi- 
viduality of  their  own.  They  have  a  swaggering 
stride  or  gait,  arising  from  a  peculiar  structure 
of  the  pelvis  and  femur  and  a  notable  separation 
of  the  big  toe,  or  "foot-thumb,''  from  the  other 
toes.  Like  most  of  the  peoples  of  this  region, 
they  possess  strains  of  Aryan,  and,  possibly, 
negroid  blood.  Annamese  culture  and  folk-lore 
are  lai'gely  rellectioiis  of  Chinese.  From  China 
came  also  their  alphabet,  literature,  and  the 
form  of  Buddhism  and  Confucianism  professed 
by  the  more  enlightened  classes.  The  .Annamese 
are  essentially  democratic  in  disposition,  and 
live  in  patriarchal  style,  the  father  having  al- 
most absolute  authority  in  his  family.  -Vliout 
400,000  of  the  inhabitants  are  (Uitholics.  Among 
the  principal  towns  are  Hue,  the  capital,  Bin- 
diiih  Vinh,  Than-hoa,  and  Tourane. 

Subjected  to  China,  together  with  Tongking, 
in  the  third  century  B.C.  by  She  Twang  Ti,  An- 
nam became  autonomous  under  Chinese  su- 
zerainty in  1428  .\.D.  after  long  and  sanguinary 
wars.  In  1780  the  ruler  of  Annam  was  able,  with 
French  aid.  to  free  himself  from  sul)jection  to 
China  and  to  join  Tongking  and  Cochin  China  tn 
his  empire.  This  became  a  field  of  French  in- 
fluence. Under  Napoleon  III.,  France  began  the 
establishment  of  her  dominion  in  Indo-China.  by 
engaging  in  hostilities  with  Annam  in  1858.  In 
1802  the  Kingwas  compelled  to  cede  the  principal 
part  of  Cochin  China  to  the  French,  and  the 
rest  of  that  territory  was  added  in  lS(i7.  The 
French  contin\ied  to  encroach,  entered  in  1882 
upon   the  conquest  of  Tongking    (of  which  they 


became  masters  in  1885),  and  tlie  treaty  of  June 
0,  1884,  ratified  at  Hue',  February  23,  18"8(),  estab- 
lished a  French  protectorate  over  Annam.  French 
troops  occui)y  the  citadel  of  Hue,  and  France 
controls  the  finances.  Prince  Bun-Lan,  who  was 
proclaimed  king  in  1889,  under  the  name  of 
Than-Thai,  attained  his  majority  in  1807. 

BiBLiOGn.u'iiY.  Leraye,  L'Eiiipirc  d'Annam  et 
Ic  pen  pie  annamite  (ISSfl):  .Tammes,  Au  paya 
aniximite  (Paris,  ISOS)  ;  Barral,  La  rohmmttioii 
fraiif-difie  au  Tonkin  rt  en  Annam  (Paris,  1800)  : 
Xorman,  Peoples  and  Polities  of  the  Far  Kast 
(London,  1805)  ;  Fournereau,  Le  l^iam  ancien 
(Paris.  1805)  :  Duniontier,  />es  syniholes  ches  Ics 
Annamites  (Paris,  1890)  ;  and  Hannah,  Brief 
History  of  Eastern  Asia  (New  York,  1900). 

AN'NA  MATIL'DA.  A  pseudonym  under 
which  Hannah  Parkliouse  Cowley  maintained  a 
poetical  correspondence  with  Robert  Merry 
(■'Delia  Crusea"),  the  leader  of  the  so-called 
English  "Delia  Cruseans,"  in  the  World,  ending 
about  1789,  when  the  correspondents  first  met 
personally.  Their  interchange  of  verses  gained 
an  added  notoriety  from  Gilford's  satire  Buriad 
and  Mwviad.  which  held  it  up  to  ridicule.  "Anna 
Matilda"  has  come  to  be  a  type  of  writer  of  taste- 
less sentimentalism. 

AN'NAN.  A  seaport  and  parliamentary 
burgh  in  the  county  of  Dumfries,  Scotland,  on 
the  river  of  the  same  name,  near  its  entrance 
into  the  Solway  Firth  (Map:  Scotland,  E  4).  It 
is  neat  and  well  built;  among  the  chief  industries 
are  tanning,  cotton-spinning,  and  rope-weaving. 
The  river  is  navigable  for  large  vessels  halt  a 
mile  below  the  town.  There  is  regular  commu- 
nication by  steamers  with  Liverpool  and  White- 
haven, and  railways  connect  the  town  with  Ed- 
inburgh, Glasgow,  and  Carlisle.  The  burgh  unites 
with  Dumfries,  etc.,  in  returning  one  memVier  to 
Parliament.  Pop.,  roval  parliamentary  and  mu- 
nicipal burgh,   1001,  5804. 

AN'NANDALE.  The  valley  of  the  river  An- 
nan, in  Dunifriesshire,  Scotland. 

ANNANDALE,  Ch.\m.es  (1843—).  An  Eng- 
lish author.  He  was  born  in  Kincardineshire,  and 
was  educated  at  Aberdeen  Universitj-.  He  has 
edited  such  important  works  of  reference  as  the 
Imperial  Dietionary  (London,  1882)  ;  Blaekie's 
Modern  Cyclopwdiu  (ib.,  1890)  ;  and  Student's 
Dictionary   (ib.,  1S95). 

ANNANDALE,  Thomas  (1838—).  An  Eng- 
lish surgeon.  He  was  born  at  Newcastle,  and 
was  educated  at  Edinburgh  University,  where  he 
subsequently  was  appointed  assistant  to  Pro- 
fessor Syme.  He  was  for  some  time  demonstrator 
of  anatomy  under  Professor  Goodsir  at  the  same 
university,  and  in  1877  was  made  regius  ]»■(>- 
fessoi'  of  clinical  surgery  there.  He  has  pub- 
lished Diseases  and  Injuries  of  Fingers  and  Toes 
(1865),  Abstracts  of  Surgieal  Principles  (1S68- 
70),  and  other  important  woi-ks. 

ANNAP'OLIS.  A  seajiort  of  Nova  Scotia. 
Originally  Port  Royal,  the  oldest  European  set- 
tlement in  British  America.  It  is  100  miles  west 
of  Halifax,  in  lat.  44°  40'  N.,  on  a  river  of  the 
same  name  that  runs  into  the  Bay  of  Fundy.  Us 
harbor  is  excellent,  though  somewhat  diflicult 
of  access;  it  has  a  trade  in  fruit,  and  is  a  favor- 
ite summer  resort.  The  United  States  is  repre- 
sented by  a  consular  agent.  Established  in  1604 
by  the  French  as  the  capital  of  Acadia,  it  was 
conquered  by  the  English  in  1710  and  ceded  by 


ANNAPOLIS. 


5rs 


ANNATTO. 


the  Frencli  in  1713,  when  Port  Royal  changed  its 
name  in  honor  of  Queen  Anne,  continuing  to  be 
tlie  seat  of  government  till,  in  1750,  it  was  su- 
perseded by  Halifax.  Since  then  Annapolis  has 
lost  much  of  its  former  prestige,  and  owes  what- 
ever importance  it  has  still  retained  to  its  river, 
which  is  navigable  for  nearly  the  whole  of  its 
course  of  seventy  miles.     Pop.,  1901,  1010. 

ANNAPOLIS.  The  capital  of  Maryland,  port 
of  entry,  and  county  seat  of  Anne  Arundel  Coun- 
ty, on  tlie  Severn  River,  about  2  miles  from  Ches- 
apeake Bay,  20  miles  south  by  east  of  Baltimore 
and  37  miles  by  rail  from  Washington,  D.  C. 
It  is  on  the  Annapolis  and  Baltimore  Short  Line, 
and  the  Annapolis,  Washington  and  Baltimore 
Railroad,  and  is  connected  by  boat  with  Balti- 
more and  other  i)oints  on  the  bay  (Map: 
^Maryland,  !M  5 ) .  Among  the  more  prominent 
points  of  interest  are  the  Governor's  House,  a 
tine  State  House,  the  county  buildings,  the 
United  States  Xaval  Academy  (q.v.),  St.  .John's 
College,  founded  in  1789,  and  statues  of  Chief 
Justice  Taney  and  C4eneral  De  Kalb.  The  city 
has  a  fine  harbor,  and  is  the  seat  of  an  extensive 
ovster-canninc:  industrv,  the  product  being  large- 
ly exported.   "Pop..  1890,  7004;   1900,  8525. 

In  1008  Captain  John  Smith  visited  the  site 
of  Annapolis,  but  no  settlement  was  made  until 
1049,  when  a  company  of  Puritans  from  Virginia 
established  here  the  town  of  "Providence"  (later 
changed  successively  to  "Proctor's."  "The  Town," 
"Anne-Arnndel  Town,"  and,  finally,  in  honor  of 
Queen  Anne,  to  "The  Town  of  Annapolis"),  In 
1094  the  capital  of  the  province  was  moved 
hither  from  St.  Mary's,  and  in  1708  (August  10), 
Annapolis  was  erected  into  a  city.  Early  in  the 
eighteenth  century  one  of  the  first  free  schools 
-on  the  continent  was  organized  here.  Out  of  this 
St.  John's  College  (q.v.)  later  developed.  On 
May  25.  1774,  the  citizens  passed  resolutions  of 
sympathy  for  Boston,  whose  port  had  recently 
been  closed,  and  on  October  18,  the  brig  Pcgyii 
Stewart,  laden  with  tea,  was  publicly  burned. 
On  December  23.  1783,  Washington  surrendered 
to  Congress,  sitting  temporarily  at  Annapolis, 
his  commission  as  commander-in-chief.  In  1845 
the  United  States  Naval  Academy  was  estab- 
lished here.  Consult:  Ridgely.  Annals  of  An- 
napolis to  1S13  (Baltimore,  18411  :  and  a  sketch 
in  Powell's  Historic  Toicns  of  the  Southern  States 
(New  York,  1900), 

ANNAPOLIS  CONVEN'TION,  The.  A  con- 
vention held  at  Annapolis.  JId.,  September  11, 
1780,  to  consider  the  question  of  intercolonial 
commerce  and  discuss  some  proposed  alterations 
in  the  Articles  of  Confederation.  Commissioners 
from  only  five  States,  Virginia.  Delaware,  Penn- 
sylvania. New  Jersey,  and  New  York,  were  pres- 
ent (though  New  Hampshire,  iMassachusetts. 
Rhode  Island,  and  North  Carolina  had  appointed 
delegates,  who  did  not  attend)  :  and  the  Conven- 
tion accordingly  adjourned  after  recommending 
that  a  convention  of  all  the  States  be  called  for 
the  purpose  of  rendering  "the  Constitution  of  the 
Federal  Government  adequate  to  the  exigencies 
of  the  Union."  This  led  to  the  Constitutional 
Cot}\'r'nti(Ui  of  1787. 

ANN  AR'BOR.  A  city  and  county  seat  of 
Washtenaw  Co.,  Mich..  38  miles  west  of  De- 
troit, on  the  Huron  River,  and  on  the  iliehigan 
Central  and  the  Ann  Arbor  railroads  (ilap: 
^Michigan,  K  0).  It  has  a  fine  situation  amid 
picturesque  scenery,  and  is  the  seat  of  the  Uni- 


versity of  Michigan.  (See  Michigan,  Univer- 
.srri'  op. )  Its  liigh  school  is  well  known  among 
secondary  institutions  of  learning,  and  occupies 
a  building  which,  with  the  court  house  and  post- 
ofiice  buildings,  the  Homeopathic  Hospital  and 
the  Micliigan  Central  Depot,  is  among  the  prom- 
inent features  of  the  city.  Ann  Arbor  is  the  cen- 
tre of  a  fertile  agi'icultural  district,  and  has 
important  manufactures  of  furniture,  agi'icul- 
tural implements,  pumps,  engines,  boilers,  liun- 
ber  products,  organs  and  pianos,  flour,  carriages, 
etc.  The  government,  under  a  revised  charter  of 
1895,  is  vested  in  a  mayor,  biennially  elected,  a 
city  council,  and  administrative  officials,  the  ma- 
jority of  whom  are  appointed  by  tlie  mayor, 
either  absolutely  or  with  the  consent  of  the  coun- 
cil. Ann  Arbor  was  settled  in  1824.  and  was 
incorporated  as  a  city  in  1851.  Pop.,  1890,  9431 ; 
1900,  14,509. 

ANNAKB',  or  ONARK'.  In  Norse  mythol- 
ogy, the  husband  of  Nott  (night),  and  father  of 
Jcird    ( the  earth ) . 

AN'NAS  (Heb.,  merciful).  A  .Jewish  high- 
priest,  appointed  by  Quirinius  in  6  A.U.,  and  de- 
posed by  Valerius  Grains  in  15  a.d.  He,  no 
doubt,  continued  to  exercise  great  influence,  as 
the  office  was  held  by  five  of  his  sons,  Eleazar, 
.Jonathan,  Theophilus,  Avan,  and  Matthias,  and 
by  his  son-in-law,  .Joseph,  surnamed  Caiaphas, 
between  18  a.d.  and  30  a.d.  The  wealth  of  "the 
house  of  Annas"  was  to  some  extent  derived 
from  the  booths,  where  they  provided  all  kinds 
of  materials  for  sacrifice.  By  this  monopoly 
they  made  the  temple  "a  den  of  robbers,"  and 
drew  down  upon  themselves  the  curses  of  the 
Pharisees  as  well  as  the  indignation  of  Jesus. 
The  influential  position  of  Annas  may  have  led 
to  the  erroneous  statement  of  Luke,  that  there 
were  two  high-priests,  Annas  and  Caiaphas  (iii: 
2 ) ,  and  the  consequent  .Johannine  account  of  a 
separate  trial  of  Jesus,  before  Annas  (xviii  :  13- 
27 ) .  A  son  of  Annas,  by  the  same  name,  was  ap- 
pointed high-priest  by  Agi'ippa  II.  in  02  a.d. 
He  is  said  to  have  put  to  death  James,  the 
brother  of  Jesus ;  but  the  passage  of  Josephus 
(Ant.  XX  :  9)  which  relates  this  is  probably  a 
Christian  interpolation. 

ANNATES,  .an'nats,  or  First  Fruits.  In 
ecclesiastical  law,  the  value  of  every  spiritual 
living  for  a  whole  year  (hence  the  name,  from 
the  Lat.  annus,  a  year), which  the  Pope.claiming 
the  disposition  of  every  spiritual  benefice  witliin 
Christendom,  reserved  out  of  every  living.  Tliis 
impost  was  at  first  only  levied  from  persons  ap- 
pointed to  bishoprics;  but  it  was  afterward  ex- 
tended to  the  inferior  clergy.  The  value  of  these 
annates  was  calculated  according  to  a  rate  made 
under  the  direction  of  Pope  Innocent  IV.  (1253 
A.D.),  but  which  was  afterward  increased  b}' 
Pope  Nicholas  III.  (1292  a.d.).  The  valuation 
of  Pope  Nicholas  is  still  preserved  in  the  ex- 
chequer. This  Papal  exaction  was  abolished  by 
the  Act  25  Henry  VIII.  c.  20,  and  by  an  iict 
passed  in  the  following  year  of  the  same  reign 
(20  Henry  Vlll.  c.  3),  the  right  to  annates,  or 
first  fruits,  was  annexed  to  the  crown.  The  vari- 
ous statutes  subsequently  passed  on  this  sub- 
ject have  all  been  consolidated  by  an  act  ( 1 
Vict.  c.  20)  regulating  the  collection  of  the 
moneys  so  levied.  See  First  Fruits;  Queen 
Anne's  Bounty. 

ANNATTO,  an-nat'tS.     See  Aenotto. 


ANNE. 


579 


ANNE. 


ANN^  (an)  OF  Austria  (1601-66).  The 
daufiliter  of  Philip  III.  of  Spain,  who  in  1615  1)C- 
canie  the  wife  of  Louis  XIII.  of  Fiance.  The 
marriage  was  so  far  from  bein;;  a  happy  one 
tliat  the  royal  pair  lived  for  twenty-three  years 
in  a  state  of  virtual  separation — a  result  due 
chiefly  to  the  intiuence  of  Cardinal  Richelieu, 
whose  fixed  determination  to  humble  the  house 
of  Austria  led  him  to  spare  no  means  for  alien- 
ating the  affection  of  Louis  from  his  queen,  by 
representing  her  as  ever  involved  in  the  most 
dangerous  conspiracies  against  his  authority. 
Her  imprudent  conduct,  however,  lent  much 
force  to  Richelieu's  accusations,  for  she  certainly 
was  concerned,  in  some  degree,  in  the  conspiracies 
of  Chalais  (1028)  and  Cinq  Mars  (1042).  On 
the  death  of  the  King,  in  1643,  Anne  became 
Queen  Regent  for  her  son  Louis  XIV.,  and 
evinced  her  discernment  b_y  choosing  as  her 
minister  Cardinal  JIazarin,  whom  she  is  said 
to  have  married  secretly,  anil  by  whose  able 
management  the  young  king  (Louis  XIV.)  came 
into  possession  of  a  throne  firmly  established 
on  the  ruins  of  contending  parties.  (See 
Fro.n'DE.)  The  character  of  Anne  was  in  many 
ways  anomalous.  Her  stately  coldness,  which 
failed  to  attract  her  husband,  often  gave  way 
to  fits  of  reckless  gayety  which  repelled  him. 
Without  being  actually  treasonable,  she  often 
engaged  in  intrigue.  Proud  of  her  royal  state, 
she  made  an  Italian  parvenu  her  favorite,  and, 
as  some  say,  her  husband.  There  was  in  her 
always  a  great  conflict  between  the  woman  and 
the  queen.  Consult:  Freer,  Married  Life  of 
Anne  of  Austria  (London,  180.5)  ;  Reyenetj  of 
Anne  of  Austria  (London,  1806). 

ANNE  OF  Brittaky  (1470-1.514),  Queen 
of  France.  She  was  the  daughter  and  heiress  of 
Francis  II.,  Duke  of  Brittanv.  Bv  her  marriage 
to  Charles  VIII.,  December  0,  1491,  Brittany  be- 
came incorporated  with  France.  Anne  had  been 
affianced  to  ilaxiniilian  of  Austria,  but  (he 
French  king  took  care  not  to  let  slip  so  rich  a 
prize.  During  Charles  VIII. 's  campaigns  iu  Italy 
she  governed  France  well.  After  her  husband's 
death  she  married  his  successor,  Louis  XII.,  over 
whom  she  had  great  influence.  She  was  a  woman 
of  great  beauty  and  intelligence. 

ANNE  OF  Cleves,  klevz  (1517-57).  The  daugh- 
ter of  John,  Duke  of  Cleves,  and  fourth 
queen  of  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  who  reluctant- 
ly married  her  on  January  0,  1540.  to  conciliate 
the  German  Protestant  princes,  but  divorced  her 
on  July  0th  of  the  same  year  on  no  other  ap- 
parent grounds  than  her  plain  looks  and  alleged 
incompatibility.  She  died  at  Chelsea,  July  10, 
1557.  Consult  Field,  "Anna  of  Cleves,"  in  the 
Gentleman's  ilaqazine,  Volume  CCXC.  (London, 
1901). 

ANNE  OF  Denmark  (1574-1612).  The  wife 
of  James  1.  of  England  (q.v.),  to  whom  she 
was  married  at  Opslo,  Norway,  November  23, 
1589.  She  was  born  at  Skanderborg,  Jutland. 
Her  marriage  dowry  was  the  Orkney  and  Shet- 
land Islands.  She  was  exceedingly  fond  of  dis- 
play, her  principal  aim  being  to  outshine  the 
other  women  of  the  court.  She  is  said  to  have 
favored  Catholicism,  but  she  did  not  openly 
identify  herself  with  that  Church. 

ANNE  OF  Geierstein,  gl'er-stin.  The 
title  of  a  novel  by  Scott  (1829),  based  upon 
events  connected  with  the  victory  of  the  Swiss 
over  Charles  the  Bold  of  Burgundy  in  the 
fiflccnth  century. 


ANNE,  an,  Qi  eex  of  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
LA.ND  (1005-1714).  The  last  British  sovereign 
of  the  house  of  Stuart.  She  was  born  at  St. 
James's  Palace, London, February  0, 1065, and  was 
the  second  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  York,  after- 
ward James  11.,  by  his  first  wife,  Anne  Hyde, 
the  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Clarendon.  When 
she  was  about  seven  years  of  age,  her  mother 
died,  and  her  father  soon  after  professed  him- 
self a  member  of  the  Church  of  Rome ;  but  he 
permitted  his  daughters  to  be  educated  in  the 
principles  of  the  Church  of  England,  for  which 
Anne  always  retained  an  ardent  if  not  a  very 
enlightened  attachment.  To  .advance  his  own 
popularity,  her  father  gave  her  in  marriage,  in 
1083,  to  Prince  George  of  Denmark,  brother  of 
Christian  V.,  an  indolent  and  good-natured 
man,  who  concerned  himself  little  about  public 
affairs,  and  was  endowed  with  no  capacity  for 
taking  part  in  them.  Anne's  own  weakness  of 
character  and  that  of  her  husband  gave  oppor- 
tunity to  Lady  Churchill,  afterward  Duchess 
of  ilarlborough,  her  early  i)layfcllow.  to  acquire 
an  influence  over  her  which,  during  many  years, 
was  almost  supreme.  During  the  reign  of  her 
father,  Anne  lived  in  letirement,  taking  no  part 
in  politics.  On  the  landing  of  the  Prince  of 
Orange,  she  seems  at  first  to  have  hesitated, 
and  even  to  have  been  inclined  to  adhere  to  the 
cause  of  her  father,  whose  favorite  daughter  she 
was;  but  Churchill  had  made  up  his  mind  to  an 
opposite  course,  and  his  wife  induced  the  Prin- 
cess to  adopt  it.  She  consented  to  the  act  by 
which  the  throne  was  secured  to  the  Prince  of 
Orange  in  the  event  of  his  surviving  her  sister 
Mary:  but  quarreled  with  her  sister  about  ques- 
tions of  etiquette,  and  was  afterward  drawn 
into  intrigues,  in  which  the  Churchills  were  en- 
gaged, for  the  restoration  of  her  father,  or  to 
.secure  the  succession  of  the  throne  to  his  son. 
Although  she  had  borne  seventeen  children,  only 
one,  the  Duke  of  Gloucester,  survived  infancy, 
to  die  in  1700,  in  his  eleventh  j-car;  and  Anne 
was  without  a  direct  heir  when  she  ascended  the 
throne  on  March  19,  1702.  The  influence  of 
]\Iarlborough  and  his  wife  was  powerfully 
felt  in  all  public  afl'airs  during  the  greater  part 
of  her  reign.  The  strife  of  parties  was  violent, 
and  political  complications  were  increased  by  the 
Queen's  anxiety  to  secure  the  succession  to  her 
brother.  In  so  far  as  she  had  any  political  ])rin- 
ciples,  they  were  opposed  to  that  constitutional 
liberty  of  which  her  own  occupancy  of  the  throne 
was  a  sort  of  symbol,  and  were  favorable  to  ab- 
solute government  and  the  assertion  of  royal  pre- 
rogative according  to  the  traditions  of  her 
family.  These  principles,  and  her  family  attach- 
ment, tended  to  alienate  her  from  the  Marl- 
boroughs,  whose  policy,  from  the  time  of  her  ac- 
cession, had  become  adverse  to  Jacnhitism,  and 
who  now,  along  with  Godolphin,  were  at  the  head 
of  the  \ATiig  party.  The  Duchess  also  offended 
the  Queen  by  presuming  too  boldly  and  haught- 
ily upon  the  power  whicli  she  had  so  long  pos- 
sessed. 

Anne  found  a  new  favorite  in  ^Irs.  IMasham, 
a  relative  of  the  Duchess,  who  had  introduced 
her  into  the  royal  household.  Tn  Mrs.  Masham's 
iiifluence  the  change  of  government  in  1710  was 
in  a  great  measure  owing,  when  the  Whigs  were 
cast  out,  and  the  Tories  came  into  office,  Harley 
(afterward  Earl  of  Oxford)  and  St.  John 
( Lord  Bolingbroke )  becoming  the  leaders  of  the 
ministry.  But  although  they  concurred  more  or 
less  in  the  Queen's  design  to  secure  the  succession 


ANNE. 


580 


ANNEALING. 


of  the  throne  to  her  brother,  the  new  ministers 
had  qnarrels  among  themselves  which  prevented 
its  successful  prosecution;  their  plans  and  in- 
trigues became  sufficiently  known  to  alarm  the 
nation,  and  to  alienate  manj-  political  supporters 
of  the  Government  party.  A  dispute  between  Ox- 
ford and  ilrs.  Masham,  carried  on  for  hours  in 
the  Queen's  presence  and  terminating  in  her  de- 
mand for  his  instant  resignation,  seems  to  have 
brought  on  the  attack  of  apoplexy  of  which  she 
died,  August  1,  1714.  The  Elector  of  Hanover 
succeeded  her  as  George  I.  The  principal  event 
of  her  reign,  the  union  of  England  and  Scotland, 
in  1707,  may  be  mentioned  in  its  personal  re- 
lation to  herself,  as  she  was  the  last  sovereign 
who  reigned  over  these  as  separate  kingdoms, 
and  the  first  sovereign  styled  "of  Great  Britain." 
Another  important  event  was  the  War  of  the 
Spanish  Succession,  in  which  the  Duke  of  Marl- 
borough won  brilliant  victories  over  the  armies 
of  Louis  XIV.  of  France.  Queen  Anne  was  of 
middle  size  and  comely,  though  not  beautiful. 
She  was  virtuous,  conscientious,  and  afl'ectionate, 
more  worthy  of  esteem  as  a  woman  than  of  ad- 
miration as  a  queen.  Her  reign  is  often  mention- 
ed as  a  period  rendered  illustrious  by  some  of  the 
greatest  names,  both  in  literature  and  science, 
which  her  country  has  ever  produced;  but  litera- 
ture and  science  owed  little  to  her  active  en- 
couragement. Consult:  Burton,  Reign  of  Queen 
Anne  (London,  1880)  :  Oldmixon,  Life  of  Queen 
Anne  (London,  1716)  :  Ashton.  tiocial  Life  in 
the  Reign  of  Queen  Anne  (London,  1882)  ;  and 
ISlorris,  The  Age  of  Anne  (New  York,  1887). 

ANNE,  Sister.  In  the  story  of  Bluebeard 
(q.v. ),  the  sister  of  Fatima.  ■\^■hile  Fatima  is 
awaiting  the  penalty  of  her  disobedience,  Anne, 
on  the  top  of  the  tower,  watches  for  the  coming 
of  their  brothers  to  save  them. 

ANNEAIi'ING  (From  M.  Engl,  anclen,  0.  F. 
neeler,  Fr.  nieller,  to  enamel,  from  Lat.  nigel- 
lus,  blackish ) .  The  process  by  which  glass 
and  certain  metals  are  heated  and  then  slowly 
cooled  to  make  them  more  tenacious  and  less 
brittle.  The  rationale  of  annealing  has  been 
most  studied,  perhaps,  in  connection  with  steel 
manufacturing.  Important  steel  castings  are 
nearly  always  annealed,  and  it  is  a  common  re- 
quirement for  steel  forgings.  In  drawing  steel 
wire,  annealing  is  necessary  at  frequent  inter- 
vals, and  it  is  a  common  practice  to  anneal  steel 
plates  for  the  best  marine  boiler  work.  The 
hardening  and  tempering  of  steel  are  analogous 
processes  to  annealing,  there  being  a  close  inter- 
relation between  the  three  phenomena.  Steel  is 
hardened  by  sudden  cooling  from  a  high  tem- 
perature, usually  at  or  above  red  heat,  by 
plunging  it  into  oil,  water,  etc.  To  temper  steel 
means  in  its  specific  sense  to  mitigate,  or  to  mod- 
erate, the  edects  of  previous  hardening.  It  is 
usually  performed  by  gently  reheating  the  pre- 
viously hardened  steel  to  a  much  lower  tempera- 
ture than  red  heat  and  then  cooling  it.  generally 
suddenly,  but  sometimes  slowly.  While  temper- 
ing somewhat  moderates  the  effects  of  previous 
hardening,  annealing  aims  nearly  completely  to 
eliminate  them.  Annealing  of  steel  is  usimlly 
effected  by  slow  cooling  from  a  temperature  at 
or  above  red  heat.  Thus  steel  is  in  its  hardest 
and  most  brittle  state  when  hardened;  in  its 
softest  and  toughest  when  annealed ;  and  in  an 
intermediate  condition  when  tempered. 

In  hardening,  the  steel  articles,  if  small,  are 


heated  in  boxes  or  pans  filled  with  charcoal  dust, 
and  placed  in  reverberatory  furnaces.  Larger  ar- 
ticles are  heated  in  the  furnace  proper,  which  is 
often  made  of  a  special  shape  to  fit  the  form  of 
the  article,  such,  for  instance,  as  a  long  gun 
tube.  In  general,  the  more  rapid  the  cooling, 
the  harder  and  more  brittle  is  the  steel.  Mer- 
cury is  the  most  rapid  cooling  agent,  and  water, 
rapeseed  oil,  tallow,  and  coal-tar  follow  next 
in  tlie  order  named.  Steel  castings  and  forgings 
for  guns,  marine  engine-shafts,  and  armor-plate, 
where  strength  is  more  important  than  hard- 
ness, are  usually  cooled  in  oil ;  while  steel  for 
cutting-tools,  where  extreme  hardness  is  the  im- 
portant thing,   is   ordinarily  hardened  in  water. 

In  tempering  hardened  steel  articles,  they  are 
slowly  heated  by  contact  with  hot  iron  bars, 
plates  or  rings,  on  the  surface  of  melted  lead  or 
other  fusible  metal,  in  hot  sand,  in  burning  char- 
coal, or  in  special  furnaces,  to  a  temperature  of 
from  428°  F.  to  600'  F.  The  temperature  re- 
quired for  razors  is  from  446°  F.  to  469°  F. ; 
for  shears  and  scissors,  491°  F. ;  for  woodwork- 
ing tools,  531°  F. ;  for  swords  and  coiled  springs, 
550°  F.;  for  handsaws,  600°  F.  The  heated  ar- 
ticle is  cooled  by  plunging  it  into  a  bath  of  water 
or  oil. 

In  annealing,  the  article  is  heated  imiformly 
in  a  furnace,  without  direct  contact  with  the 
flames,  to  the  temperature  generally  of  bright 
cherry  red.  The  common  method  of  cooling  is 
to  withdraw  the  fire  from  the  furnace  and  to 
close  all  apertures,  allowing  the  furnace  slowlj- 
to  cool  down.  Cooling  is  sometimes  accomplish- 
ed by  burying  the  heated  article  in  ashes,  lime, 
or  other  slow  conductors  of  heat,  and  allowing  it 
to  become  cool  by  the  radiation  of  its  heat. 
Boiler  and  ship  plates  are  often  cooled  by  sim- 
ply withdrawing  them  from  the  furnace  and 
throwing  them  on  the  mill  Hoor  to  cool  by  ra- 
diation. Wlien  medals  are  repeatedly  struck  by 
the  die-stamper,  the  gold  or  other  metal,  by  the 
concussion,  becomes  brittle,  and  requires  to  be 
heated  and  annealed  at  intervals.  Annealing  is 
necessary  in  gold-beating  and  in  rolling,  ham- 
mering, and  stamping  sheet-metals  generally.  Ar- 
ticles of  tin.  lead,  and  zinc,  which  are  metals  with 
a  low  melting  temperature,  are  annealed  in  boil- 
ing water,  which  is  allowed  to  cool  with  the  ar- 
ticle immersed.  Malleable  iron  is  cast-iron  an- 
nealed by  being  covered  Avith  powdered  hematite 
ore  and  heated  and  then  slowly  cooled. 

In  the  making  of  glass  vessels  by  the  glass- 
blower  ( see  Gl.\ss  ) ,  they  are  of  course  quickly 
reduced  in  temperatun'  while  the  fused  glass  is 
being  molded  into  the  desired  shape.  The  atoms 
of  tlie  glass  thus  rapidly  compelled  to  assume  a 
permanent  position  do  not  seem  to  be  properly 
and  firmly  arranged  together,  and  the  vessel  is 
very  liable  to  be  broken,  either  by  a  slight  but 
smart  blow,  or  a  sudden  increase  or  decrease  in 
temperature.  This  brittleness  is  very  ob- 
servable in  the  lacrimce  vitrew,  or  glass  tears, 
known  as  Prince  Rupert's  drops,  obtained  liy  al- 
lowing molten  glass  to  fall  into  water,  when  the 
glass  forms  pear-shaped  drops,  which  are  so  brit- 
tle that  if  they  be  scratched  with  a  file  or  tlie  end 
be  broken  oft'  the  whole  bursts  asunder  and  falls 
down  into  a  fine  powder  of  glass.  The  same 
brittleness  is  exhibited  in  Bologna  jars,  or  vials, 
which  are  small  and  very  thick,  and  yet,  if  a 
minute  angular  fragment  of  any  hard  substance 
be  dropped  into  the  jar.  the  latter  flies  to  pieces. 

In  the  annealing  of  glass  vessels,  they  are  ar- 


I 


ANNEALING. 


581 


ANNIE   LAURIE. 


ranppd  in  iron  trays,  and  placed  in  a  long  oven, 
whole  tliey  are  gradually  raised  in  temperature 
to  near  tlieir  fusing  point  by  the  trays  being 
drawn  along  to  the  hottest  part  of  the  oven;  and 
thereafter,  the  trays,  with  their  eontents,  are 
very  slowly  drawn  into  a  cooler  and  cooler  part, 
till  they  become  cold.  The  annealing  operation 
generally  takes  twelve  hours  for  small  articles, 
such  as  wine  glasses;  but  days,  and  even  a  week 
or  two,  are  required  completely  to  anneal  large 
vessels,  ilanj'  articles  of  glass,  such  as  tubes  for 
steam-gauges,  lamp-glasses,  etc.,  are  annealed  In' 
being  immersed  in  cold  water,  which  is  very 
gradually  raised  to  its  boiling  point,  and  there- 
after cooled. 

The  theory  of  annealing  is  one  of  considerable 
technical  intricacy,  and  scientists  are  not  alto- 
gether in  agreement  as  regards  many  of  its  fea- 
tures. For  a  full  discussion  of  the  theory  and 
|iractiee  of  the  hardening,  tempering,  and  anneal- 
ing of  steel,  consult  Howe,  Metallurgy  of  8teel 
(New  York,  1892). 

ANNECY,  an'se'.  A  town  of  the  department 
of  Haute-Savoie,  France  (Map:  France,  N  6), 
in  the  midst  of  a  fertile  country  at  the  north- 
western extremity  of  the  Lake  of  Annecy,  and  22 
miles  south  of  Geneva.  The  Lake  of  Annecy  is 
1426  feet  above  the  sea,  and  is  surrounded  by 
magnificent  mountain  scenery.  It  is  about  9 
miles  long  and  2  miles  broad.  Its  waters  flow  by 
the  Fieran  to  the  Rhone.  Annecy  has  manufac- 
tures of  linens,  cottun-yarn,  paper,  straw  goods, 
iron,  and  steel-wares.  Its  linen  bleaehfields  have 
existed  since  16.50.  The  town  is  clean,  and  has  an 
air  of  respectable  antiquitj'.  The  shops  in  many 
of  the  streets  are  unfler  arcades.  The  most  re- 
markable buildings  are  the  chateau,  once  the 
residence  of  the  family  of  Genevois-Nemours, 
the  old  and  new  bishops'  palaces,  the  cathedral, 
and  the  modern  church  of  St.  Francis,  the  latter 
of  which  boasts  of  possessing  the  relics  of  St. 
Francis  of  Sales  and  St.  Jane  Frances  Chantal. 
Annecy  has  a  scientific  and  archfeological  mu- 
seum." Fop..  1901,  13,611. 

In  the  twelfth  century,  Annecy  was  called  An- 
neciacum  yorum,  to  distinguish  it  from  Old  An- 
necy, Anncciacum  Vctus,  which  occupied  the 
slopes  of  a  neighboring  hill,  and  was  a  place  of 
some  consequence  in  the  times  of  the  Romans. 
In  the  earlier  part  of  the  Jliddle  Ages,  Annecy 
belonged  to  the  counts  of  Geneva,  and  on  the  ex- 
tinction of  that  house,  it  passed  to  the  house  of 
Savoy,  in  whose  possession  it  remained,  except 
for  a  brief  period  under  the  French  Empire,  until 
the  transference  of  Savoy  to  France  in  1860. 

ANNE'LIDA.     See  Annulata. 

ANNENKOFF,  a'nyen-kSf,  Mikratl  Nik- 
OLAYEvrxcH  (183.5-99).  A  Russian  soldier  and 
engineer,  born  in  St.  Petersburg.  He  was  edu- 
cated as  a  member  of  the  corps  of  pages,  took 
part  in  crushing  the  Polish  insurrection  of  1863, 
and  was  connected  with  the  administration  of 
affairs  in  Poland  until  1866.  He  was  promoted 
to  be  colonel,  and  during  the  Franco-Prussian 
War  accompanied  the  German  army.  In  the 
Russo-Turkish  War  of  1877-7S  he  directed  the 
military  transportation.  He  beeame  a  lieuten- 
ant-general in  1878  and  served  in  the  campaign 
against  the  Tekke-Turkomans  in  1880-81.  He 
directed  the  construction  of  the  railway  from 
the  Caspian  Sea  to  Samarkand,  1881-89.  and  in 
1S92  began  the  construction  of  the  line  from 
Samarkand  to  Tashkent.     He  was  also  known  as 


a  chief  promoter  of  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway, 
and  published  Observalions  and  Vieivs  of  a  Rus- 
sian Officer    (1871). 

ANNENKOFF,  Nikolai  Ivanovitch  (1819- 
89).  A  Russian  botanist.  He  studied  at  Mos- 
cow, and  in  1853  became  a  director  of  the  School 
of  Agriculture.  This  position  he  occupied  until 
1875,  when  he  was  appointed  director  of  the 
School  of  Horticulture  at  Uman.  His  works 
include  a  dictionary  of  botany,  in  which  the 
names  of  plants  are  given  in  Russian,  French, 
German,  English,  and  other  languages. 

AN'NEXA'TION  (Lat.  anncxus,  a  tying  or 
binding  to,  from  ad,  to  +  nectere,  to  tie).  The 
acquisition  by  a  State  of  territory  previously  in- 
dependent or  in  the  possession  of  another  power. 
Though  strictly  applicable,  perhaps,  only  to 
the  extension  of  a  State's  sovereignty  over  ad- 
joining territory  (as  in  the  annexation  of  Alsace- 
Lorraine  to  Germany  as  the  result  of  the 
Franco-Prussian  War,  and  of  California  and 
adjacent  territory  to  the  United  Si,ates  as  the 
result  of  the  war  with  Mexico)  the  terra  is  ap- 
plied to  any  territorial  acquisition,  near  or  re- 
mote, as  in  the  cession  of  Porto  Rico  and  the 
adjacent  tei-ritory  to  the  I'nitcd  States',  and  the 
forcible  annexation  of  the  Boer  republics  in  South 
Africa  to  the  British  Empire,  jlere  cession  of 
a  territory  does  not  nullify  the  existing  laws, 
until  otherwise  ordained,  and,  until  possession 
is  taken,  the  prior  authorities  retain  their  police 
functions,  although,  technically  .sjjeaking,  sover- 
eignty ceases  upon  completion  of  cession.  There- 
upon the  inhabitants  of  tlie  annexed  terri- 
tory are  absolved  from  their  allegiance  to  their 
former  sovereign  and  their  legal  relation  to  him 
is  dissolved,  but  not  their  relations  to  each  other. 
Titles  to  property  are  not  affected  by  cession,  ex- 
cepting in  the  substitution  of  the  new  sovereign 
for  the  old  as  lord  paramount.     See  Tenure, 

As  annexation  is  a  legal  fact,  resulting  in  the 
virtual  incorporation  of  foreign  territory  in  the 
annexing  State,  it  is  not  affected  by  such  extra- 
legal or  informal  acts  as  discovery,  occupation, 
or  militai'V  conquest,  but  requires  for  its  comple- 
tion the  official  and  legal  action  of  the  State,  by 
treaty  duly  made  and  ratified,  by  proclamation 
of  the  sovereign,  or  by  legislative  act.  Thus, 
it  has  been  recently  decided  by  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States,  in  the  so-called  In- 
sular cases  (1901),  that  Porto  Rico  remained 
foreign  territory,  notwithstanding  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Spanish  sovereignty  and  gov- 
ernment and  the  occupation  of  the  island 
by  the  military  forces  of  the  United  States 
until  the  ratification  of  the  treaty  of  peace 
with  Spain  in  1898,  and  that  it  was  this 
act  which  extended  the  sovereignty  of  the 
United  States  over  that  island.  Where  the 
transfer  of  title  is  not  acquiesced  in  by  the  for- 
mer sovereign,  there  must  be  an  effective  occupa- 
tion and  a  virtually  complete  destruction  of  the 
previously  existing  authority.  But  the  annex- 
ation may  be  complete  notwithstanding  the 
active  or  passive  opposition  of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  territory  affected,  as  in  the  case,  previ- 
ously referred  to.  of  the  Boers  in  So\ith  Africa 
and  the  native  population  in  the  Philippine 
Islands.  See  Allegiance;  Colony;  Conqi-e.st, 
and  the  authorities  there  referred  to. 

AN'NIE  LAU'RIE.  A  Scottish  song  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  by  William  Douglas,''of  Eng- 
land, to  Annie,  daughter  of  Sir  Robert  Laurie,  of 


ANNIE    LAtTRIE. 


5H-Z 


ANNUALS. 


the  Maxwelton  family.     It  was  set  to  music  by 
Lady  Jane  Scott. 

ANNrHILA'TIONISM  (from  Lat.  ad,  to  + 
nihil,  nothing).  The  theory  of  the  utter  extinc- 
tion of  man's  being,  both  bodily  and  spiritual, 
either  at  aeath  or  at  some  later  period.  Little  was 
heard  of  the  doctrine  until  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  when  Taylor,  of  Norwich,  England,  ilc- 
Knigh't,  and  a  few  others  wrote  upon  it.  Among 
later  supporters  perhaps  Arehliishop  Whately 
may  be  counted;  for  in  his  Vicic  of  the  Script  are 
lievelutions  Conceniinp  a  Future  State,  he  says 
that  in  the  passages  in  which  "death,"  "destruc- 
tion," "eternal  death,"  are  spoken  of,  the  words 
may  be  taken  as  signifying  literal  death,  real  de- 
struction, the  utter  end  of  things;  that  "un- 
quenchable fire"  may  mean  a  fire  that  quite  con- 
sumes what  it  feeds  upon,  and  the  "worm  that 
dieth  not"  may  be  that  which  entirely  devours 
its  prey.  In  tlie  United  States,  the  question  was 
revived  by  Six  Sermons  on  the  Question:  Arc  the 
Wicked  Immortul?  by  George  Storrs  (Philadel- 
phia, 1848).  James  H.  McCulloh  in  his  .1h((- 
lytical  Investigations  Concerning  the  Scriptures 
(Baltimore,  1852)  maintained  that  after  the 
final  decisions  at  the  judgment  the  wicked  will 
be  utterly  destroyed  by  the  visitation  of  God 
in  wrath.  C.  F.  Hudson,  in  Debt  and  Grace, 
as  Related  to  the  Doctrine  of  a  Fntnrc  State 
(Boston,  1857),  denies  that  the  natural  im- 
mortality of  the  soul  is  even  implied  in 
the  Bible;  on  the  contrary,  life  and  immor- 
tality are  brought  to  the  redeemed  alone,  all 
others  being  not  only  naturally  mortal,  soul  and 
body,  at  death,  but  after  that  mortal  suspension 
of  positive  existence,  all  are  raised  at  the  final 
resurrection  and  cast  into  the  lake  of  fire  at  the 
second  death.  He  denies  that  endless  con- 
scious suffering  is  ever  affirmed  to  be  the  nature 
of  future  penalty,  but  alTirjjis  that  the  penalty 
consists  in  privation,  and  that  in  the  perpetuity 
of  this  privation  consists  the  eternity  of  future 
punishment.  The  Scripture  terms,  from  which 
eternal  misery  is  usually  understood,  such  terms 
as  "condemnation,"  "destruction,"  "perdition," 
"damnation,"  etc.,  he  thinks  express  the  painful 
and  penal  consignment  of  the  entire  nature  to 
disorganization  and  to  the  complete  non-exist- 
ence from  which  it  originally  came.  R.  W. 
Landis  replied  to  Hudson,  in  his  treatise  On  the 
Immortality  of  the  Soul  and  the  Final  Condition 
of  the  Wicked  (New  York,  1859),  and  many 
other  writers  discussed  the  subject,  especially  in 
religious  reviews  and  magazines. 

The  discussion  then  broadened  out,  and  was 
participated  in  by  members  of  all  communions. 
U'he  general  motive  was  to  gain  some  relief  from 
the  thought  of  the  eternal  suffering  of  vast  nnil- 
titudes  of  human  souls.  It  has  accordingly  been 
argued  that  sin  is  corrupting  in  its  nature,  that 
it  leads  necessarily  to  degeneration  and  decay, 
and  that  a  sinning  soul,  embarked  upon  a 
course  of  rebellion  against  God,  must  finally 
wear  its  life-forces  out  and  cease  to  be.  But 
this  positiim  has  no  support  in  the  Bible  and 
little  in  reason.  There  is  no  evidence  from  the  ex- 
perience of  sinners  in  this  world,  that  sin,  however 
much  it  may  otherwise  affect  the  nature,  sub- 
stantially diminishes  the  power  of  life.  The  ten- 
dency among  thiid'Cers,  who  have  sought  relief  in 
this  direction  lias  therefore  been  rather  to  the 
doctrine  of  "conditional  immortality,"  so-called, 
that  the  soul  of  man  is  not  by  nature  immortal, 
but  becomes  so  by  the  special  gift  of  Christ  upon 


the  exercise  of  a  genuine  faith  in  him.  Apart 
from  this  faith  man  would  eventually,  and 
probably  at  death,  cease  to  be.  Against  the  ob- 
jection that  thus  nmltitudes  of  souls  would  seem 
to  have  been  created  to  no  purpose,  tlie  analogies 
of  evolution  are  brought  by  some,  by  which  nml- 
titudes of  forms  are  ever\nvhere  ]iroduced  that 
a  few  select  ones  may  survive.  The  soul  itself 
thus  enters  into  the  "struggle  for  existence,"  and 
the  "fittest"  souls  survive ;  that  is,  those  who 
have  risen  by  Christian  faith  to  the  higher  plane 
of  life.  The  best  advocate  of  the  view  is  Rev. 
Edward  White,  Life  of  Christ  (London,  1875). 
A  modification  of  this  view  is  to  be  found  in 
S.  D.  MeConnell's  Eoolution  of  Immortulitij 
(New  York.  1901). 

AN'NISTON.  A  city  and  the  county  seat  of 
Calhoun  Co.,  Ala..  03  miles  east  by  north  of 
Birmingham:  on  the  Southern,  the  Louisville 
and  Nashville,  and  other  railroads  (IMap:  Ala- 
bama. D  2).  It  has  a  fine  location  among  the 
mountains  of  the  Blue  Ridge,  and  contains  a 
park,  fair  grounds,  the  handsome  church  of  St. 
Michael  and  All  Angels,  the  Anniston  College 
for  Young  Ladies,  the  Noble  Institute  (co-edu- 
cational), and  the  Barber  Jlemorial  Seminary 
for  colored  girls.  The  city  is  in  a  remarkably 
productive  coal  and  iron,  timber,  and  cotton  re- 
gion, and  is  the  seat  of  an  important  cotton 
trade.  There  are  extensive  furnaces,  foundries 
and  machine  shops,  rolling  mills,  iron  pipe  and 
freight  car  works,  locomotive  and  boiler  works ; 
several  cotton  manufacturing  estalilishments 
producing  a  variety  of  goods:  and  manufactures 
of  lumber  pi'oducts,  lime,  brick  and  tile,  car- 
riages, etc.  Anniston  was  founded  in  1873  by 
the  Woodstock  Iron  Co., headed  by  Samuel  Noble, 
but  was  not  thrown  open  to  the  general  i)ublic 
until  ten  vears  later.  Pop.  in  1890,  9908;  in 
1900.  9im. 

ANNOBON,  iin-no-bun'.  An  island  in  the 
Gulf  of  Guinea,  about  1%°  south  of  the  equator, 
belonging  to  Spain  (Map:  Africa,  E  5).  It  has 
an  area  of  a  little  over  six  square  miles,  and 
is  highly  mountainous.  Inhabitants  number  3000, 
mostly  black,  and  some  of  them  converted  to 
Christianity.  It  was  discovered  by  the  Portu- 
guese in  1471,  and  ceded  to  Spain  in  1778. 

ANNONAY,  an'no'na'  (  anciently  Lat.  An- 
noncnm) .  A  pictiire.sque  town  of  France,  in 
the  department  of  Ardgche,  situated  at  the 
junction  of  two  little  rivers,  37  miles  south 
of  Lyons  (Map:  France,  L  fi).  It  has  a 
rugged  beauty  of  its  own,  the  houses  and  jut- 
ting rocks  interspersed  along  steep  and  nar- 
row streets.  The  principal  buildings  are  the 
Gothic  church,  built  in  1614,  the  college,  the 
museum,  and  library  containing  more  than  20,- 
000  volumes.  It  carries  on  an  acti\e  trade  and 
industry,  the  chief  articles  of  manufacture  being 
paper,  of  which  nearly  half  a  million  reams  are 
produced  annually,  glove  leather  from  kid  skins, 
silk  and  cotton  twist,  and  woolen  cloth.  A  great 
quantity  of  silk  is  produced  in  the  neighboring 
villages".  The  paper  mills  of  Annonay  were  es- 
t;iblished  by  the  father  of  the  celebrated  aero- 
nauts Jfontgolfier,  who  were  born  here,  and  of 
whom  there  is  a  statue  in  tlie  Grande  Place. 
Pop.,  1901,  17,490. 

AN'NUALS.  A  class  of  handsomely  illus- 
trated collections  of  prose  and  verse,  imitating 
the  gift-books  of  the  Germans,  and  intended  -for 
Christmas,  New  Year's,  and  birthday  presents. 


ANNUALS. 


583 


ANNUITY. 


The  first,  the  Foiijcl-inc-nol,  was  published  in 
London,  in  1823,  and  was  folhnved  ))y  the  Liter- 
ary Souvenir;  the  Kcrp.ialcc,  edited  by  Lady 
Wortley,  and  subsequently  by  the  Countess  of 
Blcssington;  the  Book  of  Bcniili/:  the  Musical 
Bijou;  the  Comic  Annual,  begun  by  Thomas 
Hood  and  others,  and  in  the  L'nited  States  by 
the  (Sift  and  the  Token,  to  mention  a  few  of  the 
many.  Large  sums  were  spent  on  these  publi- 
cations and  large  profits  were  realized:  but  while 
many  authors  of  distinction,  as  Tennyson,  were 
induced  to  contribute  to  them,  the  articles,  as  a 
rule,  were  of  an  inferior  and  highly  sentimental 
nature,  and  after  1840  the  demand  for  annuals 
declined.  The  Foryct-me-not  had  an  unparal- 
leled life  of  twenty-two  years;  but  the  Book  of 
Beauty  and  the  Keepsake  survived  it,  the  last 
named  ceasing  to  exist  in  1850.  The  tradition 
of  the  old  annuals  survives  in  the  special  Christ- 
mas numbers  of  many  magazines. 

ANNUALS,   or  MON'OCYC'LIC  PLANTS. 

Plants  w-hose  life  cycle  is  completed  within  a 
single  vegetative  period.  They  are  most  char- 
acteristic of  dry  and  waste  places.  See  Dura- 
tion; and  Stems. 

ANNU'ITY  (from  Lat.  annus,  year).  A  sum 
of  money  paid  annually.  If  perpetual,  the  right 
to  receive  the  payment  passes  from  the  annui- 
tant to  his  heirs.  Such  perpetual  ann\iities  are 
less  frequent  than  life  annuities,  which  may  as- 
sume the  most  varied  forms.  In  the  simplest 
phase  of  the  matter  the  annuitant  receives  a 
fixed  annual  payment  during  his  life,  the  annuity 
being  extinguished  by  his  death.  If  upon  the 
lives  of  several  persons,  the  aggregate  amount  of 
the  annuity  only  is  fixed.  On  the  death  of  one  of 
the  recijiients,  his  share  is  distril)Uted  among  the 
survivors,  the  last  person  receiving  the  whole 
amount  which  was  formerly  distributed.  The 
annuity  may  begin  immediately  and  stop  upon 
the  hajipening  of  some  contingency,  as  marriage; 
or  again,  the  annuity  may  not  begin  until  a  later 
date,  in  which  case  it  is  designated  as  deferred. 
Many  other  combinations  can  be  and  actually  are 
devised.  Such  annuities  arise  either  from  testa- 
mentary dispositions  or  from  contract.  In  the 
former  case  it  Is  the  desire  of  the  testator  to  in- 
sure to  the  recipient  an  income  fixed  in  amount 
either  for  life  or  for  a  lesser  period.  Thus,  a 
father  may  provide  an  annuity  for  his  daughter, 
to  be  terminated  upon  marriage.  In  ease  of  an 
annuity  resting  upon  contract,  the  annuitant  or 
some  one  for  him,  surrenders  the  use  of  a  sum 
of  money  to  another  person  who  agrees  to  make 
fixed  annual  payments  to  the  annuitant  during 
the  life  of  the  latter.  The  annuity  may  be  ])ur- 
chased  by  a  single  payment  or  a  series  of  pay- 
ments extending  over  a  number  of  years.  The 
latter  is  particularly'  applied  to  old  age  insur- 
ance, the  object  of  which  is  to  secure  a  fixed  an- 
nual income  after  reaching  a  certain  age.  Such 
a  contract  between  two  individuals  would  be 
little  more  than  a  wager.  No  one  can  tell  how 
long  an  individual  may  live,  and  one  of  the  par- 
ties to  the  contract  must  gain  at  thc^  expense  of 
the  other.  \\  hen,  however,  the  business  is  con- 
centrated so  that  the  party  paying  the  annuities 
deals  w'ith  a  large  number  of  persons,  the  same 
laws  that  make  life  insurance  possible  make  this 
a  calculable  and  legitimate  enterprise.  The 
relations  of  life  insurance  and  annuities  are 
obvious.  They  are  reciprocals  of  one  another. 
In  life  insurance  a  series  of  annual  payments  ob- 


tains for  the  insured  ecrtain  ca]>ital  at  death, 
wiiile  in  annuities  the  surrender  of  a  certain 
capital  insures  a  series  of  annual  payments  dur- 
ing life.  Annuities  are,  in  fact,  older  than  life 
insurance,  and  the  latter  is  an  offshoot  of  the 
former. 

The  elements  in  the  calculation  of  the  rates  ot 
annuities  are  the  same  as  in  life  insurance, 
though  the  calculation  is  a  dilfcrent  one.  The 
first  element  is  the  probability  of  human  life,  as 
determined  by  vital  statistics.  Upon  the  length 
of  human  life  depends  the  number  of  payments, 
and  for  a  given  capital,  therefore,  tlie  amount  ot 
such  payments.  It  is  obvious  that  the  sum  of 
$1000  would  piu'chase  a  larger  annuity  for  a 
man  of  fifty  than  for  one  of  twenty-five.  It  is 
equally  clear  that  for  a  series  of  contracts  once 
entered  upon,  a  lengthening  of  the  average  period 
of  human  life  would  cause  pecuniary  loss  to  those 
paving  the  annuities,  while  a  shortening  of  hu- 
man life  would  cause  a  profit.  Like  results 
have  frequently  followed  from  undertaking  annu- 
ity contracts  upon  an  erroneous  statistical  basis. 
The  second  element  in  the  case  is  the  interest 
upon  money.  If  the  money  surrendered  at  the 
outset  were  locked  up  in  a  strong  box.  the  cal- 
culation of  the  payment  for  a  fixed  number  of 
years  would  be  simplicity  itself.  In  that  ease 
an  annuity  of  .$1  for  ten  years  could  not  be  pur- 
chased for  less  than  $10.  But  the  purchase 
money  is,  in  fact,  placed  at  interest,  and  under 
the  terms  of  the  contract  above  noted,  the  seller 
of  the  annuity  would  enjoy  the  interest  on  .$10 
for  one  year,  on  $9  for  the  second  year,  and  so 
on.  The  purchaser,  however,  will  not  surrender 
his  entire  claim  to  interest,  but  will  at  least 
share  it  with  the  seller.  It  follows,  therefore, 
that  an  annuity  of  $1  for  ten  years  should  be 
purchased  for  something  less  than  $10.  How 
much  less,  will  depend  upon  the  rate  of  interest. 
If  interest  were  six  per  cent.,  the  annuity  could 
be  purchased  more  cheaply  than  if  it  were  only 
three  per  cent.  Changes  in  the  rate  of  interest 
complicate  the  practical  problem  of  executing 
annuity  contracts. 

Such  contractual  annuities  as  have  been  de- 
scribed are  more  frequent  in  Europe  than  in  the 
United  States.  In  Europe,  the  earliest  public 
debts  were  in  the  form  of  life  annuities.  The  ill 
success  of  these  ventures  was  one  of  the  earliest 
stimulants  to  a  scientific  study  of  the  laws  of 
mortality.  In  European  cotintries  the  issue  of 
annuities  is  still  carried  on  by  the  C4overnment 
as  well  as  by  private  companies.  The  greater 
familiarity  with  annuities  which  prevails  in 
England,  for  instance,  explains  the  frc(|ucnt  al- 
lusions to  the  interest  on  the  pulilic  delit  as  a 
multitude  of  perpetual  annuities.  The  repay- 
ment of  the  principal  not  being  contemplated,  the 
investor  in  the  funds  acquires  the  right  to  re- 
ceive a  certain  annual  income,  and  this  right  is 
transferable  to  his  heirs.  -Vnnuities  are  assum- 
ing new  importance  in  the  Ignited  States,  owing 
to  the  fact  that  most  life  insurance  companies  are 
beginning  to  issue  new  and  attractive  forms 
of  annuity  policies. 

The  mathematical  treatment  of  the  subject  is 
extensive,  involving  the  preparation  of  mortality 
and  investment  tables.  The  formation  of  these 
tables  is  discussed  in  the  Assuraiirr  Mayazine, 
a  journal  of  the  Institute  of  Actuaries  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland. 

The  annuity  may  be  chargeable  only  to  the 
person  of  the  gi'antor,  or  it  may  be  a  charge  on 


ANNUITY. 


584 


.4.NNULATA. 


specific  personal  or  real  estate.  In  cither  case. 
if  given  with  words  of  inheritance,  it  will  de- 
scend as  real  property,  but  for  all  other  purposes 
it  will  be  treated  as  personal  property.  In  this 
respect  it  differs  from  a  rent  charge  ( q.v. ) ,  with 
which  it  is  often  confused,  but  which  is  always 
charged  on  specific  real  estate  and,  whether  in- 
heritable or  not,  is  always  treated  as  real  prop- 
erty. Annuities  are  classed  by  Blackstone 
{Commenlaries,  Book  ii.,  p.  40)  with  rents,  fran- 
chises, etc.,  as  incorporeal  hereditaments  (q.v.). 
Like  other  species  of  property,  they  are  generally 
alienable,  except  in  jurisdictions  -where  by 
statute  beneficiaries  of  trusts  for  the  payment  of 
annuities  are  not  allowed  to  alienate  their  inter- 
ests under  the  trust. 

Consult:  Blackstone,  Comm.eniaries  on  the 
Laws  of  England;  Kent,  Commentaries  on  Amer- 
ican haw,  and  the  authorities  referred  to  under 
the  title  Insurakce. 

AN'NTJLAR  ECLIPSE.     See  Eclipse. 

AN'NULA'RIA  (Lat.  annulns,  a  small 
ring) .  Agenusof  fossil  plantsfound  in  rocks  of  De- 
vonian, Carboniferous,  and  Permian  ages,  allied 
to  the  modern  Equisetacea»,  or  Seouring-rushes, 
and  consisting  of  fluted  annulated  stems  bear- 
ing numerous  narrow  leaves  arranged  in  whorls 
at  the  ring-like  joints.  Annularije,  for  so  long 
a  time  considered  to  be  plants  of  a  distinct 
genus,  are  now  known  to  be,  together  with  tlie 
genera  Asterophyllites  and  Sphenophyllum, 
merely  heteromorplious  leaves  of  the  Calamites 
(q.v.). 

AN'NULA'TA,  or  ANNELI'DA  (Lat.  annu- 
lns. a  little  ring),  A  ])hylum  of  animals,  the  an- 
nelids, comprising  a  large  group  of  segmented, 
worm-like  forms,  mostly  included  by  Linn;exis 
in  his  class  Vermes.  Tliey  have  a  more  or 
less  elongated  body,  which  is  always  composed 
of  niunerous  segments.  The  first  of  these  as- 
sumes, in  many,  the  character  of  a  head,  but 
in  some  the  head  is  not  clearly  set  off  from 
the  trunk.  They  have  no  jointed  appendages, 
but  most  of  them  are  provided  with  bristles 
and  hairs,  called  setcc,  often  in  numerous  bun- 
dles, which  are  of  use  to  them  in  locomotion; 
some,  which  want  these,  are  furnished  with  suck- 
ers at  the  extremities,  and  em])loy  them  for  this 
purpose;  some  remain  fixed  in  one  place.  Theii' 
"bodies  are  always  soft,  and  without  external  or 
internal  skeleton;  but  some  of  them  form  for 
themselves  a  calcareous  covering  by  exudation; 
others  form  coverings  partly  by  exudation  anil 
partly  by  agglutination.  Their  blood  is  gener- 
ally red,  but  not  from  red  corpiiseles,  as  in 
vertebrates;  sometimes  it  is  gi-eenish  or  yellow- 
ish. The  circulatory  system  is  well-developel 
in  most  annelids,  though  a  few  alierrant  forms 
have  it  gicatly  reduced  or  even  entirely  wanting. 
It  is  generally  what  is  called  a  closed  system; 
that  is,  the  vessels  of  which  it  is  composed  are 
■entirely  slmt  off  from  communication  with  tlie 
body  cavity.  But  in  the  leeches  there  is  no 
sharp  distinction  between  blood-vessels  and  body 
cavity.  Tlicre  are  always  longitudinal  vessels, 
usually  two.  sometimes  four,  the  dorsal  or  lat- 
eral (if  wliich  pulsate  more  or  less.  These  longi- 
tudinal vessels  are  connected  by  a  large  number 
of  transver.se  vessels.  Some  of  these  near  the 
anterior  end  of  the  body  are  occasionally  larger 
than  the  rest,  and  are  called  ''hearts,"  but  there 
is  no  true  heart.  See  Alimentary  System  ; 
CiPCt'LATORY  System. 


The  nervous  system  consists  of  a  pair  of  gang- 
lia lying  above  the  oesophagus,  known  as  the 
brain,  from  which  tlie  nerve  trunlcs  arise.  Usual- 
ly there  aie  two  such  trunks,  which  pass  down- 
ward and  back\^•ard  around  the  ajsophagus,  meet- 
ing in  the  mid-ventral  line  and  running  backward 
to  the  rear  of  the  body  as  a  double  cord.  On  this 
there  are  ganglia  in  each  segment.  The  sense 
of  touch  is  usually  acute  in  annelids,  and  is 
often  localized  in  tentacles  and  papillte.  Many 
species  have  eyes  more  o^  less  highly  organized; 
some  have  sensory  pits,  supposed  to  be  smelling 
organs;  some  have  sensory  papilhc,  which  from 
their  occurrence  around  the  mouth  are  supposed 
to  be  organs  of  taste ;  and  a  very  few  have  oto- 
eysts,  or  positional  organs.  In  all  annelids,  ex- 
cept a  few  aberrant  forms,  excretion  takes  place- 
by  means  of  ncphridia,  and  these  are  usually  ar- 
ranged a  pair  in  each  segment.  These  ncphridia 
are  coiled  tubes,  one  end  widened  to  form  a  fun- 
nel and  opening  in  the  bod.v  cavity,  and  the  other 
ojiening  to  the  exterior.     See  Nervou.s   S^'STEM. 

Respiration  is  either  by  gills,  which  are  of 
very  \'arious  structure  and  appearance,  or 
through  the  surface  of  the  body  or  some  part  of 
the  alimentary  canal.  The  latter  varies  greatly 
\\ith  the  habits  of  the  worms,  but  the  anal  open- 
ing is  always  at  the  posterior  end  of  the  body. 
The  muscular  system  is  usually  well  develo])ed, 
for  many  of  these  worms  are  very  active  ani- 
mals. The  sexes  are  generally  sejiarate,  but 
many  annelids  are  hermaphrodites.  Nearly  all 
lay  eggs,  and  these  are  sometimes  provided  with 
a  shell.  See  Re.spiratory  System;  Gills;  Mus- 
cular Syste.m. 

Annelids  are  widely  distributed  over  the 
world ;  while  the  majority  are  marine,  a  large 
nimiljcr  are  found  in  fresh  water  or  in  the  earth. 
51any  are  carnivorous,  liut  scinie  are  almost  whol- 
ly vegetable  feeders.  Some  are  sluggish,  but 
the  majority  are  active,  and  some  move  with 
remarkable  rapidity.  They  vary  gi-eatly  in  size, 
some  being  almost  microscopic,  while  others 
are  several  feet  long.  They  are  usually  dull- 
colored,  but  some,  especially  tropical  species,  are 
gorgeously  airayed.  Aside  from  the  part  they 
play  in  the  economy  of  nature  as  soil  producers 
and  scavengers,  they  are  of  little  use  to  man. 
Leeches  were  formerly  (and  are  still  sometimes) 
used  in  medicine  for  blood-letting,  and  a  few 
species  are  used  as  food  by  savages,  notably  the 
palolo-worm    (q.v.). 

The  classification  of  the  annelids  has  always 
been  a  mnttev  of  great  difticulty,  as  there  are 
sevei'al  other  groups  to  which  they  seem  to  be 
related  or  which  they  superficially  resemble. 
The  matter  is  not  definitely  settled,  but  it  seems 
best  now  to  regard  them  as  a  jihylum,  or  type,  co- 
ordinate with  Mollusca,  Arthropoda,  etc.,  and 
containing  two  well-marked  clas.ses,  and  two 
others  whose  relationships  are  very  obscure.  The 
largest  and  most  important  of  these  classes  is 
that  of  the  Chwtopoda.  in  which  the  blood  system 
is  closed  and  the  external  rings  of  the  body  cor- 
respond to  the  internal  segments.  They  have  loco- 
motive organs  in  the  form  of  sci(r.  or  appendages 
provided  with  them.  The  class  includes  a  very 
great  number  of  species  of  widely  different  struc- 
ture and  appearance,  and  the  most  convenient, 
though  possibly  not  the  most  natural  way  to  di- 
vide it  is  into  three  groups,  Polychaita,  Oligochoe- 
la.  and  Myzostomida.  The  last  named  are  a 
very  small  gronji  of  curious,  degenerate  annelids 
which  live  parasitically  on  crinoids.     The  body 


ANNTTLATA. 


585 


ANNUNZIO. 


is  liat  and  unsegineiiteJ,  and  lias  neither  circula- 
tory nor  excretory  system.  Tlie  second  class  is 
(jcphyiea,  containing  marine  Annulata  '"devoid 
of  any  trace  of  segmentation  in  the  adult  con- 
dition, without  parapodia,  and  either  without 
seta",  or  with  only  a  limited  number."  It  in- 
cludes Sipuncuhis,  Echiurus,  and  a  few  closely 
related  forms.  The  third  class  is  Archi-nnncUda, 
minute  marine  worms,  faintly  segmouti'd,  and 
represented  by  only  two  families — the  Ilistrio- 
drilidse,  parasitic  ou  lobsters,  and  the  Polygor- 
diida";  the  larvie  of  both  are  troehospheres.  The 
fourth  class  is  Hirtidinca,  the  leeches,  which 
have  the  blood  system  communicating  with  the 
body  cavity,  and  the  external  rings  are  four  or 
five  times  as  numerous  as  the  inner  segments. 
They  Iiave  no  seta;  and  are  provided  with 
suckers.  Consult  Parker  and  Haswell,  Zoiilogy 
(Xew  York,  1897).  See  Eautiiwoum;  Leecu; 
Xehei.s  ;   Serpula  ;  Worms  ;  Fossil. 

AN'NULET  (Lat.  annnlus.  dimin.  of  annus, 
a  ring).  (  1  I  A  term  in  aroliitecture  for  a  small 
fillet  or  band  in  relief.  The  annulet  is  several 
times  repeated  in  the  molding  at  the  base  of 
the  capital  of  a  Doric  column  under  the  ovolo. 
(For  illustration,  see  Doric  Order.)  (2)  .l«- 
nulet,  a  ring,  a  charge  in  heraldry  of  frequent 
occurrence. 

ANNUNCIADE,  an-nun'shi-ad,  or  ANXTN- 
CIADA,  a-noon'the-ii'D.i  (Sp.  .hnniciadd,  annun- 
ciation). The  name  of  several  religious  or- 
ders. (  1 )  The  religious  Order  of  the  Heavenly 
Annunciation,  or  of  the  Nuns  of  the  Annuncia- 
tion of  JIary,  was  instituted  by  ilaria  Victoria 
.Fornari  at  Genoa  in  1002,  after  a  very  strict 
rule.  The  convents  of  the  order  at  one  time  num- 
bered fifty  in  France,  Germany,  and  the  Nether- 
lands, but  they  have  disai)])earod  since  the 
French  Revolution,  except  the  one  in  Genoa.  (2) 
Another  Order  of  the  Annunciation,  or  of  nuns  of 
Mary's  Announcement,  or  tlie  Ten  Virtues,  was 
organized  by  Joanna,  the  daughter  of  Louis  XI., 
in  1501,  after  her  separation  from  Louis  XIL 
It  extended  to  fifty  convents  for  the  reception  of 
poor  gentlewomen,  but  was  broken  up  at  the 
Revolution.  (3)  The  order  of  Knights  of  the  An- 
nunciation in  Savoy,  Ordine  Suiircmo  dcIl'  An- 
nun^iata,  now  the  first  Italian  Order,  known  orig- 
inally as  the  Order  of  the  Neck  Chain  or  Collar, 
was  instituted  in  1360  by  Amadeus  VI.,  Duke 
of  Savoy.  It  received  statutes  from  Amadeus 
VIIL.  as  .Anti-Pope  Felix  V.,  in  140!1,  was  re- 
newed in  lots  under  the  name  of  the  Holy  An- 
nunciation, and  in  1720  was  raised  by  Victor 
Amadeus  to  be  the  first  order  of  the  kingdom  of 
Savov.  The  Ki-!:;  is  always  grand  master.  The 
knights,  who  since  1720  are  not  limited  in  num- 
ber, must  be  of  high  rank,  and  already  admitted 
to  tlie  Orders  of  St.  Mauritius  and  St.  Lazarus. 
They  compose  only  one  class.  TIic  decoration  is 
a  gold  medal,  on  which  is  represented  the  An- 
nunciation, surrounded  by  love-knots.  It  is 
usually  worn  suspended  by  a  simple  gold  chain, 
but  the  proper  collar  or  cliain  of  the  order  is  com- 
posed alternately  of  love-knots  and  roses.  On  the 
roses  are  engraved  the  letters  F.  E.  R.  T.,  which 
some  interpret  Fortitiido  ejus  llhoduni  tcnuit,  in 
allusion  to  the  defense  of  Rhodes  by  Amadeus 
v..  and  which  others  hold  to  signify  Fnipjirs,  en- 
trrx,  rompes  tout.  Since  1080  the  kniglits  wear 
on  the  left  breast  a  star  embroidered  in  gold. 
Tlie  four  officers  of  the  order — the  chancellor 
(always  a  bishop  or  archbishop),  the  secretary 
Vol.  I.— 39. 


(usuallj'  the  minister  of  foreign  affairs),  the  al- 
moner (usually  the  King's  first  almoner),  and 
the  treasurer — wear  the  decoration  round  the 
neck,  suspended  by  a  sky-blue  ribbon,  accompa- 
nied by  a  star  on  the  left  breast.  For  details  of 
costumes,  etc.,  see  Burke's  Boole  of  Orders  of 
Knighthood,  p.  250,  et  seq.  (4)  A  brotherhood 
of  the  Annunciation  was  established  in  Rome  by 
Cardinal  Turrecreinata  in  14(10.  Its  prinmry 
object  was  to  provide  dowries  for  twelve  poor 
girls,  but  it  now  supports  four  hundred  girls,  to 
whom  it  gives  twenty- live  scudi  apiece  if  they 
marry,  or  fifty  scudi  apiece  if  they  enter  a  con- 
vent. Pope  Urban  Vlll.  (died  1044)  left  his 
entire  private  fortune  (30,000  scudi)  to  the 
brotherhood. 

ANNUN'CIA'TION,  The  (Lat.  ad.  to + 
ji»H/i».s',  messenger,  newsbearer).  The  announce- 
ment by  the  angel  to  the  Virgin  Mary  of  the  in- 
carnation of  Christ  ( Luke  i  :  20-38 ) .  The  fes- 
tival of  the  Annunciation  is  kept  on  March  25, 
\\hich  was  for  a  long  period  tlie  beginning  of 
the  legal  year  in  England,  The  earliest  evidence 
of  the  celebration  of  this  feast  is  in  a  canon  of 
the  Council  of  Toledo,  held  in  65G.  With  a 
view  to  natural  fitness,  the  framers  of  the  Church 
calendar  placed  the  festival  of  Christ's  nativity 
nine  montlis  after  the  Annunciation. 

ANNUNCIATION,  The.  A  subject  fre- 
quently treated  hj  religious  painters.  The  Virgin 
is  commonly  represented  with  needlework,  or  with 
a  book,  according  to  the  legends,  while  the  arch- 
angel appears  bearing  a  sceptre  or,  more  com- 
monly, a  lily  or  an  olive  branch.  Among  well- 
known  pictures  with  this  title  are  paintings  by 
Andrea  del  Sarto,  in  the  Pitti  Gallery,  Florence; 
Fra  Angelico,  a  fresco,  in  the  cloisters  attached ' 
to  the  church  of  San  ilarco,  at  Florence,  a  par- 
ticularly delicate  and  characteristic  treatment 
of  the  theme;  also  by  the  same,  a  work  now  in 
the  museum  at  Madrid,  painted  for  the  San  Dom- 
enico  at  Fiesole;  Luca  Signorelli,  at  Volterra, 
Italy,  in  a  chapel  of  the  Duomo ;  Titian,  in  the 
Scuola  di  San  Rocco,  at  Venice;  D.  G.  Rossetti, 
in  the  National  Gallery,  London,  a  noteworthy 
example  of  the  pre-Raphaelite  school,  in  which 
the  Virgin  is  a  portrait  of  Christina  Rossetti. 

ANNUNZIO,  an-noon'tse-6,  Gauriele  d' 
(1804 — ).  An  Italian  novelist  and  poet,  more 
widely  discussed,  both  at  home  and  abroad,  than 
any  other  writer  of  his  country.  He  was 
Ijorn  at  Francavilla  al  Mare,  near  Pescara.  In  his 
fifteenth  year,  while  a  stud<'nt  at  Prato,  he  pub- 
lished his  first  Collection  of  verse,  Prima  Vere, 
followed  at  intervals  by  In  Memoriam  (1880), 
Canto  novo  (1882),  Intermezzo  di  rime  (1883), 
Isaotta  Guttadauro  (1886),  and  h'Isotteo  e  la 
Chimera  (1890).  From  the  appearance  of  his 
first  volume  he  was  hailed  as  a  jjoet  of  excep- 
tional promise,  although  the  frankly  licentious 
tone  of  many  of  his  earlier  poems  provoked  much 
censure.  His  first  novel.  //  I'iaeere  (translated 
under  the  title  The  Child  of  I'lcuxiirc) .  ajjpeared 
in  1889,  and  Avas  evidently  written  under  the 
dominating  influence  of  ilaupassant  and  Bourget. 
In  the  main,  it  is  a  psychological  study  of  a 
thorough-going  egotist  wlujse  alfcctions  are 
divided  between  two  women,  and  who  in  the  end 
ruins  the  life  of  one  of  them  as  well  as  his  own. 
His  next  volumes,  L'Innoeente  (The  Intruder, 
1801).  and  Gioranni  Episeopo  (1892),  are  both 
I'owerful  but  gruesome  stories,  showing  strongly 
the  influence  of  the  Russian  school,  and  especi- 


ANNUNZIO. 


586 


ANOINTING. 


ally  that  of  Tolstoy's  Krciitzcr  iionata.  II  trionfo 
dcila  inorte  (The'  Triumph  uf  Death)  appeared 
in  1894,  and  confirmed  his  reputation  as  a 
searching  ps.ychological  writer,  although  its  au- 
dacity has  made  it  impossible  to  translate  the 
volume  in  its  entirety.  About  this  time  some 
of  his  volumes  were  translated  into  French  by 
M.  Herelle,  and  shortly  after  their  appearance 
M.  Vogiie  wrote  a  highly  eulogistic  appreciation 
of  d'Annunzio  for  the  Rente  des  Deux  Mondes, 
under  the  caption  "La  Renaissance  latine,"  with 
the  result  that  the  young  author  suddenly  awoke 
to  an  international  reputation,  and  his  works 
were  speedily  translated  into  French,  German, 
and  English. 

During  the  last  few  years,  d'Annunzio  s  liter- 
ary ideals  seem  to  have  undergone  an  interesting 
evolution.     Grouping  together  his  earlier  novels, 
II   Piaeere,   L'Innocenle,    and    II    trionfo.    as   the 
Romances  of  the  Hose,  ho  conceived  the  idea  of 
a  triple  trilogy,  the  second  and  third  groups  to 
be   respectively   known   as   the   Romances   of   the 
Lily   and   Roinanees   of   the   Pomegranate.     The 
first   "Romance   of   the   Lily,"   he   rergini    dclle 
rocce      ("Virgins     of     the     Rocks"),     appeared 
in    1806.      The    scheme    of    the    story    is    sym- 
bolic   to    the    last    degree,    and    the    fluent    and 
rhythmic  prose  in  which  it  is  couched  sho\vs  the 
extreme  development  of  the  author's  apidication 
of   the   Wagnerian    leitmntir   to   literature.      His 
long-promised  Fnoco  ("Flame  of  Life"),  the  first 
of  the  "Pomegranate"  series,  appeared  in  the  au- 
tumn   of    moo.      It    is   an   apotheosis   of   poetry, 
physical  Ifeauty.   and  sensual   love,  and  inoident- 
ally  excited  much  comment  because  many  readers 
chose  to  identify  the  heroine  with  the  Avell-known 
.actress    Eleono'ra    Duse.     Recently.    d'Annunzio 
has   turned   his   attention  to   the   drama,   which 
it  is  his  ambition  to  restore  to  the  grandeur  and 
unity  of  the   classic   Greek   tragedy.      His   plays 
include:    II    so(/HO    d'un    mattino    di    primavcra 
(]S!17)       II    sogno     d'un     tramonto     d'autiinno 
(1898)^   La    ciitA   morta    (1898),  La    Oioconda 
(1898),  which  has  won  considerable  success  upon 
the    stage,    and    Francesca    da    Rimini     (1901). 
There    is    no    question    that    d'Annunzio    is    ex- 
erting a   marked   influence   upon   Italian  letters, 
whether  for  eood  or  for  ill  it  is  still  too  early  to 
determine.  lie  is  a  firm  believer  in  a  new  Renais- 
Sfvnce — a  Renaissance  which  will  begin  by  "rees- 
tablishing the  worship  of  Man."  and  which  will 
"exalt  and  glorify  above  all  things  the  beauty  and 
power  of  man,  the  conqueror." 

AN'NUS  MIKAB'ILIS  (Lat.  wonderful 
year :  the  year  c,f  wonders) .  The  title  of  a  poem 
'by  Drvdeii  (l(Ui7)  on  England's  naval  successes 
in  the'war  with  Holland  (IGUG)  and  on  the  great 
fire  of  London. 

ANN'VILLE.  An  unincorporated  village  in 
Lebanon  Co.,  Pa.,  five  miles  west  of  Lebanon, 
the  county  seat;  on  the  Philadelphia  and  Reading 
Railroad"  (Map:  Pennsylvania,  E  3).  It  is 
the  scat  of  Lebanon  Valley  College  (United 
Brethren  in  Christ),  opened  in  1866,  and  has 
manufactures  of  shoes,  hosiery,  etc.  Annville 
was  laid  out  in  1762,  and  originally  was  called 
Millerstown.  in  honor  of  its  founder.  Pop., 
1890,  1283;  1900,  about  2000. 

ANO'A  (native  name).  .\  genus  of  buffaloes, 
connecting  them  with  the  antelopes,  and  repre- 
sented by  the  sapi-utan  of  Celebes  (.inou  drprcs- 
sicorni.i),  a  small  black  wild  cow  of  the  High- 


lands,  having  low   straight   horns,   wide   at  the 
Ijase.     iSee  plate  of  Buffalo. 

AN'ODE  (Gk.  AvoSos,  anodos,  a  way  up, 
from  dfd.  ana,  up  +  656s,  hodos,  way).  A  term 
first  used  by  Faraday  to  designate  the  positive 
terminal  or  conductor  by  which  the  current  of  a 
voltaic  battery  enters  a  substance,  undergoing 
decomposition  by  electrolysis.  The  negative  pole, 
or  conductor,  by  which  the  current  leaves  the 
electrolyte,  is  called  in  the  same  nomenclature 
the  cathode  (kata,  downward,  and  hodos). 
Electrode  is  the  general  term  applied  to  either  of 
these.  The  products  of  electrolysis  are  called  ions 
(ion,  going) .  Such  as  go  to  the  anode  receive  the 
iiame  of  anions,  and  those  passing  to  the  cathode,. 
cations.  Thus,  in  the  decomposition  of  water  by 
the  passage  through  it  of  an  electric  current  be- 
tween two  platinum  plates,  the  water  is  the  elec- 
trolyte :  the  platinum  plate  connected  with  the 
coi)per  or  carbon  of  the  liattery  is  the  anode; 
and  the  one  connected  with  the  zinc  plate,  the 
cathode.  The  oxygen  and  hydrogen  which  are 
disengaged,  are  the  ions,  the  oxygen  separating 
at  the  anode  forming  the  anions,  and  the  hydro- 
gen at  the  cathode  the  cations.  See  Elec- 
tricity fnr  a  discussion  of  electrolysis. 

AN'ODON'TA.  A  subdivision  of  fresh-water 
mussels  of  the  family  Unionida-,  characterized  by 
having  light,  thin,  smooth  shells  without  hinge- 
teeth.  They  are  abundant  in  both  ponds  and 
streams  in  America  and  most  other  countries. 
See  i)latc  of  Ahalone,  etc. 

AN'ODYNE  (Gk.  &v,  an,  priv.  +  dSivij, 
odi/ne,  pain).  A  remedy  given  to  assuage  pain. 
Properly,  the  term  is  applied  to  medicines,  such 
as  opium,  which  act  on  the  nervous  system,  so  as 
to  diminish  pain.  Anodynes  may  induce  sleep. 
See  Hypnotic;  An.e.sthetic. 

ANOINTING  (Lat.  inunetio,  from  in,  in  + 
umnirrr.  to  smear,  anoint).  The  custom  of  pour- 
ing oil  on  the  head,  or  of  applying  unguents  to 
one's  body.  Anointing  was  widespread  in  the 
ancient  Orient  for  secular  as  well  as  for  religious 
purposes.  In  the  Old  Testament,  where  the 
custom  is  frequently  referred  to,  the  unguent 
used  was  olive  oil,'  to  which  frequently  aro- 
matic spices  were  added.  As  a  part  of  the 
regular  toilet,  anointing  was  associated 
wfth  washing  (e.g.  Ezekiel  xvi  :  9),  but  in 
days  of  mourning,  anointing,  which  was  regard- 
ed as  a  symbol  of  joy  and  gladness  (e.g. 
Psalms  xxiii  :  5),  was  omitted.  Head,  face,  and 
feet  were  the-parts  of  the  body  to  which  the  un- 
guents were  applied.  Tlie  Hebrews  in  tlius  using 
aromatic  unguents  no  doubt  simply  followed  gen- 
eral customs,  and  similarly  the  religious  and 
ceremonial  use  of  unguents  was  common  to  the 
ancient  Orient.  It  was  general  to  anoint  kings  as 
a  symbol  of  initiation,  and  likewise  priests  and 
sacred  objects  were  anointed.  An  interesting  de- 
velopment gi-owing  out  of  the  custom  among  the 
Hebrews  w^as  the  use  of  the  word  mrshiaeh,  which 
means  anointed,  or  "the  one  set  aside  as  devoted" 
and  sacred:  and  in  the  extension  of  this  idea, 
Meshiach  or  Messias  conies  to  be  applied  to  the 
Hebrews  as  the  people  set  aside  by  .lehovah,  to 
God  himself  as  the  Jlcssiah  of  his  people,  and  to 
Jesus  Christ  as  set  aside  by  God  for  the  redemp- 
tion of  mankind.  . 

As  to  the  original  significance  of  anointing  as 
a  religious  rite,  scholars  hold  difierent  views. 
Some  regard  the  oil  as  a  substitute  for  blood, 
others  look  upon  it  as  itself  symbolizing  life,  fat 


I 


ANOINTING. 


587 


ANONYMOUS. 


being,  according  to  ancient  ideas,  one  of  the  seats 
of  life.  In  either  case,  tlie  idea  expressed  by  the 
religions  and  ceremonial  anointing  is  that  of 
establishing  a  covenant  between  the  individual 
and  the  Deity,  perhaps  as  the  source-  of  life  of 
which  the  oil  serves  in  some  way  or  the  other  as 
rei)rescntative.  It  was  the  actual  rubbing  of 
the  unguent  over  the  head,  face  or  feet  whereby 
direct  communion  between  the  individual  and  the 
unguent  «as  brought  about  that  constituted  the 
essential  part  of  the  ceremonv,  and  not  the  mere 
act  of  pouring  it  over  the  head  of  a  person.  In 
the  course  of  time,  however,  as  the  custom  be- 
came more  and  more  merely  a  mark  of  honor, 
the  pouring  over  the  head  became  the  customary 
form  of  anointing.  In  the  New  Testament,  an- 
ointing is  merely  referred  to  in  the  case  of  the 
sick;  but  the  I'ite  was  adopted  by  the  Roman 
Catholic  and  the  various  Oriental  churches,  and 
survives  in  the  anointing  of  kings  in  England, 
Spain,  and  Russia.  See  also  CmuSM ;  Corona- 
tion, and  Extreme  Unction  :  and  for  annoint- 
ing  of  the  dead,  see  Embalming. 

ANOKA,  a-no'ka.  A  eitj',  the  county  seat  of 
Anoka  Co..  Jlinn.,  on  tlie  Rum  River,  at  its 
confluence  with  the  Mississippi.  15  miles  north- 
northwest  of  Slinneapolis  (Map:  Jlinnesota, 
E  5).  Anoka  has  a  public  library,  fine  schools, 
and  manufactures  of  Ivunber  in  various  forms, 
flour,  machinery,  etc.  Under  a  charter  of  18S!), 
the  mayor  is  elected  yearly,  and  the  city  council 
consists  of  six  members.  Pop.,  18!t(),  42.52;  1900, 
37G9. 

ANO'LIS  (in  the  Antilles,  anoli,  aiioalli,  a 
lizard).  A  genus  and  family  (Anolid^)  of 
small,  fine-scaled,  metachroistic,  iguanid  lizards, 
numerous  in  the  warmer  parts  of  America,  and 
represented  in  the  United  States  by  one  species. 
See   Chameleon.     For   ilhistration,   see   Lizard. 

ANOM'ALIS'TIC  YEAR.  The  interval  that 
elapses  between  two  successive  passages  of  the 
earth  through  its  perihelion,  or  point  of  nearest 
approach  to  the  siui.  If  the  earth's  orbit  had  a 
fixed  position  in  space,  this  period  would  corre- 
spond with  that  of  a  sidereal  revolution,  or  the 
time  the  earth  would  take  after  leaving  any 
point  of  the  hcivens  to  return  lj  it  again,  as 
seen  from  the  sun ;  but  the  disturbing  influence 
of  the  other  planets  causes  the  perihelion  to 
advance  slowly  (11". 8  annually)  in  the  direction 
of  the  earth's  motion,  so  that  the  anomalistic 
year  is  longer  (4  minutes  39  seconds)  than  the 
sidereal.  This  will  be  better  understood  from 
the  accompanying  diagram,  in  which  A'BB'  rep- 
resents the  elliptical  orbit  of  the  earth;  8,  the 


ELLIPTICAL   OIIBIT. 


sun;  A,  the  perihelion;  and  AB,  the  longer  axis. 
When  the  earth,  after  leaving  A,  comes  back  to 


it  again  after  having  completed  a  sidereal  revo-  . 
lution,  it  finds  the  longer  axis  AH,  and  with  it 
the  whole  ellipse,  advanced  to  A'B',  and  it  has 
still  to  describe  an  arc  of  H".8  before  it  reaches 
its  second  perihelion.  A'.  The  length  of  tlie 
anomalistic  year  is  365  day.s,  G  hours,  13  min- 
utes, 48  seconds.  It  receives  its  name  from  the 
anomaly     (q.v.). 

ANOM'ALISTS  AND  ANAL'OGISTS  (for 
derivation,  see  below).  Under  this  name  were 
known  in  antiquity  the  representatives  of  the 
Xwo  opposing  views  of  the  origin  of  language. 
The  science  of  grammar  was  developed  in  the  Al- 
exandrian Age.  although  some  l)eginning  had  been 
made  in  the  earlier  period,  notably  by  Aristotle. 
The  Stoics  concerned  themselves  with  questiona 
as  to  the  origin  of  language,  and  maintained  that 
it  was  a  natural  growth,  while  the  granunarians 
maintained  that  it  was  the  product  of  conven- 
tion. Chrysippus  (q.v.)  went  further  and 
taught  that  language  was  based  on  difference, 
irregularity  {avu/ia/iia,  anOinaUa)  ;  the  Alexan- 
drians, Aristophanes  and  Aristarchus,  contended 
that  regularity,  analogy  (avaXoylu,  analogia) , 
was  the  rule,  and  that  all  departure  from  reg- 
ularity is  to  be  explained  as  an  exception  to  the 
general  law.  The  Pcrgamene  School  of  gram- 
marians, under  the  leadership  of  Crates  of  Mal- 
los,  adopted  the  anomalistic  doctrine  against,  the 
analogistic  teaching  of  the  Alexandrians.  When 
Crates  was  sent  on  an  embassy  to  Rome  in  the 
middle  of  the  second  century  B.C.  he  transplanted 
his  doctrine  to  that  city.  The  Alexandrians' 
views  gained  currenev  there  somewhat  later,  and 
the  contest  between  the  two  doctrines  lasted  a 
long  time.  ^'Elius  Stilo,  the  teacher  of  Cicero 
and  Varro,  favored  ana!og;v';  C.-csar  wrote  two 
books,  De  Analofiia.  now  lost;  and  Varro  de- 
voted Books  VIII.-X.,  still  extant,  of  his  De  Lin- 
gua Latina  to  a  discussion  of  the  two  views.  The 
analogistic  view  finally  prevailed. 

Consult:  Wheeler.  "Analogy  and  the  Scope  of 
Its  Application  in  Language, "  Cornell  Classical 
Studies  (Ithaca,  1887)  ;  Henry,  ^tude  sur  I'ana- 
logie  (Paris,  1883)  ;  Paul,  Introduction  to  the 
Sttidy  of  the  History  of  Language,  translated  and 
edited  by  Strong  (London,  1888)  ;  and  Strong, 
Logeman  and  Wheeler.  Introduction  to  the  Study 
of  the  History  of  Language  (London,  1891), 
which  is  founded  upon  Paul's  work.  See  Philol- 
ogy. 

ANOM'ALOUS  DISPER'SION.  This  phe- 
nomenon will  be  found  discussed  in  the  article 
Light,  particularly  in  the  section  dealing  with 
ether  and  matter. 

ANOM'ALU'RUS.     See  Flying  Sqitikrel. 

ANOM'ALY  (Gk.  dvoiiiaXia,  anomalia,  irreg- 
ularity, from  df,  an,  negat.  +  6fi.a\6s.  honialos, 
even,  equal).  The  angle  measured  at  the  sun's 
centre  between  a  planet  in  any  point  of  its  orbit 
and  the  last  perihelion.  In  the  figure  in  the 
;irticle  Anomalistic  Year,  if  P  be  a  planet, 
A'BIi'  its  orbit,  S  the  sun,  and  A  the  perihelion, 
the  angle  ASP  is  the  anomaly.  It  is  so  called 
because  it  was  in  it  that  the  first  irregularities 
of  planetar,y  motion  were  discovered. 

ANO'NA.      See   Custard-apple. 

ANON'YMOUS  (Gk.  dv,  an,  negat.  -|-  8pvna, 
onynia,  .Eol.  and  Dor.  for  d(i'0;ua,  onoma.  name). 
A  term  applied  to  a  book  the  author  of  which 
does  not  give  his  name;  when  an  assumed  name 
is  given,  the  term  pseudonymous  is  used.    Worka 


ANONYMOUS. 


588 


ANSARIES. 


of  this  class  constitute  one  of  the  greatest  difB- 
culties  of  bibliography.  French  literature  pos- 
sesses an  excellent  Dictionnn ire  des  oui^ragcs 
mionymes  et  pseudonymcs.  4  volumes  (third  edi- 
tion, Paris,  1872-79),  by  Barbicr,  embracing  the 
titles  of  about  24,000  works.  The  best  works  in 
English  are:  Gushing,  Anonyms  (Cambridge, 
1890) ,  and  Initials  rind  Psciido7iyms  (first  series, 
New  York,  1885;  second  series,  New  York,  1888)  ; 
Halkett  and  Laing,  Dictionary  of  Anonymous  and 
Pseudonymous  Literatnre.  4  volumes  (New  York, 
1882-88)  ;  Olphar  SAmat,  Handbook  of  Fictitious 
Names  (London,  ISGS). 

In  France  and  Germany,  literary  criticism, 
when  it  extends  beyond  a  brief  notice,  usually 
bears  the  author's  name.  In  Great  Britain  and 
the  United  States,  there  is  no  uniform  practice, 
though  reviews  are  more  coramonly  unsigned. 

ANON'YMUS  CUS'PINIA'NI.  The  Latin 
designation  of  an  important  anonymous  manu- 
script, so  called  from  the  name  of  Joseph  Cuspin- 
ianus,  the  scholar  who  brought  it  to  notice  about 
the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century.  It  is 
an  historical  account  of  the  quarter-century  ]ire- 
ceding  the  fall  of  the  \A'estern  Roman  Empire. 
The  manuscript  is  in  the  Imperial  Library  at 
Vienna. 

ANOPH'ELES  (Gk.  ovu0E/l)?'f,  anopheles,  use- 
less, harmful ;  from  av,  an,  priv.  -f"  u(pf2eia, 
opheleia,  help,  use).  A  genus  of  mosquitoes 
which  form  the  secondary  hosts  of  malarial  para- 
sites, and  conununicate  disease.     See  Mosquito. 

AN'OPLOTHEIIITJM:  (Ok.  nvo-?,oc,  anoplos, 
unarmed  +  diipiar,  ;/irri''j»,  wild  beast) .  A  genus 
containing  scvci'al  species  of  artiodactyl  mam- 
mals that  lived  during  late  Eocene  and  early 
Oligocene  time  in  France  and  the  British  Islands, 
and  that  soon  became  extinct  without  leaving 
descendants.  The  remains  of  one  species,  Ano- 
plother'mm  qpmmunc,  of  the  size  of  a  deer,  occur 
in  such  abundance  in,  the  early  Tertiary  beds  of 
the  Paris  Basin  as  to  justify  the  conclusion  that 
these  animals  ranged  the  forests  of  Tertiary  time 
in  immense  herds  in  mucli  the  same  manner  as 
do  the  deer  of  the  present  day.  The  feet  were 
provided  with  three  digits,  two  of  which  were  of 
equal  size  and  of  some  length,  while  the  third  was 
in  the  form  of  a  reduced  dew-claw.  Anoplothe- 
rium  is  by  some  authors  placed  in  close  relation 
to  the  Oreodonts,  by  others  to  the  HipiJopotami. 
See  Terti.\ry  System. 

ANOR'THITE  (Gk.  av,  an,  priv. -f  opSoc, 
orthus,  straight:  i.e..  without  right  angles).  An 
aluminum  calcium  silicate  of  the  feldspar  group 
of  minerals.  It  crystallizes  in  the  triclinic  sys- 
tem, and  is  found  in  prismatic  crystals  in  many 
rocks;  it  has  also  been  recognized  as  a  constitu- 
ent of  certain  meteorites. 

ANOR'THOSITE  (Fr.  anortlwse.  triclinic 
feldspar;  see  Axokthite)  .  A  rock  of  the  gabbro 
family  composed  largel}'  of  that  variety  of  feld- 
spar, rich  in  lime,  known  as  labradorite.  Anor- 
tlinsite  has  a  gi-anitoid  but  generally  also  a 
parallel  structure,  and  in  addition  to  labradorite 
feldspar  contains  often  augite,  hypersthene,  horn- 
blende, etc.  It  contains  on  an  average  about 
55%  of  silica,  28%  of  alumina,  10%  of  calcium, 
5%  of  soda,  and  1%  of  potash.  Under  the  obso- 
lete name  of  lal>r;ulorite  rock,  anorthositc  has 
been  described  from  the  Adirondack  Mountains 
of  New  York,  and  from  southwestern  Norway. 


It  occurs  also  about  Lake  Superior.  See  Gabbuo; 
Labradokite. 

ANOS'MIA  (Gk.  dv,  an,  priv.  -|-  6<rix7i,  osmC, 
smell).  A  medical  term,  denoting  a  loss  of  the 
sense  of  smell.  It  may  be  due  to  causes  acting 
either  on  the  terminals  of  the  olfactory  nerve, 
peripheral,  or  on  that  part  of  the  nerve  which 
is  witliin  the  brain,  central. 

ANQUETIL,    liNk'tfl',   Louis   Pierre    (1723- 
1806).     A  French  historian.     At  the  age  of  sev- 
enteen he  joined  the  congregation  of  St.  Gene- 
vieve;  was  director  of  the  Seminary  of  Rheims, 
and  afterward  director  of  the  College  of  Senlis. 
In  the  Reign  of  Terror  he  was  imprisoned  in  St.       ■ 
Lazare.     He  was  an  early  member  of  tlie  Insti-      ■ 
tute,  and  secured  a  place  as  archivist  in  the  de-      ¥ 
partment  of  foreign  affairs  under  Napoleon.    His 
best  work  was  his  Hisioire  de  Beims  [1.756-57) . 
He  also  wrote  several  volumes  of  memoirs,  such 
as  Louis  XIV., sa  cour  et  le  regent  ( 1789) ,  and  an 
incomplete  Eistoire  de  France  dcpuis  les  Gaules 
jusijii'i)  hi  fin  dr  In  monarehie  (1805). 

ANQUETIL  DUPERRON,  dn'pa'rCx'.  Abea- 
Ha:vi  llYAi'iXTiiE  ( 17;51-18().')) .  A  Trench  Orien- 
talist, born  in  Paris.  He  studied  theology  and 
Oriental  languages,  and  in  1754  enlisted"  as  a 
private  soldier  for  India.  There,  after  securing 
the  support  of  the  French  Government,  he  passed 
seven  years  in  the  collection  and  collation  of 
manuscripts,  and  studied  the  language  and  doc- 
trines of  the  sacred  books  of  the  Parsees.  He  re- 
turned to  France  in  1762,  was  elected  a  menilter 
of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  176.3,  and  in 
1771  published  Zend-Avesta,  onrruge  de  Zorous- 
ire,  3  volumes,  the  first  translation  of  Parsee  re- 
ligious works  ever  made  into  a  European  lan- 
guage. His  further  publications  include  L'lnde 
en  rapport  avec  VEurope  (1790),  and  Oupnek'hat 
(1804),  a  Latin  translation  of  a  Persian  render- 
ing of  the  Sanskrit  Upanishnds,  noteworthy  as 
the  source  of  Schopenhauer's  knowledge  of  the 
Indian  philosophy.  Ijy  which  his  own  system  was 
not  slightly  inlhicnced. 

AN'SARIES,  or  ANSA'RIANS,  but  more 
properly  Xosairians.  An  Arab  sect  lixing  in 
the  moimtains  between  tlie  northern  part  of  Leb- 
anon and  Antioch ;  found  also  in  Antioch  and. 
in  various  places  along  the  Syrian  coast  and  in 
the  interior.  The  origin  of  the  sect  is  involved 
in  obscurity,  though  it  appears  probable  that  it^ 
was  founded  by  a  certain  Mohammed  ibn  Xosair 
at  the  close  of  the  ninth  century.  The  sect  be- 
longs to  the  so-called  Shiitic  branch  of  Islam 
(q.v.),  and  may  be  described  as  the  result  of 
the  accommodation  of  Islam  to  the  old  Syriac 
heathenism.  Their  tenets  are  tlierefore  a  mix- 
ture of  paganism  and  Mohanmiedanism,  with 
some  faint  suggestions  from  Cliristianity,  partic- 
ularly in  the  form  of  Gnosticism.  While  tlieir 
doctrines  bear  a  resemblance  to  those  of  the 
Ismailitic  sect,  and  they  are  clearly  influenced 
by  tliis  sect,  still  they  manifest  an  independent 
development  of  their  beliefs.  They  divide  time 
into  seven  cycles,  each  corresponding  to  an  ap- 
pearance of  the  divine  spirit  in  some  personality. 
Divine  honors  are  paid  to  .\li  and  his  sons,  who 
became  the  representatives  of  the  ancient  deities 
of  Syria  and  Plioenieia.  Ali  is  practically  the 
personification  of  the  sun,  and  the  standing 
formula  of  the  religion  is,  "I  bear  witness  that 
there  is  no  god  but  Ali."  Tliey  also  set  up  a 
kind  of  trinity,  associating  with  Ali,  Mohammed 
and  Salman-al-Farisi.    The  latter  two  are  emana- 


ire 

in  - 
.b-  * 
iid^B 

eo^H 

■:1 


ANSABIES. 


589 


ANSDELL. 


tioni5  of  Ali.  Jlohanimed  beiiif;  created  by  Ali, 
and  Salman  by  Molianinipd.  Ali  is  designated  as 
the  "lord,"  ilohamnied  as  the  "veil,"  and  Salman 
as  the  "gate."  The  syiiilnil  of  Ali  is  iiKi'diii,  "the 
meaning,"  and  the  symbol  of  Moliammed  is  ism, 
"the  name."  This  trinity  is  eternal,  and  despite 
the  superficial  resemblance  of  this  belief  to  the 
Christian  doctrine,  it  appears  rather  to  be  due  to 
the  transfpniiation  of  the  ancient  local  cults  in 
Syria  and  Phienicia.  Salman-al-Farisi  in  turn 
created  five  persons,  known  as  "the  incomparable 
ones,"  who  are  the  real  creators  of  the  world. 
The  mystical  character  of  their  doctrines  is  fur- 
'  ther  increased  by  the  assuiui)tion  of  two  worlds, 
an  upper  and  a  lower  one,  and  corresponding  to 
seven  divine  manifestations  in  each,  there  are 
seven  adversaries,  one  appearing  w  ith  each  mani- 
festation, whii  h,  moreover,  consists  in  each  case 
of  a  mu'ani,  "meaning"  (representing  Ali),  and 
an  ism,  "name"  (representing  iXohammed). 
Leaving  aside  the  seven — or,  rather,  fourteen — 
divine  manifestations  in  the  upper  world,  we  have 
for  the  lower  world  as  the  seven  manifestations 
ot  iiuvaiii,  Abel,  Seth,  Joseph,  Joshua,  Asai, 
Peter,  and  Ali,  and  as  seven  manifestations  of 
ism,  Adam,  Xoah,  Jacob,  iloses,  Solomon,  Jesus, 
and  Mohammed. 

Among  the  populace  great  veneration  is  paid 
also  to  Khodr.  a  mythical  personage  correspond- 
ing to  St.  George,  who  deliveied  the  country  of 
a  great  monster,  and  in  retuin  for  this  and 
other  feats  the  Xosairians  dedicate  their  daugh- 
ters to  Khodr.  Before  giving  them  in  marriage 
they  proceed  to  the  convent  of  ilar  Jorjis  (St. 
George),  near  Beirut,  and  there  pay  ransom 
money  to  the  monks  of  the  convent,  the  amount 
varying,  according  to  the  vow,  from  a  third  to 
the  entire  stun  of  the  dowry. 

The  Xosairians  believe  in  migration  of  souls, 
which  for  the  faithful  will  be  a  ])rogress  in  seven 
stages  from  pure  to  more  pure,  until  they  become 
stars,  as  they  originally  were ;  but  sinners  will  be 
transformed  into  Jews,  Christians,  camels,  mules, 
asses,  dogs,  and  sheep.  They  practice  circumcis- 
ion and  ablution,  and  pray  in  the  open  air  three 
times  a  day.  Their  chief  festivals  are  (1)  Al- 
Gadir.  falling  on  the  eighteenth  day  of  the  month 
of  pilgrimage,  commemorating  the  supposed  proc- 
lamation by  ^Mohammed  of  X\i  as  his  successor; 
(2)  Fitr,  "breaking  of  the  fast,"  sacred  to  JIo- 
hanimed,  and  the  first  of  the  festivals  of  the 
year:  (3)  the  festival  of  sacrifices,  sacred  to 
Ismail,  the  founder  of  the  Ismailitic  sect,  on 
the  tenth  day  of  the  pilgrimage  month:  (4) 
Ashura,  the  tenth  day  of  the  month  of  Muhar- 
ram,  commemorating  the  murder  of  ITussein.  the 
son  of  Ali:  (.5)  al-Gadir  the  second,  on  the  ninth 
day  of  the  first  month  of  Rabi',  commemorating 
Jlohammed's  recognition  of  the  mission  of  the 
sons  of  Ali,  Hasan  and  Hosein:  (0)  Christmas, 
known  as  "the  festival  of  the  birth,"  on  the 
night  of  the  twenty-fourth  of  Decendicr,  in  mem- 
ory of  the  birth  of  the  Messiah,  by  the  wife  of 
Lazarus,  daughter  of  Annai,  according  to  the 
statement  in  the  Koran.  Besides  these  there  are 
a  large  number  ot  minor  festivals,  betraying  Per- 
sian as  well  as  Christian  and  old  Syriac  influ- 
ences. 

The  charges  of  immoral  practices  indulged  in 
on  the  occasion  of  their  festivals  are  pure  fabri- 
cations, due  in  part  to  the  mystical  character 
of  some  of  their  rites,  particularly  of  those  prac- 
ticed at  the  initiation  of  members  of  the  sect. 
Their    religion   inculcates    benevolence,   honesty, 


and  patience.  While  split  up  into  various  divis- 
ions, the  sub-sects  differ  only  in  matters  of  minor 
importance.  Each  community  is  governed  by  a 
chief,  who  is  almost  entirely  independent. 
Consult  Dussand,  L'Hi.stoiic  rt  In  rili'iioii  dcs 
\osarics   (Paris,   1900) . 

ANSBACH,  ans'biio,  or  ANSPACH  (origi- 
nally Onolzbach).  A  town  of  Bavaria,  capital  of 
the  circle  of  iliddle  Kranconia  {Mittclfrankcn) , 
on  the  Rezat,  25  miles  soutliwest  of  Nuremberg 
(Map:  Germany,  D  4).  Its  only  notable  build- 
ings are  the  churches  of  St.  Gumbert  and  St. 
John,  and  the  castle,  once  the  residence  of  the 
margraves  of  Ansbach,  now  used  as  a  library 
and  picture  gallery.  The  town  has  several 
schools,  a  theatre,  and  a  public  slaughter  house. 
It  has  manufactures  of  cotton  and  half-silken 
fabrics,  tobacco,  earthenware,  playing  cards,  cut- 
lery, and  white  lead;  also  a  considerable  trade  in 
wool,  flax,  and  corn.  Ansbach  sprang  up  around 
a  Benedictine  monastery  founded  by  St.  Gumbert 
in  the  eighth  century.  It  was  the  capital  of  the 
principality  of  Ansbach,  which  from  the  close  of 
the  iliddle" Ages  was  for  three  centuries  ruled  by 
margraves  of  the  Franconian  branch  of  the  House 
of  Hohenzollern  (of  Brandcnbiu-g,  later  of  Prus- 
sia). After  belonging  for  a  short  time  to  Prus- 
sia, Ansbach  and  its  territory,  together  with  the 
Old  principality  of  Bayreuth,  which  had  also  been 
ruled  by  margi-aves  of  the  Hohenzollern  line  and 
had  shared  the  fortunes  of  Ansbach,  were  trans- 
ferred by  Napoleon  I.  to  Bavaria,  Pop,,  1890, 
14,200;   1000,  17,555. 

ANSCHtfTZ,  an'shijts,  HEiNRlcn(  17S5-1S65) . 
A  German  actor.  He  was  born  at  Luckau,  and 
studied  at  the  University  of  Leipzig,  in  which 
city  he  saw  the  performances  of  ItUand,  Esslair, 
and  other  distinguished  actors  w'ho  occasionally 
played  there.  He  began  his  career  as  an  actor 
at  Nuremberg  in  1807,  and  finally  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Hofburgtheater  in  Vienna.  He  played 
both  heroic  and  character  parts,  and  was  for 
man}'  years  the  central  figure  at  the  famous  play- 
house with  which  he  was  so  long  identified.  He 
published  an  autobiography  under  the  title  of 
Heinrich  Anschiitx,  Erinm'rungen  aus  desseii 
Lcbeii  iind  M'irken  (Vienna,  18GG). 

ANSCHiJTZ,  Karl  (1815-70).  A  German 
musician.  He  \\as  born  in  Coblentz,  and  in  1857 
settled  in  New  York,  where  he  became  well  known 
chiefly  as  a  conductor  of  opera  and  as  a  ])ioneer 
manager  of  German  opera.  He  was  also  conduc- 
tor of  the  Arion  Society    (1800-62). 

ANSCHUTZ,  OTTOjtAR  ( 1840—) .  A  German 
photographer,  born  at  Lissa,  in  Posen,  He  de- 
voted himself  to  instantaneous  photography,  and 
to  reproducing  the  movements  of  men  and  ani- 
mals with  the  aid  of  a  "taehyscope"  of  his  ow'n 
invention.  (See  Stroboscope.)  Anschiitz's  in- 
vention has  been  applied  to  useful  purposes  in 
physiology. 

ANS'DELL,  Richard  ( 1815-85) .  An  English 
painter  of  genre  and  animal  pictures,  born  at 
Liverpool.  He  enjoyed  a  high  repute  both  at 
home  and  abroad.  The  following  arc  some  of 
his  more  popular  works:  "Death  of  Sir  William 
Lambton  at  Marston  Moor"  (1842),  "Mary, 
Queen  of  Scots,  Returning  from  the  Chase" 
(1844),  "Spanish  Shepherd"  (1858),  "'Buy  a 
Dog,  Ma'am?'  "  ( 1800) ,  "Treading  Out  the  Corn" 
(1805),  "Feeding  the  Goats  in  the  Alhambra" 
(1871),  "Home  of  the  Red  Deer"  (1877),  "Luclvy 


ANSDELL. 


590 


ANSON. 


Dogs"     (1879) ,    "Returning    from    the    Fair    at 
Seville"  (1882). 

ANSE  DE  PANIEB,  ;L\s  de  pa'nyfi'  (Fr., 
handle  of  a  basket).  The  equivalent  of  basket 
handle  arch.  An  architectural  term  for  three- 
centred  arches. 

AN'SELL,   Mary.     An   English   actress,  who 
after   two  years   of  theatrical   experience   made 
a  success  in  1893  as  Nannie  O'Brien  in  Walkci-j 
London.     The    next   year    she    retired    from    the 
stage  to   marry  the   author   of   the   play,   J.   51. 
Barrie,  the  novelist,  at  Kerricmuir   (July,  1894). 
AN'SELM  OE  CAN'TEKBTJRY,  St.   (1033- 
1109).     A  scholastic  philosoplier,  born  at  Aosta, 
in  Piedmont.     He  led  at  first  a   dissipated  life, 
and,    like    Abelard,    wandered    through    France, 
after  the  fashion  of  the  scholars  of  those  days, 
disputing  wherever  he  could  find   an  adversary. 
Attracted  by  the  reputation  of  Lanfranc,  he  went, 
in   1000,   to   study  at   the  monastery   of  Bee,   in 
Xormandy.     Three  j-ears  later,  he  became  prior, 
and    in    1078,    abbot    of    this    monastery,    which 
under  him  became  famous  as  a  seat  of  learning. 
Lanfranc,  who  in  the  meantime  had  gone  to  Eng- 
land, and  become  Archbishop  of  Canterbury',  died 
in  1089;  and  the  archdiocese  remained  four  years 
without  a  successor,  till,  in  1093,  Anselm  was  ap- 
pointed.    He  was  distinguished  as  both  a  church- 
man   and    philoso])hcr.     His    numerous    embroil- 
ments with  William  Rufus  and  Henry  I.,  and  the 
unbending  spirit  which  he  displayed  in  these,  even 
when  subjected  to  banishment,  indicate  the  vigor 
and  resoluteness  of  his  character,  as  much  as  his 
writings  exhibit  the  depth  and  acuteness  of  his 
intellect.     In  1720  Clement  XL  expressly  placed 
him  in  the  list  of  Church  authorities.     Anselm 
was  a  second  Augustine,  superior  to  all  his  con- 
temporaries   in    sagacity    and    dialectical    skill, 
and   equal   to   the   most    eminent   in   virtue   and 
piety.     Embracing  without  question  the  doctrines 
of   the   Church,   inostly   as   stated   by   Augustine, 
and  holding  that  belief  must  precede  knowledge, 
and  must  be  implicit  and  undoubting,  he  yet  felt 
the  necessity  of  a  religious  philosophy,  urged  the 
duty  of  proceeding  irom  belief  to  knowledge,  and 
sought  to  reduce  the  truths  of  religion  into  the 
form  of  a  connected  series  of  reasonings.     It  was 
for  this  purpose  he  wrote  his  Monolor/ium  sive 
Exeinpliim  Mcditandi  dc  Ratione  Fidci.     In  his 
Proslociium,    otherwise    entitled    Fides    Qutcrens 
Intellectum    (faith  seeking  intellect),  he  strove 
to  demonstrate  the  existence  of  God   from   the 
conception  of  a  perfect  being.     This  ontological 
proof,  however,  has  never  been  held  satisfactory. 
His  writings.  Cur  IJeus  Homo,  and  Dr  Concordia 
Pra-acienliw  ct  Prcrdestinaiionis,  made  an  epoch 
in  Christian  philosophy.     Anselm  may  justly  be 
reckoned  the  earliest  of  the  schoobnen,  although 
Alexander   of   Hales    (q.v.)    was   the   first   who 
completely  systematized  in  the  scholastic  aianner 
the  doctrines  of  the  Catholic  Church.     He  died 
in  Canterbury,  April  21,  1109,  and  was  buried 
there.     The  day  of  his  death  is  observed  in  the 
Roman    Catholic    Church.     His    works    are    in 
lligne.  P.  L..  1.58,  159,  and  a  few  pieces  since  dis- 
covered in  Mai,  Aor.  liihl.  I.     For  his  lite  and 
teachings,  consult:    F.   R.  Hasse    (Leipzig,   1843- 
52)  ;  De  Rr-musat   (Paris,  1S5S)  ;   R.  W.  Church 
(London,  1870)  ;  M.  Rule   (London,  1883),  who 
also  edited  two  lives  of  Anselm  by  Eadnier  for  the 
Rolls  Series    (London.  1884)  ;  J.  M.  Rigg   (Lon- 
don,   1S9G)  ;    A.   C.   Welch    (London,    1900).     In 
Knglish  are  his  BooA:  of  Meditations  and  Prayers 


(London,  1872)  ;  Cur  Deus  Homo,  with  selections 
from  his  letters  and  lite   (London,  1889). 

ANSELM  OF  LUCCA.     See  Alexander  II. 

(Pope). 

AN'SERES  (Lat.  nom.  plur.  of  anser,  goose). 
An  order  of  birds,  including  the  ducks,  geese, 
and  swans  (q.v.),  and,  by  some  systematists,  the 
screamers,  and  characterized  mainly  by  the  fact 
that  the  edges  of  both  mandibles  'are  provided 
with  a  series  of  tooth-like  projections,  those 
of  the  upper  alternating  with  those  of  the  lower 
mandible.  The  Anseres  are  found  in  all  parts 
of  the  world,  and  about  two  bundled  species  are 
Ivnown,  mostly  of  large  size.  With  few  excep- 
tions, they  are  essentially  swimming  birds,  and 
are  never  found  far  fro'm  water.  They  breed 
near  the  water,  lay  numerous  eggs,  and  the 
young  are  able  to  care  for  themselves  almost  as 
soon  as  they  are  hatched. 

ANSGAR,  ilns'giir  (Axskar,  or  AxscHiiirs) 
( S01-S(i5 ) .  A  French  prelate,  styled  "the  Apostle 
of  the  Xorth,"  on  account  of  his  labors  to  intro- 
duce Christianity  into  Deimiark,  Sweden,  and 
northern  Germany.  He  was  born  near  the  mon- 
astery of  Corbie,  in  the  vicinity  of  Amiens, 
France.  In  this  monastery  and  that  of  Korvei, 
in  ^^■cstphalia,  an  offshoot  of  the  former,  he 
was  educated,  and  in  the  latter  he  subsequently 
became  preacher.  His  family  belonged  to  the 
Prankish  nobility,  and  uiuler  the  patronage  of 
Louis  le  Debonnaire  he  \xent,  with  his  colleague 
Autbert,  to  preach  the  doctrines  of  Christianity 
among  the  heathen  Northmen  of  Schleswig, 
where  he  sufl'ered  many  persecutions,  but  had, 
nevertheless,  such  success  that  in  831  the  Pope 
established  an  archbishopric  in  Hamburg,  and 
Ansgar  was  appointed  the  first  archbishop. 
Here  he  passed  through  many  ditficulties,  being 
compelled  to  save  his  life  "by  fiight  in  845, 
when  the  Northmen  and  Danes  under  Eric  I. 
plundered  Hamburg.  He  afterward  made  several 
missionary  tours  in  Denmark  and  Sweden,  and 
died  February  3,  8G5,  at  Bremen,  where  a  church 
was  named  after  him.  The  Roman  Catholic 
Church  has  canonized  him.  For  his  life,  consult: 
G.  H.  Klippel  (Bremen,  1845);  Tappehorn 
(Miinster,  1803). 

AN'SON,  George,  Lord  (1697-1762).  An 
Englisli  admiral  and  famous  circunniavigator. 
He  was  born  at  Shugborough,  Staft"ordshire,April 
23,  1G97.  From  an  early  period  he  manifested 
a  predilection  for  a  sea-life,  and  entered  the  navy 
at  the  age  of  fifteen.  In  1716  he  served  as 
second  lieutenant  under  Norris;  next  under  Byng 
in  1718,  against  the  Spaniards;  and  was  made  a 
captain  in  1723.  In  1739,  when  war  with  Spain 
broke  out,  he  was  recalled  from  the  Carolina 
station,  on  which  he  had  been  placed  since  1724, 
and  received  the  coninuind  of  the  fleet  in  the 
South  Sea.  He  sailed  from  England  in  Septem- 
ber, 1740,  with  instructions  to  inflict  whatever 
injury  he  could  on  the  Spanish  commerce  and 
colonies.  The  preparations  for  this  cruise  had 
been  made  in  tlic  most  slovenly  manner.  Both 
vessels  and  stores  were  bad  and  the  sailors  were 
old  Chelsea  pensioners;  3'et  Anson,  in  spite  of 
these  disadvantages,  achieved  a  brilliant  repvita- 
tion  by  the  heroism,  prudence,  di]ig<'nce,  and 
humanity  he  displayed.  After  his  little  fleet  of 
seven  vessels  had  been  scattered  by  a  storm  in 
doubling  Cape  Horn,  he  landed  at  Juan  Fernan- 
dez, where  he  was  soon  joined  by  three  of  his 
ships,  which  arrived  in  a  dismantled  condition. 


ANSON. 


501 


ANSWER. 


Wliile  lie  remained  on  this  island,  he  exhibited 
liis  native  teiKh'iness  (ii  eharacter  liy  the  assidu- 
ity witli  whifli  he  cared  for  the  sick.  Under  great 
disadvantages,  he  toolv  several  prizes,  including 
a  valuable  (Spanish  galleon  from  Acapulco.  Fi- 
nally, with  only  one  vessel  left,  he  crossed  the 
South  8ca,  doulded  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and 
favored  by  good  fortune,  was  hidden  by  a  thick 
fog  as  he  passed  through  the  French  lleet  and 
entered  the  English  Channel.  He  arrived  at 
•Spithead,  .June  15,  1744,  and  his  accunuilated 
treasure,  amounting  to  £.500,000,  was  landed  at 
Portsmouth,  sent  up  to  London,  and  triumphant- 
ly paraded  through  the  city  in  32  wagons.  He  had 
circiunnavigated  the  globe  in  three  years  and 
nine  months,  and  his  perilous  cruise  gi'eatly  ex- 
tended the  knowledge  of  navigation  and  geog- 
rapliy.  It  has  been  described  in  his  Voyage 
Round  the  World  (editors  Walter  and  Robins, 
1748;  new  edition,  lS5o).  As  a  rewaid  for  his 
services,  Anson  was  made  Rear-admiral  of  the 
Blue  (1744),  and  in  1747,  having  defeated  the 
French  Admiral  Jonquiere,  at  Cape  Finisterre, 
he  was  created  Baron  Soberton,  and  four  years 
later  first  lord  of  the  admiralty.  In  1701  he 
was  made  admiral  of  the  fleet.  He  died  suddenly 
at  Moor  Park.  Hertfordshire.  .June  C,  17(!2.  Con- 
sult J.  ]?arrow,  Life  of  George,  Lord  Anson 
(London,   1839). 

ANSON,  G.  W.  (1847—).  An  English  actor, 
born  at  Montrose,  N.  B.  He  began  his  career  at 
the  Theatre  Royal,  Edinburgh,  in  1805.  After 
touring  in  the  provincial  towns  and  in  America, 
he  made  in  1873  his  I^ondon  debut,  in  Sour 
Grapes,  at  the  Olj'mpie  Theatre,  where  he  was 
engaged  for  several  years.  In  18S0,  he  played 
Gaston  Ricux,  in  Heartsease,  with  Madame  Mod- 
jeska  at  the  Court  Theatre  and  continued  in 
London  in  various  comedy  parts  till  1885,  when 
he  went  to  Australia  for  an  extended  stay.  In 
1802.  he  appeared  in  The  Luclij  Dog  at  Terry's 
Theatre,  London.  Among  his  subsequent  roles 
have  been  those  of  Schwarz,  in  .1  Buneh  of  Vio- 
lets, at  the  Haymarket  (1894)  :  Hilarius,  in  La 
Poupce.  with  Anna  Held,  at  the  Lyric  Theatre 
(1887),  and  Nero,  in  Quo  Vadis,  at  the  Adelphi 
(1900). 

ANSO'NIA.      A    city    in    New    Haven    Co., 

■Conn.,  12  miles  west  by  north  of  New  Haven,  on 
the  Naugatuck  River,  and  on  the  Berkshire  and 
Naugatuck  divisions  of  the  New  York,  New 
Haven  and  Hartford  Railroad  (Jlap:  Connecti- 
cut. C  4).  Among  the  more  prominent  features 
nf  the  city  are  the  public  library,  the  Young 
Men's  Christian  Association  Building,  the  Opera 
House,  and  Burton  and  Recreation  Parks.  An- 
sonia  is  noted  as  a  manufacturing  centre,  the 
prodvicts  including  heavy  machinery,  rollers  for 
paper-making  and  wheat-milling,  copper,  brass, 
and  wire  goods,  electrical  appliances,  clocks,  etc. 
The  government,  under  a  charter  of  1001,  is  vest- 
ed in  a  mayor  elected  every  two  years,  a  munici- 
pal council,  and  administrative  ofRcials,  the  ma- 
jority of  whom  are  appointed  bv  the  mayor  with 
the  consent  of  the  council.  Settled  in  1840, 
Ansonia  was  set  oflf  from  Derby  in  1809,  and  was 
chartered  as  a  city  in  1893.  It  was  named  in 
honor  of  Anson  G,  Phelps  (q.v. ).  A  prolonged 
strike  in  this  city,  bitterly  fought  on  both  sides, 
led  to  the  election  in  1901  of  the  labor  candidates 
for  mavor  and  all  the  other  important  offices. 
Pop.,  1890.  10.342;  1900,  12,081. 
ANSPACH,  iin'spaG.     See  Ansbach. 


ANSPACH,  or  ANSBACH,  Elizabeth 
Berkeley,  Mahgravine  of  (1750-1828).  An 
English  dramatic  writer.  She  was  a  daughter  qf 
the  Earl  of  Berkeley,  and  was  married  in  1707 
to  Mr.,  afterward  Lord,  Craven,  but  separated 
from  him  thirteen  years  later.  In  1791,  she  be- 
came the  wife  of  the  iMargrave  of  Anspach,  with 
whom  she  had  been  .some  time  intimately  associ- 
ated at  his  court.  She  and  her  husband  wei-e 
not  received,  when  they  came  to  England,  either 
by  her  family  or  by  roj'alty,  even  after  she  had 
been  created  a  countess  of  the  Empire  by  the 
German  Emperor,  Francis  II.  Her  wanderings, 
after  the  Margrave's  death,  in  180G.  finally  ended 
at  Naples,  where  she  spent  her  last  years.  Her 
literary  work  included  jioetry,  travels,  and  the 
plays:  Somnambule  (1778);"  The  Silrer  Tank- 
ard, a  musical  farce  (Haymarket,  1781);  The 
^Princess  of  Georgia  (Covent  Garden.  1-799)  ;  and 
Lore  in  a  Convent  (1805),  in  which  she  herself 
took  part.  She  also  wrote  the  oirions  Memoirs 
of  the  Murgrueine  of  Anspach    (London,   1825). 

AN'STED,  D.wiD  Thomas  (1814-80).  An 
English  geologist  and  mining  engineer.  He  was 
born  in  London,  and  received  his  education  at 
Cambridge.  In  1840  he  was  made  professor  of 
geolog;5-  at  King's  College  in  London,  and  after- 
ward occupied  a  similar  position  at  the  College 
of  Civil  Engineering.  His  works  include:  Geol- 
ogy, Introduelorg,  Deseripfiee,  and  Practical 
(two  volumes.  London,  1844)  ;  Goldseeker's 
Manual  (London,  1810)  ;  TIte  Applications  of 
Geology  to  the  Arts  and  Manufactures  (London, 
1805)  ;  The  World  We  Live  In  (London,  1870)  : 
the  fifth  edition  of  his  Physical  Geography  (edi- 
tion 1,  London,  1807)  appeared  in  1871. 

AN'STER,  John  (1793-1807).  An  Irish  edu- 
cator  and  ]ioet.  He  was  born  in  Cork  County, 
Ireland,  and  was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  where  he  was  regius  professor  of  civil  law 
(1850-07).  He  published  Poems  and  Transla- 
tions from  the  German  (1819)  ;  a  translation  of 
the  first  part  of  Goethe's  Faust  (1835)  ;  Faus- 
tus,  the  Second  Part,  from  the  German  of  Goethe 
(1804);  and  contributions  to  several  literary 
periodicals. 

AN'STEY,  an'sti,  F.  See  Guthrie,  Thomas 
Anstey. 

AN'SWER  (A.  S.  and-,  Ger.  ant-  in  Antwort, 
answer,  Gk.  uvri,  anti,  against  -)-  swerian,  to 
speak,  swear).  In  law,  technically  the  pleading 
interposed  by  the  defendant  to  the  plaintiff's 
bill  in  an  action  brought  in  a  Court  of  Chancery. 
In  his  answer  the  defendant  may  set  np  any 
matter  of  defense  to  the  plaintilT's  claim,  but  in 
addition  he  is  required  to  state  fully  under  oath 
his  knowdedge  or,  if  he  has  no  knowledge,  his 
information  and  belief  as  to  all  relevant  matters 
alleged  or  inquired  of  in  the  plaintiff's  bill.  The 
method  of  pleading  is  technically  known  as  giving 
discovery,  and  the  information  thus  obtained 
may  be  used  as  evidence  in  the  plaintiff's  favor 
at  the  trial.  It  is  sub.ject,  however,  to  the  rule 
of  chancery  practice,  tluit  if  luifavorable  to  the 
plaintiff  it  is  conclusive  unless  overcome  by  two 
witnesses  or  by  one  witness  and  corroborative 
circumstances.  The  plaintiff,  however,  may 
avoid  this  consequence  by  expressly  waiving  an 
answer  under  oath  in  his  bill.  At  law,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  equity,  the  defendant's  pleading 
is  technicall.v  known  as  the  pica  ;  but  under  the 
modern  statutory  system  of  jileading,  the  term 
answer  is  applied  indiscriminately  to  the  defend- 


ANSWEB. 


592 


ANT. 


PAET3  OF  AN  ANT. 

a,  Head  ;  b.  Antenna  ; 
Jaws;  rf,  Thorax  and  Legs; 
€,  Peduncle  ;  /,  Abdomen. 


ant's  plea  in  either  law  or  equity.  See  Plea; 
Pleadikg,  and  the  authorities  there  referred  to. 
.ANT  (A.  S.  wmete:  Ger,  Amctse :  from  O.  H. 
G.  meiznn.  to  cut,  the  original  meaning  thus 
being  "cut  in";  as  in  Gk.  ei-Towot.  entomos,  Lat. 
insectum).  A  small  hynienojiterous  insect  of  the 
family  Formicidse,  closely  related  to  the  wasps 
and  bees,  not  only  in  structure,  but  in  instincts 
and  socialistic  economy.  "Emmet"  is  an  older 
form  of  the  word  "ant"  still  in  use,  and  "pis- 
mire" is  a  common  word 
occasionally  heard.  Ants 
are  easily  recognized  by 
the  well-known  form  of 
the  body.  The  demarca- 
tion between  head,  tho- 
rax, and  abdomen  is  very 
noticeable  in  these  in- 
sects. From  the  termites 
and  velvet  ants,  wliich 
most  resemble  them,  true 
ants  can  readily  be  distinguished  by  the  peculiar 
form  of  the  abdomen,  the  first  or  first  two  seg- 
ments of  which  are  constricted  off,  to  form  a 
separately  jointed  small  knob  or  scale,  which 
greatly  increases  the  flexibility  of  the  body. 

Classification.  The  ants",  according  "to  the 
best  authorities,  form  a  single  family,  Formi- 
cidfe,  divided  into  six  subfamilies.  The  subfami- 
lies are  founded  mainly  on  the  condition  of  the 
peduncle  or  part  constricted  off  from  the  al)do- 
men  {whether  composed  of  one  or  two  portions), 
and  on  the  presence  or  absence  of  a  sting. 

Polymorphism  and  Division  of  Labor.  As 
in  other  Hymenoptera,  there  is,  first  of  all,  a  di- 
morphism of  the  female  sex.  But  among  ants 
complexity  of  form  goes  further  than  this,  on  ac- 
count of  the  complexity  of  the  social  organiza- 
tion. For  the  ant  colony  frequently  contains 
enslaved  individuals  belonging  to  another  species. 
The  different  forms  of  ants  are  the  results  of 
division  of  labor  among  the  members  of  the  col- 
ony. Of  the  infertile  females  or  workers,  some 
are  gatherers  of  food,  some  are  nurses  for  the 
young,  while  others,  of  a  larger  size,  act  as  sol- 
diers to  protect  the  ranks  of  foraging  workers.  In 
certain  species  certain  workers  serve  as  living 
storehouses.  (See  Honey-making  Ants.)  Each  of 
these  difl'erences  in  labor  is  associated  with  a  dif- 
ference in  form.  Even  among  individuals  of  the 
same  sex  and  cast,  considerable  variability  oc- 
curs. Although  the  workers  are  usually  wingless, 
certain  ones  have  been  observed  with  short  wings. 
A  part  or  all  of  the  fertile  females  may  be  wing- 
less. Occasionally  wingless  males  may  exist  to- 
gether with  the  winged,  while  the  wingless  pre- 
vail in  a  few  species. 

The  OuiGiN  and  Maintenance  of  Colonies. 
Upon  the  appearance  of  the  winged  males  and 
females  in  the  ant  colony,  both  are  guarded  by 
the  workers  until  a  suitable  time  for  flight. 
Finally,  they  are  let  out  on  warm  days  in  sum- 
mer and  autumn  to  appear  in  the  air  in  myi-iads. 
Mating  is  supposed  to  take  place  while  on  the 
wing.  Soon  after  mating,  the  males  die  and  those 
females  that  escape  enemies  and  inclement  weath- 
er settle  do\\n  to  the  ground,  tear  off  their 
wings,  and  make  excavations  in  materials  suit- 
able to  the  construction  of  their  nest.  The  eggs 
are  then  laid,  and  upon  hatching  the  larvae  are 
fed  on  some  substance  already  stored  up  within 
the  body  of  the  queen,  since  she  never  goes  out 
for   food.     When  the  workers  of  the   first  set, 


which  are  of  small  size,  appear,  the  care  of  the 
larv;E  and  pupae  devolves  upon  them,  and  there- 
after the  queen  devotes  herself  exclusively  to 
egg-laying.  Thus  a  new  colony  is  established. 
Frequently  one  or  more  young  queens  are  found 
by  workers  and  conveyed  to  colonies  already  es- 
tablished, which  they  continue  to  maintain  should 
the  former  queen  be  old.  Thus  more  than  one 
queen-ant  may,  without  quarrels,  live  in  a  single 
colony.  The  workers  feed  the  queen,  and  follow 
her  on  her  wanderings  throughout  the  passages 
and  chambers.  As  she  lets  fall  the  eggs,  the 
workers  carry  them  to  suitable  locations.  \\\  the 
queen's  presence  they  not  infrequently  perform 
those  same  peculiar  antics  and  capers  which  they 
employ  to  express  their  emotions  upon  the  re- 
turn of  a  lost  comrade.  The  legless  larva"  and 
the  pupiE  are  carried  to  the  surface  layers  by  day, 
for  the  sake  of  the  sun's  warmth,  and  at  night,  or 
during  rain,  to  deeper  and  drier  chambers.  The 
larv;?  are  fed  by  the  nurses  on  regurgitated,  half- 
digested  food,  or  on  a  suljstance  elaborated  by 
them.  They  are  carefully  licked  and  rubbed  by 
the  nurses  to  keep  them  clean,  and  when  the  time 
arrives  for  the  pupiie  to  emerge  from  their  silken 
or  naked  sheaths,  the  workers  are  at  hand  to  help 
them  out  and  to  unfold  and  dry  their  wings  and 
legs. 

Food.  As  is  the  case  with  all  the  other  labors 
of  the  colony,  getting  the  food  depends  upon  the 
workers.  All  sorts  of  available  matter,  both  dead 
and  freshly  killed,  serve  them  for  food.  They 
are  fond  of  sweets,  too,  both  animal  and  vege- 
table. The  nectar  of  flowers  and  the  sweet  saps 
and  juices  of  plants  and  fruits  are  sought.  Sugar 
is  ever  a  temptation  to  them.  The  honey-dew  ex- 
creted by  plant-lice,  the  milch-cows  of  ants,  is 
especially  prized.  To  secure  it  ants  will  climb 
even  high  trees.  They  follow  the  aphids  about  so 
as  to  catch  the  sweet  excretion,  and  even  stroke 
them  to  hasten  its  expulsion.  When  the  sap 
supply  for  the  aphids  fails,  the  ants  carry  their 
"cows"  to  new  food-plants,  and  when  winter 
comes  on,  both  the  adult  plant-lice  and  the  eggs 
are  carried  out  of  reach  of  frost  into  the  ant 
caverns  and  carefully  attended  until  spring,  when 
they  are  again  placed  on  the  swelling  plant-buds. 
In  warm  lands  several  kinds  of  ants,  such  as  the 
agricultural  ant  (q.v. )  of  Texas,  rear,  harvest, 
and  store  grain.  The  Texan  species  is  Pogoniyr- 
me.x  barbatus.  Some  ants,  studied  by  Belt  in  Nic- 
aragua and  by  Bates  in  Brazil,  accumulate  bits 
of  leaves  within  their  caverns  or  line  the  walls 
with  them.  On  the  leaf-bits  a  fungus  gi-ows,  or 
is  planted,  which  serves  the  ants  as  food.  While 
often  very  destructive  to  crops  and  stored  su])- 
plies,  ants  such  as  the  hunting-ants  of  South 
America,  or  the  driver-ants  of  Africa,  are  useful 
scavengers;  for  not  a  bedbug,  booklouse,  moth, 
cockroach,  niou.se  or  rat  is  overlooked  by  their 
myriad  niunbers.  See  DRI^■ER  Ant;  Foraging 
Ant  ;  Leaf-cutting  Ant,  and  Sauba  Ant. 

Nests  and  Nest  Building.  In  tlieir  nest 
building  ants  ditl'er  from  all  other  social  Hymen- 
optera. The  nests  or  combs  of  bees  are  divided 
into  even  compartments  or  cells,  whose  walls  are 
made  of  wax,  while  those  of  social  wasps  are 
built  of  a  papery  pulp,  derived  from  masticated 
weather-worn  \\ood.  In  each  cell  one  egg  is  laid 
and  one  individual  is  reared.  The  young  of  ants, 
on  the  other  hand,  are  kept  in  heaps  and  moved 
about  fiom  one  part  of  the  nest  to  the  other  as 
conditions  of  temperature  and  moisture  demand. 


ANT 


1.  COLONY-NEST    OF   THE    BLACK   ANT(Laslus  niger)  .  5-6.  PUP/t   OF    BLACK    ANT. 

2.  LARVA    OF    BLACK    ANT,    front  and    rear   view    (en-  7.  WORKER    OF    THE    SMALLER    KIND. 

larged).  8.  LARGER    WORKER    OR    "SOLDIER." 

3.  WINGED    MALE    OF    BLACK    ANT.  9.  HONEY    ANT,  distended  with   stored   honey. 

4.  FEMALE    (QUEEN)    OF    BLACK    ANT  10.  CELLS   OF    BLACK    ANT'S    NEST,  enlarged;    feeding 


ANT. 

Tlie  nests  are  composed  of  a  variable  number  of 
chambers,  of  irregular  shape,  connected  by  gal- 
leries. They  are  excavated  in  the  ground,  often 
under  the  shelter  of  a  stoue,  or  in  rotting  or  liv- 
ing trees,  shrubs  or  herbs.  Those  chambers  and 
galleries  excavated  in  the  earth  extend  a  consid- 
erable distance  down  to  the  region  of  constant 
moisture.  !Some  of  the  saiiija  or  saliva  ants  of 
South  America  can  cross  wide  rivers  by  tunneling 
under  the  river-beds.  Xot  infrequently  the  nests 
are  carried  above  the  level  of  the  ground  by 
means  of  earth  heaped  up  and  often  cemented  to- 
gether. Some  ant-hills  are.  thatched  by  bits  of 
herbage.  In  South  America  ant-hills  often  ex- 
ceed the  height  of  man.  Some  ants  tunnel  out 
homes  in  the  trunks  of  trees,  others  burrow  in  the 
thorns  or  petioles  of  leaves.  Certain  ants  make 
homes  by  bending  leaves  in  circles.  The  adult 
ants  cannot  produce  cement,  so  the  larvic  nearly 
ready  for  the  cocoon  stage  are  utilized.  Some  of 
the  workers  hold  the  bent  edges  of  the  leaves  in 
place,  while  others  bring  up  the  larvfE,  whose 
heads  they  dab  back  and  forth  over  the  edges  of 
the  leaves  so  as  to  bind  them  together  with  silk. 

Symbiosis.  Although  certain  ants  are  very 
destructive  to  vegetation,  the  relationship  be- 
tween ants  and  certain  plants  is  sometimes  one  of 
mutual  advantage,  a  symbiotic  one.  Thus,  in 
South  America,  there  is  a  small  acacia  known  as 
the  bull's-horn  thorn,  on  account  of  the  paired, 
horn-shapeil  tliorns  l)orne  on  the  tree.  While  the 
thorns  are  still  young  the  ant  jjierces  a  hole  in 
the  tip  of  one  of  them  and  then  makes  its  way 
lljrough  the  thorn  to  tlu'  base,  where  it  tunnels 
into  the  other  thorn.  Within  the  thorns  there  is 
a  sweet  pul])  eaten  by  the  ants.  Those  thorns 
that  are  not  entered  bj-  the  ants  shrivel  and  fall 
oil'.  At  the  base  of  each  young  bipinnate  leaflet 
on  this  same  tree  there  is  a  honey-secreting  gland, 
and  at  the  tip  a  minute,  pear-shaped  fruit.  The 
fruit  does  not  all  ripen  at  the  same  time;  hence 
(he  ants  (I'seudomyrma)  are  kept  continually 
running  over  the  tender  foliage  in  search  of  edi- 
ble stages.  \\'lien  the  tree  is  disturbed,  the  ants 
swarm  out  of  their  nests  in  the  thorns,  and  by 
their  severe  sting  drive  off  intruders,  such  as 
caterpillars  and  even  vertebrates.  But  they  are 
most  valuable  to  the  tree  in  warding  otV  the  leaf- 
cutting  ants  that  in  a  few  hours  can  defoliate  a 
tree.  In  the  leaf  petioles  of  another  plant  (Mel- 
astoma)  there  are  two  pouches.  In  Ihese  ants 
find  homes,  and,  in  return,  they  keep  oft'  the  leaf- 
cutting  ants  and  foliage-eating  foes.  The  young, 
tender  leaves  of  certain  orchids  and  passion-flow- 
ers have  honey-glands  visited  by  ants  to  the  ex- 
clusion of  all  marauders. 

Eel.vtioxs  of  Differext  Species  to  One  An- 
other. Almost  all  kinds  of  ants  carry  off  the 
larva-  and  pup*  of  other  kinds  of  ants  for  food. 
At  times,  doubtless,  more  are  taken  than  can  be 
consumed;  hence  some  of  the  captives  come  to 
maturity  in  the  foreign  nest.  Perhaps  in  some 
such  way  as  this,  out  of  the  instinct  of  the  rob- 
ber ant  arose  that  of  the  slave-making  ant. 
Slave-making  ants,  which  are  lighter  in  color 
than  their  captives,  go  forth  in  armies,  attack  the 
nests  of  the  black  ants,  and  carry  away  the  larvoe 
and  pupae.  These  they  bring  up  to  act  as  ser- 
vants or  slaves.  In  some  cases  the  warriors  are 
structurally  unable  to  take  food,  and  hence  are 
wholly  dependent  on  their  faithful  domestics, 
who  collect  the  food  and  actually  jMit  it  in  the 
mouths  of  their  captors.  Other  small  ants  (Sol- 
enopsis)    live   the   lives   of   thieves,   secreted   in 


593 


ANT. 


small  chambers  excavated  in  the  interspaces  be- 
tween the  chambers  of  large  ants.  The  small 
entrances  to  the  small  chambers  will  not  admit 
the  large  ants.  Hence  the  small  thieves  retreat 
in  safety  to  their  lioraes  with  the  young  of  the 
large  ant,  which  they  take  for  food.  VVith  the 
Formica  tufa  a  small  ant  lives,  api)arently,  in 
pcifect  harmony,  ])erhaps  as  a  domestic  pet. 
\Vlien  the  iormic;c  arc  obliged  to  move,  the  small 
forms  go,  too,  tapping  antenna'  with  them,  or 
even  riding  on  the  backs  of  their  hosts.  Many 
mites  (gammasids)  and  other  little  creatures  are 
usually  present  in  ants'  nests,  and  seemingly  on 
terms  of  friendship. 

Intelligence  of  Ants.  Ants  are  sensitive  to 
sound-waves,  even  outside  of  human  range;  they 
are  also  keenlj'  sensitive  to  changes  in  moisture 
and  temperature.  When  a  captive  colony  was 
jjlaced  by  an  experimenter  near  the  fire,  the  heat 
was  so  grateful  to  its  members,  says  he,  that 
"They  embraced  each  other,  and  skipped  and 
danced  like  playful  lambs  or  kittens."  Many 
cases  of  ants  indulging  in  what  seems  to  us  to 
be  sportive  exercise  or  play  are  recorded.  Their 
care  for  the  cleanliness  of  the  glowing  young  and 
the  promptness  with  A\hich  they  remove  the  dead 
and  bury  them  sliows  a  sanitary  instinct.  The 
eiimplete  and  apparently  willing  sujipression  of 
the  individual  for  the  good  of  the  colony  almost 
surpasses  man's  comprehension  of  self-abnegation. 
The  law  of  division  of  labor  rules  among  ants. 
Certain  groups  of  individuals  perform  only  cer- 
tain labors.  Labor-sa^•ing  devices  are  known  to 
ants,  for  groups  of  workers  will  procure  and  drop 
food  or  building  stufl's  to  waiting  companions  be- 
low and  thus  save  nuieh  labor  of  transportation. 
They  show  ingenuity  in  building  bridges,  and  may 
even  span  gaps  by  means  of  a  rope  made  up  of 
their  own  living  bodies  linked  together.  Jlore- 
over,  theie  is  little  doubt  in  the  minds  of  ant- 
observers  that  ants  connnunicate  with  their  fel- 
lows. The  imparting  of  information  seems  to  be 
done  by  means  of  the  antenna",  which  they  cross 
and  rub  together.  They  show  gi-eat  solicitude  for 
injured  and  hel])less  companions.  Information 
relative  to  the  plight  of  unfortunate  members  is 
in  some  way  comnmnicatcil  by  the  discoverer  to 
others,  and  a  rush  is  made  to  the  rescue.  Fallen 
dt'bris  is  removed  from  the  partially  buried  one, 
or  the  wayfarer  is  lifted  out  of  pitfalls.  Ants 
are  able  to  recognize  tlie  myriads  of  members  of 
their  own  colony,  including  their  slaves,  and  even 
those  that  have  been  taken  away  in  infancy.  All 
these  facts  and  many  others  convince  us  that  ants 
in  some  manner  communicate  with  their  com- 
panions. Otherwise,  how  are  the  discovery  and 
the  whcrealjouts  of  food  too  large  for  removal  by 
one  made  known  to  the  others ;  how  is  the  intel- 
ligence of  a  mishap  to  a  luckless  companion  and 
the  necessity  for  aid  communic.ited  by  the  discov- 
erer to  others;  or  how  -ire  cannibalistic  and  slave- 
making  wars  so  managed  that  the  whole  fighting 
comuuinity  is  ready  to  go  out  simultaneously? 

Oeolocic.\l  Antiqitty.  Geologically,  ants  arc 
among  the  earliest  Hymenontera.  In  Tertiary 
times  they  were,  perhaps,  the  most  abundant  of 
all  the  insects,  and  thousands  of  ancient  speci- 
mens have  been  found  in  amber. 

BiBLioGR.^PHT.  Mayr,  "Die  Formiciden  der 
.  .  .  Nordamcrika,"  I'eWiaHrf/iow/ (/(■/■  Zoo/of/i.sr/ic(i 
Botanisclieii  (J csellschaf t  (Vienna,  188U,  pp.  41y- 
4(U)  ;  Emery,  "Nordamerikanische  Anieisen- 
fauna,"  Zooloqisches  Jahrhuch.  Volume  VII  pp 
633-82;  Volume  VIII.,  pp.  257-300   (Jena,  18'J.l- 


ANT. 


594 


ANTAB. 


■05).  Consult:  Lubbock,  Ants,  Bees  and  Wasps 
(New  York,  1894)  ;  White,  Avts  and  Their  Ways 
(London,  188;{).  For  ants  of  the  tropics,  Wallace, 
Tropical  Xature  (London,  1878)  ;  Bates,  A  Xatu- 
ralist  on  the  Amazon  (Xew  York,  1880)  ;  Belt, 
A  Naturalist  in  Xicaragua  (London,  1888)  ;  Mc- 
Cook,  The  AyriciiUural  Ant  of  Texas  (Philadel- 
phia, 1879).  See  Insects;  Aphids;  Instinct, 
and  the  names  of  various  ants.  Compare  Tee- 
mite. 

ANTACIDS,  ant-as'idz  {ant  or  anti -\- acid) . 
Drugs  wliich  are  emploj-ed  to  diminish  or  correct 
abnormal  acidity  in  the  digestive  tract  or  the 
various  secretions  of  other  organs.  Those  which 
unite  directly  with  free  acid  in  the  stomach  or 
intestines  are  kno'wn  as  direct  antacids.  Ex- 
amples of  this  class  are  ammonia  and  its  carbon- 
ate. Remote  antacids,  such  as  the  acetates,  cit- 
rates, and  tartrates  of  the  alkalies,  act  by  being 
changed  into  carbonates,  and  tlius  increasing  the 
alkalinity  of  the  blood,  which  in  turn  diminishes 
the  acidity  of  the  urine.  Some  drugs,  for  ex- 
ample, the  carbonates  or  bicarbonates  of  sodium, 
potassium,  calcium,  magnesium,  and  lithium  act 
as  direct  and  also  as  remote  antacids.  The  direct 
antacids  are  given  after  meals  to  neutralize  an 
excess  of  the  natural  lactic  acid  of  the  stomach 
and  other  acids  resulting  from  fermentation  of 
food.  Given  before  meals,  they  cause  an  increase 
of  the  acidity  of  the  stomach  contents  by  increas- 
ing the  secretion  of  gastric  juice.  The  remote 
antacids  are  largely  employed  in  the  treatment 
of  rheumatism  and  gout. 

AN'T.ffi.     See  Pilaster. 

ANT.a;'US  (Gk.  'kvTaln^,  Antaios) .  A  fig- 
ure in  legends  of  the  Greek  colonies  in  Africa,  at 
first  located  near  Cyrene,  finally  in  ilaurctania. 
His  story  is  largely  made  up  of  borrowings  from 
earlier  legends.  In  the  popular  version  he  was 
a  giant,  son  of  Poseidon  and  Ge,  who  compelled 
all  strangers  to  wrestle.  When  he  was  thrown, 
lie  received  fresh  stiength  from  touching  his 
mother.  Earth.  With  the  skulls  of  those  he  con- 
quered, he  built  a  temple  to  his  father.  He 
was  invincible  until  Hercules  discovered  the 
source  of  his  power  and  Idllcd  liim  by  lifting  him 
into  the  air  and  strangling  him.  Later  Greek 
writers  attempted  to  localize  the  myth  in  a  city 
of  Upper  Egypt  called  Antceopolis  (Egyptian 
name,  Duhmi :  Coptic,  Than). 

ANTAKIYEH,  lin'ta-ke'ya.     See  Antioch. 

ANTAL'CIDAS  (Gk.  'AyTnAKli^a^,Antnlh-idas) . 
A  Spartan  statesman,  son  of  Leon.  Toward  the 
end  of  the  year  .S93  B.C.,  he  was  sent  by  his  gov- 
ernment to  Tiribazus.  the  Persian  satrap  at  Sar- 
dis,  to  break  up  the  understanding  which  then 
existed  between  Athens  and  Persia.  He  succeed- 
ed by  agreeing  to  the  Persian  demand  that  Sparta 
should  recognize  the  Persian  supremacy  over  the 
Grecian  cities  in  .\sia  ilinor.  This  arrangement 
did  not  meet  with  the  approval  of  King  .\rta- 
xer.xes,  and  the  satrap  was  accordingly'  recalled. 
Shortly  after,  however,  in  388  B.C.,  the  King  re- 
stored Tiribazus,  and  thereby  gave  evidence  of 
his  inclination  toward  the  Spartans.  Antalcidas 
was  once  more  sent  to  .4sia  to  treat  with  the 
Persian  power,  this  time  as  admiral  of  the 
Spartan  fleet.  He  accompanied  the  satraj)  to  the 
Persian  court,  was  well  received,  and  succeeded 
in  coming  to  an  understanding  with  the  King  on 
the  basis  of  the  terras  previously  agreed  upon. 
Antalcidas  returned  to  his  fleet,  freed  it  from 


the  blockade  of  the  Athenians,  and  shut  out  the 
Athenians  in  their  turn  from  the  .-Egean  Sea. 
He  was  now  in  a  position  to  compel  the  accept- 
ance of  terms.  The  peace  that  followed  was 
called  "The  Peace  of  .\ntalcidas."  In  the  winter 
of  387-38(5  B.C.,  representatives  of  the  Greek 
states  assembled  at  Sardis,  wheie  the  terms  of 
the  peace  were  read.  The  final  ratification  took 
place  at  Sparta  in  380  B.C.  The  terms  of  the 
peace  were  as  follows:  (1)  That  all  the  Greek 
towns  on  the  mainland  of  Asia  ilinor,  together 
with  the  islands  Clazomen;B  and  Cyprus,  should 
remain  under  the  protection  of  the  Persian  King. 
(2)  That  all  other  Greek  towns,  large  and  small, 
should  be  independent:  but  that  the  islands  of 
Lemnos,  Imbros,  and  Scyros  should,  as  of  old, 
belong  to  Athens.  (3)  That  war  should  be  de- 
clared against  any  State  that  refused  to  accept 
these  terms.  In  370-309  B.C.,  we  find  Antalcidas 
Ephor  at  Sparta.  In  372  b.c,  lu'  went  for  the 
third  time  to  treat  with  the  Persians,  but  after 
the  battle  of  Leuctra  (371  B.C.),  he  lost  favor  in 
that  quarter,  and  is  said  to  have  starved  himself 
to  diadi  as  a  result  of  his  chagrin. 

ANT'ANACLA'SIS  (Gk.  nrri.  anti,  against 
-\-  (ivaK/.dv,  anallan,  to  bend  back).  In  rhetoric, 
a  figure  in  which  a  word  is  repeated  in  a  sense 
different  from  its  first  use,  to  give  additional 
force  to  the  expression;  as  the  remark  of  Ben- 
jamin Franklin  when  he  was  about  to  sign  the 
declaration  of  American  independence:  "We  must 
all  hang  together  or  we  shall  assuredly  all  hang 
separately." 

ANTANANARIVO,  an'ta-nil'na-re'vo,  or 
TANANARIVO.  The  capital  of  Madagascar, 
and  tavorably  situated  in  the  centre  of  the 
island,  at  an  elevation  of  over  4000  feet 
(ilap:  Africa,  J  6).  It  is  built  chiefly  of  wood, 
with  irregular  streets,  and  the  most  prominent 
building  is  the  royal  palace,  situated  on  the  sum. 
mit  of  a  hill.  Its  commerce,  owing  to  its  inland 
position  and  the  inadequate  transportation  facil- 
ities, is  not  very  extensive,  but  it  has  a  consid- 
erable number  of  industrial  estal)lishments.  The 
population,  including  the  suburbs,  is  estimated 
at  100,000,  of  whicli  only  about  200  are  Eur.i- 
peans,  chiefly  French.  The  natives  show  in  their 
manners,  as  well  as  in  their  mode  of  life,  the 
influence  of  European  civilization. 

ANTAB,  an'tar,  or  ANTABA,  .in'ta-ra,  ibn 
Shaudau  .\l-.\bsi.  a  celebrated  .\rabic  hero  of 
the  seventh  century,  and  one  of  the  famous  pre- 
Islamic  poets  of  Arabia.  His  mother  was  a  black 
slave,  Seliba,  arid  as  the  son  of  a  slave  he  was 
also  regarded  as  a  slave,  and  obliged  to  render 
menial  services  to  the  members  of  his  tribe. 
Tliroiigh  his  warlike  exploits,  however,  he  se- 
cured not  only  his  freedom,  but  a  prominent 
position  in  his  tribe.  He  died  as  a  hero  in 
battle.  While  neither  the  date  of  his  birth  nor 
of  his  death  is  known,  he  appears  to  have  died 
shortly  before  the  appearance  of  Jlohammed,  in 
tlie  early  part  of  the  seventh  century.  He  gained 
equal  fame  among  the  Arabs  as  a  poet  and  as 
a  hero.  Of  his  poetical  achievements,  however, 
onlv  one  specimen  has  come  down  to  us,  which 
recounts  his  deeds,  and  sings  of  his  love  for  Abla, 
whom  he  married.  This  poem  is  generally  in- 
cluded in  the  collection  of  the  choicest  seven 
Arabic  poems,  known  as  the  Mnallakat — a 
name  whicli  describes  those  poems  as  "the  exalted 
ones."  A  recent  edition  of  the  Arabic  text  is  by 
L.   Abel,    Worterverzeichnisse   zur  altarahischen 


COPYRIGHT,  1&02,  BY  DO00>MEAD  A  COMPANY. 


ANTAR.  595 

Pocsic  I.  (Beilin,  1891)  :  an  English  tvanslation 
by  Johnson  in  Seven  Arabic  Poems  (London, 
ISfl").  Such  was  Antar's  renown  as  a  warrior 
that  he  becomes  the  prototype  of  tlie  hero  in  the 
romantic  literature  of  the  Arabs.  He  is  the 
central  figure  in  the  most  famous  of  Arab  ro- 
mances, which  bears  the  name  Antar  and  is 
connnonly  ascribed  to  Al-AsuiaM,  who  lived  in 
the  eighth  century.  The  romance  of  Antar, 
however,  as  known  to  us,  is  a  compilation  which 
has  passed  through  various  hands,  and  has  grad- 
ually grown  to  huge  proportions.  It  gives  an 
attractive  and  faithful  picture  of  Bedouin  life, 
and  is  rich  in  epic  interest,  although  too  monot- 
onous to  satisfy  the  taste  of  the  European  read- 
er. A  translation  of  a  portion  of  it  into  English 
was  made  by  Hamilton  in  1S20  {Aniar:  A  Bed- 
ouin h'omanrc.  4  volumes.  London).  A  Diuan  or 
collection  of  'iS  pfens  is  also  attributed  to  him. 
The  memory  of  Antar  is  also  preserved  in  various 
])hK'es  of  the  East  which  bear  his  name.  Con- 
sult Goldziher,  Globus  Ixiv.,  65,  67,  and  Thor- 
beckc,  Aniarah  (Leipzig,  1867).  The  text  has 
been  published  at  TJeirut  and  Cairo. 

ANTAKC'TIC  CUR'RENT,  Lands;  Ocean. 
See  A.NTAitcTK-  Regiox. 

ANTARCTIC  RE'GION  (Gk.  arri,  anti, 
against,  opposite  +  upitrog,  arktos,  bear,  Ursa 
JIajor.  the  north).  The  name  applied  to  that 
portion  of  our  earth's  surface  which  encircles  the 
South  Pole.  Technically  and  astronoinically  it 
is  boimded  by  the  Antarctic  Circle,  and  although 
the  Antarctic  land  masses  do  not  extend  much 
farther  equator\\ard  than  this,  yet  the  Antarctic 
inlluences  extend  to  very  much  lower  latitudes, 
the  solid  ice  fields  drifting  on  nearly  all  sides 
below  lat.  60°  S.,  and  between  the  southern  ex- 
tremities of  Africa  and  South  America  even 
below  lat.  50°  S.  The  limit  of  this  drift  ice 
may  be  taken  as  the  limit  of  the  Antarctic 
region,  although  the  drifting  icebergs  descend 
more  than  10°  of  latitude  lower.  Thus,  the  Ant- 
arctic region  is  bounded  by  the  Atlantic,  Pacific, 
and  Indian  oceans.  The  so-called  Antarctic  con- 
tinent lies,  however,  in  the  region  of  the  Antarc- 
tic circle.  It  is  included  in  the  triangle  indi- 
cated by  Wilkes  Land  (Victoria  Land),  and 
Enderby  Land,  in  the  Eastern  Hemisphere,  and 
Graham  Land  in  the  Western  Hemisphere. 
That  all  this  area  is  filled  in  with  land  is  by  no 
means  certain:  only  sections  of  coast  line  have 
been  seen:  no  explorer  has  penetrated  into  the 
interior.  That  these  three  bits  of  coast  may  be 
parts  of  large  isolated  islands  or  archipelagoes 
is  possible.  Some  of  the  evidence  which  has  led 
explorers  to  believe  that  a  continent  exists  will 
be  found  below.  Of  these  lands  the  most  exten- 
sive are  Wilkes  Land  and  Graham  Land.  The 
outer  edge  of  the  former  lies  just  below  the 
Antarctic  Circle,  to  the  southwa_rd  of  .\ustralia, 
ajid  extends  along  over  70°  of  longitude:  but  on 
its  eastern  end,  between  long.  160°  and 
170°,  the  coast  line,  which  to  the  west  of  it  has 
been  nearly  east  and  west,  makes  a  bend  at  right 
angles  toward  the  south.  This  reentering  stretch 
of  coast  has  been  explored  to  almost  lat.  80°  S., 
and  given  the  name  of  Victoria  Land.  It  is  on 
this  land  tliat  the  south  magnetic  pole  is  located. 

From  about  long.  170°  E.  to  about  long.  120° 
W,  there  is  a  deep  emba^Tiient  in  the  continental 
land,  and  it  is  within  this  ice-bound  water  region 
that  the  highest  southern  latitude  has  been  at- 
tained.    There  is  perhaps — but  this  is  doubted 


ANTARCTIC  REGION. 


by  certain  authorities — an  extensive  land  area  at 
about  long.  110°  W.  Between  long.  75°  and 
55°  W.  (in  lat.  65°  to  68°  S.),  the  second  great 
known  area  of  Antarctic  land,  Graham  Land,  is 
found.  Between  these  areas,  and  on  the  border 
of  the  ice  pack,  islands  of  considerable  size  have 
been  discovered,  and  north  of  Graham  Land  sue- 
cessivegroupsof  islandsextend  almost  to  the  six- 
tieth parallel.  Between  Graham  Land  and  En- 
derby  Land,  the  ocean  again  penetrates  deep  into 
the  triangle.  Vessels  have  in  two  instances  pen- 
etrated the  region  to  the  east  of  Graham  Land, 
in  one  case  beyond  the  seventy-fourth  parallel. 
The  remoteness  of  the  Antarctic  from  the  en- 
lightened nations  of  the  northern  hemisphere  has 
prevented  its  exploration  to  the  same  extent  as 
the  north  polar  regions.  Cooke  ( 1773-76)  .Bellings- 
hausen (1821),  Wcddell  (1823),  Ross  (1842), 
Wilkes  (1840),  d'Urville  (1840),  the  Challen'/er 
expedition  (1874).  de  Gerlache  (1897-08),  and 
Borchgrevinck  (1890-1900)  have  been  the  chief 
explorers  of  this  region,  but  it  has  also  been  visit- 
ed by  many  whalers.  Ross  reached  a  latitude  of, 
approximately,  78°  10'  S.  in  1842,  and  Borchgre- 
vinck by  a  "dash"  over  the  "ice-barrier''  in  1900 
reached  78°  50'.  Since  the  beginning  of  the  new 
century,  German,  British,  Swedish,  Norwegian, 
and  Belgian  exploring  expeditions  have  been  fur- 
ther investigating  both  the  Antarctic  lands  and 
the  waters  in  a  more  systematic  manner  than 
had  been  previously  undertaken. 

Antarctic  Lands.  The  islands  and  continent 
surrounding  the  South  Pole  of  the  earth.  Re- 
ports of  recent  explorations  in  the  Antarctic 
region  have  served  as  foundations  for  an  hy- 
pothesis that  there  nuist  be  a  considerable  con- 
tinent about  the  South  Pole.  The  outer  edges  of 
this  land  have  been  found  accessible  at  a  few 
points,  and*  it  seems  to  be  bordered  by  nuTuerous 
low  island  masses.  Of  the  topography,  little  is 
known.  Ross  in  1842  found  that  Victoria  Land 
was  crossed  by  mountain  ranges,  which  included 
volcanic  peaks  from  7000  to  15.000  feet  in  height, 
and  Mount  Erebus  was  even  then  in  active  erup- 
tion. Other  active  volcanoes  to  the  south  of 
Cape  Horn  were  found  and  visited  by  Larsen  in 
1895.  Fragments  of  continental  rocks,  such  as 
granite,  gneiss,  schist,  and  sandstones,  dredged 
up  by  various  expeditions,  the  discovery  by  Lar- 
sen of  fossil  coniferous  wood  on  Seymour  Island, 
and  molluscan  shells  closely  resembling  lower 
Tertiary  forms  that  occur  in  Patagonia,  as  also 
the  characteristic  form  and  structure  of  the  Ant- 
arctic icebergs  and  the  general  slope  of  the 
oceanic  floor — all  indicate  the  existence  of  ex- 
tensive land  areas  around  the  South  Pole.  These 
lands,  however,  are  buried  beneath  ice  sheets  of 
great  thickness.  Long  stretches  of  the  coast  are 
bordered  by  the  fronts  of  glaciers,  and  great 
tongues  of  ice  are  projected,  sometimes  for  many 
miles,  into  the  sea.  Ross  sailed  for  about  four 
hundred  and  fifty  miles  along  a  wall  of  ice  more 
than  two  hundred  feet  high:  either  the  sid^  or 
the  face  of  a  glacier.  Where  the  lands  are  bor- 
dered by  high  mountains,  the  front  of  the  ice 
cover  is  only  10  to  20  feet  high,  and  in  many 
places  no  land  ice  comes  down  to  the  shore:  at 
Cape  Adare,  for  example,  a  pebbly  beach  was 
found,  and  the  Belgica  expedition  (1898)  made 
twenty  landings  on  bare  rocks.  The  area  of  this 
Antarctic  continent,  supposing  it  to  include  Vic- 
toria Land,  Wilkes  Land,  Kemp  Land.  Enderby 
Land,  Graham  Land,  and  Alexander  I.  Land,  has 
been  roughly  estimated  at  nearly  4,000,000  square 


ANTARCTIC  REGION. 


596 


ANT-EATER. 


miles,  an  area  greater  than  that  of  Australia. 
On  the  Antarctic  lands  mosses  and  lichens  were 
found,  but  the  only  flower-bearing  plant  was  a 
grass  of  the  genus  Aira.  A  small  form  of  fly, 
a  Podurella,  and  three  or  four  species  of  mites, 
represent  the  land  fauna.  Racovitza  inclines  to 
the  opinion  that  the  former  Antarctic  land  fauna 
was  destroyed  during  the  great  glacial  period. 

Antarctic  Ocean"  The  name  Antarctic  Ocean 
is  given  to  the  sea  waters  lying  within  the  Ant- 
arctic regions,  and  since  the  great  continents 
do  not  extend  so  far  south  as  the  assumed  limits 
of  the  Antarctic  regions,  this  ocean  has  no  otit- 
side  continental  land  boundaries,  and  its  waters 
merely  mingle  with  those  of  the  Pacific,  the 
Indian,  and  .Atlantic  oceans  without  any  signifi- 
cant lines  of  separation.  Between  the  latitude 
of  Cape  Horn  and  the  Antarctic  lands  the  whole 
circumference  of  the  globe  presents  an  unbroken 
expanse  of  waters,  save  for  a  few  islands  here 
and  there.  The  floor  of  the  Antarctic  gradually 
shoals  from  the  middle  latitude  depths  toward 
the  South  Pole.  There  are  some  embayments 
running  toward  the  Pole  which  show  depths  of 
two  to  three  thousand  fathoms,  which  equal 
the  depths  on  the  outer  boundary:  but  the 
results  of  soundings  by  the  BcJgica  expedition 
in  1898  and  of  a  study  of  the  currents  seem 
to  show  that  the  various  land  areas  now  grouped 
together  and  called  the  outer  edge  of  the  Ant- 
arctic continent  rise  up  from  broad  shallows  or 
elevated  plateaus  about  two  to  five  hundred  feet 
below  the  surface  of  the  ocean.  In  general,  at 
lat.  60°  S.,  the  waters  of  the  Antarctic  Ocean 
have  an  average  annual  temperature  at  the  sur- 
face of  29°. 8  F.,  which  is  warmer  than  the  aver- 
age temperature  of  the  air  in  the  same  latitude 
(28°. 7  F.).  At  great  depths  and  near  the  ocean 
floor  the  water  temperature  is  between  32°  F. 
and  35°  F.,  but  between  these  depths  and  the 
surface  there  is  usually  found  a  wedge-shaped 
layer  of  water  with  a  temperature  varying  from 
28°  F.  to  32°  F. 

The  Antarctic  drift  is  mainly  from  the  west 
on  the  outer  border  and  from  the  southwest  and 
south  at  the  interior  of  the  Antarctic  region. 
There  are  two  great  Antarctic  currents:  one 
crosses  the  Antarctic  circle  toward  the  north, 
between  long.  120°  and  long.  140°  W.,  but 
swerves  toward  the  east  in  lat,  50°,  and  near 
the  South  American  continent  separates,  part 
going  northward  past  Peru,  and  part  preserving 
its  eastward  movement  jiast  Cape  Horn,  whence 
it  returns  to  the  Antarctic  between  long.  (iO°  E. 
and  80°  E. :  the  other  eunent  crosses  the 
Antarctic  Circle,  going  north  between  long.  80° 
and  long.  100°  E.,  and  swerves  to  the  eastward, 
forming  the  west  Australian  current.  The  floor 
deposits  of  the  ocean  are.  in  the  outer  region, 
globigerina  ooze,  along  and  for  some  distance 
within  the  Antarctic  Circle  terrigenous  deposits 
of  blue  mud,  etc..  and  in  the  interior  region 
immediately  surrounding  the  land,  but  extending 
from  10°  to  20°  from  it.  pteropod  ooze. 

The  waters  are  full  of  life  at  all  depths.  Algte 
are  abundant,  but  pteropods  and  foraminifera 
decrease  in  numbers  as  the  Pole  is  approached. 
The  deep  sea  fauna  is  richer  than  that  of  any 
other  region  visited  by  the  Chaflenfier  in  its 
voyage  of  exploration.  A  small  whalebone  whale, 
the  grampus,  the  pilot  whale,  seal,  penguins, 
skua,  and  teal  all  live  in  the  Antarctic  or  on  its 
shores.  Fish  have  not  been  found  in  large  n\im- 
bers,  but  must  be  somewhat  abundant,  as  their 


remains  are  found  in  the  stomachs  of  the  pen- 
guins and  seals.  Nq  traces  of  land  mammals 
have  ever  been  found  on  the  Antarctic  shores. 

The  winds  at  the  interior  of  the  Antarctic 
region  are  probably  directed  spirally  outward 
from  the  polar  centre,  so  that  they  blow  as  south- 
east winds:  but  on  the  outer  border  winds  are 
generally  from  the  west,  perhaps  mostly  from  the 
northwest,  rather  than  from  the  southwest.  The 
annual  precipitation  immediately  around  the 
South  Pole  is  probably  less  than"  10  inches,  but 
this  increases  to  about  25  inches  on  the  outer 
boundary  of  the  Antarctic  continental  lands,  from 
^vhence  there  is  probably  a  poleward  decrease. 
The  average  summer  temperatures  are  below  30° 
F.  within  most  of  the  Antarctic  Circle:  this  is 
the  lowest  summer  temperature  observed  on  the 
surface  of  the  globe.  It  may  be  that  the  Antarc- 
tic winters  are  not  so  cold  as  file  Arctic  winters, 
on  account  of  the  great  expanse  of  water  encir- 
cling tlie  Antarctic  land-masses,  but  it  is  more 
likely  that  there  is  little  difference  in  the  winter 
temperatures  near  the  two  poles.  The  lowest  win- 
ter temperature  observed  in  lat.  70°  S.  was  about 
— 45°  F.  During  a  year  in  lat.  70°  and  lower,  the 
Behiica  experienced  257  days  with  snowfall  and 
14  days  of  rain. 

BiBLioGRAPHy.  JIurray.  "Antarctic  Research." 
Geographical  Journal,  Volume  III.  (London, 
1894)  ;  Fricker,  The  Antarctic  Regions  (London, 
1900)  ;  Cook,  Through  the  First  Antarctic  \ight 
(Xew  York,  1900).  For  history  of  Antarctic 
exploration,  .see  Polar  Eeseabch,  paragraph  on 
Antarctic  Explorations. 

ANTARESV  .an-ta'rez  (Gk. 'Ai'ra/jj/f,  Antares, 
like  .\res.  or  ]\Iars;  from  av-i,  anti,  against,  op- 
posite, compared  with  -f  'ApTjC.  Ares,  Mars).  A 
red  star,  thought  bj'  the  ancients  to  resemble 
liars  (q.v.).  It  is  a  double  star,  and  the  most 
conspicuous  in  the  constellation  Scorpio.  Anta- 
res  is  often  of  use  to  navigators  in  finding  lon- 
gitude. 

ANT'-BEAR'.     The  great  ant-eater. 

ANT-BIRD,  Ant-Catcher,  Ant-Thrush,  etc. 
See  AxT  Shrike. 

ANT'-EAT'ER.  Any  of  various  ant-eating 
manuiials.  especially  those  of  the  South  Ameri- 
can Edentate  family  Myrmecophagidoe.  The 
head  in  this  family  is  remarkably  elongated,  with 
a  slender,  tubular  muzzle,  and  a  small,  toothless 
mouth,  with  a  long,  vermiform,  protrusile  tongue. 
The  eyes  and  ears  are  very  small.  The  legs  are 
massive,  and  the  toes  united  as  far  as  the  base  of 
the  claws,  which  are  very  large  and  strong,  and 
are  turned  under  the  fore-feet  as  the  animal 
walks.  The  great  ant-eater,  tamanoir.  or  ant- 
hear  i Mgnnecopliaga  juiata) ,  a  native  of  the 
tropical  forests  of  South  America,  is  about  2 
feet  high  and  4  feet  long  -nithout  the  tail,  which 
is  2^4  feet  long.  The  compressed  body  is  covered 
with  long  hair, 'gray,  strikingly  marked  by  a 
black  breast-band,  which  narrows  back  to  the 
top  of  the  shoulders,  while  the  fore-legs  and 
feet,  are  white.  The  hair  is  especially  long  upon 
the  back  and  tail,  which  can  be  curled  over  the 
l>cick,  and  is  said  to  be  held  there  as  a  shield 
during  rain.  The  animal  dwells  in  the  dense 
forest,  but  is  wholly  terrestrial  and  does  not  bur- 
row. It  is  timid,  slow,  and  inotTensive,  but  at 
bay  is  able  to  defend  itself  cflTcctively  by  means 
of  its  long  fore-claws,  with  which  it  hugs  and 
tears  its  enemy.  These  powerful  claws  are  of 
service  in  tearing  down  the  hills  of  the  termites 


ANT-FATERS     AND     ARMADILLOS 


^-"^r 


-^^- 


J- pRf  AT    ANT-EATER    (Myrmeoophaga  Jubata).  4-5.  THREE-BANDED   ARMADILLO    (Tolypeutes    trlcinc- 

2.  LESSER    ANT-EATER    (Tamandua  tetradactyla).  tus);    walking  and   rolled   up. 

d.  TWO-TOED   ANT-EATER    (Cycloturus  didactylus).  6.  PICHICIAGO    (Chlamydophoru3    truncatus) 

7.  AARD-VARK  (Orycteropus  afra). 


ANT-EATER. 


597 


ANTELOPE. 


and  ants,  upon  wliicU  it  principally  subsists. 
These  are  tal^en  by  means  of  tlic  long  tongue, 
whieli  is  covered  with  a  sticky  secretion  from 
great  salivary  glands;  this  tongue  is  thrust 
among  the  disturbed  ants  or  laid  in  their  path, 
and,  when  a  number  liave  adhered  to  it,  is  drawn 
into  the  mouth. 

Oiilyone  young  one  is  said  to  beproduced  annu- 
allv.  so  that  the  creature  is  nowhere  numerous; 
nor  is  this  to  be  regi'etted,  lor  it  has  few.  if  any, 
(pialities  to  reconnnend  it  to  man's  attention. 
Another  species,  the  tamandua  ('l\imandua  Irtra- 
diicli/la ) ,  is  much  smaller,  has  a  shorter  head  and 
short,  bristly  hair,  and  a  slender,  prehensile  tail; 
its  body  is  black,  while  the  head,  neck, 
fore-limbs,  and  hind-quarters  are  yellowish-white 
— a  strange  dress,  varying  a  good  deal  among 
individuals.  It  also  dwells  in  the  equatorial  for- 
est of  America,  but  is  wholly  arboreal,  seeking 
its  insect  food  and  making  its  homo  in  trees.  A 
third  species,  the  little,  or  two-toed,  ant-eater 
{Cydoturus  didaclijJus) ,  is  not  larger  than  a  I'at, 
is  clothed  in  silky  fur,  and  dwells  altogether  in 
trees,  for  which  its  long,  prehensile  tail  and 
curious  feet  have  become  especially  modified;  an- 
other species  inhabits  Costa  Rica.  For  portraits 
of  the  three  species  mentioned  above,  see  plate  of 
A.\t-Eaters. 

Other  animals  called  ant-eaters  are:  (1)  The 
manids,  or  scaly  ant-eaters.  (See  Manis.) 
(2)  The  aard-vark  (q.v.).  (3)  The  porcupine 
ant-eaters,  or  EchidncE.  (See  Echidna.)  (4)  The 
Australian  insectivorous  marsupials  of  the  genus 
Myrmccobius.  as  Myrmccohiiis  fascia tus,  of  West 
.'\ustralia,  about  as  large  as  a  squirrel,  chestnut 
led,  with  white  and  dark  stripes  on  the  back.  It 
has  a  long,  slender  tongue,  like  a  true  ant-eater, 
but  it  has  more  teeth  than  any  otiier  living  mam- 
mal. It  scratches  open  ant-hills  for  its  food. 
(See  plate  of  Phaiangees.)  (5)  Any  of  various 
ant-eating  birds. 

AN'TEDILTJ'VIAN  (Lat.  anic,  before  -f  di- 
luriiiin.  Hood).  A  word  used  to  denote  whatever 
e.xisted  before  the  Flood.  The  antediluvian  ages 
are  those  which  elapsed  before  the  Flood;  and  in 
theological  language,  the  antediluvian  religion 
means  the  religion  of  the  patriarchs  from  Adam 
to  Noah.  In  geologv',  the  antediluvian  period 
had  no  reference  to  the  Deluge  recorded  in  the 
Jlosaic  narrative,  but  signified  only  the  final 
transformation  of  the  earth  by  means  of  water. 
The  terra  is  not  in  current  use  at  the  present 
time. 

AN'TEDON.     See  Crinoidea. 

AN'TEFIX  (Lat.  neut.  pi.  antefixa,  from 
ante,  licfiirc  + /i.T»,s,  fastened,  fixed).  A  terra- 
cotta or  ninvblc  decoration  along  the  edge  of  the 


roof  of  classic  buildings,  covering  the  end  of  the 
TOW'  of  semi-circular  tiles  placed  over  the  joints 


of  the  flat  tiles  on  the  roof.  They  were  upright 
slabs,  usually  decorated  with  a  single  head  or  an 
anthemion,  althoiigh  sometimes  they  were  com- 
posed of  entire  figures  or  even  groups.  The 
Etruscans  developed  this  form  of  roof  ornament 
even  more  than  the  (irceks. 

ANTELAMI,  an'ta-la'me,  Benedetto.  A 
north  Italian  architect  and  sculptor  of  the 
twelfth  ccntur}-;  one  of  the  most  notable  artists 
l)receding  Nicola  i'isano.  His  masti'rpiece  is 
the  baptistery  at  Parma  with  its  numerous  and 
important  sculptures. 

AN'TELOPE  (tJk.  ii'i5o?oi/',  antholops,  a 
horned  animal).  Any  of  many  hollow-horned 
ruminants  forming  a  group  (formerly  esteemed 
the  family  Antilopidic)  within  the  family  Bo- 
vidiE,  and  usually  classified  between  the  cattle 
and  goats.  The  English  word,  in  its  widest  pop- 
ular use,  often  includes  on  the  one  hand  a  group 
lepresented  by  the  chamois  and  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tain goat,  preferably  designated  goat-antelopes  j 
and  on  the  other  tlie  American  antelope  or  prong- 
horn  (q.v.),  which  belongs  to  a  quite  ditferent 
family.  Scientifically,  as  now  restricted  by  R. 
Lydekker  and  recent  students,  the  term  excludes 
these  forms.  The  group  cannot  be  demarked 
from  other  bovines  by  definite  characters,  yet 
as  a  whole  it  is  easily  reco;;nized  by  the  graceful 
build  of  its  members  (exhibited  in  the  accom- 
panying illustrations),  their  short  hair,  lively 
colors,  manner  of  carrying  the  head  uplifted,  and 
the  absence  of  a  goat-like  beard.  '"The  hoi'ns, 
which  ma}'  or  may  not  be  present  in  the  females, 
are  generally  long,  more  or  less  cylindrical,  and 
often  lyrate  in  shape;  while  they  are  frequently 
marked  with  prominent  rings  and  have  an  up- 
right direction.  Their  bony  internal  cores,  in- 
stead of  being  honeycombed,  as  in  the  oxen,  sheep 
and  goats,  are  nearly  solid  throughout.  These 
animals  generally  have  a  gland  beneath  the  eye, 
by  which  they  are  distinguished  from  the  oxen 
and  goats." — (Lydekker).  In  size  they  vary  from 
a  foot  in  height  to  the  bigness  of  a  large  horse. 
Almost  all  are  timid,  peaceable  animals,  with 
small  means  of  defense,  and  trusting  for  safety 
to  the  agility  and  fleetness  in  which  they  excel. 
Most  of  them  inhabit  plains,  and  these  >are  highly 
gregarious;  a  few  are  found  only  in  mountainous 
regions,  while  others  dwell  in  pairs  or  small 
bands  in  Jungles  and  deep  forests.  Paleontolo- 
gists inform  us  that  antelopes  are  the  most 
generalized  members  of  tlic  JJovida'  now  existing, 
and  "since  they  are  also  its  oldest  known  repre- 
sentatives, it  is  probable  that  from  them  have 
been  derived  the  more  specialized  types," — oxen, 
sheep,  goats,  etc. 

Though  now  wholly  restricted  to  Asia  and 
Africa,  the  antelopes  had  formerly  a  wide  dis- 
tribution in  Europe  and  Asia  alone.  Their  dis- 
appearance from  Europe  and  spread  into  Africa 
within  recent  times  (geologically  speaking),  and 
their  enormous  multiplication  there,  form  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  incidents  in  tlie  history  of 
the  mammalia.  When  South  Africa  was  first 
penetrated  by  Europeans,  many  species  were 
ifound  ranging  its  grassy  plains  in  enormous 
herds,  which  formed  the  principal  resource  for 
animal  food  of  the  natives  and  a  great  number 
of  carnivorous  animals.  This  continued  until 
the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  wlien  the 
rapid  spread  of  English  and  Dutch  colonization 
swept  them  away.  Vast  numbers  were  wasted 
by  sportsmen  and  reckless  colonists,  or  were 
killed  for  the  sake  of  their  fiesh  and  hides,  until 


ANTELOPE. 


598 


ANTEQXJEKA. 


now  the  gi-cat  herds  have  disappeared  from  the 
remotest  veldts,  many  species  a  few  j-ears  ago 
numbered  by  tens  of  thousands  are  reduced  to 
scattered  bands,  and  others  have  become  wholly 
extinct.  The  wide  and  rapid  destruction  of 
these  abvmdant,  valuable,  and  beautiful  animals 
can  be  paralleled  elsewhere  only  by  the  swift 
c.\terraination  of  the  American  bison.  Several 
species  are  represented  only  by  small  bands  pre- 
served upon  private  estates. 

Antelopes  fall  into  certain  groups  having  a 
common  resemblance.  These  will  be  outlined 
here,  leaving  the  reader  to  consult  for  details 
the  separate  articles  upon  individual  species,  the 
most  important  of  which  will  be  found  described 
in  their  alphabetical  places.  One  collocation  is 
that  of  the  aiitdopine  gazelles,  including  a  large 
number  of  species  elegantly  shaped  and  colored, 
as  a  rule  not  exceeding  30  inches  in  height,  with 
hairy  muzzles  and  teetli  resembling  those  of 
goats,  and  with  ringed  and  usually  lyrate  or 
spiral  horns ;  the}'  inhabit  deserts  from  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  to  India.  Here  among  less  note- 
worthy kinds,  fall  the  familiar  ariel  and  other 
gazelles,  the  black-buck  of  India,  the  saiga, 
chiru,  springbok,  impalla,  and  the  like.  Another 
group  (ccrvicnpriitc)  is  represented  by  the  small 
African  reed-bucks,  the  larger  water-bucks,  cobus, 
etc..  the  S7ualler  rehboks  and  klipspringer,  and 
the  diminutive  steinboks.  A  third  (ccphuloph- 
ine)  group  is  composed  of  the  duikerboks  and 
other  forest-ranging  species  of  Africa,  among 
wliich  are  the  smallest  known  rviminants.  tlie  least 
(see  Bluebuck)  being  only  1.3  inches  tall.  Only 
the  males  of  these  are  provided  with  horns,  and 
one  species  (see  Chousingha)  has  four  horns. 
These  pygmies  are  connected  with  the  cattle  by 
the  alccphaline  antelopes,  all  large  African 
species  characterized  by  their  much  greater 
height  at  the  withers  than  at  the  rump,  and  by 
having  horns  in  both  sexes,  the  cores  of  which  are 
cellular  as  in  oxen;  prominent  examples  are  the 
hartbeests,  blesbok,  bontebok.  and  gnus.  Diverg- 
ing oppositely  from  the  typical  gazelles  toward 
the  goats,  the  hippotragine  section  has  been  made 
to  inchule  very  large  African  antelopes  having 
long,  stout,  ringed  horns  in  both  sexes,  such  as 
the  sable  and  roan  antelopes,  the  extinct  blaubok, 
addax,  gemsbok  and  allied  species.  Another  set 
of  large  species  is  the  trapclaphine,  represented 
in  India  by  the  nilgai,  and  in  Africa  by  the  bush- 
buck,  koodoo,  eland,  etc.  They  are  the  largest, 
most  valuable,  and  handsomest  of  all,  their 
ground  colors  being  bright  and  often  ornamented 
or  "harnessed"  with  conspicuous  stripes,  while 
their  faces  are  beautifully  marked.  Consult: 
For  former  abundance  in  Africa.  Harris,  (lame 
Aiiiinalf!  iif  Africa  (London,  1840).  with  colored 
folio  plates;  Lichtstein,  iSiint/rthiere  i(»rf  T"6- 
yel  alls  dcm  Kaffcrnlancle  (Berlin,  1S42)  ;  and 
the  narratives  of  Livingstone,  Gordon  Cumming, 
Andersson,  Drummond,  Baker,  Schweinfurth, 
Selous,  and  similar  explorers  and  sportsmen. 
For  more  modern  conditions.  Millais,  .1  Breath 
from  the  Veldt  (London,  1S95);  and  Bryden,- 
Nature  and  Import  in  Hrnith  Africa  (London, 
1807).  For  Asiatic  species,  Baker,  ^yild  Bcaf:ts 
and  their  TF«!/s( London,  1,S!)0)  ;  Blanford,  Fou/i'J 
of  British  India:  Mammals  (London,  1888).  For 
zoiilogy,  Sclater  and  Thomas,  The  Book  of  the  An- 
telopes (London,  1800)  ;  Brooke,  Proceedings  of 
the  Zoiilofiical  l^oeictti  of  London    (1871-7.'?). 

For  the   so-called   antelope  of  western  North 
America,  see  Prongjiorn. 


AN'TENA'TI  (Lat.  nom.  plur.  of  antenatus, 
from  ante,  heiore.  -\-  natus,  born).  In  law  and 
history,  persons  bifrn  before  a  certain  time  or 
event,  especially  with  reference  to  the  existence 
of  rights  which  are  claimed.  The  term  is  spe- 
cifically applied:  (a)  To  children  born  before 
the  marriage  of  their  parents.  By  the  common 
law  of  England  such  children  are  held  to  be 
bastards  and  do  not  become  legitimate  upon  the 
subsequent  marriage  of  their  parents,  whereas  in 
the  civil  and  canon  law  antenati  are  legitimate 
and  capable  of  inheriting  the  real  property  of  the 
father  as  if  born  after  marriage.  The  common- 
law  rule  prevails  in  the  United  States  excepting 
where  it  has  been  changed  by  statute.  (See  Bas- 
tard: Heir;  Legitimacy.)  (b)  In  English  histo- 
ry, to  those  natives  of  Scotland  who  were  born 
before  the  accession  of  the  Scotch  King  .Tam^s  VI. 
to  the  throne  of  England  as  .James  I.,  and  whose 
status  as  English  citizens  was  therefore  disputed, 
(e)  In  American  history,  to  Americans  born  in 
this  country  before  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence :  and,  also,  to  those  citizens  of  the  colony 
of  New  York  who  were  born  during  the  jieriod 
of  Dutch  sovereignty  and  who  survived  the  trans- 
fer of  the  territory  and  government  to  the  Eng- 
lish crown.  The  property  rights  of  the  antenati, 
and,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  benefits  of  the  Dutch 
law  were  expressly  preserved  to  them  by  the  ar- 
ticles of  capitulation,  1664.  Consult  the  his- 
torical introduction  to  the  Grolier  Club,  Facsim- 
ile of  Bradford's  Laics  of  Xew  York,  lG9'i  (New- 
York.  1894).  See  the  articles  Allegiance;  An- 
nexation. 

ANTEN'NiE.     See  Insect. 

AN'TENNA'TA  (Lat.  antenna,  sail-yard, 
Neo-Lat.  a  feeler;  horn  of  an  insect).  A  class  of 
Arthropoda  characterized  by  the  possession  of  one 
pair  of  ]ireoral  feelers,  three  parts  of  oral  limbs 
and  head  distinctly  marked  off  from  the  trunk; 
respiration  by  tubular  trachce,  opening  exter- 
nally by  segmontally  arranged  openings  called 
stigmata.  The  class  is  divided  into  two  sub- 
classes :  Myriapoda,  or  centipedes,  etc.,  and  Bex- 
apoda,  or  insects    (qq.v.). 

ANTE'NOK  (Gk.  'Avri/vup,  Antenor) .  The 
wise  Trojan  who  advised  his  fellow-citizens  to 
send  Helen  back  to  her  husband.  In  return  for 
his  friendliness  to  the  Greeks,  his  house  was 
spared  during  the  sack  of  Troy.  A  later  version 
represents  him  as  betrajing  the  city.  Legends 
differ  about  him:  one  is  that  he  built  a  city  on 
the  site  of  Troy;  others  make  him  the  founder 
of  various  cities  in  northern  Italy,  or  Cyi'ene. 

ANTENOB  CAvTriDup) .  An  Athenian  sculp- 
tor of  the  sixth  century  B.C.  He  made  the 
original  statues  of  Harmodius  and  Aristogiton, 
which  were  carried  to  Susa  by  Xerxes  (480 
li.c).  After  the  conquest  of  Persia,  they  were 
restored  by  Alexanclcr  the  Great,  and  were  set  up 
in  the  Ceramicus,  where  they  were  placed  origin- 
ally. 

AN'TEPEN'DIUM  (Lat.  ante,  before  +  pcn- 
dcre,  to  hang).  A  hanging  in  front  of  the  altar. 
.\s  the  earliest  Christian  altars  were  usually 
tables  of  wood  or  marble,  it  was  customary  dur- 
ing service  to  hang  or  set  in  front  of  them  a 
richly  decorated  piece  of  stuff  or  metal  relief. 
See  .'\i.tar. 

ANTEQTJERA,  an'ta-k.a'ra  (anciently  Anti- 
quaria) .  An  important  manufacturing  town  in 
the  province  of  Malaga,  Spain,  situated  in  a  fcr- 


ANTELOPES 


1.BUBALINE    ANTELOPE    (Bubalis    muritania);  type    of         5.  BRINDLED   GNU   OR    BLUE   WILDEBEEST    (Connooho- 

nartebeests.  etes  taurina) 

I'  Snil*'  .1?tIPRoI'"?,j"'^5°"'="'='"=''-  >  ^-  SING-SING    (Oobus  defassa);  type   of  Waterbuoks. 

H^fii    ^^^'-2'^,^      HippotraguB  equinus).  7.  SABLE    ANTELOPE    (Hippotrkgus   niger). 

4.  BEISA    (Oryx  belsa);    type  of  Gemsboks.  8.  ELAND    (Orias  canna). 


ANTEQUEBA. 


599 


ANTHER. 


tile  plain  at  the  foot  of  tlie  Sierra  de  Antequera, 
on  the  Giiatlalhorce,  45  miles  west  of  Granada 
(Map:  Spain,  C  4).  It  has  a  Moorish  castle  and 
is  the  seat  of  a  number  of  hidalgos.  There  are 
some  stately  houses  and  a  fine  ehurch  of  the  Vir- 
gin. It  is  active  in  the  manufacture  of  woolen 
goods,  paper,  soap,  and  silk.  There  is  consid- 
erable trade  in  fruit,  oil.  and  wine;  and  marble 
is  quarried  in  the  neighborhood.  Pop.,  I'JOO, 
31,005. 

AN'TEROS  (Gk.  'Avripus,  from  avrt,  anti, 
against  +  f/juf,  cros,  love).  In  the  mythology  of 
the  Greeks,  the  brother  of  Eros,  and  god  of  unre- 
quited love. 

ANTEROS,  or  ANTERUS.  Pope,  or  rather 
bishop  of  Home,  from  November  21,  235,  till  his 
death,  January  3,  236.  He  comes  between  Pon- 
tianus  and  Fabianus. 

ANTHE'BON  (Gk.  'Aw9)?<iui') .  A  town  of 
F(eotia,  situated  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Messapion, 
on  the  strait  of  Eubtt'a.  The  site,  near  the  mod- 
ern Lukisi,  was  described  by  Leake,  Travels  in 
'Northern  Greece,  II.  In  1880  excavations  were 
conducted  by  the  American  School  of  Classical 
Studies  at  Athens,  which  brought  to  light  a  com- 
plex of  foundations  near  the  harlior.  and  what 
seems  to  have  been  a  small  tcni]ile  on  a  hill  out- 
side the  city.  The  course  of  the  walls  was  also 
traced,  and  a  numlier  of  bronze  implements  and 
sixty-four  inscriptions  found.  The  latter  are 
chielly  gravestones,  but  give  some  idea  of  the 
local  al])liahet  and  dialect. 

ANTHE'LIA  (Gk.  ii'T!.  anti,  against  + 
TJXios,  Iwlios,  the  sun).  Luminous  rings  op- 
posite to  the  sun,  seen  when  the  observer  looks 
toward  his  own  shadow  cast  upon  a  cloud  or 
bank  of  fog  or  on  the  dewdrops  on  the  giass. 
The  shadow  is  seen  to  be  encircled  by  a  glory 
consisting  of  one  or  several  concentric  rings, 
having  tlieir  common  centre  at  the  anti-solar 
point.  The  rings  are  usually  colored,  red  inside 
and  blue  outside,  but  these  are  not  pure  colors, 
because  formed  by  many  overlappings  of  ele- 
mentary rings.  The  outside  rings  have  but  lit- 
tle color  and  fade  ofl'  into  white.  Tlie  radius  of 
the  rings  increases  ^^■ith  the  smallness  of  the 
globules  that  make  up  the  fog  or  cloud.  The 
largest  ring  ever  observed  is  the  "white  rain- 
bow." which  has  an  angular  radius  of  about  40 
degrees.  It  is  almost  pure  white,  and  is  gen- 
erally known  by  the  name  of  the  first  observer, 
as  Ulloa's  ring.  These  rings  are  formed  by  the 
interference  of  rays  of  sunlight  reflected  from 
minute  drops  very  much  as  in  the  easn  of  the 
rings  or  glories  seen  close  around  the  sun  and 
moon.  All  these  plicnomena  were  imjjerfectly 
explained  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton  as  due  to  the  dis- 
persion of  light  refracted  through  drops  of  fog 
or  rain;  but  the  only  satisfactory  explanation  is 
that  first  given  by  Dr.  Thomas  Young,  and  more 
fully  develo]ied  recently  by  Dr.  Pernter,  which 
attributes  them  to  diffraction  or  interference 
phenomena.  Consult  Pernter,  Metcorologische 
Optik    (Vienna.   1901).     See  Light. 

AN'THELMIN'TIC  (Gk.  avri,  anti,  against 
+  e?!in'^,  lichniiis.  a  worm).  Any  medicine  hos- 
tile to  intestinal  parasites.  Anthelmintics  which 
destroy  are  vermicides;  those  which  expel,  ver- 
mifuges. They  act  in  one  of  three  ways:  (1) 
mechanically;  (2)  by  some  intoxicating  in- 
fluence; (3)  by  an  actual  poisonous  effect. 
Among  the  remedies  employed  for  the  Oxyuris 


vcrmicularis,  "scat-worm,"  or  ''thread-worm," 
are  enemata  of  salt  and  water,  or  of  in- 
fusion of  quassia.  For  the  .4scar!.s  lumbrimidus, 
or  round  worm,  santonin  (q.v.)  and  spigelia,  or 
pink-root,  are  most  frequently  used.  The  drugs 
given  to  expel  fceniie,  or  tape-worms,  are:  as- 
piilium,  or  male  fern;  pumpkin  seeds,  and  bark 
of  the  pomegranate.  Kamala  (q.v.)  is  fairly  ef- 
ficient ;  cusso,  or  kousso,  is  of  doubtful  value. 
See  AscAULS;  Worm. 

AN'THEM  (M.  Engl,  antempne,  earlier  an- 
tcfnc,  M.  Lat.  antii>hoiia,  from  Gk.  uvti,  anti, 
against  +  funi/^  pliiinv,  voice,  sound).  A  piece 
sung 'in  alternate  parts.  A  species  of  musical  com- 
position introduced  into  the  service  of  the  Eng- 
lish Church  after  the  Reformation,  and  appointed 
to  be  sung  daily,  at  morning  and  evening  service, 
after  the  third  collect.  The  words  of  the  an- 
them are  taken  from  the  Psalms,  or  other  suit- 
able parts  of  the  Scriptures,  and  the  music  is 
either  foi;  solo  or  chorus,  or  a  mixture  of  solo 
and  chorus.  It  is  rendered  with  or  without  in- 
strumental accompaniment.  In  its  origin,  musi- 
cal construction,  and  use,  the  anthem  is  similar 
to  the  motet  of  the  Roman  Church  and  the  Kan- 
tate  of  the  Lutheran  Church.     See  Motet;  also 

AXTIPIIO.NY. 

AN'THE'MION  (Gk.  iv^iuiov,  blossom,  llow- 
er).  A  decorative  motive  in  ancient.  Oriental, 
and  Greek  art.  It  was  frequently  used,  and  on 
account  of  its  graceful  effect  is  often  reproduced 
in  modern  times.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  hon- 
eysuckle ornament,  and  is  closely  connected  with 
the  conventionalized  Egyptian  lotus  and  the  As- 
syrian palmette  ornament.  It  takes  the  form 
of  radiating  clusters  of  flowers  or  leaves,  and 
was  used  in  architecture,  in  carving,  in  vase  or- 
nament, and  in  pictorial  decoration.  See  Good- 
year, .4  Grammar  of  the  Lotus  (New  York, 
1892). 

AN'THEMIS.     See  Chamomile. 

ANTHE'MIUS  (Gk.  •  Kv-Senin,;,  Anthcmios) 
(? — 534  A.D. ).  A  Greek  architect,  mathema- 
tician, and  engineer;  born  at  Tralles,  in  Asia 
IWinor.  With  the  assistance  of  his  colleague, 
Isidore  of  Miletus,  he  planned  and  built  for  the 
Emperor  .Tustinian  the  church  of  St.  Sophia  in 
Constantinople  (532-37),  one  of  the  greatest 
buildings  in  architectural  history,  and  so  may  be 
regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  developed  Byzan- 
tine style.  He  wrote,  among  other  mathenuitical 
treatises,  a  work  on  the  subject  of  burning- 
glasses.  Some  fragments  of  his  writings  have 
been  found.  He  continued  the  Greek  tradition 
of  uniting  architecture  and  theoretical  mathe- 
matics, which  the  Romans  had  discouraged,  and 
he  was  one  of  the  greatest  architects  of  all  ages. 

ANTHEMIUS.  An  emperor  of  the  West 
(407-472),  anil  son-in-law  of  the  Eastern  Em- 
peror Mareian.  He  was  appointed  to  tlie  West- 
ern throne  by  the  Emperor  Leo,  at  the  instance 
of  Ricimer,  who  afterward  married  Anthemius's 
daughter.  A  quarrel  arose  between  them,  and 
Ricimer  proclaimed  Olybrius  Emperor  of  the 
West  in  472,  and  marched  on  Rome,  which  he 
took  by  assault.  Anthemius  perished  in  the  bat- 
tle. His  character'  is  higlily  praised  in  a  pane- 
gyric of  Sidonius  Apollinaris. 

AN'THER  ((Jk.  avSr/pdr,  antheros,  flowery, 
blooming) .  That  part  of  a  stamen  which  produces 
p(dlen.  An  anther  consists  of  two  small  sacs, 
between  which  there  occurs  a  certain  amount  of 


ANTHER. 


600 


A»fTHOLOGY. 


sterile  tissue  (the  ■"counective''),  which  is  often 
notliing  more  than  the  top  of  the  axis  of  the 
stamen.     See  Flower. 

AN'THERID'IXJM  (a  diminutive  after  the 
Greek  fashion  from  (inlhcr:  see  Anther).  The 
male  organ  of  plants ;  that  is,  tlie  organ  in  which 
tlie  sperms  are  develojjcd.  Among  the  algfe  and 
tungi  an  antheridium  is  usually  a  single  cell,  and 
in  the  simplest  forms  in  which  antheridia  appear 
this  single  cell  is  merely  a  nutritive  cell  wliich 
is  used  for  the  purpose  of  producing  sperms.  In 
most  algte  and  fungi,  however,  the  antlieridium 
is  a  distinctly  diUerentiatcd  cell  set  apart  from 
the  very  fii'st  for  the  production  of  sperms.  Among 
the  mosses  and  ferns  tlie  antheridium  is  a 
many-celled  organ  of  varying  shape.  The  moss 
antheridium  is  a  free  organ  and  more  or  less 
club-shaped,  a  section  showing  that  the  wall  con- 
sists of  a  single  layer  of  sterile  cells,  and  that 
the  rest  of  tlie  structure  is  a  compact  mass  ot 
very  small  cells,  witliin  each  one  of  which  a  sin- 
gle speini  is  organized.  The  antheridium  springs 
open  or  bursts  open  in  the  presence  of 
moisture  and  discharges  its  mass  of  cells  and 
sperms,  the  latter  of  which  free  themselves  by 
their  movements  and  are  ready  to  swim  to  the 
female  organs.  Among  the  ordinary  ferns  the 
antheridium  is  an  imbedded  organ,  which  dis- 
charges its  sperms  in  one  way  or  another  at  the 
surface  of  tlie  prothallium. 


ANTHF.nmiA  OF  A   MOSS   (ff),  A  PERN   (Jfj,  AND  A 
LIVERWOllT  (C). 

TVith  the  introduction  of  heternspory  (q.v.), 
which  involves  certain  of  the  fern-i)lants  and  all 
of  the  seed-plants,  the  male  plant  is  very  much 
reduced  in  size,  being  entirely  contained  within 
the  spore  that  produces  it.  which  in  the  seed- 
plants  is  called  the  pollen  grain.  With  this 
reduction  of  the  male  plant,  the  antheridium 
is  correspondingly  modified,  so  that  it  is  a  matter 
of  discussion  in  such  cases  as  to  just  what  cell 
or  cells  may  represent  an  antheridium.  The  or- 
gan, tlierefore,  in  the  seed-plants  does  not  stand 
out  with  the  distinctness  that  it  presents  in  the 
three  lower  groups,  but  it  is  none  the  less  repre- 
sented. 

The  name  is  an  unfortunate  one,  since  it  means 
"anther-like,"  having  been  given  under  the  im- 
pression that  the  anther  of  seed-plants  is  a  male 


organ.  It  would  l)e  very  desirable  to  change  the 
name  if  such  a  thing  were  possible,  and  "sperm- 
ar}-"  has  been  pro])osed  as  a  substitute. 

AN'THESTE'BIA.     See  Greek  Festivals. 

ANTHEUNIS,  ax'te'ne',  Gextil  Theodoor 
(1840 — ).  A  Flemish  poet.  He  was  born  at 
Oudenarde,  and  removed  to  Brussels.  He  is  one 
of  the  best  lyric  poets  of  Belgium.  His  verses 
are  distinguished  by  depth  of  sentiment  and 
cu])hony.  Among  his  most  popular  songs  are: 
LenteUed.  Ih  Jcen  een  Lied,  Yerqeefs.  and  fle- 
irovme  licfdi'.  Collections  of  his  poems  have 
been  published  under  the  titles:  Uit  hcf  Hurt 
I  Leydeii.  1873);  Lcccn,  Lieven,  Zingen  (The 
Hag'ue,  1879). 

AN'THOCY'AN  (Gk.  av-anc,  authos,  flower 
+  Kvavoc,  kyanos,  a  dark-blue  substance).  The 
blue,  purple,  or  red  coloring  matter  found  dis- 
solved in  the  cell  sap  of  flowers,  fruits,  young 
leaves  and  stems,  dying  leaves  in  autumn,  etc. 
The  term  "erj'throphyH''  was  formerly  used  in 
this  sense.  The  cliemistry  of  anthocj'an  is  imper- 
fectly known,  but  tlie  substance  appears  to  be  one 
of  the  tannins  or  phenol  compounds.  Its  color 
depends  upon  the  character  of  the  solution  in 
which  it  is  present;  if  acid,  it  is  red;  if  alka- 
line, it  is  blue.  Therefore,  many  blue  flowers  he- 
come  reddish  as  they  fade.  The  function  of  an- 
thocyan  in  the  living  plant  is  not  positively 
known,  although  numerous  attempts  have  been 
made  to  explain  its  presence  and  distribution. 
( See  Color.  )  ( 1 )  It  has  been  held  to  be  a  pro- 
tection to  the  green  coloring  matter  of  .young 
leaves  against  too  much  light,  which  promotes 
its  decomposition  (see  Chlouopiiyll)  ,  especially 
when  it  is  formed  slowly  on  account  of  low  tem- 
perature. (2)  It  is  alleged  to  be  of  advantage 
to  young  leaves  and  shoots  by  increasing  the  ab- 
sorption of  the  sun's  energy,  and  thus  raising 
their  temperature.  (3)  By  its  action  on  light 
it  probably  facilitates  the  formation  and  action 
of  a  digestive  substance  (diastase)  in  leaves 
and  so  ]iprhaps  promotes  translocation  of  food. 

ANTHO'LOGY  (Gk.  uf^o'Aoyia,  <intholo<jia,  a 
flower-gathering,  from  uiiSof,  nnfhof:.  flower  -f- 
/".fjfiu,  Jrtjcin,  to  pick  out).  Tlie  title  usually 
given  to  a  book  consisting  of  an  unconnected  se- 
ries of  choice  thoughts,  whether  in  prose  or  in 
verse,  but  generally  in  the  latter.  In  ancient 
times,  collections  of  this  kind  consisted  largely  of 
epigrams.  1.  The  earliest  Greek  anthology  was 
compiled  by  Jleleager,  of  Gadara.  in  Syria,  abou; 
80  B.C.  It"  was  named  Thr  Gnrlnnd  '  (IW^oraj, 
Stcphnvns) ,a\\&  contained  onehundredand  thirty 
of  jlelcager's  own  epigrams,  and  selections  from 
forty-seven  other  poets,  including  Alcaais,  Ana- 
creo'n,  Archilochus,  Sappho,  and  Sinionides. 
Something  more  than  one  hundred  years  later, 
Philip  of  Thessaloniea  gathered  the  best  epigrams 
of  the  preceding  century  into  a  collection,  which 
he  published  in" tlie  reign  of  Caligula,  and  which 
at  an  early  date  seems  to 'have  been  combined 
with  Meleager's  Garland.  A  thinl  collection  was 
made  by  Straton,  of  Sardis,  in  the  second  cen- 
tury A.D. :  and  a  fourth  by  Diogenianus  Hera- 
cleota.  The  latter  seems  to  have  been  the  first 
to  adopt  the  name  "anthologA-"  (hvHoAdyiov  im- 
ypa/jfidruv,  anthologion  epigrunimatdn) ._  The 
writing  of  epigrams  then  languished,  but  it  was 
revived  again  during  the  sixth  century  in  Con- 
stantinople; and  theproductiousthereof.Tulianus, 
Christ odorus.  Leontius,  Paulus  Silentiarius.and 
others  gave  occasion  for  a  new  anthology,  made 


ANTHOLOGY. 


601 


ANTHOLOGT. 


under  Justinian  by  A<;athias  of  JFyrina  nml 
called  by  him  The  Cycle  (Kric/iof,  kyUlos) .  Ap- 
parently, the  combined  anthologj'  of  Melcager 
and  Philip  was  enrrent  for  a  lon^  time 
beside  the  Cycle  Of  Agathias.  In  the  tenth 
century  small  antholofjies.  the  so-called  Sylluye 
Eupheiniaiia  and  the  Sylloge  Parisina,  were 
made,  lietter  known  is  the  large  compilation  of 
Constantius  Cephalas  in  fifteen  books,  which 
dates  from  tlie  early  part  of  the  same  eenhiry. 
Four  centuries  later,  the  monk  Jlaxinnis  IMam- 
ides  made  a  careless  selection  from  Cepha-  - 
las's  compilation  in  seven  books.  This  latter  was 
the  only  anthology  known  to  western  pjurope 
until  the  seventeenth  century.  It  is  preserved 
at  Venice  in  the  single  manuscript  from  which  it 
was  first  published  by  Lascaris  (Florence,  1494). 
It  has  been  frequently  reedited,  and  was  trans- 
lated into  Latin  liy  Grotius. 

In  1607,  however,  Salmasius  discovered  and 
copied  in  the  Palatine  Library  at  Heidelberg  the 
single  manuscript  of  Ccphalas's  larger  compila- 
tion, now  known  as  the  Palatine  Aniholoijy. 
Salmasius 's  cojjy  was  published  first  by  Brunck 
in  his  Analecta  (177G)  :  this  edition  was  super- 
seded by  Jacobs's  Anlhulof/ia  Gnrca  (1704-180.3; 
improved  edition,  1813-17).  and  was  again  re- 
edited  with  the  addition  of  epigi'ams  from  in- 
scriptions by  Diibner  (2  volumes,  1864;  third  vol- 
ume by  C'ougn3'.  1800)  ;  Stadtmiiller's  critical 
edition  of  it  is  not  vet  completed  (Volume  I., 
1S04:  II..  1,  1890).  "in  all,  over  three  hundred 
poets,  from  ))re-classical  to  Byzantine  times, 
are  represented  in  this  Anthology :  the  collection 
is  invaluable  as  a  mirror  of  (Jreek  civilization 
and  thought,  and  the  epigrams  express  the 
entire  range  of  human  feeling  with  a  brilliancy 
and  cleverness  that  translation  cannot  repro- 
duce. Transl.itions  have  been  made  into 
English  by  Wrangham.  .John  Sterling.  Meri- 
vale,  Garnctt,  Synionds,  and  others.  Consult: 
Symonds.  SUidics  of  the  Greek  Poets  (London, 
189.3)  ;  Butler,  Amaranth  and  Asphodel  (Lon- 
don. 1881);  Mackail.  Helect  Epigrams  (London, 
1891).  On  the  smaller  collections,  consult  Dil- 
they,  De  Epigrammatum  Syllogis  Qaibusdam 
Minoribus  (1887). 

2.  Latix  Anthologies.  In  l.i73,  Scaliger  pub- 
lished at  Leyden,  in  imitation  of  the  Greek  an- 
tholog;^',  a  Latin  anthology,  under  the  title  Cata- 
Itcta  Veteniiii  •Poitaruin,  and  Pittbcius  one  at 
Paris.  l.'jOO.  A  larger  collection  was  issued  at 
Amsterdam  (1759  and  1773)  by  Peter  Burmann 
the  younger,  under  the  title  Anthologia  Vetrriim 
Latinorum  Epigrammatum  et  Poematum.  In  the 
nineteenth  centurj-  a  more  careful  anthology  was 
undertaken  by  Riese  (1860-70),  a  second  edition 
of  which  is  in  course  of  publication  (Leipzig. 
1894). 

Asiatic  literature  is  extremely  rich  in  antholo- 
gies, which  consist  sometimes  of  extracts  from 
the  best  j)octs.  arranged  according  to  the  subject, 
and  sometimes  of  "beauties"  of  their  best  poets, 
witli  biogi-aphical  notices,  which  are  either  placed 
in  chronological  oiiler  or  according  to  the  coun- 
tries in  which  the  authors  lived. 

3.  -Araiuc  Anthologies.  The  oldest  Arabic 
anthology  is  the  Moallakat  (see  A?jt.\u).  consist- 
ing of  the  seven  most  celebrated  pre-Islamic 
poems.  .V  much  larger  collection  was  made  by 
Abu-TeniAm  (died  .846).  who  published  selei- 
tions  from  the  old  '  .Arabic  songs  composed 
previous  to  the  time  of  Mohammed,  arranged 
them    in    ten    books,    and     named     the    entire 

Vol.  I.— 40. 


collection  after  the  first  book,  which  consisted 
of  war  songs,  .1/  Hamiisa.  A  German  translation 
by  Riickert  was  published  in  1846,  under  the  ti- 
tle llamasa.  Another  famous  anthology  is  the 
Divan  of  the  lludhailitcs  (an  .\rabic  tribe),  a 
partial  edition  of  which  was  ]niblishcd  by  Kose- 
garten,  and  a  (Jerman  tianshilion  by  Abicht 
(1870).  Wellhausen  comideted  (lie  edition  (Ar- 
abic and  German)  in  1887.  as  Part  I.  of  Skizzen 
und  Yornrbeitcn,  published  by  him.  Abu'l-Faradj 
of  Ispahan  (died  067)  gathered  together  in  his 
Kildh  al-Aghuni  (Book  of  Songs)  all  the  ancient 
Arabic  .songs  down  to  the  first  centuries  of  the 
caliphate.  It  was  published  by  Kosegarten  in 
1840;  but  the  complete  work,  in  twenty  volumes, 
was  not  issued  till  (juitc  recently  by  the  Arabic 
press  of  Bulak,  to  which  Briinnow  added  the 
twenty-fir.st  volume  in  1888.  An  Index  to  this 
anthology  is  no\^•  being  prepared  by  a  group  of 
scholars  under  the  editorship  of  I.  Guidi.  Abu'l- 
Faradj  accompanied  this  work  with  a  minute 
commentary,  which  makes  it  one  of  the  most  in- 
teresting of  the  old  Arabic  literature.  But  the 
richest  and  most  complete  anthology  of  the  later 
Aiabic  poetry  is  Yalintut  nlltnhr  I  The  Pearl  of 
the  World) ,  by  Taalabi,  in  which  the  writers  are 
arranged  according  to  the  provinces  in  which  they 
lived.  It  has  been  continued  and  enlarged  since 
the  period  of  the  original  compiler.  Besides 
these  and  similar  national  anthologies,  collec- 
tions have  been  made  in  almost  every  province 
where  the  Arabic  culture  and  speech  prevailed. 
Such,  for  example,  are  the  numerous  Arabico- 
Spanish  anthologies,  though  these  are  but  little 
kno\\u. 

4.  Turkish  Antiiologie.s.  The  number  of  an- 
thologies in  the  West  Turkish,  or,  as  it  is  gen- 
erally called,  the  Turkish  language,  is  very 
large.  The  most  famous  are:  Hesht  Behesht 
(The  Eight  Paradises),  by  Sehi  of  Adri- 
anople  (died  1.548)  ;  Taskarnt  ash-Shnara,  (Lives 
of  the  Poets),  by  Latifi  (died  1582),  and,  un- 
der the  same  title,  a  similar  work  of  Ashik  Che- 
lebi  (died  1571);  and  the  gTeat  collection,  Hub- 
dat  al-Ash'ar  (The  Blossoms  of  Poetry),  by 
Kassade  (died  1621).  The  substance  of  these 
anthologies  is  to  be  found  in  Hammer  Purgstall's 
(fes-chichte  der  osmanischen  Dichtkunst  (Pesth, 
lS.3fi). 

5.  Persian  Anthologies.  The  Persian  litera- 
ture has  many  anthologies,  which  are  called  safl- 
nah  (ship),  majmai  (collection),  hayCid  (album), 
inlikhiib  or  mniitakhab  (selection),  and  the 
like.  Among  these  anthologies  may  be  named  the 
ilurttakhab  vl-ash'ar  (Selection  of  Poems), 
compiled  in  174S:  and  the  DarjiTit/  ul-ash'dr 
(Subtleties  of  Poems),  compiled  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  which  deals,  as  its  name  implies,  especi- 
ally with  the  more  artificial  styles  of  Persian 
poetry.  The  numerous  biographical  dictionaries 
of  poets,  called  Tadhkirat.  or  memoirs,  contain 
many  verses  from  the  poets  whose  lives  are  re- 
corded in  those  works.  One  of  the  most  impor- 
tant of  these  is  the  Tadhkirat  ash-shirdru,  writ- 
ten by  Daulat-Shah  in  1847.  Special  mention 
must  also  be  made  of  the  Farhunghi  ash-shu'Oril 
(Dictionary  of  Poets),  which  contains  an  an- 
thidogy  of  about  22.4.50  distichs  in  Persian,  .and 
which  was  abiidged  and  freely  imitated  by  Ham- 
mer Pui'gstall  in  his  Duftkiirner  aiis  persischen 
Dichlrrn  gesammelt,  reedited  by  Bodenstedt 
(Stuttgart"  1860). 

6.  Indian  Anthologies.  The  literature  of 
the     ^Mohammedan     population     of     Hindustan, 


ANTHOLOGY. 


603 


ANTHONY. 


-H-hich  is  a  mere  copy  of  Persian  literature,  has 
also  several  anthologies.  The  most  imjiortant 
are:  Giihari  Ihrfihlm  (Rose  Garden  of  Ibra- 
him), by  'All  Ibrahim,  containing  bioginphical 
notices  of  three  hundred  Hindustani  poets,  with 
specimens  of  their  wiitings;  the  collection 
called  Diicfini  Jihan  (Divan  of  the  World),  by 
Beni-Narayan ;  Giilshani  Hind  (Garden  of  In- 
dia), by  Wirza  'Ali  Lntf;  Guldasta'i  yisliOt 
(Garland  of  Pleasure),  by  Manu  L:il  (Calcutta, 
1836),  and  Oulrla^td'i  X(i~iui))in  (Garland  of 
Delights) ,  Ijy  Kurim-ad-Din  (Calcutta,  184.5) .  The 
substance  of  these  works  is  to  be  found  in  Garcin 
de  Tassy's  Uistoire  de  la  Uttcrature  hindotie  et 
hindoustanic  (second  edition,  Paris,  1839-47), 
which,  under  the  title  of  TabalcaU  Shurfii  Hindi, 
was  translated  into  Hindustani  by  Karim-ad- 
Dln  (Delhi,  1848).  In  the  pure  Hindu  we  have 
a  rich  collection  of  songs,  the  Ragsutjar  (Ocean 
of  JIusieal  Verse),  by  Krishnananda  (Calcutta, 
1845). 

7.  Sanskrit  Anthologies.  The  Sanskrit  lit- 
erature is  not  so  rich  in  anthologies  as  are  other 
Oriental  literatures.  But  the  collections,  com- 
prising a  hundred  strophes  each  (Satakus),  and 
attributed  to  many  poets,  may  almost  be  termed 
anthologies.  True'  Sanskrit  anthologies  are  the 
Haduktiknnwmrta.  or  "ear-nectar  of  good  say- 
ings," li\  Haradasa  (about  1205  A.D.),  the  Hiirn- 
gadharaijaddkati,  or  Anthology  of  Sarngad- 
hara,  and  Vallabhadeva's  Siibhnshitavali  (Se- 
ries of  Good  Words).  Biihtlingk,  Indische 
Spriiche,  3  volumes  (St.  Petersburg.  1870-73). 
contains  an  anthology  of  7613  Sanskrit  strophes, 
with  a  literal  German  translation. 

8.  Chinese  Anthologies.  The  oldest  an- 
thology in  the  world  is  that  which  Confu- 
cius has  handed  down  under  the  name  of  the 
Shi-King,  or  Book  of  Songs,  forming  one  of  the 
five  great  canonical  books,  or  .sacred  classics  of 
the  Chinese.  Chinese  authors  assert  that  about 
3000  other  poems  were  known  in  the  time  of 
Confucius.  The  .S7it-7vi»f/  consists  of  311  pieces, 
which  picture  vividly  the  nuinners  and  customs, 
the  state  of  knowledge  and  art,  and  the  aspects 
of  nature  in  the  states  which  afterward  became 
Cliina.  The  best  translation  with  critical  appa- 
ratus is  by  .James  Legge  (London,  1870).  There 
is  also  a  version  in  Latin  by  Lacharme  ( Stutt- 
gart, 1830),  and  one  in  German  by  Riickert  (Al- 
tona,  1833).  The  poems  of  the  Liang  Dynasty 
(.502-557  A.I).),  and  of  the  Tang  Dynasty  (618- 
905),  have  also  been  collected,  but  are  only  in 
part  translated. 

9.  Japa.nese  Anthologies.  The  .Japanese 
abound  in  anthologies,  since  they  consider  poetry 
more  as  the  production  of  an  epoch  than  of  an 
individual.  The  oldest  and  largest  anthology, 
compiled  in  the  eighth  century,  is  called  Minujn- 
sliK,  or  Collection  of  Ten  Thousand  J,cnves.  It 
contains  4565  songs,  mostly  in  31-syllable  poems. 
The  Kokinshu,  or  Hongs  Ancient  and  Modern, 
numbering  1090,  was  finished  about  922.  -An- 
other anthology  of  the  same  century,  (rosen 
Wakashu,  contains  1356  short  poems.  Other 
collections  were  made  by  order  of  the  Mikados 
in  the  succeeding  centuries,  ending  with  the  fif- 
teenth, and  (hese.  with  Songs  Ancient  and  Mod- 
ern, are  known  under  the  general  name  of  the  An- 
thologies of  the  One  and  Twenty  Reiyns.  All  of 
these  books  have  had  abundant  commentary,  and 
are  valuable  to  the  student  and  historian.  Tliere 
are  innumerable  other  collections  made  by  im- 
perial or  private  order,  besides  many  selections 


of  one  hundred  songs  cacli,  the  most  famous  of 
the  latter  being  the  Hiaku-nin-is-shiu  (one  hun- 
dred poets,  one  verse),  which  has  been  translated 
into  English  with  notes  liy  F.  V.  Dickens  (Lon- 
don, 1866).  Consult  also,  Anthologie  japonnaise^ 
by  Leon  de  Eosny,  Paris,  1870,  and  B.  H.  Cham- 
berlain, Classical  Poetry  of  the  Japanese  (Lon- 
don, ISSO). 

AN'THON,  Chablbs,  LL.D.  (1797-1867).  An 
American  classical  scholar  and  teacher.  He  was 
born  in  New  York  City,  graduated  at  Columbia 
College  in  1815,  .studied  law  and  was  admitted 
to  tlie  bar  in  1819,  but  never  practiced.  The 
ne\t  year  he  became  adjunct  professor  of  Greek 
and  Latin  at  Columbia,  and  after  fifteen  years, 
became  full  professor.  From  1830  to  1867  he 
\xas  also  head  master  of  the  grammar  school  of 
Columbia  College.  He  was  exceedingly  efficient 
as  a  teacher,  and  won  considerable  reputation  by 
his  annotated  editions  of  a  large  number  of 
classical  authors,  prepared  as  school  and  college 
text-books.  Besides  nearly  fifty  such  works,  he 
published  a  new  edition  of  Lempriere's  Classical 
Dictionary  (1822),  a  new  Classical  Dictionary 
(1841),  a  dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  an- 
tiquities (1843),  and  a  number  of  other  manuals.  , 
which  were  long  and  extensively  used  by  elas-  ', 
sical  students,  both  in  this  country  and  in  Eng- 
land. 

ANTHONY,  an'to-ni.  A  city  and  county  ^ 
seat  of  Harper  Co..  Kan..  70  miles  southwest 
of  Wichita  ;  on  the  St.  Louis  and  San  Francisco, 
the  Kansas  Southwestern,  and  other  railroads 
(Map:  Kansas,  D  4).  It  controls  a  trade  in  the 
products  of  the  surrounding  agricultural  and 
stock  raising  region,  and  has  some  manufactures. 
Pop.,  1890.  1800;   1900,  1179. 

ANTHONY,  Clemens  Tueodor  (1755- 
1836).  King  of  Saxony.  Upon  the  death  of  his 
brother  Frederick  Augustus  I.,  on  May  5, 1827, he 
succeeded  to  the  throne.  After  the  disturbances 
of  1830  he  appointed  his  nephew.  Prince  Fried- 
rich  Augu.st,  co-regent,  and  on  September  4  of 
the  following  year  he  gave  his  sanction  to  a 
constitutional    government   for   the   kingdom. 

ANTHONY,  Henry  Bowen  (1815-84).  -in 
American  journalist  and  legislator.  He  was 
born  at  Coventry,  R.  I.,  and  graduated  at  Brown 
L'uiversity  in  1833.  He  became  editor  of  the 
Providence  Journal  in  1838,  and  continued  as 
such  for  more  than  twenty  years.  In  1849,  and 
again  in  1850,  he  was  elected  Governor  of  Rhode 
Island,  on  the  Whig  ticket.  He  was  a  Repub- 
lican member  of  the  United  States  Senate  from 
1859  until  his  death,  and  served  twice  ( 1803  and 
1871)  as  president  pro  tem.  A  collection  of  his 
historical  and  memorial  addresses  was  printed 
for  private  circulation  in  1S75.  He  bequeathed 
to  Brown  University  the  Harris  collection  of 
.American  poetry,  containing  about  6000  vol- 
umes. See  the"  .lH'?ioni/  Memorial  (1886),  a 
catalognie  of  the  collection,  with  a  sketch  of  the 
donor. 

ANTHONY,  John  Gould  (1804-77).  .A.n 
American  conchologist.  He  was  born  at  Provi- 
dence, R.  I.,  and  for  many  years  was  in  com- 
merce, but  his  studies  in  mitural  history  resulted 
in  his  being  invited  by  Professor* Louis  Agassiz, 
in  1863.  to'  the  directorship  of  the  conchological 
department  of  the  Museum  of  Comparative  Zo- 
iilogv  at  Harvard  University.  In  1865  he  ac- 
coiiipanied  Professor  Agassiz  on  the  Thayer  ex- 


ANTHONY. 


G03 


ANTHRACITE. 


]H'Jition  to  Brazil.  He  was  an  aikiiowlcdgcd  au- 
lliijiity  in  lii«  field  of  research,  and  iniblisla-d 
.1  x'ew  Trilobite:  Cerntocephala  Ccmkpta 
(1838),  Dcscriiitions  of  Three  ycic  Species  of 
Shells  (1839),  Dcseriptions  of  New  Species  of 
American  Fhiriate  (Jasteropods  (18C1),  Descrip- 
tions of  Xeiv  American  Fresh-Water  Shells 
(IS(iG),  and   other  works. 

ANTHONY  DE  DOM'INIS.     See  Dominis. 

ANTHONY,  St.     See  Antony,  St. 

ANTHONY,  St.,  Cross  of,  or  the  Tau  Cross. 
A  cross,  shaped  like  the  letter  T.  In  heraldry  the 
name  denotes  an  ordinary  cross  consisting  of  two 
stripes,  one  horizontal,  the  other  vortical,  cross- 
ing each  other  in  the  centre  of  the  escutcheon. 

ANTHONY,  St.,  Fire  of.  The  Rev.  Alban  But- 
ler, in  liis  IJvcs  of  the  Saints,  gives  the  follow- 
ing account  of  the  origin  of  this  name:  "In  1089, 
a  pestilential  erysipelatous  distemper,  called  the 
sacred  fire,  swept  ofl  great  numbers  in  most 
provinces  of  France;  public  prayers  and  pro- 
cessions were  ordered  against  this  scourge.  At 
length,  it  pleased  God  to  grant  to  many  miracu- 
lous cures  of  the  dreadful  distemper  to  those 
Avho  implored  his  mercy  through  the  intercession 
of  St.  Anthony,  especially  before  his  relics;  the 
church  (of  La'  Motte  St.  Didier,  near  Vienne,  in 
DaiiphinO)  in  which  they  were  deposited  was  re- 
sorted to  by  great  numbers  of  ]iilgrinis,  and  his 
patronage  was  implored  over  the  whole  king- 
dom against  this  disease."  The  "Order  of  Ca- 
nons Regular  of  St.  Anthony,"  a  religious  fra- 
ternity, founded  aboiit  1000,  for  the  relief  of 
persons  afflicted  with  the  fire  of  St.  Anthony, 
survived  in  France  till  1790. 

ANTHONY,  Susan  Brownell  (1820—).  An 
American  reformer.  She  was  born  in  Adams, 
Mass.,  the  daughter  of  a  Quaker.  She  taught 
school  from  the  age  of  fifteen  to  thirty;  was  ac- 
tive in  the  total  abstinence  and  anti-slavery 
movements,  and  since  the  Civil  War  has  devoted 
herself  entirely  to  the  woman  sufl'rage  move- 
ment. She  founded  (1868)  and  for  three  years 
published  The  Revolution,  a  woman's  rights 
paper.  She  was  arrested,  tried,  and  fined  for  vot- 
ing at  the  election  of  1872.  She  is  an  eloquent 
speaker,  has  lectured  extensively  in  England  and 
throughout  the  United  States,  has  taken  part  in 
many  State  campaigns,  and  appeared  before 
many  Congressional  committees.  She  has  con- 
tributed to  leading  magazines  and  (with  Mrs. 
Elizabeth  Cady  Stanton^  and  Mrs.  Jlatilda  .Tos- 
lyn  Gage)  published  an  extensive  Hixtory  of 
Vi'oman  Suffniyc  (3  vohuues,  New  York,  1881- 
87).  For  her  life,  consult  Harper,  Life  and 
Work,  of  flusan  B.  Anthony  (2  volumes,  Indian- 
apolis, 1898). 

ANTHONY,  WiLOAM  Arnold  (ISS,")— ).  An 
American  iihysicist.  He  was  horn  at  Coventry, 
K.  I.,  graduated  at  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School 
of  Yale  University,  and  was  professor  of  physics 
and  chemistrv  in  Antioch  College  (Ohio)  from 
18G7  to  1869!  From  1869  to  1872  he  was  pro- 
fessor of  physics  at  the  Iowa  Agi'icultural  Col- 
lege, and  from  1872  to  1887  professor  of  physics 
at  Cornell  University.  In  1887  he  became  a 
consulting  electrician.  He  has  contributed  a 
chapter  to  E.  A.  Thompson's  Jioentqen  Rrn/s  and 
Phenomena  of  the  Anode  and  Cathode  (Xew 
York.  1896),  and  (with  C.  F.  Braekett)  has 
written  a  Manual  of  Physics. 


ANTHONY  OF  BOUR'BON.     See  Antoine 

DE    BolRliUN. 

ANTHONY'S  NOSE.  A  projecting  bhilV  on 
the  Hudson  south  of  West  Point,  said  to  have 
been  named  after  a  trumpeter  of  Governor  Stuy- 
vesa  nt's. 

ANTHOPH'YLLITE.  a  magnesium  iron 
silicate  that  crystallizes  in  the  orthorhombic  sys- 
tem, and  is  included  in  the  amphibole  group  of 
minerals.  Tt  has  a  vitreous  lustre,  and  occurs 
in  various  shades  of  brown  and  green.  Tliis  min- 
eral is  found  in  Norw.ay,  Moravia,  and  near 
J^'ranklin,  N  C,  in  the'  United  States.  It  is 
named  from  anthophyllum,  signifying  clove,  in 
allusion  to  the  brown  color  of  the  original 
variety  described. 

AN'THOXAN'THUM.  See  Sweet  Vernal 
Grass. 

AN'THOZO'A  (Gk.  av&oQ,  anthos,  flower + 
fo/oi',  zOon,  animal),  or  Actinozoa.  An  order 
of  ctelenterates,  characterized  by  their  polyp-like 
form.  It  contains  the  sea-anemones  and  all  tlie 
corals  except  millepores.  See  Ccelenter.^ta  ; 
Corals,  and  Sea-Anemones. 

AN'THRACENE  (Gk.  iiv^imt  anthrax, 
coal).  An  organic  substance  composed  of  car- 
bon and  hydrogen,  and  obtained  from  coal-tar. 
The  ])roduction  of  anthracene  has  been  of  great 
commercial  importance  since  the  discovery  of  the 
processes  by  whicli  it  is  converted  on  a  large 
scale  in  the  valuable  alizarin  dyes.  (See  Ali- 
zarin.) The  portion  of  coal-tar  passing,  dur- 
ing its  distillation,  above  270°  C,  contains  a 
considerable  amount  of  anthracene;  when  this 
portion  is  cooled,  a  mass  of  crystals  is  deposited, 
which  is  separated  from  the  liquid  oil  by  pres- 
sure and  purified  by  digesting  with  the  naphtlia 
obtained  from  another  fraction  of  the  coal-tar, 
namely,  the  so-called  light  oil,  which  passes  be- 
low 170°  C.  The  product  somewhat  purified  in 
this  manner  is  brought  into  commerce  uiuler  the 
name  of  "50  percent,  anthracene,"  and  is  employ- 
ed in  the  manufacture  of  alizarin.  To  isolate  pure 
anthracene  from  this  prodiict,  it  is  distilled  with 
potash,  and  the  distillate  is  treated  with  carbon 
disul|ihide,  in  which  anthracene  is  nearly  in- 
soluble; the  remaining  trace;  of  impurities  may 
then  be  eliminated  by  recrystallization  from  hot 
benzene.  Pure  anthracene  is  a  colorless  crys- 
talline substance  melting  at  213°  C.  and  boiling 
at  360°  C. ;  it  is  insoluble  in  water,  and  but 
sparingly  soluble  in  alcohol.  Graebe  and  Lieb- 
ermann  obtained  it  from  the  coloring  matter  of 
madder,  and  then,  by  reversing  the  process,  ar- 
tificially prepared  that  coloring  matter  (aliz- 
arin) from  anthracene.  The  chemical  constitu- 
tion of  anthracene  is  represented  by  the  formula : 


£H 


H(?slXCNl/C\l/CH 
CH      CH       CH 

Consult       Gnehm's       Die       Anthracenfarhstoffe 
(Brunswick.  1897). 

AN'THRACITE  (Gk.  uv-dpaKiTTjcanthrakites, 
from  dvSpni,  anthrax,  coal).  A  term  used  to 
designate  the  highest  gi'ade  of  coal,  or  that  hav- 
ing the  highest  percentage  of  fixed  carbon,  and 


ANTHRACITE. 


604 


ANTHRACITE. 


lowest  volatile  eontont?  of  all  the  coals.  It  has 
been  produced  from  bituminous  coal  by  alter- 
ation through  the  r.ction  of  pressure  and  heat. 
These  conditions  are  produced  when  rock-masses 
are  folded  up  into  mountains,  or  when  beds  of  bi- 
tuminous coal  are  approached  or  penetrated  by 
an  intrusion  of  igneous  rook.  In  passing  from 
the  horizontal  coal  measures  of  Western  Penn- 
sylvania and  Ohio  to  the  greatly  folded  beds  of 
Eastern  Pennsylvania,  the  coal  changes  from  bi- 
tuminous to  anthracite.  At  Crested  Butte,  Col- 
orado, beds  of  bituminous  coal  are  found  to 
change  to  anthracite  in  those  portions  of  the 
mass  which  are  in  close  proximity  to  basaltic 
rocks  that  have  been  intruded  into  the  beds  un- 
derlying the  coal  in  that  region. 

Anthracite  has  great  heating  power;  it  burns 
slowly,  giving  off  but  little  smoke,  and  is  con- 
sequently very  clean.  The  average  chemical  com- 
position of  anthracite  coal  from  different  locali- 
ties is  as  follows: 


Fixed 
Carbon 


Mammoth  vein,  Pa. 
Anthracite,  Col. .  .  . 
Madrid,  N.  Mex. .  . . 
Shan-si,   China 


Vola- 
tile   Water 
Matter 

86.38  3.08  4.12 
82.33  9.96  .81 
93.02   1.04     .16 


Aeh 


Sul- 
piiur 


5.92  .50 
6.90  1.06 
5.78     .117 


82.74  5..55   1.55   10.15     .25 


Anthracite  is  found  at  a  number  of  widely  sep- 
arated localities;  but  the  areas  underlain  by  it 
are  seldom  large  because  its  formation  is  depend- 
ent on  local  conditions.  In  the  United  States 
it  is  found  in  Eastern  Pennsylvania,  where  it 
forms  several  detached  areas  aggregating  about 
'170  square  miles.  These"  fields  are  known  as  the 
Southern  or  Schuylldll  field  (140  square  miles)  ; 
Western  Middle  field  (90  square  miles)  ;  Ejfstern 
Middle  field  (40  square  miles)  ;  Northern  or 
Wyoming  (200  square  miles)  ;  Loyalsock  or 
\\'estern  Northern.  The  coals  all  belong  to  the 
Middle  Carboniferous  or  Pennsylvanian  Series, 
at  the  base  of  which  is  a  hard  bed  known 
as  the  Pottsville  conglomerate.  After  beds  of 
the  Coal-measures  had  been  folded  into  basins, 
the  presence  of  the  outcropping  ledges  of  con- 
glomerate along  the  crests  of  the  ridges  pro- 
tected tlie  coal  beds  to  a  large  extent  and  have 
kept  them  from  being  entirely  worn  away  by 
weathering  and  erosion.  The  total  number  of 
workable  anthracite  seams  is  about  15.  but  sever- 
al others  :-.re  also  known.  The  aggregate  thickness 
of  the  bed.s  increases  from  west  to  east ;  the  best 
known  is  the  Mammoth  Bed,  which  in  places  may 
exceed  100  feet  in  thickness,  wliile  elsewhere  it 
may  split  up  into  several  beds  separated  by  lay- 
ers of  shale.  Wilkos-Barrc,  Seranton,  Hazelton 
and  Pottsville  are  important  mining  towns  in  the 
region.  At  Crested  Butle  in  Colorado,  and  near 
]\Indrid,  New  Mexico,  anthracite  is  found  in  beds 
of  I'pper  Cretaceous  age.  the  formation  of  the 
anthracite  in  each  case  being  due  to  igneous  in- 
trusions. Indeed,  at  the  latter  locality,  the 
change  from  bituminous  to  anthracite  coal  takes 
place  within  a  distance  of  2000  feet.  In  Europe 
anthracite  coal  is  fcnuid  in  the  Carboniferous  of 
South  Wales.  It  is  also  known  in  France  and 
Belgium.  What  are  probably  the  largest  de- 
posits in  the  world  are  those  around  Tse-Chow 
in  the  province  of  Shan-si.  Cn'iu'.  Baron  von 
Richthofen  estimated  that  the  nnmined  anthra- 
cite coal  in  Shan-si  amounted  to  t;:!0.000,()0().000 
tons,  and  that  the  area  was  greater  than  that  of 
Pennsylvania. 


Anthracite  coal,  after  mining,  goes  through  a 
crushing  and  sorting  process  in  coal-breakers,  in 
which  the  machinery  consists  of  crushing-rolls 
and  screens.  In  this  treatment  the  coal  is  sep- 
arated into  the  different  sizes  given  below,  and 
particles  of  slate  are  eliminated.  Much  of  the 
latter  is  separated  by  screens  having  the  bars  set 
at  an  angle,  so  that  wlien  a  mixture  of  coal  and 
slate  passes  over  them  the  slate  particles,  owing 
to  their  thinness,  slip  through,  while  the  coal 
passes  by.  Pieces  of  mixed  coal  and  slate  are 
known  as  bone-coal,  and  are  picked  out  by  boys 
when  the  smaller  sizes  of  coal  come  do\^^l  the 
shutes  from  the  screens.  Recently,  wet  methods 
of  separation  of  slate  and  coal,  by  means  of  jigs 
( q.v. )  have  been  adopted  with  great  success. 
The  capacity  of  some  breakers  is  very  large,  be- 
ing as  much  as  2000  to  3000  tons  of  marketable 
coal  per  da.v  of  ten  hours. 

The  following  sizes  are  ship]ied  from  the 
breaker : 

Broken,  or  CJrate  coal,  which  passes  through 
4-inch  mesh,  but  not  through  2. .5-inch  mesh. 

Egg  coal,  which  passes  through  2.5-inch  mesh, 
but  not  through  1.75-inch  mesh. 

Stove  coal,  which  passes  through  1.75-inch 
mesh,  but  not  through  1.25-inch  mesh. 

Chestnut  coal,  which  passes  through  1.25-inch 
mesh,  but  not  through  .75-inch  mesh. 

Pea  coal,  which  passes  through  , 75-inch  mesh, 
but  not  through  .50-inch  mesh. 

Buckwheat  coal,  which  passes  through  .50-inch 
mesh,  but  not  through  .25-inch  mesh. 

Very  coarse  lumps  are  known  as  "steamlioat 
coal,"  and  some  finer  sizes  are  at  times  separated 
into  two  kinds,  which  are  known  as  rice  and  flax- 
seed. The  finest  refuse  from  the  breakers  and 
mines  is  known  as  "culm,''  and  has  been  a  source 
of  much  concern  since,  throuch  being  considered 
as  waste,  it  has  been  allowed  to  collect  in  enor- 
mous heaps,  forming  a  marked  topographic  fea- 
ture of  the  anthracite  regions.  Owing  to  tlie  fine- 
ness of  this  material,  it  was  for  some  years  found 
difficult  to  burn  it  in  grates,  as  it  packed  and  hin- 
dered the  entrance  of  air.  In  recent  years  meth- 
ods of  utilization  for  cvilm  have  been  found,  and 
many  of  the  l)anks  have  been  worked  over  and  the 
coarser  particles  washed  out'and  sized.  It  can 
be  burned  in  specially  constructed  grates,  or 
can  be  mixed  with  tar  and  pressed  into  briquettes 
for  use  with  the  ordinary  grate.  Another  impor- 
tant use  is  for  filling  in  abandoned  or  partially 
worked-out  mines,  \\iiich  is  done  by  washing  the 
culm  down  through  a  pipe  into  the  mine,  where 
it  settles  into  a  compact  mass. 

In  the  trade,  anthracite  is  sometimes  clas.sed 
as  follows:  Free  binning,  white  ash,  haril 
white  ash,  Wyoming  red  ash,  Lehigh  red  ash, 
Shamokin.  Lykens  Valley  red  ash.  Schuylkill  red 
ash,  Trevorton,  Lorberry  red  ash,  and  Bernic? 
white  ash.  The  hard  white  ash  commands  the 
best  price. 

Tlie  production  of  anthracite  eoal  in  Pennsyl- 
vania from  1895  to  1900  was  as  follows: 


Year 

Total 
product 

Value  at 
MineB 

.\verai:e 

price 

per  tun 

No. 
employed 

.\vernffe 
Xo.daya 
worked 

ISftl 
ISflfi 
1897 
IS'.IR 
18!)!) 
1900 

51,78.5,122 

48.53.3.287 

46.974.715 

47.0(53,076 

5:),M4,(M7  , 

51,231..3S3 

889.019,272 
8,178,651 
7n,.301.9o4 
75.414. .5:i7 
88,142,1.30 
85,757,851 

$1.72 
1.85 
1.85 
1.75 
1.80 
1.85 

142,917 
148,991 
149..W7 
14.'i.l8t 
139,008 
144,208 

19fi 
174 
1.50 
1.53 
ITS 
186 

ANTHRACITE.  605 

It  is  also  of  interest  to  note  the  increase  : 
shipments  since  the  beginning  of  the  industry: 

Anthiiacite  Coal  Shipments,  1820  to  1809. 


ANTHRAX. 


ISiO 

3e&  long  tons 

isa 

1S«) 

iT-i.rw 

lB.-i5 

5B0,r58          " 

IWO 

8W.379 

1&45 

2,013,013 

1860 
1870 
1880 
1890 
1899 


8,513,l-i3  long  tons 

i(;,iH-M9i 

a3,43r.-JJ-J 
3G,C15.451) 
4r.tJ65,l.'04 


The  shipments  in  1899  went  to  forty  different 
Stiites  and  Territories,  while  1,707,796  long  tons 
woie  exported. 

The  annual  production  of  anthracite  in  Colo- 
rado and  New  ^Mexico  combined  amounted  to 
98,4U4  short  tons  in  1900.  Various  estimates  of 
the  amounts  of  anthracite  remaining  in  the  Penn- 
sylvania fields  have  been  made,  and  all  agree  in 
the  conclusion  that  the  deposits  will  last  at  the 
present  rate  of  production  for  more  than  one 
hundred  years.      For  illustration,  see  Coal. 

BiBLiooKAPHT.  For  statistics  of  production, 
consult  volumes  on  Mineral  liesources,  issued  an- 
nually by  tlie  United  States  Creological  Survey; 
various  reports  of  the  Second  Geological  Survey 
of  Pennsylvania,  and  the  Annual  Reports  of  the 
Bureau  of  Mines.  l\>nns\-lvania.  Consult  also: 
J.  J.  Stevenson,  "Origin  of  Penn-sylvania  Anthra- 
cite," Bulletin  of  the  Geological  (•Society  of  Amer- 
ica, Volume  v.,  page  39  (Rochester,  18941  ;  J.  J. 
Stevenson,  "The  Ccrrillos  Coal  Field,"  Transac- 
tions of  the  New  York  Academy  of  Scietices,  Vol- 
ume XV.,  page  105  (New  York,  189(1);  N.  F. 
Drake,  "Coal  Fields  Around  Tse  Chau,  China," 
Transactions  of  the  American  Institute  of  Min- 
ing Enyincers,  Volume  XXX.  (New  York,  1898) 
See  also  Coal,  and  Pem,\sylva.\ia. 

ANTHRACNOSE  (Gk.  dvepa^,  anthrax,  cSiT- 
bunele  +  viuros,  nosos,  disease ) .  A  group  of 
fungous  diseases  of  plants,  in  which  the  fruits, 
stems,  and  leaves  of  the  host  plant  are  attacked 
with  serious  injur}-.  Some  of  the  more  common 
forms  are  found  upon  beans,  blackberries,  rasp- 
berries, cucumbers,  egg-plants,  grapes,  cotton, 
peppers,  and  .spinach.  Species  of  the  fungi  Col- 
Ictotrichum  and  (lUrosporiiim  cause  most  of  these 
diseases.  In  fruit  that  is  attacked  definite  round 
discolored  spots  or  pits  may  be  observed,  in 
which  the  usually  light  colored  centre  is  sur- 
rounded by  darker  zones.  The  principal  diseases 
of  this  nature  are  noticed  in  this  Encyclopaedia 
under  Gkape  Anthracnose;  Bean;  and  similar 
titles. 

ANTHRAPURTTJRIN.     See  Purpurin. 

AN'THRAX  (Gk.  aifipai,  coal,  carbuncle, 
malignant  pustule;  Fr.  charbon) .  A  speciflc.  in- 
fectious disease  produced  by  a  pathogenic  micro- 
organism. Bacillus  anthrucis.  The  disease  is 
also  known  in  different  countries  as  charbon,  in- 
flammation of  milt;  mihbrand,  ■  carbonchio, 
mjcltbranf,  miltbrand,  and  Siberian  plague.  In 
man,  it  is  also  called  malignant  pustule,  or  car- 
buncle. It  is,  further,  often  referred  to  as  splen- 
ic fever  and  wool-sorter's  disease,  and,  in- 
correctly,  as   malignant   tedema. 

Anthrax  was  the  first  disease  in  which  the 
causative  relation  of  pathogenic  bacteria  was 
demonstrated.  Bacillus  antliraeis  is  found  in  tlie 
blood  and  the  tissues  of  affected  animals.  The 
di.sease  is  most  prevalent  among  herbivorous  ani- 
mals. Its  relative  frequency  in  cattle,  horses, 
sheep,  and  goats  varies  eonsiderabl}',  according 


to  the  region.  The  camel  and  various  members 
of  the  deer  family  are  frequently  affected.  The 
disease  is  rare  in  swine,  and  only  occasionally 
met  with  in  the  carnivora.  such  as  the  dog,  cat, 
pantlier,  lion,  tiger,  and  bear.  Anthrax  is  fre- 
quently transmitted  to  man,  especially  through 
abrasions  of  the  skin  of  the  hands. 

Enzootic  outbreaks  of  anthrax  have  been 
kno%vu  from  time  immemorial,  and  in  all  parts 
of  the  globe.  In  cattle,  veterinarians  distinguish 
three  forms  of  anthrax :  apoplectic,  acute,  and 
sub-acute.  In  the  first  type,  the  animal  sud- 
denly drops  to  the  ground  as  in  apoplexy,  and 
dies  in  convulsions  after  a  few  hours.  The  acute 
form  without  external  swellings  is  tlie  one  most 
frequently  observed  in  cattle.  The  temperature 
is  increased  from  41°  to  42°  C.  Muscular  trem- 
bling, general  prostration,  and  labored  breathing 
are  prominent  symptoms.  Death  supervenes, 
with  signs  of  asphyxia,  in  from  ten  to  twenty- 
fom-  hours.  In  the  sub-aciite  form,  which  is  rare, 
the  symptoms  are  essentially  the  same  as  in  the 
acute  form,  but  less  pronounced. 

In  both  horses  and  cattle  an  external  form  of 
anthrax  occurs,  dui'ing  which  tumors  or  carbun- 
cles develop  under  the  skin.  These  tumors  are 
distinguished  from  those  of  black-leg  by  the  fact 
that  they  do  not  emit  a  crackling  sound  on  be- 
ing stroked.  Before  death  the  discharges  of  the 
body  may  become  mucous,  or  even  bloody.  In 
animals  which  die  of  anthrax,  blood-clots  are 
found  on  nearly  all  the  vital  organs,  and  the 
spleen  is  enlarged  to  from  two  to  five  times  its 
normal  size.  The  sj-mptoms  of  anthrax  are  usu- 
ally characteristic,  but  a  definite  diagnosis  may 
always  be  made  by  an  examination  of  the  blood 
for  the  presence  of  the  anthrax  bacillus. 

In  countries  subject  to  the  ravages  ot  anthrax, 
the  disease  is  usually  restricted  to  well-defined 
areas,  which  seem  to  be  permanently  infected. 
Anthrax  is  most  common  in  localities  subject  to 
inundation.  Ponds  of  .stagnant  water  and 
streams  polluted  with  the  waste  from  tanneries 
and  nKjrocco  factories  may  serve  as  sources  of 
infection.  Perhaps  the  most  common  means  for 
the  spread  of  anthra.x  infection  is  found  in  the 
bodies  of  animals  dead  of  the  disease.  The  an- 
thrax bacillus  may  gain  entrance  to  the  bod}'  of 
an  animal  in  the  inspired  air,  in  food  or  water, 
or  in  wounds  of  the  skin.  The  rapidity  with 
which  the  different  symptoms  of  anthrax  develo]) 
depends  largely  upon  the  relative  resisting  power 
of  the  animal.  The  virulence  ot  the  anthra.x  ba- 
cillus is  only  slowly  affected  by  desiccation. 

The  bacillus  in  blood  drawn  from  affected  ani- 
mals and  dried  is  destroyed  by  exposure  to  di- 
rect sunlight  for  a  period  of  eight  hours.  An- 
thrax spores  may  retain  their  vitality  in  the  soil 
for  an  almost  indefinite  period,  especially  if  sit- 
uated at  some  depth,  where  they  are  protected 
from  the  action  of  light  and  oxygen.  Putrefac- 
tion destroys  the  vegetative  form  of  the  bacillus, 
but  does  not  affect  the  spores.  In  the  fila- 
mentous form  the  bacillus  is  killed  by  a  few  min- 
utes' exposure  to  a  temperature  of  55°  to  58°  C. 
The  spores  are  very  resistant  to  dry  heat,  a  tem- 
perature of  120°  to  140°  C.  for  three  hours  being 
required  to  kill  them.  In  1880,  Pasteur,  Cham- 
berlatiid.  and  Roux  tried  numerous  experiments 
in  attenuating  the  virus  of  anthrax  by  exposure 
to  the  air.  The  oxygen  of  tlie  air  was  found 
to  have  the  efl'ect  of  rendering  the  bacillus  less 
pathogenic,  especially  when  cultures  were  spread 
out  in  a  thin  layer.      Toussaint  was  the  first  to 


ANTHRAX. 


606 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 


obtain  an  attenuated  anthrax  virus  by  exposure 
to  beat.  Pasteur  and  others  demonstrated  that 
repeated  passage  tlirough  more  and  more  refrac- 
tory organisms  increases  the  virulence  of  the  an- 
thrax bacillus. 

Three  methods  for  immunizing  animals  against 
anthrax  have  been  devised:  inoculation  with  at- 
tenuated virus,  with  toxins,  and  with  antitoxic 
serums.  Good  results  have  been  obtained  by 
each  of  these  methods.  Medical  treatment  of 
anthrax  is  of  no  avail  except  in  the  sub-acute 
form  in  cattle  and  horses.  In  such  cases  the  ex- 
ternal tumors  may  be  cauterized  and  subse- 
quently treated  with  injections  of  tincture  of 
iodine.  The  affected  animals  should  also  be 
given  diffusible  stimulants  by  the  mouth.  In  the 
prevention  of  anthrax,  the  main  reliance  of  the 
stockman  is  to  be  placed  in  vaccination.  An- 
thrax vaccine  may  now  be  purchased  of  whole- 
sale druggists,  and  has  proved  very  etBcient  in 
the  prevention  of  the  'disease.  The  most  impor- 
tant sanitary  measure  to  be  adopted  in  case  of 
an  outbreak  of  anthrax  is  the  immediate  and 
complete  destruction  of  animal  carcases.  This 
is  best  accomplished  by  burning.  If  anthrax 
carcases  are  not  destroyed,  the  contagion  may  be 
spread  in  the  soil  and  water,  and  may  also  be 
carried  by  flies,  buzzards,  dogs,  and  other  car- 
nivorous animals.  The  thorough  sterilization  of 
hair,  wool,  and  animal  skins  by  steam,  dry  heat, 
or  otherwise,  will  prevent  the  infection  of  man 
from  handling  these  ]n-oducts. 

Bibliography.  "'.Special  report  on  miscellane- 
ous investigations  concerning  infectious  and  par- 
asitic diseases  of  Domesticated  Animals,"  United 
fitatcs  Department  of  Agriculture,  Dirisioii 
of  Animal  Industry,  Bulletin  III.  (Washington, 
1S93I  ;  '"Ueber  die  physiologischen  Bedingungen 
der  endogenen  Sporenbildungen,"  in  the  Central- 
hiaft  fiir  Bakteriulorjic  und  Parasitenkunde  (Jena 
l.S9(i):  'Wn  Outbreak  of  Anthrax  in  Horses," 
The  yetcriiiariaii  (London,  1895)  :  "Anthrax  in 
the  Lower  Mississippi  Valley,"  Report  of  the 
United  stales  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bu- 
reau of  Animal  Industry  (Washington,  1897)  ; 
A.  J.  Murray  and  others,  "Special  Report  on 
Diseases  of  Cattle  and  Cattle  Feeding,"  Report 
of  United  States  Department  of  Agrieulture 
(Washington,  1892)  :  J.  Law,  The  Farmers'  Vet- 
erinary Adeiscr   (Ithaca,  1892). 

AN'THEOPO-  (from  Gk.  a»e/ia.iros,  anthropos, 
mail,  liuiiian  being).  A  combining  form  occur- 
ring at  the  beginning  of  many  English  words, 
especially  scientific  terms,  and  denoting  that  the 
word  has  something  to  do  with  niiin  or  mankind : 
e.g..  «H//iro/jo-geography,  the  geographical  distri- 
bution of  mankind;  aH?/u-o/;ologj-,  the  science 
of  man;  anthropophagy,  man-eating,  or  cannibal- 
ism, etc. 

AN'THROPO-GEOG'RAPHY  (Gk.  ui..9puTor, 
anthropos,  man  -{-  yeuypnipia,  gcographia,  geog- 
raphy). A  division  of  bio-geography  which  de- 
scribes the  distribution  of  the  varieties  of  man- 
kind, and  depends  upon  anthropology  as  the  sci- 
ence from  which  it  derives  its  facts  regarding 
the  types  of  men.  As  a  division  of  bio-geogiaphy 
it  is  concerned  only  with  organic  ])henoinena, 
forming  a  higher  kind  of  natural  history  in 
which  man,  as  an  animal  in  relation  to  his  phys- 
ical environment,  is  subjected  to  the  same  kind 
of  investigation  as  plants  and  the  brute  creation. 
Both  in  Germany  and  France  the  literature  on 
the  subject  is  assuming  considerable  dimensions. 


Professor  Friedrich  Eatzel  was  appointed  to  the 
chair  of  anthropo-geography  at  Leipzig,  in  1860. 
His  Anthropo-geographie  (Stuttgart,  1899)  is  a 
tj'pe  of  this  division  of  geography.  A.  .J.  and 
F.  D.  Herbertson,  ilan  and  His  M'orks  (London, 
1899),  gives  in  a  popular  form  tli£  principles  of 
anthropo-geography.   See  Geogbapht,  Economic; 

ANTIIROrOLOtiV. 

AN'THROPOID  APES.     See  Ape. 

AN'THROPOL'ATRY  (Gk.  oi-^puTrof,  an- 
thropos, man  +  /Mrpnn,  latreia,  worship).  A 
term  signifying,  according  to  its  derivation,  the 
worship  of  man,  and  always  employed  in  re- 
proach. Thus,  the  early  Christians  accused  the 
heathen  of  anthropolatry  because  in  their  my- 
thology men  were  represented  as  exalted  among 
the  gods,  although  an  apotheosis  (q.v.)  was  in 
these  eases  alleged  by  their  worshipers;  and  the 
heathen  retorted  the  charge  of  the  worship  of 
Christ,  the  rejdy  to  which  was  the  assertion  of 
his  divinity.  But  the  term  is  chiefly  known  in 
ecclesiastical  history  in  connection  with  the  em- 
ployment of  it  by  the  Apollinarians  against  the 
ortliodox  Christians  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  cen- 
turies, who  in  worshiping  Christ  worshiped,  as 
was  affirmed,  only  a  nuin  in  whom  God  dwelt. 
See  Apoi.LiNARis. 

AN'THROPOL'OGY  (Gk.  av-dpajrou  anthro-  ', 
pos,  man  +  hnm;,  logos,  discourse,  science).  The 
science  of  man.  Anthropologj'  is  the  youngest  ■ 
of  the  sciences  and  borrows  methods  from  all,  ' 
though  the  object  matter — the  human  genus — is  ; 
so  far  distinct  as  to  require  special  treatment. 
Tills  may  be  illustrated  by  noting  the  relations 
among  the  older  sciences  determined  by  their  re- 
spective phenomena  or  object  matter.  In  astron- 
omy the  objects  of  study  are  stellar  and  plan- 
etary bodies  arranged  in  s3-stems  controlled  by 
gravity ;  in  chemistry,  the  objects  are  substances 
affected  by  gravity  and  also  by  atTmity;  in  phy- 
tology,  or  botany,  the  same  factors  remain  and 
vitality  is  added:  in  zoologi,-,  the  objects  are  sub- 
ject to  the  laws  of  gravity,  affinity,  and  vitality, 
while  motility  is  added:  and  in  anthropology,  all 
the  simple  factors  remain,  yet  they  are  subordi- 
nate to  the  special  factor  of  mentality  which 
gives  character  to  the  science.  In  view  of  this 
relation  it  becomes  clear  that  the  course  of  de- 
velopment of  the  sciences  from  astronomy  to 
anthropology  is  the  normal  one  of  passage  "from 
the  simple  to  the  complex.  The  same  relation 
indicates  that  interdependence  of  the  sciences 
which  makes  anthropology  the  debtor  of  the  old- 
er branches  of  knowledge  for  methods  of  weigh- 
ing and  measuring,  and  of  locating  and  tracing, 
yet  leaves  each  older  science  practically  inde- 
pendent of  those  younger,  and  all  measurably 
free  of  the  youngest  science  except  in  so  far  as  it 
reveals  the  laws  of  thought,  on  which  all  knowl- 
edge is  founded.  Accordingly,  the  older  sciences 
have  co'iperated  to  define  and  estalilish  certain 
laws  which  may  be  styled  the  cardinal  principles, 
viz.:  the  indestructibility  of  matter,  the  persist- 
ence of  motion,  the  development  of  species,  and 
the  uniformity  of  nature;  but  it  remained  for 
anthropology-  (despite  a  definite  suggestion  by 
Bacon)  to  establish  the  complementary  principle 
of  the  responsivity  of  mind. 

At  the  outset  anthropology^  was  little  more 
than  an  extension  of  zoiUog^-  to  a  distinct  genus, 
and  the  methods  were  shaped  accordingly.  As 
the  study  of  structures  was  pursued,  comparative 
anatomy  made  useful  progiess,  and  many  homol- 


ANTHBOPOLOGY. 


607 


ANTHROPOMETRY. 


ogies  between  the  genus  Homo  ami  both  simian 
and  pithecoid  genera  were  discovered;  later  tlie 
jiietliods  and  objects  of  measurement  were  extend- 
ed, and  anthropometry  became  prominent  in  sci- 
entific thought  and  literature;  and  during  recent 
years  the  study  of  structures  and  functions  of  the 
human  body  has  taken  definite  form-  under  the 
term  somatology  (q.v. ).  Concurrently  the  study 
of  functions,  especially  those  of  neural  and  cere- 
bral character,  luis  made  great  progress  under  the 
designation  of  experimental  psychology.  Mean- 
time certain  observers  of  men  and  tribes  became 
impressed  with  the  collective  characteristics  of 
the  genus,  characteristics  so  striking  as  to  lead  to 
the  recognition  of  tlie  group,  rather  tlian  the  in- 
dividual, as  the  true  unit  of  anthropology.  This 
collective  unit  is  called  the  sociuti  by  Giddings, 
and  the  ethnos  or  demos  (according  to  the  de- 
gree of  development  1  by  other  investigators.  The 
recognition  of  collective  units  was  soon  followed 
by  recognition  of  collective  function.s,  i.e.,  of  the 
fact  that  what  men  do  is  of  incomparably  greater 
moment  than  what  they  merely  arc:  and  this  led 
to  the  definition,  largely  by  Powell,  of  the  sci- 
ence of  demology,  or  the  science  of  col- 
lective human  activity.  The  activities  them- 
selves have  been  classified  as  those  pertain- 
ing respectively  to  arts,  industries,  laws,  lan- 
guages, and  philosophies;  and  corresponding 
subsciences  have  been  defined  as  esthetology, 
technology,  sociology,  philology,  and  sophiology. 
In  this  arrangement  of  the  subdivisions  of  an- 
thropolog\'  prehistoric  technology  becomes  jirae- 
tically  equivalent  to  the  branch  of  knowledge 
long  ])Uisued  as  arehieology,  while  sophiology 
embraces  folk-lore  and  the  study  of  primitive 
faiths  or  mythology;  and  when  the  activities  are 
classified  with  a  view  to  the  definition  of  races 
and  peoples,  the  product  is  ethnology.  The  gen- 
eral subject  of  anthropology  is  treated  under  the 
designation  of  the  object  matter  of  the  science, 
Man,  and  the  subdivisions  of  the  science  are 
entered  under  their  proper  heads. 

ANTHROPOLOGY,    Criminal.     See    Crimi- 

>-0I.0(iY. 

ANTHROPOLOGY,  Theological.  A  theo- 
logical system  which  considers  man  as  being  the 
subject  of  sin  and  grace.  It  consequently  con- 
siders his  natural  powers,  so  far  as  these  relate 
to  moral  action  and  states — the  moral  intuitions, 
conscience,  the  affections,  the  will,  habit — the 
original  sin  of  Adam  and  its  efTects  upon  himself 
and  upon  his  posterity,  the  corruption  of  nature, 
technically  called  "original  sin,"  and  the  fall, 
heredity,  the  bondage  of  the  will,  and  imputation. 
To  these  topics  certain  otliers  are  often  a(Mcd, 
such  as  the  origin  and  antiquity  of  man.  the 
origin  of  the  soul  (whether  by  creationism  or 
tradlicianism) ,  and  the  unity  of  the  human  race. 
See  these  various  heads  for  discussion  of  the 
topic. 

AN'THROPOM'ETRY ( Gk.  <;i.?pu7rnr,  anthro- 
pos.  man  +  in-rimv,  //ic/roH.  measure) .  A  method 
of  measurement  pursued  in  anthropology.  The 
primary  measurements  are  those  of  the  normal 
body  at  rest,  and  include  stature,  weight,  cir- 
cumference of  head,  reach  (or  span  of  extended 
arms),  circumference  and  expansion  of  chest, 
length  of  arm  and  leg.  sitting  height,  circum- 
ference of  waist,  limbs,  hips,  and  shoulders, 
length  of  forearm  and  thigh,  size  of  foot,  length 
of  fingers,  size  and  position  of  ear,  facial  angle 
(i.e.,  degree  of  prognathism),  shape  of  head,  size 


and  form  of  nose,  position  and  attitude  of  eyes, 
etc.  Of  these  elements  of  the  hunum  body,  only 
a  few  are  commonly  regarded  as  of  ethnic  sig- 
nificance, or  of  use  in  describing  and  comparing 
peoples  or  races  considered  collectively;  the  ele- 
ments commonly  so  employed  comprise  stature, 
size  and  shape  of  head,  facial  angle,  relative 
length  of  limb,  attitude  of  eyes,  etc.  Some  or 
all  of  the  other  elements  receive  special  consid- 
eration in  studies  and  comparisons  of  selected 
classes  of  population,  e.g.,  school-children  of 
various  ages  or  grades;  and  certain  of  the  ele- 
ments are  customarily  recognized  in  the  study 
of  individuals,  such  as  athletes,  criminals,  etc. 
With  these  definitely  quantitative  measurements, 
other  individual  or  typical  attributes  of  the  hu- 
man body  are  commonly  correlated ;  chief  among 
these  are  color  (of  skin,  hair,  eyes,  mucous 
membrane,  nails,  etc.) ,  character  of  pelage  (scalp 
hair,  beard,  axillary  and  pubic  hair,  body  hair), 
local  and  general  texture  of  integument,  form 
and  mobility  of  features,  etc.  Other  measure- 
ments of  connnon  use  in  anthropologic  studies 
are  those  of  the  skeleton,  particularly  the  skull, 
jaws,  and  long  bones.  Various  anthropologists, 
like  JIanouvrier  and  Deniker,  have  devised  for- 
mulas for  determining  stature  from  the  length 
of  femur,  tibia,  humerus,  and  other  long  bones; 
and  the  relative  dimensions  of  the  different  bones 
of  the  skeleton  are  conunonly  regarded  as  ethnic 
indications.  The  forms  of  certain  bones  are  also 
deemed  ethnic  criteria;  the  flattening  of  the 
tibia  I  platycnemism  )  and  the  perforation  of  the 
humerus  in  the  olecranon  fossa  have  received 
especial  consideration  in  this  connection.  The 
measurement  of  tlie  skull  has  been  developed  into 
a  system  known  as  craniometry,  which  in 
some  schools  has  been  held  to  constitute  a  large 
if  not  controlling  part  of  anthropology,  although 
others  regard  tlie  cranial  measurements  as  ex- 
pressing little  more  than  individual  variations 
of  trifling  value  in  ethnology  and  general  anthro- 
pology. A  leading  feature  in  this  aspect  of  an- 
thropometry is  the  cranial  index,  i.e.,  the  breadth 
of  the  skull  in  proportion  to  its  length  as  viewed 
from  above  (in  the  norma  verticalis)  ;  and  three 
types  are  commonly  defined  as  dolichocephalic  or 
longhead,  mesocephalic  or  round-head,  and  bra- 
chycephalic  or  broad-head  varieties  of  the  genus 
Homo,  the  ratios  of  breadth  to  length  being  about 
70  :  100,  80  :  100.  and  85  :  100.  respectively. 

Another  important  feature  of  the  system  is 
the  capacity  of  the  brain-case,  measured  by  means 
of  liquid  or  fragmental  substances  (water,  glycer- 
in, sand,  fine  shot,  or  small  seeds),  poured  into 
the  cavity  and  afterward  weighed  or  gauged,  or 
by  aid  of  a  thin,  elastic,  and  inijiervious  bag 
inserted  through  the  foramen  magnum  and  after- 
ward filled  with  liquid;  and  connected  with  such 
determinations  is  the  direct  weigliing  or  meas- 
urement of  the  brain  itself.  Still  another  fea- 
ture is  the  facial  angle,  i.e..  the  angle  sulitcnded 
by  the  bones  of  face  and  forehead  with  the  base 
of  the  cranium,  viewed  from  the  side  ( norma 
lateralis:),  or  in  vertical  antero-posterior  section 
{norma  mediana) .  There  are  several  modes  of 
defining  this  angle,  those  of  Cam])er,  Cloquet, 
.lacquart.  and  Cuvier  being  best  known ;  and  the 
progressively  increasing  angle  from  the  lower 
animals  to  the  anthropoids,  and  thence  from 
the  lowest  races  to  the  highest  type  of  humanity, 
is  among  the  striking  facts  brought  out  by  scien- 
tific inquiry.  The  facial  index  is  anotlier  feature 
of  modern  anthroi)ometry.  and  afi'ords  arbitrary 


ANTHBOPOMETBY. 


608 


ANTICHLOB. 


but  useful  means  of  compaiing  crania  of  different 
types,  wliile  craniometric  specialists  have  devised 
a  series  of  points,  lines,  and  angles  serving  to 
define  cranial  forms  and  tj'pes  in  great  detail. 
Among  the  applications  of  anthropometry,  in 
what  may  be  called  the  static  aspect,  are  those 
involved  in  the  Bertillon  system  (((.v.)  and  relat- 
ed methods  of  bodily  description  for  identification 
or  otlier  purposes,  and  among  these  that  of  iden- 
tification by  finger-prints  (i.e..  by  the  patterns 
of  the  papillaceous  ridges  which  are  peculiar  to 
each  individual ) .  which  was  brought  out  in 
America  by  Gilbert  Thompson  and  in  England  by 
Francis  Galton.  is  of  much  interest. 

During  recent  decades,  what  may  be  called  the 
dynamic  aspect  of  anthropometry  lias  attained 
prominence,  and  the  measurement  of  structures 
has  been  supplemented  by  measurement  of  func- 
tions, both  periodic  and  special.  Among  the 
former  are  rates  of  respiration  and  pulsation, 
which  vary  with  sex,  age.  and  race  as  well  as 
with  individual  characteristics  and  conditions; 
and  various  devices  ( including  the  plethysmo- 
graph,  with  its  variants  and  improvements)  have 
been  devised  to  measure  the  interrelations  be- 
tween the  periodic  and  special  functions  of  the 
human  body.  The  latter  functions  are  too  nu- 
merous and  variable  for  ready  treatment,  though 
athletic  records,  the  military  step  in  various 
armies,  the  hours  of  labor  in  different  countries 
and  classes,  the  variation  of  faculty  with  race 
and  culture, and  other  relevant  material  are  grad- 
ually assuming  systematic  form.  Among  the 
most  fruitful  lines  of  measurement  of  human 
function  are  those  of  experimental  psychology, 
pursued  in  America  by  Cattell,  Royce,  Baldwin, 
Scripture.  MacDonald.  Witmcr.  and  others,  for 
these  open  new  vistas  of  relationship  between 
structures  and  functions,  between  body  and  mind, 
and  between  the  processes  and  the  products  of 
organic  development  in  the  human  genus.  The 
data  obtained  tlirough  anthropometry  ma,y  be 
sunnnarized  under  somatology   (q.v.). 

AN'THBOPOMOB'PHISM  ( Gk.  u-^^pumc, 
aiilhrupos,  man  J-  iinpipr/.  morphC,  form).  The 
application  to  God  of  terms  wliich  properly  be- 
long only  to  hunuin  beings.  This  may  be  done 
literally,*  teaching  that  God  really  has  a  body, 
as  some  (see  Ai'd.eus)  have  been  accused  of 
doing,  with  doubtful  truth.  Some  philosophers 
(Hobbes,  Forstcr,  Priestley)  have  ascribed  to 
God  a  sort  of  subtle  body.  Figuratively,  anthro- 
pomorphism is  employed  in  the  Scriptures,  as 
when  God  is  said  to  have  eye  or  arm.  Anthro- 
popathism  ascribes  to  God  human  affections  and 
passions,  and  is  the  more  connnon  form  of  anthro- 
pomorphism. The  whole  tendency  arises  from 
the  difficulty  of  conceiving  of  God  as  he  is  in 
himself,  and  from  the  teachings  of  Christianity, 
which  seeks  to  reveal  God  to  men,  and  employs 
terms  which  are  capable  of  being  understood. 
Wliile  it  is  susceptilde  of  abuse,  it  has  a  funda- 
mental justification  in  the  fact  that  if  there  is  to 
be-any  knowledge  of  C!od  at  all,  man  must  be 
assumed  to  possess  a  !il<c  nature  with  God.  We 
are  made  "in  his  image."  TIic  extreme  of  recoil 
from  anthropomorphism  is  found  in  those  philos- 
ophei's  (e.g.,  Fichte  and  his  school)  who  reject 
the  personality  of  God  as  anthropomorphic. 
Sehleiermachcr.  following  Spinoza,  thought  that 
there  was  somelhing  in  God  far  higher  than  per- 
sonality, which  he  regarded  as  a  lunnan  limita- 
tion. Another  term  used  to  express  the  same  as 
above  is  Anthropopathism. 


AN'THBOPOPH'AGY  (Gk.  ai'*,„j57»f,  uu- 
thrOpos,  man  +  <puyth\  plia gc in,  to  eat) .  Canni- 
balism ;  the  eating  of  human  flesh.  See  Canni- 
balism :  Man,  Science  of. 

ANTHU'BITJM.     See  Arum. 

ANTHYLIjIS.     See  KiDNET  Vetch. 

AN'TI,  or  Cami'.\^.  An  important  and  war- 
like tribe  of  Arawakan  stock,  occupying  the  for- 
ests at  the  head  waters  of  the  U(ayali  River,  on 
the  eastern  slope  of  the  Andes,  in  southern  Peru. 
The  eastern  division  of  the  Inca  empire  took  its 
name  of  Antisuj-u  from  them.  Tliey  are  of  good 
physiq\ie  and  pleasant  countenance,  and  wear 
their  hair  long  and  llowing,  with  a  poncho  belted 
around  the  waist  as  their  principal  garment. 
The  women  are  skillful  weavers  of  wild  cotton, 
and  the  men  are  good  metal  workers.  They  cul- 
tivate the  ground  to  some  extent,  and  delight  in 
taming  animals  from  the  forest. 

AN'TIA'BIA  AND  ANT'JAB.       See  Upas. 

ANTIBES,  iix'teb'.  A  fortified  seaport  in  the 
department  of  Aljies-ilaritimes,  in  the  south- 
east of  Provence,  France,  and  the  general  port  of 
comnnmication  with  Corsica.  It  stands  on  the 
east  side  of  a  small  neek  of  land  called  La 
Garoupe,  lying  west  of  the  mouth  of  the  Var, 
in  a  fertile  district  (Map:  France,  Jv  8).  The 
harbor  is  only  serviceable,  however,  for  small 
craft.  7t  possesses  a  naval  school,  and  has  con- 
siderable trade  in  olives,  dried  fruits,  salt  fish, 
oil,  perfumery,  etc.  The  anchovies  prepared  at 
Antilles  are  held  in  high  esteem.  Tlie  en- 
virons of  the  town  are  bright  with  vine.vards  and 
orchards,  while  its  gardens  of  roses  and  jasmine 
furnish  material  for  the  extensive  perfume  manu- 
factories of  the  town.  Pop.  in  ISOtJ,  4950:  com- 
mune, 0329;  in  1901,  5512;  commune,  10,947. 

Antibes  is  a  very  old  place,  having  been  found- 
ed under  the  name  of  .-Vntipolis  by  a  colony  of 
Greeks  from  Massilia  (Marseilles),  of  which  it 
became  a  dependency.  In  the  time  of  Augustus 
it  was  elevated  to  the  rank  of  a  muiiicipiiiiii, 
and  must  have  attained  a  high  degree  of  pros- 
perity, if  we  are  to  judge  frcnn  the  ruins  of 
theatres  and  aqueducts  that  still  exist.  After 
the  disintegration  of  the  Rximan  Empire,  Antibes 
shared  the  fate  of  all  cities  in  that  region,  becom- 
ing subject  to  successive  tribes  of  barbarians 
from  the  Korth.  In  the  ninth  century  it  was 
destroyed  by  the  Saracens;  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury it  was  fortified  by  Francis  I.  and  Henry  IV.: 
during  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession,  it 
sustained  a  siege  of  three  months  (1746)  ;  and 
in  recent  times  gained  some  celebrity  from  hav- 
ing closed  its  gates  against  Xapoleon  on  his 
leturn  from  Elba.  Consult  Vinson,  "Le  port  et 
le  quartier  maritime  d'Antibcs,"  in  Revue  Mar- 
illmi:  Volume   CXLVI.      (Paris,   1900). 

AN'TIBURGH'EB.     See  Burgher. 
AN'TICANT,    Du.    Pessimi.st.     An   appella- 
tion nf   Thomas  Carlyle   (q.v.). 

AN'TICHLOB  {aiiH  +  ehlorinc) .  jVny  one 
of  several  substances  (e.g..  sodium  sulphite,  sodi- 
um bi-sulphite,  sodium  hyposulphite,  or  calcium 
sulphide)  used  by  manufacturers  of  linen  and 
cotton  iibre  and  paper  pulp  to  remove  the  last 
traces  of  free  chlorine  that  had  been  generated 
from  the  hypochlorite  used  in  bleaching  the  mate- 
rials mentioned.  Free  chlorine  has  a  tendency 
slowly  to  disintegrate  the  material  unless  re- 
moved.   , 


ANTICHBIST. 


609 


ANTICHRIST. 


AN'TICHRIST  ( Gk.' Ain'vp'crof,  Antichi-istos; 
from  ai'W,  aiiti,  against  +  Xf)inT6<;,  Cliristos, 
Christ).  A  name  whit-li  occurs  only  in  the 
Epistles  of  .lohn,  hut  which,  in  all  likelihood. 
desii;nates  the  final  New  Testament  form  of  a 
popular  belief,  whose  rise  is  to  be  found  in  later 
.Judaism  aiid  which  was  appropriated  with  vari- 
ous modifications  by  biblical   writers. 

Itf  source  is  a  question  of  some  debate.  Most 
probably,  however,  it  lay  in  the  popular  convic- 
tions aroused  by  the  constant  announcement  of 
the  divine  purpose  to  punish  Israel'*  sin  by 
piving  lier  into  the  hands  of  heathen  nations, 
but  to  recover  her  by  force  from  their  power  when 
her  spiritual  discipline  had  been  accomplislied. 
Tlie  repeated  carrying-  out  of  this  policy,  even  in 
earlier  .lewish  history,  evidently  impressed  the 
popular  mind  with  the  idea  of  an  essential  oppo- 
sition between  the  heathen  nations  and  the  people 
of  (iod,  the  final  outcome  of  which  was  yet 
in  the  future,  but  must  be  in  favor  of  the  chosen 
peoi)le.  Such  an  impression  may  have  been  aided 
by  the  instinctive  natural  beliefs  in  the  struggle 
of  darkness  with  light  and  chaos  with  order 
(Hossuet)  ;  but.  in  view  of  tlu>  above  uni(iue  line 
of  revelation  and  experience  peculiar  to  the  .Jew- 
ish [jcople,  it  is  quite  gratuitous  to  make  such 
general  beliefs  the  definite  so.urce  of  such  a  dis- 
tinctive popular  conviction. 

As  the  later  revelation  emphasized  the  element 
of  punishment  to  be  administered  to  the  heathen 
nations  by  announcing  that  (iod  would  not  only 
recover  his  people  when  their  discipline  was 
finished,  but  would  chastise  the  nations  for  any 
attempt  on  their  part  to  overreach  the  discipli- 
nary mission  given  them,  the  popular  idea  of  the 
hostility  of  the  nations  to  the  people  of  God 
was  naturally  increased.  The  primary  form  of 
this  popular  conception  is  evidently  rised  by 
Ezekiel  as  a  basis  for  his  prophecy  concerning 
the  consummation  of  Israel's  restoration,  in 
which  he  describes  the  nations  of  the  world  as 
assembled  under  the  leadershij)  of  "Gog  of  the 
land  of  Magog''  for  final  battle  against  Israel 
(Ezekiel  xxxviii.  xxxix:  see  also  Zechariah  xii 
to  xiv.  where  the  prophet  foretells  the  gathering 
together  of  all  the  nations  of  the  earth  to  fight 
against  .Jerusalem,  and  the  Lord's  going  forth 
in  turn  to  fight  against  them  I . 

In  the  experience  of  the  Jews  under  Antiochus 
Ei)iphanes,  however,  the  popular  conception  of 
this  struggle  made  a  distinct  advance,  in  which 
the  opposition  was  concentrated  in  a  single  per- 
sonage, and  all  idea  of  disciplinary  mission  to- 
ward Israel  was  lost  sight  of  in  the  conviction 
of  an'inhevent  enmity  against  the  people  of  God. 
This  secondary  form  appears  in  the  eschatological 
prophecies  of  the  Maccabean  Hook  of  Daniel 
(Daniel  \Hi  to  ix,  xi,  xii,  in  which  are  given  the 
vision  of  the  beast  with  the  ten  horns,  triumphed 
over  by  the  ".Vucient  of  Days,"  and  the  vision  of 
the  goat  with  the  horn  between  the  eyes  who 
warred  against  the  holy  city  but  was  finally  him- 
self destroyed) . 

Naturally,  as  the  idea  of  a  personal  Messiah 
increased  in  definiteness,  this  popular  belief  in 
a  personal  adversary  would  grow  stronger,  es- 
pecially when  we  consider  the  long-continued 
influence  on  Jewish  thought  of  the  Daniel  proph- 
ecies. We  can  believe,  therefore,  though  the 
Jewish  apocryphal  literature  antedating  the 
Christian  era  does  not  distinctly  show  it.  that  the 
conception  of  an  Antimessiah  was  more  or  less 
current  in  Judaism  before  the  rise  of  Christian- 


ity. This  Antimessianic  conception  is  appro- 
priated by  New  Testament  writers,  with 
modifications  due  to  the  newer  revelations 
of  truth  in  the  Gospel  and  apostolic  times, 
particularly  those  which  substituted  the  spir- 
itual for  the  national  idea  of  the  king- 
dom of  God.  and  so  emphasized  the  signifi- 
cant distinction  between  righteousness  and  sin. 
So  we  see  Paul's  statement  concerning  the  advent 
and  mission  of  the  Man  of  .Sin  and  his  final  de- 
struction by  Christ  (II.  Thessalonians  ii  :  1-12: 
"For  the  day  of  the  Lord  will  not  come,  except 
.  .  .  the  Man  of  Sin  be  revealed,  ,  .  .  who  oppos- 
eth  and  exalteth  himself  against  all  that  is  called 
God  .  .  .  whom  the  Lord  Jesus  shall  slay  with 
the  breath  of  his  mouth  .  .  .  whose  coming  is 
according  to  the  working  of  Satan  with  all  power 
and  signs  and  Ij'ing  wonders  .  .  .  and  deceit  of 
unrighteousness") ,  where,  however,  in  the  deceiv- 
ing character  of  his  mission,  there  is  brought  out 
a  new  idea — an  idea  which  is  frequently  ajiplied 
by  Paul  to  those  who  opposed  him  and  his  gos- 
pel (Acts  XX  :  30:  II.  Corinthians  xi  :  13:  I. 
Timothy  iv  :  1,  2).  So  also  wc  see  the  various 
fonns  of  statement  in  the  Book  of  Revelation 
regarding  the  Beast  and  the  Dragon  (compare 
Revelation  xi  to  xiii,  xvi,  xix.  .x.x,  in  which  we 
are  told  of  "the  beast  that  eometh  up  out  of  the 
abyss,"  who  overcomes  "the  two  witnesses,"  and 
of  the  "red  dragon  having  seven  heads  and  ten 
horns,"  warring  against  the  wouuin  and  her 
child  and  destroyed  by  ilichael  and  his  angels; 
also  of  the  "beast  coming  up  out  of  the  sea, 
having  ten  horns  and  seven  heads,"  ministered 
to  by  the  "beast  coming  out  of  the  earth,"  with 
"two  horns  like  unto  a  lamb,"  and  finding  his 
identification  in  the  mystical  number  "six  hun- 
dred and  sixty  and  six").  The  idea  of  the 
deceiving  mission  of  the  adversary,  however,  is 
in  this  book  specifically  pictured  in  the  separate 
figure  of  the  False  Prophet,  "who  wrought  signs 
wherewith  he  deceived  them  that  had  received 
the  mark  of  the  beast"  (Revelation  xvi  :  13, 
xix  :  20,  XX  :  10.  though  compare  also  xii  :  9  and 
xiji  :  14  for  the  same  charac  teristics  in  the 
Dragon  and  the  Beast) .  In  this  figure  there  is  a 
return  to  the  earlier  personal  idea  of  the  .Anti- 
messiah. and.  at  the  same  time,  an  advance  to 
the  final  New  Testament  form  found  in  the 
.Johannine  Epistles,  where  the  teaching  of  false 
doctrines  is  personified  in  the  term  Antichrist 
(I.  John  ii  :  18.  22:  iv  :  1-3:  ".Many  false  proph- 
ets are  gone  out  into  the  world  .  .  .  Every 
spirit  which  confesseth  not  .Jesus  .  .  .  this  is 
the  spirit  of  Antichrist:"  II.  John  7:  "This  is 
the  deceiver  and  the  Antichrist'' ) . 

This  Antimessianic  conception  is  dearlyappro- 
priated  by  Jesus  as  a  form  for  his  eschatological 
statements  regarding  those  who  shall  appear  in 
opposition  to  his  cause  (Mark  xiii  :  .5.  G:  ".Many 
shall  come  in  my  name,  saying,  'I  am  he:'  and 
shall  lead  many  astray:"  see  also  verses  21,  22: 
"There  shall  arise  false  Christs  and  false  proph- 
ets, and  shall  shew  signs  and  wonders,  that  they 
may  lead  astray,  if  possible,  the  elect'').  In  these 
statements  .Jesus  seems,  in  the  term  "false."  to 
have  distinctly  introduced  a  new  idea,  which  does 
not  appear  to  have  been  present  in  the  popular 
beliefs,  Tliis  would,  however,  have  been  quickly 
intelligible  to  those  of  his  hearers  who  recalled 
the  false  prophets  of  .Jewish  history,  whose  abil- 
ity to  deceive  the  false  Christs  were  to  reproduce. 
From  the  tradition  of  Jesus'  words  may  have 
come  the  idea  of  falseness  in   Paul's  statement 


ANTICHRIST. 


610 


ANTIDOTE. 


regarding  the  Man  of  Sin  and  his  own  gospel 
opponents;  from  its  definite  form  in  the  written 
gospel  is  quite  certain  to  have  come  John's  state- 
ment regarding  the  false  prophet,  if  not  his  use 
of  the  term  itself. 

The  idea  of  Antichrist  persisted  into  the  post- 
apostolic  times,  in  both  .Jewish  and  Cliristian 
circles.  In  the  former  it  returned  to  its  earlier 
national  form :  in  the  latter  it  carried  forward 
the  final  New  Testament  form  of  the  teaching. 
Consult:  Discussions ;  H.  Gunkel,  Hchupfung  und 
Chaos  (Giittingen,  1S95)  ;  W.  Bousset,  The  Anti- 
christ Legend,  Engli.sh  translation  (London, 
1890)  :  M.  Friedlilnder.  Der  Antichrist  in  den 
vorchristlichen  jiidischen  Qtiellen  (Giittingen, 
1901). 

AN'TICLI'MAX  (Gk.  avrl,.  anti,  against  + 
H}i/in-,kUinux,  a  hiddcr,  climax).  In  rhetoric,  an 
abru])t  declension  by  a  writer  or  speaker  from 
the  dignity  to  which  his  idea  has  attained. 
Though  the  anticlimax  is  to  be  avoided  in  serious 
discourse,  where  it  leads  to  bathos,  it  is  employed 
with  fine  effect  in  ridicule  and  satire.  Pope. 
Addison,  and  Fielding  were  masters  in  this  art 
of  unexpected  descent.  Pope,  for  example,  thus 
writes  of  Queen  Anne  at  Hampton  Court: 

"  Here  thou,  s^reat  .\nn.T!  wliom  three  realms  obey, 
Dost  sometimes  conn^Jel  t.Tke — and  sometimes  tea." 

AN'TICLI'NAL  AX'IS.     See  Anticline. 

AN'TICLINE  (Gk.  oit/,  anti,  against,  oppo- 
site-f-  K/ireiv,  klinein,  to  incline).  In  geology, 
a  term  applied  to  tliat  form  of  rock-folding  in 
whicli  tile  opposite  sides  or  liml)s  of  the  fold 
slope  downward  and  away  from  the  crest  of  the 
fold.  Anticlinal  axis  is  the  a.xis  or  crest  of  such 
a  fold.  The  anticline  may  be  compared  to  the 
ordinary  gable-roof — tlie  axis  corresponding  to 
the  ridge  of  the  roof,  while  the  limbs  of  the  anti- 
cline correspond  to  the  slopes  of  the  roof.  When 
the  anticlinal  axis  lies  in  a  horizontal  plane, 
which,  however,  is  seldom  the  case,  the  layers 
composing  the  limbs  of  the  fold  are.  after  ero- 
sion, exposed  in  parallel  rows  on  either  side  of 
the  axis;  those  layers  of  earlier  age.  and  conse- 
quently of  lower  stratigraphic  position,  occupy- 
ing positions  nearer  to  the  axis,  and  rice-versd. 
Tlius,  in  an  anticlinal  ridge  the  crest  of  the 
ridge  is  occupied  by  rocks  of  a  geologic  age 
earlier  than  that  of  the  rocks  forming  the  flanks 
of  the  ridge.  This  condition  is  due  largely  to 
the  fact  that  the  rocks  near  the  axis  have  suf- 
fered greater  compression  and  are  consequently 
harder  than  are  those  of  the  flanks. 

The  supplementary  condition  to  that  of  the 
anticline,  or  up-fold,  is  observed  in  the  syncline. 
or  down-fold,  and  indeed  these  two  types  of 
folds  are  usually  found  in  close  association ;  the 
features  of  anticlines  being,  however,  reversed  in 
synclines.  When  anticlinal  and  synclinal  axes 
are  tilted  and  eroded,  tlie  component  layers  out- 
crop in  alternating  convergent  and  divergent 
series  to  form  zigzag  ridges  with  intervening 
"canoe-valleys,"  a  type  of  structure  which  is 
well  developed  in  Pennsylvania.  The  term  anti- 
clinorium  is  applied  to  a  compound  anticline. 
and  the  term  synclinoriuni  to  a  compound  svn- 
cline.  Anticlines  are  intimately  associated  with 
the  occurrence  of  natural  gas,  it  having  been  dem- 
onstrated that  tlie  gas  occurs  at  those  portions 
of  the  gas-bearing  stratinn  that  have  been  thrust 
upward  to  form  an  anticlinal  axis  or  dome.  See 
DiASTROPins.M ;  Geolocy  ;  and  for  illustration, 
see  iilate  accompanying  the  latter  title. 


AN'TI-CORN'-LAW  LEAGUE.  An  organi- 
zation  in  Great  Britain  wliich  had  much  to  do 
with  the  ultimate  repeal  of  the  Corn  Laws.  The 
League,  in  which  Richard  Cobden  was  the  leading 
spirit,  was  formed  at  Manchester. March  20,1839. 
With  the  aid  of  Mr.  Cobden  and  Mr.  Bright,  as 
\\ell  as  many  others,  the  League  undertook  what 
in  our  day  would  be  termed  a  campaign  of  educa- 
tion. Meetings  were  held  in  all  corners  of  the 
kingdom,  and  vast  quantities  of  tracts  and  other 
literature  bearing  upon  the  Corn  Laws  were  dis- 
tributed broadcast.  So  thorough  was  the  work 
and  so  timely,  that  a  few  years  sufficed  to  accom- 
plish the  purpose  of  the  League.  It  was  through 
the  discussions  of  this  organization  rather  than 
the  debates  of  Parliament  that  the  nation  was 
prepared  for  the  change  of  policy  which  took 
place  in  184G.  See  articles  CoRN  Law.s;  Free 
Tr,\de;  Tariff. 

AN'TICOS'TI  (N.  Amer.  Ind.  .A'oncofefc).  A 
barren  isbuid  in  the  province  of  Quebec,  Can- 
ada, dividing  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  into 
two  channels,  and  situated  between  lat.  49° 
and  50°  N.  and  long.  61°  40'  and  64°  30'  W„ 
forty  miles  north  of  Cape  Gaspg  (Map:  Can- 
ada, ST).  It  is  135  miles  long,  with  a 
maximum  width  of  40  miles;  has  an  area  of  2.500 
square  miles.  It  is  almost  destitute  of  harbors, 
the  north  shore  teing  mountainous,  and  the 
south  low  and  beset  with  shoals,  while  the  neigh- 
boring currents  are  capricious.  Ellis  Bay,  to  the 
west,  and  Fox  Bay,  in  the  northwest,  are  the  only 
safe  harbors.  The  climate  is  severe,  while  the 
surface  is  an  alternation  of  rocks  and  swamps. 
The  principal  inhabitants  are  the  keepers  of 
the  lighthouses  situated  at  difl'erent  parts  of  the 
coast.  Pop.,  250.  Near  the  island  there  are 
considerable  salmon,  trout,  cod,  and  herring  fish- 
eries. It  is  a  favorite  resort  for  seal  and  bear 
hunting,  and  in  1896  was  acquired  as  a  game 
preserve  by  M.  Menier,  a  Parisian  manufacturer. 
The  most  extensive  peat  deposits  in  the  Domin- 
ion are  found  in  Antiiosti,  Marl  also  exists  in 
most  of  the  small  lakes  and  ponds  along  the 
coast.  In  1873.  divided  into  twenty  counties  by 
a  land  company,  .-inticosti  was  the  scene  of  a 
disastrous  colonization  scheme.  The  colonists 
who  were  attracted  by  specious  promises,  had  to 
be  removed  to  the  mainland,  after  suffering 
severe  privations.  The  rocks  of  Anticosti  are  of 
great  interest  to  the  geologist,  as  they  comprise 
a  series  of  shale  and  limestone  beds  that  consti- 
tute an  uninterrupted  transition  formation  be- 
tween the  Ordovician  and  Silurian  systems  such 
as  is  known  in  few  other  localities.  Consult: 
Logan,  Geological  Hurvey  of  Canada,  Re- 
port of  Proriress  from  its  Commencement 
to  1S63,  with' atlas  (Montreal,  1863-65);  Bil-  j 
lings,  "Catalogue  of  the  Silurian  Fossils  of  Anti-  I 
costi,''  Geological  Survey  of  Canada  (Montreal, 
1866).    See  Silurian  System. 

AN'TICY'CLONE;     See  Storm. 

ANTICYEA,  rm-tis'i-ra.  A  city  of  Phocis  ! 
on  the  Corinthian  Gulf,  famous  for  the  hellebore  I 
which  grew  in  the  neighborhood.  The  modern 
town  is  Aspra  Spitia.  There  were  two  other  | 
towns  called  Antieyra,  one  in  Locris  and  one  in  I 
Malis.  "  I 

AN'TIDOTE  (Gk.  cLvtWotos,  antidofos,  given 
against,  from  aprl,  anti,  against  +  ^loi^ai,  dido- 
nui,  to  give).  A  term  applied  in  medicine  to 
any  substance  capable  of  neutralizing  the  action 
of  a  poison,  or,  in  general,  of  any  other  substance. 


ANTIDOTE. 


611 


ANTI-EMETIC. 


ITie  action  of  antidotes  may  be  due  either  to 
their  chemical  properties,  or  to  their  having 
pliysiological  effects  that  are  the  opposite  of 
those  which  they  are  intended  to  counteract. 
As  an  example  of  cliemical  antidotes  it  may  be 
mentioned  that  acids  antidote  alkalies.  .\s  an 
example  of  physiological  "■antagonism"  may  be 
mentioned  the  case  of  morphine  and  atro[)ine. 
In  cases  of  poisoning  in  which  no  true  antidote 
is  known,  the  treatment  resorted  to  is  necessarily 
of  a  mechanical  nature.  Such  cases,  it  must  be 
observed,  are  in  the  majority:  so  that  the  stom- 
ach pump,  emetics,  and  purgatives,  play  an  im- 
portant rule  in  the  treatment  of  most  cases  of 
poisoning.  Tlie  following  is  a  list  of  ordinary 
poisons,  with  their  antidotes  and  other  factors 
employed  in  counteracting  them. 

Arsenic,  Paris  Green. — A  tablespoonful  of 
"dialyzed  iron"  (sold  in  all  drug  stores)  should 
be  given  to  the  patient  every  half  hour  for  four 
doses.  This  should  be  followed  by  a  dose  of 
castor  oil. 

Phosphorus,  Matches,  "Rourjh  ■  on  -  Rats."  — 
Emetics,  a  large  amount  of  mucilage  of  gum 
nraldc,  and  a  purgative  dose  of  Epsom  salts, 
should  be  administered.  Oils  or  fats  should  be 
avoided. 

Caustic  Potash  (Lye).  Washing  Soda,  or  Am- 
monia.— The  action  of  these  maj-  be  counteracted 
by  diluted  lemon  juice,  or  by  a  mixture  of  two 
parts  of  vinegar  with  one  of  water.  The  acid 
should  be  followed  by  large  amounts  of  sweet  oil. 

Oxalic  .icid. — Give  the  patient  water  contain- 
ing such  alkaline  substances  as  chalk,  whiting, 
or  whitewash  scraped  from  the  w'all.  Then  give 
a  dose  of  castor  oil  or  of  Epsom  salts. 

Carbolic  .icid. — A  good  chemical  antidote  for 
this  is  Epsom  salts  (magnesium  sulphate),  or 
any  other  soluble  sulphate;  for,  on  entering  the 
blood,  these  form  with  carbolic  acid  harmless 
chemical  compounds.  Give  the  patient  also  large 
amounts  of  sweet  oil,  white  of  egg,  and  stimu- 
lants. 

Carbonic  Acid  Gas,  Carbonic  Oxide.  Coal  Gas. 
— Fresh  air  should  be  supplied;  artificial  res- 
piration should  be  emplo3-cd.  thirty  drops  of 
aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia  should  be  given 
every  half  hour  for  three  doses,  and  then  one 
ounce  of  well  diluted  whisky  every  three  hours, 
for  three  doses. 

Nicotine. — The  patient  should  be  placed  fiat  on 
the  back  and  emetics,  tea,  and  stimulants  should 
be  administered.  A  hypodermic  injection  of 
one-fortieth  of  a  grain  of  nitrate  of  strychnine 
has  a  very  good  elTect. 

Alcohol. — The  stomach  pump  nia}'  be  used 
early  by  the  attending  phj'sician.  Thirty  grains 
of  powdered  ipecac  should  be  given  to  the  patient 
as  an  emetic,  then  thirty  drops  of  aromatic  spir- 
its of  ammonia  every  half  hour  until  the  pulse 
has  l)ecome  full  and  rapid.  Then  cold  sliould  be 
applied  to  the  head  and  heat  to  the  extremities. 

Chloral,  "Knock-nut-drops." — Thirty  grains  of 
ipecac  in  water  should  be  given  to  the  patient  as 
an  emetic,  and  a  hypodermic  injection  of  one- 
twentieth  of  a  grain  of  strychnine.  .Friction  of 
the  surface,  application  of  warmth,  and  artificial 
respiration  are  effective. 

Corrosive  Hubliinatr  (Tiichloridc  of  Mercury), 
Bed  Bug  Poison,  White  Precipitate. — Thirty 
grains  of  powdered  ipecac  in  warm  water  should 
be  given  to  the  patient  as  an  emetic,  tlien  the 
whites  of  a  dozen  eggs,  and  a  hypodermic  injec- 
tion of  morphine. 


iSulfonal. — The  stomach  pump  and  artificial 
respiration  should  be  employed,  and  plenty  of 
hot  coffee  should  be  given  to  the  patient. 

Opium,  Morphine. — An  emetic  or  the  stomach 
pump  should  be  employed  first  of  all ;  then  the 
patient  should  be  m;vde  to  inliale  anmionia  and 
half  a  grain  of  permanganate  of  potash  should 
be  given  every  hour.  Artificial  respiration 
should  be  employed,  two  ounces  of  hot  black  cof- 
fee should  be  injected  into  the  rectum,  and  treat- 
ment should  be  employed  with  a  view  to  keeping 
the  patient  awake — which  may  be  elTected  by 
shaking,  walking,  flagellation  of  the  calves,  etc. 
A  subcutaneous  injection  of  atropine,  or  thirty 
drops  of  tincture  of  belladonna  repeatedl}'  given 
by  the  mouih,  will  have  a  powerfully  counter- 
acting effect  bv  stimulating  the  respiratory  cen- 
tre. 

i^trychnine. — The  stomach  pump  should  be  em- 
ployed as  early  as  possible,  and  twenty  grains  of 
zinc  sulphate  should  be  given,  or  thirty  grains 
of  powdered  ipecac,  in  warm  water,  as  an  emetic. 
Then  twenty  grains  of  chloral  and  thirty  grains 
of  bromide  of  sodium,  dissolved  together  in  two 
ounces  of  hot  water,  should  be  injected  into  the 
rectum.  In  case  convulsions  occur,  aniesthesia 
may  be  produced  by  the  use  of  chloroform. 
Chloral,  which  is  in  a  sense  antagonistic  to 
strychnine,  is  considered  a  valuable  antidote. 
In  anj'  case,  twenty  grains  of  sodium  bromide 
shoidd  be  given  by  the  mouth  every  liour. 

Cocai)ie. — The  patient  should  be  placed  flat 
on  the  back,  and  whisky  and  hypodermic  injec- 
tions of  strychnine — one-fortieth  of  a  gi-ain  each 
— should  be  given. 

Phenacetin. — Whisky  and  digitalis  should  be 
given. 

Turpentine. — An  emetic,  mucilage  of  gum  ara- 
ble, Epsom  salts,  and  a  hypodermic  injection  of 
morphine,  should  be  given  to  the  patient. 

Tansy. — Thirty  grains  of  powdered  ipecac  in 
warm  water  as  an  emetic,  and  a  dose  of  castor 
oil,  should  be  given  to  the  patient. 

In  the  case  of  whAhoioi  poisons,  it  is  advisable 
to  give  two  teaspoonfuls  of  chalk  mixed  with 
water,  four  eggs  beaten  up  with  a  glass  of  milk, 
and  some  whisky.  The  stomach  pump,  too,  may 
be  useful,  and  in  case  these  measures  give  no 
relief,  artificial  respiration  should  be  employed. 
Of  course,  the  physician  should  endeavor  to  as- 
certain the  nature  of  the  poison  and  direct  the 
treatment  accordingly.     See  Poison. 

AN'TI-EMET'IC  (Gk.  dvr!,  anti,  again.st + 
e/ielv,  emein,  to  vomit) .  .\.ny  remedy  which  tends 
to  arrest  nausea  and  vomiting.  No  class  of  drugs 
is  more  unreliable  in  action,  and  rest  and  quiet 
are  at  times  much  more  efficient  than  the  admin- 
istration bi  an  anti-emetic.  Drugs  may  act  upon 
the  vomiting  centre,  as  morphine  or  hydrocyanic 
acid,  or  on  the  nervous  system,  or  locally  on  the 
stomach.  Of  the  local  remedies,  external  appli- 
cations of  counterirritants  or  of  cold  ma,y  suc- 
ceed. Emetics  act  by  removing  the  cause  for 
continued  vomiting;  lavage,  or  washing  the 
stomach,  in  the  same  way.  Cold  carbonated 
waters,  alcohol,  especially  dry  champagne,  chlo- 
roform, opium,  bromides,  chloral  hydrate,  and 
arsenic  are  at  times  used  successfully.  Ipecac, 
dilute  hydrocyanic  acid,  small  doses  of  calomel, 
cerium  oxalate,  cocaine,  carbolic  acid,  nux  vom- 
ica, and  the  alkalies  iire  among  the  most 
iclial)lc  anti-emetics.  Many  drugs  at  times  suc- 
ceed where  others  fail.  In  any  case,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  determine  the  cause  of  vomiting  before  it 


ANTI-EMETIC. 


612 


ANTI-FEDERALISTS. 


is  possible  to  select  a  proper  anti-emetic.  For  ex- 
ample, the  gastric  disturbance  may  result  from  ex- 
cessive acidity  of  the  stomach  contents,  wlien  an 
alkali  or  simple  dilution  with  water  may  give  re- 
lief; or  it  may  be  of  cerebral  origin,  in  which  case 
such  drugs  as  the  bromides  or  opium  may  be  re- 
quired. If  due  to  gastric  irritation,  a  local  an- 
a'sthetic  may  be  efficacious;  if  to  chronic  alcohol- 
ism, some  form  of  astringent,  bitter,  or  stimulant, 
in  some  cases,  may  relieve  the  vomiting.  See 
Emetic. 

ANTIETAM,  an-te'tam.  Battle  of,  some- 
times called  The  Battle  of  Shaepsburg.  A 
sanguinary  conflict  fought  on  September  10  and 
17,  18G2,  between  a.  Federal  force  of  about  75.000 
under  General  ilcClellan  and  a  Confederate  force 
of  about  40.000  under  General  Lee.  After  having 
driven  ilcClellan  from  the  Peninsula  and  Pope 
from  the  Eappahannock  back  upon  Washington, 
Lee  took  the  offensive  and  crossed  the  Potomac, 
with  the  intention  of  invading  Pennsylvania,  and 
with  hopes  of  inducing  Maryland  to  join  the 
Confederate  cause,  and  possibly  of  forcing  a  sat- 
isfactory peace  upon  the  Federal  Government. 
Dividing  his  army,  he  sent  Jackson  against 
Harper's  Ferry  (q.v.),  which  surrendered  with 
12,500  men  on  September  loth,  ileanwhile,  on 
MeClellan's  advance  from  Washington,  Lee  took 


SCALE  or  MILES 


up  a  strong  position  at  Sharpsburg,  on  the  west 
side  of  Antietam  Creek,  and  fortified  the  passes 
of  South  Mountain.  These  McClellan  forced  on 
the  14th  (see  SovTH  Moi'XTAix.  Battle  of),  and 
on  tlie  15th  the  two  armies  stood  facing  each 
other  across  the  Antietam.  JlcClellan  de- 
layed his  attack,  and  a  part  of  .Jackson's  forces 
rejoined  Lee;  but  on  the  afternoon  of  the  16th 
the  Federal  commander  ordered  Hooker  across 
the  creek,  where  the  latter  skirmished  until  dark. 
On  the  morning  of  the  17th  the  Federal  right 
and  centre,  under  (ienerals  Hooker,  Mansfield, 
and   Sumner,   though   their   attacks   were   badly 


concerted,  forced  back  the  Confederate  left  under 
Jackson,  who  had  arrived  from  Harper's  Ferry 
during  the  night  of  the  16th;  while  the  Federal 
left,  under  Burnside,  which  had  been  unable  to 
cross  the  creek  until  1  p.m.  owing  to  the  stub- 
born opposition  of  the  Confederates  at  "Burn- 
side's  Bridge,"  attacked  at  3  p.ii.  the  Confeder- 
ate right  under  General  A.  P.  Hill,  and  fought 
stubbornly  until  dark  without  obtaining  any 
decisive  advantage.  McClellan  decided  not  to 
renew  tlie  battle  on  the  following  day,  though 
the  Confederate  right  made  several  assaults  upon 
Burnside "s  position,  and  during  the  night  of  the 
18th  General  Lee  retreated  unmolested  across  the 
Potomac.  The  Federals  lost  in  killed,  wounded, 
and  missing  about  12,500,  and  the  Confederates 
about  11.000.  It  was  one  of  the  bloodiest  battles 
of  the  Civil  War,  more  men  being  killed  on 
September  17  than  on  any  other  one  day  between 
1861  and  1865.  Tactically,  it  was  a  drawn  battle, 
though  military  critics  are  almost  unanimous  in 
the  verdict  that  McClellan,  who  brought  only 
a  part  of  his  force  into  action,  made  many  grave 
blunders,  while  the  generalship  of  Lee,  who 
utilized  nearly  every  man,  was  almost  faultless. 
Strategically,  however,  it  was  an  important  Fed- 
eral victory,  since  it  forced  Lee  to  abandon  his 
aggressive  campaign  and  retreat  into  Virginia. 
'■\\  ithout  McClellan's  victory,"  says  Rhodes, 
"tlie  emancipation  proclamation  would  have 
been  postponed  and  might  never  have  been 
issued."  Consult:  Battles  and  Leaders  of  the 
Cii-il  War,  4  volumes  (New  York,  1887)  ;  Ropes, 
Story  of  the  Ciril  War.  2  volumes  (Xew  York, 
1894-1898)  :  Palfrey.  The  Antietam  and  Freder- 
icksburg (New  York,  1882)  ;  and  Michie,  General 
McClellan  (New  York,  1901),  in  the  "Great 
Commanders  Series." 

AN'TI-FED'ERALISTS.  The  name  given  to 
a  certain  political  faction  and  party  in  the 
United  States  as  a  means  of  conveniently 
distinguishing  those  in  opposition  to  the  so- 
called  Federalist  party.  As  a  matter  of  the- 
ory and  analysis,  the  Federalists  believed  in 
a  national  system  of  government,  while  the  Anti- 
Federalists  believed  in  a  decentralized  and 
strictly  federal  system  of  government.  The  Fed- 
eralists had  the  advantages  of  possessing  a  posi- 
tive programme,  and  of  gaining  the  first  two 
points  in  the  conflict  when  the  national  constitu- 
tion was  adopted  and  when  they  committed  the 
national  government  to  the  exercise  of  such  ex- 
tensive powers  as  the  creation  of  a  national  bank. 
The  .\nti-Federalists  were  thus  merely  a  party  of 
political  opposition  to  the  party  in  ])Ower. 
When,  however,  the  Federalists,  in  the  .\!ien  and 
Sedition  Acts  (q.v.),  seemed  to  encroach  both 
upon  the  liberty  of  the  individual  and  upon  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  States,  the  opposition  of  the 
Anti-Federalists  became  acute  and  their  funda- 
mental propositions  were  stated  in  the  Virginia 
and  Kentucky  Resolutions  (q.v.).  This  crisis 
resulted  in  the  triumph  of  the  Anti-Federalists 
under  the  leadership  of  Jefferson  in  the  elec- 
tion of  1800:  but  soon  thereafter  the  lead- 
ers of  the.  party  began  to  abandon  its  orig- 
inal creed  of  the  strict  interpretation  of  the  Con- 
stitution and  the  narrow  limitation  of  the  pow- 
ers of  the  national  government.  The  first  step 
in  this  direction  was  the  purchase  of  I^ouisiana; 
and  when  finally  the  Federalist  party  was  driven 
entirely  out  of  existence,  its  characteristic 
principles  remained  efl'ective  as  the  chief  prin- 
cipals of  the  Anti-Federalist  party.     The  party 


ANTI-FEDERALISTS. 


613 


ANTIGUA. 


soon  rccoivpil  the  naiiip  lU'publiean  party,  then 
Deni'ocratie-Republican  ])arty.  and  finally  Demo- 
cratic party.  See  Democr.\tic  Party;  Feder.\l- 
ISTS;  Republica?{  Party;  Party  Names; 
United  States. 

AN'TIGO.  A  city  and  county  seat  of  Lang- 
lade Co.,  Wis.,  207  miles  northwest  of  Mil- 
waukee; on  the  Spring  Brook  River,  and  on  the 
Chicago  and  Northwestern  Kailroad  (ilap:  Wis- 
consin, D  3).  It  is  in  a  productive  agrirultural 
and  timber  region,  of  which  it  is  the  commercial 
centre,  and  has  extensive  manufactures  of  various 
kinds  of  woodenware,  besides  flour  mills,  brewer- 
ies, foundries,  and  railroad  shops.  Settled  about 
1878,  Antigo  was  incorporated  in  1884.  The 
government  is  administered  under  a  general 
State  law,  which  provides  for  a  mayor. 'biennially 
elected,  and  a  municipal  council.  Pop.,  1890, 
4424:   I'JOO.  5145. 

ANTIG'ONE  (Gk.  'AvTcydvi,).  (1)  In  the 
Theban  legend,  daughter  of  (Ttdipus  by  his  mother, 
Jocasta,  and  sister  of  Eteodes.  Polyniccs.  and  Is- 
mene.  Her  story  existed  in  various  forms.  The 
Athenian  dramatists  represented  her  as  accompa- 
nying her  blind  father.  CEdipus  ( q.v. ) ,  in  his  exile, 
until  his  mysterious  death  at  Colonus  in  Attica, 
When  her  brother  Polyniees  led  the  Seven  against 
Thebes,  she  was  in  the  city,  and  after  the  mortal 
duel  between  Eteocles  (q.v.)  and  Polynice.s,  she 
disregarded  the  decree  of  Creon,  that  the  latter 
should  be  left  unburied.  Caught  in  the  act  of 
burying  lier  brother,  she  was  condemned  to  be 
imniuifd  in  a  tomb.  A'here  she  hanged  herself. 
Thereupon  her  betrothed,  Ha?mon,  son  of  Creon, 
committed  suicide.  Antigone's  filial  and  sisterly 
devotion  are  depicted  by  Sophocles  in  the 
iEdipiis  at  Voloniis,  and  Antiiioiic.  She  a])pears  in 
JEschylus's  Seven  Against  Thchefs  and  Euripides's 
Phanissa:  She  was  also  the  subject  of  a  lost 
play  of  Euripides,  seemingly  ending  with  her 
marriage  to  Ha-mon.  (2)  Antigone,  daughter  of 
Eurytius,  and  wife  of  Peleus,  who  hanged  herself 
ujjon  hearing  a  false  report  of  lier  luisband's 
marriage  to  Sterope,  daughter  of  Acastus.  (3) 
Antigone,  daughter  of  Laomedon,  and  sister  of 
Priam,  who  offended  Hera  by  comparing  her  own 
beauty  to  that  of  the  goddess,  Hera  turned  her 
hair  into  snakes,  which  so  tormented  her  that 
the  gods,  in  compassion,  changed  her  into  a  stork. 

ANTIG'ONUS  (Gk.  'Avriyomi;,  Antigonos), 
called  the  -One-Eyed"  (c.  380-301,  or  300  B.C.). 
One  of  Alexander  theGreat's  generals,  and  a  mem- 
ber of  a  distinguished  ilacedonian  family.  His 
father's  name  was  Philip,  though  whether  this 
was  Philip  of  Elymiotis,  is  uncertain.  W'hcn 
Alexander  died  and  his  Empire  was  divided, 
Antigonus  received  the  provinces  of  Greater 
Phrygia,  Lycia,  and  Pamphylia.  Being  accused 
of  disobedience  by  Perdiccas,  who  was  aim- 
ing at  sole  control  of  the  lands  left  by 
Alexander,  he  entered  into  an  alliance  with 
(,'raterus,  Antipater,  and  Ptolemy,  and  made 
war  on  Perdiccas.  Perdiccas  soon  died,  but 
the  war  was  prosecuted  against  Eumenes  and  the 
party  of  Perdiccas.  After  the  death  of  Antipater, 
in  319  B.C.,  Antigonus  began  to  carry  out  his 
plans  for  obtaining  sole  sovereignty  of  Asia.  The 
war  was  continued  with  varying  success,  and 
many  alliances  were  made  and  broken.  At  one 
time  during  the  long  struggle,  .\ntigonns  was 
supreme  in  Asia  and  assumed  the  name  of  king. 
He  himself  invaded  Egypt,  and  his  son  Demetrius 
Poliorcetes  carried  the  war  into  Greece,  but  both 


were  compelled  to  withdraw  again  to  Asia.  In 
301  or  300  B.C.  the  army  of  Antigoiuis  and  De- 
metrius Poliorcetes  was  overwliehned  by  Lysima- 
chus  and  Seleucus  at  Ipsus,  in  Phrygia.  Antig- 
onus himself  fell  in  the  battle,  at  the  age  of  about 
eighty-two. 

ANTIGONUS  (Gk.  'AvTiyovo^,  Antigonos). 
A  king  of  the  Jews,  the  last  of  the  Hasmonean 
dynasty,  which  came  to  an  end  in  40  a.f.  The 
deposed  Herod  lied  to  Rome,  whence,  with  the  aid 
of  Octavius  and  Antony,  he  returned  to  capture 
Jerusalem  and  regain  the  throne.  At  the  request 
of  Herod,  Antigonus  was  put  to  death  at  Antioch 
in  B.C.  37. 

ANTIGONUS  DO'SON  (  ?-220  B.C.).  A  king 
of  Macedonia,  from  229  to  220  B.C.,  called  Doson 
(Gk.  Auffui',  about  to  give),  it  is  said,  because  he 
was  "always  about  to  give,  and  never  did."  He 
was  the  giandson  of  Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  and 
on  the  death  of  Demetrius  11.  of  Macedonia  be- 
came guardian  of  the  latter's  son  Philip.  He 
himself,  however,  married  the  \xidow  of  Deme- 
trius and  became  king.  He  sided  with  the  Achsean 
League  against  the  Spartans,  whom,  under  King 
Cleomenes,  he  defeated  at  Sellasia  in  221. 

ANTIGONUS    GONA'TAS     (319-239    B.C.). 

A  son  of  King  Demetrius  Poliorcetes  of  Mace- 
donia, and  grandson  of  the  great  Antigonus.  On 
his  father's  death,  B.C.  283,  he  took  the  title  of 
king,  but  did  not  secure  the  full  power  until  27G 
B.C.  There  were  various  claimants  to  the  throne, 
and  he  was  twice  expelled  from  his  dominions  by 
a   hostile   force   from   Epirus.     He   died   in   239 

B.C. 

ANTIGONUS    OF    CABYS'TOS.      A   Greek 

author.  He  lived  at  Athens  and  Pergamum 
about  the  middle  of  the  third  century  B.C.  Be- 
sides several  biograpliies  of  celebrated  contem- 
porary philosophers,  he  wrote  a  number  of 
stories.  See  Westermann's  Scriptores  Reruin 
Mirabilium  Grwci  (Brunswick,  1839),  and  the 
first  volume  of  Keller's  h'rruiii  Xatiiralitim  ficrip- 
tores  Orwci  Miiwres    (Leipzig,   1877), 

ANTIGONUS  OF  SOKO.  According  to  the 
Mishna,  a  scholar  and  the  disciple  of  Simon  the 
Just.  As  it  is  probable  that  the  latter  is  the  sec- 
ond high-priest  of  the  name  and  lived  in  the  first 
part  of  the  second  century  B.C.,  the  approximate 
date  of  Antigonus  is  probably  180  B.C.  The 
following  sentiment  of  his  has  been  preserved: 
"Be  not  like  slaves  who  serve  their  master  for 
their  daily  food;  be  like  those  who  serve  their 
master  without  considering  the  reward,  and  let 
the  fear  of  God  be  with  you."  Pirqe  Aboth  i.  3. 
It  is  not  impossible  that  Antigonus  was  influ- 
enced by  Greek  thought.  But  the  noble  motto 
represents  a  legitimate  development  of  pro]ihptic 
teaching  not  infrequently  met  with  in  later  .Jew- 
ish thought. 

ANTIGUA,  ;in-te'gwa.  One  of  the  British 
West  Indian  Islands,  the  most  important  of  the 
Leeward  group,  situated  in  lat.  17°  0'  N.  and 
long.  61°  45'  W.  (Map:  West  Indies.  R  6).  It 
covers  an  area  of  108  square  miles  and  has 
a  population  of  (1901)  34,971,  chieHy  negi'oes, 
with  only  5000  whites.  The  surface  is  rugged, 
and  the  coasts  are  highly  indented  and  sur- 
rounded with  rocks  and  shoals.  The  soil  is 
very  fertile,  especially  in  the  interior;  but  there 
is  a  scarcity  of  water  on  the  island,  which  neces- 
sitates the  construction  of  reservoirs  and  irriga- 
tion works.    The  chief  products  of  the  island  are 


ANTIGUA. 


614: 


ANTI-MASONS. 


.sugar  and  pineapples.  The  capital.  St.  John,  with 
a  population  of  10.000  and  a  spacious  harbor,  is 
the  seat  of  the  Governor-General  of  the  Leeward 
group.  The  best  port  is  English  Harbor,  on  the 
southern  coast.  The  island  of  Antigua,  together 
with  its  two  dependencies,  Barbuda  and  Redonda, 
forms  one  of  the  five  presidencies  of  the  Lee- 
ward Islands,  and  elects  four  members  of  the  P'ed- 
eral  Legislative  Council.  The  commerce  of  the 
island  is  on  the  decline,  owing  to  the  competition 
of  countries  paving  a  bountv  on  sugar.  The 
value  of  imports  in"lS98  was  f  10.9.103 :  in  1899, 
fll.'">,90S;  1900,  £12.5.304.  Exports  1898.  £79,- 
178:  1899.  £128,09.5;  1900,  £111.849.  The  island 
suffered  severely  from  the  hiu-ricane  of  August, 
1899.  Antigiui  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in 
1493  and  settled  by  the  British  in' 1032.  Slavery 
Avas  abolished  on  the  island  in  1834.  Consult 
V.  L.  Oliver,  History  of  Antiyua  (London,  1894- 
99). 

AN'TI-JAC'OBIN,  or  WEEK'LY  EXAM'- 
INER,  The.  An  English  paper  published  from 
Xoveinber  20,  1797,  to  .July  9,  1798.  It  was 
founded  by  George  Canning  and  his  friends  to 
express  their  opposition  to  the  principles  of  the 
French  Revolution.  Its  editor  was  William  Gif- 
ford,  who  had  already  made  a  reputation  as  a 
political  satirist,  among  its  contributors,  besides 
Canning,  being  .John  Hookham,  Frere,  and  George 
Ellis. 

ANTI-JACOBIN  EEVIEW,  The.  An  Eng- 
lish periodical  founded  by  John  Gifford  in  1798 
after  the  discontinuance  of  the  foregoing,  i.e. 
Avti-Jacohin,  or  Weekly  Examiner,  with  which, 
however,  it  had  nothing  to  do.  Its  full  title  was 
The  Anti-Jneohin  Review  and  Magazine,  or 
Monthly  Political  '  and  Literary  Censor.  It 
ceased  to  appear  in  1821. 

AN'TILEGOM'ENA  (Gk.,  spoken  against, 
from  dvTl,  iiiiH,  against  -\-\iyeLp,  (ej/eiH, to  sjjeak) . 
A  term  applied  by  Eusebius  in  his  Ecclesiastical 
History.  III.,  25,  to  certain  New  Testament  books 
wliich  were  not,  in  his  day,  homolorjoiiiiiena 
(oiMoXoyoiixciia) ,  i.e.,  everywhere  acknowledged 
as  autlientic  and  authoritative.  There  were 
seven  such  books:  viz.,  .James,  II.  Peter,  Jude,  II. 
and  III.  John,  Hebrews,  and  the  Revelation  of 
John. 

AN'TI-LIB'ANTJS,  or  AN'TI-LEB'ANON 
(Gk.  'AvTiXf/SaTOs,  Aiitilihaiios.  Counter  Leba- 
non). A  mountain  ridge  in  Palestine  and  Syria, 
about  ninety  miles  long,  separated  from  tlie  Leb- 
anon range  on  the  west  by  the  valley  of  Ccele- 
Syria  (Map:  Turkey  in  Asia,  Go).  It  is  gen- 
erally inferior  to  the  Lebanon,  its  highest  peak. 
Mount  Hermon,  on  the  southeast,  being  only  a 
little  over  9000  feet  in  height.  This  mountain  is 
covered  with  perpetual  snow,  and  gives  rise  to  the 
River  Jordan.  The  Antilibanus  is  composed  of 
Cretaceous  strata,  and  is  almost  devoid  of  cedars. 
Besides  Mount  Hermon  the  highest  peaks  are 
Tala-at-]\Iusa  (8721  feet).  Haliniat-Kabu  (8257 
feet),  and  Abul-Hin    (8330  feet). 

ANTILLES,  Engl,  iin-til'lez;  Fr.  iix't^M'.  A 
name  apjjlied  to  the  West  India  Islands  exclusive 
of  the  Bahamas.  (See  map  on  following  page.) 
The  total  area  is  about  90,000  square  miles. 
The  Antilles  are  generally  divided  into  the  Great- 
er and  Lesser  Antilles.  The  former  comprise  the 
four  largest  islands,  Cuba,  .Jamaica,  Haiti,  and 
Porto  Rico.  The  Lesser  Antilles  arc  composed  of 
the  Leeward  and  Windward  groups,  including  all 


the  small  islands  along  the  northern  coast  of 
Venezuela.  Some  authorities  exclude  the  Virgin 
Islands  from  the  Leeward  group,  thereby  making 
four  divisions  instead  of  three.  For  detailed 
information,  see  articles  on  the  groups  and  sepa- 
rate islands. 

AN'TILOCA'PRA  {antelope  +  Lat.  eapra, 
a  she-goat).  The  type  genus  of  the  North 
American  ruminant  family  Antilocapridae,  repre- 
sented by  the  pronghorn,  characterized  by  the 
absence  of  lateral  hoofs,  and  especially  by  the 
fact  that  the  horns,  compressed  at  the  base,  are 
branched  and  deciduous.     See  Pronghorn. 

AN'TILOG'ARITHM.     See  Logarithm. 

ANTI-MACHIAVEL,  an'ti-makT-a-v?.!.  A 
treatise  written  by  Frederick  the  Great  before 
he  came  to  the  throne;  published  by  Voltaire  in 
1740.  It  is  a  reply  to  MachiavcUi's  Prince,  and 
sets  forth  the  obligations  of  rulers. 

ANTIM'ACHtrS  (Gk.  'Am>a,vof,  Antim- 
aehos) .  A  Greek  poet  and  critic  of  Colophon, 
who  lived  about  410  B.C.  He  was  a  contempor- 
ary of  Plato  and  a  forerunner  of  the  poets  of  the 
Alexandrine  School.  His  works  were  more  re- 
markable for  learning  than  genius.  His  chief 
productions  were  Lyde,  a  cycle  of  elegies;  an 
epic  poem,  Theba'is,  which  the  Alexandrine  critics 
thought  worthy  to  be  compared  with  Homer's 
Iliad,  and  a  recension  of  the  text  of  the  Homeric 
poems.  In  the  few  extant  fragments  of  his 
works,  his  style,  though  learned,  is  rigid  and 
artificial.  Consult:  Kifikel's  edition  of  the 
Thebais,  in  the  Epicorum  Grwcorum  Fragmenta 
(Volume  I.,  Leipzig,  1877),  and  Bergk's  edition 
of  Lyde,  in  Poetw  Lyriei  Grwei  (fourth  edition, 
Leipzig.  1S82) . 

AN'TI-MA'SONS.  The  name  of  a  political 
party  in  New  York  and  other  States,  organized 
in  1827-28,  chiefly  as  the  result  of  excitement 
over  the  fate  of  William  Morgan,  of  Batavia, 
N.  Y.,  who  was  said  to  be  about  to  publish,  or 
betray,  the  secrets  of  the  Masonic  order,  of  which 
he  was  a  member.  He  disappeared  suddenly  in 
1S2G,  and  his  fate  has  never  been  satisfactorily 
determined.  The  opponents  of  Freemasonry  de- 
clared that  he  had  been  murdered  and  his  body 
sunk  in  the  river  or  lake  at  Niagara.  Legal  in- 
quiries followed,  but  proved  nothing.  At  or  about 
that  time  the  governor  of  the  State  was  a  Mason 
of  the  most  advanced  degrees,  and  probably  a  ma- 
jority of  all  public  officers  were  members  of  the 
order.  Widespread  excitement  ]iervaded  western 
New  York,  and  the  Anti-Masonic  party  was 
formed,  casting  33.000  votes  in  1828,  about  70.- 
000  in  1829,  and  120,000  in  1830,  though  many  in 
the  latter  year  were  anti-Jackson  men,  without 
reference  to  Masonry.  The  party  attempted  to 
organize  on  nationallines  in  1830,  and  especially 
in  connection  with  its  National  Convention  of 
1831  ;  and  in  1832  it  supported  William  Wirt  for 
President,  but  carried  only  one  State,  Vermont. 
The  party  was  also  able,  through  the  disorganiza- 
tion of  the  Democrats,  to  control  temporarily 
Pennsylvania,  and  it  was  strong  in  Ohio  and 
Jlassa'chusetts ;  but  after  1835  it  disappeared  as 
rapidly  as  it  had  arisen.  Many  who  were  con- 
spicuous later  in  the  two  chief  parties,  such  as 
Thurlow  Weed  (q.v.)  and  Seward  (q.v.),  were 
members  of  this  party  for  a  brief  time:  but  upon 
the  foalescence  and  harmonizing  of  each  of  the 
dominant  parties,  the  life  of  a  third  national 
party  became  an  impossibility,  especially  upon  the 


COpyflfOHT,  IMJ.  or  OODOiMEAO  d  COMPANY 


ANTI-MASONS. 


G15 


ANTINOMY. 


subsidence  of  the  excitement  out  of  which  it  hail 
arisen.  Consult:  Hammond,  I'oliticul  History 
of  yew  York-  Stnfe  ( C'nopcrstown,  lS4(i)  ;  Hop- 
kins, I'olilicfil  Pin-tics    (Xew  York,  11100). 

ANTIMONAN,  an'te-niA-nan'.  A  seaport 
town  of  Luzon,  Philippine  Ishinds,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Tayabas  (ilap:  Luzon,  .111).  It  is  situ- 
ated on  tiie  eastern  coast,  opposite  the  Alabat 
Ishind,  19  miles  east  of  Tayabat.  Pop.  about 
10.000. 

AN'TIMO'NIAL  WINE.  See  Tartab 
Emktic. 

AN'TI-MONOP'OLY  PAB'TY,  The.  A  po- 
litical party  orj;anized  at  Chicago  on  May  14, 
1884,  when  it  nominated  Benjamin  F.  Butler, 
of  Massachusetts,  for  the  Presidency,  on  a  plat- 
form which  demanded  an  Inter-State  Commerce 
law,  a  direct  vote  for  United  States  Senators,  a 
graduated  income  tax,  the  establishment  of  labor 
unions,  the  repeal  of  all  tarilTs.  and  the  pro- 
hibition of  grants  of  land  to  corporations.  In 
the  ensuing  election,  the  party  united  with  the 
Grppnl)ack  Labor  party  to  form  the  People's 
party,  wliicli  polled  about  130,000  votes. 

AN'TIMONY  (Low  Lat.  aiitimonium,  of  dis- 
puted origin).  A  metallic  element  that  was 
known  to  the  ancients,  but  was  first  isolated  in 
1450.  It  is  found  native  in  small  quantities, 
sometimes  associated  with  silver,  iron,  or  arsenic. 
Its  chief  commercial  source  is  the  gray  antimony 
ore  or  stibnite,.  which  is  found  in  France,  Spain, 
Portugal,  Germany,  Austria,  and  Italy,  in  Eu- 
rope; in  New  South  Wales,  Australia:  in  .Japan, 
and  in  this  country  in  Arkansas,  Nevada,  Califor- 
nia, and  Montana.  The  usual  process  for  the 
reduction  of  the  ore  is  by  roasting  the  sulphide 
with  charcoal  at  a  gentle  heat,  the  antimonious 
oxide  thus  driven  off  being  collected  in  flues.  The 
residue,  "antimony  ash,"  consisting  largely  of 
antimonj'  tetroxide,  is  mixed  with  reducing 
agents  and  fused  in  a  crucible  at  a  low  red  heat. 
The  slag,  which  is  called  crocus  of  antimony, rises 
above  the  metal,  while  the  latter  collects  at  the 
bottom  of  the  crucible. 

Antimony  (symbol,  Sb.,  at.  wgt.  120.43)  is  a 
brittle,  hard,  silver-white  metal,  easily  crystal- 
lized, with  a  specific  gravity  of  0.71  to  6.86.  It 
melts  at  4o0°  C,  and  boils  at  a  white  heat. 
Metallic  antimony  is  chiefly  used  as  a  constitu- 
ent of  alloys:  with  lead  and  tin.  it  forms  type 
metal,  stei'eotype  metal,  and  pewfer:  with  tin 
and  copper,  it  forms  britannia  metal  and  anti- 
friction metal:  also,  in  small  quantities  with 
copper,  bell  metal.  Antimony  combines  with 
acicl  radicals,  forming  two  classes  of  salts :  those 
in  which  it  is  combined  as  a  triad,  yielding  anti- 
monious compounds,  and  those  in  which  it  acts 
as  a  pentad  element,  forming  antimonie  com- 
pounds. The  more  important  comnu'rcial  coni- 
pouiiils  of  antimony  are  the  trisulphide,  used 
in  refining  gold  and  silver  from  copper,  in  the 
preparation  of  safety  matches,  in  ])eri'Ussion  caps, 
and  in  the  manufacture  of  fireworks;  the  tri- 
chloride, called  butter  of  antimony,  used  as  a 
bronzing  solution  for  gun  barrels;  the  trioxide, 
employed  in  the  preparation  of  tartar  emetic, 
which  is  a  tartrate  of  potassium  and  antimony. 
Used  in  medicine  and  as  a  mordant  in  dyeing  and 
calico  printing.  The  sulphides  of  antimony  have 
long  been  used  in  medicine,  and  are  also  constitu- 
ents of  the  pigments  Merimee's  yellow  and  Na])les 
yellow.  During  1900,  there  weie  produced  in  the 
United  States,  chiefly  from  imported  ores,  1750 


short  tons  of  metallic  antimonv,  valued  at  $346,- 
980. 

AN'TINO'MIANISM  (Gk.  «iW,  a/ifi,  against 
H-  vouoc,  nomos,  law).  The  doctrine  or  opinion 
that  Christians  are  freed  from  obligation  to  keep 
the  law  of  God.  It  is  generally  regarded  by  the 
advocates  of  the  doctrine  of  justification  b_v  faith 
as  a  monstrous  abuse  :ind  perversion  of  that 
doctrine,  upon  which  it  usually  professes  to  be 
based.  From  several  passages  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, as  Eomans  vi  and  II.  Peter  ii  :  18,  19,  it 
would  seem  that  a  tendency  to  antinomianism 
had  manifested  itself  even  in  the  apostolic  age; 
and  many  of  the  Gnostic  sects  w-ere  really  anti- 
nomian,  as  were  probably  also  some  of  the  heret- 
ical sects  of  the  Middle  Ages:  but  the  term  was 
first  used  at  the  time  of  the  Reforuuition,  when 
it  was  applied  by  Luther  to  the  opinions  advo- 
cated by  .John  Agricola.  Agricola  had  adopted 
the  principles  of  the  Eeformation;  but  in  1527 
he  found  fault  with  ilelanclithon  for  recommend- 
ing the  use  of  the  law,  and  particularly  of  the 
Ten  Commandments,  in  order  to  produce  convic- 
tion and  repentance,  which  he  deemed  inconsist- 
ent with  the  Gospel.  Ten  years  after,  he  main- 
tained, in  a  disputation  at  Wittenberg,  that  as 
men  arc  justified  simply  by  the  Gospel,  the  law  is 
in  no  way  necessary  for  justification  nor  for 
sanctification.  The  "Antinoniian  Controversy" 
of  this  time,  in  which  Luther  took  a  veryactive 
part,  terminated  in  1540  in  a  retractation  by 
Agricola;  but  views  more  extreme  than  his  were 
afterward  advocated  by  some  of  the  English  sec- 
taries of  the  period  of  the  Comnionw^ealth  :  and, 
without  being  formally  professed  by  a  distinct 
sect,  antinomianism  has  been  from  time  to  time 
reproduced  w-itli  various  modifications.  It  ought, 
however,  to  be  borne  in  iiiiiid  that  the  term 
antinomianism  has  no  i-eferencc  to  the  conduct, 
but  only  to  the  opinions  of  men ;  so  that  men 
who  practically  disregard  and  violate  the  known 
law  of  God,  are  not  therefore'antinoniians;  and  it 
is  certain  enough  that  men  really  holding  opin- 
ions more  or  less  antinomian  have  in  many  cases 
been  men  of  moral  life.  It  is  also  to  he  observed 
that  the  term  antinomianism  has  been  applied 
to  opinions  dilTering  very  much  from  each  other. 
In  its  most  extreme  sense  it  denotes  the  rejection 
of  the  moral  law  as  no  longer  binding  upon  Chris- 
tians, _and  a  power  or  privilege  is  asserted  for 
the  saints  to  do  what  they  please  without  preju- 
dice to  their  sanctity,  it  being  maintained  that 
to  them  nothing  is  sinful ;  and  this  is  represented 
as  the  perfection  of  Christian  liberty.  But  be- 
sides this  extreme  antinomianism,  than  which 
nothing  can  be  more  repugiuint  to  Christianity, 
there  is  also  sometimes  designated  by  this  term 
the  opinion  of  those  who  refuse  to  seek  or  to  see 
in  the  Bible  any  positive  laws  binding  upon 
Christians,  and  regard  them  as  left  to  the  guid- 
ance of  Gospel  principles  and  the  constraint  of 
Christian  love:  an  opinion  which,  whatever  may 
be  thought  of  its  tendency,  is  certainly  not  to  be 
deemed  of  the  same  character  with  the  other. 
Probably  the  antinomianism  tliat  docs  not  arise 
out  of  a  dislike  of  m<nality  usually  originates 
in  mistaken  notions  of  Christian  lilierty,  or  in 
confusion  of  views  as  to  the  relation  between 
the  moral  law  and  the  .Jewish  law  of  ceremonial 
ordinances. 

ANTIN'OMY  (Gk.  avrivo/iia,  antinomia,  op- 
position of  laws;  from  avri,  anti,  against  +  v6/ioc, 
noinos,  law).     A  word  used  t)y  Kant  to  mark  the- 


ANTINOMY. 


616 


ANTIOCH. 


"conflict  between  two  propositions,  each  of  which 
seems  to  be  true,  but  neither  of  which  has  any 
more  chaini  to  our  assent  than  the  other."  Kant 
uses  the  term  antithetic  in  the  same  sense.  Such 
a  conflict  arises  when  our  reason  "ventures  to  go 
beyond  the  limits  of  our  experience."  There  are 
four  of  tliesc  antinomies:  the  lirst  two  being 
called  mathematical,  the  last  two  dynamic.  In 
each  ease  the  positive  assertion  is  called  the 
thesis,  its  negation  is  called  the  antithesis. 
Briefly,  his  theses  are:  The  world  (1)  is  limited 
in  space  and  time,  (2).  consists  of  parts  that  are 
.simple,  (3)  admits  of  causality  through  freedom, 
(4)  implies  the  existence  of  an  absolutely  neces- 
sary being.  Over  against  these  stand  the  anti- 
theses: The  world  (1)  is  without  limits  in  space 
or  time,  ( 2 )  consists  of  parts  always  composite, 
(;5)  admits  of  no  causality  but  that  of  natural 
law,  (4)  implies  the  existence  of  no  absolutely 
necessary  being.  Kant  overcomes  these  antin- 
omies by  showing  that  the  contradiction  is  not 
real  if  critically  considered  with  due  discrimina- 
tion between  noumena  and  phenomena.     See  Cat- 

KGORY  :    K.\XT. 

ANTINOBI,  Un'te-no're.  1Iarche.se  Orazio 
( lSll-82  I .  An  Italian  zoologist  and  African  ex- 
plorer, born  at  Perugia.  He  went  to  Egypt  in 
ISijII.  and  with  Carlo  Poggia  explored  the  Upper 
Nile  country.  In  the  litiUctin  of  the  Italian 
geographical  Society,  of  which  he  became  one  of 
the  founders  in  lS(i7,  he  gives  an  interesting 
account  of  his  travels  through  Nubia.  He  made 
a  tour  through  Bogoland.  north  of  Abyssinia, 
after  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal,  and  in  1875 
went  to  Tunis  to  investigate  the  practicability 
of  Uoudaire's  plan  for  flooding  a  portion  of  the* 
Sahara  Desert  in  order  to  establish  communi- 
cation with  the  Mediterranean.  He  headed  an 
important  expedition  to  Shoa  in  187G,  and  gave 
the  first  definite  information  concerning  the  zo- 
ology of  that  country. 

ANTIN'OtJS  (Cik.  •Avrlvno^,  Antinoos) .  A 
beautiful  youth  of  Claudiopolis,  in  Bithynia.  He 
Avas  page  to  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  and  the  object 
of  his  extravagant  affection,  accompanying  him 
in  all  his  travels,  but  was  either  drowned  acciden- 
tally in  the  river  Nile,  or,  as  some  suppose,  com- 
mitted suicide  from  a  loathing  of  the  life  he  led, 
in  122  a.d.  His  memory  and  the  grief  of  the 
Emperor  were  perpetuated  by  many  beiiutiful 
statues  and  bas-reliefs,  of  which  several  have 
been  found  in  the  villa  of  Hadrian  near  Tivoli 
(Tibur).  "In  all  the  figures  of  Antinoiis,"  says 
^\'iMckelmann,  "the  face  has  a  rather  melancholy 
expression;  the  eyes  are  large,  with  fine  outlines: 
the  profile  is  gently  sloped  downward:  and  the 
mouth  and  chin  are  especially  beautiful."  The 
city  of  Besa.  in  the  TbebaVs.  near  whiih  Antinoiis 
was  drowned,  was  also  rebuilt  by  Hadrian,  and 
the  name  of  Antinoijpolis  conferred  upon  it.  in 
memory  of  his  favorite.  Antinoiis  was  further 
enrolled  among  the  gods,  and  temples  erected  to 
liim  ill  Eg.vpt  and  Greece.  .Antinoiis  is  a  charac- 
ter in  two  historical  romances,  Aiilinoih.  by  Tay- 
lor, translated  from  the  German  by  Saflord  (New 
York.  1882),  and  The  Emperor  (Drr  A'atscr),  by 
Ebers  (Stuttgart,  1880),  done  into  English  by 
Clara  Bell. 

AN'TIOCH  {Gk.'Avndxeia,  Antiocheia;  Lat. 
Aiiliorliia.  or  An1ioc-h!n)  ■  The  .ancient  capital 
of  the  Hellenistic  kings  of  Syria,  on  the  Orontes. 
and  the  most  magnificent  of  the  sixteen  cities  of 
that  name  built  by  Seleucus  Nicalor.  and  named 


for  his  father,  Antiochus.  Its  situation  was  ad- 
mirably chosen.  The  river  Orontes,  issuing  fron 
the  mountains  of  L'cbanon,  flows  north  as  far  as 
the  thirty-sixth  parallel  of  latitude,  and  then 
southwest  into  the  Mcditerianean.  On  the  left 
bank  of  tlie  river,  and  at  a  distance  of  twenty 
miles  from  the  sea.  lay  the  famous  city,  in  the 
midst  of  a  fertile  and  beautiful  plain,  ten  miles 
long  by  five  broad.  By  its  harbor,  Seleucia,  it 
had  communication  with  all  the  maritime  cities 
of  the  West,  while  it  became,  on  the  other  hand, 
an  emporium  for  the  merchandise  of  the  East. 
Behind  it  lay  the  vast  Syrian  desert,  across  which 
traveled  the  caravans  from  Mesopotamia  and 
Arabia.  On  the  north,  the  plain  of  Antioch  is 
bounded  by  the  mountain  chain  of  Amanus,  con- 
nected with  the  southeastern  extremity  of  Mount 
Taurus:  and  on  the  south,  which  is  more  rocky, 
by  the  broken  declivities  of  Mount  Casius.  from 
which  the  ancient  town  was  distant  less  than 
two  miles.  In  early  times,  a  part  of  the  city 
stood  upon  an  island,  which  has  now  disappeared. 
The  rest  was  liuilt  partly  on  the  plain,  and 
partly  on  the  rugged  ascent  toward  ilount  Casius. 
The  slopes  above  the  city  were  covered  with 
vineyards,  while  the  banl-;s  of  the  river  displayed, 
as  they  do  even  at  the  present  day,  a  gorgeous 
profusion  of  eastern  fruit-trees.  The  ancients 
called  it"Antioch  the  Beautiful." and  the  "Crown 
of  the  East."  It  was  a  favorite  residence  of  the 
Seleucid  princes  and  of  the  wealthy  Romans,  and 
was  famed  througliout  the  world  for  its  luxury. 
It  received  from  Sfralio  the  name  of  Tetrapolis, 
on  account  of  three  new  sites  having  been  suc- 
cessivel.y  built  ujion,  and  each  surrounded  with  a 
wall.  Founded  by  Seleucus  Nicator  about  300 
B.C.,  it  received  its  first  addition  from  him;  its 
second  from  Seleucus  Callinicus  (246-226  B.C.)  ; 
and  its  third  from  Antiochus  Epiphanes  (175- 
164  B.C.).  Its  public  edifices  were  magnificent. 
The  priijcipal  were  the  palace,  the  senate  house, 
the  temple  of  Jupiter,  burnished  with  gidd,  the 
theatre,  amphitheatre,  and  C:esarium.  It  had  an 
aqueduct,  a  pvfldic  promenade,  and  innumerable 
baths.  After  the  founding  of  Constantinople  it 
ceased  to  be  the  first  city  of  the  East,  but  it  rose 
to  new  dignity  as  a  Christian  city,  for  .\ntioeh 
was  in  fact  the  mother  church  of  Gentile  Chris- 
tianity, the  home  of  the  first  ministry  of  Paul, 
the  spot  from  which  he  set  out  on  his  missionary 
journeys  through  Asia  Minor  and  Greece,  and 
the  scene  of  the  first  conflict  between  Jewish  and 
Gentile  Christianity,  the  result  of  which  was  the 
Apostolic  Council  in  Jerusalem  about  51  a.d.  Ten 
councils  were  held  at  Antioch.  Churches  sprang 
up,  exhibiting  a  new  style  of  architecture,  which 
soon  became  prevalent:  and  even  Constantine 
himself  spent  a  considerable  time  here,  adorning 
the  town  and  strengthening  its  harbor,  Seleucia. 
The  Antiocliians  themselves,  however,  brought 
about  the  ruin  of  their  beautiful  city.  They  were 
famous,  above  all  otlier  people  in  ancient  times, 
for  their  biting  and  scurrilous  wit.  and  for  their 
insenuity  in  devising  nicknames.  When  the  Per- 
sians, under  Chosroi's,  invaded  Syria  in  338  A.n., 
the  inhabitants  could  not  refrain  from  jesting  at 
them.  The  Persians  took  ani]ile  revenge  by  the 
total  destruction  of  the  city,  whicli.  however, 
was  rebuilt  by  Justinian.  The  next  important 
event  in  its  bi'storv  was  its  conquest  by  the  Sara- 
cens in  the  seventli  century.  In  the  ninth  cen- 
tury it  was  recoAcred  by  the  Greeks  under  Nice- 
pho'rus  Phocas,  but  in  1084  it  again  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Mohammedans.     The  Crusaders  be- 


ANTIOCH. 


617 


ANTIOCHUS. 


siepcd  and  took  it  in  1098.  and  it  was  lield  by  the 
Christians  until  1208.  (ScoAntioch,  rniNCiPAi.- 
ITY  OF.)  Since  then  Antioch  has  nndor^ono  a 
variety  of  vicissitudes.  Its  po|)iiIati()n  at  the 
heit;ht  of  its  grandeur  is  estimated  to  have  been 
400.000.  Probably  no  other  nroat  city  in  the 
world  has  suffered  so  frightfully  from  earth- 
ipiakes  as  Antioch.  It  was  destroyed  by  one  in 
520  A.u.  A  destructive  visitation  occurred  in  1872. 
Tlio  modern  town  of  Antakiyeh,  in  the  vilayet 
of  Aleppo,  is  situated  on  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Antioch  (JNIap:  Turkey  in  Asia,  G  4).  It 
is  poorly  built,  and  presents  a  striking  contrast 
to  tlie  magnificent  walls  of  the  old  city,  which 
are  still  ])artly  preserved.  It  takes  up  only  a 
small  portion  of  the  ancient  city,  the  remainder 
being  covered  with  olive  trees  and  date  ])alms. 
The  inhabitants  carry  on  some  trade  in  olives, 
silk,  and  grain.  The  population  is  variously 
estimated  at  from  18.000  to  28,000,  including 
only  a  few  Christians. 

ANTIOCH,  Principality  of.  A  principality 
founded  by  the  Norman  crusader  Hohenumd 
(q.v.)  in  1009.  For  about  30  years  it  was  the 
most  important  and  most  wealthy  portion  of  the 
Christian  possessions  in  Syria.  (Jradually  it 
declined  in  political  importance;  but  the  city 
remained  a  stronghold  of  Christendom  in  the 
East  until  1208.  when  it  was  captured  by  Bibars, 
Sultan  of  Egypt  and  Syria.  Consult  Rey, 
"Resume  ehronologique  de  I'histoire  des  princes 
d'Antiooh,"  in  the  Revve  de  I'Oricnt  Latin, 
Volume  IV.    (Paris.   1800). 

ANTIOCH  COL'LEGE.  An  American  col- 
lege, situated  at  Yellow  Springs,  0.  It  opened  in 
18.53,  with  Horace  Mann  as  its  first  president. 
It  claims  to  have  been  the  first  college  in  the 
world  to  admit  both  sexes  of  all  races  to  equal 
privileges.  It  is  Christian,  but  unsectarian. 
Endowment,  1001,  over  $100,000:  value  of  build- 
ings and  grounds.  $250,000;  library,  7000  vol- 
umes; faculty,  iLi;  attendance,  117. 

AN'TIO'CHIAN  SCHOOIi.  The  rival  of  the 
Alexandrian  School.  It  held  to  the  grauiuuitieal 
interpretation  of  Scripture,  instead  of  to  the 
allegorical  or  mystical.  It  dates  from  the  mar- 
tyr Lucian  (died  311),  and  in  its  later  form 
from  Diodones  of  Taisus  (died  304).  Its  chief 
representations  are  Chrysostom  and  Theodore  of 
Mopsuestia.  In  theology,  while  in  the  uuiin 
orthodox  according  to  the  Nicene  type,  it  leaned 
toward  asserting  rather  the  conjunction  than 
union  of  the  two  natures  in  Christ. 

ANTI'OCHtrS  (Gk.  'ArWoxof,  Antiochos).  A 
common  Greek  name,  borne  by  tliirtecn  kings  of 
Syria,  four  kings  of  Comnuigene  (a  small  country 
between  the  Euphrates  and  Mount  Taurus),  and 
many  other  persons  of  note.  See  the  following 
articles. 

ANTIOCHtrS  I.  SO'TER  (Ok.  'AvtIoxoc 
SuTJ/p,  Antiochos  SOtcr,  savior,  deliverer). 
King  of  S\Tia.  280-201  B.C.  The  son  of  Scleucus 
I.  Nicator  and  Apamea.  He  was  born  in  324 
B.C.,  fought  at  Ipsus  in  301  against  Antigonus 
and  Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  was  associated  with 
his  father  as  ruler  from  293,  and  became  his 
successor  after  the  murder  of  Seleucus  by  Ptol- 
emy Ceraunus  in  280.  Stratonice.  liis  father's 
wife,  became  his  own  consort,  Seleucus  giving 
her  to  him  in  view  of  their  mutual  affection. 
She  was  still  living  in  208.  Whether  he  sub- 
sequently married  a  sister,  daughter  of  Seleu- 
Vol,.  1,-41. 


cus  and  Stratonice,  or  Stratonice  is  referred  tc 
as  liis  "sister,"  according  to  the  Egyptian  cus- 
tom, is  uncertain.  In  275  he  gainecl  a  decisive 
victory  over  the  Gauls,  who  had  invaded  Asia 
Minor.  But  Appian  is  wrong  in  maintaining 
that  he  was  given  the  surname  Soter  on  this  oc- 
casion. This  seems  to  have  been  done  only  after 
his  death.  A  cuneiform  inscription  of  the  year 
269  enumerates  all  iiis  titles,  but  does  not  give 
this  one.  At  the  instigation  of  Magas  of  C.yrene, 
Antiochus  declared  war  against  Plolemj'  II.  Phil- 
adclphus.  He  found  an  ally  in  Antigonus  Gona- 
tas,  King  of  Macedonia  and  Greece,  but  the  war 
led  to  no  decisive  is.sue.  lie  maintained  with 
difficulty  the  integrity  of  the  great  eni])ire  his 
father  had  left  him.  .\ntioch,  with  its  suburb 
Daphna?,  Scleucia  witli  Ctesiplion,  and  Sardis 
were  the  three  capitals  of  the  kingdom.  Antio- 
chus was  not  slain  by  a  Gaul.  This  frequently 
occurring  statement  depends  on  a  confusion  with 
Antiochus  Hierax. 

ANTIOCHUS  II.  THE'OS  (Gk.  SeAs,  a 
god).  King  of  Syria,  261-240  n.c.  Son  of  An- 
tiochus I.  Soter  and  Stratonice;  succeeded 
his  father.  His  eight  years'  war  with  Ptol- 
emy II.  Pliiladelphus  cost  him  many  pro- 
vinces and  cities  in  Phoenicia  and  Asia 
Minor.  Only  the  expulsion  of  the  tyrant 
Timarchus  from  Miletus  in  250  B.C.  can  be 
counted  as  a  real  success.  He  is  said  to  have  re- 
ceived the  title  "Theos"  from  the  grateful  Mil- 
etians ;  but  this  is  doubtful.  Theodotus  seems 
to  have  established  an  independent  kingdom  in 
Bactria  in  250  B.C.,  and  the  Parthian  chief  Ar- 
saces,  or  his  successor,  Arsaces  11.  Tiridates,  took 
possession  of  Parthia  and  made  himself  prac- 
tically independent  in  248  B.C.  Probably  as 
early  as  250  B.C.  a  reconciliation  was  effected  be- 
tween Antiochus  and  Ptolemy.  The  agi'cement 
was  that  the  former  should  divorce  his  wife, 
Laodicc,  and  marry  the  latter's  daughter,  Ber- 
enice. Upon  the  death  of  Ptolemy  II.  in  247 
B.C..  Antiochus  abandoned  Berenice  and  her  child, 
and  went  to  Ephesus,  where  he  took  back  Laodice 
and  her  sons.  She.  however,  seems  to  have 
avenged  herself  by  poisoning  him  in  246  n.c. 
Laodice  then  proclaimed  her  oldest  son.  Seleucus, 
king;  and  her  servants  by  false  promises  lured 
Berenice  and  her  son  from  Daphnte,  where  they 
were  strongly  intrenched,  and  slew  thera  both. 
Laodice's  younger  son  was  Antiochus  Hierax. 

ANTIOCHUS  III.  THE  GREAT.     King  of 

Syria,  223-187  B.C.  Son  of  Seleucus  II.  Cal- 
linicus  (246-226)  and  Laodice,  a  cousin  of 
Andromachus,  ascended  the  throne  at  the  age 
of  fifteen,  after  the  murder  of  his  brother, 
Seleucus  III.  Ceraunus  (220-223).  His  first 
expedition  was  against  Ptolemy  IV.  Pliilo- 
pator  (221-204),  who  had  taken  possession 
of  Co?!e-Syria  and  Phoenicia.  liut  tlie  revolts 
of  Molon,  Governor  of  Media,  and  his  brother, 
Alexander,  Governor  of  Persia,  forced  him  to 
lead  an  army  against  them.  He  succeeded  in 
defeating  them,  and  also  in  subduing  Artaha- 
zanes.  King  of  Atropatene,  220  B.C.  While  he  was 
occupied  in  these  parts,  however,  AcIi:t>us,  Gov- 
ernor of  Asia  Minor,  assumed  the  royal  diadem. 
Antiochus  returned  to  Syria,  suffered  a  severe 
defeat  at  the  hands  of  Ptolemy  IV.  at  E.aphia, 
217  B.C.,  but  still  possessed  sufficient  strength  to 
attack  Achffus.  After  two  years'  siege,  Sardis 
was  captured  in  214  B.C.,  and  this  dangerous  re- 
volt   was    at    an    end.      Soon    after    Antiochus 


ANTIOCHUS. 


618 


ANTIOCHUS. 


marched  against  Xeixes  of  Armenia,  besieged 
Arsamosata  and  received  a  tribute  of  300  talents 
(212  B.C.).  He  then  continued  liis  march  into 
Susiana  and  Media  (210-209),  and  took  4000 
talents  of  gold  and  silver  from  the  temple 
of  Anaitis  in  Ecbatana.  Arsaces  III.  Artabanus 
was  defeated,  and  the  Parthian  capital  Heeatom- 
pylus  captured.  Finally,  Arsaces  III.  sued  for 
peace  and  promised  tribute,  209  B.C.  In  208  An- 
tiochus  made  an  attack  upon  Euthydemos  of 
Bactria,  and  in  206  this  king  indicated  his  will- 
ingness to  recognize  the  suzerainty  of  Syria.  He 
furnished  elephants  and  provisions  for  the 
expedition  against  Sophagasenus  of  Kophen 
(Kabul).  From  here  Antiochiis  returned  through 
Arachosia,  Drangiana,  Carniania,  and  Babj'lonia 
to  Syi'ia  in  204  B.C.  He  now  united  with  Philip 
of  Macedonia  against  Ptolemy  V.  Epiphanes. 
The  battle  of  Paneas,  in  198  B.C.,  in  which  An- 
tioelius  defeated  the  Egyptian  general,  Seopas, 
determined  the  fate  of  Palestine.  But  the  Ro- 
mans were  not  willing  to  allow  further  encroach- 
ments. In  196  B.C.  they  ordered  him  to  return 
all  places  taken  from  Egypt  and  deprived  him  of 
the  Thracian  Chersonese  that  had  been  given  to 
Seleueus  bj'  Lysimachus.  Against  the  counsels 
of  Hannibal,  who  urged  him  to  attack  Italy  it- 
self, Antiochus  went  with  his  army  to  Greece, 
where  he  was  defeated  at  Thermopylfe,  191  B.C. 
Still  more  crushing  was  his  defeat  at  Magnesia 
in  190  B.C.  In  the  treaty  of  188  B.C.  he  was 
forced  to  abandon  Asia  ]\Iinor  beyond  the  Taurus, 
to  pay  15,000  talents,  and  to  give  twenty  hos- 
tages, among  them  his  son.  To  raise  the  money 
he  pillaged  a  temple  of  Bel  in  Elymais,  and  was 
probably  murdered  by  the  outraged  people  in 
187  B.C. 

ANTIOCHUS  IV.  EPIPH'ANES  (Gk. 
'HwKpavt/r,  Ejiiphanes,  illustrious).  King  of 
Syria,  175-104  B.C.  Son  of  Antiochus  III.,  suc- 
ceeded his  brother,  Seleueus  IV..  Philo- 
pator  (187-175).  In  188  he  had  been  sent 
to  Rome  as  hostage,  and  he  had  been 
educated  there;  in  176  Seleueus  had  sent  his 
own  son  Demetrius  to  take  his  place.  Antiochus 
was  on  his  way  home,  when  the  news  reached 
liim  that  his  brother  had  been  murdered  by 
Heliodorus.  He  took  possession  of  the  throne 
that  by  right  of  succession  belonged  to  Deme- 
trius. Suspicious  of  the  young  son  of  Seleueus, 
he  seems  to  have  used  Andronicus  to  remove  him, 
after  which  Andronicus  himself  was  executed. 
In  173  Cleopatra  died,  and  hostilities  with  Eg;s'pt 
began.  His  first  Egyptian  campaign,  however, 
did  not  occur  before  170.  He  captured  Pelusium. 
entered  Egypt,  and  led  Ptolemy  VII.  Philometor 
as  king  into  Memphis,  sought  in  vain  to  storm 
Alexandria,  but  defeated  Ptolemy  IX.  Physcon 
in  a  naval  battle  before  he  was  obliged  by 
troubles  in  Syria  to  return.  In  Juda?a,  Onias  III. 
had  been  removed  from  the  high-priesthood,  and 
his  brother,  .Jason,  who  was  a  mere  tool  of  the 
ambitious  family  of  the  Tobiada\  put  into  his 
place  in  173.  Immediately  before  the  Egyjitian 
expedition,  the  Tohiad  Menebuis  secured  from 
-  Antiochus  the  high-priestly  office.  When  a  ru- 
mor spread  in  Jerusalem  that  Antiochus  had 
perished,  Jason  returned,  but  his  brother,  Onias 
III.,  was  preferred  by  the  people.  Jason  fell  and 
Onias  was  made  high-priest.  Menelaiis  and 
other  Tobiada?  f.ed  to  Antiocn.  On  his  way 
back.  Antiochus  went  to  .Terusalem  to  reinstate 
Menelaiis.  Onias  III.  fled  to  Eg,^^)t.  where  he 
was  granted  the  privilege  of  building  a  temple 


at  Leontopolis  by  Ptolemy  VII.  Philometor.  An- 
tiochus entered  the  temple  in  Jerusalem  and 
took  many  of  its  treasures,  among  them  the 
golden  altar,  the  candelabra,  and  the  table  of 
incense.  He  does  not  seem  to  have  shed  any 
blood.  In  108  he  undertook  his  second  cam- 
paign against  Egypt,  where  Pliilometor  and 
Physcon  were  now  united  against  him.  His  prog- 
ress was  cheeked  by  the  Roman  legate,  Popilius 
Lfenas,  who  demanded  immediate  obedience  to 
the  demands  of  the  Senate.  Returning  to  Syria, 
he  found  many  of  the  .Jews  embittered  by  the  in- 
dignities heaped  upon  them,  rebellious  against 
the  illegitimate  high-priest,  and  scarcely  conceal- 
ing their  joy  over  his  humiliation.  He,  there- 
fore, ordered  the  walls  to  be  razed,  fortified  the 
Acra,  put  in  a  strong  garrison,  destroyed  in  part 
the  temple,  erected  on  the  top  of  the  old  altar 
a  new  one  to  Zeus  Olympius  (Shikkuz  Shamcii, 
"abomination  of  desolation;"  for  Baal  Shamem, 
"lord  of  heaven,"  Dan.  xi  :31),  abolished  the 
sacred  seasons,  forbade  circumcision,  and  burned 
sacred  books,  108  B.C.  This  course  of  action 
may,  in  part,  have  been  due  to  a  genuine  zeal  for 
the  god  of  Hellas,  for  whom  he  must  have  longed 
during  his  Roman  days,  and  on  whose  sanctu- 
aries at  Athens,  Olympia,  and  elsewhere  he  later 
lavished  his  gifts.  On  the  other  h.and,  reasons 
of  state  may  have  led  him  to  build  a  temple  to 
Jupiter  Capitolinus  in  Antioch.  That  he  should 
have  forsaken  the  gods  of  his  fathers  to  wor- 
ship this  strange  "god  of  fortresses,"  seemed 
to  the  author  of  Daniel  a  particular  sign  of 
his  wickedness  (xi  :  38).  His  stringent  meas- 
ures for  the  Hellenization  of  Judtea  caused  the 
Maccaboean  revolt.  Mattathias  began  the  re- 
bellion. After  his  death  in  166,  his  son,  Judas, 
defeated  Apoleonius,  Seron,  Gorgias,  and  finally 
Lysias  himself;  took  possession  of  Jerusalem, 
except  the  Acra,  and  restored  and  rededicated  the 
temple  in  December,  165  B.C.  Meanwhile  An- 
tiochus had  gone  with  an  army,  first  against  Ar- 
menia and  Sophcne,  166  B.C.,  then  against  Mes- 
sene  on  the  Persian  Gulf,  165  B.C.,  and  finallj-  into  , 
Susiana,  gaining  many  victories  everywhere.  He 
attempted  to  plunder  the  temple  of  Nausea  in 
Elymais,  but  the  people  defended  successfully 
their  sanctuary,  and  he  was  forced  to  retire  to 
Babylon.  In  Persis  he  received  the  sad  news 
from  Juda'a,  and  died  in  Tabs',  164  B.C. 

ANTIOCHUS  V.  EU'PATOR  (Gk.  Eiwirup, 
Eiipntflr,  born  of  a  noble  fatlier).  King  of  Syria, 
104-102  B.C.  Son  of  Antiochus  IV.,  was  only  nine 
years  old  when  his  father  died.  Lysias  became  his 
guardian  and  regent  of  the  Empire.  Accom- 
panied by  the  young  king,  Lysias  marched 
against  Judtea  to  quell  the  Maccabtean  revolt. 
At  Beth  Zechariah  Judas  was  defeated,  Bcthzur 
was  taken,  and  the  temple  mountain  was  be- 
sieged. The  Jews  were  obliged  to  negotiate  for 
peace.  They  must  iccognize  the  Seleucid  au- 
thority, raze  the  fortifications  of  the  temple,  and 
accept  the  garrison  in  the  Acra;  but  on  the  other 
hand  were  allowed  religious  freedom,  Lysias 
was  quite  able  to  cope  with  Philip;  but  botl".  he 
and  his  royal  ward  succumbed  to  Demetrius,  son 
of  Seleueus  IV.,  in  162  B.C. 

ANTIOCHUS  VI.  THE'OS  (Gk.  6t6c,  god). 
King  of  Syria.  145-142  B.C.  Son  of  Alexander 
Balas  and  Cleopatra,  was  proclaimed  king  while 
still  a  minor,  living  at  the  court  of  Inialcue,  or 
Yamliku,King  of  Chaleis,byDiodotus,  called  Try- 
phon,  one  of  Alexander's  generals.     Tryphon  was 


i 


ANTIOCHUS. 


619 


ANTIOCHUS  or  ASKALON. 


supported  by  Jonatlian  in  Ixis  struggle  against 
Deinetrius,  but  became  apprehensive  of  the  grow- 
ing jjDWCr  of  tlie  Jewish  high-priest  and  ordered 
him  to  be  executed  in  Baskania,  143  n.c.  In  142, 
Antiochus,  who  liad  been  onl^y  a  tool,  was  re- 
nioved.   and  Tryphon   ascended   the   tlironc. 

ANTIOCHUS  VII.  SIDE'TES  (Gk.  2i<!^rw, 
SidCtCs,  native  of  Side).  King  of  SjTia,  137-128 
B.C.  Son  iif  Demetrius  I.,  born  at  Side  in  Pam- 
phylia.  He  resided  in  Rhodes  when  he  learned 
that  Demetrius  II.  Nieator  had  beeen  taken  pris- 
oner by  the  Parthians.  He  went  to  Antioeh,  and 
was  recognized  as  king.  One  of  his  first  acts  was 
to  write  to  Simon,  tlie  Jewisli  liigh-priest,  con- 
firming him  in  his  position  and  granting  him  the 
right  of  coining  money.  Having  overthrown 
Diodotus,  however,  he  demanded  of  Simon  Joppa, 
Gazara,  and  tlie  citadel  of  Jerusalem.  This  Si- 
mon refused  to  give,  and  when  Antiochus  sent  his 
general,  Cendebfeus,  against  him,  Simon's  sons, 
Judas  and  John  Hyrcanus,  gained  a  victory,  137 
B.C.  In  134  B.C.  Antiochus  marcl'.ed  against  Jeru- 
salem, having  devastated  Judiea,  captured  the 
city  after  a  long  siege,  and  imposed  very  severe 
conditions  upon  the  country.  John  Hyrcanus  was 
forced  to  pay  a  tribute  of  500  talents,  to  give 
hostages,  and  to  send  troops  for  the  Parthian  war. 
Having  restored  order  in  Syria,  Antiochus  at- 
tacked Phraates  130  B.C.,  defeated  him  in  three 
battles,  and  secured  the  freedom  of  his  brother. 
But  his  demands  were  so  exorbitant  that  the  ne- 
gotiations led  to  no  treatyof  peace,  and  a  reversal 
of  fortunes  caused  Antiochus  to  lose  all  that  he 
had  gained.  Not  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  liis 
enemies,  he  hurled  himself  from  a  rock,  128  B.C. 

ANTIOCHUS  VIII.  GRY'PUS  {Qk.ypvn-dg, 
grypos,  hook-nosed).  King  of  Syria,  123-113  and 
111-06  B.C.  Son  of  Demetrius  II.  Nieator  and 
Cleopatra ;  succeeded  his  father  in  12.5.  He  con- 
tinued the  struggle  that  Demetrius  had  had  with 
Alexander,  called  Zabina,  "the  purchased  one," 
and  finally  vanquished  him  in  121.  Cleopatra, 
who  found  him  too  independent,  wished  to  get  rid 
^f  him,  but  he  forced  her  to  drink  the  poisoned 
cup  she  had  pre])ared  for  him.  For  eight  years  he 
reigned  peacefully,  until  in  113  Antiochus  IX. 
Cyzicenus  aroused  his  suspicions.  This  son  of 
Sidetes  had  just  married  Cleopatra,  daughter  of 
Ptolemy  IX.  Physcon.  With  the  aid  of  the  Kgj'P" 
tian  king  he  raised  an  army  and  captvired  An- 
tioeh. Antiochus  Grypns  recaptured  the  city, 
and  his  wife,  Tryphiena,  put  her  sister  Cleopa- 
tra to  death  in  a  cruel  manner.  Soon  after  Cyzi- 
cenus defeated  Grypns  and  avenged  his  wife  on 
Trypha-na.  A  reconciliation  was  effected  between 
the  two  brothers  in  111,  and  they  continued  to 
reign  over  different  parts  of  northern  Syria.  An- 
tiochus VIII.  was  slain  bv  llcraclidu  in  90  B.C. 

ANTIOCHUS  IX.  CYZ'ICE'NUS  (Gk.  K^f- 
i/cTj^ij,  Kyzikcnos,  native  of  Cyzicus) .  King  of 
Syria,  113-95  B.C.  Son  of  Antiochus  VII.  Sidetes 
and  Cleopatra,  was  sole  ruler  of  Syria  between 
113  and  111,  and  from  that  time  to  his  death  held 
a  part  of  Syria,  adjoining  Palestine.  He  aided 
the  Samaritans  against  John  Hyrcanus  (110-107 
B.C.)  without  success,  and  a  second  attempt  to 
subdue  Judiea  with  the  aid  of  Ptolemy  XI.  La- 
thyrus  likewise  failed.  Having  been  defeated  in 
a  decisive  battle  with  Seleucus  VI.,  he  took  his 
own  life  in  95  B.C. 

ANTIOCHUS  X.  EU'SEBES  (Gk.  Eifff/S^s, 
Eiischrs,  ]iio\is) .  King  of  Syria,  95-92  B.C.  Son  of 
Antiochus  IX.  Cyzicenus.     He  continued  the  war 


against  Seleucus  VI.  and  forced  him  to  retire  to 
Mopsuestia,  where  he  was  murdered  by  the  pop- 
ulace in  95  B.C.  He  also  defeateil  .Vntioehus  XI. 
and  Philip  in  93  B.C.,  but  was  himself  vanquished 
by  Philip  and  Demetrius  III.  in  92  B.C.  and 
obliged  to  flee  to  the  Parthians.  He  is  supposed 
to  have  died  in  75  B.C.,  leaving  two  sons,  Anti- 
ochus XIII.  and  Seleucus  Cybiosactes.  His  wid- 
ow, Selene,  was  given  a  few  towns  in  Syria  by 
Tigranes  of  Armenia,  who  in  92  B.C.  took  posses- 
sion of  Antioeh. 

ANTIOCHUS  XI.  EPIPH'ANES  (Gk. 
''ETitpav/i^,Epiphaneif,  illustrious).  King  of  Syria, 
95-93  B.C.,  son  of  Antiochus  VIII.  Grypns:  upon 
the  death  of  Seleucus  VI.,  in  95  B.C.,  he  assumed 
the  royal  diadem;  together  with  his  brother  Phil- 
ip he  took  vengeance  upon  the  people  of  Jlopsues- 
tia,  who  had  murdered  Seleucus  VI.  But  on  hia 
return  to  Syria  he  was  defeated  by  Antiochus 
X.,  and  was  drowned  in  the  Orontes  in  D3  B.C. 

ANTIOCHUS  XII.  DIONY'SUS  (Gk.  AiA- 
wiros,  Dionysos,  Bacchus).  King  of  Syria,  85 
B.C.,  son  of  Antiochus  VIII.  He  took  the  crown 
when  he  learned  that  his  brother  Demetrius  III. 
had  been  made  a  prisoner  by  the  Parthians,  and 
intrenched  himself  in  Demetrius's  capital,  Da- 
mascus. He  was  at  first  victorious  in  his  cam- 
paign against  the  Nabatoeans,  but  was  defeated  in 
a  second  battle,  and  lost  his  life  in  85  B.C. 

ANTIOCHUS  XIII.  A'SIAT'ICUS  (Gk. 
'AniaTiKu^,  Asialikos,  Asiatic.)  King  of  Syria, 
09-64  B.C.,  son  of  Antiocluis  X.  He  was  sent  by 
his  mother,  Selene,  to  Rome,  together  with  his 
brother  Seleucus  Cybiosactes,  in  74  B.C.,  to  pre- 
sent his  claims  to  the  throne  of  Egypt,  but  re- 
turned to  Syria  in  71,  having  been  kept  for  a  ran- 
som by  Verres  in  Sicily,  as  Cicero  informs  us. 
After  his  victor_y  over  Tigranes,  in  09  B.C.,  Lu- 
eullus  gave  to  Antiochus  a  large  part  of  Syria, 
which  he  retained  until  Pompey  made  it  a  Roman 
province,  in  64  B.C. 

ANTIOCHUS  HI'ERAX  (Gk.  'Irpa^,  hierax, 
hawk).  Son  of  Antiochus  II.  and  Laodice.  He  was 
made  King  of  Cilicia  by  Ptoh^my  111.  Euei-getes 
in  243  B.C.  Ostensibly  for  the  purpose  of  assist- 
ing Seleucus  II.  Callinieus  (246-226)  to  recover 
certain  provinces  that  the  Eg;\-pfian  king  had 
taken  from  him,  but  really  to  deprive  him  of  all 
that  he  had  left,  Antiochus  sent  an  army  to  Sy- 
ria. Ptolemy  eame  to  an  agreement  with  Seleu- 
cus, but  the  war  between  tlie  two  brothers  con- 
tinued. With  the  aid  of  the  Gauls,  Antiochus 
won  a  decided  victory  near  Ancyra  in  242.  Se- 
leucus was  supposed  to  have  been  slain,  and  An- 
tiochus mourned  him.  He  then  turned  his  arms 
against  Demetrius  of  Macedonia,  and  suliseqiient- 
ly  against  Attalus  of  Pergamus.  The  war  with 
Seleucus  was  renewed,  and  Eumenes  used  the  op- 
portunity to  take  possession  of  a  large  part  of 
Asia  Minor.  After  a  signal  defeat  at  the  hands 
of  Seleucus,  Antiochus  fled  first  to  Ca]ipadocia 
and  then  to  Armenia.  Suspecting  foul  play,  he 
left  for  Egypt.  Ptolemy  111.  made  him  a  pris- 
oner. He  escaped,  however,  and  ended  his  stormy 
career  at  the  hands  of  brigands  in  Thrace,  225 
B.C. 

ANTIOCHUS  OF  AS'KALON  (  ?-c.  68  B.C.). 
A  Greek  philosopher.  He  succeeded  Philos  as 
head  of  the  celebrated  Academy  near  Athens. 
Abandoning  the  more  recent  traditions  of  the 
Skeptic  system,  he  introduced  into  the  Academy 
the    philosophy    of    Stoicism,     the     fundamental 


ANTIOCHUS  OF  ASKALON. 


620 


ANTIPATEB. 


tenets  of  which  lie  believed  to  have  originated  in 
the  Old  Academy  of  Plato. 

ANTIOPE,  an-ti'6-pe.    See  Amphion. 

ANTIOQUIA,  an'te-o'ke-a.  A  department  of 
Colombia,  South  America,  bounded  I)y  the  de- 
partment of  Bolivar  on  the  north,  Sanlander  on 
the  east,  Tolima  on  the  south,  and  Cauca  on  the 
west.  Its  area  is  22,316  square  miles.  Situated 
in  the  region  of  the  Cordilleras,  Antioquia  has 
a  very  mountainous  surface.  The  mineral  wealth 
of  the  department  is  considerable,  and  the  chief 
occupation  is  mining.  The  population  is  about 
50(1,000.     Capital,  Jledellin. 

AN'TIP^'DOBAPTISTS.  Those  who  op- 
po.se  infant  baptism.     See  Baptism,  Infant. 

AN'TIPAR'ALLELS  (anti  +  parallel) .  If 
a  pencil  of  two  lines,   O  —  XY,   is  cut  by  two 


parallel  lines,  AB,  MN,  and  if  MN  revolves 
through  a  straight  angle  abotit  the  bisector  of 
<  XOY  as  an  axis  falling  in  the  po- 
sition AjBi,  then  .IB  and  A,Bi  are  said 
to  be  anti  parallel  to  each  other.  OA 
and  OAj  are  called  corresponding  segments 
of  the  pencil,  as  are  also  OB  and  OB^.  A 
and  Ai  are  called  corresponding  points,  as  are 
also  B  and  B^.  The  concept  of  antiparallels  ma- 
terially simplifies  the  treatment  of  a  number  of 
propositions  of  elementary  geometry;  e.g.,  in  the 
above  figure  it  is  easilv  seen  that  OA  :0M  ^= 
OB -ON,  whence  OA-OB,'=OBOA,.  In  the  fol- 
lowing figures,  since  AB  and  AjBj  are  antiparal- 


FlG.  2. 

lels,  we  have  at  once  the  proof  of  the  important 
jiroposition  that  wherever  the  point  0  be  taken 
OAOB  =  OBOA^. 

ANTIP'AKOS  (Gk.  'AvriTraftnc,  opposite 
Pares).  Anciently  called  Olearos  or  Olia- 
ros.  One  of  the  Cyclades  Islands,  cele- 
brated for  a  .stalaetitic  cave.  It  is  separated  from 
Paros  by  a  narrow  strait.  It  contains  about 
800  inhabitants,  and  forms  a  part  of  the 
eparchy  of  Naxos.  Antiparos  is  seven  miles  long 
by  about  three  wide:  it  is  scantily  sujlplied 
with  water,  but  the  flats  in  the  north  anil  west 
are  tolerably  fertile.  Corn  and  wine  are  culti- 
vated, and  there  is  pasturage  for  large  flocks  of 
goats.  The  principal  occupation  of  the  inhab- 
itants is  fishing.  From  Kastron,  the  only  village 
on  the  island,  the  distance  to  the  grotto  is  about 
an  hour  and  a  half's  ride.  This  wonderful  cave 
is  not  mentioned  by  any  Greek  or  Koman  writer 
wliose  works  are  extant,  but  must  have  licen  vis- 
ited by  the  curiosity-hunters  of  antiquity,  for  the 
names  of  ancient  tourists  are  inscribed  about  the 
(ntrance.  It  maj-  well  have  been  a  place  of  wor- 
ship.   The  entrance  is  near  the  top  of  a  mountain 


on  the  southern  coast.  From  a  small  chamber 
a  long  and  somewhat  dangerou.s  descent  leads  to 
the  gieat  cavern,  80  feet  high,  more  than  300  feet 
long,  and  100  feet  broad,  which  contains  remark- 
able specimens  of  stalaetitic  formation.  The  cave 
was  first  made  known  to  the  modern  world  b_y  M. 
de  Nointel,  French  ambassador  to  the  Porte,  who, 
in  1673,  spent  three  days  in  it  and  caused  the 
Christmas  mass  to  be  celebrated  on  a  natural 
altar.  Views  of  the  entrance  and  exterior  are 
published  in  the  Bulletin  de  geographic  historirjue 
et  descriptive  (Paris,  1887-97).  Excavations 
by  Messrs.  Bent  and  Tsountas  have  brought 
to  light  a  number  of  graves  belonging  to 
an  early  period  in  the  "Island"  civilization. 
Since  1872,  profitable  le.ad  mines  have  been 
worked  on  the  island.  Consult  Bent,  The  Cy- 
clades   (London,   1885). 

AN'TIPAS.     See  Herod. 

ANTIP'ATER  (Gk.  'AvTinaTpo^,  Antipatros) . 
(c.  400-319  B.C.).  (1)  The  son  of  loUas,  and  one 
of  the  most  distinguished  generals  of  Philip  of 
Macedon  and  Alexander  the  Great.  It  was  es- 
pecially through  the  loyal  serrices  of  Antipater 
and  Parmenion  that  Alexander  was  enabled  to 
establish  his  kingdom  on  a  firm  basis.  When 
Alexander  led  his  troops  into  Asia,  he  left  An- 
tipater in  sole  charge  of  afl'airs  in  Macedonia. 
The  latter  discharged  the  duties  of  his  office  ^rith 
great  ability,  suppressing  insurrections  in  Thrace 
and  Sparta  and  supporting  Alexander  with  fresh 
troops  from  home.  But  lie  was  on  the  point  of 
being  superseded  by  Craterus,  through  the  influ- 
ence of  Olympias,  the  mother  of  Alexander,  when 
Alexander  died.  The  government  of  Macedonia 
was  assigned  to  Antipater  anew,  and  he  was  soon 
after  called  upon  to  defend  himself  against  an 
alliance  of  the  Grecian  States.  He  at  first  met 
with  reverses,  but  with  the  assistance  of  Cra- 
terus, who  was  also  his  son-in-law,  and  Leonna- 
tus,  he  finally  brought  the  allies  into  subjection 
in  322  B.C.  This  war  is  usually  called  the  Lara- 
ian  War,  from  Lamia,  where  Antipater  was  be-, 
sieged  in  323  B.C.  Everywhere  oligarchies  were 
established,  and  Athens  was  obliged  to  deliver  up 
Demosthenes  and  Hyperides  and  receive  a  gar- 
rison in  Munychia.  This  war  was  followed  by 
another  with  Perdiceas,  Antipater's  son-in-law, 
and  Antipater  was  again  successful.  After  the 
murder  of  Perdiceas,  in  321  B.C.,  Antipater  was 
appointed  to  the  supreme  regency  of  ilacedonia 
and  the  guardianship  of  Alexander's  children.  He 
made  a  new  division  of  the  kingdom,  but  died 
shortly  after,  in  318  B.C.,  leaving  the  regency  to 
Polysperchon  and  a  subordinate  position  only  to 
his  own  son,  Cassander. 

(2)  Son  of  Cassander  and  King  of  Macedonia. 
His  reign  followed  that  of  his  brother  Philip,  who 
had  followed  Cassander  in  297  B.C.  He  was 
killed,  287  n.c,  by  order  of  Demetrius  Polior- 
cetes.  (3)  Father  of  Herod  the  Great.  His  first 
appearance  is  in  the  reign  of  Aristobnlus  II. 
(69-63  B.C.),  as  a  man  of  great  wealth  and  im- 
portant connections.  He  supported  Hj'reanus 
II.  against  the  power  of  Aristobnlus,  and  after 
Hj'reanus,  in  63  B.C.,  opened  the  gates  of  Jerusa- 
lem to  Pompey,  the  influence  of  Antipater  grew 
apace.  In  47  B.C.  he  was  appointed  procurator 
of  Juda-a.  In  the  struggle  between  Pompey  and 
Ciiesar  he  supported  the  former;  but  after  the  de- 
feat of  Pompey,  made  his  peace  with  Ca'sar,  and 
continued  thereafter  his  firm  adherent.  Ciesar 
showed  him    many   marks  of  favor.     Antipater 


ANTIPATER. 


621 


ANTIPHON. 


was  pnisonoil  in  43  ii.c.  (4)  Son  nf  TIernil  the 
Great  by  his  first  wife.  Doris;  n  worthless  prince, 
who  was  perjietually  conspiring  against  the  life 
of  his  hrothers.  He  was  finally  tried  before 
Quintilius  Varus,  and  executed  in  prison  five 
days  before  Herod  died. 

ANTIP'ATHY  (Gk.  dn-f.  anti.  against  + 
ir<£9o5,  pathos,  suffering,  affection,  emotion,  feel- 
ing) .  By  derivation,  the  opposite  of  sympathy 
(q.v.).  It  may  be  defined  as  a  permanent 
aversion  to,  or  settled  incompatibility  with, 
some  object  or  some  quality  of  an  object.  We 
may  distingiiish  between  formal  or  logical  an- 
tipathy and  concrete  or  actual  antipathies.  The 
choleric  temperament  is,  formally,  antipathetic 
to  the  phlegmatic,  and  the  sanguine  to  the  mel- 
ancholy. (See  Temperamext. )  The  term  is, 
however,  more  usually  restricted  to  such  definite 
cases  of  individual  aversion  as  the  dislike  shown 
by  many  persons  to  certain  animals — snakes, 
mice,  toads,  cats.  Some  of  these  antipathies, 
doubtless,  have  their  root  in  a  cultivated  affecta- 
tion, or  in  the  unconsidered  encouragement  of  a 
prejudice  imbibed  in  childhood ;  others  date  from 
a  particular  occasion  of  fright,  or  are  due  to 
the  chance  association  of  the  object  with  an  un- 
pleasant incident.  If,  e.g.,  a  house  swarms 
with  mice  during  a  period  of  great  mourn- 
ing, it  is  probable  that  the  mourners  will  hence- 
forth show  a  marked  antipathy  to  these  animals. 
But  there  are  cases  which  require  a  different 
principle  of  explanation.  The  aversion  to  snakes, 
e.g.,  which  often  prevails  among  those  who  have 
never  come  into  contact  with  the  reptiles,  and 
who  have  nothing  to  fear  from  those  that  they 
may  happen  to  meet,  is,  perhaps,  a  phylogenetic 
symptom.  The  snake  is  the  chief  enemy  of  the 
monlceys,  as  readers  of  Kipling's  Jungle  Boole 
will  remember;  and  the  liability  to  fear  of  snakes 
may  be  a  heritage  from  our  pre-human  ancestry. 
Some  persons,  again,  cannot  enter  a  room  which 
contains  a  cat.  The  explanation  may  be  that  the 
valerianic  odor  peculiar  to  the  animal  is  auto- 
matically associated  in  certain  constitutions  to 
organic  sensations  of  nausea  or  shuddering,  just 
as  there  are  persons  who  are  subject  to  shivering 
and  gooseflesh  when  a  slate  pencil  squeaks  upon 
a  slate.  At  any  rate,  the  mammals  that  excite 
antipathy  (mouse,  cat,  fox,  hare,  pig)  have  one 
and  all  a  marked  and  peculiar  scent;  and  we 
know  from  animal  psychology  that  a  smell-stim- 
ulus may  set  up  a  well-marked  ehemo-rcllex.  The 
aversion  to  mice  may  be  derived  in  part  from 
the  uncanny  and  snake-like  character  of  their 
locomotion,  and  in  part  from  the  ubiquity  which 
their  small  size  makes  possible.  The  aversion 
to  toads  (apart  from  superstitious  belief  in  their 
poisonous  properties)  may  be  due  to  the  clammy 
cold  of  their  skin:  we  all  know  the  horrible 
feeling  that  arises  if,  being  in  the  pantry  in  the 
dark,  we  lay  our  hand  by  chance  upon  a  piece  of 
cold  ])otato.  Many  historical  cases  of  antipathy 
cannot  now  be  explained,  simply  because  we  have 
only  the  record  of  the  Ijare  fact,  with  no  mentitm 
of  the  conditions  luider  which  the  antipathy  took 
shape. 

i!iiii.i<)(in.\pirY.  A.  Mosso,  Fear  {'Sew  York, 
1896)  ;  W.  James.  Principles  of  Psychology  (New 
York,  1S90).  On  reflex  sensations,  see  \V. 
Wundt,  Grund^iige  der  physiologischen  Psycholo- 
gii-'  ( I.i-ipzig.  l.S!i:i).     See  Common  Sensation. 

ANTIP'ATBIS.  A  city  of  Palestine,  built 
by  Herod  the  (ireat  (37-34  B.C.)    in  honor  of  his 


father,  Antipater.  Tt  was  situated  in  the  Plain 
of  Sharon,  about  11  miles  east-northeast  of  .Jop- 
pa.  In  Roman  times  it  was  of  importance  as  the 
junction  of  several  military  roads  leading  from 
the  south  and  east  to  Ciesarea,  the  Roman  cap- 
ital of  Palestine.  By  the  Jews  it  was  considered 
the  northwest  limit  of  strictly  Jewish  territory. 
It  is  frequently  mentioned  in  Josephus.  Paul 
was  escorted  as  far  as  Antipatris  by  Roman  sol- 
diers «hen  he  was  taken  from  Jerusalem  to  Ca;- 
sarea   (Acts  xxiii  :  :il-32). 

ANTIPH'ANES  (Gk.  'ApTi<p6.yr,s).  A  Greek 
comic  poet  of  the  fourth  century  B.C.  He 
was  one  of  the  chief  representatives  of  the  Jlid- 
dle  Comedy.  Many  fragments  of  his  works — 
which  numbered,  according  to  some  estimates, 
365,  and  to  others  260 — are  preserved.  He  is 
praised  by  Athena-us  for  his  polished  diction. 
Consult  Jleineke,  Puetarum  Coniicorum  Grwco- 
rum  Fragmenta,  Volume  III.  (Berlin,  1839-57). 
ANTIPH'ILtrS  (Gk.  'A^ri^iXos,  Antiphilos). 
A  Greek  painter  of  Egyptian  birtli,  who  lived 
at  the  court  of  the  first  Ptolemy,  about  330  B.C. 
He  was  a  contemporary  and  rival  of  Apelles. 
Quintilian,  who  classes  him  among  the  greatest 
painters  of  the  age  of  Philip  and  Alexander 
(xii.  10,  paragraph  6),  says  he  excelled  in  the 
lightness  and  facility  with  which  he  handled  sub- 
jects of  high  art,  as  well  as  of  daily  life.  His 
most  celebrated  works  were  portraits  of  Philip 
and  Alexander. 

AN'TIPHON  (Gk.  dvrlfcova).  A  notable 
part  of  the  breviary  offices  in  all  Western  uses. 
The  recitation  of  the  Psalter  forming  the  staple 
of  the  office,  antiphons  or  short  texts  (generally 
from  Holy  Scripture),  having  special  reference 
to  the  feast  or  season  celebrated,  were  sung  in 
connection  with  the  psalms  and  evangelical 
canticles  to  give  color  and  appropriateness  to  the 
invariable  parts  of  the  service.  On  the  greater 
festivals  (hence  called  "double  feasts"),  the  anti- 
phons are  sung  entire  before  and  after  the 
psalms:  at  other  times  only  tfie  first  two  or 
three  words  were  sung  before  and  the  entire  anti- 
phon  after.  Pope  Gregory  I.  in  590  prepared  the 
first  regular  antipltonarium,  a  service  book  so 
called  from  being  largely  made  up  of  the  proper 
music  for  the  antiphons. 

ANTIPHON  (Gk.  'AvTi<j>iJv)  (480-411  B.C.). 
The  earliest  of  the  Ten  Attic  Orators  in 
the  Alexandrian  Canon.  He  was  the  son  of 
Sophilus  the  Sophist,  and  was  born  at  Rhamnus, 
in  Attica.  Although  Antiphon  was  undoubtedly 
influenced  by  the  teachings  of  Gorgias.  he  never 
developed  so  rhetorical  a  style  as  some  of  the 
later  orators.  He  labored  to  make  his  argu- 
ments clear,  solid,  and  convincing,  so  that  it 
mi"ht  be  impossible  for  the  judges  who  listened 
to  the  speeches  he  wrote  to  renise  their  assent 
to  his  propositions.  His  success  was  unmistak- 
able. Although  he  never  made  a  public  appear- 
ance as  a  pleader  in  the  courts  of  justice,  but 
contented  himself  with  writing  speeches  for  oth- 
ers 1o  deliver,  he  acquired  groat  influence,  which 
he  did  not  fail  to  exert  for  the  furtherance  of  his 
political  principles.  To  him  must  be  attributed 
the  overthrow  of  the  Athenian  democracy  ( 41 1 
B.C.)  and  the  establishment  of  the  oligarchical 
government  of  the  Four  Hundred :  for  although 
Pisander  figured  prominently  before  the  people 
in  this  revolution,  the  whole  affair,  according  to 
Thucydides.  was  secretly  planned  by  Antiphon. 
The  oligarchical  government  fell  within  the  year, 


ANTIPHON. 


622 


ANTIPOPE. 


and  Antiphon  was  brought  to  trial  for  treason 
for  having  attempted  to  negotiate  peace  with 
Sparta.  Thucydides  affirms  that  an  abler  de- 
fense was  never  made  by  any  man  in  a  similar 
position.  He  was  condemned  to  death,  his  prop- 
erty was  confiscated,  his  house  razed  to  the 
ground,  his  remains  forbidden  interment  in  At- 
tica, and  his  children  forever  declared  incapable 
of  enjoying  civic  privileges.  Of  the  sixty  ora- 
tions which  the  ancients  possessed,  only  fifteen 
have  come  down  to  us.  Three  of  these  are  writ- 
ten foi'  otliers,  and  are  admired  for  their  clear- 
ness, purity,  and  vigor  of  expression;  the  re- 
maining twelve  appear  to  have  been  intended  as 
specimens  of  school  rhetoric  for  his  pupils.  Ed- 
ited by  Blass  (Leipzig,  1881).  Consult  also: 
Tildas,  Alt ische  Bercdsnmh-rlt  (Leipzig,  1887-98)  ; 
and  .Tebb.  Attic  Orators  (London,  187G-80). 

ANTIPHON  (Gk.  'Ai-npuv,  Antiphon)  and 
BRY'SON.  tircek  mathematicians  of  the  fifth 
century  B.C.,  who  are  credited  with  having  intro- 
duced the  ijroeess  of  exliaustion  for  the  purposes 
of  tlie  quadrature  problem.     See  Quadkature. 

ANTIPH'ONY  (Gk.  ivrl,  anti,  against  + 
<j>uvj/,  phonv,  sound,  voice).  A  name  given  by 
the  ancient  Greeks  to  a  species  of  musical  ac- 
companiment in  the  octave,  by  instruments  or 
voices,  in  opposition  to  that  executed  in  unison, 
which  they  called  homophony.  Antiphony  is  also 
the  name  of  a  species  of  sacred  song  sung  by  two 
parties,  each  responding  to  the  other,  a  practice 
which  was  cultivated  in  the  early  ages  by  the 
Hebrews,  Greeks,  and  Romans.  Many  of  the 
psalms  of  David  show  that  antiphonal  singing 
was  then  in  use.  Its  introduction  into  the  Greek 
Church  is  ascribed  either  to  Ignatius,  Bishop  of 
Antioch,  in  the  second  century,  or  to  St.  Chrysos- 
tom,  about  400  A.D. ;  and  Ambrosius,  Bishop  of 
Milan,  is  said  to  have  introduced  it  into  the 
Western  Church  in  the  fourth  century.  The  di- 
viding of  the  antiphonies  into  verses,  with  rules 
regarding  the  same,  is  attributed  to  Pope  Celes- 
tine  in  432.  The  reformed  Christian  churches  of 
Germany  and  England  have  still  retained  a  cer- 
tain degree  of  antiphonal  singing,  and  there  are 
several  antiphonal  choirs  in  America,  notably 
that  in  the  church  of  the  Paulist  Fathers  in  New 
■York.  The  chanting  of  the  psalms  in  the  Eng- 
lish cathedral  service  is  an  imitation  of  the 
ancient  antiphony. 

ANTIPH'RASIS  (Gk.  dvT(0pa<ns,  from 
ivrt,  <inti,  against,  contrary  -\-  <f>pd^ei.p,  plirazein, 
to  point  out,  declare,  tell).  A  teclinical  term 
used  by  the  ancient  rhetoricians  and  gram- 
marians signif3'ing.  etymologically,  "contrary- 
speaking."  Properly,  it  denoted  the  process  of 
expressing  an  idea,  generally  an  unpleasant  idea, 
by  using  a  word  or  expression  of  opposite  mean- 
ing to  the  natural  one.  Thus,  the  Furies  were 
called  the  Eumeiiides  (the  kindly  minded  ones), 
and  the  Black  Sea,  though  inhospitable 
(  uita'oc,  axcinos) ,  was  named  Ponton  Euxcinos 
(the  Hospitable  Sea).  The  word  antiphrasis 
was  used  also  in  a  broader  sense  of  the  process 
of  expressing  one  idea  by  negativing  the  oppo- 
site; e.g.,  not  unmindful,  meaning  empliatieally 
■mindful.  This  figure  is,  however,  called  dis- 
tinctively Litotes. 

ANTIPODES,  an-t!p'fl-dcz  (Gk.  plur.  ivTiira- 
iti.  from  uvTi,  anti,  against  -f-  Troi'f,  pons, 
foot).  Literally,  those  who  have  their  feet  over 
against  each  other.  As  applied  to  geography, 
the  term  means  the  inhabitants  of  any  two  oppo- 


site points  of  the  globe,  or,  in  other  words,  the 
dwellers  at  the  opposite  extremities  of  any  di- 
ameter of  the  earth.  From  this  primary  rela- 
tion there  necessarily  arise  many  secondary  rela- 
tions. Antipodes  must  be  on  one  and  the  same 
meridian  of  longitude,  separated  from  each  other 
by  lialf  the  circumference.  Being  so  situated  on 
one  and  in  the  same  meridional  circle,  they  must 
differ  in  longitude  exactly  180°,  witli  the  excep- 
tion of  the  poles  themselves,  which  have  an  inde- 
terminate longitude ;  and  being  separated  from 
eacli  other  by  half  the  circumference,  tliey  must 
be  equi-distant  from  the  equator  in  opposite  di- 
rections. Take  Edinburgli  as  an  example,  in 
lat.  55°  57'  N.  and  long.  3°  II'  W.,  its  antipodes 
must  be  in  lat.  55°  57'  S.  and  in  long.  176°  49'  E., 
whicli  is  merely  an  iindistinguishable  spot  in  the 
Antarctic  or  Southern  Ocean.  Take  as  anotlicr 
example  London,  in  lat.  51°  30'  N.  and  long.  0°  5' 
W.  Its  antipodes  must  be  in  lat.  51°  30'  S.  and 
in  long.  179°  55'  E.,  coinciding  pretty  nearly  with 
a  small  island  to  the  soutlieast  of  JSTew  Zealand. 
This  small  island,  in  honor  rather  of  London 
than  of  itself,  has  appropriated  the  peculiar 
name  Antipodes  Island. 

Between  antipodes  in  general  there  neces- 
sarily exist  also  other  secondary  relations. 
With  reference  to  the  earth's  daily  rotation,  noon 
of  tlie  one  side  must  be  midnight  of  the  other; 
while  with  regard  to  its  annual  revolution,  sum- 
mer and  autumn  of  the  one  side  must  be  winter 
and  spring  of  the  otlier.  Witli  respect,  however, 
to  tlie  former  contrast,  some  explanation  may  be 
required.  If  this,  for  instance,  is  Wednesday 
in  London,  was  last  midnight  in  that  city  the 
noon  of  Tuesday  or  of  Wednesday  at  Antipodes 
Island  ?  The  answer  to  this  question  depends  upon 
a  conventional  usage,  according  to  which  (with 
a  few  exceptions,  dictated  by  practical  considera- 
tions) the  time  of  all  places  east  of  Greenwich  is 
said  to  be  later  than  that  at  Greenwich,  and  the 
time  of  all  places  west  of  Greenwich  is  said  to  be 
earlier  than  tliat  at  Greenwicli.  To  avoid  con- 
fusion it  has  been  agi-eed,  further,  to  think  of 
Antipodes  Island  as  situated  cast  of  Greenwich. 
With  this  in  view,  it  is  clear  that  the  midflight 
in  question  at  London  corresponded  to  Wednes- 
day noon  at  Antipodes  Island.  See  Interna- 
tional Date-line. 

ANTIPODES    IS'LAND.       A    small    island 

southeast  of  New  Zealand,  in  49°  48'  S.  lat.  and 
178°  20'  E.  long.,  so  called  because  it  is  nearly 
the  antipode  of  London  (Map:  World,  Western 
Hemisphere,  0  3).  It  is  uninhabited,  and  has 
an  area  of  only  about  11  square  miles.  See  An- 
tipodes. 

AN'TIPOPE.  A  pontiff  elected  in  opposition 
to  one  canonically  chosen.  The  regular  Pope^ 
of  Rome  were  occasionally  out  of  favor  with  a 
faction  which  chose  its  own  bishop  (e.g.,  Hip- 
polytus,  218-223;  Felix  II.,  35.5-350),  but  the 
first  Antipope  is  reputed  to  be  Laurentius,  elect- 
ed in  498,  in  opposition  to  Symmaclms.  Sev- 
eral emperors  of  Germany  set  up  Popes  against 
tho.se  whom  the  Ronums  had  elected  without  con- 
sulting them.  Otho  the  Great  displaced  successive- 
ly two  Popes  of  Rome ;  and  wlien  the  Antipope 
Sylvester  III.  had  expelled  Pope  Benedict  IX., 
Conrad  II.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  brought  back 
this  ecclesiastic,  who  transferred  his  dignity  to 
Gregory  VI.  (1044).  There  were  now,  con- 
sequently, three  Popes,  and  their  number  was 
Increased   to   four    by   the   election    of    Clement 


ANTIPOPE. 


623 


ANTIPYBINE. 


II.  in  1046.  Shortly  after,  Alexander  II.  found 
a  rival  in  Honorius  II.  (10«il),  and  in  1080 
the  same  unseemly  spectacle  was  witnessed 
when  Henry  IV.,  Emperor  of  (Jerniany,  elevated 
to  the  papal  chair  Guibert  of  Ravenna,  under  the 
title  of  Clement  III.,  in  opposition  to  his  im- 
placable adversary,  Gregory  VII.  But  after  the 
death  cf  Gregory,  Clement  was  himself  opposed 
successively  by  Victor  III.  and  Urban  II.,  and  at 
last  died  at  a  distance  from  Rome,  having  just 
beheld  the  exaltation  of  Pascal  11.  as  tlic  suc- 
cessor of  Urban.  During  the  twelfth  century 
several  .\iitipopes  flourished,  such  as  Gregory 
VIII.  and  Honorius  III.  On  the  death  of  the 
latter,  France  began  to  intermeddle  in  these  dis- 
graceful strifes,  and  upheld  the  cause  of  Inno- 
cent II.  against  Anacletus, while  the  kings  of  Sic- 
ily, on  the  other  hand,  more  than  once  set  up  a 
pontiff  of  their  own  against  the  choice  of  the 
emperors.  Between  11.59  and  1378  there  were 
four  Antipo])es;  but  the  most  remarkable  epoch 
is  "the  great  schism  of  the  West"  ])roduced  by 
these  unedifying  rivalries  in  1378  —  a  schism 
which  divided  the  Church  for  fifty  j'ears.  It 
broke  out  after  the  death  of  Gregor\'  XI.  at  the 
•election  of  Urban  VI.,  whom  the  voice  of  the 
Roman  people,  demanding  an  Italian  Pope  and 
not  one  who  should  fi.x  his  pontificate,  like  sev- 
eral of  his  predecessors,  at  a  distance  from 
Rome,  had  elevated  to  the  papal  throne.  The 
French  cardinals  objected,  withdrew  to  Provence 
and  elected  a  new  Pope,  under  the  name  of  Clem- 
ent Vil.,  who  was  recognized  by  France,  Spain, 
Savoy,  and  Scotland,  while  Italy,  Germany,  Eng- 
land, and  the  wliole  north  of  Europe  supjiorted 
Urban  VI.  These  two  Popes  excommunicated  each 
other;  nor  did  they  even  fear  to  compromise  their 
sacred  character  by  their  strife.  The  schism  con- 
tinued after  their  death,  when  three  Popes  were 
elected  by  different  parties,  all  of  whom  were  de- 
posed by  the  Council  of  Constance,  in  1415,  and 
Cardinal  Colonna  elected  in  their  place,  under 
the  title  of  JIartin  V.  The  last  Antipope  was 
Felix  V.  (14.39-49).  These  divisions  are  often 
alleged  as  an  argument  against  the  doctrine  of 
papal  infallibility:  but  Catholics  consistently  af- 
firm that  the  privilege  of  infallibility  is  only 
•claimed  in  matters  of  doctrine,  and  has  no  rela- 
tion to  questions  of  fact,  such  as  disputed  suc- 
cession or  canonicity  of  election. 

AN'TIPYRET'IC  (Gk.  iiv-!,  anti,  against 
-\- TTvfirro:;,  iiyretos,  burning  heat,  fever).  Any 
<lrug  wliich  low'ers  febrile  temperature  by  action 
upon  the  blood,  the  circulation,  or  the  secretion  of 
sweat,  or  by  changes  in  heat  production  and  dis- 
sipation through  the  nervous  system.  The  most 
important  are  antipyrine,  acetanilide,  phenacetine, 
quinine,  salicylic  acid  (qq.v. )  and  its  derivatives, 
and  others  of  the  benzene  series.  Less  impor- 
tance than  formerly  is  attached  to  the  action 
of  such  drugs  in  diminishing  temperature,  as 
fever  is  now  regarded  as  a  symptom  of  some 
disturbance,  a  symptom  which  is  in  many  cases 
best  relieved  by  removing  its  cause.  If  the  tem- 
perature is  so  high  as  to  appear  to  be  injurious 
in  itself,  or  if  it  causes  discomfort,  these  reme- 
dies nuiy  be  of  value.  JIany  of  them  are  effi- 
cacious also  in  relieving  pain;  e.g.,  salicylic  acid 
in  acute  rheumatism ;  antipyrine,  antifclirinc,  or 
phenacetine  in  any  painful  febrile  condition.  Qui- 
nine is  used  in  malarial  fever,  not  for  its 
antipyretic  effect,  but  to  overcome  the  malarial 
organism.  (See  Malaria.)  Cold  baths,  sponges, 
packs,   etc.,   are   frequently  employed   to   reduce 


temperature.  Tlio  antiiiyretie  action  of  drugs 
is  usually  accompanied  by  more  or  less  depression 
of  the  heart.  See  Cixciio.XA;  Salicixic  Acid. 
AN'TIPY'RINE  (derivation  same  as  of  an- 
tipyretics). An  artificial  alkaloid,  having  the 
composition  C,,H,,N«0.  It  is  a  white,  crystalline 
powder,  freely  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol,  and 
having  a  slightly  bitter  taste.  It  diminishes  the 
force  and  frequency  of  the  heart's  action  and  low- 
ers the  arterial  tension ;  reduces  the  frequency 
of  respiration  and  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid 
given  off.  and  diminishes  the  amount  of  urine,  of 
nrea,  and  of  uric  acid.  The  temperature  of  the 
body  is  diminished,  partly  on  account  of  per- 
spiration, but  also  from  increased  radiation  of 
heat  on  account  of  dilatation  of  the  superficial 
blood  vessels,  and  perhaps  also  from  lessened 
heat  production.  Antiiiyrine  tends  to  allay 
nervous  irritability  and  to  relieve  pain.  It  some- 
times forms  met-hnemoglobulin  in  the  blood. 

1.  As  an  antipyretic,  it  is  prompt,  and,  as  a 
rule,  very  ellicient.  The  fall  of  temperature  be- 
gins in  half  an  hour,  usually  reaches  its  lowest 
point  in  from  two  to  five  hours,  and  lasts  from 
five  to  eight  hours.  The  fall  is  usually  through 
several  degrees,  and  sometimes  below  normal.  It 
is  generally  accompanied  by  sweating,  and  occa- 
sionally by  signs  of  heart  failure. 

2.  As  an  analgesic,  it  is  prompt  and  efficacious. 
It  has  proved  of  great  value  in  all  varieties  of 
neuralgia,  both  superficial  and  visceral;  in  all 
forms  of  headache,  ami  in  dysmenorrhoea.  It  is, 
of  course,  more  servicealile  when  these  conditions 
are  of  functional  origin  and  not  organic. 

3.  As  an  antiperiodic,  it  is  of  no  value. 

4.  For  rheumatism,  it  is  frequently  very  use- 
ful, resembling  in  its  action  salicylic  acid.  It 
lessens  the  severity  of  an  attack  b}'  relieving  pain 
and  reducing  temperature,  but  seems  to  have  no 
influence  in  diminishing  the  liability  to  heart 
complications,  and  is  probably  not  curative. 

5.  As  a  nervous  scrhifirc,  it  is  of  some  value  in 
epilepsy,  but  of  doubtful  utility  in  chorea.  In 
whooping  cough  it  often  abates  the  frequency  and 
severity  of  the  paroxysms,  but  does  not  seem  to 
shorten  the  course  of  tlie  disease. 

ti.  l^s  an  hypnotic,  it  seems  to  be  of  some  use, 
inducing  sleep  by  removing  the  pain  or  fever 
which  prevents  it. 

7.  -4s  a  hcemostatic,  it  is  efficient  locally  in 
powder  or  solution. 

8.  For  the  morphine  habit,  it  is  used  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  morphine,  by  mouth  or  hypodermi- 
cally,  but  is  of  doubtful  value. 

Antipyrine  frequently  produces  untoward 
symptoms.  These  may  be  grouped  under:  (1.) 
Circulatory.  Cyanosis,  frequent  and  feeble  heart 
action,  dyspnoea,  sometimes  collapse,  occur  not 
uncommonly.  Serious  symptoms  have  bean  pro- 
duced by  ten  or  fifteen  grains,  and  even  death  has 
been  caused.  This  must  be  remembered  especially 
in  cases  whe're  the  natural  tendency  of  the  disease 
is  toward  heart  weakness.  In  these  cases  it  is  very 
advisable  to  give  some  stimulant  with  the  anti- 
pyrine. If  it  has  to  be  given  frequently,  great 
care  must  be  used,  as  a  cumulative  action  has 
been  noticed  in  several  cases.  The  dose  which 
is  at  first  safe  may  become  poisonous  if  repeated 
several  times  in  a  day.  Individual  susceptibility 
varies  greatly.  (2.)  Cutaneous.  Among  the 
rashes  noticed  are  some  which  resemble  measles, 
scarlatina,  urticaria,  erythema,  and  purpura. 
These  are  unpleasant,  but  not  serious.  (3.) 
Nervous.     These    include    various    paraesthesise. 


ANTIPYBINE. 


624 


ANTISABBATARIANS. 


vesical  spasms  and  cramjjs,  but  are  usually  not 
serious. 

It  may  be  given  by  mouth  in  powder,  or  dis- 
solved in  water  or  an  alcoholic  beverage.  The 
dose  depends  upon  individual  susceptibility.  It 
is  also  administered  hypodermatically.     See  AoE- 

TANILID;    PlIENACETIN. 

AN'TIQUA'RIAN  SOCI'ETIES.  Organiza- 
tions in  Europe,  England,  and  America  for  the 
promotion  of  the  study  of  antiquities.  The  Lon- 
don Society  of  Antiquaries  was  antedated  by  a 
society  established  in  1572,  and  dissolved  by 
James  I.  about  1604.  The  present  London  soci- 
ety began  to  meet  about  1707,  and  received  its 
charter  in  1751.  The  Scottish  Society  of  Antiq- 
uities was  founded  in  1780,  the  French  society 
in  1814,  and  the  American  Antiquarian  Society 
(see  Antiquarian  Society,  Amekican)   in  1812. 

ANTIQUARIAN  SOCIETY,  American. 
A  society  founded  in  1812,  which  has  its  head- 
quarters at  Worcester,  Mass.  It  owns  a  li- 
brary of  more  than  100,000  volumes,  which  is 
especially  rich  in  manuscripts,  newspapers,  po- 
litical pamphlets,  and  early  American  publica- 
tions. The  proceedings  have  been  published 
semi-annually  since  1849.  Several  volumes  of 
the  Archwoloflia  Americana  have  been  issued, 
containing  reprints  of  rare  books  and  manu- 
scripts and  special  papers  on  antiquarian  and 
historical  topics.  The  society  has  an  important 
museum,  and  maintains  a  fund  aggi-egating  over 
$100,000  for  the  support  of  various  departments 
of  its  work.     See  Antiquarian  Societies. 

AN'TIQXJARY,  The.  One  of  Scott's  Waver- 
ley  Xovcls   (ISIO),  and  its  chief  character. 

ANTIQUE'  (Lat.  antiquiis,  old).  As  the 
term  "ancients"  is  commonly  applied  to  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  the  word  antique  is  used 
with  reference  to  their  works  of  art,  especially 
their  incomparable  sculptures.  The  antique  style 
in  works  of  art  is  distingiiislied  by  critics  from 
the  romantic  or  niediieval.and  also  from  the  mod- 
ern. The  sculpture  of  the  Greeks  is  character- 
ized by  freshness,  originality,  and  ideality;  and 
the  phases  it  underwent  have  their  parallels  in 
the  development  of  the  literature  and  general 
culture  of  that  people.  In  the  earliest  times, 
the  statues  had  a  rigid,  formal  character,  and 
looked  more  like  the  idols  of  barbarous  nations 
than  deities  in  luiman  form :  then  came  stern. 
Titan-like  forms,  corresponding  with  the  Pro- 
metheus of  ^^schylus ;  next,  the  sculptures  of 
Phidias;  Polyeletus,  and  Polygnotus,  like  the 
characters  in  the  dramas  of  Sophocles,  present 
to  us  humanity  in  its  purest  and  noblest  ideal 
forms.  Then,  as  Euripides  in  poetry  left  the 
old  domain  of  destiny,  and  derived  motives  and 
action  from  ordinary  human  passions,  so  stat- 
uary descended  from  the  ideal  to  a  closer  re- 
semblance to  the  forms  of  actual  life,  as  wc  see 
in  the  works  of  Praxiteles  and  Lysippus.  After- 
ward, when  Aristoplianes  introduced  comedy, 
forms  of  every-day  life  began  to  appear  in  sculp- 
ture; and  thus  a  gradual  transition  was  made 
from  the  art  of  the  Greeks,  which  was  ideal  in 
the  true  sense  of  the  word,  to  that  of  the  Romans, 
which  was  real,  monumental,  and  portrait-like. 
The  Romans  were  the  realists  of  the  ancient 
world;  their  indigenous  philosophy  was  of  a  pop- 
ular kind ;  tlu'ir  poetry,  so  far  as  it  was  national, 
was  satiric  and  dramatic;  and  tlieir  works  of  art 
may  be  regarded  as  moniunents  and  portraitures 
of  real  life,  quite  suitable  for  a  nation  of  sol- 


diers, lawyers,  and  politicians,  but  vastly  inferior 
to  tlie  ideal  beauty  displayed  in  the  best  period 
of  Grecian  art. 

ANTIQ'UITIES.  See  AKCH,i:oLOGT. 
_  AN'TI-RENT'ISM.  A  movement,  partly  po- 
litical, extending  over  the  j-ears  18.39-47,  among 
the  leaseholders  in  Albanj',  Columbia,  Delaware, 
Montgomery,  Rensselaer,  and  other  counties  in 
New  York  State.  These  leaseholders  held  their 
land  under  a  sort  of  feudal  tenure,  in  spite  of 
the  virtual  abolition  in  1775  of  many  of  the  old 
manorial  and  patroonship  rights  (see  Pa- 
TROONS ) ,  the  various  farms  being  leased,  for  the 
most  part,  either  in  perpetuity  or  for  a  period  of 
two  or  tliree  lives,  while  the  ground-rents  were 
generally  paid  in  kind  and  certain  feudal  services 
were  not  infrequently  exacted.  As  the  popula- 
tion increased,  such  an  arrangement  gi-ew  exceed- 
ingly irksome  to  the  tenants,  who  were  nominal 
but  not  real  owners,  and  who  could  not,  as  a 
rule,  transfer  their  titles  without  paying  to  the 
landlords  a  portion  (usually  a  quarter)  of  the 
amount  received.  The  crisis  came  in  18.39,  when 
Stephen  Van  Rensselaer  (q.v. ),  one  of  the  largest 
landholders,  died.  He  had  been  remiss  in  col- 
lecting his  rents,  and  his  heirs  served  writs  of 
ejectment  on  tenants  in  Albany  County.  The 
tenants  thereupon  resisted,  and  on  several  occa- 
sions the  resulting  disturbances  were  so  serious 
that  the  militia  had  to  be  called  out.  By  1842  the 
trouble  had  spread  to  other  manors.  Anti-rent 
associations  were  formed  over  most  of  the  lease- 
hold districts,  rents  were  withheld,  and  evictions 
resisted,  while  the  gi-ievances  of  the  tenants  were 
aired  in  newspapers  devoted  to  their  interests 
and  in  memorials  to  the  Legislature. 

The  question  became  political  and  was  fo- 
mented by  agitators  for  their  o^vn  special  pur- 
poses, the  anti-rent  party  ultimately  controlling 
the  legislative  delegations  of  eleven  counties. 
Lawlessness  became  prevalent,  and  Ijands  of  men, 
absurdly  disguised  as  "Indians,"  assaulted, 
tarred  and  feathered,  and.  in  several  instances, 
murdered,  deputy  sherifl's  and  their  assistants. 
A  law  passed  by  the  Legislature  against  men 
appearing  in  public  in  disguise  proved  inetl'ec- 
tual,  and  on  August  7,  1845,  0.  N.  Steele,  a  dep- 
uty sheriff  of  Delaware  County,  was  surrounded 
and  shot  down  by  disgiiised  men  while  serving  a 
process.  Governor  Wright  forthwitli  put  the 
county  under  martial  law,  and  arrested  over  one 
hundred  men,  of  whom  fifty  were  convicted, 
twenty  being  sent  to  the  State  prison  and  two 
being  sentenced  to  death.  The  death  penalty 
was  commuted  by  Governor  Wright  for  life  im- 
prisonment, and  eventually,  in  January,  1847, 
all  of  the  prisoners  were  pardoned  by  Governor 
Young.  The  repressive  measures  broke  up  the 
unlawful  resistance,  though  they  caused  the  de- 
feat of  Governor  Wright  by  -John  Young,  the  anti- 
rent  candidate,  at  the  next  election.  In  1846, 
moreover,  an  article  was  inserted  in  the  new 
State  Constitution  definitely  abolishing  all  feudal 
tenures  and  forbidding  future  leases  of  agi'icul- 
tural  land  for  a  period  longer  than  twelve  years. 
Consult:  Cheynev.  The  Anti-Rent  Agitation 
(Philadelphia,"  1887),  and  Murray,  The  Anti- 
Rent  Episode  in  New  York,  in  the  "Report  of  the 
American  Historical  Association  for  1890." 

AN'TIRRHI'NUM.     See  Snapdraoon. 

ANTISABBATATIIANS  (a/i^t  +  Gk.  <ri(3- 
PaTov,  Sahhnton,  Sabbath).  Those  who  recognize 
no  obligation  to  observe  either  the  Jewish  Sab- 


ANTISABBATARIANS. 


63.5 


ANTISLAVERY  SOCIETY. 


hiitli  or   tlio  C'hristiaii  Lord's  Day,  deeming  any 
one  day  as  sacred  as  another. 

ANTISANA,  an'te-sii'iiii.  A  volcanic  peak 
of  the  Andes  in  Ecuador,  45  miles  southeast  of 
Quito,  and  over  l;>,000  feet  high  (Map:  Kcuador, 
B  3).  Some  signs  of  volcanic  activity  were 
manifested  in  1803  during  the  eruption  of  Coto- 
paxi,  but  there  have  been  no  eruptions  since. 
Tanibo  de  Antisana,  one  of  the  highest  settle- 
uients  on  the  globe  (over  13,000  feet),  is  situated 
on  tlie  slope  of  the  Antisana. 

AN'TISCORBTJ'TICS.     See  ScuKVT. 

AN'TI  -  SEM'ITISM  (anti  +  Semites,  i.e., 
Jews).  A  movement  based  on  race  hatred  of 
the  Jew,  due  to  social  and  economic  causes,  in 
Germany,  Austria  and  France,  and  partly  also  to 
political  causes  in  Kussia.  The  movement  has 
crystallized  in  some  countries  into  an  anti-Semi- 
tic political  party.  A  political  party  organized 
in  Berlin  in  1870  sought  to  place  Jews  under  po- 
litical disabilities.  The  leaders  of  the  party 
were  Stocker,  court  preacher  of  Prussia  and  a 
so-called  Christian  Socialist;  Professor  Treit- 
sehke,  of  the  University  of  Berlin,  an  historian 
and  deputy  in  the  Eeiehstag;  and  Dr.  Diihring, 
author  of  treatises  on  history  and  philosophy. 
Throughout  1879  and  18S0  these  men,  through 
the  press,  in  speeches,  and  in  various  ways,  de- 
plored the  presence  in  Germany  of  an  active, 
wealthy,  and  po\\erful  people,  incapable  of  as- 
similation, who  are  opposed  to  Christian  civiliza- 
tion in  all  its  phases.  The  matter  was  brought 
to  a  vote  in  the  Reichstag  in  1880;  but  that  body 
declared  itself  in  favor  of  economic  and  religious 
liberty  by  a  decisive  vote.  The  Anti-Semitic 
Party  became  a  strong  one  in  the  Reichstag,  how- 
ever, in  tlie  early  nineties.  In  France  the  Anti- 
Semitic  propaganda  was  begun  by  Edward  Dru- 
niont,  editor  of  La  Llhre  Parole,  about  1882,  and 
was  carried  on  until  the  movement  reached  a 
climax  in  the  iiffnirc  Dreyfus.     See  Dreyfus. 

Since  its  organization  in  Germany  the  Anti- 
Semitic  Party  has  been  organized  in  Russia, 
Austria,  Greece,  and  Holland.  As  the  .Jews  in 
Russia  are  to  a  great  extent  kept  out  of  the  ordi- 
nary trades,  many  of  them  have  resorted  to  the 
business  of  monej'  lending, and  by  means  of  mort- 
gages placed  to  secure  loans  they  have  obtained 
control  of  small  landed  properties.  This  fact, 
coupled  with  religious  prejudice,  caused  the 
Anti-Semitic  movement  in  Russia,  aboTit  twenty 
years  ago,  to  assume  a  most  violent  form.  Laws 
preventing  them  from  entering  professions  and 
from  li\'ing  in  places  other  than  towns  and  ham- 
lets were  vigorously  enfoi'ced.  In  some  cities, 
where  a  majority  of  the  people  were  Jews,  they 
were  expelled  without  warning.  The  fierce  per- 
secution to  which  the  Jews  have  been  subjected 
in  Russia  and  Rumania  has  caused  an  emigra- 
tion on  a  vast  scale  to  the  United  States. 

AN'TISEP'TIC  {anti  +  Gk.  ai/veiv,  sepein, 
to  make  rotten,  to  cause  decay).  In  the  arts,  any 
substance  which  arrests  fermentation  and  decay; 
in  medicine,  any  agent  which  arrests  the  de- 
velopment and  growth  of  micro-organisms.  A 
germicide  is  a  substance  or  agency  which  destroys 
these  miero-organisnjs.  A  disitifeetant  destroys 
the  organisms,  and  at  the  same  time  removes  the 
no.xious  products  of  fermentation  and  putrefac- 
tion. The  conditions  which  favor  putrefactive 
change  are  a  moderate  degree  of  warmth,  air, 
and  the  presence  of  moisture  and  microorgan- 
isms.     Measures  which  tend  to  limit  the  action 


of  an}'  of  these  agencies  are.  .antiseptic  in  char- 
acter. Cold  acts  as  an  antiseptic,  by  bringing  the 
article  to  be  preserved  to  a  temperature  at  which 
the  putrefactive  l)acteria  can  no  longer  act.  In 
the  preservation  of  canned  goods  another  princi- 
ple is  employed,  that  of  exclusion  of  air.  The 
cans,  with  their  contents,  are  heated,  and  when 
all  air  has  been  expelled  the  tops  are  soldered 
on.  The  princi[ile  of  excluding  moisture  is  em- 
ployed in  the  processes  of  drying  meats,  fruits, 
and  vegetables.  The  action  of  micro-organisms 
is  often  combated  directly  by  the  introduction 
into  preserved  foodstuffs  of  such  antiseptic  sub- 
stances as  boric  and  salicylic  acids  and  formal- 
dehyde. They  are  considered  injurious,  however, 
and  their  use  is  forbidden  by  law  in  many  States. 
Besides  the  antiseptics  proper,  a  number  of  the 
more  common  substances,  such  as  connnon  salt, 
sugar,  alcohol,  and  saltpetre,  are  used  in  food 
preservation.  On  the  other  hand,  antiseptics 
are  used  for  other  purjioses  besides  the  preserva- 
tion of  foodstutl's.  Thus  the  ])reservation  of 
sizes  used  in  paper-making  is  effected  by  the 
addition  of  sulphurous  acid,  and  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  commercial  gums  and  pastes  by  such 
antiseptics  as  carbolic  acid  and  oil  of  winter- 
green.  The  preservation  of  wood  from  decay 
by  impregnation  with  tar,  creosote,  carbolic  acid, 
and  corrosive  sublimate  is  also  practiced  to  a 
considerable  extent. 

In  scientific  laboratories  antiseptics  like  alco- 
hol and  formaldehyde  are  largelj'  employed  in 
the  preservation  of  anatomical  and  biological 
specimens.  In  surgery,  the  application  of  anti- 
septics, first  introduced  by  Sir  Joseph  Lister,  is 
a  matter  of  greatest  moment.  It  is  an  under- 
standing of  the  use  of  antiseptic  and  germicidal 
agencies  that  has  brought  about  the  remarkable 
advances  made  l)v  this  branch  of  the  healing  art 
since  1880.  The  condition  that  is  sought  for  in 
every  surgical  operation  to-day  is  asepsis,  or 
surgical  cleanliness.  When  a  substance  is  aseptic 
it  is  free  from  all  septic  micro-organisms.  Such 
a  state  is  luade  possible  by  the  use  of  antiseptics 
and  germicides.  Instruments  are  generally  ren- 
dered aseptic  or  sterile  by  boiling  in  water,  by 
dry  heat,  liy  steam,  or  by  washing  with  the  chem- 
ical antiseptics,  or  by  exposing  them  to  moist 
formaldehyde  vajiors ;  dressings,  by  dry  heat  or 
by  steam  at  ordinary  atmospheres  or  under  pres- 
sure; ligatures,  by  prolonged  immersion  in  alco- 
hol or  other  antiseptic  solutions;  and  the  skin 
of  the  patient  at  the  site  of  the  operation,  by 
application,  after  mechanical  cleansing,  of  a  solu- 
tion of  carbolic  acid  or  of  corrosive  suldimate. 
The  chemical  substances  most  conur.only  em- 
ployed as  antiseptics  in  medicine  are  carlrolic 
acid,  the  bichloride  and  the  biniodide  of  mercury, 
formaldehyde,  free  chlorine,  iodine,  potassium 
permanganate,  iodoform,  and  boric  acid,  and  to  a 
lesser  extent  the  vegetable  substances  thymol, 
menthol,  and  eucalyptol.  Further  consideration 
of  antiseptics  m.'iy  Ije  found  in  The  Rules  of  Asep- 
tic and  Antiseptic  iiuri/ery  (New  York,  1888),  by 
Gerster;  and  in  tlie  article  "Antiseptics,"  in 
Wood's  Reference  Handbook  of  the  Medical  Sci- 
ences. See  B.\CTEBIA;  MiCHOBE;  KocH,  Robert; 
Pasteur;  Wound. 

AN'TISLAV'ERY  SOCI'ETY,  The  Ameri- 
can. An  association  organized  in  Philadelphia. 
December,  1833,  by  delegates  from  the  few  State 
or  city  societies  in  the  United  States.  The  first 
Antislavcry  Society  was  formally  c-ganized  at 
Boston  in  January,  1832,  William  Lloyd  Garri- 


ANTISLAVEEY  SOCIETY. 


(;26 


ANTIUM. 


son  being  the  leader  of  the  movement.  The 
American  Antislavery  Society  took  tlie  boldest 
ground  in  favor  of  the  immediate  abolition  of 
slavery,  and  its  work  was  for  many  years  looked 
upon  as  fanatical,  or  at  least  hopelessly  imprac- 
ticable, its  members  were  denounced,  its  meet- 
ings broken  up,  and  rewards  offered  in  the  South 
for  its  leaders  alive  or  dead.  Divergence  of  opin- 
ion on  the  question  of  political  action  caused  a 
split  in  the  society  in  1S40.  The  non-voters  un- 
der Garrison,  although  but  a  small  portion  of  tlie 
Abolitionists,  gained  control  of  the  old  society. 
The  others  formed  the  American  and  Foreign  An- 
tislavery Society,  but  the  movement  had  out- 
grown a  society  formation  and  found  a  better  and 
more  conservative  expression  in  the  Liberty  Par- 
ty (q.v. )  and  its  successors.  Among  tlie  prom- 
inent Abolitionists  were  William  Lloyd  Garrison, 
Wendell  Phillips.  Samuel  J.  May.  Lucretia  Mott, 
Lydia  jNIaria  Child.  Arthur  Tiippan,  James  G. 
Birney.  John  G.  Whittier,  William  Goodell,  Ger- 
rit  Smith,  and  William  Jay.  The  parent  society 
continued  to  exist  until  after  the  adoption  of  the 
fifteenth  amendment,  in  1870.  remaining  small  in 
numbers  but  largely  intluential  in  its  propagan- 
dist work.  For"  a"  partial  bibliogiaphy  of  the 
movement  see  the  biographical  sketches  of  the 
leaders  here  mentioned.  See  Abolitionists; 
Slavery. 

AU'TISPASMOD'IC  (aiiti-fGk.  c-aafioc, 
spasmos,  convulsion,  spasm).  Any  drug  that 
has  a  sedative  effect  upon  the  nervous  system, 
either  by  depressing  the  brain  or  spinal  cord  or 
by  stinnilating  inhibitory  centres,  and  so  regu- 
lating the  production  of  nerve  force.  The  former 
class  includes  the  bromides  and  chloral.  The 
stimulating  antispasmodics  are  asafetida,  bella- 
donna, camphor,  Hoffman's  anodyne,  hops, 
musk,  and  valerian.  As  a  class,'  they  are  em- 
ployed in  conditions  of  nervous  excitation,  par- 
ticularly of  a  hysterical  nature,  in  asthma,  alco- 
holism, and  in  convulsions  from  epilepsy  and 
other  causes. 

ANTIS'THENES  OF  ATH'ENS  (born  about 
444  B.C.).  The  founder  of  tlie  Cynic  School  of 
Greek  pliilosophy.  He  studied  under  the  Soph- 
ist Gorgias,  and  was  a  disciple  and  ardent  fol- 
lower of  Socrates.  He  wrote  a  large  number  of 
pliilosophical  works,  and  for  many  years  taught 
elocution  and  philosophy.  Antisthenes  regarded 
freedom  and  happiness  as  attainable  only 
through  virtue;  but  the  meaning  of  his  doctrine 
is  ambiguous  until  the  definition  of  virtue  is 
given.  In  this  Antisthenes  followed  Socrates' 
€ud;enionistic  principles.  For  Antisthenes,  how- 
ever, virtue  was  not  in  doing  good  for  its  own 
sake;  the  object  of  virtue  was  to  render  man  as 
independent  as  possible  of  the  events  of  life,  and 
tliis  freedom  was  attainable  by  reducing  the 
wants  of  life  to  what  is  absolutely  inevitable,  viz., 
the  wants  of  hunger  and,  love.  Customary  moral- 
ity and  the  demands  of  decency,  as  well  as  the 
pleasures  of  life,  both  material  and  intellectual, 
^^■cre  ridiculed  by  Antisthenes  and  his  followers 
and  denounced  as  depriving  man  of  his  freedom, 
and  hence,  as  leading  to  nothing  but  unhappi- 
ncss.  Nevertheless,  the  Cynic  was  not  inconsist- 
ent Avhen  he  advocated  a  philosophic  culture; 
but  this  culture  was  to  be  looked  upon  as  a 
means,  and  not  as  an  end;  it  was  desirable  not 
for  its  own  sake,  nor  for  the  sake  of  the  intel- 
lectual  pleasure   which   it  could   afford,   but   as 


leading  our  intelligence  to  avoid  consistently  the 
artificial  enjoyments  of  civilized  life. 

ANTIS'TROPHE  {anti  +  Gk.  arpoipy,  strophe, 
a  turning,  strophe,  stanza).  A  stanza  or  por- 
tion of  a  poem  following  the  strophe,  and  re- 
sponding to  it.  Or  when  the  same  word  or 
phrase  is  used  at  both  the. beginning  and  the  end 
of  a  clause  or  sentence;  as, 

"Fare  thee  well ;  and  if  forever,' 
Still  forever  fare  thee  well." 

ANTITH'ESIS.     See  Rhetoric,  Figures  of. 

AN'TITOX'IN  {anti  +  toxin;  Gk.ToiiK6v,tox- 
t7.'o«, poison  for  the  arrow, from TO^of,  toxoti,  bow). 
During  the  course  of  diseases  caused  by  bacterial 
infection,  certain  poisons  (toxins)  are  developed 
in  the  blood  by  the  bacteria,  or  exist  in  the 
bodies  of  the  bacteria.  Nature,  in  combating  the 
disease,  produces  certain  principles  in  the  serum 
of  the  blood  of  the  patient,  called  antitoxins, 
which  antagonize  the  action  of  the  toxins.  These 
principles  have  not  been  isolated,  but  they  are 
used  to  combat  disease  artificially  by  injecting 
blood  serum  which  contains  them  into  the  tissues 
of  a  person  suffering  with  a  bacterial  disease,  to 
aid  him  in  neutralizing  the  toxins  resulting  dur- 
ing that  disease.  Antitoxins  combating  the  poi- 
sons of  snake-bite,  pneumonia,  tuberculosis,  yel- 
low fever,  bubonic  plague,  cholera,  and  other 
ailments  have  been  prepared  and  used.  The  one 
most  often  employed  is  the  diphtheria  antitoxin, 
which  is  frequently  called  simply  antito.xin.  See 
Bacteria;  Diphtheri.\;  Serum  Therapy. 

AN'TI-TRADE'  WINDS.      See  Winds. 

AN'TITRIN'ITA'RIAN  ( anti  +  trinitarian, 
from  Lat.  trinitas,  triad,  trinity).  One  who  de- 
nies the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity.  An  Antitrini- 
tarian  dift'ers  from  a  Unitarian  only  in  this 
respect,  that  his  objection  to  the  doctrine  in 
question  is  made  on  philosophical,  while  that  of 
the  latter  is  made  on  theological,  grounds. 

AN'TITYPE  {anti  +  type:  Gk.Tv-o^,  typos, 
an  impression,  model,  pattern).  The  fulfillment 
of  the  type.  Thus.  David  is  often  regarded  as 
a  tj'pe  of  Christ,  who  is.  therefore,  the  antitype. 
The  sacrificial  offerings  of  the  Old  Testament 
were  types  of  Christ  as  the  one  perfect  sacrifice, 
and  he  is  their  antitype.     See  Type. 

ANTIUM,  an'shi-uni  (now  Anzio,  formerly 
Porto  d'Anzio).  One  of  the  most  ancient  cities 
of  Latitim.  It  stood  on  the  coast,  about  thirty- 
four  miles  from  Rome,  and.  being  favorably  situ- 
ated for  commerce  and  piracy,  it  was  under  the 
Volscians,  into  whose  hands  it  had  fallen,  one  of 
the  most  powerful  enemies  of  rising  Rome,  until 
finally  subdued  ( 338  B.C. ) .  It  became  a  favorite 
resort  of  the  wealthy  Romans,  and  some  of  the 
most  famous  remains  of  ancient  art  have  been 
discovered  among  the  ruins  of  their  villas  and 
palaces,  such  as  the  "Apollo  Belvedere"  in  the 
Vatican,  and  the  "Borghese  Gladiator"  in  the 
Louvre.  It  was  the  birthplace  of  the  emperors 
Caligula  and  Nero,  and  the  latter  constructed  a 
splendid  port  by  means  of  two  moles  enclosing  a 
basin  two  miles  in  circumference.  Remains  of 
the  moles  still  exist. although  the  basin  is  mostly 
filled  up  with  sand.  The  modern  little  town  of 
Anzio  (Porto  d'Anzio)  is  a  fishing  place  and  a 
favorite  bathing  resort  of  the  Romans,  and  con- 
tains some  charming  villas.  It  has  a  population 
of  over  2000. 


ANTLERS. 


627 


ANTOFAGASTA. 


ANT'LERS  (O.  E.  aaulUrc,  0.  F.  nntoillcr, 
from  Lat.  ante,  before  +  orulitu,  eye).  The  horns 
of  (male)  deers.  For  their  structure,  etc.,  see 
Deer.  In  the  hinguage  of  British  stag-hunting, 
eacli  part  of  the  horn  and  each  stage  of  growtli 
receives  a  name,  and  many  of  these  names  serve 
to  designate  a  deer  of  a  certain  age  or  fitness. 
These  names  are  derived  from  and  specifically 
apply  to  the  European  red  deer  {Cervus  ele- 
phas) ,  now  preserved  in  many  parts  of  Europe 
for  the  sfjort  of  stag-hunting;  and  they  have  de- 
scended from  ancient  terms,  mostly  French,  orig- 
inating on  the  continent  in  mediaeval  times.  The 
following  is  a  summary  given  by  Professor  A.  H. 
Garrod  in  Cassell's  Natural  History,  Volume  III. 

"In  the  common  red  deer,  in  the  spring  of  the 
year  following  its  birth,  the  antlers  are  nothing 


weighed  seventy-four  pounds.  It  should  be  said, 
however,  that  this  excessive  number  of  points 
is  the  result  of  injury  or  disease  when  the  horn 
was  growing,  so  that  a  large,  symmetric  pair 
\\  ith  more  nearly  the  normal  number  of  tines  is  a 
really  better  example. 

The  material  of  antlers  is  highly  durable,  and 
enters  extensively  into  the  arts  for  making  han- 
dles of  knives,  umbrellas,  etc.,  and  various  orna- 
mental articles. 

ANT'-LI'ON.  The  larva  of  any  insect  be- 
longing to  the  neuropterous  family  Myrmelonidie. 
The  kinds  commonly  referred  to  are  only  those 
which  foi'm  pitfalls,  and  not  the  members  of  the 
family  in  general,  all  of  which  do  not  possess 
this  habit.     The  conical  pitfalls  which   are  used 


TYPES  OF  ANTLERS. 

a,  Ruaine.  ^,  Normarrucerviue.  c,  Intermediate  rucervine. 
d.  Extreme  rucervine.  e,  Sub-elaphine.  /,  Elaphiue.  1,  Brow- 
tyne.    •^,  Tres-tyne.    3,  Koyal-tynes. 

more  than  straight,  conical,  and  unbranched 
'beams,'  the  animal  being  then  kno\\Ti  as  a 
'brocket.'  In  the  following  spring  the  antler 
has,  besides  the  'beam,'  a  small  branch  from  its 
base,  directed  forward,  known  as  the  'brow  ant- 
ler;' it  is  then  termed  'spayad.'  In  the  third 
year  an  extra  front  branch  is  formed,  known  as 
the  'tres,'  and  the  whole  antler  is  larger.  The 
tres  is  sometimes  seen  in  the  smaller  antler  of 
the  spayad.  In  the  fourth  year  the  brow  antler 
is  doubled  to  form  the  'brow'  and  'bez-tyne,' 
at  the  same  time  that  the  top  of  the  main  beam 
divides  into  the  'sur-roj^als'  of  the  'staggard,' 
or  four-year-old  male.  In  the  fifth  year  the  sur- 
royals  become  more  numerous,  the  whole  antler 
of  the  'stag'  being  heavier  than  previously,  only 
to  be  exceeded  in  weight  by  those  of  the  fully 
adult  'great  hart'  with  ten  or  more  'points,'  each 
being  larger  and  longer  than  tlie  year  before." 

In  Scotland  a  deer  with  twelve  points  is  known 
as  a  "royal  stag;"  but  tliis  number  is  sometimes 
exceeded.  The  finest  heads  are  no  longer  seen 
in  Great  Britain,  where  the  habit  of  shooting  the 
best  is  leading  to  deterioration,  and  fossil  antlers 
from  British  eaves  and  peat-beds  are  larger  than 
those  of  any  living  individuals,  rivaling  those  of 
the  wapiti  in  size.  Great  heads  have  been  ob- 
tained witliin  recent  years  on  the  vast  wild  es- 
tates of  eastern  Europe.  In  many  of  the  old  Ger- 
man castles  superb  heads  of  sixty  or  more  points 
are  preserved :  and  Lydekker  mentions  one  shot 
in  Transylvania  which  had  forty-five  points  and 


ANT-LION. 

Showing  the  conical  Pit  with  the  Larva  waiting  tor  its 
Prey. 

to  aid  in  the  capture  of  ants  and  other  small 
ground  insects  are  excavated  in  sand,  dust,  and 
the  powdered  remains  of  decayed  logs.  Tlieir 
size  varies  with  that  of  the  ant-lion,  but  they  are 
commonly  about  one  and  one-half  inches  across 
the  top.  There  are  two  methods  used  in  the 
formation  of  these  traps.  The  simplest  trap  is 
excavated  by  powerful  upward  tossings  of  the 
head  after  the  larva  has  buried  itself  below  the 
surface ;  thus,  a  funnel-shaped  pit  is  formed.  The 
second  method  is  by  crawling  backward  in  a 
spiral  direction  just  beneath  the  surface,  and  by 
means  of  the  head  tossing  the  sand  to  the  out- 
side. In  the  bottom  of  these  conical  pits  the 
larvae  bury  their  whole  body  except  their  mandi- 
bles, which  are  spread  ready  for  their  prey.  An 
ant,  for  example,  strolling  about  and  stepping 
on  the  margin  of  the  pit  starts  a  miniature  land- 
slide on  account  of  the  looseness  of  the  material 
in  which  the  pit  is  excavated.  This  arouses  the 
ant-lion,  which  begins  actively  to  throw  material 
from  the  bottom  of  the  pit,  thus  accelerating  the 
landslide  and  bringing  the  ant  within  reach  of 
the  jaws,  which  seize  it  and  relax  only  after  ex- 
tracting the  juices  from  the  body.  The  scissors- 
like  jaws  are  grooved  on  their  inner  side,  and 
thus  by  opposition  a  tube  is  formed  through 
which  the  juices  are  sucked.  The  carcass,  ex- 
tracted of  its  juices,  is  tossed  outside  of  the  pit. 
The  posterior  part  of  the  intestine  of  the  ant- 
lion  is  remarkable  for  being  modified  to  form 
a  spinning  gland  or  organ.  The  adult  ant-lion 
spins  a  cocoon  by  the  aid  of  sand,  etc.,  in  which 
it  transforms  to  the  imago  state.  The  "flies" 
have  four  expanded  net-veined  wings,  which  are 
folded  over  the  abdomen  when  at  rest.  In  most 
of  the  species  the  wings  are  transparent.  About 
fifty  species  are  found  in  the  United  States, 
most  frequently  in  sandy  or  semi-arid  regions. 
ANTOFAGASTA,  an'to-f.a-gas'ta.  A  port 
and  the  capital  of  the  Chilean  province  of  the 
same  name  (Map:  Chile,  C  8).  Founded  in 
1870.  it  increased  rapidly  in  importance,  despite 


ANTOFAGASTA. 


628 


ANTONELLI. 


its  poor  harbor,  owing  to  the  saltpetre  deposits 
in  the  neighborhood  and  to  the  rich  silver  mines 
of  Caracoles,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail- 
way.    Pop..   K«85,   7000;    1000,   19,482. 

ANTOFAGASTA.  A  northern  province  of 
Chile,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  province  of 
TarapacS,  on  the  east  by  the  republic  of  Argen- 
tina, on  the  south  by  the  province  of  Atacaina, 
and  on  the  west  by  the  Pacific  Ocean.  It  has  an 
area  of  over  47,032  square  miles.  Taking  in  a 
large  part  of  the  Atacama  Desert,  the  surface  is 
mostly  mountainous  and  barren,  and  interspersed 
with  salt  lagoons  and  marshes.  It  contains  a 
number  of  volcanoes,  and  has  large  deposits  of 
silver,  borax,  guano,  and  saltpetre.  Notwith- 
standing the  phenomenal  increase  in  the  popula- 
tion of  the  province  between  1885  and  189.5  (from 
21,213  to  44,085),  on  account  of  new  mineral 
discoveries,  Antofagasta  is  still  the  most  sparsely 
populated  province  of  Chile,  its  density  being 
less  than  one  to  the  square  mile.  This  territory 
was  ceded  to  Chile  by  Bolivia  as  a  result  of  the 
war  ending  in  1882.  The  capital  and  chief  sea- 
port is  Antofagasta  (q.v. ). 

ANTOINE,  aN'twiin',  Jules  Dominique 
(1845 — ).  Chief  representative  of  the  party  of 
the  opposition  in  Lorraine.  He  was  born  at 
Metz,  and  served  in  tlie  Franco-German  War  as 
officer  of  the  Garde  Mobile.  After  the  war  he 
became  prominent  in  his  native  town  as  an  ex- 
ponent of  the  Anti-Crerman  sentiment  in  the  Mu- 
nicipal Council  and  the  local  diet.  In  1882  he 
Avas  elected  representative  to  the  Reichstag,  but 
after  a  fruitless  attempt  to  deliver  an  address  in 
French  before  that  body,  abstained  almost  alto- 
gether from  attending  the  sessions.  He  was  re- 
elected by  his  constituents  in  1884,  and  again  in 
1887.  In  consequence  of  his  incessant  agitation 
he  was  tried  for  treason  and  sentenced  to  perma- 
nent exile  (1889).  He  then  became  a  natural- 
ized citizen  of  France,  and  in  1893  was  appointed 
paymaster  general. 

ANTOINE  DE  BOUR'BON,  aN'twan'de  boor' 
Iion'  ( 1518-62) ,  King  of  Navarre.  He  was 
born  in  Picardy,  the  son  of  Charles  of  Bourbon. 
In  1548,  Antoine,  then  Duke  of  Vendome,  mar- 
ried Jeanne  dAlbret,  the  heiress  of  Navarre,  and 
through  her  became  King  of  Navarre  and  Lord 
of  Beam  (1555).  He  was  feeble  and  irresolute, 
and  fluctuated  between  the  two  religious  parties 
in  France.  At  the  beginning,  he  sided  with  his 
brother  Louis,  Prince  of  Conde,  .and  was  involved 
in  the  conspiracy  of  Amboise,  but,  in  1501,  he 
was  made  Lieutenant-General  of  France,  and, 
embracing  Catholicism,  soon  formed  a  coalition 
with  the  Duke  of  Guise,  and  the  Constable  of 
Montmorency.  He  received  command  of  the 
royal  army  besieging  Rouen,  and  there  met  his 
death  in  an  assault  on  the  city  (November  17, 
1502).  Antoine  de  Bourbon  is  best  known  as 
the  father  of  Henry  of  Navarre,  who  became 
Henry  IV.  of  France.     See  BouKBON,  HofSE  OF. 

ANTOKOLSKI,  an'to-k.'.l'ske,  Mark  Mat- 
VEyEViTCH  (1842-1902).  A  Russian  sculptor.  He 
was  born  at  Vilna  of  poor  Jewish  parents,  and 
at  the  age  of  twenty-two  attracted  the  attention 
of  Professor  Pimenoff,  who  admitted  him  as  a 
"free  listener"  (special  student)  to  the  Academy 
of  Fine  Arts  at  St.  Petersburg.  At  the  aca- 
demic exhibition  of  1804  he  received  the  second 
silver  medal  for  the  wood-carving  entitled  "The 
Jewish  Tailor."  In  the  following  year  his  pro- 
duction, "The  Miser"  (executed  in  ivory),  secured 


for  him  the  large  silver  medal  of  the  Academy 
and  a  stipend  from  the  Emperor.  These  creations 
were  followed  by  "The  Judas  Kiss"  and  a  group 
modeled  in  clay,  "The  Descent  of  the  Inquisition 
upon  a  Jewish  Family  at  the  Feast  of  Passover." 
In  1871  he  completed  his  famous  statue,  "Ivan 
the  Terrible,''  for  which  he  was  appointed  an 
academician  by  the  Emperor  Alexander  II.,  who 
bought  the  statue  and  ordered  a  bronze  casting 
of  it  for  the  Hermitage  at  St  Petersburg.  Among 
the  other  great  sculptures  of  the  artist 
may  be  mentioned:  "Peter  the  Great"  (1872,  a 
colossal  figure)  :  "Christ  Bound  Before  the  Peo- 
ple" (1874),  "The  Death  of  Socrates"  (1876), 
"The  Last  Sigh"  (1878),  "Mephistopheles" 
(1881),  "Spinoza"  (1882),  "Yermak"  (the  Cos- 
sack conqueror  of  Siberia),  "The  Sleeping  Beau- 
ty" (1900).  At  the  Paris  International  Exposi- 
tion of  1878  Antokolski  was  awarded  the  first 
prize  for  sculpture,  and  two  years  afterward  he 
settled  permanently  in  Paris.  He  was  a  Chevalier 
of  the  Legion  of  Honor. 

ANTOMMARCHI,  an'tom-mllr'ke,  Frances- 
co (1780-1838).  The  physician  of  Napoleon 
at  St.  Helena.  He  was  born  in  Corsica,  studied 
medicine  at  Pisa,  and  afterw-ard  practiced  in  the 
Santa  Maria  Hospital  at  Florence,  At  the  re- 
quest of  Napoleon's  mother,  he  was  induced  by 
Cardinal  Fesch  to  succeed  Dr.  O'Meara  as  the 
attendant  physician  of  the  Emperor  at  St  Helena. 
At  first  there  was  little  cordiality  between 
the  two :  but  subsequently  Napoleon  conceived  a 
high  regard  for  his  countryman  and  at  his  death 
left  him  100,000  francs.  He  aftei'ward  declared 
that  the  death  of  Napoleon  had  not  been  caused 
by  cancer  of  the  stomach,  biit  by  a  malignant  fe- 
ver peculiar  to  the  island,  and  he  refused  to  sign 
the /)os*-mo/-/c»»  certificate.  In  1830  Antommarchi 
displayed  what  he  represented  to  be  a  death  mask 
of  Napoleon.  The  likeness  was  considered  ac- 
curate by  many,  but  the  phrenologists  found 
fault  with  the  contour  of  tlie  cranium,  and  doubt 
was  cast  upon  the  genuineness  of  the  mask.  Nev- 
ertheless, it  forms  the  model  from  which  many 
busts  of  Napoleon  have  been  made.  At  the  out- 
break of  the  Polish  revolution,  in  1830,  Antom- 
marchi went  to  Warsaw,  and  soon  afterward  re- 
turned to  France,  whence,  in  1836,  he  proceeded 
to  America.  He  died  at  San  Antonio,  Cuba.  He 
published  Lcs  dcrniers  moments  de  Napoleon 
(Paris,  1823). 

ANTONELLI,  jin'tu-nel'le,  GlACOMO  (1808- 
76).  An  Italian  cardinal  and  statesman,  horn  at 
Sonnino.  At  the  Seminary  in  Rome  he  became 
conspicuous  for  intellectual  capacity,  and  Pope 
Gregory,  recognizing  his  ability,  attached  him 
to  his  suite.  He  became  under-secretary  in  the 
Ministry  of  Interior  in  1841,  and  in  1845,  Minis- 
ter of  Finance.  At  the  accession  of  Pius  IX.  he 
joined  the  Pope's  reformatory  schemes  and  gained 
great  influence,  becoming  cardinal  in  1847  and 
a  member  of  the  Ministerial  Council  through 
which  Pius  undertook  to  establish  his  reforms. 
In  1848,  when  the  ministry  of  priests  and  laymen 
was  established.  Antonelli  became  prime  n\inis- 
ter.  After  the  Pope's  pronouncement  against 
the  war  with  Austria  (1848).  ,\ntonelli  resigned, 
but  afterward,  when  he  had  jierceived  the  Pope's 
motive,  he  abandoned  his  national  policy  and 
associated  himself  entirely  with  the  conservative 
element.  Ujion  the  rei'stablisliment  of  the  Papal 
power  through  the  intervention  of  France.  An- 
tonelli returned  to  Rome  with  the  Pope   (1S50> 


ANTONELLI. 


620 


ANTONINUS. 


and  reorganized  the  administration  along 
strictly  absolutistie  lines.  He  rejected  all  ad- 
vances of  the  Powers  recommending  opportun- 
istic reforms,  and  would  not  yield  to  the  nation- 
alistic aspirations  of  the  Italians.  He  raised 
vain  protests  against  the  aggrandizement  of  the 
royal  territories  at  the  expense  of  the  Papal 
States.  During  the  closing  years  of  his  life  he 
lost  his  iiilliience  with  the  Pope,  who  jielded 
more  and  more  to  the  .Jesuit  element.  At  his 
death  he  was  prime  minister  to  the  Pope.  He 
left  his  propert3%  amounting  to  about  .$S,O00,000, 
to  his  three  brothers,  and  his  alleged  daughter, 
the  Countess  Lambertini,  vainly  sued  for  a  share. 

ANTONELLO    DA    MESSINA,    an'to-nel'lo 

dii  nics-sO'na  ( c.l447-l'S ) .  An  Italian  painter  of 
the  Renaissance,  reputed  to  have  been  the  intro- 
ducer of  oil  painting  into  Italj'.  According  to 
the  formerly-accepted  account  of  Vasari,  he  was 
born  at  Messina,  studied  at  Rome,  and  then 
practiced  in  Palermo  and  in  his  native  town; 
seeing  a  picture  by  Jan  van  Eyck  while  on  a  visit 
to  Naples,  he  went  to  Flanders  and  learned  from 
Inm  the  secret  of  oil  painting,  which  he  then 
introduced  into  Venice.  But  as  van  Eyck  died 
before  Antonello's  birth,  and  for  other  weighty 
reasons  given  by  Jlorelli,  it  seems  more  likely 
that  he  acquired  his  art  from  some  Flemish 
master  in  Italy.  About  1470  he  removed  to 
Venice,  where  he  was  the  means  of  introducing 
oil  technique,  and  was  in  turn  influenced  by 
Giovanni  Bellini.  His  earlier  works  are  Flemish 
in  cluiracter,  the  principal  ones  being  a  "Salvator 
Mundi"  in  the  National  Gallery,  London,  and  a 
small  "Crucifixion"  in  the  Antwerp  Gallery. 
Among  the  works  of  his  Venetian  period  are  a 
"Dead  Christ"  (Vienna)  and  a  "Saint  Sebastian" 
(Berlin)  ;  of  his  portraits,  which  are  always  ad- 
mirable, three  heads  of  young  men.  in  London, 
Paris,  and  Berlin.  Other  male  portraits  are  in  the 
Trivulzi  Collection  (Milan) and  the  Borghese  Pal- 
ace (Rome).  His  art  is  characterized  by  a  strong 
realism,  and  he  excels  especially  in  portraiture. 
Consult  Morelli,  Italian  /ViiH/ers  (London,  1892). 
ANTO'NIA  MAIOK.  (B.C.  39—?).  The 
cider  of  the  two  daughters  of  IMark  Antony  and 
Octavia,  and  grandmother  of  the  Emperor  Nero. 
Her  son,  C.  Domitius,  was  Nero's  father.  Her 
husband  was  L.  Domitius  Alienobarbus. 

ANTO'NIA  MI'NOR  (c.  30  B.C.— 38  a.d.). 
Sister  of  Antonia  Jfaior,  mother  of  the  Emperor 
Claudius,  and  grandmother  of  Caligula.  Her 
husband  was  Drusus,  brother  of  the  Emperor 
Tiberias.  Caligula  at  first  treated  her  with  re- 
spect, but  afterward  subjected  her  to  indigmities. 

ANTONIDES,  an-to'nc-das,  Jo.4.nne.s  (1647- 
84).  A  Dutch  poet.  He  was  born  in  Goes,  and 
was  educated  at  the  expense  of  one  of  the  chiefs  of 
the  admiralty  at  Amsterdam.  He  was  the  fore- 
most pupil  of  Vondel,  whom  he  resembled  in  po- 
etical ability,  although  his  works  are  marred  by 
turgidness  and  monotony.  He  is  best  known  by 
his  poems,  and  a  tragedy  written  at  the  age  of 
nineteen,  called  Trazil  of  oven-ompelt  Sinn  ( "The 
Conquest  of  China").  His  fame  was  fully  es- 
tablished by  the  publication,  in  1671,  of  Ystroom, 
an  epic  on  the  River  Y. 

AN'TONI'NA  (449-c.  565).  The  wife  of  the 
Byzantine  general  Belisarius.  Though  the 
daughter  of  a  circus-rider,  she  was  a  favorite  of 
Theodora,  the  wife  of  Justinian,  and  through  the 
influence  of  the  Empress  reduced  Belisarius  to  a 


state  of  servile  subinissivencss  and  impelled  him 
to  many  acts  of  injustice.  In  connection  with 
his  public  career,  however,  she  frequently  showed 
gi-eat  foresight  and  diplomacy.      See  Belis.^rius. 

AN'TONINE  COL'UMN.  The  column  of  Jlar- 
CU.S  Aurelius  in  Rome.  It  was  erected  in  176  a.d. 
to  commemorate  that  emperor's  victories  in  his 
German  and  Sarmatian  wars.  The  column  stood 
in  a  square  surrounded  by  a  portico,  and  was 
part  of  a  superb  group  of  monuments  to  com- 
memorate the  Antonine  dj'nast.y,  similar  to  the 
column  of  Trajan,  which  it  imitated,  having  the 
same  height  (10(1  feet),  and  reliefs  similarly  ar- 
ranged in  ascending  spirals,  giving  the  history  of 
the  campaigns.  It  now  adorns  the  Piazza  Co- 
lonna. 

AN'TONINES,  Age  of  the.  The  period  in 
Roman  history  marked  by  the  reigns  of  Antoni- 
nus Pius  and  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus  (a.d. 
138-180).  It  was  noted  for  its  peace  and  pros- 
perity. 

AN'TONI'NTTS,  Marcus  Aurelius.  See  Au- 
REi.iu.s,  Mai!cus  Antoninus. 

ANTONINUS,  S.VINT  (1389-1459).  Anarch- 
bishop  of  Florence.  His  real  name  was  Antonio 
Pierozzi,  and  he  is  also  known  by  the  name  of 
De'  Forciglioni.  At  first  prior  to  several  monas- 
teries, he  was,  in  1446.  appointed  to  the  archbish- 
opric of  Florence,  where  his  noble  efforts  tended 
greatly  to  alleviate  the  sulferings  attendant  upon 
the  pestilence,  famine,  and  earthquake  of  the  pe- 
riod 1448.53.  He  was  canonized  bv  Pope  Adrian 
VI.  in  15-23.  The  2d  of  JNlay  'is  consecrated 
to  his  memory  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
The  most  important  of  his  writings  are:  Summa 
Theolor/ica,  a  compilation  of  ethical  precepts, 
after  Thomas  Aquinas:  Summa  Coiifessionalis; 
Summa  Historialis,  a  chronicle;  and  Lettere 
(Florence,  1859).  A  monument  to  him  was 
erected  in  Florence,  and  his  cell  in  the  monastery 
of  St.  Mark's  is  still  pointed  out. 

ANTONINUS,  Itixerart  of  (Lat.  Antonini 
Itincrarium) .  A  valuable  geographical  work, 
containing  the  names  of  all  the  places  and  sta- 
tions on  the  principal  and  cross  roads  of  the 
Roman  Empire,  with  their  distances  from  each 
other  in  Roman  miles.  It  has  been  usually  at- 
tributed to  the  Emperor  M.  Aurelius  Antoninus 
( Caracalla ) ,  whence  its  name.  The  testimony, 
however,  of  the  Greek  geographer  jEthicus, 
avithor  of  the  Cosmorirapliia.  assures  us  that  a 
general  survey  of  the  Roman  Empire  was  com- 
menced 44  B.C.,  in  the  consulship  of  Julius  CiE- 
sar  and  M.  Antonius,  and  completed  in  the  reign 
of  Augustus,  when  the  results  of  the  survey  re- 
ceived the  sanction  of  the  State.  These  results, 
it  is  with  some  probability  inferred,  are  embod- 
ied in  this  Itinerary,  which,  it  is  further 
supposed,  received  additions  and  amendments  in 
the  time  of  the  Antonines.  Subsequent  improve- 
ments went  down  to  the  reign  of  Diocletian. 
The  best  editions  are  those  of  Wcsseling  (Am- 
sterdam, 1735)  and  Parthey  (Berlin,  1848). 
Consult  D'Urban,  Recueil  des  itindraires  an- 
cicnx,  with  ten  maps  (Paris,  1845). 

ANTONINUS.  The  name  of  several  Roman 
emperors,  avJio  arc  to-day  generally  distinguished 
by  their  titles  or  nicknames.  See  Antoninus 
Pius  ;   Aurelius  :   Caracalla. 

ANTONINUS,  Wall  of  (Lat.  Antonini  val- 
lum ) .     See  Roman  Wall. 


ANTONINUS    AND    FAUSTINA. 


G30 


ANTONIUS. 


ANTONINUS  AND  FAUSTI'NA,  Temple 
OF.  A  prostyle  temple  in  Korae,  on  the  Sacred 
Way  facing  the  Forum,  voted  by  the  Senate  in 
141  A.D.,  in  commemoration  of  the  elder  Faus- 
tina, wife  of  Antoninus  Pius,  whose  name  was 
added  to  that  of  his  wife  on  his  death  in  161  a.d. 
The  temple  has  six  columns  in  front  and  three 
on  the  sides.  The  frieze  is  richly  sculptured. 
In  the  seventh  or  eighth  century  the  temple  was 
dedicated  to  St.  Laurence  under  the  title  of  San 
Lorenzo  in  Miranda.  Urban  V.  used  much  of  its 
material  in  the  reconstruction  of  the  Lateran. 

ANTONINUS  LIB'ERA'LIS.  A  Greek  writ- 
er on  mj'thology,  a\1io  lived  about  150  A.D., 
and  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  freedman  of  An- 
toninus Pius.  He  wrote  tAtrajiopijiuiacuv  cvvayuyri 
{MetamorphoscOn  HyiuigOyC) ,  a  collection  of 
forty-one  myths  dealing  with  transformations. 
Most  of  these  are  derived  from  ancient  sources, 
now  lost,  so  that  the  work  is  valuable. 

ANTONINUS  PI'US,  Titus  Aure'lius  Ful- 
VL'S  lloiOKiis  AuuiLS  (SO-IOI  A.D.).  A  Roman 
emperor  (l:i8-l(il  a.d.),  who  was  born  at  Lanu- 
vium  in  the  reign  of  Domitian.  The  family  of 
Antoninus  Pius  was  originally  from  Nemausus, 
now  Nimes,  in  Gaul.  Antoninus  Pius  inherited 
great  wealth,  and  early  gave  proof  of  excellent 
qualities.  In  120  he  was  made  consul;  after- 
ward he  Avas  sent  by  Hadrian  as  pro-consul  into 
Asia,  where  the  wisdom  and  gentleness  of  his 
rule  won  for  him  a  higher  reputation  than  had 
been  enjoyed  by  any  of  his  predecessors.  By  his 
wife,  Faustina,  he  had  four  children,  of  whom 
three  died,  leaving  a  daughter,  Faustina,  after- 
ward wife  of  Marcus  Aurelius.  In  138  he  was 
adopted  by  the  EmpertJr  Hadrian,  in  consequence 
of  merit  alone,  and  came  to  the  throne  in  the 
same  year.  The  reign  of  Antoniniis  Pius  was 
peaceful  and  happy.  In  his  private  character 
he  was  simple,  temperate,  and  benevolent,  while 
in  public  affairs  he  acted  as  the  father  of  his 
people.  The  persecution  of  the  Christians,  which 
was  continued  during  his  reign,  was  partly 
stayed  by  his  mild  measures.  He  was  little  en- 
gaged in  war,  excepting  in  Britain,  where  he 
extended  the  power  of  Rome  and  built  a  wall 
between  the  Forth  and  the  Clyde,  as  a  defense 
against  invasions  by  the  predatory  inhabitants 
of  the  north.  The  reign  of  Antoninus  Pius  illus- 
trates the  saying,  "Happy  the  nation  which  has 
no  history,"  for  by  the  justice,  wisdom,  kmdli- 
ness,  and  courtesy  of  the  Emperor  his  vast 
empire  was  preserved  from  the  crimes,  conspira- 
cies, insurrections,  and  bloodshed,  the  recording 
of  which  formed  the  largest  part  of  the  his- 
torian's work  in  the  dark  centuries  of  the  Roman 
Empire.  It  is  said  that  only  one  senator  was 
impeached  during  the  life-time  of  Antoninus  Pius. 
Literature  received  great  encouragement;  the 
laws  were  improved,  commerce  extended;  the 
means  of  communication  were  facilitated  by  the 
repair  of  roads,  bridges,  etc. :  new  sanitary  reg- 
ulations were  introduced,  and  a  taste  for  archi- 
tecture fostered  in  the  citizens.  The  epithet 
Pius,  "dutiful,'  was  conferred  on  him  on  account 
of  his  conduct  in  defending  the  memory  of '  his 
predecessor,  Hadrian,  against  certain  dishonor- 
ing charges  brought  forward  by  the  Senate.  The 
column  raised  to  his  memory  by  his  adopted  son 
and  successor,  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus  (q.v.), 
was  discovered  in  ITOf),  tint  exists  only  in  frag- 
ments. The  so-called  Column  of  Antoninus,  now 
in  the  Piazza  Colonna  at  Rome,  is  that  raised  by 


the  Senate  in  honor  of  Marcus  Aurelius  after  his 
victory  over  the  Marcomanni. 

ANTO'NIO.  (1)  The  Changeling  in  Middle- 
ton's  play  of  the  same  name.  (2)  The  steward 
in  Webster's  Duchess  of  Malfi.  (3)  The  Duke  of 
Milan  in  Shakespeare's  Tempest.  (4)  The  Mer- 
chant of  Venice  in  Shakespeare's  play  of  the 
same  name,  who,  unable  to  repay  money  bor- 
rowed of  the  Jew  Shylock,  becomes  liable  for  the 
stipulated  forfeit,  a  pound  of  flesh. 

.  ANTONIO,  an-to'n<?-o,  Nicolas  (1617-84).  A 
Spanish  bililiographer  and  critic.  In  1659,  Philip 
IV".  made  him  his  general  agent  at  the  court  of 
Rome,  where  he  remained  nearly  twenty  years, 
and  employed  most  of  his  time  on  his  great  work, 
which  Mas  a  complete  list  of  Spanish  authors  and 
a  catalogue  of  their  writings.  He  published  part 
of  it  in  1672,  under  the  title,  New  Spanish  Libra- 
ry, and  in  1696  the  Old  Library  appeared. 
About  1677,  he  was  fiscal  for  the  Royal  Council 
in  Madrid.  His  Bibliotheca  Hispanica  is  consid- 
ered by  some  critics  tlie  most  comprehensive 
work  on  Spanish  literature.  He  also  wrote  a 
critique  on  fabulous  histories. 

ANTONIO  DE  SEDILLA,  da  sa-de'lya. 
(e.1730-1829).  A  Spanish  missionary  priest,  bet- 
ter known  as  "P6re  Antoine."  In  1779  he  was 
sent  to  New  Orleans  to  reinaugurate  the  Inquisi- 
tion there,  but  was  immediately  sent  back  by 
Governor  Miro,  who  felt  that  the  enforcement  of 
Spain's  rigid  laws  against  heretics  would  pre- 
cipitate a  revolution.  P6re  Antoine  returned 
to  New  Orleans  in  1783  as  priest  of  the  St.  Louis 
cathedral,  and  by  his  kindness  and  his  numerous 
charities  earned  the  love  of  the  residents,  espe- 
cially of  the  French  element.  Until  1886,  a 
palm  tree  planted  by  him  was  a  landmark  in  New 
Orleans,  and  about  it  clustered  many  picturesque 
traditions,  some  of  which  are  given  in  C4ayarr6, 
History  of  Louisiana,  3  volumes  (New  York, 
1846-53).  Con.sult  also  T.  B.  Aldrich's  story, 
Perc  Antoine's  Date  Palm. 

ANTO'NIUS,  Gaius,  surnamed  Htbrida.  A 
Roman  consul,  son  of  Marcus  Antonius  the  ora- 
tor, and  uncle  of  Mark  Antony.  He  was  Cicero's 
colleague  in  both  the  pra-torship  (65  B.C.)  and 
the  consulship  (63).  Though  at  first  one  of  Cati- 
line's conspirators,  he  was  induced  to  desert  him 
by  Cicero,  who  secured  for  him  the  province  of 
Macedonia.  On  his  return  to  Rome  (59),  he 
was  accused  of  having  taken  part  in  Catiline'.s 
conspiracy  and  of  extortion  in  his  province,  and, 
though  defended  by  Cicero,  was  condemned  on 
both  charges.  He  then  retired  to  the  island  of 
Cephallenia,  but  was  recalled,  prob.ably  by  Cas- 
sar,  and  was  in  Rome  at  the  beginning  of  44  B.C. 

ANTONIUS,  Marcus  (143-87  b.c).  One  of 
the  most  eloquent  of  Roman  lawyers  and  speak- 
ers, commonly  called  "the  Orator."  He  was  the 
grandfather  of  Mark  Antony,  the  triumvir.  He 
was  pra-tor  in  104  B.C.,  and  the  following  year 
governor  (legutus  pro  prcctorc)  ofCilicia;  in  99 
he  held  the  consulship.  He  favored  the  aristo- 
cratic party,  and  was  an  adherent  of  Sulla  in  the 
Civil  War  against  IMarius,  by  whose  order  Anto- 
nius was  assassinated.  In  the  judgment  of 
Cicero,  Antonius  and  L.  Crassus  were  the  first 
Roman  orators  who  equaled  the  great  speakers 
of  Greece, 

ANTONIUS,  Marcus  (83-30  b.c).  A  Roman 
triumvir,  commonly  known  as  Mark  Antony,  a 
descendant  of  one  of  the  oldest  patrician  fami- 


ANTONITJS. 


631 


ANTONOMASIA. 


lios.  He  was  the  son  of  the  pra>tor,  M.  Antonius 
Cretieus,  and  on  the  side  of  his  mother,  Julia, 
was  related  to  Julius  Ca-sar.  His  youth  was 
wasted  in  dissipation,  and,  finding  himself 
pressed  by  numerous  impatient  creditors,  he  es- 
caped to  Greece  in  58  B.C.,  where,  for  a  short 
time,  he  listened  to  the  teaching  of  Athenian  phi- 
losophers and  orators.  His  studies  here  were 
soon  interrupted  by  the  pro-consul  (4abinius,  who 
appointed  him  leader  of  his  cavalry.  In 
the  campaign  against  Aristobulus  in  Palestine 
and  in  Egypt,  Antonius  distinguished  himself  by 
his  courage  and  activity,  and  ingratiated  himself 
with  the  soldiers.  After  assisting  Csesar  in 
Giiul,  he  went  to  Rome,  in  50  B.C.,  to  advance  the 
interests  of  the  former,  who  stood  in  great  danger 
from  the  hostility  of  the  oligarchical  part}',  and 
was  appointed  an  augur,  and  chosen  one  of  the 
tribunes  of  the  people.  In  the  following  year, 
on  account  of  his  adherence  to  the  party  of  Cse- 
sar, he  was  expelled  from  the  curia  and  fled  to 
Csesar,  who  made  use  of  this  event  as  a  pretext 
for  his  war  against  Pompej'.  At  the  outbreak 
of  this  war  Antonius  received  the  ap])ointment 
of  commander-in-chief  in  Italy.  In  the  battle 
of  Pharsalia  he  commanded  the  left  wing  of  Cae- 
sar's army.  In  47,  he  was  made  master  of  the 
horse  by  Caesar,  who  left  him  to  govern  Italy 
during  his  absence  in  Africa.  Antony,  as  usual, 
disgraced  himself;  was  perpetually  drunk;  di- 
vorced his  wife  and  married  an  actress,  with 
whom  he  paraded  himself  oft'ensively  through  the 
chief  towns  of  the  peninsula.  In  44  B.C.  he  mar- 
ried Fulvia,  the  widow  of  Clodius;  was  made 
consul,  and  vainly  endeavored  to  prevail  on  the 
Romans  to  recognize  Cipsar  as  emperor.  After 
the  assassination  of  Cajsar,  he  played  the  part  so 
well  described  by  Shakespeare,  and  by  his  funeral 
oration  and  the  well-timed  display  of  Ca;sar"s 
bloody  robe  so  wrought  u])on  the  passions  of  the 
people  that  the  conspirators  were  compelled  to 
escape  from  Rome,  leaving  the  successful  orator 
for  a  while  in  possession  of  almost  absolute  pow- 
er. A  formidable  rival  to  Antonius  now  ap- 
peared in  the  person  of  the  ^-oung  Octavianus 
(the  future  Augustus),  whom  Ca'sar  had  desig- 
nated as  his  heir,  and  a  contest  for  the  ascend- 
ency ensued.  The  eloquence  of  Cicero,  who  de- 
nounced Antonius  as  an  enemy  of  the  State, 
secured  the  triumph  of  Octavianus  in  the  Senate. 
Antonius,  who  had  been  besieging  Decimus  Bru- 
tus in  Mutina  (Xlodena),  in  order  to  obtain  pos- 
session of  Cisalpine  Gaul,  was  finally  overthrown 
by  tlie  forces  of  the  Senate  in  43  B.C.  He  es- 
caped beyond  the  Alps,  visited  the  camp  of  Lepi- 
dus,  who  commanded  in  Gaul,  and  gained  the 
favor  of  the  army,  of  which  he  took  command. 
Plancus  and  Pollio  joined  him  with  their  troops, 
and  Antonius,  who  so  recently  had  escaped  as  a 
heljjless  fugitive  from  Italy,  returned  to  Rome  at 
the  head  of  seventeen  legions  and  ten  thousand 
cavalry.  Octavianus,  who  had  pretended  to  main- 
tain republican  principles,  now  threw  ofT  the 
mask  and  held  a  consultation  with  Antonius  and 
Lepidus  near  Bologna,  when  it  was  determined 
that  as  triumvirs  they  should  share  the  whole 
Roman  world  among  themselves.  To  secure  their 
spoil,  they  returned  to  Rome  and  began  their 
eoiu'se  of  murder  and  robbery  throughout  Italy. 
Among  their  first  victims  fell  Cicero,  the  orator, 
whose  eloquence  they  dreaded.  According  to  Ap- 
pian.  no  fewer  than  three  hundred  senators  and 
two  thousand  knights  were  put  to  death  in  the 
proscriptions  of  the  triumvirs. 


After  making  Italy  safe  for  themselves  and 
raising  an  enormous  sum  of  money  to  carry  on 
their  war  abroad,  Antonius  and  Octavianus  led 
their  troops  into  Macedonia  against  Brutus  and 
Cassius,  and  defeated  the  republican  forces  at 
Philippi  (42  B.C.).  Antonius  next  paid  a  visit 
to  Athens,  and  then  went  into  Asia  to  arrange 
his  dispute  with  Cleopatra,  Queen  of  Egypt, 
whose  conduct  had  offended  the  triumvirs.  The 
Queen  herself  appeared  to  answer  his  challenge, 
and  captivated  Antonius  by  her  beauty  and  ad- 
dress. The  general  who  had  overcome  Brutus  and 
Cassius  was  now  made  a  prisoner,  though  not  of 
war.  He  followed  Cleopatra  into  Egypt,  and 
lived  with  her  in  idleness  and  luxury,  until  he 
was  aroused  by  tidings  of  the  quarrel  which  had 
taken  place  in  Italy  between  his  own  relatives 
and  Octavianus.  This  dispute  gave  rise  to  a 
short  war,  which  came  to  an  end  before  Antonius 
arrived  in  Italy.  A  new  division  of  the  Roman 
world  now  took  place  between  the  triumvirs,  and 
was  soon  quietly  arranged  at  Brundusium.  An- 
tonius took  the  East,  and  Octavianus  took  the 
West;  while  the  ambition  of  the  feeble  Lepidus 
was  appeased  by  his  having  the  whole  of  Africa 
for  his  portion.  Even  this  shadow  of  dominion 
was  taken  from  him  in  .30  B.C.  Meanwhile,  An- 
tonius had  confirmed  his  friendship  with  Octavi- 
anus by  a  marriage  with  Octavia,  his  sister.  He 
now  returned  to  Cleopatra,  resumed  his  former 
voluptuous  mode  of  life,  squandered  the  wealth 
of  Rome  in  gifts  to  his  royal  mistress,  and  be- 
came guilty  of  gross  acts  of  injustice.  Octavi- 
anus made  use  of  these  facts  to  excite  the  indig- 
nation of  the  Roman  people  against  Antonius, 
and  a  war  between  the  rivals  became  unavoidable. 
Antonius,  in  his  idleness,  tried  to  postpone  the 
trial  of  strength  which  he  saw  inevitably  ap- 
proaching, and  filled  the  island  of  Samos  (where 
his  troops  were  quartered)  with  musicians,  jug- 
glers, and  buffoons.  Meanwhile,  at  Rome,  he  was 
formally  deprived  of  his  power,  and  war  was 
proclaimed  against  Cleopatra.  Each  party  col- 
lected its  forces,  and  in  the  naval  engagement 
which  took  place  (31  B.C.)  near  Actium  (q.v. ) 
Antonius  and  Cleopatra  were  utterly  defeated. 
His  subsequent  hope  of  finding  troops  still 
faithful  to  him  in  Libya  was  disappointed. 
He  returned  to  Egypt,  where,  with  Cleopatra,  he 
once  more  forgot  political  cares  and  vexations, 
until  his  amusements  were  suddenly  intcrruptecl 
by  the  arrival  of  Octavianus  at  Alexandria.  An- 
tonius now  roused  himself,  made  a  charge  with 
his  cavalry,  and  repelled  tlie  enemy;  but  the  ad- 
vantage was  only  momentary.  Deserted  by  tlie 
Egyptian  fleet,  as  by  his  own  army,  and  suspect- 
ing that  even  Cleopatra  had  conspired  against 
him,  he  went  to  her  palace,  from  which  the  Queen 
had  escaped.  Deceived  by  a  false  message  in- 
forming him  of  the  death  of  Cleopatra,  Antonius 
committed  suicide  by  falling  upon  his  sword,  in 
the  year  30  B.C.  He  died  in  the  arms  of  Cleo- 
patra, who  immediately  after  put  an  end  to  her 
life. 

ANTONIUS,  St.     See  Antony  of  Padua. 

AN'TONOMA'SIA  (Gk.  avTovo/iaala,  from  avri, 
aiiti  -{-  dra/ndfei^,  unuinazein,  to  name).  In 
rhetoric,  the  substitution  of  any  epithet  or 
phrase  for  a  •  proper  name ;  as  "The  Stagyrite" 
for  Aristotle,  "The  Little  Corporal"  for  Napoleon, 
"The  Man  on  Horseback"  for  Grant,  "The  Man 
from  Nowhere"  for  Kipling,  etc.  Sometimes  the 
process  is  reversed;   as,  calling  a  good  orator  a 


ANTONOMASIA. 


(533 


ANT   PLANTS. 


"Cicero."     In   eitliev   case   the   llgure   is   akin   to 
metonymy. 

ANTON  ULRIC,  -in'ton  ul'rils:  (1714-SO). 
The  second  son  of  Duke  Ferdinand  Albert  of 
Brunswick- Wolfenbuttel  (till  1735  Brunswick- 
Bevern.  the  title  by  which  the  Prince  was  first 
known  in  Russia).  He  married  Anna  Karlovna 
(q.v.),  niece  of  Anna  Ivanovna,  Empress  of  Rus- 
sia, in  1739.  lu  1740  the  Empress  fell  danger- 
ously ill  and  appointed  Ivan,  the  infant  son  of 
Anton,  her  successor,  with  Biron  as  regent.  Af- 
ter her  death  Anton  Ulrie  made  some  feeble  at- 
tempts to  reverse  this  appointment,  which  only 
led  to  the  punishment  of  those  supposed  to  liave 
instigated  them,  and  to  his  own  military  degi'a- 
dation.  Biron's  conduct  toward  the  parents  of 
the  infant  Prince  became  unbearably  insolent,  and 
Anna  appealed  in  despair  to  General  Miinnich, 
who  put  a  sudden  end  to  Biron's  sway  and  de- 
clared the  Grand  Duchess  and  her  husband  re- 
gents. After  a  few  months  Anna  ungratefully 
overthrew  Miinnich.  After  his  fall, as  little  unity 
prevailed  among  the  ministers  as  between  her- 
self and  her  husband,  and  the  Government  Avas 
looked  upon  as  both  a  foreign  and  a  contemptible 
one.  Then  came  the  revolution  of  December  5, 
1741,  which  raised  Elizabeth  Pctrovna  (q.v.)  to 
the  throne.  Anton  Ulric  and  his  consort  were 
e.viled,  and  lived  long  at  Kholmogory,  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  Archangel.  Anna  died  in  1746. 
Catharine  II.  offered  Ulric  his  freedom,  but 
he  declined  it.  Ultimately  he  grew  blind. 
Catharine  gave  his  children  comfortable  homes 
in  Jutland.  Consult  Bruckner.  Die  FnmiUc 
BmuHSchiccig  in  Ifiissland  (St.  Petersburg, 
187G). 

AN'TONY,  St.,  of  Thebes  (251-356).  The 
father  of  monastic  asceticism;  known  as  the 
Great.  He  was  born  about  the  year  251  a.d.,  at 
Koma,  near  Heraklea.  in  Upjjer  Egypt.  His  par- 
ents were  both  wealthy  and  pious,  and  be- 
stowed on  him  a  religious  education.  Having,  in 
obedience  to  what  he  believed  to  be  a  divine  in- 
junction, sold  his  possessions  and  distributed  the 
proceeds  among  the  poor,  he  withdrew  into  the 
wilderness,  where  he  disciplined  himself  in  all 
those  austerities  which  have  liallowed  his  mem- 
ory in  the  Catholic  Church  and  formed  the  model 
of' the  monastic  life.  When  thirty  years  of  age, 
however,  desirous  of  obtaining  a  deeper  repose 
than  his  situation  afforded,  he  penetrated  further 
into  the  desert  and  took  up  his  abode  in  an  old 
ruin  on  the  top  of  a  hill,  where  he  spent  t^venty 
years  in  the  most  rigorous  seclusion;  but  in  305 
he  was  persuaded  to  leave  this  retreat  by  the 
prayers  of  Tuimerous  anchorites  who  wished  to 
live  under  his  direction.  He  now  founded  the 
monastery  of  Fayum.  which  was  at  first  only  a 
gioup  of  separate  and  scattered  cells  near  Mem- 
phis and  Arsinoe,  but  which,  nevertheless,  may 
be  considered  the  origin  of  ccnobite  life.  He 
declined,  however,  to  preside  over  a  monastery. 
The  persecution  of  the  Christians  by  Maximian, 
in  311  A.D.,  induced  St.  Antony  to  leave  his  C(dl 
and  proceed  to  Alexandria  to  comfort  the  mar- 
tyrs; but  in  the  course  of  a  year  he  returned 
to  his  solitude,  which,  however,  he  soon  left 
and  plunged  yet  deeiier  into  the  desert.  At  length 
he  found  a  "lodgment  on  a  hill,  about  a  day's 
journey  from  the  Red  Sea;  but  his  disciples,  dis- 
covering his  retreat,  so  pressed  him  with  their 
affectionate  importunities  that  he  ventured  to 
accompany  them  back.      After  many   pious  ex- 


hortations, he  once  more  left  them,  and  soon  be- 
came the  mighty  oracle  of  the  whole  valley  of 
the  Nile.  In  335  the  venerable  hermit  made  a 
journey  to  Alexandria,  at  the  request  of  Atha- 
iiasius,  to  dispute  with  the  Arians.  He  had  in- 
terviews with  Athanasius  and  other  distinguished 
[lersons,  but  soon  retired  to  his  desert  home, 
where  he  died,  356  A.D. 

Athanasius  states,  in  his  Life  of  St.  Antony, 
that  the  saint  wore  onh'  a  coarse  shirt  of  hair, 
and  never  washed  his  body,  which  is  more  cred- 
ible than  the  stories  he  relates  of  his  encounters 
vpith  the  devil  or  his  miracles.  His  whole  con- 
duct indicates  the  predominance  of  a  glowing  and 
yet  gloomy  fancy,  and  a  disposition  to  lead  a  life 
of  absolute  solitude.  Although  the  father  of 
monachism,  St.  Antony  is  not  the  author  of  any 
monastic  "rules;"  those  which  the  monks  of  the 
Eastern  schismatic  sects  attribute  to  him  are  the 
production  of  St.  Basil.  He  is,  perhaps,  the  most 
popular  saint  in  the  Catholic  Church.  Accounts 
of  his  life  and  miracles  are  given  in  the  Acta 
Hanctorum  of  the  Bollandists,  under  the  date  of 
the  17th  of  -January,  on  which  day  his  festival 
was  kept. 

ANTONY,  St.,  of  Padua  (1195-1231).  A 
famous  saint.  He  was  born  at  Lisbon,  Por- 
tugal, August  15,  1195,  baptized  as  Ferdinand, 
Init  took  the  name  Antony  when  he  entered 
the  order  of  St.  Francis,  in  1220,  after 
being  a  canon  of  St.  Vincent's  in  Lisbon,  and 
already  noted  for  biblical  and  patristic  learn- 
ing, in  1221  he  attended  a  meeting  of  the  order 
at  Assisi  and  made  a  poor  impression,  but  soon 
after  produced  great  astonishment  and  delight 
at  a  meeting  with  the  Dominicans,  and  was  sent 
by  St.  Francis  as  revival  preacher  to  northern 
Italy,  where  he  met  with  tremendous  success. 
In  1223,  after  studying  at  St.  Francis's  direc- 
tion mystical  theology  for  five  months,  he  was 
appointed  the  first  theological  tutor  in  the  order, 
and  taught  in  northern  Italy  and  France.  In. 
1227  he  became  provincial  of  northern  Italy;  in 
November  of  that  year  he  entered  Padua  for  the 
first  time.  In  1230  he  went  to  Rome  as  delegate 
to  get  the  papal  decision  wytaw  the  binding  nature 
of  certain  points  in  the  Franciscan  rule — not.  as 
frequently  asserted,  to  secure  the  deposition  of 
the  general  of  the  order.  He  died  at  Padua, 
Jime  13,  1231.  He  was  canonized  by  Pope 
Gregory  IX.  in  1232.  His  great  repute  as  a 
preacher  gave  rise  to  legends  of  miraculous  pow- 
ers. He  is  the  patron  saint  of  animals.  Once 
he  preached  to  the  fishes,  it  is  said,  and  they 
listened  to  him  with  rapt  attention.  Joseph  Addi- 
son gave  an  abstract  of  it  in  his  Remarks  on 
Italy.  For  the  classic  biography  of  Antony,  con- 
sult Eunuanuel  de  Azevedo  of  Coimbra,  Vita  del 
Taumaturgo  .  .  .  Sant'  Antonio  di  I'adora  (lat- 
est edition,  Padua.  1829);  consult  also:  De 
Cherance,  Antoni/  of  Padua  (London,  1895)  ;  I. 
Beale  (1897),  Mrs.  Arthur  Bell  (1901),  in 
French  by  A.  Lepttre  (Paris,  1901).  His  works 
were  published  by  Horoy  in  his  Mcdii  .^vi  Bib- 
liothcca  Patri.'iiini   (Paris,  1S85). 

ANTONY  AND  CLE'OPA'TBA.  .\  tragedy 
by  Shakespeare  (1607).  It  was  liased  upon  tlie 
life  of  Antony  in  North's  Pliilarch,  and  is  ad- 
mired for  the" vigor  with  which  the  author  deals 
with  a  difficult  theme.  The  play  is  to  some  ex- 
tent imitated  in  both  Dryden's  All  For  Love,  and 
Fletcher  and  Massinger's  The  False  One. 
ANT  PLANTS.    See  Mtbmecophytes. 


ANTBAIGTJES. 


ANTRAIGUES,  iiN'trag',  Emanuei,  Louis 
Henui  i)e  Launay,  Cojite  d'  (17o5-1S12).  A 
Freneh  publicist  and  diplomat.  He  was  born  at 
\'i!leneuve.  department  of  Ard^ehc.  His  talents 
were  first  displayed  in  his  Mcmoircs  siir  les  etats- 
g^neriiux.  Iciirs  droits  ct  la  maiiih-c  dc  leu  con- 
roqucr  (17S8),  in  which  he  predicted  the  down- 
fall of  absolute  monarchy  realized  in  the  French 
Revolution.  In  17S9,  when  he  was  chosen  a  dep- 
uty, he  defended,  however,  the  privileges  of  the 
hereditary  aristocracy.  In  17i)0  he  was  employed 
in  a  diplomatic  mission  at  St.  Petersburg  and 
A'ienna.  where  he  upheld  the  cause  of  the  Bour- 
Ixms.  He  incurred  the  displeasure  of  Bonaparte, 
Init  lied  from  France  in  1708.  In  1803  Alex- 
andci'  of  Russia  sent  him  on  an  embassy  to  Dres- 
den, where  he  wrote  a  brochure  against  Napoleon, 
entitled  Fragment  du  XVIIIj  Here  de  I'olybe 
trovvc  sur  le  niont  Athos.  He  was  murdered, 
with  his  wife,  at  his  residence  near  London  by  an 
Italian  servant. 

AN'TRIM.  A  maritime  county  in  the  north- 
cast  of  Ireland,  in  the  province  of  Ulster.  It  is 
bounded,  north,  by  the  Atlantic;  west,  by  the 
north  part  of  the  River  Baun.  dividing  it  from 
Londonderry,  and  by  Lough  Neagh;  south,  by 
Lagan  River,  separating  it  from  the  county  of 
Down;  southeast,  by  Belfast  Lough;  and  north- 
cast,  by  the  North  Channel  ( Jlap:  Ireland,  E  2), 
Its  greatest  length  is  5G  miles,  its  greatest 
breadth  20  miles;  its  extent  of  sea  coast,  90 
miles.  Area,  1237  square  miles.  About  two- 
thirds  of  this  is  arable:  a  fourth,  barren;  and  a 
small  fraction  in  woods.  Slines  of  fine  salt 
occur  at  Duncrue  and  Carrickfergus,  and  small 
coal  fields  near  Ballycastle  and  in  the  interior. 
Rich  beds  of  iron  ore  of  fine  quality  are  worked 
at  Glenravel,  and  a  large  exjiort  is  carried  on 
from  C'ushendall  and  Carnlough.  The  soil  of 
Antrim  is  mostly  light,  and  the  chief  crop  is 
oats.  The  land  is  much  subdivided,  and  the 
rearing  of  flax,  and  the  various  branches  of  the 
-linen,  cotton,  and  coarse  woolen  manufacture 
employ  a  great  portion  of  the  people.  There  are 
important  salmon  and  other  fisheries  on  the 
coast.  The  principal  towns  are  Belfast,  the  capi- 
tal;  Lisbvirn.  Ballymena,  Ballymoney,  Carrick- 
fergus, Larne,  and  Antrim.  It  is  one  of  the 
three  counties  that  show  an  increase  of  popula- 
tion since  1841.  Pop.,  1841,  355,400;  1851,  352,- 
900;    18'.)1,    430,805;    I'JOl,    401,2.')0. 

ANT-SHRIKE,  ANT-THRUSH,  and  ANT- 
WREN.  Names  applied  to  groups  within  the 
large  South  American  family  of  non-oscine  Pas- 
seres  named  Formicariida?,  all  of  which  subsist 
largely  upon  ants.  Bates  and  others  describe  how 
these  birds  follow  and  prey  upon  the  columns  of 
marching  ecitons  and  other  ferociovis  tropical 
ants,  and  that  their  twittering  is  a  warning  all 
the  natives  are  quick  to  heed.  Tliey  are  small, 
long-billed  birds,  clothed  in  soft  and  pleasing  col- 
ors, as  a  rule,  and  some  have  loud  and  melodious 
voices,  notwithstanding  their  lack  of  ])roper  os- 
cine  or  "singing"  organs.  The  ant-shrikes  con- 
stitute the  subfamily  Thamnophilin.T,  or  "bush- 
shrikes,"  some  of  which  also  inhabit  the  Antilles; 
ant-wrens  are  prettily  marked,  active,  wren-like 
members  of  the  subfamily  F'ormieivorina- ;  while 
the  ant-thrushes  belong  to  the  typical  subfamily 
Formicariina',  to  a  Guiana  species  of  which 
[Rhopotrope  torqiiata)  Button  first  gave  'the 
name  fovnnilicr  (ant-eater).  The  term  ant- 
thrush  is  also  improperly  applied  to  the  pittas — 
Vol.  1.— 12. 


633  ANTWERP. 

brilliantly  colored,  ground-keeping,  insect-eating 
birds  of  eastern  Asia  and  the  ilalay  Archipelago. 
See  Pitta;  and  for  illustration,  see  Lyre  Bibd, 

ETC. 

ANT'WERP  (Fr.  Ativers) .  A  former  mar- 
graviate,  and  now  a  province,  of  Belgium,  sit- 
uated south  of  the  Netherlands,  and  occupying 
an  area  of  1093  square  miles  (Jlap;  Belgium, 
C  3),  The  surface  is  generally  flat,  and  even 
marshy  along  the  Scheldt,  which,  together  with 
its  tributary,  the  Rupel,  forms  the  chief  water 
course  of  the  province.  The  soil  is  fertile  and 
yields  large  quantities  of  grain.  Cattle  and 
other  domestic  aniamls  are  also  raised.  The 
chief  manufactures  of  the  province  are  laces, 
sugar,  wool,  cotton  fabrics,  and  liquors.  Capital, 
Antwerp.     Population,  in  1900,  837,976. 

ANTWERP  (Fr.  Anvers.  anciently  Andover- 
pum,  from  Anc  de  Werp,  "at  the  wharf,  har- 
bor"). A  city  of  Belgium,  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince of  the  same  name,  situated  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Scheldt,  in  lat.  50°  13'  N.,  long, 
4°  23'  E.  (Map;  Belgium.  C  3).  It  ranks  first 
in  commercial  importance  and  second  in  popula- 
tion among  the  cities  of  Belgium,  and  its  harbor 
is  considered  one  of  the  best  in  Europe,  Antwerp 
is  situated  in  a  fruitful  and  well-cultivated 
region.  The  larger  part  of  the  city  lies  within 
the  walls,  which  have  been  continually  extended 
and  improved,  and  at  present  have  a  total  length 
of  eight  miles.  In  point  of  architectural  beauty 
and  artistic  achievements.  Antwerp  has  but  few 
rivals  among  European  cities. 

The  most  noteworthy  edifice  is  the  Cathedral 
of  Notre  Dame,  the  noblest  and  largest  specimen 
of  Gothic  architecture  in  the  Netherlands,  cov- 
ering an  area  of  70,000  square  feet.  It  was  be- 
gun in  1352  and  continued  at  various  periods 
during  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries. 
The  roof  is  supported  by  125  pillars,  and  the 
lofty  tower,  whose  exquisite  beauty  Charles  V. 
was  wont  to  compare  to  !Mechlin  lace,  is  a  mar- 
vel of  gracefulness.  The  highly  ornamented  por- 
tal and  the  fine  tracery  of  the  window  above  it 
are  particularly  worth  seeing.  The  impressive 
interior,  the  unusual  seven-aisled  division  of 
which  is  to  be  noted,  contains  three  celebrated 
works  by  Rubens,  "The  Descent  from  the  Cross," 
"The  Elevation  of  the  Cross,"  and  adorning  the 
high  altar  in  the  choir,  "The  Assumption;"  the 
first-named  being  the  most  magnificent,  and  gen- 
erally considered  his  masterpiece.  The  church 
of  St.  Jacques,  begun  in  the  late  Gothic  style,  in 
1491,  and  completed  in  1050,  outranks  the  cathe- 
dral in  the  splendor  of  its  decorations  and  monu- 
ments. Among  the  many  altars,  private  chapels, 
and  burial  vaults,  belonging  to  the  most  distin- 
guished families  of  Antwerp,  that  of  the  RuVjens 
family  is  the  most  interesting.  Of  the  secular 
buildings, the  Hotel  de  Villein  the  Grande  Place, 
a  fine  structure  in  the  Renaissance  style,  dating 
from  1561-65,  and  rising  to  a  height  of  180  feet, 
and  the  Bourse,  a  stately  edifice  in  the  late 
Gothic  style,  deserve  especial  attention.  The 
museum,  erected  in  1879-90,  from  plans  by  Win- 
ders and  Van  Dyck,  is  an  imposing  rectangular 
structure,  inclosing  si.x  inner  courts.  Its  pic- 
ture gallery  boasts  of  an  unusually  fine  collec- 
tion of  paintings  by  the  old  masters,  including 
about  800  canvases,  especially  of  the  Flemish 
school,  amoncr  which  are  rare  specimens  by  Jan 
van  Eyck,  Memling,  Massys,  Rubens,  V.an  Dyck, 
etc.;   "The  Entombment  of  Christ,"  the  master- 


ANTWERP. 


634 


ANTYLLUS. 


piece  of  Quinten  Massys,  and  the  "Christ  Cnici- 
fied,"  by  Rubens,  a  work  of  great  dramatic  effect, 
being  tlie  most  remarkable.  \Yorthy  of  mention 
are  also  the  Musee  Plantin-JIoretus,  famous  for 
its  collection  of  everything  pertaining  to  the 
early  history  of  printing,  the  Guild  Hall  of  the 
Archers,  the  Vieille  Boucherie  or  old  meat  mar- 
ket, and  the  Steen.  part  of  the  old  castle  dating 
from  the  Tenth  Century,  once  the  seat  of  the 
Inquisition,  and  now  containing  an  archaeological 
museum. 

Antwerp  is  administered  by  a  burgomaster, 
assisted  by  five  assessors  and  a  municipal  coim- 
cil.  The  burgomaster  is  nominated  by  the  King 
for  a  period  of  eight  years, and  is  also  tlio  head  of 
the  police.  The  assessors  are  chosen  by  the  munici- 
pal council  for  the  same  period.  The  municipal 
council  numbers  39  members,  including  8  mem- 
bers from  the  labor  council,  who  are  elected  by 
all  voting  citizens  for  8  years.  The  city  is  di- 
vided into  9  districts,  administered  by  commis- 
sioners. Water,  as  well  as  gas,  is  supplied  by 
private  companies.  With  the  exception  of  the 
railway  stations  and  the  harbor,  which  have  elec- 
tric lights,  the  city  is  lighted  by  gas.  Of  its 
annual  budget  of  over  $7,500,000,  the  city  ex- 
pends only  about  9  per  cent,  on  administration, 
police,  and  street  cleaning,  about  8  per  cent,  on 
education,  and  about  15  per  cent,  on  the  service 
of  the  debt,  which  amounts  to  about  $60,000,000 
at  2%  per  cent,  repayable  by  1977. 

Among  the  educational  instifiitions  of  the  city 
the  most  noteworthy  are  the  commercial  school, 
established  in  1852,  the  Athenec  Royal,  the  Acad- 
emy of  Fine  Arts,  dating  from  lGG5.and  attended 
by  over  160  students,  and  the  Roj-al  Conserva- 
tory of  ]Music,  with  an  attendance  of  about  1350. 
Some  of  the  higher  schools  are  managed  by  Jesu- 
its, and  the  German  School  is  supported  by  the 
German  Government.  Besides  numerous  scientific 
associations,  Antwerp  has  many  societies  for  the 
advancement  of  art,  and  its  triennial  exhibition 
of  paintings  is  regarded  as  an  important  event  in 
the  world  of  art.  The  city  has  two  theatres  and 
two  municipal  libraries.  Of  the  16  daily  newspa- 
pers published  in  Antwerp  6  are  in  French  and 
10  in  Flemish.  Of  charitable  and  benevolent 
institutions,  Antwerp  has  its  full  share.  Besides 
two  hospitals  with  900  beds,  an  insane  asylum, 
and  asylums  for  orphans  and  aged  people,  there 
are  a  considerable  namber  of  minor  charitable  in- 
stitutions maintained  by  private  societies.  The 
industrial  establishments  of  Antwerp  include  dis- 
tilleries and  breweries,  textile  mills,  diamond-cut- 
ting works,  sugar  refineries,  cigar  factories,  etc. 
Owing  to  its  advantageous  position  on  the  west- 
ern coast  of  Europe,  and  its  proximity  to  Lon- 
don, .\ntwerp  is  inferior  to  few  European 
cities  in  the  volume  of  its  commerce,  and  is  con- 
sidered one  of  the  greatest  centres  of  the  grain 
import  trade.  Its  commerce  is  chiefly  with  the 
Balkan  countries,  Russia,  the  United  States,  and 
South  America.  The  total  annual  value  of  the 
commerce,  of  which  a  large  portion  is  transit, 
exceeds  $1,200,000,000,  of  which  slightly  more 
than  one-half  represents  imports.  Antwerp  has 
magnificent  harbor  advantages.  The  quays  have 
a  total  length  of  3Vj  miles  and  are  provided  with 
gigantic  cranes  for  the  loading  and  unloading  of 
vessels.  There  are  eight  large  basins  and  a  num- 
ber of  smaller  ones  connected  by  sluices  with  the 
Scheldt.  In  1899,  5613  vessels  representing  a 
tonnage  of  6,872,848  cleared  the  port.     In  1891 


the  figures  were  respectively  4461  and  4,693,238. 
Antwerp  is  the  chief  arsenal  of  Belgium  and 
is  fortified  by  strong  ramparts  and  numer- 
ous citadels  and  forts  surrounding  the  city.  It 
has  also  devices  for  the  flooding  of  the  sur- 
rounding country  and  contains  a  garrison  of 
about  10,000  men;  Antwerp  has  consular  rep- 
resentatives from  all  the  important  countries  of 
the  world.  The  population  is  (1900)  285,600, 
not  including  the  suburbs,  with  a  population  of 
over  50,000.  In  1830  the  total  population  was 
only  73,500,  while  in  1891  it  numbered  232,732. 
The  average  annual  temperature  of  the  city  is 
about  50°,  or  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  New 
York. 

Antwerp  appears  in  history  as  early  as  the 
Seventh  Century,  is  spoken  of  as  a  market  town 
some  hundred  years  later,  and  by  the  middle  of 
the  twelfth  century  seems  to  have  attained 
considerable  prosperity  as  a  trading  town. 
Steadily  extending  its  commercial  operations 
under  the  rule  of  the  Dukes  of  Burgundy,  it  be- 
came in  the  second  half  of  the  Fifteenth  Century 
the  world-mart  of  Europe,  supplanting  the  other 
great  Flemish  cities,  Bruges  and  Ghent.  It  was 
the  entrepot  for  the  trade  between  England  and 
the  Continent,  and  in  its  harbor  vessels  from 
the  north  and  the  south  of  Europe  met  to  ex- 
change their  cargoes.  In  the  first  half  of  the 
Sixteenth  Century,  under  the  rule  of  Charles  V.,. 
the  city  was  at  the  height  of  its  splendor  and 
prosperity.  It  was  the  principal  station  of  the 
Hanseatic  League  and  the  centre  of  the  money 
exchanges  of  Europe,  while  its  manufacturing 
industry  was  on  a  level  with  its  vast  shipping. 
Material  prosperity  was  accompanied  by  intel- 
lectual progress,  and  the  great  schools  of  Flemish 
painters  made  Antwerp  their  principal  home. 
The  events  of  the  Reformation  brought  about  a 
sudden  decline.  The  reign  of  terror  instituted 
by  the  Duke  of  Alva,  and  the  siege  of  14  months 
by  the  Duke  of  Parma  (1584-85),  to  whom  the 
city  oft'ered  a  heroic  but  ineffectual  resistance, 
sapped  the  prosperity  of  Antwerp.  Its  popula- 
tion at  the  end  of  the  Sixteenth  Century  had 
dwindled  to  55.000,  or  less  than  half  of  what 
it  had  been  at  the  beginning  of  the  century.  Its 
ruin  was  completed  by  the  Treaty  of  \\'est])ha- 
lia,  which  closed  the  navigation  of  the  Scheldt. 
It  received  new  life  from  the  Frenoli,  who  took 
the  city  in  1704,  and  declared  the  Scheldt  open 
once  more.  Later  Napoleon  attempted  to  set  it 
up  as  a  rival  to  London.  During  the  Belgian 
Revolution  of  1S30.  the  Dutch  general  Chasse 
lield  the  citadel  for  two  years  against  the  citi- 
zens, until  he  was  forced  to  surrender  Ijy  a 
French  army  under  Gerard.  After  the  rjcvolu- 
tion.  the  growth  of  the  city  was  rapid.  Consult: 
•T.  P.  Van  JIol,  Guide  tn  Antirerp  (Antwerp. 
1886)  ;  E.  Rowland.  "Le  Port  d'Anvers,"  in. 
L'Economiste  Franf^aix.  Vol.  II.  (Paris.  1899)  ; 
"The  Great  Fire  at  Antwerp,  and  its  Effects,"  in 
The  Builder.  Vol.  LXXX.   (London,  11101). 

ANTYL'LUS  (Gk.  "A^tuXXos,  Antyllos) .  A 
Greek  physician  and  surgeon  who  is  supposed 
to  have  lived  in  the  Third  or  Fourth  Century,A.D. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  a  voluminous  writer, 
but  only  the  fragments  of  his  works  quoted  by 
Oribasius  are  extant.  Of  these  extracts,  the  most 
interesting  descril)e  his  method  of  operating  on 
aneurisms.  Antyllus  is  the  earliest  writer  whose 
directions  for  performing  tracheotomy  are  ex- 
tant. 


ANUBIS. 


635 


ANUS. 


ANU'BIS  (Gk. 'Aeou^is,  .lHOH?)is.  liierofrl.vph- 
ic  Aiiiipu).  An  Egyptian  deity.  His  original 
seat  of  worship  is  not  known  witli  certainty,  but 
there  is  some  reason  to  believe  that  it  was  near 
Memphis.  As  his  sacred  animal,  the  jackal, 
haunts  the  desert  valleys  used  as  burial  places, 
Anubis  became  the  god  of  tlie  necropolis,  and 
was  supposed  to  conduct  the  souls  of  the  dead 
down  to  the  lower  world,  Amenthes,  like  the 
Greek  Hermes  Psychopom|)os.  Hence  the  late 
Greek  combination  Hermanubis.  Anubis  was  also 
the  assistant  of  Osiris  at  tlie  linal  judgment,  and 
weighed  in  the  scales  the  heart  of  the  deceased 
against  the  feather,  symbolic  of  truth  and  right. 
As  the  balance  was  found  level  or  the  reverse 
the  fate  of  the  deceased  was  determined.  When 
a  more  elaborate  mytliological  system  was  formed, 
Anubis  was  made  the  son  of  Osiris  by  his  sister 
Xeplithys.  The  god  is  usually  represented  in 
human  form,  with  the  head  of  a  jackal,  which  the 
(ireeks  changed  into  that  of  a  dog  and  called 
the  cities  sacred  to  Anubis,  Kynospolis  (Dog 
City).  Of  these  cities,  the  best  known  is  that  in 
Middle  Egypt.  In  Roman  times,  when  the  Egyp- 
tian worship  had  spread  to  Italy,  Hermes,  who 
was  identified  with  Anubis,  sometimes  had  the 
dog's  head  among  his  insignia.  For  illustration 
see  Egypt. 

ANU'KIS  (Egyptian  A  11  H(/cO  ■  An  Egy])tian 
goddess  worshiped  in  the  district  around  the 
first  cataract  of  the  Nile.  She  usually  accom- 
panies the  god  C'hnum  and  is  represented  in  hu- 
man form,  with  a  red  crown  of  feathers  on  her 
head.  For  some  reason  now  unknown  she  was 
identified  by  the  Greeks  with  Hestia  (Latin 
\'csta  ) .     For  illustration  see  Egypt. 

ANTJ'RA  (Gk.  dv.  an,  priv.  +  ovpd,  oura, 
taill,  or  S.\LIE.XTIA  (Lat.,  from  salirc,  to  hop, 
jump).  An  order  of  Amphibia  including  those 
that  have  no  tail  when  adult.  It  is  subdivided 
by  Cope  into  three  sul)-orders:  Agliissa,  African 
and  tropical  American  (Pipa)  toads,  and  fossil 
forms;  Finni.iternia,  frogs;  Arcifera,  toads. 

A'NUS  (I,at.).  The  external  termination  of 
the  rectum.  The  anus  is  kept  firmly  closed 
by  the  external  and  internal  sphincter  muscles, 
the  former  of  which  contracts  the  integument 
around  the  opening,  and,  by  its  attachment 
to  the  coccy.K  Ijehind  and  to  a  tendinous  cen- 
tre in  front,  helps  the  levator  ani  muscle  in 
supporting  the  aperture  during  the  expulsive 
efl'orts  that  are  made  in  the  passage  of  the 
f:ece3  or  intestinal  evacuations;  while  the  latter, 
ov  internal  sphincter,  is  an  aggregation  of  the 
circular  muscular  fibres  of  the  lowest  j)art  of  the 
rectum,  and  acts  in  contracting  the  extremit}'  of 
the  tulie.  Tlie  main  function  of  the  levator-nni 
muscle  is  expressed  in  its  name.  It  supports  the 
rectum  and  pelvic  structures,  and  during  the  act 
of  defecation  lifts  the  lower  end  of  the  gut  up 
from  tlie  mass  of  extruded  faeces.  The  integu- 
ment around  the  >anus  lies  in  radiating  folds, 
wliich  allow  of  its  stretching  without  pain  dur- 
ing the  passage  of  the  fa?ces;  and  the  margin  is 
provided  with  a  number  of  sebaceous  glands, 
which,  in  some  of  the  lower  animals,  secrete 
strongly  odorous  matters.  (See  Scent  Glands.) 
Infants  are  occasionally  born  with  an  imperfo- 
rate anus,  or  congenital  closure  of  the  rectum. 
In  the  sim])lest  form  of  this  affection,  the  anus 
is  merely  closed  by  thin  skin,  which  soon  becomes 
distended  with  the  meconium  (q.v. ).  More  com- 
plicated cases  are  those  ( 1 )  in  which  the  gut  ter- 


minates some  distance  above  the  seat  of  the  anus 
in  a  blind  sac  or  pouch,  (2)  where  the  rectum 
terminates  in  the  bladder,  etc.  Fortunately,  the 
closure  by  a  layer  of  skin  is  far  the  most  com- 
mon form  of  imperforate  anus,  and  the  condition 
is  readily  relieved  by  a  simple  surgical  opera- 
tion. The  complicated  cases  require  opening  of 
the  abdominal  cavity  and  tlie  insertion  of  an 
artificial  anus  through  the  lower  part  of  the  ab- 
dominal wall.  If  the  condition  of  imperforate 
anus  is  neglected,  the  child  dies  in  a  few  days  as 
a  result  of  intestinal  obstruction. 

Spasm  of  the  sphincter  ani  is  by  no  means  a 
rare  affection;  it  is  characterized  by  violent  pain 
of  the  anus,  with  dilficulty  in  passing  the  fipces. 
On  attempting  an  examination,  the  muscle  feels 
hard,  and  resists  the  introduction  of  the  finger. 
It  usually  occurs  in  sudden  jiaroxysnis,  which 
soon  subside,  but  sometimes  it  is  of  a  more  per- 
sistent character.  Spasm  of  the  sphincter  may 
be  regarded  as  a  symptom  of  fissure,  ulcer,  or 
some  other  form  of  anal  or  rectal  irritation. 
Suppositories  containing  opium  or  belladonna, 
introduced  during  the  period  of  relaxation,  are 
sometimes  of  use,  and  if  there  are  ulcers  or  fis- 
sures they  must  be  specially  treated.  Ulceration 
occurring  as  a  breach  of  surface  at  one  or  more 
points  around  the  anus,  but  not  extending  within 
tlie  orifice,  is  by  no  means  uncommon  in  persons 
who  are  not  attentive  to  cleanliness,  and  espe- 
cially in  women  with  vaginal  discharges.  The 
treatment  consists  in  strict  attention  to  cleanli- 
ness, and  perhaps  one  or  two  apjilieations  of  the 
silver  nitrate  stick  or  of  pure  carbolic  acid.  If 
the  ulcer  is  seated  partly  unthout  the  anus  and 
partly  within  tlie  rectum,  the  distress  is  much 
more  severe,  and  the  treatment  often  requires 
excision,  where  local  applications  have  failed  to 
give  relief.  Fissure  of  the  anus  is  a  term  applied 
to  an  affection  consisting  in  one  or  more  cracks, 
excoriations,  or  superficial  ulcei"ations,  situated 
between  the  folds  of  the  skin  and  mucous  mem- 
brane at  the  verge  of  the  anus,  and  only  slightly 
involving  the  rectum.  '  They  give  rise  to  intense 
jiain  during  the  passage  of  the  evacuations,  and 
for  some  hours  afterward  to  great  discomfort, 
smarting,  and  itching.  The  treatment  to  be 
adopted  is  to  endeavor  to  procure  regular  and 
somewhat  soft  evacuations,  and  to  sponge  with 
warm  water  immediately  afterward,  the  parts 
being  dried  with  a  soft  cloth.  One  or  two  appli- 
cations of  solid  nitrate  of  silver  will  sometimes 
cure  the  disease,  and  an  ointment  of  oxide  of 
zinc,  or  one  containing  cocaine,  will  sometimes 
sei-ve  to  allay  the  irritation  and  heal  the  parts. 
If  these  measures  do  not  afford  relief,  the  sphinc- 
ter muscle  must  be  dilated,  the  ba.se  of  the  fis- 
sure incised,  and  its  surface  scraped  with  a 
sharp  spoon.  Pruritus  ani,  which  siniplj'  means 
intense  itching  and  irritation  of  this  part,  is  to 
be  regarded  as  a  symptom  of  certain  morbid 
changes  rather  than  as  a  special  disorder ;  but  as 
it  is  a  very  common  affection,  and  is  productive 
of  much  suffering,  it  must  not  be  passed  over.  It 
is  often  associated  with  an  unhealthy  state  of 
the  intestinal  secretions,  or  with  simple  consti- 
pation; with  a  congested  state  of  the  mucous 
membrane;  with  uterine  and  ovarian  diseases; 
kidney  disease  :  diabetes ;  neurasthenia ;  tea,  al- 
cohol, tobacco,  and  opium  habits;  the  presence  of 
thread-worms  in  the  rectum ;  eczema,  etc. ;  and  it 
is  peculiarly  common  in  persons  whose  occupa- 
tions are  sedentarv.    The  affection  is  often  much 


ANUS. 


636 


ANZIO. 


aggravated  by  the  patient's  being  unable  to  re- 
frain from  scratching  the  parts,  which  tends  to 
excoriations,  ulcerations,  thickening  of  the  skin, 
etc.  The  symptoms  are  usually  most  severe  when 
the  suft'erer  begins  to  get  warm  in  bed.  The 
treatment  in  every  case  must  aim  to  remove  the 
cause,  whether  general  or  local.  If  the  affection 
arise  from  worms,  or  a  loaded  state  of  the  large 
intestines,  enemata  and  purgatives  will  give  im- 
mediate relief.  If  unhealthy  excretions  exist, 
attention  nuist  be  paid  to  the  diet,  the  bowels 
must  be  kept  freely  open,  and  strict  local  cleanli- 
ness observed.  If  there  are  any  cracks  or  ulcers, 
nitrate  of  silver  must  be  applied  until  they  heal. 
In  all  cases  of  pruritis  which  have  persisted  for 
any  length  of  time,  the  skin  is  found  thickened 
and  the  redundant  layers  of  epidermis  must  be 
removed  and  kept  from  reaceumulating  by  the 
repeated  applications  of  ointments  containing 
such  substances  as  carbolic  acid,  calomel,  and 
corrosive  sublimate.  The  other  principal  affec- 
tions of  the  anus  are  fistula,  piles,  and  prolapsus, 
which  are  discussed  in  special  articles. 

AN'VABI.  A  Persian  poet  famed  for  his 
panegyrics  and  for  his  vcTse  in  satiric  vein.  His 
full  name  was  Auad-uddin  Ali  Anvari.  He 
was  born  in  the  first  part  of  the  Twelfth  Cen- 
tury, in  the  province  of  Khorassan.  He  first 
wrote  under  the  title  of  Khavaran.  from  his  na- 
tive district;  but  he  afterward  adopted  Anvari 
as  his  poetic  epithet,  and  by  this  he  is  known  to 
fame.  He  was  educated  at  the  collegiate  insti- 
tute at  Tus  (see  Firdausi)  and  he  devoted  his 
attention  especially  to  astronomy;  but  finding 
more  opportunity  for  preferment  at  court  in  lit- 
erature, he  composed  a  panegyric  in  honor  of 
Sanjar,  the  ruler  of  Khorassan.  This  by  its 
artistic  grace  immediately  won  him  the  royal 
favor,  and  he  continued  to  enjoy  the  patronage 
of  Sanjar's  two  successors  as  well.  But  Anvari's 
latter  days  were  attended  by  ill  luck.  Employing 
his  astronomical  knowledge,  he  pro])hesied  that  a 
certain  conjunction  of  the  stars  in  October,  1185, 
would  be  accompanied  by  "a  frightful  storm  and 
dire  disasters.  The  utter  failure  of  the  evil  por- 
tents which  were  predicted  drove  him  practically 
into  banishment,  and  he  withdrew  to  Nishapur, 
and  later  retired  to  Balkh,  where  he  died  about 
1100.  .\nvari's  verses,  as  shown  by  his  Divan, 
or  poetical  collection,  are  masterpieces  of  artis- 
tic form.  With  the  consummate  skill  of  a  ro- 
mantic paneg>'rist  he  combined,  in  high  degree, 
the  subtle  force  of  a  keen  satirist  of  tlie  foibles 
and  follies  of  his  time.  There  is  a  lithographed 
edition  of  the  Dirnii  (Lueknow.  1880) .  For  other 
details  consult  EthP.  in  the  Grundriss  der  iran- 
ischr)!  I'hilologie,  Vol.  II.   (Strassburg,  1891). 

AN'VIL  (ME.  anrelf.  AS.  nnfilte.  of  iincer- 
tain  origin ) .  An  iron  or  steel  block,  with  a 
smooth,  flat  face  or  top,  on  which  malleable  met- 
als are  hammered  and  shaped.  Anvils  vary  in 
size  from  the  tiny  articles  used  by  jewelers  to 
the  enormous  anvil  blocks  of  power  hammers, 
which  weigh  several  tons.  (See  Hammers.)  Black- 
smiths' anvils  have  a  cone  or  horn  at  one  end  of 
the  flat  face  and  a  socket  for  a  chisel  in  the  other 
end.  Thev  are  commonly  made  of  cast  iron  faced 
with  steel,  the  steel  face  being  placed  at  the 
bottom  of  the  mold  and  the  iron  poured  upon  it. 
ANVILLE,  n>''v('l',  Jea>'  Bapti.ste  Bovr- 
r.ri(;Nox  n'  (1007-178-2).  A  French  geographer, 
who  raised  that  branch  of  knowledge  to  the  rank 
of  a  science.     He  w-as  born  at  Paris  and  devoted 


himself  to  geographical  and  mathematical  studies 
with  such  success  that  at  the  age  of  twenty-twq 
he  became  royal  geographer.  He  read  the  Greek 
and  Latin  historians  and  philosophers,  as  well  aa 
poets,  noting  the  names  and  positions  of  cities 
and  nations.  He  advanced  the  science  of  geog- 
raphy, not  only  by  the  number  of  maps  (211) 
which  he  published,  but  also  by  publication  of  78 
memoirs  full  of  erudition  and  of  historic  and 
critical  details.  Most  of  these  are  included  in  the 
llccueil  des  memoires  de  VAcademie  des  Jnscrip- 
lions  et  Belles-lettres.  His  great  map  of  Africa 
was  the  most  complete  published  up  to  liis  time. 
Among  the  most  important  of  his  works  are: 
Atlas  general  (1737-80)  ;  Atlas  Antiquus  Major, 
with  the  Gcoqraphie  ancienne  ahregde  '(3  vols., 
1769). 

ANZENGBUBER,  an'tsen-groo'ber,  Lrnwio 
(1839-80).  An  .-Vustrian  dramatist  and  novel- 
ist, born  at  Vienna.  He  left  school  early,  and 
after  spending  some  years  in  business  pursuits 
became  a  strolling  actor  at  the  age  of  nineteen. 
While  leading  this  life  (1860-67),  he  wrote  a 
number  of  plays,  none  of  which  met  with  success, 
then  turned  to  journalism,  and  finally  accepted  a 
clerical  position  in  the  police  department  of  his 
native  city.  \Miile  thus  employed  he  produced, 
in  1870,  iiis  "Pfarrer  von  Kirchfeld,"  an  anti- 
clerical drama,  which  caused  a  sensation  and 
made  him  famous.  He  now  decided  to  devote 
himself  exclusively  to  literature.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  was  performed  the  "'Jleineidbauer,"  a 
powerful  drama  of  peasant-life,  by  many  consid- 
ered his  masterpiece.  Even  more  popular  proved 
the  "Kreuzelschreiber"  (1872),  whose  subject 
is  less  sombre.  All  these  plays  were  performed 
in  the  popular  Theater  an  der  Wien.  A  drama 
written  for  the  more  exacting  audiences  of  the 
Burgtheater  was  unsuccessful,  but  when  Anzen- 
gruber  returned  to  the  scenes  and  characters 
of  the  peasant-life  he  knew  so  well,  he  achieved 
uniform  success,  as  with  his  "Gwissenswiirm" 
(1874),  and  many  other  plays.  He  showed 
the  same  power  of  character-drawing  in  his  nov- 
els Der  Schavdfleck  (1876),  and  Der  Stentstein- 
Iwf  (1883-84).  Anzengruber  is  a  realist  in 
the  best  sense  of  the  word,  and  his  pathos  and 
humor  are  equally  genuine.  Although  many 
of  the  characters  in  his  plays  and  novels  speak 
the  dialect  of  Upper  Austria  and  Styria,  his 
works  have  won  a  conspicuous  place  in  German 
literature,  and  several  of  his  plays  hold  the  Ger- 
man stage,  no  less  than  that  of  Austria,  at  the 
present  day.  His  collected  works  appeared  in 
1896-99.  See  the  biography,  by  Bettelheim  (Dres- 
den, 1891),  and  Rosner,  Erinnerungen  an  An- 
zengruber   (Leipzig,   1891). 

ANZIN,  iiN'zaN'.  A  town  in  the  Department 
of  Nord,  France,  on  the  Scheldt,  near  Valen- 
ciennes, in  tlie  centre  of  a  most  productive  coal- 
mining district  (Map;  France,  K  1).  Anzin 
has  iron  foundries,  glass-works,  breweries,  sugar- 
refineries  and  distilleries.     Pop.  1901,  14,444. 

ANZIO,  an'ze-o.  A  Mediterranean  seaport  in 
the  Province  of  Kome,  Italy,  33  miles  southeast 
of  Rome  bv  rail.  It  has  fishing  industries  and, 
with  Nettu'no  (population  1900),  IV2  miles  east- 
ward, is  a  favorite  summer  bathing  resort  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Rome.  It  occupies  the  site  of  An- 
tium  (q.v. ),  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Volsei. 
The  modern  town  dates  from  the  restoration  of 
the  harbor  in  1698,  by  Pope  Innocent  XII.  There 
are  several  palatial  villas  in  the  suburbs.     Popu- 


ANZIO. 


637 


AOSTA. 


lation,  in  IflOl,  35G1.     Consult  Sofvcdini,  Sforia 
di  Anzio   (Rome,  1879). 

AOMORI,  ii'6-mo'r^,  or  AWOMORI, 
ii'woiiu.'ie.  A  town  of  Japan,  capital  of  the 
prefecture  of  the  same  name,  situated  at  the 
northern  end  of  Honshiu.  on  the  Aomori  Bay 
(Map:  Japan,  G  3).  It  is  a  station  on  the 
Northern  Railway  and  carries  on  a  considerable 
trade  with  Hakodate.  In  appearance  it  differs 
from  most  Japanese  towns,  its  streets  being  wide 
and  straight.     Pop.  1898,  28,000. 

AO'NIA  (Gk.  'Aovia).  A  part  of  Boeotia,  so 
called  frniii  the  Annes,  an  old  barbaric  tribe  who 
settled  in  this  region.  The  Muses,  as  dwelling  on 
Mount  Helicon,  in  Aonia,  were  called  Aonides. 

A'ORIST  (Gk.  dipio-Tos,  aoristos,  -nnthout 
boundaries,  indefinite,  from  d,  a,  priv.  4.  6pifeii», 
hori:€in,  to  divide,  to  bound).  A  form  of  the 
Greek  verb  by  which  an  action  is  expressed  as 
taking  place  in  an  indefinite  past  time.  In  dis- 
tinction from  the  imperfect,  the  aorist  expresses 
only  the  occurrence  of  an  action  or  the  entrance 
into  a  state  or  condition,  while  the  imperfect 
represents  an  action  or  state  as  going  on  or  re- 
peated in  past  time. 


AORTA 
.4,  ascending  arch  of  aorta;  s.s.  coronary  arteries:  b', 
Imiiiininata  artery:  b,  right  wubclavian :  c,  right  carotid; 
d,  left  carotid  ;  e,  left  subclavian ;  /,  thoracic  aorta ;  gg, 
diaphragm  ;  ii,  phrenic  arteries;  i,  coeliac  axis;  k.  coron- 
ary or  gastric;  f.  splenic;  m,  hepatic:  d,  superior  mesen- 
teric; 00,  renal  arteries;  p,  spermatic;  q,  common  iliac; 
r,  middle  sacral. 

AOR'TA  (Gk.  dopTij,  aorte,  from  aeip^iv, 
aeirein,  to  lift,  raise  I.  The  great  arterial  trunk 
which,  rising  from  the  left  ventricle  of  the  lieart, 
sends  its  branches  ramifying  through  the  whole 
body.  The  aorta  in  man  is  subdivided  by  anato- 
mists into  the  arch,  the  thoracic  aorta,  and  the 
abdominal  aorta.  The  arch  is  a  loop  with  the 
convexity  directed  upward,  forward,  and  to  the 


right  side,  reaching  at  its  highest  part  to  a  level 
with  the  second  piece  of  the  breast-bone,  and 
then  descending  to  the  left  side  of  the  fourth 
dorsal  vei-tebra.  Five  arteries  arise  from  the 
arch — viz.,  two  coronaries,  for  the  supjily  of  the 
muscular  tissue  of  the  heart  itself:  the  innomi- 
nate, and  the  left  carotid  and  left  suix-lavian 
arteries.  At  the  commencement  of  the  arch  are 
three  small  swellings  or  pouches,  the  aortic  si- 
nuses, below  which  are  the  three  semilunar  valves 
or  folds  of  the  lining  membrane,  which  prevent 
regurgitation  of  the  blood  into  the  heart.  The 
thoracic  aorta  extends  from  the  fourth  dorsal  ver- 
tebra to  the  diaphragm,  gradually  occupying  the 
mid  line  of  the  spine.  The  thoracic  aorta  gives 
off  tlie  bronchial  arteries  (two  or  three)  to  sup- 
ply the  tissue  of  the  lungs :  and  some  small 
branches  (three  or  four)  to  the  oesophagus,  and 
intercostal  arteries,  to  supply  the  walls  of  the 
chest  (ten  on  left,  and  nine  on  right  side).  The 
ahdominal  aorta  passes  from  the  diaphragm  to 
the  fourth  lumbar  vertebra,  opposite  the  lower 
margin  of  which  it  divides  into  the  two  common 
iliac  trunks.  The  abdominal  aorta  gives  ofi'  the 
two  phrenic  arteries  to  the  diaphragm;  the 
cceliac  a.xis,  which  divides  into  three  large 
branches  for  the  stomach,  liver,  and  spleen;  the 
superior  mesenteric  for  the  small,  and  part  of 
the  large  intestine;  the  renals  (two)  ;  the  supra- 
renals  (two),  one  for  each  kidney;  the  sper- 
matic; the  inferior  mesenteric,  for  the  part  of 
the  large  intestine  not  supplied  by  the  superior 
mesenteric;  and  four  or  five  lumbar  arteries, 
which  supply  the  lower  part  of  the  abdominal 
walls  (the  loins).  Where  the  aorta  bifurcates, 
a  small  artery,  the  sacramedia,  or  caudal  artery, 
arises,  and  passes  along  in  the  mid  line;  in  fish 
and  in  animals  with  large  tails,  this  branch  is  a 
continuation  of  the  aorta. 

The  above  is  the  usual  arrangement;  but 
occasionally  it  varies,  especially  in  the  number 
of  arteries  springing  from  the  arch.  Tlie  aorta 
has  the  same  coats  as  one  of  the  large  arteries — 
consisting  of  an  inner  coat,  the  intima,  a  middle 
coat,  the  media,  and  an  outer  coat,  the  adven- 
titia.  The  aorta  differs  from  an  ordinary  artery 
in  the  absence  of  a  distinct  elastic  membrane 
limiting  the  intima,  and  in  the  very  large 
amount  of  elastic  tissue  intermingled  with  the 
smooth  muscle  of  the  media.  ( See  Abteey  ;  ClBCU- 
LATION. )  During  fcetal  life,  there  is  a  communi- 
cation between  the  arch  of  the  aorta  and  the 
pulmonary  artery  called  the  ductus  arteriosus, 
the  canal  of  which  becomes  obliterated  after  birth. 
The  velocity  of  the  blood  current  in  the  carotid 
artery  has  been  estimated  at  300  to  500  milli- 
metres per  second.  In  the  aorta  the  velocity 
must  be  considerably  greater.  The  pressure  of 
the  blood  in  the  aorta  of  a  dog  has  been  found  to 
be  121  millimetres  of  mercury.  In  man  the 
pressure  must  be  at  least  as  great.  For  diseases 
to  which  the  aorta  is  subject,  see  Abtery  and 
Abterio-sclebosis. 

AOSTA.  a-os'ta  (anciently  Lat.  .it/ (/usfa) .  A 
town  in  northern  Italy,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Dora  Baltea,  49  miles  northwest  of  Turin  ( Jlap: 
Italy,  B  2).  Originally  the  capital  of  the  ancient 
Salassi,  it  was  converted. into  a  Roman  colony  by 
Augustus,  as  a  punishment  for  the  depredations 
of  its  former  inhabitants.  Monuments  of  the 
ancient  city  are  a  well-preserved  arch,  two  gate- 
ways, the  ruins  of  an  amphitheatre,  and  a  bridge. 
The  cathedral  was  built  in  the  Sixth   Century, 


AOSTA. 


638 


APALACHICOLA.. 


and  rebuilt  in  the  Fourteentli.  Also  worthy  of 
notice  are  the  column  commemorating  the  tlight 
of  Calvin  from  Aosta  in  1541,  the  ruins  of  Bra- 
niafame  Castle,  in  which  the  Count  of  Challant, 
through  jealousy,  starved  his  wife  to  death,  and 
the  Leper's  Tower,  immortalized  by  Xavier  de 
Maistre.  The  chief  trade  is  in  leather,  cheese, 
and  wine.  The  province  is  rich  in  iron,  copper, 
and  lead,  and  in  mineral  springs,  of  which  the 
most  famous  are  those  of  Courmayeur,  Pre-Saint- 
Didier.  and  Saint  Vincent.  Population,  m  1881, 
7437;    in    1901,   7875. 

AOSTA,  Duke  of.  A  title  of  the  House  of 
Savoy,  borne  by  Amadeus,  a  former  King  of 
Spain,'  and  now  by  his  son,  Emmanuel  Filibert. 

AOUDAD,  a'oo-dad  (Moorish  name).  The 
wild  sheep  of  the  mountains  of  northern  Africa 
iOvis  trayeUiphus).  It  is  somewhat  goathke  in 
form,  three  feet  in  height,  and  light  brown  in 
color,  with  very  long  whitish  hair  growing  from 
the  throat,  chest,  and  about  the  forelegs.  Its 
horns  resemble  those  of  the  bharal,  and  do  not  ex- 
ceed twenty-four  inches  in  length.  This  animal  is 
common  in  the  high  Atlas  ranges,  wlicre  it  wan- 
ders over  the  more  precipitous  regions  of  their 
arid  southern  slopes  from  the  Atlantic  to  Tunis, 
keeping  within  sight  of  the  Desert,  and  hiding 
a.mon"  the  fantastically  decomposed  and  bushy 
rocks  of  those  limestone*  mountains,  with  singular 
skill.  The  animal  has  many  names.  In  menag- 
eries, where  it  breeds  and  lives  well,  it  is  often 
labeled  "rufTed  mouflon"  or  "bearded  argali"; 
the  Moors  of  Algeria  call  it  "aoudad,"  but  the 
natives  there  know  it  as  "artli" ;  it  is  the 
"kebsh"  of  the  Egyptians,  and  the  "tidal  or 
"teybel"  or  "beden"  of  Nubia.  See  plate  of  \\  ild 
Goats,  etc.  For  habits  ancl  methods  of  chase, 
consult-  E.  N.  Buxton,  Proceedings  Zoological 
Hociely  of  London  (1890)  ;  and  id.,  Short  Talks 
(London,   1898). 

APACHE,  a-pii'cha.     An  important  and  war- 
like Indian  tribe  of  Athapascan  stock,  formerly 
roving  in  small  bands  over  an  extensive  territory 
in  southeastern  Arizona  and  southwestern  New 
Mexico,'   and    extending    their    forays    far    down 
into  Mexico.     The  name  by  which  tliey  are  com- 
nionlv  known   is  from   the   Pima  language,   and 
sic^nifies    'enemies.'     Although    essentially    pred- 
atory  in   habit   and  carrying   on   constant   raids 
against  the  Mexican  settlements,  they  remained 
on  friendly  terms  with  the  Americans  until  pro- 
voked by  outrages  about  the  time  of  the  annexa- 
tion of  their  country  by  the  United  States,  after 
wliich  their  condition  was  one  of  chronic  hostility 
toward   the   citizens  of   both   Governments   until 
finally   subdued    and   confined   to    their    present 
reservation  at  San  Carlos,  Ariz.     Upon  the  sur- 
render of  the  last  hostile  band,  the  Cliincalnias, 
in    1880,    such    energetic    protest    against    their 
continued   presence    in   the    Territory   was    made 
by  the  people  of  Arizona,  that  the  whole  Chir- 
icahua  band  was  deported  to  the  East,  and  after 
some  years  of  military  confinement  in   Florida 
and  Alabama,  was   settled   at   Fort   Sill.  Okla., 
on  the  Kiowa  Reservation.     In  1900  the  A])ache 
tribe,   incUiding   300   Chiricahuas   at   Fort   bill, 
numbered   5200   souls.     The  .Jicarillas   and  ites- 
caleros  of  New  Mexico,  and  the  Lipans,  formerly 
of    Mexico,    although    f rciiuently    spoken    of    as 
Apaches   on   account   of   their   linguistic  affinity, 
are  in  reality  distinct  tribes,  and  hostile  to  the 
Apaches  proper. 

APACHE  TIM'OTHY.     See  Can.^ry  Grass. 


APAFI,  o'po-fi,  or  ABAFI,  o'bo-fl,  Michael 
I.    (1032-90),   Prince   of   Transylvania.     He   ac- 
companied   Prince   George   II.    in   an   expedition 
against   the   Poles   in    1050,   w-as   taken   prisoner 
by  the  Tartars,  and   after  his  release   returned 
to  his  estate.     In  1001  he  was  chosen  Prince  of 
Transylvania,  through  the  support  of  Ali  Pasha, 
generalissimo  of  the  Turkish  forces  under  Sultan 
Mohammed  IV.    During  tlie  peace  concluded  w^ith 
Austria  after  the  battle  of  Saint  Gothard   (1004), 
he    reigned    peaceably    under    the    protection    of 
the    Porte.      He   remained   faithful   to   the   Otto- 
man   power    till    after    the    siege    of    Vienna    in 
1683.       [•"ortune     then     changed.      The     Imperial 
troops  invaded  the  country;  and  in  August,  1087, 
Apafi  made  a  treaty  with  tne  Emperor  by  which 
Transvlvania    was    declared    to    be    freed    from 
Turkish   suzeraintv,   and  placed  under   Austrian 
protection.     At  Fogaras  the  Transylvanian  depu- 
ties, assembled  at  the  National  Diet,  took  the  oath 
of  fealty  to  the  Hap.sburgs  as  legitimate  monarehs 
of  Hungary.     Ever  since  the  death  of  his  wife, 
Anna  Bornemitza,  in  1088,  Apafi  had  been  sorely 
atHicted  both  in  body  and  mind,  and  died   (April 
15,  1090)   on  the  eve  of  a  fierce  retributive  war, 
commenced   by   his   old    allies,   the   Turks,    who 
considered  themselves  ill-used  by  his  desertion  of 
them.     His  son.  Michael  II.    (died   1713),  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  and  its  perils.     The  Turks, 
under  the  vizier  Kiuprili,  overthrew  the  Imperial 
army,  but  the  internal  troubles  of  the  Ottoman 
Empire  hindered  them,  or  rather  Count  Tokiilyi 
(q.v.),  whom  thev  were  supporting,  from  reap- 
ing the  fruits  of  "their  successes.     The  Imperial 
troops  subsequentlv  regained  everything.    By  the 
Treaty  of  Carlowitz,  1699,  Transylvania  was  in- 
corporated with  Hungary,  and  the  young  Tran- 
sylvanian prince  was  inveigled  to  Vienna,  and  ca- 
ioled  into  giving  up  his  dominions  to  Austria  in 
lieu  cif  a  |ieiision  of  some  15.000  florins. 

APALACHEE,  a'pala'che,  or  APALACHI, 
a'pa-la'chi.  A  tribe  of  Muskhowan  stock  for- 
merly occupying  the  country  about  Apalachee 
Bav,  northwestern  Florida.  About  the  close 
of  "  the  sixteenth  century  Spanish  Franciscan 
jiriests  established  missions  among  them,  which 
continued  in  a  prosperous  condition  for  more  than 
a  hundred  vears,  until  invaded  in  1702-8  by  the 
English  from  Carolina,  accompanied  by  a  large 
force  of  Indian  auxiliaries.  In  three  several 
expeditions  the  mission  churches  were  burned, 
the  missionaries  slain,  and  the  Apalachee  tribe 
].ractically  wiped  out  of  existence,  more  than 
one  thousand  prisoners  being  brought  back  to 
be  sold  as  slaves  in  Carolina  or  distributed  by 
tlie  English  among  their  savage  allies.  A  large 
number  were  thus  incorporated  among,  the 
Creeks,  where  for  a.  time  they  preserved  their 
name  and  language,  but  are  now  extinct. 

AP'ALACH'EE  BAY.  An  arm  of  the 
Ciulf  of  Mexico  near  tlie  northwestern  part  of 
Florida,  extending  about  50  miles  inland  (Map: 
Florida,  U  1).  It  receives  the  waters  of  Saint 
Mark's  River,  at  the  mouth  of  which  stands  the 
town  of  the  same  name.  Its  average  depth  is  18 
feet,  and  it  affords  a  good  harbor  for  small  craft. 
APALACHICOLA,  a'pa-lach-i-ko'la.  A  city, 
port  of  oiitrv.  and  county  seat  of  Franklin 
Co  f  la  ,  eightv-five  miles  southwest  of  Tallahas- 
see' on  .Saint  George  Sound  (Gulf  of  Mexico) 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Apalachicola  River  (Map: 
J.'lorida  C  2 ) .  The  value  of  its  foreign  commerce 
amounted  in  1901  to  about  $370,000,  a  very  large 


APALACHICOLA. 


639 


APARTMENT    HOUSE. 


proportion  of  wliieli  Avas  in  the  export  trade,  the 
Tirincipal  commodities  being  lumber  and  naval 
stores.     Pop.  1890,  2727;     1900,3077. 

APALACHICOLA.  A  river  formed  by  the 
junction  of  the  Chattahoochee  with  the  Flint,  at 
the  southwestern  corner  of  the  State  of  Georgia. 
Thence  llowing  southward  through  Florida,  it 
empties  into  Apalachicola  Bay,  an  arm  of  the 
Gulf  of  Me.xico.  It  is  navigable  for  steamboats 
through  its  entire  cour.se  of  90  miles. 

APALIT,  il'pa-let'.  A  town  of  Luzon,  Phil- 
ippines, in  the  province  of  Pampanga  (Map: 
Luziin.  E  7).  It  is  situated  about  eleven  miles 
sonlheast  of  Bacolor,  and  has  a  population  of 
ll,7."iO. 

AP'ANAGE  or  AP'PANAGE  (Fr.,  pro- 
vision for  maintenance,  from  Latin  ad  panem, 
for  lircad).  The  name  applied  in  feudal  law  to 
contributions  from  the  exchequer  granted  for 
the  maintenance  of  princes  of  the  royal  house, 
or  to  lands  and  the  revenues  of  lands  set  apart 
for  the  same  purpose.  Territorial  apanages  were 
bestowed  either  for  life  or  upon  a  man  and  his 
direct  heirs  forever.  Apanages  were  customary 
all  over  medi.T?val  Europe,  and  especially  in 
France,  until  the  gi'adual  development  of  the 
centralized  monarchies,  to  the  aggrandizement 
of  which  they  were  at  all  times  a  powerful 
liindrance.  Louis  XL,  the  real  creator  of  the 
French  monarchy,  reunited  the  great  ajjanages 
of  the  realm  to  the  crown,  but  in  a  modified 
form.  The  institution  continued  until  1790, 
when  it  was  abolished  by  the  Constituent  As- 
seml)ly.  In  England  the  Ducliy  of  Cornwall  is 
in  form  an  apanage  of  the  Prince  of  Wales ;  but 
other  membei-s  of  the  royal  family  in  Great 
Britain,  as  well  as  in  the  continental  monarchies, 
are  now  provided  for  by  annual  grants  from  the 
Civil  List. 

APAR,   ii'par.     See  Arii.\dillo. 

APAREJO,  il'pa-ra'HO  (Sp.,  pack  saddle).  A 
leather  bag  about  two  feet  wide,  nearly  encircling 
the  mule  or  horse  on  whicii  it  is  placed.  The 
aparejo  is  used  in  the  United  States  Army  as  a 
substitute  for  the  pack  saddle  (q.v. ).  Two  round 
hand  holes  are  placed  in  the  middle  of  each  side, 
the  sides  of  the  bag  being  distended  by  small  ash 
or  other  elastic  wooden  sticks.  The  advantages 
claimed  are  that  it  places  the  load  to  greater 
advantage  than  any  other  system  of  pack- 
transport,  and  secures  better  results  from  the 
animal. 

APARRI,  a-par're.  A  town  of  Luzon,  Philip- 
jiines,  in  the  province  of  Cagayan.  It  is  situated 
near  the  northeastern  coast,  at  the  estuary  of  the 
river  Cagavan.  and  has  a  telegraph  station. 
Pop.,  11,200. 

APARTMENT  HOUSE.  A  building  ar- 
ranged in  three  or  more  suites  of  connecting 
rooms,  each  suite  designed  for  independent  house- 
keeping, but  with  certain  mechanical  conven- 
iences, as  heat,  light,  or  elevator-jervice,  fur- 
nished in  connnon  to  all  the  families  occupying 
the  building.  Legally,  there  is  no  distinction,  in 
the  United  States,  between  an  apartment  house 
and  any  other  tenement.  Popularl}',  the  apart- 
ment differs  from  the  tenement  in  the  greater 
elegance  of  architectural  finish,  in  the  larger 
iiuinber  of  conveniences,  and  in  the  greater  com- 
jdexity  of  mechanical  service  furnished  to  all 
tenants  from  a  central  plant.  Jlidway,  in  pojju- 
lar  usage,  between  the  tenement  house  on  the  one 


hand,  which  is  the  home  of  the  poor,  and  the 
apartment  house  on  the  other,  w'hose  annual 
rentals  place  it  beyond  the  means  of  those  with 
moderate  incomes,  stands  the  flat,  which,  like  the 
cottage  of  the  suburb,  is  designed  for  people  of 
moderate  means.  The  distinction,  however,  be- 
tween a  flat  and  an  apartment,  is  not  well 
defined,  and  the  term  apartment  is  often  applied 
to  any  well-appointed  tlat.  In  the  article  on 
"Apartments"  in  the  Dictionary  of  Architecture 
and  liuildinp  (Xew  York,  1902),  the  term  is 
limited  to  those  suites  of  rooms  for  independent 
housekeeping  which  rent  for  more  than  $300 
per  annum. 

The  typical  flat  or  less  expensive  apartment, 
in  Xew  York  City  consists  of  a  parlor,  two  or 
more  bedrooms,  besides  the  servant's  bedroom, 
a  dining-room,  bathroom,  and  kitchen.  These 
rooms  either  open  directly  into  each  other  or  are 
connected  by  a  private  hall.  Ordinarily,  they 
are  arranged  one  behind  the  other,  according  to 
the  rectangular  shape  of  the  ordinary  city  lot, 
and  are  reached  by  a  common  stairway,  and 
often  by  an  elevator.  The  provisions  are  brought 
up  by  a  dumb-waiter  or  freight  elevator.  Light 
and  air  for  the  interior  rooms  are  obtained  by 
means  of  interior  courts  or  air  shafts.  Of  course, 
this  general  plan  is  subject  to  many  modifica- 
tions, depending  on  the  size  and  shape  of  the 
h.onse  and  the  number  of  flats  on  a  floor.  Flats 
are  usually  heated  by  steam  or  hot  air  and 
lighted  by  gas  or  electricity.  Hot  water  is  fre- 
quently supplied.  In  apartments  the  rooms  are 
susceptible  of  much  greater  ilexibility  in  ar- 
rangement than  in  flats,  as  such  buildings  are 
usually  built  over  several  lots,  and  frequently 
cover  an  entire  block.  The  numljcr  of  services 
furnished  by  a  central  plant  to  all  the  tenants 
is  also  greatly  increased.  An  apartment  hotel 
.lilTers  from  an  apartment  house  in  that  only 
living  rooms  are  provided  for  the  different  fam- 
ilies, who  eat  in  a  common  dining-room,  as  do 
the  guests  of  an  ordinary  hotel.  In  some  of  the 
newer  and  more  elaborate  a])artment  houses  of 
Xew  Y'ork  there  is  a  restaurant  in  the  building, 
wdiere  families  may  eat  meals  or  not,  as  they 
choose,  there  being  a  separate  dining-room  and 
kitchen  in  each  apartment  as  well. 

Historical  Development.  Apartment  houses 
have  been  in  vogue  in  the  large  cities  of  Conti- 
nental Europe  for  some  centuries,  and,  in 
Paris  particularly,  they  have  been  developed  to 
a  high  degree  of  elegance  and  luxury.  In  Great 
r.ritain,  apartment  houses  have  never  become 
popular.  In  the  United  States,  their  develop- 
ment began  with  the  rush  to  the  cities  which  fol- 
lowed the  Civil  War.  The  chief  causes  which 
have  led  to  their  rapidly  increasing  popularity 
are:  (1)  The  great  congestion  of  ])opulation 
within  a  limited  area  in  our  large  cities,  which 
makes  separate  houses  more  and  more  imprac- 
ticable; (2)  the  advantage  of  enjoying  such 
common  services  as  elevator,  heat,  artificial  light, 
and  hot  water  independent  of  the  kitchen  range, 
which  can  be  furnished  a  group  of  families  in  a 
single  building  at  much  less  cost  than  if  those 
families  were  separated  in  isolated  homes;  (3) 
the  migratory  tendency  among  city  dwellers 
which  makes  them  prefer  the  easily  vacated 
apartment  to  the  more  permanent  house;  and 
(4)  the  smaller  amount  of  domestic  service  re- 
quired in  an  apartment,  which,  in  these  days  of 
high-priced  and  unsatisfactorj-  servants,  is'  per- 
haps  the   most   important  consideration   of  all. 


APAKTMENT    HOUSE. 


640 


APATITE. 


During  the  past  few  yenrs.  Uut;e  numhers  of 
apartmeut  houses  of  the  highest  grade  have  been 
built  in  all  large  American  cities,  and  have 
become  |)opular  among  the  most  wealthy  and 
luxurious  classes  of  the  people.  A  description  of 
a  single  one  of  these  highly  developed  modern 
structures  will  give  an  idea  of  the  whole  class. 

The  following  account  of  an  apartment  house 
built  in  1899,  on  ui)pcr  Broadway,  Xew  York,  is 
based  on  a  description  contained  in  the  Engineer- 
ing Record  for  January  20,  1900:  Apartments  in 
this  building  rent  at  from  .$2,500  to  $.3000  annu- 
ally. The  building  itself  covers  an  entire  block, 
and  is  fireproof  in  its  construction.  The  main  en- 
trance leads  into  a  vestibule,  beyond  which  is  a 
large  hall  and  general  reception-room  where  hall 
boys  are  in  attendance.  At  the  rear  of  the  hall 
are  the  elevators  which  lead  to  general  halls  on 
each  floor.  Each  apartment  consists  of  a  parlor, 
library,  dining-room,  kitchen,  butler's  pantry, 
servant's  room,  bathroom,  servant's  bathroom, 
and  a  number  of  bedrooms.  Gas-ranges  are  used 
for  cooking,  so  that  neither  coal  nor  ashes  are 
encountered.  The  built-in  refrigerators  are  kept 
at  the  proper  degree  of  coldness  by  means  of  a 
refrigerating  plant  in  the  basement,  thus  exclud- 
ing ice,  also,  from  tlie  apartments.  Hot  as  well 
as  cold  water  is  furnished.  There  is  an  arrange- 
ment in  connection  with  the  dining-room  radia- 
tors for  plate-warming,  as  the  apartments  are 
heated  by  steam.  The  house  is  furnished  with 
both  gas  and  electric-light  fixtures.  Electricity 
is  generated  in  the  building,  and  is  furnished  to 
the  tenants  free  until  midnight,  after  which  they 
must  depend  for  light  upon  gas  at  their  own 
expense.  Every  apartment  is  provided  with  a 
telephone  from  a  private  branch  exchange. 
Household  provisions  are  distributed  by  a  freight 
elevator,  and  there  is  a  separate  servants'  stair- 
way. The  mechanical  plant  which  furnishes 
steam,  hot  water,  electricity,  and  refrigeration 
to  the  huilding  is  situated  in  the  basement.  Con- 
nected with  it  is  an  apparatus  for  drying  clothes. 
This  consists  of  a  series  of  clothes  dryers,  heat 
being  derived  from  a  number  of  steam  coil- 
pipes  and  the  air  being  circulated  by  an  exhaust- 
fan.  In  this  and  other  high-class  apartment 
houses  an  elaborate  ventilating  system  is  pro- 
vided. In  some  of  the  most  recent  houses  the 
sleeping-rooms  for  the  servants  are  grouped 
together  upon  the  top  floor.  Occasionally  a  bar- 
ber shop  within  the  building  is  added  to  the  list 
of  conveniences  accessible  to  its  occupants. 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  such  an  American 
'  dwelling  as  the  one  just  described  with  a 
French  apartment  house  of  the  same  grade.  In 
Paris,  the  height  of  buildings  is  limited  by  law 
to  five  stories,  so  that  it  is  impossible  for  a  sin- 
gle structure  to  accommodate  the  same  number 
of  families  as  in  America,  and  hence  the  central 
mechanical  plant  must  be  less  elaborate  or,  pro 
rata,  more  expensive.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
Parisians  are  only  beginning  to  avail  themselves 
of  conveniences  which  American  city  dwellers 
have  long  considered  essential.  Hot  air  instead 
of  steam  heat  is  uni%-ersal,  a  supply  of  hot  water 
is  seldom  furnished,  and  only  within  a  few  years 
have  adequate  water-closets  and  other  toilet 
facilities  been  enjoyed.  The  rooms  of  a  Parisian 
apartment,  however,  are  likely  to  be  larger,  and 
greater  in  number,  than  in  an  American  apart- 
ment of  the  same  grade.  Prominent  in  the  ar- 
rangement of  every  suite  is  the  principal  bed- 
room  belonging   to   the   mistress   of   the   house, 


which  is  larger  in  couijiarison  with  the  other 
rooms,  and  faces  the  street.  Opening  upon  this 
bedroom  is  the  boudoir  or  dressing-room.  Beside 
the  other  bedrooms  are  the  drawing-room  or 
salon,  the  billiard-room,  dining-room,  and  the 
Imtler's  jiantry,  which  separates  the  dining-room 
from  the  kitchen.  The  kitchen  in  proportions 
and  im])ortance  ranks  next  to  the  principal  bed- 
room. The  contrast  is  striking  between  such  a 
suite  of  rooms  and  an  American  apartment,  for 
in  the  latter  the  bedrooms  are  relegated  to  the 
rear  and,  like  the  kitchen,  are  extremely  small 
in  comparison  with  the  parlor,  library,  and 
dining-room.  In  Parisian  apartments  the  ser- 
vants' rooms  are  on  the  top  floor,  a  separate 
staircase  is  provided  for  them,  and  they  are 
iitherwise  isolated  from  the  rest  of  the  family,  as 
ill  many  of  the  newest  American  apartments.  In 
general  the  suites  of  a  French  apartment  house 
are  grouped  around  a  central  court;  each  suite  is 
composed  of  a  double  row  of  rooms,  the  parlor 
and  main  chambers  situated  on  the  street  and  the 
dining-room  and  subordinate  rooms  upon  the 
court,  a  hall  separating  the  two  groups  of  rooms. 
Recently  a  second  hall  or  gallery  has  been  intro- 
duced in  many  apartments  which  connects  parlor, 
dining-room,  and  chambers,  and  is  decorated  with. 
pictures,  sculpture,  and  other  works  of  art. 

For  legal  restrictions  regarding  tlie  various 
sanitary  arrangements  of  apartment  houses,  see 
article  Tenement  Hottse  Pkoblem.  The  litera- 
ture concerning  apartment  houses  is  confined  to 
various  articles  in  the  technical  magazines,  some 
of  which  may  be  found  in  the  following  volumes: 
Volumes  40,  41,  and  42  of  the  Engineering 
Record  (New  York)  ;  Volume  7  of  the  Architvc- 
tiiral  Record  (New  Y'ork)  :  The  Brick,  Builder 
(Xew  York),  for  .Tune.  1898.  and  an  article  on 
London  and  Paris  flats  in  the  British  Architect 
(Lond.in).  for  February  3.   1889. 

APASTAMBA,  u'pa-stumlia.  An  ancient 
Sanskrit  author,  noted  in  connection  with 
Vedic  literature  because  of  the  Srauta-,  Grhya-, 
Dhurnia-,  and  7v(i/po-iSt((ras, which  bear  his  name. 
See  Veda. 

APATIN,  o'po-tin.  A  town  of  the  King- 
dom of  Hungary,  in  the  county  of  Bics-Bodrog, 
situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube,  about 
forty-five  miles  southwest  of  llaria-Thcrcsiopel 
(Map:  Hungary,  F  4).  Its  chief  industry  is 
the  manufacture  of  rope  made  from  the  hemp 
raised  in  the  vicinity.  Population,  in  1890,  13,- 
000   (mostly  riermans). 

AP'ATITE  (from  Gk.  aTrdTti,  apate,  deceit, 
as  the  mineral  has  often  been  mistaken  for  other 
minerals).  A  mineral  consisting  of  phosphate 
with  some  chloride  and  fluoride  of  calcium,  its 
composition  being  represented  by  the  formula 
Ca3(P0,).  +  Ca(C'IF)..  It  occurs  both  in  crys- 
talline and  amorphous  form,  and  is  largely 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  fertilizers,  for  which 
it  is  v;iluable  on  account  of  the  contained  phog- 
Iihoric  acid.  It  occurs  in  both  .stratified  and 
crystalline  "(metamorphic  and  igneous)  rocks, 
especially  in  the  latter.  It  is  thus  found  in  the 
older  crystalline  rocks  in  Canada,  New  York, 
Maine, and  New  Jersey;  in  Europe,  it  is  known  in 
England,  France.  Saxony,  Tyrol.  Bohemia,  S])ain, 
Norway,  etc.:  but  the  only  deposits  of  economic 
importance  are  those  of  Canada,  Norway,  and 
Spain.  :Most  of  the  Canadian  material  that  has- 
been  shipped  contains  eighty-five  per  cent,  of  the 
phosphate  of  lime.    In  recent  years  the  enormous 


APATITE. 


641 


APE. 


deposits  of  rock  phosphate  or  amorphous  phos- 
pliatc  of  lime  have  seriously  injured  the 
Canadian  trade.  Amorphous  i)hos])liate  is  a 
name  given  to  non-crystalline  deposits  of  phos- 
phate of  lime  occnrrinf;  in  more  or  less 
abundance  at  certain  localities  and  of  importance 
as  a  source  of  fertilizer.  In  the  United  States 
the  most  important  deposits  are  in  South  Caro- 
lina, Florida,  and  Tennessee,  but  a  small  supply 
has  also  been  obtained  from  Pennsylvania.  The 
Florida  deposits,  which  have  been  worked  since 
188H,  are  found  near  the  western  coast.  They 
occur  as  lumps  imbedded  in  clay,  known  as  Roek 
Phosphate :  in  pebble  agglomerations,  known  as 
Land  Pebble:  or  as  a  mixture  of  small  pebbles 
and  sand  in  the  river  bottoms  called  River  Peb- 
ble. Tlie  latter  mixture  is  obtained  by  dredg- 
ing, the  sand  being  eventually  separated  by 
screening.  The  South  Carolina  deposits  are 
found  in  an  area  about  sixty  miles  long,  between 
Charleston  and  Beaufort.  The  phospliate  occurs 
in  nodules  buried  in  sand  and  clay,  the  produc- 
tive bed  being  one  to  two  feet  thick.  An 
acre  yields  four  hundred  to  twelve  hundred 
tons.  The  Soutli  Carolina  district  was  opened  up 
in  1S67.  Both  the  Florida  and  South  Carolina 
deposits  occur  associated  with  rocks  of  Eocene 
and  llioeene  ages,  and  many  teeth  of  sharks, 
elephants,  etc.,  together  with  bones,  are  foimd 
with  the  phosphate.  The  phosphoric  acid  of 
the  mineral  is  supposed  to  owe  its  origin  to 
the  accumulation  of  excrement  and  decaying 
animal  matter  deposited  along  the  shores  or  in 
pools  during  Tertiary  times,  and  to  subsequent 
local  replacement  of  limestone,  or  to  concre- 
tionary segregation  of  phosphate  of  lime.  In 
south  central  Tennessee,  the  phospliate  is  as- 
sociated with  Devonian  rocks.  The  phosphate 
industry  of  the  United  States  has  assmued 
great  importance  in  recent  years,  and  much  of 
the  material  is  shipped  to  foreign  countries. 
The  recent  development  of  large  deposits  known 
to  exist  in  Algiers  may  cause  serious  competi- 
tion with  the  American  industry.  Crude  rock 
containing  less  than  fifty  per  cent,  of  calcic  phos- 
phate is  unsalable.  Siliceous  impurities  are  in- 
ert, but  alumina  and  ferric  oxide  are  bad,  because 
they  tend  to  change  the  refined  phosphate  back 
to  an  insoluble  condition.  Lime,  if  present,  neu- 
tralizes some  of  the  sulphuric  acid  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  the  fertilizer.  The  price  of  phos- 
phate varies  from  year  to  year,  and  witli  its 
grade.  That  from  Tennessee  ma_y  bring  as  little 
as  .fl.OO  per  ton,  while  the  hard  rock  from 
Florida  may  liring  as  much  as  .$5.00  per  ton.  The 
importance  of  Canada  as  a  producer  of  phosphate 
has  been  greatly  lowered  by  the  development  of 
the  American  beds.  Those  of  Florida  have  as- 
sumed great  predominance,  for  the  ease  with 
which  the  material  can  be  mined,  and  by  reason 
of  their  proximity  to  shipping  points;  the  latter 
feature  having  been  an  important  factor  in  the 
development  of  a  large  export  trade. 

For  more  particular  information  the  reader 
is  referred  to  the  general  paper  by  Adolphe 
Carnot :  "Sur  les  variations  observees  dans  la 
composition  des  apatites,  ♦  *  ♦  Remarques  sur 
le  gisement  et  le  mode  de  formation  de  ces  phos- 
phates" in  the  Annales  des  Mines.  Volume  X. 
(Paris,  1890).  Papers  descriptive  of  the  phos- 
phate deposits  of  particular  regions  arc:  IJran- 
ner,  "The  Phosjihates  of  Arkansas,"  in  the 
Tmnsactions  of  the  Anierican  Iiistitiite  of  Mining 
Engineers,     Volume  XXVI.   (New  York,  1896)  ; 


Hayes,  "The  Tennessee  Phosphates,"  in  the  Six- 
teenth Animal  Report  of  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey,  Part  IV.  (Washington, 
1895). 

BiiiLiOGKAruy.  Brown,  "The  Phosphate  Rock 
Deposits  of  Tennessee  during  1897,"  United 
Slates  Geological  Survcg.  Nineteentli  Annual  Re- 
port, Part  VI.  (continued)  (Washington.  1898)  ; 
McCallie,  "A  Preliminary  Report  on  a  Part  of  the 
Phosphates  and  Marls'  of  Georgia,"  Georgia 
Geological  Surveg  Bulletin.  No.  5-A  (Atlanta, 
1896)  :  Eldridge,  "A  Preliminary  Sketch  of  the 
Phosphates  of  Florida."  Transactions  of  the 
American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers,  Volume 
XXI.  (New  York,  1891);  Smith,  "The  Phos- 
phates and  JIarls  of  Alabama,"  Transactions  of 
the  American  Institute  of  Mining  Enqinerrs,  Vol- 
ume XXV.  (New  York,  1895)  ;  Penrose,  "The 
Nature  and  Origin  of  Deposits  of  Phosphate  of 
Lime,"  Bulletin  No.  -10,  United  States  Geological 
Survey;  Small,  "The  Phosphate  Mines  of  Can- 
ada," Transactions  of^  the  American  Institute  of 
Mining  Engineers,  Volume  XXI.  (New  York, 
1891)  :  and  Wyatt.  F,,  The  Phosphates  of  Amer- 
ica (New  York,  1891). 

APAYAO,  a']xi-ya'6,  or  APOYA,  a-pr.'ya. 
A  head-hunting  tribe  in  Cagayan  Province,  Lu- 
zon.    Their  speech  is  separate.' 

APE  (AS.  apa,  Ger.  Affe).  A  monkey; 
any  quadrumanous  animal,  especially  one  of 
large  size,  and  belonging  to  the  Old  World.  (See 
below.)  Thus,  the  "apes  of  Gibraltar."  or  "Bar- 
bary  apes."  are  macaques  (q.v.)  and  some  "sa- 
cred apes"  are  baboons.  ( See  Baboox  :  Macaqfe  : 
:Moxket.  etc.)  More  pavtipiiLirlv  the  word  noM-T- 
days  applies  to  simians  (family  Simiido"),  called 
'antliropoid  apes,"  because  tliey  most  resemble 
mankind. 

The  Anthropoid  Apes  consist  of  the  chimpan- 
zees, gorilla,  and  orang,  and  the  various  gibbons, 
together  with  various  extinct  and  fossil  species; 
but  the  three  forms  first  mentioned  are  those 
usually  in  the  mind  of  those  who  use  the  term  in 
its  popular  sense.  All  approach,  and  some  may 
exceed,  man  in  size,  frequently  assume  an  erect 
attitude_  (though  none  are  so  much  at  ease  in 
this  position  as  are  some  gibbons),  and  resemble 
him  in  structure  more  closely  than  they  do  the 
apes  and  monkeys  of  other'  families.  "  This  is 
much  more  marked  in  young  examples,  however, 
than  in  the  adults,  whicli  in  advanced  age  be- 
come more  and  more  brutish.  This  is  particu- 
larly true  of  the  characteristics  of  the  skull, 
where  huge,  bony  "crests"  and  super-orbital  ridges 
develop,  the  canine  teeth  become  greatly  en- 
larged, and  a  revolting  expression  of  face  reveals 
the  essentially  savage  and  intractable  nature  of 
the  animal,  which,  enforced  by  gigantic  strength, 
renders  these  apes  among  the  most  formidable 
and  ugly  of  wild  beasts.  The  skeleton  is  sub- 
stantially similar  to  the  human  skeleton,  differ- 
ing from  it  in  greater  size  and  weight,  and  in 
certain  proportions:  tlie  arms  also  are  relatively 
nnich  longer,  and  tlie  legs  shorter,  and  the  great 
toe  is  longer  and  o])posable  only  to  a  very 
limited  degree.  The  spine  lacks  those  curvatures 
in  its  lower  part  which  enable  man  to  stand 
erect  with  ease.  In  the  flatness  of  the  sternum 
and  the  absence  of  a  certain  small  bone  in  the 
wrist,  these  apes  agree  with  man  and  differ  from 
the  monkeys.  The  skull  is  thicker,  has  in  age 
great  bony  ridges,  and  projects  at  the  muzzle; 
the  teeth  are  of  the  same  number  and  character 
as  man's,  but  they  are  not  set  in  a  horseshoe 


APE. 


642 


APEMANTUS. 


form,  but  more  nearly  on  three  sides  of  a 
square,  the  front  teeth  making  a  decided  angle 
with  the  cheek  teeth,  where  the  canines  are 
developed  into  great  tusks.  The  brain-case  is 
smaller,  and  the  bulk  of  the  brain  far  less  than 
that  of  man.  Tims,  according  to  Jlivart,  a  nor- 
mal human  brain  never  measures  less  than  55 
cubic  inches,  while  that  of  the  chimpanzee  (the 
nearest)  measures  only  27 Va  cubic  inches;  the 
cerebrum  is  also  relatively  shorter.  In  its  gen- 
eral form  and  structure,  however,  the  brain  of 
these  apes  is  like  that  of  man,  and  it  is  richly 
convoluted.  There  are  no  important  differences 
in  the  soft  parts  of  the  body  or  their  functions. 

Externally,  all  the  anthropoid  apes  are  covered 
with  black,  brown,  or  reddish  coarse  hair,  on  all 
parts  of  the  body  except  the  face  and  palms,  where 
the  skin  is  dark,  leathery, and  wrinkled  ;  the  naked 
patches  and  callosities  so  frequently  found  upon 
the  buttocks  of  the  lower  apes  are  absent  or 
very  small ;  nor  are  there  any  cheek-pouches. 
There  is  no  trace  of  a  tail.  The  chimpanzee  and 
gorilla  are  closely  related  to  one  another,  but 
the  orang  is  as  distinct  in  structure  from  them 
as  it  is  widely  removed  in  habitat.  All  are  inhab- 
itants of  the  equatorial  regions  of  the  Old  World, 
and  restricted  to  forests,  where  they  Vive  in  the 
trees,  building  rude  sleeping  platforms  and 
shelter,  and  feeding  wholly  upon  vegetable  food 
— chietly  fruits.  See  Chimpaxzee;  Gibbon;  Go- 
KiLi.A ;  Orang-utan  ;  and  Monkeys  ;  and  plate 
of  Anthropoid  Apes. 

Consult:  R.  Hartmann,  The  Anthropoid  Apes, 
illustrated  (New  York,  1886)  ;  Huxley,  Man's 
Place  in  Mature   (New  York,  1898). 

APEAK'.     See  Anchor. 

APEL,  a'pel,  Johann  August  (1771-1816). 
A  German  writer.  He  was  born  at  Leipzig, 
studied  there  and  at  \Vittenberg  from  17S9  to 
1793,  and  in  1801  was  appointed  a  counselor  at 
Leipzig.  He  wrote  several  dramas,  drawn  largely 
from  antiquity  and  slightly  esteemed,  a  Gespen- 
sterbuch  (1810-14)  and  a"  Wuiidcrhuch  (1815- 
17),  both  popular.  The  first  of  them  con- 
tained the  story  of  Der  Freischiitz,  which  formed 
the  basis  for  the  text  of  the  opera  of  that  name. 
He  is  perhaps  best  known  for  his  Uetrik  (two 
%-olumes,  1814-16),  Avhich  contains  an  interesting 
study  of  ancient  prosody. 

APELDOBN,  a'prl-dorn,  or  APELDOORW. 
A  beautiful  village  in  the  Netherlands,  province 
of  Gelderland  (iiap:  Netherlands,  D  2).  It  is 
situated  about  seventeen  miles  north  of  Arnhem, 
on  a  canal  which  joins  the  river  Grift,  a  branch 
of  the  Y'ssel,  by  which,  and  the  public  roads  from 
Arnhem  and  I'trecht  to  Deventer  and  Zutphen, 
and  by  railway,  it  has  much  traffic.  The  Loo, 
originally  a  hunting-lodge  of  the  Duke  of  Gel- 
derland, was  a  favorite  palace  of  William  III. 
of  England  when  Stadtholder.  The  principal  in- 
dustrv  is  paper  making.  Pop.  1890,  19,190; 
1900,"  25,701. 

APELO-ES  (Gk.  'AttcXX^s).  The  most  cele- 
bralcd  painter  in  ancient  times,  the  son  of 
Pytheas,  and  probably  a  native  of  Colophon,  on 
the  Ionian  coast  of  Asia  ilinor.  The  state- 
ments that  he  was  a  native  of  Cos  or  of  Ephesus, 
seem  due  to  his  long  residence  in  those  places. 
He  was  probably  made  a  citizen  of  Ephesus,  and 
may  have  died  at  Cos,  which  afterward  possessed 
an  unfinished  painting  by  him.  The  dates 
of  his  birth  and  death  are  unknown,  but  the  list 


of  his  portraits  shows  that  he  lived  during  the 
last  part  of  the  fourth  century  B.C.  He  first 
studied  at  Ephesus,  and  afterward  at  Sicyon 
under  the  celebrated  teacher  Pamphilus  of  Am- 
phipolis,  where  he  may  have  learned  the  fine 
drawing  in  which  he  excelled.  From  Sicyon  he 
seems  to  have  gone  to  Pella  in  Macedonia,  where 
he  painted  portraits  of  Philip,  and  became  the 
friend  of  Alexander,  who  sat  to  no  other  painter, 
though  frequently  to  him,  and  permitted  him 
much  freedom  of  speech.  His  most  celebrated 
portrait  represented  Alexander  wielding  the 
thunderbolt,  of  which  it  was  said  "of  the  two 
Alexanders,  Philip's  is  invincible,  Apelles's  in- 
imitable." He  also  painted  portraits  of  some  of 
the  generals  of  Alexander.  His  most  celebrated 
works  were  mythological  or  allegorical.  Very  fa- 
mous were  his  "Anadyomene"  (q.v. )  and  his 
"Artemis  Suri'ounded  by  Jlaidens."  Of  his  paint- 
ing of  "Slander,"  in  which  also  appeared  Igno- 
rance, Suspicion,  Env}-,  Deceit,  Remorse,  and 
other  personifications,  lAician  gives  a  detailed 
description  which  has  inspired  Botticelli,  Diirer, 
and  other  artists.  He  seems  to  have  returned  to 
Asia  after  Alexander's  conquests,  and  most  of  his 
celebrated  works  were  found  in  Asiatic  cities.  At 
Rhodes  he  visited  the  painter  Protogenes,  and  is 
said  to  have  contributed  to  his  reputation  by  of- 
fering a  high  price  for  one  of  his  pictures.  He 
was  generous  in  his  appreciation  of  his' rivals, 
though  fully  aware  of  his  own  merits.  He  ad- 
mitted that  Mclanthius  surpassed  him  in  group- 
ing, and  Asclepiodorus  in  .symmetry,  and  that 
Protogenes  was  inferior  only  in  never  knowing 
when  to  stop,  which  dcjirived  his  pictures  of  that 
grace,  which  Apclles  claimed  as  his  own.  He 
seems  to  have  been  remarkable  for  his  accuracy 
of  drawing  and  fine  coloring,  probably  due  to  a 
thorough  theoretical  and  practical  training. 
The  industry  with  which  he  practiced  drawing 
was  so  great  as  to  give  rise  to  the  proverb  which 
in  the  Latin  version  is,  XiiUa  dies  sine  linea. 
Many  anecdotes  are  related  of  Apelles.  When 
his  works  were  exposed  to  public  view,  he  used 
to  place  himself  behind  a  picture,  to  listen  to 
Ihe  criticisms  of  the  common  people.  A  cobbler 
having  detected  a  fault  in  the  shoe  of  one  of 
his  figures,  it  is  stated  that  Apelles  instantly 
rectified  it;  but  when  the  cobbler,  on  the  follow- 
ing day,  extended  his  criticism  to  the  legs,  the 
painter  rushed  from  his  hiding-place  and  told 
the  cobbler  to  stick  to  the  shoes,  or,  in  the 
Latin  version,  which  has  become  proverbial,  Xe 
sutur  supra  crepidam.  Consult:  Woltmann  and 
Woermann,  History  of  Painting,  Vol.  I..  Eng. 
trans.  (New  York,  1886);  Hoiissaye,  Bistoirc 
d' Apelles  (Paris.  1867)  ;  Wustmann,  Apelles' 
Lehrn  niid  ^Verke   (Leipzig,  1870). 

APELT,  ii'pclt,  Ernst  Friedrich  (1812-.')0). 
A  German  philosophical  writer,  born  at  Reiche- 
nau.  He  studied  at  Jena  and  Leipzig,  and  was 
made  professor  of  philosophy  at  Jena  in  1840. 
His  works  include:  Die  Reformation  der  Stern- 
kunde  (Jena,  1852)  ;  Die  Theorie  der  Induktion 
(1854);  Metaphysik  (1857);  Parmenidis  et 
Empedociis  doctrina  de  Mundi  Struetura  (1857)  ; 
licli'iionsphilosophie   (1860),  etc. 

AP'EMAN'TTJS.  A  churlish  cynic  in  Shake- 
speare's Tiinon  of  Alliens,  supjjosed  to  have  been 
modeled  after  the  sketch  of  a  similar  character 
given  in  Lucian's  Public  Sale  of  Philosophers,  a 
work  with  which  Shakespeare  might  easily  have 
been  acquainted. 


ANTHROPOID     APES 


1.  ORANG-UTAN    {Simla    satyrus). 

2.  GIBBON    (Hylobates   leuciscus). 


3.  CHIMPANZEE    ( Anthropopltheous   niger). 

4,  GORILLA    (Gorilla  savagei). 


APENNINES. 


643 


APENBADE. 


AP'ENNINES  (Ital.  Appennino;  Lat.  ilons 
Apouiiitus,  Apennine  Mount,  from  Cym.  Celt. 
pen,  hill,  sun;niit,  promontory).  A  mountain 
chain  belonging  to  tlie  system  of  the  Alps  and 
e.Ktending  uninterruptedly  throughout  the  whole 
length  of  the  Italian  peninsula.  It  liranehes  out 
from  the  JIaritime  Alps  at  the  Col  dl  Tenda.  near 
the  sources  of  the  Tanaro.  From  this  i)oint  the 
chain,  under  the  name  of  the  Ligurian  Apen- 
nines, girdles  the  Gulf  of  Genoa  in  the  imme- 
diate vicinity  of  the  sea,  and  then  runs  slightly 
south  of  east  inland  almost  across  the  peninsula 
at  latitude  44°,  and  then  southeastward,  forming 
the  %\atershed  between  the  Adriatic  and  tbe  Med- 
iterranean, but  gradually  approaching  the  east- 
ern coast,  till,  in  the  highlands  of  the  Abruzzi,  it 
borders  close  upon  it:  after  which  it  takes  a 
more  southerly  direction,  traversing  Calabria, 
dips  under  the  sea  at  the  Strait  of  Messina,  and 
reappears  on  the  northern  coast  of  Sicil.y.  The 
total  length  is  about  800  miles,  and  the  breadth 
varies  from  25  to  85  miles. 

Geographers  divide  the  Apennines  as  follows: 
{ 1 )  The  Xorth  Apennines,  from  the  Col  di  Ten- 
da,  in  the  Maritime  Alps,  to  the  pass  of  Borgo 
San  Sepolcro,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Arezzo, 
on  the  eastern  boi'der  of  Tuscany.  (  2 )  The  Cen- 
tral Apennines,  from  Arezzo  to  the  valley  of  the 
Pescara,  which  flows  between  the  two  Abruzzi. 
(3)  The  South  Apennines,  from  the  valley  of  the 
Pescara  to  Cape  Spartivento.  (4)  The  Insular 
Apennines,  or  the  Sicilian  Range.  The  leading 
feature  of  the  Apennines,  wherever  they  approach 
the  coast,  is  their  extraordinarily  steep  declivi- 
ties; while  in  Middle  Italy  and  the  adjoining 
portions  of  Upper  and  Lower  Italy,  long,  terraced 
plateaus,  lower  ranges,  and  finally,  relatively 
extensive  coast  plains  mark  their  gradual  de- 
scent on  tlie  west.  The  general  name  for  these 
lower  ranges  is  Sub-Apennine ;  but  they  have  a 
variety  of  specific  designations,  such  as  the  moun- 
tains of  Carrara  and  Seravezza,  Protomagno,  and 
Monte  Amiata,  in  Tuscany;  the  Sabine,  Alban, 
and  Volscian  mountains  in  the  former  Papal 
States;  ilonte  Gargano  on  the  southeastern 
coast,  north  of  Manfredonia,  etc.  The  main 
chain  of  the  Apennines  does  not  send  off  spurs 
into  the  Apulian  Peninsula  or  heel  of  Italy, 
which  in  the  main  is  rather  level,  or  only 
interspersed  with  detached  groups  of  hills.  The 
principal  chain  exhibits  for  the  most  part  a 
drearj'  and  barren  appearance,  somewhat  like  a 
vast  wall,  with  very  few  projecting  peaks  to 
break  the  dull  monotony  of  the  scene,  and  there- 
fore seldom  furnishes  any  salient  points  on  which 
the  eye  of  the  spectator  can  rest  with  pleasure. 
Naked,  riven,  covered  with  thick  dC'bris,  the  de- 
clivities seem  as  if  scorched  by  the  southern  sun. 
Only  in  the  Abruzzi,  in  the  Sub-Apennines,  and 
especially  in  the  marble-bearing  mountains  of 
Carrara  and  Seravezza  do  the  bold  and  magnifi- 
cent forms  of  the  Alps  reappear. 

The  average  height  of  the  entire  chain  of  the 
Apennines  is  about  4000  feet,  -\vhich,  however,  in 
the  north  sinks  down  to  little  more  than  3500 
feet,  and  in  the  mountains  of  the  Abruzzi  rises  to 
7000  feet.  Here,  in  Monte  Corno,  the  highest 
peak  of  the  range,  forming  part  of  the  Gran 
Sasso  d'ltalia,  they  reach  an  elevation  of  9580 
feet.  The  Xorth  Apennines  attain  in  Jlonte  Ci- 
mone,  situated  in  the  Province  of  Jlodena,  a 
height  of  7103  feet.  The  highest  peak  of  the 
South  Apennines  is  Monte  Polino,  with  an  eleva- 
tion of  7450  feet. 


The  Apennines  are  pierced  by  thirteen  jjrin- 
cipal  passes.  These  arc,  proceeding  from  north 
to  south :  ( 1 )  the  pass  of  Savona  ;  ( 2 )  of  Boc- 
chetta;  (3)  ofCisa;  (4)  of  jlonte  Cimone;  (5) 
of  Poretta;  (G)  of  Pictramala ;  (7)  of  Borgo 
San  Sepolcro;  (8)  of  Furlo;  (IJ)  of  Serravalle; 
(10)  of  Aquila;  (11)  of  Isernia;  (12)  of  Arcane 
and  Troa;    (13)   of  Potenza. 

GJeology.  The  prevalent  rock  is  a  species  of 
compact  limestone,  of  a  whitish-gray  color,  be- 
longing to  the  Jura  fornuition.  Kesting  on  the 
limestone  is  found  a  more  recent  formation  of 
sandstone  and  marl,  which  is  especially  abun- 
dant in  the  middle  region  of  the  Sub-Apennines, 
and  which  contains  an  extraordinary  number  of 
fossils  of  the  Tertiary  Age.  Older"  formations, 
however,  frequently  crop  out.  In  the  Abruzzian 
Apennines  granite,  gneiss,  and  schist  are  the 
prevailing  rocks.  On  the  watershed  of  the  North 
and  Central  Apennines  there  are  found  Paleozoic 
clay-slate,  graywackc-slate,  etc.  The  Apennines, 
especially  the  Roman  and  Neapolitan,  are  dis- 
tinguished from  all  other  mountain  chains  by  the 
rich  variety  of  marbles  which  tliey  contain".  In 
some  places  the  quarries  seem  "inexhaustible. 
Igneous  rocks  are  numerous  in  the  middle  and 
southern  regions,  where  volcanic  disturbances 
have  produced  many  wonderful  formations — as, 
for  instance,  the  crater  lakes  of  Albano,  Nemi, 
Vesuvius,  Solfatara. 

The  direction  of  the  great  chain  of  the  Apen- 
nines is  favorable  to  the  formation  on  the  west- 
ern side  of  important  river  basins,  such  as  those 
of  the  Arno,  the  Tiber,  the  (Jarigliano,  and  the 
Volturno;  while  on  the  eastern  side  we  find  noth- 
ing but  small  streams,  in  most  eases  destitute  of 
affluents,  hurrying  down  to  the  sea  through  wild, 
precipitous  valleys.  In  northern  Italy,  the  Li- 
gurian Apennines,  almost  overhanging  the  Gulf 
of  Genoa,  develop  on  the  southern  slopes  only 
))uny  streams,  while  their  northern  slopes  send 
down,  tnrough  the  plains  of  Piedmont,  large 
tributaries  to  the  Po. 

Flora.  Where  the  Apennines,  in  general  so 
poorly  supplied  with  permanent  streams,  ex- 
hibit a  trace  of  Alpine  abundance  of  water,  there 
is  no  lack  of  rich  pastures  and  dense  for- 
ests; but  usually  only  thin  grass  and  wild, 
scrubby  bushes  cover  the  stony  slopes.  The 
greater  number  of  the  roaring  forest  brooks  in 
the  deep,  rocky  ravines  display  during  the  sum- 
mer only  dry  beds.  Where  t'lic  mountains  dip 
down  to  the  sea,  as  at  the  Riviera  of  Genoa  and 
the  Gulf  of  Naples,  a  rich,  distinctively  southern 
vegetation  clothes  the  declivities.  Gigantic 
agaves,  Indian  figs,  myrtle  bushes,  orange 
groves,  suggest  in  these  northern  lands  the  splen- 
dors of  the  tropics.  The  altitudinal  vegetation 
zones  are  characterized  as  follows:  Vine  and 
olive  up  to  1300  feet;  chestnut  and  oaks  from 
1300  to  3300  feet;  pines  from  3300  to  5200  feet; 
shrubs  and  grasses  above  5200  feet,  succeeded 
above  by  naked  rocks. 

APENRADE,  a'pen-rii'dc.  A  town  in  the 
Prussian  province  of  Schleswig-Holstein.  It  is 
situated  at  the  head  of  a  bay  of  the  same  name, 
opening  into  the  Baltic  Sea,  has  an  e.xcellent  har- 
bor, and  a  considerable  amount  of  shipping 
(Map:  Prussia,  CI).  Population,  in  1895,  5504; 
in  1900,  6616.  The  environs  of  the  town  are  beau- 
tiful. The  first  historical  mention  made  of  Apen- 
rade  relates  to  its  destruction  by  the  Slavs  in 
1148;   and,  indeed,  its  position  has  always  laid  it 


APENRADE. 


6-14 


APHASIA. 


open  to  the  casualties  of  northern  war,  whether 
on  a  large  or  small  scale,  as  has  been  especially 
seen  since  1848.  Near  the  town  stands  the  castle 
of  Brimdlund,  built  by  Queen  Margaret  in  1411, 
in  which  the  bailiff  of  the  place  resides. 

APE'PI  or  APO'PHIS.  The  name  of  two 
Egyptian  kings  of  the  Hyksos  Djmasty.  (See 
Hyksos.)  Little  is  known  of  either,  and  only  a 
few  scanty  memorials  of  them  have  been  foimd. 
Under  Apepi  I.,  whose  date  is  very  uncertain, 
science  and  letters  seem  to  have  flourished.  The 
celebrated  Rhind  Mathematical  Papyrus,  a  sort 
of  practical  handbook  for  the  solution  of  arith- 
metical and  geometrical  problems,  bears  a  colo- 
phon stating  that  the  manuscript  was  copied,  in 
the  thirty-third  year  of  this  king,  from  an  origi- 
nal written  in  the  reign  of  Amenemhat  III. 
Apepi  II.  flourished  about  B.C.  1650,  and  several 
monuiments  exist  bearing  his  name.  A  papyrus 
in  the  British  Jluseum  ( Sallier  I.)  contains  a 
legendary  account  of  the  breaking  out  of  a  war 
about  religious  matters  between  Apepi  and  Se- 
quenen-ree.  Prince  of  Thebes.  It  would  seem, 
therefore,  that  Egyptian  tradition  regarded 
Apepi  II.  as  the  Hyksos  ruler  in  whose  reign  be- 
gan the  long  war  for  the  independence  of  Egypt. 

APEREA,  a-pa're-a.  See  Cavt ;  and  Guinea- 
pig. 

APE'KIENTS.      See   Laxative;    Pubgative. 

APET'ALOUS.      See  Flower. 

A'PEX  (Lat.,  the  extreme  end  of  a  thing; 
point,  summit ) .  A  term  used  in  mining  to  des- 
ignate the  outcropping  edge  of  a  mineral  vein  or 
lode.  As  interpreted  legally,  it  is  not  necessary 
that  the  edge  of  the  vein  should  project  above 
the  surface  of  the  ground,  but  simply  above  the 
surface  of  the  inclosing  bedrock,  and  both  vein 
and  bedrock  may  therefore  be  covered  by  soil 
or  drift.  The  term  outcrop  in  the  legal  sense,  as 
used  above,  does  not  agree  with  the  geological 
application  of  the  term  in  all  cases;  for  if  a 
\ein  dips  nearly  parallel  with  a  sloping  surface, 
and  may  be  exposed  at  a  point  below  the  apex, 
due  to  an  irregularity  in  its  dip,  this  second  ex- 
posure, while  constituting  an  outcrop  in  the  geo- 
logical sense,  would  not  be  one  legally.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Revised  Statutes  of  1872,  a  miner  hav- 
ing the  apex  of  a  vein  within  the  boundaries  of 
his  claim,  is  allowed  to  follow  it  along  the  strike 
until  it  intersects  the  end  lines  of  his  claim  ex- 
tended vertically  do^-nward.  On  the  dip,  how- 
ever, he  is  at  liberty  to  follow  it  indefinitely, 
even  if  it  extends  outside  the  vertical  side  lines 
of  his  surface  location.  This  prohibits  another 
person  from  sinking  to  the  first  party's  vein  from 
a  point  outside  the  latter's  surface  claim.  This 
apex  rule  has  led  to  many  lawsuits,  some  of 
which  were  costly,  involving  property  worth 
several  million  dollars.  Thus,  where  two  veins 
join  below  the  surface  and  each  is  worked  by  a 
different  party,  both  may  endeavor  to  claim  pos- 
session of  the  true  apex,  but  under  the  apex  law 
slighter  pretenses  are  sometimes  used  by  one 
person  to  gain  ownership  of  another's  vein.  See 
Lode;  Mining  Claims;  Outcrop;  Dip:  Strike: 
Ore  Deposits;  and  consult:  Barringer  and 
Adams.  The  Law  of  Minra  and  Mining  in  the 
Vniti',1  States    (Boston.    1S!17). 

APEX  OF  THE  SUN'S  WAY.  A  term  used 
to  denote  that  point  in  the  constellation  Her- 
cules toward  which  the  sun's  motion  in  space  is 
at  present  directed.     See  Stabs. 


APHANIP'TEBA.  An  order  of  insects, 
whicli  includes  the  fleas,  distinguished  from  the 
Diptera  by  having  the  three  segments  of  the 
thorax  "distinct  and  nearly  equal,  the  two  last 
rings  (mesothorax  and  metathorax)  bearing 
short,  leaf-like  appendages;  and  mouth-parts 
adapted  for  piercing." 

APH'ANITE.     See  Diokite. 

APHASIA,  a-fa'zhl-a  or  -zl-a  (Gk.  'A0aa-ia, 
speechlessness,  from  d, a,  priv.  +<(>a.>iai.  phanai,  to 
speak).  A  term  used  to  denote  certain  derange- 
ments of  speech  which  are  the  results  of  certain 
disease  or  injury  of  the  mechanism  of  speech. 
This  mechanism  is  complicated,  but  it  funda- 
mentally consists  of  two  parts,  the  receptive 
part  and  the  emissive.  When  there  is  inter- 
ference with  the  former,  sensory  aphasia  is 
the  result,  while  motor  aphasia  is  the  conse- 
quence of  trouble  with  the  latter.  The  chief 
types  of  sensory  aphasia  are  word-deafness  and 
word-blindness,  wh-ile  the  chief  motor  aphasias  are 
motor  vocal  aphasia  and  motor  writing  aphasia, 
or  ayraphia.  The  mechanism  of  speech  has  been 
built  up  gradually  in  the  course  of  evolution,  and 
consists  of  a  number  of  centres  in  the  brain.  The 
motor  speech-area  is  in  the  third  frontal  convolu- 
tion (Broca's  convolution),  and  injury  to  this 
part  of  the  brain  or  of  the  nerve  ti"acts  leading 
from  it  to  control  the  motions  of  the  tongue  and 
lips  produces  motor  vocal  aphasia.  With  this 
affection  the  person  may  know  what  he  wislies  to 
say.  but  is  unable  to  say  it :  he  may  be  able  to 
talk,  but  not  say  the  word  he  wishes.  All  grada- 
tions of  this  affection,  from  slight  to  severe  forms, 
exist,  and  it  is  one  of  the  connnonest  forms  of 
aphasia.  The  auditory  centre,  or  centre  for  audi- 
tory memories,  or  thai  portion  of  the  brain  which 
intellectually  hears  and  understands  spoken  speech, 
is  in  the  first  temporal  convolution.  Any  defect  of 
this  centre,  or  of  the  fibres  which  go  from  it  to  the 
motor  speech  centre,  produces  what  is  known  as 
word-deafness.  In  this  form  the  person  may  hear 
perfectly  well,  may  read  and  speak,  but  does  not 
understand  spoken  language.  It  is  as  though  he 
were  listening  to  a  foreign  language.  The  sounds 
of  the  words  convey  no  meaning  to  him.  There 
are  varying  degrees  in  this  affection  as  well,  from 
slight  attacks  in  which  only  certain  words  lose 
their  significance,  to  complete  loss  of  the  under- 
standing of  spoken  language.  The  third  centre 
is  that  of  the  optical  mechanism  by  which  the 
printed  or  written  word  is  understood.  This  cen- 
tre is  located  in  the  occipital  lobes,  and  disease 
or  injury  of  its  cells  or  of  the  fibres  which  lead 
from  it  to  the  motor  speech  centre  produces  word- 
blindness.  In  this  form  of  aphasia  the  person, 
although  capable  of  seeing,  does  not  comprehend 
what  he  sees.  Words  might  .as  well  lie  written 
in  Chinese  characters  :  he  would  understand  them 
as  \\c\\.  lie  is  capable  of  talking  and  of  repeat- 
ing aloud  what  is  said  to  him,  or  of  ^^Titing  what 
may  be  said  or  what  he  reads.  In  this  latter 
case  he  would  be  copying  only.  In  a  fourth  t^-pe 
of  aphasia,  agraphia,  which  is  not  considered  a 
true  aphasia  by  many,  the  person  is  unable  to 
write  what  he  desires  to  write.  He  is  capable  of 
going  til  rough  the  motions  of  writing,  but  not 
understandingly.  Aphasia  is  a  symptom  of  many 
brain  troubles.  Tlie  most  important  cause  is 
some  type  of  hemorrhage  into  the  lirain  sub- 
stance, involving  these  areas.  Tumors,  injuries 
of  the  brain,  exhaustion,  and  some  of  the  insani- 


APHASIA. 


645 


APHONIA. 


lies  may  oe  acenmiJanied  by  aphasia.  The  treat- 
ment isthat  of  the  underlying  disease.  Consult: 
Gould  and  Pyle,  Ct/clopevdia  of  Medicine  and 
Surgcnj   (Philadelphia,  1900). 

A'PHEK.  (1)  A  place  near  Sidon  {.Tosh. 
xiii.  4),  havinsr  a  temple  to  Ashtoreth :  probably 
the  modern  Aphka  at  the  source  of  Nahr  Ibra- 
him. (2)  A  city  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Asher 
(Josh.  xix.  30;  .Judges  i.  31).  (3)  A  stronghold 
near  llegiddo,  where  the  Philistines  assembled 
their  army  for  the  battles  of  Gilboa  ( 1  Sam. 
xxi.x.  1)  and  Ebenezer  (I.  Sam.  iv.  1),  and  from 
which  Benhadad  and  Hazael  (I.  ICings  xx.  2G;  II. 
Kings  xiii.  17)  made  their  attacks  upon  Samaria. 
It  is  probably  identical  with  Apukn  in  the  annals 
ot  Tehutimose  III.   (1503-1449). 

APHEIiION  (Gk.  dwd,  apo,  away  +  7)\io!, 
/if/ios,  the  sun).  That  point  in  the  elliptical 
orbit  of  a  planet  which  is  most  remote  from  the 
sun.  The  opposite  jjoint,  or  that  nearest  to  the 
sun,  is  styled  the  perihelion.  At  the  former 
point,  the  swiftness  of  the  planet's  motion  is 
least,  and  begins  to  increase;  at  the  latter,  it  is 
greatest,  and  begins  to  decrease.  This  irregular- 
it}'  of  motion  is  most  remarkable  in  comets, 
since  their  orbits  deviate  most  from  the  circle. 
See  Ap.sides. 

APH'ELIOT'ROPISM,  or  Negative  Helio- 
TBOPISM.  That  form  of  sensitiveness  by  vir- 
tue of  which  plant  organs  direct  their  axes 
away  from  the  source  of  incident  light.  Certain 
roots  show  this  reaction  to  light;  e.g.,  those  of 
mustard  seedlings.  It  is  seen  also  in  the  ten- 
drils of  Bignonia  capreolata.     See  Heliotropism. 

A'PHID  (probably  from  Gk.  d^tiSTis,  aphei- 
di'K,  unsparing,  from  d,  a,  priv.  -|-  ^elSea-ffai,  phelde- 
sthai.  to  spare).  A  bug  of  the  family  Aphididse, 
commonly  kno\vn  as  plant-lice,  which  live  either 
free  on  the  foliage,  bark,  or  roots  of  plants,  or 
inclosed  in  galls.  They  nourish  themselves  on 
the  sap  of  their  plant-hosts,  which  they  suck  up 
through  a  long,  slender  rostrum.  They  are  mi- 
nute, the  largest  being  one-fourth  of  an  inch 
long.  The  color  is  usually  green  or  brown,  and 
the  shape  like  that  of  a  pear.  Most  of  the  forms 
that  live  on  the  roots  of  plants  underground  have 
neither  compound  eyes  nor  ocelli.  Several  forms 
secrete  a  cottony,  iirotective  coat.  At  the  pos- 
terior end  of  the  abdomen  of  most  aphids  there 
are  two  tubes,  or  perhaps  mere  perforations, 
through  which  a  sweet  liquid,  called  honey-dew, 
conies  out,  a  drop  at  a  time.  Upon  this  the 
young  feed  for  the  first  day  or  two.  The  flow 
may  be  so  abundant  as  to  render  the  stems  and 
leaves  sticky,  or,  when  the  Avind  is  blowing,  the 
liquid  may  even  fall  to  the  ground  in  a  sweet 
spray.  The  leaves  and  bark  are  not  infrequently 
covered  by  fungi,  which  thrive  on  the  honey-dew, 
and  insects,  especially  ants,  are  attracted  to  it. 
The  ants  protect  from  year  to  year  the  makers 
of  this  food  supply,  and  also  feed  eagerly  upon 
the  honey-dew  itself,  and  cherish  the  aphids  for 
its  sake.    See  Ant. 

Dimorphism,  or  even  polymorphism,  is  very 
common  among  aphids.  Thus  the  forms  that 
live  on  the  roots  of  plants  and  those  that  live  on 
their  foliage  possess  certain  structural  dill'orences. 
When  all  the  foliage  forms  perish,  the  under- 
ground ones  may  make  good  the  loss,  as  is  the 
case  with  the  Delaware  peach  species.  Again, 
the  sexes  may  be  winged  or  wingless,  and  the 
females  may  bring  forth  the  young  alive,  or  they 
may  lay  eggs.     From   the  eggs  parthcnogenetic 


females  alone  hatch.  These  produce  living  young 
for  many  generations.  At  times  of  drought  or 
on  the  approach  of  winter,  males,  usually  winged, 
appear,  which  fertilize  the  eggs  of  the  wingless 
females.  These  eggs  liatch  in  the  following 
spring  into  the  "stem  mothers,"  and  the  cycle 
begins  again.  It  has  been  estimated  that  "the 
progeny  of  a  single  "stem  mother"  of  the  cot- 
tony apple  aphis  may  be  one  quintillion  in  a 
season.     See  Hop-LocsE. 

Aphids  stunt  or  kill  growing  tips,  weaken  the 
entire  tree  by  impoverishing  it  of  sap,  and  pro- 
duce galls  and  other  abnormal  growths.  Entire 
crops  of  cereals  may  be  destroyed  by  them.  Let- 
tuce, beans,  indeed  nearly  all  vegetables,  sufTor 
from  their  ravages,  and  house-plants  are  particu- 
larly infested  by  them.  The  price  of  hops  from 
year  to  year  varies  largely  according  to  the  abun- 
d.ance  of  the  hop-vine  aphids ;  and  to  this  fam- 
ily belongs  also  the  grape-vine  pest  (Phyllox- 
era) of  Europe.  Inundation  of  the  ground  in 
cold  weather  is  fatal  to  this  pest.  Carbon  bisul- 
phide is  also  used.  In  the  greenhouse,  tohncco 
smoke,  soapsuds,  and  ladybird  beetles  are  etl'ect- 
ive  checks.  Young  fruit  and  shade  trees  in  the 
open  may  also  be  treated  with  soapsuds,  as 
well  as  with  hydrocyanic-acid  gas  applied  under 
closed  tents.  Birds  and  spiders  feed  on  plant- 
lice,  ichneumon  and  syrphus-fly  larvie  destroy 
great  numbers  of  them,  both  the  adults  and 
the  young  of  all  sorts  of  ladybird  beetles  feed 
ravenously  upon  thera,  and  they  are  persecuted 
by  deadly  parasites.  Indeed,  were  it  not  for  the 
insect  foes  of  plant-lice,  there  would  be  little  or 
no  vegetiition.  The  winter  eggs  of  aphids  may 
endure  any  amount  of  cold,  but  a  cold,  wet  spell 
in  the  spring  is  fatal  to  the  newly  hatched  aphid. 
See  Scale  Insect.s,  and  the  names  of  va- 
rious trees  and  plants  upon  which  they  prey; 
and  of  works  on  injurious  insects  and  economic 
entomology,  especially  for  the  United  States, 
see  Thomas,  Eighth  Report  State  Entomolo- 
gist of  Illinois  (Springtield,  1879)  :  and  for 
Europe,  Buckton.  Monograph  of  British  Aphides, 
Ray   Society    (London,    1879-83) . 

APHIS-LION.  The  larva  of  a  lace-winged 
fly,  especially  of  the  family  HemerobiidiP,  which 
feed  on  plant  lice.  It  is  closely  related  to  the 
ant-lions  and  golden-eyed  flies.     See  Lacewing. 

APHO'NIA  (Gk.  i<t>avla,  from  d,  a,  priv.  + 
(puf-^,  phone,  voice,  sound).  The  term  used  in 
medicine  to  signify  a  more  or  less  complete  loss 
of  voice.  It  is  altogether  distinct  from  mutism, 
in  which  it  is  impossible  to  form  articulate 
sounds,  and  in  most  cases  the  voice  is  not  en- 
tirely gone,  but  only  more  or  less  lost  or  sup- 
pressed. The  voice  is  essentially  produced  by 
three  distinct  agents — viz.  ( 1 )  the  expiration  of 
air,  (2)  the  opening  of  the  glottis,  and  (3)  the 
tension  of  the  vocal  cords ;  and  hence  anything 
interfering  with  expiration,  or  with  the  func- 
tions of  the  glottis  and  vocal  cords,  may  cause 
aphonia.  Thus,  it  may  result  from  paralysis  of 
the  respiratory  muscles,  from  pulmonary  emphy- 
sema, and  sometimes  from  pneumonia ;  or  it  may 
be  caused  by  diseases  of  the  larj-nx.  as  chronic 
laryngitis,  oedema  of  the  glottis,  polypus,  etc. ; 
or  by  pressure  on  the  larynx  caused  by  abscesses, 
vegetations,  and  any  kind  of  morbid  growth;  or 
it  may  be  traced  tc  some  functional  or  organic 
disturbance  of  the  inferior  vocal  cords.  Thus, 
the  muscular  fibres  which  act  on  these  cords  may 
become  affected  in  acute  laryngitis  bv  extension 


APHONIA. 


646 


APIA. 


of  the  inflammation,  or  their  action  may  be  im- 
peded bv  the  pressure  of  false  membrane  in 
croup.  Again,  in  eases  of  lead  or  phosphorus 
poisoning,  there  is  aphonia  due  to  fatty  degen- 
eration of  the  muscles.  Xot  infrequently  aph- 
onia may  be  traced  to  compression  of  the  re- 
current or  inferior  laryngeal  nerve,  which  is  the 
nerve-supplving  motor"  power  to  all  the  muscles 
of  the  larvnx,  "with  one  trifling  exception.  Such 
pressure  is  not  infrequently  caused  by  aneurism, 
abscess,  tumor,  etc.  In  the  same  way,  a  wound 
or  contusion  of  the  pneumogastric  nerve,  or  one 
of  the  recurrent  branches,  will  cause  aphonia  or, 
more  commonly,  an  extremely  hoarse  modifica- 
tion of  the  voice,  in  consequence  of  the  laryngeal 
muscles  being  paralyzed  on  one  side  and  re- 
maining active  on  the  other.  There  are  cases  of 
direct  nervous  action  being  interfered  with ;  but 
there  are  manv  eases  of  what  may  be  termed 
reflex  aphonia,' as  when  the  voice  is  often  more 
or  less  lost  in  the  course  of  pregnancy  when  ac- 
companied by  convulsions,  or  in  consequence 
of  the  presence  of  intestinal  worms,  or  after  the 
rapid  suppression  of  an  exanthematous  rash,  or 
of  a  long  -  continued  hemorrhagic  discharge. 
Aphonia  is,  moreover,  very  commonly  associated 
(\-ith  hvsteria. 

Wheii  aphonia  is  not  due  to  irremovable 
causes,  as  tumors,  fatty  degeneration  of  the  lar- 
yngeal muscles,  etc.,  it  generally  disappears  after 
an  interval.  It  occasionally  assumes  remarkable 
intermittent  shapes. 

In  those  cases  which  are  amenable  to  treat- 
ment, emetics,  electricity,  strychnine,  leeching, 
blistering  and  local  application  of  nitrate  of 
silver,  have  been  found  to  be  the  most  useful 
remedies. 

APH'OKISM  {Gk.  d^opicr^is,  aphorismos,  a 
limitation,  d<>tinition,  fr.jm  dni,  apo,  away  + 
ipl^civ,  horizein,  to  bound,  divide).  A  maxim 
or  any  short  and  signiticant  saying;  such  as, 
"Custom  is  a  second  nature."  A  complete  work 
is  sometimes  written  in  the  form  of  a  series 
of  aphorisms,  arranged  in  due  order,  and  leav- 
ing their  connection  to  be  traced  by  the  reader's 
reflection. 

APHRAATES,  4-fra'tez.  A  Persian  Chris- 
tian of  the  Fourth  Century,  who.  after  his  con- 
version from  heathenism,  took  the  name  of  Jacob, 
and  \^as  known  as  the  "Persian  Sage."  He  is 
said  to  have  been  an  opponent  of  Arianism,  and 
after  his  conversion  lived  at  Edessa,  .and  later 
at  Antioch.  According  to  Professor  William 
Wright,  he  was  bishop  of  the  convent  of  Mar 
Matthew  near  JIosul,  and  composed  his  works  in 
.'?44,  34.5,  and  .377.  His  writings  consist  of  twen- 
ty-two alphabetical  homilies  (ed.  W.  Wright, 
London,  1860;  Grathn,  Paris,  1894),  and  the  sepa- 
rate homilv  On  tlw  Cluster,  the  text  of  which 
has  been  recovered  lately.  In  the  De  Viris  lUus- 
tribus  (written  before  490)  of  Gennadius  of  Mar- 
seilles, and  in  the  ancient  Armenian  version,  pub- 
lished bv  N.  Antonelli  (Rome,  1756),  the  homilies 
were  ascribed  to  .Jacob  of  Nisibis,  who  died  in 
.338.  The  real  author,  however,  is  cited  by  name 
by  Abhdisho,  and  by  Elias  of  Nisibis  (Eleventh 
Century),  in  his  r'Aro)iic(e.  „„   ,t    „ 

Consult:  W.  Wright,  Si/nnc  IM..  p.  32  (Lon- 
don 1894)  ;  Duval,  LUtcrature  Syriaque,  p.  226 
(Paris  1899);  J.  Forget,  De  Vita  et  Scrtptis 
Aphraatis  (Louvain,  1882)  ;  and  Thalhofer.  BibU- 
othek  der  Kirchenviitcr  (Kempen,  1809-86), 
where  eight  of  the  homilies  are  translated.   Germ. 


tians.  by  Bert  in  Von  Gebhardt  and  Harnack, 
Tcxtc  idid  Untersuchiinfien  (Leipzig,  1888); 
Frencli  bv  Parisot  in  ed.  GrafRn. 

APH&ODISIA,  af'r6-dlz'i-a.  The  name  given 
to  the  festival  celebrated  in  honor  of  Venus. 

APHRODISIAC,  af'ro-diz'i-ak  (Gk.  (i0po- 
SicruiKdt,  aplirodisidkos,  pertaining  to  Aphrodite, 
or  Venus,  goddess  of  love).  A  name  generally 
used  in  medicine  for  drugs  that  excite  erotic  de- 
sire, though  the  name,  strictly  used,  may  also  in- 
clude any  pliysical  or  mechanical  means  employed 
for  the  same  "purpose.  All  drugs  that  are  tonic  in 
their  eft'ects  and  which  promote  the  health  of 
the  body  are  indirectly  aphrodisiac  in  their 
tendency.  Such  are  strychnine,  iron,  quinine, 
etc.  True  aphrodisiacs  are  very  rare,  and  it  is 
in  fact  doubtful  if  there  be  any  whose  use  is 
not  injurious  if  given  in  effective  doses.  Such 
are  hashish  i^Cannahis  Indica,  cantharides,  a 
violent  and  dangerous  irritant),  Blatta  Orien- 
talis,  and  Damiana,  a  preparation  made  from  a 
species  of  Turnera  found  in  Mexico.  Drugs  which 
have  the  contrary  effect  are  called  anaphrodis- 
iacs.     See  .\napiirodisi.\c. 

APHRODITE,  nfro-dl'te.     See  Venus. 
APH'RODITOP'OLIS     (Aphrodite    +     Gk. 
ir6Xis,    ;k//i.5.   city).      The   name   of   several   cities 
in  ancient  Egypt  under  the  Greeks. 

APH'THiE  (Gk.  &4>ea,  aphtha,  eruption,  ul- 
ceration). An  .nffection  of  the  mucous  mem- 
branes of  the  gastro-intestinal  tract,  occurring 
chiefly  in  infants,  sometimes  serious,  and  due  to 
the  growth  of  minute  fungus  parasites.  Aphthous 
patches  generally  appear  in  the  mouth,  and  are 
usually  whitish  in  the  early  stages,  but  later  the 
areas  may  coalesce  or  ulcers  may  form.  Loss  of 
appetite,"  diminution  in  weight,  and  general 
ill-health  are  common  symptoms.  Aphthse  is 
the  result  of  nursery  neglect.  Nipples,  bottles, 
etc.,  used  in  feeding,  should  be  kept  clean  and 
thoroughly  sterilized  by  solutions  of  boric  acid. 
See  TiiursH. 

APH'THOUS  FE'VER.  See  Foot  and 
Mouth  Disease. 

APH'YDROT'ROPISM,  or  Negatr-e  Hy- 
drotropism. That  form  of  sensitiveness  by 
virtue  of  which  a  plant  organ  turns  its  axis 
away  from  the  source  of  diffusing  moisture. 
The  "phenomenon  is  seen  in  the  fruiting  bodies  of 
many  fungi.  .The  vegetative  filaments  remain  in 
the  'moist  substratum  (being  positively  hydro- 
tropic),  but  the  reproductive  filaments,  which 
bear  the  spores,  grow  out  into  the  much  drier 
air.     See  HYnROTROPiSM. 

APIA,  ii'pe-a.  The  principal  town  in  the 
Samoan  Islands,  South  Pacific  Ocean.  It  is 
situated  on  the  northern  coast  of  the  German 
island  of  ITpolu,  in  lat.  13°  49'  S.,  long.  171° 
48'  W.  It  has  an  open  harbor,  and  is  the 
chief  commercial  centre  of  the  Samoan  group. 
It  consists  chiellv  of  one  long  street  running 
alon"  the  harbor.  There  is  a  Roman  Catholic 
church  and  several  schools.  On  March  15,  1889, 
Apia  was  visited  by  a  disastrous  hurricane,  m 
which  several  vessels,  including  an  American  and 
two  German  warships,  were  destroyed,  and  146 
lives  lost.  Apia  was  constituted  a  municipality 
in  1879,  and  was  for  a  time  under  the  joint 
supervision  of  the  British,  American,  and  Ger- 
man consuls.  Its  population  is  estimated  at 
3750,  of  whom  about  250  are  Europeans.  Apia 
is  the  seat  of  a  United  States  consulate. 


APIANUS. 


647 


APOCALYPTIC  LITERATURE. 


A'PIA'NUS,  PETRI'S  (1501-52).  A  German 
astronomer  and  geographer,  born  at  Leisnig,  Sax- 
ony. His  name  was  Peter  Bennewitz,  or  Biene- 
witz  {Biene  is  (German  for  liee,  which  in  Latin 
is  apis — whence  his  adopted  name).  He  was, 
from  1527,  professor  of  mathematics  at  Ingol- 
gtadt,  and  was  celebrated  as  a  mathematician, 
astronomer,  and  general  savant,  and  especially 
as  a  cosmographer.  He  was  the  inventor  of  a 
number  of  philosophical  instruments,  and  some 
of  the  earliest  maps  of  America  were  printed  by 
him.  The  best-known  among  his  writings  is  the 
Costnor/raphia  (Landshut,  1524;  Antwerp,  1529). 

AP'ICES.        See  Numeral. 

APICIUS,  a-pish'i-us,  Marcus  Gabius.  A 
Roman  epicure,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Au- 
gustus and  Tiberius,  and  was  celebrated  for  his 
luxurious  table  and  his  acquirements  in  the  art 
of  cookery.  When,  by  the  gratification  of  his 
favorite  indulgence,  lie  had  consumed  the  greater 
part  of  his  fortune,  and  had  only  some  $400,000 
ifeft,  he  poisoned  himself,  in  order  to  avoid  the 
misery  of  plain  diet.  Two  other  gourmands — 
one  in  the  time  of  Pompey,  the  other  in  the  reign 
of  Trajan — are  mentioned  under  the  name  Api- 
cius.  The  Roman  cookery-book.  Cwlii  Apicii  de 
Re  Coquinaria,  ascribed  to  Apicius,  belongs  to  a 
much  later  time,  inasmuch  as  it  abounds  in  inac- 
curacies and  solecisms.  It  is  edited  by  Schueh 
(Heidelberg,  1867). 

AP'ICUL'TXJRE.     See  Bee -Keeping. 

APINUS,  a-pe'ni.is,  Franz  Maria  Ulrich 
TiiEODOR  (1724-1802).  A  German  physicist, 
born  at  Rostock.  He  devoted  himself  to  the 
study  of  medicine  and  the  exact  sciences,  and  in 
1757  he  was  appointed  professor  of  physics  at 
Saint  Petersburg.  He  is  chiefly  remembered  for 
his  extension  of  Franklin's  electrical  theory,  but 
also  published  valuable  works  on  various  other 
branches  of  the  physical  sciences,  including  a 
work  On  the  Distribution  of  Beat  at  the  Hurface 
of  the  Earth  (1762). 

A'PION  (Gk.  'ATriui/).  An  Alexandrian 
grammarian  of  the  Fir.st  Century  a.d.  He  was 
born  in  the  Oasis  in  the  Libyan  Desert,  but  came 
early  to  Alexandria,  where  Didymus  received  liim 
into  his  house.  He  became  a  pupil  of  ApoUonius 
and  pjUphranor,  and  eventually  succeeded  Thcon 
as  head  of  the  Alexandrian  School.  He  traveled 
much  in  the  cities  of  Greece  lecturing  on  Homer, 
whereby  he  gained  great  renown,  but  more  from 
the  brilliancy  of  his  manner  than  from  the  value 
of  the  matter  presented.  His  journeys  extended 
to  Rome,  where  his  boastful  nature  won  him 
from  tlie  Emperor  Tiberius  the  nickname  ci/m- 
ialnm  muiicli  ("the  cymbal  of  the  universe"). 
Later,  as  leader  of  the  anti-Jewish  partj',  he  was 
sent  during  the  reign  of  Caligula  at  the  head  of 
an  embassy  to  Rome  to  oppose  the  Jewish  dele- 
gation led  by  the  philosopher  Philo.  Jo.sepluis's 
tract.  Against  Apian,  answering  charges  made 
on  this  occasion,  is  one  of  our  chief  sources  of 
knowledge  in  regard  to  him.  In  the  reign  of 
Claudius,  Apion  lived  and  taught  at  Rome.  His 
chief  writings  were  a  comprehensive  work  on 
the  history  and  civilization  of  Egypt,  which 
contained  the  famous  story  of  Androclcs  and  the 
Lion,  preserved  by  Aulus  Gellius  (v.  14)  ;  and  an 
Homeric  glossary,  which  may  be  identical  with 
that  in  the  appendix  to  the  Etymologicum 
Chidianum,  page  001,  edition  Sturz  (Leipzig, 
1818).     The  scanty  fragments  of  his  historical 


works  are  collected  by  K.  and  Th.  iliiller,  Frag- 
nienta.  Hisforicoruni  (Irwcorum,  iii.  50IJ-516 
(Paris,   1808-74). 

A'PIOS  TUBERO'SA.      See  Ground-nut. 

A'PIS  (Gk.  'Attis).  A  sacred  bull  worshiped 
at  ilemphis  by  the  ancient  Egyptians.  His 
Egyptian  name.  Hap,  is  of  uncertain  etymology. 
Originally  he  may  have  been  an  independent 
local  divinit}',  but  in  historical  times  he  appears 
as  the  sacred  animal  of  the  god  Ptah  of  Mem- 
phis. Later  he  was  considered  as  an  incarnation 
of  Osiris,  of  Sokaris,  or  even  of  the  sun;  but 
usually  he  was,  through  a  false  etymology,  asso- 
ciated with  the  Nile  (Ha'pi).  According  to 
Greek  accounts,  he  was  not  allowed  to  live  longer 
than  twenty-live  years,  and  if  he  survived  his 
allotted  time  was  secretly  drowned  in  a  well. 
The  bodies  of  the  Apis  bulls  were  carefully  em- 
balmed and  were  buried  in  subterranean  rock- 
hewn  tombs,  in  the  Serapeum  at  Memphis  (not 
to  be  confounded  with  the  famous  Serapeum 
of  Alexandria),  where  A]iis,  under  the  name 
Serapis  (a  combination  of  Osiris  and  Apis),  was 
worshiped  as  the  patron  of  the  dead.  Three 
tombs,  with  numerous  Apis  mummies,  were  dis- 
covered by  Mariette  in  1 85 1.  After  the  death  of 
an  Apis  bull,  the  country  was  searched,  some- 
times for  years,  until  another  was  found  bearing 
the  sacred  marks.  As  to  the  precise  nature  of 
these  marks,  traditions  vary  widely.  The  ani- 
mal, however,  must  be  black,  with  certain  white 
spots,  and  a  peculiar  knot  under  the  tongue. 
When  found,  he  was  solemnly  conducted  to 
Memphis  and  installed  in  the  temple  with  great 
festivities.  The  day  of  his  installation  and  that 
of  his  birth  were  celebrated  annually,  and  oracles 
were  derived  from  his  movements  and  from  the 
nature  of  his  appetite.  Even  the  cow  which  had 
become  the  mother  of  an  Apis  bull  received 
divine  honors.  The  sumptuous  worship  of  this 
animal  seems  to  have  impressed  the  Greeks  as 
more  remarkable  than  that  of  any  other  sacred 
animal.    For  illustration,  see  Egypt. 

AP'LACOPH'ORA.     See  Amphineura. 

AP'LANAT'IC  LENS  (not  wandering,  from 
Gk.  d,  a,  priv.  -}-  TrXaratrSai,  planasthai,  to  wan- 
der). An  achromatic  lens  corrected  for  spherical 
aberration  (q.v.),  so  that  all  rays  of  light  which 
emanate  from  one  point  and  pass  through  the 
lens  are  focused  at  a  point.  The  construction 
and  correction  of  photographic  lenses  is  fully 
descrilied,  from  the  technical  standpoint,  in 
Otto  Lummer's  Photographic  Optics,  translated 
by  Silvanus  P.  Thompson  (New  York,  1000).  See 
Light  and  Lens. 

APOCALYPSE.      See  Revelation. 

APOC'ALYP'TIC  LIT'ERATURE  (Gk. 
dwoKa\virTetf,apokalyj^ein,  to  uncover,  reveal). 
1  he  designation  of  certain  alleged  propliecies 
and  revelations  of  Jewish  and  Christian  autlior- 
ship  dating  from  about  B.C.  200  to  about  a.d.  200. 
Their  main  theme  is  the  problem  of  the  final 
triumph  of  the  Kingdom  of  God.  The  Jewish 
apocalypses  profess  to  reveal  the  future  of  Israel 
with  the  coming  of  the  Messiah  as  the  savior 
and  avenger  of  Cxod's  elect.  The  Christian  inter- 
polations and  additions,  written  from  the  point 
of  view  of  faith  in  Jesus  as  the  Messiah,  unveil 
the  future  struggles  and  ultimate  victory  of  the 
Church  and  the  future  state  of  the  evil  and  the 
good.      Within    these    limits    large    opportunity 


APOCALYPTIC    LITERATURE. 


G48 


APOCALYPTIC    LITERATURE. 


wag  found  for  treating  of  a  variety  of  occult 
subjects.  Tlie '  purpose  of  these  works  was  to 
vindicate  God's  ways  to  the  faithful,  who  were 
sorely  tried  by  the  apparent  triumph  of  the 
wicked,  i.e.,  the  heathen  without  and  the  irre- 
ligious within  Israel.  Tlie  fundamental  ideas 
represented  are  those  of  the  Phari.saic  .Tudaism 
of  the  popular,  non-scholastic  type — legalistic 
indeed,  but  full  of  passionate  earnestness.  This 
literature  is  pseudepigraphic.  The  various  writ- 
ings were  put  forth  iinder  the  name  of  ancient 
worthies,  long  since  dead,  as  Enoch  or  Moses. 
Hence  the  form  of  statement  is  largely  pre- 
dictive. But  it  is  not  difficult,  in  most  cases,  to 
see  that  the  pretended  prediction  is  but  the 
resumf  of  past  history.  Where  the  pseudo- 
prophecy  ends  and  the  attempt  at  prediction 
really  begins,  the  author  is  seen  to  be  dealing 
with  his  own  times,  and  the  date  of  the  work  is 
thus  betrayed.  The  tone  of  these  works  is  one 
of  great  assurance,  well  adapted  to  deceive 
the  uncritical.  They  were  once  widely  accepted 
as  genuine  prophecies,  and  as  such  found  a 
warm  reception  in  the  Christian  Church  during 
the  first  four  or  five  centuries.  In  time  they 
began  to  be  looked  upon  with  suspicion,  and 
were  gradually  dropped  from  use,  except  in  the 
less  enlightened  circles  of  the  Church.  Several 
of  the  most  important  are  known  to-day  only 
in  such  translations  as  the  Ethiopic  or  Syriac, 
though  written  originally  in  Hebrew  (Aramaic) 
or  Greek.  Tliese  works  are  of  value  to-day  be- 
cause of  the  insight  they  afford  us  into  the 
growth  of  esehatological  and  Messianic  doctrines 
among  the  .Jewish  people  jiist  previous  to  the 
rise  of  Christianity,  especially  since  these  doc- 
trines liave,  in  a  purified  form,  found  a  perma- 
nent place  in  the  Christian  system. 

The  following  list  contains  all  the  titles  about 
which  anything  positive  can  be  asserted.  Many 
such  works  liave  probably  been  lost.  ( 1 )  The 
Book  of  Enoch  is  .a  compilation  from  several 
sources.  Nearly  all  of  the  book  is  to  be  dated 
before  B.C.  fi.3.  It  professes  to  give  revelations 
to  Enoch  of  the  deliverance  of  Israel  and  the 
coming  of  the  Slessianic  Kingdom.  It  also  con- 
tains much  about  angels  and  supramundane 
matters.  The  book  is  quoted  in  Jude  14.  (2)  The 
Sibylline  Oracles  were  originally  a  "Jewish  work 
under  a  heathen  mask,"  in  imitation  of  the 
utterances  of  the  heathen  Sibyls,  but  written  in 
wretched  Greek  hexameter.  The  present  col- 
lection in  fourteen  books  represents  the  growth 
from  beginnings  made  by  Hellenistic  Jews  in 
the  second  century  B.C.  The  latter  portions  are 
by  Christian  hands.  The  oldest  and  mo.st  im- 
portant parts  are  in  Book  iii.,  lines  97-828. 
These  oracles  were  highly  esteemed  and  fre- 
quently quoted  by  the  early  Chur<-h  Fathers. 
(3)  The  Psalms  of  Holomon.  A  collection  of 
eighteen  patriotic  and  religious  psalms,  written 
originallv  in  Hebrew  ( now  extant  only  in 
Greek)  shortly  after  Pompey  made  Judsea  sub- 
ject to  Kome  (B.C.  (13).  The  apocalyptic  ele- 
ment in  these  is  very  small.  Psalm  xvii.  con- 
tains strong  Messianic  hopes.  These  psalras  are 
interesting  for  comparison  with  the  early 
Christian  hymns  in  Liike  i.  and  ii.  (4)  The  Book 
of  Jubilees,  or  Leptoijenesis  (Little  Genesis), 
purports  to  be  a  revelation  made  to  Moses  of  the 
course  of  events  from  Adam  to  Moses's  own  day. 
The  history  is  divided  into  fifty  periods  of  fifty 
years  each;  hence  the  name  of  the  book.  The 
outline  is,  of  cour.se,  that  of  Genesis,  but  groat 


liberties  are  taken  with  the  text.  Deeds  of 
patriarchs  not  approved  in  Genesis  are  even 
praised:  the  patriarchs  are  all  strict  legalists. 
The  hook  was  written  near  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  era.  (5)  The  Testaments  of  the  Twelve 
Patriarchs  gives  the  dying  exhortations  of  each 
of  the  twelve  sons  of  .Jacob  to  his  children. 
Each  testament  deals  with  some  virtue  or  fault 
which  the  patriarch  exemplified  in  his  life,  and 
also  contains  predictions  relating  to  the  future 
of  his  descendants.  These  predictive  portions 
have  been  largely  worked  over  by  Christian 
hands.  The  original  Jewish  parts  belong  to  the 
First,  possibly  the  Second,  Century  B.C.  (6) 
Liber  Aniiquitatnm  Bibliarum  is  the  title  of  a 
pseudo-Philonic  work  somewhat  similar  to  Fourth 
Esdras.  It  is  perhaps  pre-Cliristian  in  date.  (7) 
The  Secrets  of  Enoch  is  a  portion  of  the  once 
extensive  Enoch  literature.  It  is  extant  only  in 
a  Slavonic  version.  It  contains  a  great  deal 
about  Paradise,  the  several  heavens,  angels,  the 
secrets  of  creation,  the  millennium,  and  similar 
subjects.  The  first  century  a.d.  is  its  most  prob- 
able date.  (8)  The  Assumption  of  Moses,  or 
Testament  of  Moses,  written  shortly  after  the 
death  of  TIcrod  (B.C.  4).  gives  the  parting  com- 
munications of  Moses  to  his  successor,  .Joshua, 
in  which  he  unfolds  the  course  of  Israel's  his- 
torj'  down  to  the  time  of  the  successors  of 
Herod.  Incidentally  the  work  furnishes  a  valu- 
able view  of  the  attitude  of  the  Pharisees  toward 
the  Sadducees.  (9)  The  Apoeah/pse  of  Baruch  is 
one  of  several  Baruch  books  once  current  in 
.Jewish  circles.  It  dates  from  a.d.  ,'50-90,  and 
illustrates  the  Jlessianic  hopes  of  Pharisaic 
Judaism  just  before  and  after  the  fall  of  Jeru- 
salem, 70  A.D.  ( 10)  Fourth  Esdras  [Second  Esdras 
in  the  English  Apocrypha  of  the  Old  Testament) 
contains  seven  alleged  visions  of  Ezra,  the 
famous  scribe.  His  grief  over  the  hard  fate  of 
Zion  is  relieved  by  the  revelation  of  tlie  coming 
Jlessianic  era  and  punishment  of  the  wicked. 
The  book  was  written  by  .a  .Jew,  prob.ably  about 
81-9fi  A.D.,  but  has  been  revised  and  added  to  by 
Christian  hands.  ( 11 )  The  Ascension  of  Isaiah  is 
a  compilation  containing  ( 1 )  The  Martyrdom, 
(2)  The  Vision,  and  (3)  an  Apocalypse  treating 
of  the  history  of  the  Church  to  the  end  of  the 
Xeronian  persecution.  The  compilation  was 
made  about  100  a.d.  Only  The  Martyrdom  is  of 
Jewish  origin. 

The  following  apocalyptic  works  are  of  minor 
importance:  (12)  The  variovis  Adam  books. 
(13)  The  Testament  of  Abraham.  (14)  The  Rest 
of  the  ^^'ords  of  Baruch.  (15)  The  Prophecy  of 
Bystaspes.  (10)  The  Prayer  of  Joseph.  (17) 
The  Prophecy  of  Eldad  and  .Vodad.  (18)  The 
Apocalypse  of  Elijah.  (19)  The  Apocalypse  of 
Zevhaniah.  (20)  The  various  .Yoa ft  books'.  (21) 
The  Book  of  Zoroaster.     (22)    The  Book  of  Scth. 

In  the  foregoing  article  no  mention  has  been 
made  of  the  very  large  number  of  apocalyptic 
writings  of  distinctly  Christian  origin  which 
were  produced  from  the  Second  Century  onwards, 
to  satisfy  an  unhealthy  craving  for  the  occult  and 
marvelous,  or  to  embellish  the  stories  of  the 
saints.  For  these  and  the  "She]iherd  of  Hennas," 
see  Atocbtpha  {of  the  Xew  Testament) .  For  the 
two  canonical  apocalypses,  The  Book  of  Daniel 
and  The  Revelation  of  St.  John,  see  the  special 
articles  treating  of  the  same. 

BiBLiocKAriiy.  Deane,  Pseudepinrapha  (New 
York.  1891):  Schiirer.  History  of  the  Jewish 
People  in   the  Times  of  Jesus  Christ,   §§  32-33 


APOCALYPTIC    LITERATURE. 


649 


APOCRYPHA. 


(translation  New  York,  1885-91)  ;  article  "Apoc- 
alyptic Literature"  in  the  Eiicyclopcedia  Biblica 
(New  Vork,  1891)  i . 

APOC'ALYP'TIC  NUMBER.  The  mystical 
number  wliich  i.s  given  in  Revelation  xiii.  18  as 
the  designation  of  the  be.nst  of  tlie  ten  horns  and 
seven  heads  (v.  1),  and  which,  in  the  accepted 
text,  reads  "Six  hundred  and  sixty  and  six." 
("He  that  hath  understanding,  let  him  count  the 
number  of  the  beast ;  for  it  is  the  number  of  a 
man     .     .     .     six  hundred  and  sixty  and  six.") 

A  multitude  of  interpretations  of  this  num- 
ber have  been  given  ;  but  it  has  been  generally 
held  by  scholars  that,  on  the  basis  of  the  Hebrew 
numerical  alphabet,  which  contains  no  charac- 
ters for  e  or  a,  the  author  intended  to  represent 
by  this  number  Nero — 

N    (e)     R    O      N       K   (e)    S(a)     R  "1 

Ugg 

50         200     0     50     100         60         200  J 

It  is  claimed,  however,  that  there  is  a  variant 
reading  for  the  text  that  gives  the  number  "Si.x 
hundred  and  sixteen,"  which,  on  the  basis  of  the 
Greek  numerical  alphabet,  would  represent  Gaius 
(Caligula)  — 

GAIOSKAISARl 

f  016 
,3     1   10  70  200     20   I    10  200   1    100  J 

In  confirmation  of  this  second  reading  it  is 
urged  that  an  author  writing  for  Greek  readers 
would  be  more  likely  to  use  the  Greek  alphabet, 
with  which  they  were  familiar,  than  the  Hebrew, 
with  wliich  they  were  unacquainted.  But  it  is 
to  be  noticed  that  in  ix.  11,  a  Hebrew  as  well  as 
a  Greek  word  is  used  for  the  mystical  idea  the 
author  has  in  mind  ( "  .  .  the  angel  of  the 
abyss,  in  Hebrew  called  Abaddon,  and  Greek 
ApoUyon"),  and  in  xvi.  16,  a  Hebrew  word  alone, 
("  .  .  the  place  which  is  called  in  Hebrew 
Har-Magedon" ) .  It  is  not  impossible,  therefore, 
that  Hebrew  letters  were  intended  to  be  rejire- 
sented  by  the  number  here  given.  In  fact,  the 
variant  reading  may  have  quite  naturally  come 
from  the  voluntary  omission  by  copyists  of  the 
second  n  of  A'eron  in  the  first  reading — Nero 
being  the  more  familiar  form.  In  any  case, 
however,  it  is  certain  that  the  author  had  in 
mind  a  Roman  emperor  hostile  to  the  Christians, 
whose  name  it  was  not  safe  for  him  to  mention 
(cf.  xvii.  9,  18,  where  the  "seven  mountains, 
on  which  the  woman  sitteth,"  and  "the  great 
city,  which  reigneth  over  the  kings  of  the 
earth"  clearly  indicate  Rome).  See  AntI- 
CHRi.sT  and  Re\-eijVtiox  of  S.\int  .John. 

APOCALYPTIC  WRIT'INGS.  See  Apoc- 
alyptic LiTEKATURE  and  under  Apocryi'iia. 

AP'OCATAS'TASIS  (Gk.  dirorariffTao-is,  apo- 
katastnsis,  restoration).  A  word  found  in  Acts 
iii.  21  (comp.  Rom.  viii.  21,  Eph.  i.  9,  Col.  i.  19). 
It  has  been  interpreted  by  some  as  pointing  to 
the  final  salvation  of  all  men,  and  has  been  em- 
ployed as  a  technical  term  with  this  significa- 
tion.   See  Universausm. 

APOCRYPHA  (Gk.  iw6Kpv<l>ot,  apolai/iihos. 
hidden,  concealed,  from  diri,  apo,  away  + 
Kpi/TTTeiv,  knjptein,  to  hide),  or  Apocrvpiial  and 

PsEVnEPIGRAPIIICAL  WrITIMGS.  I.  OW  Trutil- 
ment. — A  word  rendered  current  by  the  Jews  of 
Alexandria.  In  the  earliest  churches,  it  was  ap- 
plied with  very  diff'erent  significations  to  a 
variety  of  writings.  Among  the  various  views 
that  have  been  brought  forward  to  account  for 
the  application  of  the  term  to  the  non-canonical 
Vol.  I.— 43. 


writings  of  the  Bible  (more  particularly  of  the 
Old  Testament  I ,  the  most  probable  is  to  con- 
nect the  word  with  the  practice  existing  among 
religious  and  philosophic  sects  to  withhold  from 
the  general  public  writings  embodying  the  special 
tenets  of  the  sect  and  communicated  only  to  the 
inner  circle  of  adlierents.  Such  books  generally 
bore  the  name  of  a  patriarch,  prophet,  or  even 
apostle,  purporting  to  be  the  author.  In  conse- 
quence, the  term  'apocryphal'  also  acquired  an 
unfavorable  meaning,  and  by  the  Fourth  Cen- 
tury A.D.  was  applied  also  to  writings  which 
were  regarded  as  pseudepigrapliical  and  forgeries; 
but  in  connection  with  the  Bible  it  has  been  cus- 
tomary, since  the  time  of  Jerome,  to  apply  the 
term  to  a  number  of  writings  which  the  Septua- 
gint  (the  Greek  translation  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment) had  circulated  amongst  the  Christians, 
and  which  were  sometimes  considered  as  an 
appendage  to  the  Old  Testament,  and  sometimes 
as  a  portion  of  it.  The  Greek  Church,  at  the 
Council  of  Laodicea  (a.d.  360),  excluded  them 
from  the  canon;  the  Latin  Church,  on  the  other 
hand,  alwav's  highly  favored  them;  and  finally 
the  Council  of  Trent  (1545-6.'5)  received  them  in 
part  for  edification,  but  not  for  the  "establish- 
ment of  doctrine."  All  the  Protestant  churches 
in  England  and  America,  except  the  Church  of 
England,  reject  their  use  in  public  worship.  In 
French  and  English  Bibles  of  the  Sixteenth 
Century  it  was  customary  to  bind  up  the  Apoc- 
rypha between  the  authorized  versions  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments,  but  in  the  Seven- 
teenth Century  this  ceased,  and,  as  a  conse- 
quence, this  curious,  interesting,  and  instructive 
part  of  .Jewish  literature  acquired  to  a  large 
extent  merely  scholarly  interest.  The  Apocrypha 
is  not  published  by  the  great  Bible  societies,  but 
was  revised  by  the  Bible  Revision  Committee, 
and  is  separately  published  by  the  University 
Press.  The  Old  Testament  Apocrypha  consists 
of  fourteen  books:  (1)  First  Esdras  (q.v. ):  (2) 
Second  Esdras  ( q.v. )  ;  ( 3 )  Tobit  ( q.v. )  ;  ( 4 )  Ju- 
dith (q.v.)  ;  (5)  The  parts  of  Esther  not  found 
in  Hebrew  or  Aramaic:  (0)  The  Wisdom  of 
Solomon;  (7)  The  Wisdom  of  Jesus,  son  of 
Sirach,  or  Ecclesiastieus  (q.v.)  ;  (8)  Baruch 
(q.v.)  ;  (9)  The  Song  of  the  Three  Holv  Chil- 
dren; (10)  The  History  of  Susanna:  (11)  The 
History  of  the  Destruction  of  Bel  and  the 
Dragon  (q.v.);  (12)  The  Prayer  of  Manasses, 
King  of  Judah(see  Manasseii)  ";  (13)  First  Mac- 
cabees (q.v.)  ;  (14)  Second  Maccabees  (q.v.).  The 
precise  origin  of  all  of  these  writings  cannot  be 
ascertained.  Their  composition  covers,  roughly 
speaking,  the  period  B.C.  150  to  a.d.  75.  Some,  as 
e.g.  The  Wisdom  of  Jesus  and  the  First  Macca- 
bees, were  originally  written  in  Hebrew;  others, 
as  the  Fourth  Esdras  and  The  Wisdom  of  Solo- 
mon, in  Greek.  In  respect  to  contents,  they  may 
be  divided  into  (a)  historical  (the  First  Esdras, 
First  and  Second  jMaccabees)  ;  (b)  legendary 
(Tobit,  Judith,  Additions  to  Esther,  Song  of 
Three  Holy  Children,  Susanna,  Bel  and  the 
Dragon)  ;  (c)  prophetical  (Baruch,  Prayer  of 
Manasses);  (d)  apocalyptic  (Second  Esdras); 
(e)  didactic  (The  Wisdom  of  Solomon,  The  Wis- 
dom of  Jesus) . 

Betraying  to  a  larger  extent  the  religious  in- 
fluences current  in  Hellenistic  Judaism  than 
those  which  prevailed  in  Palestine,  it  was  natu- 
ral that  these  writings  should  have  been  looked 
upon  with  more  favor  outside  of  the  strictly 
rabbinical    circles    than    within    those    circles; 


APOCRYPHA. 


050 


APOCRYPHA. 


though  it  should  be  added  that  this  rcniaik  ap- 
plies to  some  of  the  writings  more  than  to 
others.  So,  e.g.  in  the  Talmud,  quotations  from 
The  Wisdom  of  Jesus  are  introduced  and  quoted 
in  a  manner  whicli  indicated  the  high  esteem  in 
which  the  work  was  held.  Still  the  exclusion 
of  these  writings  from  the  authorized  canon,  due 
largely  to  the  fact  that  their  composition  lay 
too  close  to  the  period  when  to  the  earlier 
divisions  (a)  Law,  and  (b)  Prophets,  the  third 
division  (e)  Hagiographa  was  definitely  added, 
led  to  their  being  gradually  regarded  with  dis- 
favor, and  as  in  the  course  of  time  Rabbinical 
Judaism  concentrated  its  force  upon  the  study 
of  the  Talmud,  the  Ai)ocryph.a  were  entirely  lost 
sight  of.  On  the  other  liand.  the  affiliation 
of  early  Christianity  with  Hellenic  Judaism 
finds  an  interesting  illustration  in  the  readiness 
with  whicli  the  Septuagint  translation,  which 
incJuded  the  Apocrypha,  was  accepted  as  an 
authorized  te.xt. 

Besides  the  above-mentioned  writings,  there 
are  others  which  may  likewise  be  included  under 
the  term  apocryphal,  altliough  not  officially 
recognized  as  such.  Tliey  are  pseudepigraphical, 
i.e.  attributed  to  fictitious  authorship.  We  may 
again  distinguish  in  each  class,  legendary,  apoca- 
lyptic, and  poetical  writings.  To  the  old  Tes- 
tament division  belong  the  following:  (1)  The 
Testament  of  Adam,  which  is  a  Jewish  romance 
dealing  with  Adam  and  Eve  after  the  Fall.  (2) 
The  Book  of  .Jubilees,  a  commentary  upon  Gene- 
sis, containing  chiefly  legendary  additions.  (3) 
The  Testament  of  the  Patriarchs,  Abraham, 
Isaac,  and  .Jacob.  (4)  Tlie  Apocalypse  of 
Abraliam.  (5)  The  Testaments  of  the  Twelve 
Patriarchs,  furnishing  the  dying  instructions  of 
the  twelve  sons  of  .Jacob,  (ti)  A  Life  of  Aseneth, 
giving  the  circumstances  of  Joseph's  marriage 
with  Aseneth.  (7)  The  Testament  of  Job.  (8) 
The  Testament  of  Solomon,  chiefly  a  magical 
book.  (9)  The  C'ontradictio  Salomonis.  a  contest 
in  wisdom  between  Solomon  and  Hiram.  (10) 
The  Ascension  of  Isaiah.  (11)  The  Pseudo- 
Philo's  Liber  Antiqnitatum  Bibliarmn,  a  legend- 
ary summary  of  Biblical  history  from  Adam  to 
Saul.  (12)  The  Book  of  Jasher,  legendary  com- 
mentary on  the  Hexateuch.  (13)  The  Book  of 
Noah.  These  embrace  the  legendary  writings, 
and  in  addition  there  are  several  other  books  be- 
longing to  this  division,  of  which  only  the  titles 
and  some  references  are  known.  To  the  apoc- 
alpytic  division  lielong:  (1)  The  Book  of  Enoch. 
(2)  Siliylline  Oracles.  (3)  The  Assumptio  Mosi. 
(4)  Apocalypse  of  Baruch  (of  which  there  are 
several  versions).  (5)  The  Rest  of  the  Words 
of  Baruch.  (6)  A  short  prophecy  of  .Jeremiah. 
(7)  The  Apocalypse  of  Elias.  (8)  The  Apoc- 
alypse of  Zephaniah.  (9)  The  Revelation  of 
Moses.  (10)  The  Apocalypse  of  Esdras,  and 
again  some  others,  of  which  only  the  titles 
are  known.  Of  poetical  writings  there  are:  (1) 
Psalms  of  Solomon,  a  collection  of  eighteen,  or, 
according  to  some  versions,  nineteen  psalms. 
(2)  .\dditions  to  the  Psalter.  (3)  Lamentation 
of  Job's  Wife.  The  date  of  composition  of  most 
of  these  writings  is  imcertain.  Almost  all  give 
evidence  of  having  been  recast,  and  while  most 
are  undoubtedly  of  .Jewish  origin,  they  have  to 
a  large  extent  been  made  to  accord  with  Chris- 
tian doctrines.  It  will  also  be  apparent  that 
the  dividing  line  in  the  case  of  these  writings, 
between  apocalyptic  literature  and  didactic  or 
legendary  compositions,   becomes   at   times   very 


faint.  See  articles  upon  the  separate  books,  as 
mentioned  above;  the  following  division  on  New 
Testament  Apocrypha ;  also  Apoc.\lyptic  Lit- 
erature. 

II.  Xew  Tesiament. — The  New  Testament 
Apocrypha  and  Pseudepigrapha  include  numer- 
ous works  purported  to  have  been  written  by 
apostles  or  their  associates,  but  which  did  not 
secure  a  general  or  permanent  recognition.  As 
the  Church  became  ever  jnore  convinced  that  the 
writings  now  constituting  the  New  Testament 
were  the  only  authoritative  documents  of  the 
Apostolic  Age,  these  other  works  were  looked 
upon  with  suspicion,  and  finally  were  termed 
"apocryplia' — that  is,  works  whose  origin  was  un- 
certain, whose  contents  were  of  doubtful  char- 
acter, and  whose  common  use  was  not  to  be 
approved.  This  literature  was  extensive,  and 
continued  in  circulation  in  spite  of  the  dis- 
approval of  the  more  enlightened.  As  time 
went  on  the  earlier  works  were  continually  re- 
vised, enlarged,  and  imitated,  so  that  the  list 
finally  became  a  very  long  one.  The  reason  for 
this  wide  circulation  was  that  these  writings 
satisfied  a  strong  thougli  abnormal  longing  on 
the  part  of  the  less  enlightened.  The  canonical 
books  of  the  Xew  Testament  are  marked  by  a 
noble  simplicity  and  reserve.  But  there  were 
many  who  craved  something  more  marvelous 
and  startling.  There  were  also  those  whose  doc- 
trinal tendencies  found  but  slight  support  in 
the  Xew  Testament.  Hence  works  were  written 
in  the  name  of  an  apostle  or  as  records  of  an 
apostle's  deeds,  in  which  suspicious  doctrines 
were  placed  under  apostolic  sanction.  These 
apocryphal  works  may  be  classified  thus:  (a) 
Gospels;  (b)  Acts  of  Apostles;  (c)  Epistles; 
(d)    Apocalypses;    (e)    Didactic  Works. 

(a  )  ApocryphalGospelsmay  be  divided  into  sev- 
eral groups.  ( 1 )  Those  dealing  with  the  nativity 
of  the  Virgin,  her  childhood,  and  the  birth, 
infancy,  and  childhood  of  the  Saviour.  Probably 
the  earliest  of  these  is  the  ProtevangeMum  of 
James.  It  is  but  a  fanciful  enlargement  of  the 
nativity  narratives  in  the  canonical  Matthew 
and  Luke,  with  perhaps  a  little  assistance  from 
trustworthy  tradition.  It  was  written  early  in 
the  Second  Century.  Closely  connected  with 
the  FroteranrjcUum  is  the  (lospel  of  Thomas, 
which  treats  of  the  childliood  of  Jesus.  He  is 
represented  as  even  then  working  miracles  and 
as  fully  conscious  of  his  divine  mission.  This 
work  was  much  used  by  Gnostics.  It  is  to  be 
dated  not  later  than  A.D.  150.  The  matter  con- 
tained in  these  two  works  was  combined  with 
additions  and  variations  in  the  later  Xativiti/  of 
the  Viriiin  Mar;/,  falsely  ascribed  to  Matthew. 
A  still  later  form  of  the  same  material  is  found 
in  the  so-called  Arabic  Oositel  of  the  Infanvy, 
which  devotes  much  space  to  the  experiences  as 
of  the  Holy  Family  in  Egypt.  In  The  History 
of  Joseph  the  Carpenter,  Jesus  is  represented  as 
telling  his  apostles  of  his  mother's  betrotlial, 
of  his  own  birth,  and,  more  particularly,  of  tlie 
last  sickness  and  death  of  Joseph.  ( 2 )  There  is  a 
second  group  of  writings  treating  of  the  Passion 
and  post-mortem  experiences  of  Christ.  The 
Gospel  of  }i icodeixiis  is  a  late  compilation  of 
two  earlier  and  altogether  sejiarate  works.  The 
Acts  of  Pilate  and  The  Descent  of  Christ  into 
Hades.  The  Acts  of  Pilate  is  probably  the  older, 
but-  in  its  present  form  an  enlargement  of  the 
reputed  official  acts  or  reports  of  Pilate,  to 
which  reference  is  made  by  Justin  Martyr    (c. 


APOCRYPHA. 


651 


APOCYNACE^. 


150  A.D.).  The  second  work  is  mainly  an  imagi- 
nary narrative  represented  as  having  been  told 
by  two  men  raised  from  the  dead  at  the  time  of 
the  crucifixion  (conip.  Matt,  xxvii.  52-53).  (3) 
Other  works,  more  nearly  like  the  canonical 
Gospels,  were  especially  favored  in  particular 
circles  or  localities.  The  Gospel  of  the  Hebrews, 
probably  the  same  as  'the  Gospel  of  the  Naza- 
rcnes,  was  one  of  the  earliest  gospel-books.  It 
was  probably  a  secondary  form  in  Aramaic  of 
the  Aramaic  original  of  our  canonical  Greek 
Matthew,  written  perhaps  as  early  as  a.d.  100 
for  the  use  of  the  Aramaic-speaking  Christians 
of  Palestine  and  Syria.  The  later  Jewish- 
Christian  sect  of  the  Ebionites  had  a  gospel 
called  The  (lospel  of  the  Tirelre.  written  in 
Greek,  probably  not  earlier  than  A.i).  200,  and 
heretical  in  tendency.  A  Gospel  of  the  Egi/plians 
was  in  existence  in  the  latter  half  of  the  Second 
Century.  It  was  probably  usee  'n  the  country 
districts  of  Egypt.  (4)  Other  (gospels  claimed 
apostolic  authorship.  The  mos.  mportant  of 
such  is  the  Gospel  of  Peter.  Serapion,  Bishop  of 
Antioch,  a.d.  l'JO-211,  discovered  that  this  work 
was  in  use  among  the  Christians  of  his  diocese. 
Its  use  was  neither  approved  nor  severely  con- 
demned by  the  orthodox  bishop.  A  large  frag- 
ment of  this  gospel  was  discovered  in  Eg^-pt  in 
1885  and  published  in  1892.  Though  written 
early,  certainly  in  the  Second  Century,  it  seems 
never  to  have  been  used  as  an  autlioritative  gos- 
pel in  the  regular  Church  service.  It  is  somewhat 
heretical  in  tendency.  A  Gospel  or  Traditions  of 
Matthias  (another  name  for  Zacclueus.  the  pub- 
lican), was  known  to  Origen.  This,  witli  a  Gos- 
pel of  Philip,  was  used  by  Egyjitian  Gnostics. 
Other  gospels  of  similar  character  were  circu- 
lated under  the  names  of  Andrew,  Barnabas,  and 
Bartholomew.  (5)  Other  forms  of  gospel  mate- 
rial were  in  circulation  in  early  times.  Sayings 
of  Jesus  not  contained  in  any  known  treatise 
are  met  with  occasionally.  (See  Agrapii.\.)  A 
most  interesting  fragment  of  a  collection  of 
such  was  found  in  Egypt  in  1897 — the  so-called 
/jojrio  fragment.  ( See  Agrapha.)  (6)  In  addi- 
tion to  the  above  there  were  gospels  of  an  avow- 
edly heretical  type.  Of  these,  the  Gospel  of 
Basilides,  written  by  the  famous  Gnostic  for  the 
use  of  his  disciples,  and  Marcion's  Gospel,  which 
was  but  a  mutilated  Luke,  were  the  most  im- 
portant. 

(b)  Apocrj'phal  Aets  of  Apostles.  The  begin- 
ning of  this  literature  appears  to  have  been 
the  work  of  one  Lucius,  of  Charinus,  in  the 
second  half  of  the  Second  Century.  He  composed 
the  Aets,  or  Travels  (XlepfoSoi)  of  the  Apostles 
Peter,  John,  Thomas,  Andrea\  and  Paul  (each 
apostle  treated  separately).  His  sources  were 
the  New  Testament  Acts  and  Epistles,  current 
oral  tradition,  and  his  own  imagination.  In 
these  Aets  certain  Gnostic  tendencies  were  mani- 
fest, such  as  a  mystic  doctrine  of  the  Cross  and 
those  ascetic  teachings  that  exalt  celibacy  as  a 
form  of  higher  life.  Later  works  of  like  char- 
acter were  the  Acts  of  Mattheic,  of  liartholomeic, 
and  of  Philip.  On  this  originally  Gnostic  basis, 
by  exjiurgation  or  abbreviation  of  objectionable 
material,  or  by  rewriting,  yet  using  the  same 
outlines,  a  series  of  Catholic  Acts  was  produced, 
written  from  a  more  orthodox  standpoint.  A 
secondary  form  of  the  same  literature  is  the  so- 
called  Abdias  collection  of  Martyrdoms  {Pas- 
siones  and  \'irtutes)  of  the  several  apostles  and 
their  companions    (Sixth   Century).     The   most 


important  and  extensive  of  these  Acts  are  The 
Acts  of  John,  and  The  Aets  of  Judas  Thomas, 
the  Apostle  to  the  Indians. 

(c)  Of  Apocryphal  Epistles,  the  most  famous 
is  the  correspondence  between  Abgar,  King  of 
Edes.sa,  and  Jesus.  Apocryphal  Pauline  epistles 
were:  (1)  An  Epistle  to  the  Laodiceana,  on 
the  basis  of  the  hint  in  Col.  iv.  10.  (2)  An 
Epistle  to  the  Alexandrians,  mentioned  as  early 
as  C.170  A.D.  (3)  A  Third  Epistle  to  the  Corin- 
thians. These  are  simply  compilations  from 
the  genuine  Pauline  letters  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment. (4)  Correspondence  between  Seneca  and 
Paul  in  fourteen  letters  (at  least  as  early  as 
the  Fourth   Century). 

(d)  Apocryphal  Apocalypses.  Of  these  The 
Apocalypse  of  Peter  is  the  most  important,  a 
small  fragment  of  which  was  discovered  with  the 
fragment  of  the  Gospel  of  Peter.  The  work  was 
in  existence  as  early  as  a.d.  175,  and  highly 
esteemed  in  some  quarters.  The  Apocalypse  of 
Paul,  The  Vision  of  Paul,  The  Apocalypse  of  the 
I  irgin  Mary,  and  other  like  works  are  late  and 
less  important. 

(e)  Didactic  Works.  The  Preaching  {Kriptrffia) 
of  Peter  was  written  very  early,  possiblv  befure 
A.D.  100.  It  was  perhaps  al.so  known  as  the  Dida- 
scaha  or  Doctrine  of  Peter.  Tho  existence  of  a 
Preaching  {Prwdicatio)  of  PauHs  very  doubtful. 
For  other  works  sometimes  classed  as  New  Testa- 
ment Apocrypha,  see  Apostolic  Fathers  ;  Clem- 
entina; Barnabas,  Acts  and  Epistle  of; 
Herjias,  Shepherd  oe;  Revelation  of  Saint 
John  ;  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles. 

Bibliography.  For  the  Old  Testament,  see 
for  texts  the  Septuagint  version,  best  ed.  Swete 
(London,  second  edition,  1899)  ;  0.  F.  Fritzsche, 
Libri  Apocryphl  Veteris  Testamenti  Gra:ci 
(Leipzig,  1871);  for  PInglish  translation,  C.  J. 
Ball,  The  Variorum  Apocrypha  (London,  undat- 
ed) ;  E.  C.  Bissell,  The  Apocrypha  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament (New  York,  1880,  witli  commentary  and 
summary  of  pseudepigrapha)  ;  H.  Wall,  ".1/joc- 
rypha  (London,  1888,  2  vols.,  with  commen- 
tary) ;  for  complete  German  translation,  see  E. 
Kautzsch,  Die  Apokryphen  und  Pseudepigraphcn 
des  alten  Testaments  (Tiibingen,  1900)  ;  Chur- 
tow,  Uncanonical  and  Apocrypha  Scriptures 
(1884);  The  Uncanonical  Writings  of  the  Old 
Testament  Found  in  the  Artnenian  MSS.  of  the 
Library  of  Saint  Lazarus,  translated  into  Eng- 
lish by  Jacques  Issaverdens  (Venice,  1901).  For 
the  New  Testament,  see,  for  texts,  Tisehendorf, 
Evangelia  Apocrypha  (Leipzig,  1854),  Acta 
Apostolorum  Apocrypha  (Leipzig,  1851),  and 
Apocalypses  Apocrypha:  (Leipzig,  1806)  ;  R.  A. 
Lipsius  and  Bonnet,  Acta  Apostolorum  Apoc- 
rypha (Leipzig,  1883)  ;  Zahn,  Acta  Johannis 
(Erlangen,  1880);  A  Hilgenfeld,  Novum  Testa- 
mcntum,  extra  Canonem  Ileceptum  (Leipzig, 
(1884);  a.nd  Evangeliorum  {et  ceterorum)  quie 
supersunt  (a  collection  of  fragments),  Editio 
altera.  Discussions:  The  most  extended  are 
R.  A.  Lipsius,  Die  apokryphen  .i-postelgeschiehten 
(Brunswick,  1883-90);  and  Zahn,  Geschichte 
des  neutestamentlichen  Eanons  (2d  ed.  Leipzig 
and  Erlangen,  1889).  For  further  literature, 
consult  G.  Kriiger,  History  of  Early  Ghristian 
Literature  (New  York,  1897).  For  translation, 
see  Walker  in  the  Ante-Nicene  Library. 

AP'OCYNA'CE.a;  (Gk.  diri,  apo,  away  from, 
4-    Kvuiv,l:yon,  dog).    The  Dogbane  Family.   An 


APOCYNACEJE. 


652 


APOLLINAEIS. 


order  of  dicotyledonous  plants,  the  species  of 
whidi  are  herbs,  shrulis,  vines,  and  trees,  mostly 
with  a  copious,  milky  juice.  The  leaves  are 
mostly  opposite,  entire,  and  without  stipules. 
The  flowers  are  five-parted;  ovary  single  and 
two-celled,  or  two  and  cone-celled.  Fruit,  a 
follicle  or  drupe;  seeds  with  a  straight  embryo; 
endosperm  small  or  none ;  seed  often  cov- 
ered with  a  thistle-like  down.  There  are  about 
130  genera  and  more  than  1000  species  in 
this  order,  the  principal  subdivisions  of  which 
are:  Arouise.i:,  represented  by  Arduina  and 
Lai'dolpliia;  Pi.umeeie.i!,  containing  the  trop- 
ical genus  Taherncemontancu,  and  Aspidio- 
sperina,  Xiiica,  and  Alstonia ;  and  Echitide.e, 
which  embraces  Kickxia,  Apocynum,  Nerium, 
and  >!trophantltiis.  The  properties  of  plants  of 
this  order  vary  greatly,  but  many  are  exceed- 
inglv  poisonous.  Some,  like  Kickxia  and  Lan- 
dotphia,  are  rich  in  caoutchouc;  Apocynum  yields 
valuable  bast  fibre,  and  its  rhizomes  are  used  in 
medicine;  StropJim^thtis  contains  in  its  seed  a 
powerful  poisonous  alkaloid;  while  others  have 
varied  economic  uses.  See  Periwinkle;  Ole- 
ander; Indian  Hemp;  Rubber;  Strophan- 
THUS ;  Dogbane  ;  Wrightia  ;  Poisonou.s  Plants, 
etc. 

APOCYNUM,  ji-pos'i-num.  A  genus  of 
plants.     See  Dogbane. 

APOCYNUM,  a-pos'i-num.  A  drug  com- 
posed of  the  powdered  root  of  Apocynum  cunna- 
hiiiuin.  Canadian  or  Indian  hemp.  Its  taste  is 
acrid  and  bitter.  It  contains  apocynine,  gallic 
and  tannic  acids,  a  bitter  principle,  etc.  Its 
active  ingredients  are  soluble  in  water  and 
alcohol.  Moderate  doses  increase  the  secretions 
of  the  skin,  bronchi,  and  kidneys.  Large  doses 
cause  vomiting  and  purging.  The  chief  use  of 
apocynum  is  as  a  diuretic.  It  may  act  directly 
as  a  I'enal  stimulant  and  dilate  the  arterioles, 
but  probably  chiefly  by  increasing  artificial  pres- 
sure. It  fails  in  many  cases,  but  in  others  it 
causes  marked  increase  of  urine.  See  Apocy- 
NACE.-E  ;     DoRDANE. 

APODES,  ap'6-dez(Gk.  d,  o,  priv.  +  iroi/s,  pons, 
foot).  An  order  of  teleost  fishes,  variously  lim- 
ited, including  the  eels  (not  the  electric  eel), 
mura'nas,  and  allied  serpentiform  species.  Con- 
sult T.  Gill,  Standard  Natural  History,  III.,  100 
(Boston,  188.5).     Sec  Eel. 

APOBICTIC  (Gk.  d7roSeiKT((c6j,  a podeiktikos, 
demonstrating,  -ive).  A  logical  term  signifying 
necessary,  and  applied  to  judgments  which  ad- 
mit of  no  contradiction.  It  is  used  largely  by 
Kant.     See  A  Priori. 

APOG'AMY  (Gk.  i-rS,  apo,  away  from  + 
7(£;Uos,  ganios,  a  wedding).  A  name  which  refers 
to  the  fact  that  a  plant  which  ordinarily  comes 
from  a  fertilized  egg  may,  under  certain  con- 
ditions, develop  in  some  other  way.  It  is  a 
general  term,  used  to  cover  all  cases  in  which 
the  asexual  plant  does  not  come  from  a  fertilized 
egg,  without  reference  to  the  method  of  its  ori- 
gin. 'Parthenogenesis'  is  that  form  of  apogamy 
in  which  a  plant  is  developed  from  an  egg  that 
has  not  been  fertilized.  In  other  cases  of  apog- 
amy the  new  plant  is  developed  in  a  vegetative 
way  from  various  other  tissues.  The  phenome- 
non of  apogamy  has  been  observed  chiefly  among 
the  ferns,  which  seem  to  respond  most  readily 
to  the  conditions  which  favor  it.  Numerous 
cases  have  now  been  observed  (both  among 
native  and  cultivated  forms),  in  which  the  leafy 


plant  arises  in  various  ways  directly  from  the 
prothallium,  without  the  fertilization  or  even 
production  of  an  egg.  Among  the  mosses  apog- 
amy has  never  been  observed;  that  is,  there  is 
no  reason  to  believe  that  the  spore-bearing  struc- 
ture ever  has  any  other  origin  than  a  fertilized 
egg.  Among  the  seed-plants  the  phenomenon 
has  been  recorded  in  a  nifmber  of  cases,  and  has 
usually  been  wrongly  referred  to  parthenogene- 
sis. So  far  as  the  records  go,  true  partheno- 
genesis has  been  established  in  .seed-plants  only 
for  Antennaria  and  Alehemilla,  genera  of  Com- 
posita',  and  for  Thalictrum,  a  genus  of  Ranuncu- 
lacea!.  In  various  other  cases,  however,  in  wliieh 
embryos  are  known  to  arise  in  seeds  which  have 
received  nothing  from  the  pollen,  it  is  discov- 
ered that  the  embryo  is  not  developed  by  the 
unfertilized  egg,  but  arises  vegetatively  irom  va- 
rious tissues  of  the  ovule,  just  as  a  bud  may 
develop  almost  anywhere  upon  a  plant.  The 
fact  that  a  seed  contains  an  embryo  is  not  sure 
indication  that  this  embryo  has  developed  from 
the  egg.  In  seed-plants,  therefore,  the  extent 
of  the  phenomenon  of  apogamy  is  uncertain  and 
difficult  to  determine. 

AP'OGEE  (Gk.  dxA.  apo,  from,  +  ■yij,  ge,  the 
earth).  When  the  earth  and  some  other  planet 
reach  such  positions  in  their  respective  orbits 
that  the  distance  between  them  is  a  maximum, 
then  that  planet  is  said  to  be  in  its  apogee.  The 
use  of  the  word  apogee  is  usually  restricted  to 
the  sun  and  moon,  the  sun's  apogee  correspond- 
ing to  the  earth's  aphelion,  and  the  moon's 
apogee  being  the  point  of  its  orbit  most  remote 
from  the  earth.     Apogee  is  opposed  to  perigee. 

AP'OGEOT'ROPISM,  or  Negative  Geo- 
TROPISM.  That  form  of  sensitiveness  to  grav- 
ity in  plants  by  virtue  of  which  organs  tend 
to  grow  vertically  upward — that  is,  in  a  direc- 
tion opposite  to  that  of  the  earth's  attraction. 
The  best  example  of  this  phenomenon  is  found 
in  the  main  shoots  of  most  plants.  Wlien  'cen- 
trifiigal  force'  is  brought  to  bear  upon  the  plant 
in  place  of  gravity,  the  stems  of  seedlings  grow 
toward  the  centre  of  revolution,  while  the  roots, 
being  positively  geotropic,  grow  in  the  opposite 
direction.    See  Geotropism  in  Plants. 

APOLDA,  a-pril'da.  A  town  of  the  Grand 
Duchy  of  Saxe-Weimar,  Germany,  near  the  Ilm, 
a  feeder  of  the  Saale,  eight  miles  northeast  of 
Weimar  ( Jlap :  Germany.  D  3 ) .  It  is  a  station 
on  the  Thuringian  Railway,  between  Weimar  and 
Weissenfels.  It  is  a  place  of  much  industrial 
activity,  having  extensive  manufactures  of  ho- 
sierv  and  woven  goods.  Population,  in  1895, 
20.798;    in  1900,  20,352. 

APOLLINA'BIS  (  ?  -392).  The  younger, 
bishop  of  Laodicca  in  Syria,  and  one  of  the 
warmest  opponents  of  Ariaiiism.  Both  as  a 
man  and  a  scholar  he  was  held  in  the  greatest 
reverence,  and  his  writings  were  extensively 
read  in  his  own  day.  His  father,  Apollinaris 
the  elder,  who  was  Bishop  of  Laodicea,  was 
born  at  Alexandria,  and  taught  grammar,  first 
at  Berytus,  and  afterward  at  Laodicea.  When 
Julian  prohibited  the  Christians  from  teaching 
the  classics,  the  father  and  son  endeavored  to 
supply  the  loss  by  converting  the  Scriptures  into 
a  body  of  poetry,  rhetoric,  and  philosophy.  The 
Old  Testament  was  selected  as  the  subject  for 
poetical  compositions  after  the  manner  of 
Homer,  Pindar,  and  the  tragedians;  while  the 
New  Testament  formed  the   groundwork  of  dia- 


APOLLINARIS.                            653  APOLLO. 

logues  in   imitation  of   Plato.     It  is  not  ascer-  portant  and  widely  worshiped  divinity  of  Greece, 

tained  what  share  the  father  had  in  this  work;  J.ater  antiquity   identified  Apollo   with   the   sun, 

but  as  he  had  a  reputation  for  poetry,  he  prob-  but    in    Homer    the    two    are    entirely    distinct. 

ably  put  the   Old  Testament   into  Greek  verse.  As  to  the  origin  and  meaning  of  the  name  Apollo, 

But  it  was  chielly  as  a  controversial  theologian,  there   is  no  general  agreement  among  scholars, 

and  as  the  founder  of  a  sect,  that  Apollinaris  though   the   weight   of   argument   is   slightly    in 

is  celebrated.     He  maintained  the  doctrine  that  favor    of    those    who    interpret    it    as    from    'he 

the  loyos,  or  divine  nature   in  Christ,   took  the  who  wards  off'  or  'drives  away'  evil,  from  which 

place  of  the  rational  human  soul   or  mind,  and  conception    it   is    easy   to   explain    many    of    the 

that  the  body  of  Christ  was  a  spiritualized  and  varied   forms   of   the  Apollo  cult.      Tluis   .\pollo 

glorified  form  of  humanity.     This  doctrine  was  is  a  god  of  healing  for  diseases,  and  of  purifica- 

condemned  by  several   synods,  especially  by  the  tion  from  moral  defilement.     So  he  was  said  U) 

Council  of  Constantinople    (381).  on  the  ground  have    purified    Orestes    for    the    murder    of    liis 

that  it  denied  the  true  human  nature  of  Christ,  mother,   and   so   he   was   invoked   to   purify   and 

The  heresy  styled  Apollinarianism  spread  rapidly  cleanse    entire    communities    afflicted    by  "pesti- 

through    Syria    and    the    neighboring    countries,  lence.     In  the  same  way  his  protection 'was  ex- 

and,  after  the  death  of  Apollinaris,  its  adherents  tended  to   flocks  and  herds,   as   is  shown  by  his 

formed    two    sects — the    Vitalians,    named    after  epithet  Nomios,  and  the  story  of  his  serving  as 

Vitalis,   bishop   of  Antioch.   and   the   Polemeans,  the  shepherd  of  Admetus,  to  the  great  increase 

after    Polemo,    who    added    to    the    doctrine    of  of  the  flocks  of  that  king.     He  also  appears  as 

Apollinaris   the   assertion   that   the   divine   and  protecting  the  grain  from  mildew,  and  as  driving 

human  natures  were  so  blended  as  one  substance  away  field-mice,  whence  his  surname  Smintheus. 

in  Christ  that  his  body  was  a  proper  object  of  Nor   did   he   only   protect   his   worshipers   from 

adoration.     On  this  account  they  were  accused  the  evil  spirits  of  disease  and  guard  their  flocks 

of  sarcolatria   (worship  of  the  fiesh)  and  aiithro-  and  herds,  for  there  are  traces  of  Apollo  as  a 

jmhitrin   (worship  of  man),  and  also  were  styled  war  god,   who  can  drive  away  the  enemv,   and 

synotisiastoi      (crvf,    syii,    together,     oiiaia,   ousia,  mingles  actively  in  the  fray:    and  at  the  shrine 

substance),  because  they  confused  the  two  dis-  in    AmycliE,    he    appeared    with    a    helmet    and 

tinet    substances.      Other    leaders    were    Valen-  lance.      The    poean,    which    in    later    times    was 

tinus  and  Timothy.  certainly  a  hymn  to  Apollo,  whatever  its  origin 

APOLLINARIS,  Saint.  A  citizen  of  Antioch,  ]"%  ''"^'^  ^een,  was  not  merely  a  prayer  for 
founder  and  bishop  of  the  Church  of  Rivenna.  ^^^'l""'  ^}''  was  also  sung  before  the  charge  in 
He  followed  Saint  Peter  to  Rome,  where  he  was  '''^"i''-  ^°^  '^ /'"^  ^'^w  of  the  original  con- 
ordained.  As  late  as  the  Ninth  Century,  indenta-  frP*'™  °\  Ap°11°  '"  ^"-Y  way  inconsistent  with 
tions  on  a  certain  rock  at  the  Elm  Monastery  at  !V^''''^^  ""*'  connection  with  the  light.  For 
Eome  were  said  to  have  been  the  impressions  ^'^^  ''f  was  early  connected  with  the  sun  is 
left  bv  the  heads,  backs,  and  legs  of  the  two  ';  '"^'"'  f''°"'  "^^  celebration  of  his  departure  in 
saints' during  a  night  spent  there  in  sleep.  "'^  '^"t!^"^"  to  a  distant  land,  and  Ins  return  in 
"          "        '                                 '  the  spring.     Light  is  regarded   as  a   healer  and 

APOLLINARIS  SIDO'NIUS  (430-487).  A  protector,  the  bane  of  evil  spirits  who  love  dark- 
Roman  author,  political  leader,  and  Bishop  of  ness.  The  light  and  heat,  however,  are  not 
Arverna  .(Clermont-Ferrand),  born  at  Lyons,  always  beneficent,  and  Apollo  thus  appears  as 
He  married  in  about  452  the  daughter  of  Avitus,  the  sender  of  pestilence,  and  as  bringing  sudden 
who  was  Emperor  from  455  to  456.  He  became  death  with  his  unerring  arrows.  As  a  Ii»ht- 
prefect  of  Rome  in  408.  bishop  in  472.  and  head  god,  also,  he  is  called  Lycean  and  Lycian :  "for 
of  the  national  party  against  the  Goths.  In  these  are  probably  to  be  connected  with  the  same 
474  he  was  made  prisoner.  He  died  in  487  or  element  which  appears  in  the  Latin  lii.r.  light. 
488,  and  was  canonized.  He  wrote  nine  books  The  ancients  connected  these  epithets  with\he 
of  letters,  of  great  historical  value,  and  twenty-  Greek  word  for  'wolf  (Kims,  b/kos),  and  some 
four  poems,  mainly  panegj-rieal.  The  best  edi-  good  modern  authorities  consider  Apollo  as 
tion  of  his  work  is  in  the  eighth  volume  of  originally  a  herdsman's  divinity  in  the  form  of 
the  Atictorum  Antiq.,  in  the  Moinimenta  (ler-  a  wolf.  'He  is  also  styled  Phce'bus  (io^Sosl.  the 
mainm  Bistorica  (Berlin,  1887).  Consult  Hodg-  'bright  one.'  the  'brilliant  one.'  Whatever' may 
kin,  Itali/  and  Her  Invaders,  Vol.  II.  (O.xford,  have  been  his  early  nature,  the  prominent  eoii- 
181»2).  ception  of  Apollo  in  historic  times  was  as  a  god 

APOLLINARIS     WA'TER.       An     alkaline  of  prophecy,  and  so  of  music  and  song.   His  most 

mineral    water    obtained    from    a    spring   in   the  famous   oracle   was   at   Delphi    (q.v.),   l)ut  .there 

valley   of    the    Ahr.    in    Rhenish    Prussia,   which  were  others  at  Delos ;    at  the  Ismenian  .sanctuary 

was  discovered  in  1851.     Its  pleasant  taste  and  near  Thebes,  where  the  ashes  of  the  victim  were 

richness   in   carbon   dioxide   gas   has   led   to   its  suppo.sed  to  reveal  the  future;    at  Abie,  on  the 

being  accepted  as  a  valuable  table  water  that  is  border  of  Phocis;    at  Patara,  in  Lycia:    and  at 

recommended  for  dyspepsia  and  loss  of  appetite.  Claros,  in  Ionia,  near  Colophon.    Apollo  was  also 

It  has  the  following  composition:  a  god  of  colonization,  and  many  Greek  cities  be- 

£.„-.  „       t       J.                                cnci       ■     ■        ■  J.  lieved  that  their  founders  had  been  guided  bv 

Sodium  carbonate G.964  grams  in  a  pint  .      i,      •      ^u     c             c               ■       i    t<^"   pjwucu.    u_j 

Magnesium      "                                     2  761      •■           "  Apollo  in  the  form  of  an  animal  or  bird. 

soISi^moiiiorid; ■::::::::::£:=:kZ  "      "  \^.'  r^V^i  ■"  the  c;se  of  a  god  so  widely 

Sodium  .sulphate 1.548      "           "  worshiped,    the    legends    of    Apollo    are    highly 

Sodium  phosrhatej                              Traces  diversified,  though  the  main  features  show  coii- 

Iro*,roxl!Sw?ih\luminZ'.ZI''.r.;^^^^^^^^^    "           "  siderable  unity    due  to   the   overpowering   inflji- 

Silicic  aeid 0.099     "           "  ence  ot   the   cults   at  Delphi   and   Delos,   which 

Carbonicacid(treeand  semi-combined).42.81cub.in.inapint  made  their  versions  canonical.     He  was  the  son 

Carbonic  acid  (combined) 12.44       "          ••  of  Zeus  and  Leto   (Latona),  born  with  his  twin 

APOL'LO    (Gk.  'AttoXXwi/,    Apollon,  Doric  for  sister  Artemis    (see   Diana)    on   the    island   of 

'AttAXcoi',   Apellon).     Next  to  Zeus,  the  most  im-  Delos,  which  had  hitherto  floated  on  the  sea,  but 


APOLLO. 


65J: 


APOLLONIUS. 


now  became  fixed,  and  afl'oided  a  refuge  for  Leto, 
who  had  been  driven  from  all  other  places  by 
the  wrath  of  Hera.  After  his  birth,  the  god 
hastened  to  Delphi  and  slew  the  dragon  Pj'thon, 
who  had  pursued  his  mother  during  her  sorrow. 
For  other  legends  see  Adjietus  ;  Hyperboreans  ; 
Laomedon  ;  XiOBE.  In  Greece,  Apollo  was  not 
the  god  of  any  single  race.  The  lonians  wor- 
shiped him  as  the  ancestral  god.  Patroos,  while 
the  great  Dorian  festival,  Carneia  ( see  Greek 
Festivals)  ,  was  held  in  his  honor.  In  Rome,  his 
worship  was  introduced  from  Greece  at  a  com- 
paratively late  date.  The  earliest  mention  of  a 
place  of  worship  for  Apollo  is  in  B.C.  449.  and  it 
was  not  till  B.C.  212  that  the  Ludi  Apollinares 
were  celebrated.  Augustus  greatly  increased  the 
honor  of  the  god  in  gratitude  for  the  victory  of 
Actium,  and  built  him  a  splendid  temple  on  the 
Palatine,  with  which  a  library  was  connected. 
The  temple  contained  the  celebrated  statue  by 
Scopas    (q.v. ). 

The  representations  of  Apollo  in  ancient  art 
are  almost  innumerable.  As  Apollo  Agyieus,  he 
was  worshiped  in  the  form  of  a  conical  stone. 
In  general,  two  chief  types  can  be  distin- 
guished. As  a  nude  youth,  the  ideal  of  youthful 
strength  and  beauty.  This  can  be  traced  from 
the  rude  statues  of  archaic  art,  of  Melos,  Thera, 
and  Orchomenus,  through  the  Pa\-ne-Knight 
bronze,  and  the  Choiseul-Gouffier  marble  in  the 
British  Museum,  to  the  almost  effeminate  Uye 
of  the  Apollo  Sauroctonos  (the  lizard-slayer) 
of  Praxiteles,  or  the  glorious  divinity  of  the 
Apollo  of  the  altar  frieze  from  Pergamon  (q.v.). 
The  other  type  represents  the  god  as  clad  in  the 
long  robe  of  the  musician  playing  on  the  lyre, 
as  he  appears  in  the  st.itue  in  the  Vatican, 
which  is  probably  a  copy  of  the  work  of  Scopas. 
The  special  attributes  of  Apollo  are  the  bow 
and  quiver,  the  laurel  and  the  lyre.  Con- 
sult: Overbeck,  Griechische  Kunstniythologie 
(Leipzig,  1871-89)  ;  and  Wernicke  in  the  Pauly- 
Wissowa  RealencykloiHidic  der  klassischen  Alter- 
tum.strisscnschnft    (Stuttgart,  1000). 

APOLLO  BELVEDERE,  belvada'ra.  A  cele- 
brated statue  of  antiquity,  probably  found  at 
Grotto  Ferrata  (or  possibly  at  Porto  d'Anzio), 
and  in  1503  placed  in  the  Belvedere  of  the  Vati- 
can hy  Pope  Julius  II.  The  left  hand  and  right 
forearm  were  restored  by  Jlontorsoli,  a  pupil 
of  Jlichelangelo.  The  right  hand  originally  held 
a  laurel  branch  wound  with  fillets,  while  the 
presence  of  the  quiver  shows  that  the  left  raised 
the  bow.  The  oegis,  which  has  been  restored 
in  the  left  hand,  on  the  evidence  of  a  bronze 
statuette,  is  not  known  as  an  attribute  of 
Apollo,  nor  is  its  presence  in  the  statuette 
proved.  The  beautiful  face  expresses  divine 
wrath  and  contempt.  The  god,  clad  only  in  the 
chlamys  (q.v.),  is  moving  forward  against  the 
powers  of  evil  to  rescue  the  distressed.  This 
statue  was  once  regarded  as  the  highest  type 
of  Greek  art,  but  it  has  long  been  known  to  be 
only  a  careful  Roman  copy  of  a  Greek  original, 
whieh  cannot  well  be  earlier  than  the  latter  part 
of  the  Fourth  Century  n.c.  (possibly  by  Leo- 
chares),  while  many  good  authorities  regard  it 
as  belonging  to  the  Third,  or  even  Second  Cen- 
tury B.C. 

APOLLO  CITH'ARCE'DTJS  (Gk.  Ki9ap¥«6j, 
kithnrOdos.  harper,  from  xiOdpa,  kitlinrn,  lyre  + 
doi56t,  anidos,  singer).  Apollo,  in  his  function 
of  God  of  Music.     Two  famous  statues  of  him  in 


this  capacity  are  in  existence:  one  at  the  Vati- 
can, the  other  at  the  Munich  Glj-ptothek,  both 
of  uncertain  date  and  origin. 

APOLLO  CLXJB.  A  Seventeenth-Century  lit- 
erary coterie,  resembling  the  Elizabethans' 
'Areopagus,'  or  that  still  more  famous  gather- 
ing which,  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,  surround- 
ed Dr.  Johnson.  Among  its  members  were  Ben 
Jonson,  Robert  Herrick,  Randolph,  and  other 
poets  and  pamphleteers.  Its  meeting-place  was 
the  Devil  Tavern  at  Temple  Bar. 

AP'OLLODO'RTJS  ( Gk.  'AroWddupos.  Apollo- 
doro^).  (1)  An  Athenian  painter  of  the  Fifth 
Century  .n.c..  an  elder  contemporary  of  Zeuxis. 
He  is  said  to  have  introduced  the  rendering  of 
light  and  shade  in  place  of  the  flat  coloring  of 
his  predecessors.  (2)  A  celebrated  architect 
of  the  early  part  of  the  Second  Century,  a.d., 
emplojed  by  the  Emperor  Trajan  in  the  con- 
struction of  his  bridge  over  the  Danube,  in  that 
of  the  Forum  called  the  Forum  of  Trajan,  and 
other  works  in  Rome.  His  severe  censure  on 
some  plans  of  the  Emperor  Hadrian  caused 
Apollodorus's  banishment  and  death.  (3)  A 
Greek  grammarian  of  the  Second  Century  B.C. 
He  studied  philosophy  in  his  native  Athens, 
and  then  joined  the  Alexandrian  scholars  about 
Aristarchus;  wrote  a  chronicle  in  iambic  verse 
and  several  grammatical  works.  His  greatest 
work  was  Oh  the  Gods,  apparently  a  history 
of  the  Greek  religion,  though  its  exact  nature 
can  only  be  conjectured  from  scattered  notices. 
The  mythographical  handbook  which  began  with 
the  origin  of  the  gods,  and  ended  with  the 
story  of  Troy,  though  it  bears  the  name  of 
Apollodorus,  is  certainly  a  compilation  of  a 
later  date. 

AP'OLLO'NIA  (Gk.  'AwoWuvia).  The  name 
of  more  than  thirty  ancient  cities.  (I)  In 
Illyria.  on  the  Aoiis,  founded  by  emigrants  from 
Corinth  and  Corcyra.  commercially  prosperous, 
and  towards  the  end  of  the  Ronuin  Empire  a 
seat  of  literature  and  philosophy.  12)  In  Thra- 
cia  (afterwards  .Sozopolis,  and  now  Sizeboli), 
colonized  by  ililesians,  and  famous  for  a  co- 
lossal statue  of  Apollo,  by  Calamis,  which 
was  remo\ed  to  Rome.  (3)  The  port  of  Gyrene 
(afterwards  Sozusa,  and  now  JIarsa  Suza), 
which  outgrew  Cyrene  itself,  and  left  evidences 
of  its  magnificence  in  the  ruins  of  its  public 
buildings.  (4)  A  city  of  Macedonia,  referred 
to  in  Acts  xvii.  1  as  one  of  the  stations  on  the 
road  from  Amphipolis  to  Thessalonica.  Its  ex- 
act position  is  not  known.  It  was.  doubtless, 
on  the  celebrated  Via  Egnatia,  probably  south  of 
and  near  to  the  present  Gol  (Lake)  Beshik. 
Little  is  known  of  its  history. 

AP'OLLO'NIXJS  ( Gk.  'AiroWdino!, Apollonios ) . 
An  Alexandrian  scholar,  son  of  Arcliibius.  He 
lived  toward  the  end  of  the  First  Century  a.d., 
and  compiled  a  lexicon  of  Homeric  words,  tlie 
main  sources  of  which  were  Apion's  Glos.iarii, 
and  the  commentaries  of  Aristarchus  and  Helio- 
dorus.  Though  it  has  come  down  to  us  in 
abridged  and  otherwise  imperfect  form,  this 
work  is  valuable  for  the  exegetical  study  of 
Homer. 

APOLLONIUS,  OF  Perga.  A  mathematician 
and  younger  contemporary  of  Archimedes  and 
Eratosthenes.  Born  at 'Perga,  in  Pamphylia,  he 
lived,  during  the  years  of  his  activity  as  a 
scholar,  which  were  approximately  from  B.C.  247 


APOLLO   BELVEDERE 

IN  THE    BELVEDERE   OF  THE   VATICAN 


APOLLONIUS. 


655 


APOLLONIUS  DYSCOLUS. 


to  205.  at  Alexandria  and  Pcr^'anmin.  His 
priniipal  work  was  a  treatise  on  Conic  Sections, 
in  eiulit  books,  the  first  four  of  which,  accom- 
panied by  a  sixth-century  conunentary  on 
same  by  Eutocius,  have  come  down  to  us  in  the 
original  Greek.  Books  I. -VII.  were  twice  trans- 
lated into  Arabic  in  the  Ninth  an<I  Tenth  cen- 
turies, and  from  one  of  these  Arabic  transla- 
tions there  is  a  Latin  translation  of  Books 
V.-VII.  Of  Book  VIII.  there  exist  only  certain 
lemmata  of  Pappus,  dating  from  tlie  Third  and 
Fourth  centuries  a.d.  Tliis  work,  containing  four 
hundred  problems,  was  so  complete  that  it  left 
little  f(U-  his  successors  to  improve.  He  wrote  on 
the  methods  of  arithmetic  calculation,  on  statics, 
the  stations  and  I'cyressions  of  the  planets  (a 
work  upon  which  Ptolemj'  drew  in  writing 
the  Almagefit) ,  and  on  transversals  of  conies, 
which  laid  the  foundation  for  the  geometry  of 
position.  Among  his  other  works  deserving  men- 
tion are:  De  Sectioiie  tipntrii,  Dc  Sectione  Deter- 
miiKitu,  and  De  Traclionibiis.  Apollonius's 
problem,  "To  draw  a  circle  tangent  to  three 
given  circles  in  a  plane,"  found  in  his  treatise 
on  Contact,  has  been  solved  by  Newton,  Vieta, 
and  others.  Consult:  Halley,  Opera  ct  t^tiidia 
(Oxford,  LSIO),  which  is  the'best  edition  of  the 
e.xtant  works  of  Apollonius:  Heisberg,  ApoHonii 
Pergwi  qiiw  (IrcFce  Exfttant  Opera  (Leipzig,  1801- 
93).  T.  L.  Heath's  Cambridge  edition  also  de- 
serves mention. 

APOLLONIUS,  OF  Tyana.  A  native  of 
Tyana,  in  Cappadocia,  who  lived  in  the  time  of 
Christ.  He  was  a  zealous  follower  of  the  doc- 
trines of  Pythagoras.  He  traveled  through  Asia 
to  Nineveh  and  Babylon,  thence  to  India, 
where,  at  the  court  of  King  Pliraortes,  he  met 
.larclius,  the  princijial  Brahmin.  \\'hen  Apollo- 
nius returned  from  tliis  pilgrimage,  his  fame  as 
a  wise  man  was  greatly  increased;  the  people 
regarded  him  as  a  worker  of  miracles  and  a  di- 
vine being,  and  princes  were  glad  to  entertain 
him  at  their  courts.  He  himself  seems  to  have 
claimed  insight  into  futurity,  rather  than  the 
power  of  working  miracles.  Yet  in  Rome  it 
was  claimed  that  he  raised  a  young  woman  from 
the  dead.  He  was  acquitted  of  treason  by  Nero, 
because  the  indictment  had  vanished  from  the 
paper.  After  extensive  travels  in  Spain,  Italy, 
Greece,  and  Ethiopia,  he  was  accused  of  having 
taken  part  in  an  insurrection  against  Domitian. 
He  appeared  before  the  tribunal,  but  soon 
miraculously  vanished.  Ultimately,  he  appears 
to  have  settled  in  Ephesus,  where  he  opened  a 
Pythagorean  school,  and  continued  his  teaching 
until  he  died,  nearly  one  luindred  years  old.  His 
history  was  written  by  Philostratus  (q.v.),  but 
is  plainly  a  religious  novel  intended  for  the  en- 
tertainment of  Julia,  wife  of  the  Emperor 
Severus,  who,  however,  died  ere  its  completion. 
The  travels  of  the  Apostle  Paul  are  a  more  likely 
inspiration  to  this  work  than  the  Gosi)el  narra- 
tive of  Christ.  It  contains  a  mass  of  absurdi- 
ties and  fables,  through  which  an  outline  of 
historical  facts  and  the  real  character  of  the 
man  are  sufficiently  discernible.  Hicroclcs.  a 
heathen  statesman  and  opponent  of  Christianity, 
wrote,  in  the  Third  Century,  a  work  on  tlie  life 
and  doctrines  of  Apollonius,  with  a  view  to 
prove  their  superiority  to  the  doctrine  of  Christ. 
In  modern  times,  the  notorious  English  free- 
thinker Blount,  and  Voltaire  in  France,  have 
renewed  the   attempt.      Consult:    B.   L.   Gilder- 


sleeve,  Essays  and  t-tudies  (New  York,  1890), 
and  L.  Dyer,  Studies  of  the  Gods  in  Greece  (New 
York,  1804)  ;  and  for  the  life  of  Aj)ollimins, 
Philostratus  in  the  Teubner  series.  Vol.  I.  (Leip- 
zig, 1870-71):  French  translation,  A.  Chassang 
(Paris,  1802):  German  translation,  E.  Baltzer 
(Rudolstadt,  1883);  also  the  famous  ess;iy  of 
F.  C.  Baur,  "Apollonius  von  Tyana  und  Christ- 
us,"  in  Drei  Abhandliinffcn  (ed.  Zeller,  Leipzig, 
1876)  ;  O.  de  B.  Priaul.x,  The  Indian  Trarels  of 
Apollonius  of  Tyana  (London,  1873);  D.  M. 
Tredwell,  A  Sketch  of  the  Life  of  Apollonius  of 
Tyana  {New  York,  1880)  ;  G.  R.  S.  Mead,  Apol- 
lonius of  Tyana    (London,   1001). 

APOLLONIUS,  OF  Tyke.  The  hero  of  a 
Greek  romame  now  lost,  which  in  a  Latin  ver- 
sion enjoyed  great  popularity  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
and  was  translated  into  almost  all  the  languages 
of  \\'estern  Europe.  In  it  are  related  tlie  ro- 
mantic adventures  which  befell  Apollonius,  a 
Syrian  prince,  previous  to  his  marriage  with 
the  daughter  of  King  Alcistrates,  of  Cyrene.  To 
these  are  added  the  adventures  of  his  wife,  who 
was  parted  from  him  by  apparent  death,  as 
well  as  those  of  his  daughter.  Tarsia,  who 
was  carried  oft'  by  pirates  and  sold  in  Mytilene. 
Tlie  work  closes  with  the  reunion  of  the  whole 
family.  The  original  Greek  work  belonged  to 
the  Third  Century  a.d.,  and  showed  close  rela- 
tions with  the  Ephesiaca  of  Xenophon  of  Ephe- 
sus. The  Latin  version  was  made  by  a  Chris- 
tian, not  earlier  than  the  Fifth  Century.  The 
account  given  in  the  (lesta  Romanorum  and  the 
part  contained  in  the  Pantheon  of  Godfrey  of 
Viterbo  (c.1185)  are  drawn  from  this  early 
translation.  The  earliest  lransl:ition  from  the 
Latin  was  into  Anglo-Saxon  in  the  Ninth  and 
Tenth  centuries;  an  early  English  rhymed  ver- 
sion of  the  end  of  the  Fourteenth  Century  is  to 
be  found  in  Gower's  Confessio  Amantis;  and  the 
materials  are  employed  in  Shakespeare's  Pericles. 
About  1300,  Heinrich  von  der  Neuenstadt  pro- 
duced a  poetical  version  in  over  twenty  thousand 
verses,  based  proliably  on  the  account  in  the 
Gesta  Romanorum.  The  Bisturi  des  Kiiniyes 
Apollonii,  published  1470,  is  translated  from 
Godfrey  of  Viterbo,  as  is  the  Spanish  version  of 
the  Thirteenth  Century,  printed  in  Sanchez's 
C'olecoidn  de  Poesias  Castellanas  (Paris,  1842). 
Several  French  and  Italian  versions  have  been 
made  from  tlie  same  source.  There  are  also 
middle  and  modern  Greek  versions  extant.  The 
Latin  translation  from  the  Greek  original  is 
edited  by  Riese,  Historia  Apollonii  Ueyis  Tyri 
(2d  ed.  Leipzig,  1803).  Consult  in  general: 
Rohde,  Der  griechische  Roman  und  seine  ] Orliiu- 
fer  (Leipzio,  1000)  ;  Hagen,  Der  Roman  com 
Konig  Apollonius  in  seinen  rerschiedenen  Bear- 
beitungen  (Berlin,  1878);  Simrock,  Quellen  des 
Shakespeare    (Bonn.   1872). 

APOLLONIUS  DYS'COLUS  (Gk.  'AjtoXXu- 
vios  AwKoXos,  ApollOnios  Dyskolos) .  An  Alexan- 
drian scholar  who  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the 
Second  Century  a.d.  He  and  his  son,  Herodian, 
were  the  first  and  the  greatest  of  Circek  gram- 
marians. Apollonius  reduced  grammar  to  a 
system  and  made  a  science  of  syntax,  and 
among  the  later  grammarians  he  passed  as  an 
authority  on  questions  of  syntax,  and  the  theo- 
retical part  of  grammar.  He  wrote  a  large 
number  of  works,  but  the  greater  ])orti(Ui  of  them 
perished  early.  There  are  extant  four:  those 
on  Pronouns,  on  Conjunctions,  on  Adcerbs,  and 


APOLLONIUS  DYSCOLUS. 


656 


APOLOGY. 


on  the  Syntax  of  the  Parts  of  Sficcch.  It  is  not 
clear  whether  the  surname  Dyscolns  (the  'crab- 
bed") had  reference  to  his  literary  style  or  to 
his  disposition  of  mind. 

APOLLONIUS  MO'LON.  A  Greek  rheto- 
rician, born  at  Alabanda,  in  Caria.  He  taught 
rhetoric  at  Rhodes,  and  was  a  distinguished 
pleader  in  the  courts  of  justice.  In  B.C.  81, 
being  sent  to  Rome  as  an  ambassador  by  the 
Rhodians,  lie  addressed  the  Roman  Senate  in 
Greek.  He  stayed  some  time  at  Rome,  and  was 
there  heard  by  Cicero,  who  afterwards  (B.C.  78) 
visited  him  at  Rhodes.  Other  distinguished 
Romans,  among  them  Cfesar.  also  attended  his 
lectures. 


APOLLONIUS  RHO'DIUS  (c.295  c.il5  B.C.) . 
An  epic  poet,  son  of  Silleus    (or  Illeus).  born  at 
Alexandria.     As  a  youth  lie  was  the  pupil  of  Calli- 
niaehus,  but  afterwards  entered  into  a  bitter  strife 
with  his  former  teacher,  on  literary  grounds.    Cal- 
limachus  was  the  champion  of  the  short  poem  m 
the  artiiicial  and  learned  style,  while  Apollonius 
preferred  the  lengthy  poem  in  the  simple  style 
of  Homer.    The  Argo'naiitUv.  the  most  important 
and  onlv  extant  poem  of  Apollonius,  was  in  part 
written' while  the  author  was  at  Alexandria,  and 
was  received  with  scorn  by  the  audience  there. 
Apollonius  then  withdrew  to  Rhodes,  revised  his 
poem,  and  produced  it  with  great  acclaim.      He 
received     citizenship     at     Rhodes,     set     up     a 
school  of  rhetoric  there,  and  styled  himself  the 
Rhodiait.     Later  in  life  he   is  said  to  have  re- 
turned   to    Alexandria,    and    to    have    succeeded 
Eratosthenes    as    librarian — an    office    which    he 
held  till  his  death.     The  Aiiivnaiitica  is  an  epic 
poem  in  four  books,  containing  an  account  of  the 
expedition  of  the  Argonauts  in  quest  of  the  Gol- 
den Fleece.    The  first  two  books  describe  the  de- 
parture of  the  expedition  and  the  adventures  on 
the  wav;  the  third  book  tells  of  the  passion  of 
Medea;"  the  fourth  book  gives  an  account  of  the 
return  home.     The  poem  imitates  the  language 
and  stvle  of  Homer,  but  it  is  laliored  and  lacks 
spirit  "and    movement.      The    Aryommtica    was 
much  admired  bv  the  Romans,  being  translated 
at    least    once,    and    often    imitated    by    them. 
Apollonius  wrote  other  works   in  verse  and   in 
prose.     Critical  edition  l>y  Merkel   (1854). 

APOL'LOS  (Gk. 'AiroXXiis,  an  abbreviation  of 
AttoXXwkos,  ApuUoHios).  An  early  Christian  mis- 
sionary and  companion  of  Saint  Paul.  He  was 
an  \lexandrian,  converted  probably  in  Alexandria 
by  followers  of  John  the  Baptist,  and  at  once 
threw  himself  with  enthusiasm  into  the  work 
of  propagating  the  new  faith.  He  came  to  Ephe- 
sus  and  there  gladlv  accepted  the  fuller  instruc- 
tion which  he  received  from  Priscilla  and 
Aquila.  Thus  equipped,  he  passed  on  to 
Corinth  where  he  labored  with  great  success 
(  \cts  xviii.  24-28).  But  unhappily,  there  were 
those  there  who  made  a  party  called  by  his 
name  and  so  contributed  to  the  factional 
troubles  in  the  Corinthian  Onirch.  From  Corinth 
he  went  to  Ephesus.  But  his  Corinthi.an  ad- 
mirers, who  preferred  his  more  rhetorical  man- 
ner of  preaching  to  the  simpler  manner  of  Paul, 
desired  his  return,  and  he  i>romised  to  come  a 
little  later  (I.  Cor.  i.  10-12:  iii.  4-6;  xvi.  12). 
The  last  mention  of  him  in  the  New  Testament 
(Titus  iii  13)  shows  him  about  to  undertake 
a  journev  to  Crete.  According  to  tradition  he 
became  the  first  bishop  of  Crete. 


APOLLO  SAUROC'TONOS  (Lizard  killer) . 
A  statue  of  the  youthful  Apollo  in  the  Vatican 
— a  copy  of  a  bronze  of  Praxiteles.  It  repre- 
sents the  god  leaning  against  a  tree,  on  the 
point  of  stab1>ing  a  lizard  with  a  dart  as  tlie 
reptile  crawls  up  the  trunk. 

APOLLYON,  a-pOl'li-on  or  a-p6l'yun  (Gk. 
ATToWioiy,  from  diroWivai,  apolhjmi,  to  destroy). 
A  designation  used  (Rev.  ix.  3-11)  to  trans- 
late the  Hebrew  Abaddon,  which  means  destruc- 
tion, and  which  was  one  of  the  names  given  to  the 
great  gathering  place  of  the  dead,  more  com- 
monly known  as  Sheol.  Apollyon  is  personified 
as  the  angel  having  dominion  over  the  locusts 
coming  up  out  of  the  'bottomless  pit'  at  the 
sound  of  the  fifth  trumpet  on  the  day  of  judg- 
ment. In  the  Apocrypha  (Tobitiii.  8)  the  slayer 
of  the  seven  husbands  of  Sarah,  daughter  of 
Raguel,  is  called  Asmodeus,  who  is  by  some 
critics  identified  with  Abaddon,  or  Apollyon.  In 
Talmudic  literature  (Treatise  Shabbnth  55»). 
Abaddon  is  the  name  given  to  the  angel  who  with 
ilaweth.  i.e.  'death,'  stands  over  the  six  angels 
of  destruction,  who  aid  God  in  the  punishment 
of  the  wicked. 


AP'OLO'GIA  PRO  VI'TA  SU'A  (Lat., 
defense  concerning  his  life).  .John  Henry  (after- 
wards Cardinal)  Newman's  defense  of  his  posi- 
tion in  the  "Oxford  movement."  Its  immediate 
cause  was  an  accusation  made  by  Charles  Kings- 
ley,  that,  "Truth  for  its  own  sake  has  never  been 
a 'virtue  with  the  Roman  clergy.  Father  New- 
man informs  us  that  it  need  not  and,  on  the 
whole,  ought  not  to  be."  Newman  first  demand- 
ed a  substantiation  or  a  retraction  of  this 
charge;  and,  unable  to  obtain  either,  published 
the  Apolof/in. 

APOL'OGIE  rOK  PO'ETRY.  A  famous 
work  written  by  Sir  Pliilip  Sidney  in  1580,  and 
published  in  15'95,  in  answer  to  an  attack  on  the 
plavhouses  entitled  The  Hchool  of  Abuse,  dedi- 
cated to  him  without  his  consent,  by  Stephen 
Gosson.  It  is  a  defense  and  eulogy-  of  the  art  of 
poetry,  closely  modeled  after  Aristotle's  Poetics, 
and  'couched'  in  the  exaggerated  Elizabethan 
style. 

AP'OLOGUE  (Gk.  iTr6\oyos,  apologos) .  A  fa- 
ble, parable,  or  short  story,  intended  to  serve 
as  a  pleasant  vehicle  of  some  moral  doctrine. 
One  of  the  oldest  and  best  apologues  or  parables 
is  that  by  Jotham,  as  given  in  the  book  of 
Judges  (ix.  7-15).  Another  celebrated  apo- 
logiie  is  that  of  the  "belly  and  the  members,"  re- 
lated by  the  patrician  ileiienius  Agrippa.  .Esop's 
fables  have  enjoyed  a  world-wide  reputation. 
Luther  held  such  "an  opinion  of  the  value  of  the 
apologue  as  a  vehicle  of  moral  truth,  that  he 
edited  a  revised  JEsop.  for  which  he  wrote  a  char- 
acteristic preface.  He  says:  "In  doing  this,  I 
have  especiallv  cared  for  young  people,  that  they 
inav  receive  instruction  in  a  style  suitable  to 
the'ir  a"e,  which  is  naturally  fond  of  all  kinds  of 
fiction;"  and  I  have  wished  to  gratify  this 
natural  taste  without  indulging  anything  that  is 
bad."  Consult  .Jacol).  Introduction  to  the  Fa- 
hies  of  .Esop   (New  York.  189fi). 

APOL'OGY  ( Gk.  diro\oyla,  apologia,  a  speech 
in  defense,  defense ) .  A  term  now  coimnonly  un- 
derstood as  svnonymous  with  an  excuse  for 
breach  of  an  engagement,  etc.,  but  originally  used 
■IS  tlu-  title  of'a'iiv  work  written  in  defense  of 
certain  doctrines,  as  in  the  Apology  of  Socrates, 


APOLOGY. 


657 


APOPLEXY. 


ascribed  to  Plato  and  Xenoplion;  the  Ajioloiiii 
for  the  Christians,  by  TertuUian,  and  in  nianv 
oilier  defenses  of  tlie  Christians,  written  by 
Justin  Martyr,  Aristides,  Athenagoras,  Tatian, 
Theopliilus,  Orii;en,  Kusebius,  ^Minueius  Felix, 
Arnobius,  Lactantius.  Augustine,  Orosius.  and 
others.  The  attacks  parried  or  retorted  in  these 
apologetieal  works  are  suoli  as  eliarges  of  athe- 
ism, want  of  philosophical  knowledge,  anti- 
social tenets,  etc.  Both  the  charges  and  the  refu- 
tations Iirought  forward  serve  to  give  us  an 
insight  into  tlie  character  of  the  times  when 
these  works  were  written.  Thus,  in  the  Apologj- 
by  TertuUian,  it  is  curious  to  )5nd  a  formal  argu- 
ment employed  to  refute  the  assertion  that  the 
spread  of  Christianity  was  the  cause  of  "earth- 
quakes" and  other  natural  phenomena  which  had 
occurred  in  some  parts  of  the  Roman  Empire. 
After  the  Fourth  Century,  when  tlie  Church 
was  made  dominant  under  the  Roman  Emperors, 
apologetieal  writings  were  less  called  for;  but 
Bartholus  Edessenus  and  Raymundus  Martinus 
wrote  against  the  Jews  and  the  Jlohammedans. 
In  the  Fifteenth  Century,  when  the  revival  of 
learning  placed  Christianity  in  apparent  oppo- 
sition to  the  Platonic  philosophy,  ilarsilius 
Ficinus  wrote  in  defense  of  revelation:  and,  some 
time  after  the  Reformation,  the  spread  of  free- 
thinking  and  skepticism  in  England  was  opposed 
by  a  variety  of  apologetieal  works,  chiefly  main- 
taining the  points  that  Christianity  is  a  divine 
revelation,  Christ  a  divine  Messenger,  and  His 
Church  a  divine  institution.  The  defense  of 
Christianity  on  grounds  of  reason  came  now  to 
be  treated  as  a  distinct  branch  of  theology,  under 
the  name  of  Apologetics.  Among  the  numerous 
apologetic  works  by  Protestants  may  be  men- 
tioned those  by  Grotius  (De  Veritate,  etc./,  But- 
ler (Aniilofjy  of  Religion,  yntiiral  and  Revealed ), 
Lardner  {('redibilitu  of  the  Gospel  History), 
L"land,  Addison  Soame  .Tenyns  (Intermil  Evi- 
dences of  the  Christian  Religion) ,  Hugh  Farmer, 
Bishop  Watson  {Apology  for  Christianity) , 
Paley  ( h'videnees  of  Christianity,  and  Horw 
Panlin(s).  Among  Roman  Catholic  apologetic 
writers  the  most  eminent  are  Pascal.  Houteville. 
Guenee,  Bergier,  Mayr,  and  Chateaubriand. 

In  the  Nineteenth  Century  a  great  number  of 
apologetic  works  liy  Xeaiider,  Tholuck,  and 
others  were  called  forth  in  reply  to  Strauss's 
Das  Lehcn  Jcsu  and  tlie  Mc  dc  Jisiis  by  .Joseph 
Ernest  Renan.  Later  came  the  attacks  from  ag- 
nostic, materialistic,  and  other  philosophi-scien- 
tific  sources,  and  these  have  been  replied  to  by 
Christian  scholars,  as  A.  Ebraid,  Apologetics, 
second  edition  (Giitersloh,  1878-801:  English 
translations,  three  volumes  (Edinburgh,  1886- 
87);  P.  Schauz  (R.  C.)  (Freiburg.  1805-98); 
English  translations,  three  volumes  (Dublin, 
1807);  A.  B.  Bruce,  Apologetics  (Xew  York, 
1892).  Manifestly  these  works  are  written  to 
meet  a  passing  need,  and  few  of  them  retain 
much  value  after  a  few  years. 

AP'OMOR'PHINE  (Gk.  an6,  npo.  away 
from  -\-  morphine) .  .-\n  artificial  alkaloid  made 
by  heating  morphine  with  hydvoclilovic  acid  un- 
der pressure.  The  salt  of  apomorphine  em- 
ployed in  medicine  is  the  hydrochlorate.  which 
occurs  in  fine  whitish,  needle-shaped  crystals 
that  rapidly  absorb  moisture  from  the  air, 
becoming  green.  It  is  the  best-known  of  the  so- 
called  systemic  emetics  (see  Emetic),  and 
causes  vomiting  promptly,  within  five  to  twenty 


minutes,  whether  given  by  mouth  or  hypoder- 
inically.  This  emesis  is  due  to  direct  action  on 
tlie  vomiting  centre  in  the  medulla.  It  is  re- 
peated frequently,  with  little  nausea,  after  the 
stomach  has  been  emptied,  and  is  accompanied 
by  marked  muscular  rela.xation.  The  respira- 
tion and  circulation  are  also  depressed,  and  large 
doses  may  cause  convulsions,  followed  by  paraly- 
sis. As  an  emetic  it  is  used  when  sudden  action 
is  desired  or  when  swallowing  is  difficult  or  im- 
possible. It  is  used  also  in  small  do.ses  as  a 
sedative  expectorant.  (See  Expectorant.)  It 
has  also  been  recommended  as  a  hypnotic,  and 
is  said  to  act  usually  within  ten  or  fifteen 
minutes.  For  this  inirpose  a  small  dose  is  given 
hypodermically  after  lying  down.  If  the  patient 
moves  about  after  taking  it,  vomiting  is  said  to 
be  likely  to  occur. 

AP'ONEURO'SIS  (Gk.  dTowiJpuo-is.  end  of  a 
muscle  where  it  becomes  tendon,  from  itrb.  apo, 
away  -f  pevpov.  neuron,  sinew,  tendon).  An  ana- 
tomical term  for  a  sheet-like  expansion  of  strong 
fibrous  tissue,  of  which  there  are  many  examples 
in  the  human  body.  For  the  sake  of  convenience, 
it  is  generally  confined  to  expansions  from  the 
tendons  of  muscles,  as  the  lumbar  aponeurosis. 
If  a  tendon  is  very  broad  and  expanded,  as  that  of 
the  external  oblique  muscle  of  the  abdomen,  it  is 
said  to  be  aponeurotic.  Some  muscles,  as  those 
on  the  shoulder-blade,  are  partially  covered  with 
a  tendinous  expansion,  to  which  some  of  their 
fibres  are  attached:  this  is  termed  the  aponeu- 
rotic origin  of  the  muscle;  it  gives  the  muscle  a 
more  extensive  attachment,  without  adding  ma- 
terially to  weight. 

APOPH'YLLITE  (Gk,  djr6,  apo,  away  + 
(puWov.  phyllitn,  leaf).  A  hydrated  potassium- 
calcium  silicate  that  crystallizes  in  the  tetrago- 
nal system,  and  belongs  to  the  zeolite  family.  It 
has  a  pearly  lustre,  and  in  color  is  usually  white 
or  grayish,  but  sometimes  of  a  light  green,  yel- 
low, or  red  tint.  Tliis  mineral  occurs  usually  in 
basalt,  and  the  older  rocks,  with  other  members 
of  the  zeolites  in  Greenland,  Iceland,  India,  and 
at  Bergen  Hill,  N.  J.,  in  the  United  States,  where 
large  crystals  were  found  during  the  construction 
of  the  tunnel  there,  and  also  in  the  Lake  Supe- 
rior region.  It  is  named  from  its  tendency  to 
exfoliate  under  the  blow])i]ie. 

AP'OPLEXY  ((ik.  dTToirXjjJia,  apoplexia,  from 
dri,  away  +  irXiJo-crtiv,  plvssein,  to  strike).  A 
term  applied  to  an  engorgement  of  blood,  with 
or  without  extravasation,  in  or  ujjon  any  organ, 
as  tlie  lirain  {cerebral  apoplexy),  the  spinal  cord 
or  lungs  {pulmonary  apoplexy).  As  popularly 
used,  the  term  denotes  vaguely  a  condition  aris- 
ing from  some  disturbance  of  the  brain  cir- 
culation. In  medicine  three  distinct  affec- 
tions of  the  brain  circulation  are  under- 
stood: cerebral  embolism,  cerebral  thrombo- 
sis, and  cerebral  hemorrhage.  These  differ  in 
their  cause  and  somewhat  in  their  symptoms. 
In  cerebral  embolism  there  is  a  sudden  blocking 
up  of  one  of  the  blood  vessels  of  the  brain 
by  some  foreign  liody  in  the  circulating  blood. 
Such  foreign  bodies  frequently  come  from  dis- 
eases of  the  joints  or  pleura',  or  sometimes  from 
the  placenta  in  pregnant  women ;  but  more  often 
from  the  valves  of  the  heart,  which  in  a  number 
of  septic  diseases,  as  rheumatism,  t.yphoid,  gon- 
orrhea, etc.,  have  minute  growths  upon  them. 
These  l)ecome  detached,  and  are  swept  into  the 
circulation,   and  may   block   up  a  brain   artery. 


APOPLEXY. 


658 


APOSTLE. 


The  symptoms  eome  on  acutely,  may  occur  in 
the  young  or  old,  and  may  be  slight,  if  a  small 
vessel  is  blocked,  or  severe  if  the  vessel  is  large. 
There  may  be  sudden  dizziness  and  weakness, 
going  on  to  slight  convulsive  movements  of  one 
side  of  the  body  and  loss  of  consciousness.  This 
is  accompanied  by  deep,  noisy  breathing,  a  slow- 
ing of  the  pulse,  and  perhaps  a  slight  rise  in 
temperature.  The  person  may  soon  recover,  usu- 
ally with  some  weakness  in  some  part  of  the 
body,  or  with  a  slight  paralysis  of  some  of  the 
muscles  of  the  leg.  arm.  or  face.  At  times  the 
whole  of  one  side  of  the  body  may  remain  para- 
lyzed. 

Cerebral  throtnbosis  is  due  to  a  disease  of  the 
blood  vessels  themselves,  during  which  blood 
clots  may  form  in  them,  and  thus  cut  off  a  por- 
tion of  the  brain  substance  from  its  normal  sup- 
ply of  blood.  Syphilis  is  the  chief  cause,  espe- 
cially in  most  cases  of  apoplexy  under  forty  years 
of  age.  The  symptoms  are  apt  to  come  on  more 
gradually.  Follo\ving  a  week  of  headache,  dizzi- 
ness, and  nausea,  may  occur  peculiar  sensations 
of  prickling  in  the  fingers;  convulsive  move- 
ments in  some  of  the  muscles,  and  twitchings  or 
gradually  increasing  lameness,  or  loss  of  muscu- 
lar strength.  At  the  time  of  attack  the  symp- 
toms resemble  those  of  embolism. 

Cerebral  hemorrhage  is  the  most  important 
cause  of  apoplexy.  It  occurs  from  the  rupture  of 
a  blood  vessel  in  the  brain  substance,  and  the 
severity  of  the  svmptoms  depends  partly  on  the 
amount  of  the  hemorrhage,  largely  on  the  part 
of  the  brain  involved.  Hemorrhage  is  more  apt 
to  occur  in  the  aged,  and  it  is  a  frequent  cause  of 
death  in  those  over  sixty  years  of  age.  The  symp- 
toms may  he  sudden  and  terminate  in  death,  or 
there  may  be  several  attacks  of  giddiness  or  col- 
lapse, with  tingling  or  twitchings  of  the  extremi- 
ties, loss  of  speech,  etc.  Patients  may  have  sev- 
eral attacks  and  yet  recover,  with  some  persist- 
ing paralysis  of  one  side  of  the  body  or  of  one 
arm  or  one  leg.  Little  can  be  done  before  a 
physician  comes.  Mustard  baths  to  the  feet  and 
the  application  of  heat  to  the  extremities  may 
help  in  some  cases.  Persons  with  the  "apoplec- 
tic habit"  should  take  special  care  not  to  become 
mentally  disturbed. 

APOPLEXY,  Pabttbiext  .    See  Milk  Fe\-eb. 

APORT'.     See  Helm. 

APOS'PORY  (Gk.  air6.  apo,  away,  from  -r 
ffxApos,  s/ioios,  seed).  A  name  which  literally 
means  "without  spore  reproduction,"  and  which 
refers  to  the  fact  that  in  some  cases  the 
sexual  plant  develops  directly  from  an  asexual 
one  without  the  intervention  of  a  spore.  This 
phenomenon,  like  its  correlative,  Apojami/  (q.v.), 
has  been  especially  observed  among  ferns,  and  the 
list  of  knowTi  forms  which  show  it  is  increasing 
rapidly.  Under  certain  conditions,  which  are 
not  clear,  a  prothallium  (the  sexual  plant i  buds 
directly  from  various  regions  of  the  fern  leaf, 
common  among  which  are  abortive  sporangia  and 
leaf  teeth.  Among  mosses,  cases  of  apospory  have 
been  obsen-ed,  and  have  also  been  induced  arti- 
ficially. In  these  cases  a  sexual  plant  is  devel- 
oped directly  from  the  spore-bearing  structure. 
-Among  seed-plants  apospory  has  not  been  ob- 
served, and  in  the  very  nature  of  things  is  not 
likely  to  be  found,  one  reason  for  this  being  that 
the  -sexual  plant  is  so  very  much  reduced  that  it 
would  hardly  be  observable,  even  if  it  were  to 
appear  vegetatively. 


APOS'TATE  (Gk.  diroo-TdTijt.  apostates,  de- 
serter, renegade,  from  dxA,  apo,  away  +  UrTdmu, 
histanai,  to  place,  to  stand).  Literally,  any  one 
who  changes  his  religion,  whatever  may  be  his 
motive :  but,  by  custom,  a  word  always  used  in  an 
opprobrious  sense,  as  equivalent  to  renegade,  or 
one  who,  in  changing  his  creed,  is  actuated  bv 
unworthy  motives.  In  early  Christian  times,  the 
word  was  applied  to  those  who  abandoned  their 
faith  in  order  to  escape  from  persecution  (see 
Lapsed)  :  but  it  was  also  applied  to  such 
as  rejected  Christianity  on  speculative  grounds, 
as,  for  instance  (though  in  his  case  there  had 
been  no  intelligent  reception  of  Christianity), 
the  Emperor  Julian  was  supposed  to  have  done. 
After  the  Fifth  Century,  when  heathenism  was 
declining,  many  who  had  no  sincere  belief  in 
Christianity,  yet  made  profession  of  it  and  were 
baptized:  these  also  were  styled  apostates.  The 
Roman  Catholic  Church  at  one  period  imposed 
severe  penalties  on  apostasy.  The  apostate  was, 
of  course,  excommunicated,  but  sometimes,  also, 
his  property  was  confiscated,  and  he  himself 
banished,  or  even  put  to  death.  It  has  often 
been  of  great  moment  to  the  fortunes  of  a  na- 
tion that  a  prince  has  changed  his  religion.  The 
most  reno\vned  instance  in  modern  history  is  that 
of  Henry  IV.  of  France.  Those  who  embrace  a 
religious  faith  are  called  "converts'  by  those 
they  join  and  'perverts'  by  those  they  leave. 
The  term  Apost.\st  is  now  employed  commonly, 
and  often  abusively,  as  a  reproach  for  great  or 
sudden  changes  in  political  opinions. 

A  POSTE  RIO'EL     See  A  Priori. 

APOS'TLE  [Gk.  iir6<rTo}ws.apostolos,  one  sent 
forth,  a  delegate,  from  dir6,  apo,  from  -|-  trr^Weiy, 
stellein,  to  send).  The  name  used  in  the  Xew 
Testament  to  designate  specifically  that  group 
of  Christ's  disciples  who  were  called 'by  Him  to 
be  His  more  intimate  companions  during  His 
ministry,  and  to  proclaim,  as  His  representa- 
tives, the  Gospel  to  men.  They  were  twelve  in 
number:  Simon  Peter  (Hebrew  name  Cephas), 
Andrew.  James  (the  son  of  Zebedee),  John 
(brother  of  .James),  Philip,  Bartholomew,  Mat- 
thew ( Hebrew  name  Levi ) ,  Thomas  ( also  called 
Didymus),  James  (the  son  of  Alphipus),  Jude 
( the  son  of  James,  doubtless  to  be  identified  with 
Thaddopus,  named  in  his  place  in  the  lists  of 
Matthew  and  Mark),  Simon  (the  Canaanite,  also 
called  the  Zealot ) .  and  Judas  Iscariot. 

Their  qualifications,  as  understood  by  the  early 
Church,  were  evidently  that  they  should  have 
been  with  Him  during"  His  ministry,  and  have 
seen  Him  after  His  resurrection  (Acts  i.  21,  22: 
"Of  these  which  companied  with  us  all  the  time 
that  the  Lord  Jesus  went  in  and  out  among  us 
.  .  .  must  one  be  a  witness  with  us  of  the 
resurrection").  As  a  result,  however,  of  exer- 
cising its  rights  in  the  election  of  a  substitute 
for  .Judas  Iscariot,  in  order  to  maintain  the 
original  number,  and  as  a  result,  further,  of 
admitting  into  this  number  an  extra  apos- 
tle in  the  person  of  the  divinely  appointed 
Paul,  the  Church  evidently  considered  itself 
justified  in  modifying  these  qualifications, 
so  as  to  adapt  the  office  to  the  needs  of  its  de- 
veloping mission.  As  a  result,  others  prominent 
in  this  work  received  the  name  of  apostle  be- 
sides the  Twelve  and  Paul.  So  James,  the  Lord's 
brother,  head  of  the  Jerusalem  Church,  is  re- 
ferred to  by  Paul  as  an  apostle  (Galatians  i.  10: 
"But   other   of   the   apostles   saw   I   none,   save 


APOSTLE. 


659 


APOSTLES,  ACTS  OF. 


.Tames,  tlif  I-nril's  lirotlu'r."  Nco  also  I.  C'orin- 
tliians  i.\.  5,  in  wliicli  passage  Paul  speaks  of 
his  riftht  to  lead  about  a  wife  "as  well  as  other 
apostles,  and  the  brethren  of  the  Lord,  and 
Cephas,"  a  statement  that  would  seem  to  indi- 
cate th.it  all  the  brethren  of  the  Lord  were  rec- 
ognized as  apostles.)  So  Barnabas,  companion 
with  Paul  in  his  first  mission  tour,  is  designated 
by  Luke  as  an  apostle  (Acts  xiv.  4,  14:  "But 
when  the  apostles,  Barnabas  and  Paul,  heard  of 
it.  the,v  rent  their  garments").  So  perhaps  An- 
dronicus  and  Junias,  kinsmen  and  fellow  prison- 
ers of  Paul's,  are  mentioned  by  him  as  distin- 
guished apostles  (Eom.  xvi.  7:  "Andronious 
and  Junias  .  .  .  who  are  of  note  among  tlie 
apostles").  Possibh',  also.  ApoUos  is  intended 
by  him  to  be  considered  as  an  apostle  together 
with  himself  (L  Cor.  iv.  G,  9,  where  Paul 
speaks  of  God's  setting  forth  "us  the  apostles 
•last  of  all,  as  men  doomed  to  death" ;  and  the 
immediate  context  makes  reference,  apparently, 
to  Apollos  as  the  one  Paul  had  in  mind  besides 
himself).  This  enlarged  application  of  the  term 
is  i-ecognized  by  patristic  writers,  such  as  the 
author  of  the  Didache  and  of  the  Shepherd  of 
Hennas. 

Among  the  credentials  of  the  apostolic  office 
were  apparently  the  ability  to  work  miracles 
(e.g.  IL  Cor.  xii.  12:  "Truly  the  signs  of 
an  apostle  were  wrought  among  you 
by  signs  and  wonders  and  mighty  works")  ;  also 
tiie  conversion  to  God  of  those  to  whom  they 
brought  the  Gospel  (e.g.  L  Cor.  ix.  2:  "The 
seal  of  mine  apostleship  are  .ye  in  the  Lord"). 
If  the  office  possessed  peculiar  rights,  to  these 
might  belong  the  appointment  of  the  original 
officers  of  the  local  churches  (e.g.  Acts  xiv.  23: 
"And  when  the,v  had  appointed  for  them 
elders  in  every  church  .  .  .  "),  and  pos- 
sibly, in  extreme  cases,  the  regulation  of  the 
teaching  and  morals  within  the  churches'  or- 
ganized limits  (e.g.  IL  Thess.  iii.  li:  "Now 
we  command  you.  brethren,  in  the  name  of  our 
Lord  .Jesus  Christ,  that  ye  withdraw  your- 
selves from  everv  brother  th.it  walketh  disor- 
derly, and  not  after  the  tradition  which  they  re- 
ceived of  us").  The  characteristic  duty  of  the 
office  consisted,  most  likely,  in  the  preaciiing  and 
missioning  of  the  Gospel  (e.g.  Acts  vi.  2-4: 
".\nd  the  twelve  .  .  .  said.  It  is  not  fit 
that  we  should  forsake  the  word  of  God  and 
serve  tables."  I.  Cor.  i.  17:  ■'Clirist  sent  me 
not  to  baptize,  but  to  preach  the  Gospel"). 
.\t  the  same  time,  however,  as  to  how  far  the 
apostolate  was  considered  b.v  the  early  Church 
as  an  office  at  all  is  a  question  of  large  debate. 

There  is  no  evidence  of  an.v  division  of  terri- 
tory among  the  Twelve.  The  nearest  approach 
to  this  is  in  the  mutual  understanding  referred 
to  in  (Jai.  ii.  0  ("They  gave  us  the  right 
hand  of  fellowship,  that  we  should  go  unto  the 
Gentiles,  and  the.v  unto  the  circumcision"),  by 
which  Peter  was  recognized  as  the  leader  of  the 
mission  to  the  circumcision,  which  would  natu- 
rally mean,  in  general  terms,  the  Palestinian 
Jews :  and  Paul  and  Barnabas  were  recognized 
as  the  leaders  to  the  uneircumcision,  which  would 
as  naturally  indicate,  generall.v.  the  Gentiles  out- 
side of  Palestine;  and  even  this  was  not  strictly 
carried  out.  since  Paul  began  his  work  in  most 
places  to  which  he  went  by  preaching  in  the 
synagogue,  while  the  address  in  I.  Pet.  would 
imply  that  Peter  had  a  considerable  parish  of 
Gentile  Christians  in  Asia  Jlinor. 


In  IL  Cor.  viii.  23  and  Phil.  ii.  25,  in 
which  passages  Paul  speaks  of  the  messengers 
of  the  churches,  the  word  d7r6irToXos  is  used  in 
its  common  classical  meaning  of  delegate,  and 
in  Heb.  iii.  1,  where  Christ  is  referred  to  as 
"the  Apostle  and  High-Priest  of  our  confes- 
sion," the  word  is  applied  in  the  same  sense, 
from  the  point  of  view  of  Christ's  divine  sending 
into  the  world  (see  John  xvii.  18).  For  de- 
tails of  apostolic  life  and  work,  see  under  indi- 
vidual apostles. 

Bibliography.  In  general,  see  J.  B.  Lightfoot, 
"Excursus  on  Name  and  Office  of  an  Apostle,"  in 
Commentary  on  Oahitians  (London,  1877);  C. 
Weizsacker,  The  Apostolic  Aye,  English  transla- 
tion (Edinburgh,  1894)  ;  A.  Harnack,  Die  Apos- 
lellehre,  second  edition  (Leipzig,  1890)  ;  E. 
Haupt,  Zum  Verstiindnis  des  Apostolals  im 
tieuen  Testament  (Halle,  1896)  ;  A.  V.  G.  Allen, 
Christian  Institutions  (New  York,  1897)  ;  F.  J. 
A.Koit.Ecclesia  (New  York,  1898)  ;  J.  \V.  Fal- 
coner, From  Apostle  to  I'riest  (New  York,  1900). 

APOSTLE  OF  THE  ARDENNES.  Ur'den'. 
An  appellation  given  to  St.  Hubert,  the  son  of 
the  Duke  of  Aquitaine,  in  the  reign  of  Theodorie, 
King  of  the  Franks.  He  was  converted  from  a 
gay  life  by  the  vision  of  a  stag  bearing  a  shining 
cross  between  its  antlers.  He  was  made  bishop 
of  Li&ge  in  70S,  and  died  728.  A  centur,y  after 
his  body  was  transferred  to  the  Benedictine  con- 
vent of  Andoin,  in  the  Ardennes,  which  thence 
received  the  name  of  St.  Hubertus.  It  was  here 
that  he  was  supposed  to  have  seen  the  vision. 

APOSTLE  OF  FREE  TRADE.  A  title 
frequently  applied  to  Richard  Cobden  (q.v.), 
author  of  T)te  Exponent  of  the  Principles  of 
Free  Trade,  for  his  persistent  advocacy  of  the 
repeal  of  the  high-tariff  policy  which  England 
practiced  from  1830  to  184G.  He  gave  utterance 
to  the  strikingly  accurate  prophecy  that  Amer- 
ica must  at  no  distant  date  enter  into  serious 
competition  with  English  products;  that,  in  this 
competition,  England  would  be  heavily  handi- 
capped by  Protection,  and  that  the  soimdest 
policy  for  her  lay  in  the  direction  of  Free  Trade. 
A  fluent  speaker,  he  carried  these  theories  into 
Parliament,  and  was  directly  responsible  for  the 
repeal  of  the  obnoxious  duties  on  corn. 

APOSTLE  OF  IN'FIDEL'ITY.  A  term  ap- 
plied to  Voltaire  on  account  of  his  persistent  at- 
tacks upon  the  Church,  and  his  unfailing  protec- 
tion of  those  whom  he  believed  to  be  persecuted 
by  her.     See  Voltaire. 

APOSTLE  OF  IRELAND.  A  title  given 
to  Patrick,  bishop  and  saint,  who,  early  in  the 
Fifth  Century,  felt  himself  divinely  inspired  to 
attempt  the  conversion  of  Ireland,  which  was 
at  that  time  a  heathen  country.  See  Patrick, 
Saint. 

APOSTLE  OF  TEM'PERANCE.  Theobald 
Mathew,  so  designated  through  his  great  labors 
during  the  first  half  of  the  Nineteenth  Century 
to  further  the  cause  of  temperance  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  and  especially  in  Ireland,  the  country 
of  his  birth. 

APOSTLE     OF     THE     HIGH'LANDERS. 

A  Celtic  missionary  to  the  Caledonians,  other- 
wise known  as  Saint  Columba ;  the  founder  of 
the  monastery  of  lona  in  or  about  the  year  565. 

APOSTLES,  Acts  of  the.  Apocryphal.  See 
Apocrypha,  paragraph  New  Testament. 


APOSTLES,  TEACHING  OF. 


(3tiO 
See 


APOSTOLIC    CONSTITUTIONS. 


APOSTLES,  Teaching  of  the  Twelve. 
Teachini:  of  the  Twelve  Apostle.s. 

APOSTLES'  CREED.  See  Creeds  and  Con- 
fessions. 

APOSTLES'  ISOiANDS,  or  The  Twelve 
Apostles.  A  group  of  isUinds  in  Lake  Superior, 
near  the  western  end,  belonging  to  Wisconsin 
(Map:  Wisconsin,  C  1).  Tliere  are  in  all  27 
•  islands,  having  an  area  of  125,000  acres.  The 
largest  of  the  group  is  Madeline  Island,  on 
whTch  are  La  Pointe.  a  thriving  town,  and  the 
La  Pointe  Indian  Reservation.  The  other  im- 
portant islands  of  the  group  are  Oak  Presque 
and  Outer  Islands.  These  islands  were  occupied 
by  the  Frcuili  missions  as  early  as  1680. 

APOSTLE  SPOONS.  The  name  given  to 
spoons,  usually  in  sets  of  13,  the  handles  of 
which  are  formed  by  images  of  the  Twelve 
Apostles  and  of  the  Virgin  Mary.  Up  to  the 
Seventeenth  Century,  such  sets  were  favorite 
christening  gifts. 

APOSTLE  TO  GERMANY.  A  title  given 
to  Saint  Boniface,  an  Knglish  missionary  (died 
755),  for  his  lifelong  labors  among  the  Frisian 
and   German   tribes. 

APOSTLE  TO  THE  ENGLISH.  An  appel- 
lation given  to  Saint  Augustine,  who  led  tlie 
body  of  monks  sent  to  England  by  Gregory  I.  to 
"convert  the  Angles  into  angels." 

APOSTLE  TO  THE  FRENCH.  An  appel- 
lation of  Saint  Denis  (((.v.  I,  the  patron  saint 
of  France,  who  is  said  to  have  been  beheaded 
about  A.D.  272  at  Paris. 

APOSTLE  TO  THE  INDIANS,  The.  John 
Eliot,  tlius  styled  l)eoause  of  his  efforts  to  convert 
the  Indian  tribes  of  New  England  in  the  middle 
of  the  Seventeenth  Century.     See  Eliot,  John. 

APOSTLE  TO  THE  SCOTS,  The.  A  term 
applied  to  tlie  Scottish  reformer  and  historian, 
John  Knox  (q.v.),  because  of  liis  untiring  exer- 
tions to  spread  the  Calvinistie  doctrines  in  Scot- 
land at  tlie  expense  of  those  of  the  English  and 
Koman   cliurelies. 

AP'OSTOL'IC,  or  AP'OSTOL'ICAL.  An  ad- 
jective used  in  various  connections  to  denote 
(something)  that  is  supposed  to  date  from  tbe 
age  of  the  first  apostles  of  the  Christian  Church, 
or  to  have  received  their  sanction,  or  to  rest 
upon  their  authority.  As  applied  to  a  church, 
it  means  that  the  Twelve  Apostles,  or  at  least  one 
of  them,  taught  the  truths  and  established  the 
polity  it  stands  for.  As  applied  to  a  doctrine  or 
practice,  it  means  that  either  it  is  taught  in  the 
New  Testament,  which,  generally  speaking,  is  of 
exclusively  apostolic  com|)osition.  or  that  tradi- 
tionally it  has  been  handed  down  from  apostolic 
days.  "  The  claim  to  such  origin,  in  jiarticular 
cases,  is  much  disputed  by  Protestants  among 
themselves  in  regard  to  such  points  as  infant 
baptism,  immersion,  and  Church  government; 
and  by  Protestants  over  against  Roman  Catho- 
lics as  to  the  priority  of  the  Church  of  Rome 
and  Papal  claims  generally. 

APOSTOLIC  BRETH'REN,  or  Apostolici. 
The  name  given  in  Italy,  toward  the  end  of  the 
Thirteenth  Century,  to  one  of  those  sects  which, 
animated  by  the  spirit  of  an  Arnold  of  Brescia, 
felt  constrained  to  oppose  the  worldly  tendencies 
of  the  Church.  Its  founder  was  Gherardo  Sega- 
rclli,  a  weaver  in  Parma.  Rejected,  from  some 
cause  or  other,  by  the  Franciscan  Order,  his  long- 


continued  and  enthusiastic  meditations  led  him 
to  the  profound  conviction  that  it  was  above  all 
things  necessary  to  return  to  the  simple  forms 
of  apostolic  lite.  Accordingly,  he  went  about 
(1260)  in  the  garb  of  the  apostles,  as  a  preacher 
of  repentance,  and  by  his  practical  discourses 
gathered  many  adherents  into  a  kind  of  free 
society,  bound"  by  no  oaths.  At  first  he  man- 
aged to  avoid  any  direct  collision  with  the  dog- 
mas of  the  Church ;  but  after  twenty  years  of 
undisturbed  activity  and  growing  influence,  Se- 
garelli  was  arrested  by  the  Bishop  of  Parma, 
who,  ho\vever,  soon  after  released  him  and  kept 
him  in  his  palace  as  his  fool,  and  in  1286  ban- 
ished him  from  his  diocese.  Upon  the  occasion 
of  his  release,  Pope  Honorius  IV.  renewed  a  de- 
cree of  the  Council  of  Lyons  (1274)  against  all 
religious  communities  not  directly  sanctioned 
by  the  Papal  chair.  In  1200,  Nicholas  IV.  set- 
ting himself  to  expose  and  persecute  the  Apos- 
tolic Brethren,  they,  on  their  side,  began  to  de- 
nounce the  Papacy  as  the  Babylon  of  the  Apoca- 
lypse. Jlany,  both  men  and  women,  perished  at 
the  stake,  among  them  Segarelli  (.July  18,  1300). 
But  his  cause  survived  him.  Dolcino,  a  more 
energetic  and  cultivated  man,  brought  up  as  a 
priest,  who  had  previously  taken  an  active  part 
in  Tyrol  against  the  alleged  corruptions  of  the 
Church,  now  headed  the  sect  in  Italy.  He 
taught  the  duty  of  a  complete  renunciation  of 
all  worldly  ties,  of  property,  and  settled  abode, 
etc.  Having  retreated  into  Dalmatia.  he  an- 
nounced from  thence  the  da\\ning  of  tlie  new 
eia,  and  in  1304  reappeared  in  Upper  Italy,  with 
thousands  of  adherents,  as  the  enemy  of  the 
Papacy — at  that  time  humbled  and  impoverished 
by  France.  In  1305  a  crusade  was  preached 
against  him.  He  fortified  the  mountain  Zebello, 
in  the  diocese  of  Vereelli,  but  was,  after  a  gal- 
lant defense,  compelled  by  famine  to  submit. 
After  horrible  tortures,  which  he  bore  with  the 
utmost  fortitude,  he  %\as  burned  at  Vereelli.  June 
1,  1307.  In  Lombardy  and  the  south  of  France, 
brethren  lingered  till   ]3ti8. 

APOSTOLIC  CON'STITU'TIONS  AND 
CAN'ONS.  The  Constitutions  are  a  collection 
of  ecclesiastical  ordinances,  in  eight  books,  erro- 
neously supposed  to  have  been  the  work  of  the 
Apostles,  and  to  have  lieen  written  down  liy  Saint 
Clement.  In  the  last  chapter  of  the  eighth  book  the 
so-called  Apostolic  Canons,  eighty-five  in  number, 
are  given.  It  is  now  recognized  that  both  works 
are  compositions  of  a  later  date;  but  scholars 
are  not  yet  fully  agreed  upon  the  sources  and 
dates  for  the  different  parts.  The  theory  most 
generally  held  is  that  the  first  six  books  of  the 
Constitutions  are  based  upon  the  Didoscalin,  a 
work  of  the  last  third  of  the  Third  Century; 
that  the  seventh  book  is  a  rcAvorking  of  the 
Didachc.  a  Second-Century  work;  and  tliat  the 
eighth  book  rests  probably  upon  a  collection 
based  upon  the  Canons  of  Hippolytus  (q.v.). 
The  Canons  were  probably  composed  m  Syria, 
and  according  to  Funk,  wlio  may  be  regarded  as 
the  best  authority,  date  from  the  beginning  of 
the  Fifth  Century.  The  authority  of  the  con- 
stitutions was  never  accepted  in  the  Western 
Church,  and  was  rejected  by  the  Eastern  at  the 
Council  of  Constantinople,  in  002.  The  Canons 
were  accepted  by  the  Eastern  Church  at  that 
council.  In  the  West,  the  first  fifty  were  trans- 
lated bv  Dionysius  Exiguus  (q.v.),  were  incor- 
porated" in  ihe  Decrctum  of  Gratian  (q.v.),  and. 
although   held   to   be   apocryphal,   are   considered 


APOSTOLIC  CONSTITUTIONS. 


(i(31    APPALACHIAN    MOUNTAIN    CLUB. 


an  iiniiortant  source  for  tlie  rules  of  the  primi- 
tive CInircli.  A  translation  of  hoth  nuiy  l>e  found 
in  tlie  Ante-Xiceiie  Fathers.  Volume  VII.  (Buf- 
falo, 18S6),  and  a  bibliography  in  Volume  IX. 
(  Bulla lo,  ISST).  The  original  text  was  edited 
bv  P.  Lagarde  (Leipzig,  18C2).  For  the  Canons 
consult  especially:  Lauchert,  Kanoiies  (Frei- 
burg and  Leipzig,  1890)  ;  for  the  Constitutions, 
Funk.  Die  Apostolischen  Koiistitiitioiien  (Roth- 
enburg.   1801). 

APOSTOLIC  FA'THEBS.  The  name  given 
to  the  disciples  and  fellow-laborers  of  the  -Apos- 
tles, especially  to  those  among  them  who  have 
left  real  or  so-considered  writings  behind  them. 
These  writings,  in  Lightfoot's  edition,  comprise 
the  Epistle  of  Clement  of  Home,  and  his  so- 
called  Second  Epistle,  which  really-  is  not  his  at 
all ;  the  seven  Epistles  of  Ignatius  of  Antioeh ; 
the  Epistle  of  Polycarp  of  Smyrna ;  the  Martyr- 
dom of  Polycarp ;  the  Teachings  of  the  x\postle3 
(the  Didaehe)  ;  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas;  the 
Shepherd  of  Hermas;  the  Epistle  of  Diognetus; 
the  fragments  of  Papias :  and  the  Reliques  of 
the  Elders,  preserved  in  Irenaeus.  The  writings 
of  the  Apostolic  Fathers,  as  to  their  form  and 
subject,  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  continuation 
of  the  apostolic  epistles,  though  far  inferior  to 
them.  Their  main  purpo.se  is  to  exhort  to  faith 
and  holiness  before  Christ's  coming  again.  Edi- 
tions of  the  Apostolic  Fathers  were  published 
bv  J.  B.  Cotelerius  (Paris,  1072);  \V.  Jacob- 
son  (Oxford,  1838)  ;  C.  J.  Hefele  (Tubingen, 
18.39)  ;  A.  R.  51.  Dressel  (Leipzig,  18.37)  ;  Geb- 
hardt.  Zahn,  and  Harnack  (Leipzig,  1876-78; 
text  edition,  1877;  third  edition,  1900);  ,J.  B. 
Lightfoot  (texts  and  English  translation,  Lon- 
don, 1891:  second  edition,  189.'i).  There  is  a 
separate  English  translation  in  Ante-Xicene 
Library  (Edinburgh),  Volume  I.,  1867;  Chris- 
tian Literature  editions  (Xew  York)  VII.  and 
IX.  See  the  separate  articles  on  the  Apostolic 
Fathers  mentioned  above. 

AP'OSTOL'ICI,  or  AP  OTAC'TICI  (i.e.,  re- 
nuneiants).  A  sect  of  heretics  in  Phrygia,  Cili- 
cia,  and  Pamphylia.  in  the  Third  and  Fourth  cen- 
turies, who  renounced  all  their  possessions,  for- 
bade nuirriage  as  unchaste,  and  adopted  an  ascetic 
mode  of  life. 

APOSTOLIC  MAJ'ESTY.  A  title  held  by 
the  kings  of  Hungary,  conferred  in  1000  by  Pojie 
Sylvester  II.  along  with  the  regal  crown  upon 
Saint  Stephen,  ruler  of  Hungary,  who  had  not 
only  greatly  encouraged  the  progress  of  Chris- 
tianity in  Hungary,  but  actually  preached  him- 
self. In  1758  the  title  was  renewed  by  Pope 
Clement  XIIL,  in  favor  of  Maria  Theresa,  as 
Queen  of  Hinigary,  and  it  continues  to  be  used 
by  the  Emperor  of  Austria  as  King  of  Hun- 
gary. 

APOSTOLIC  MENNONITE  CHURCH.    See 

Mexndmtks. 

APOSTOLIC  PAR'TY.  The  name  given  in 
Spain  early  in  tlie  Nineteenth  Century  to  a 
faction  of  fanatical  Catholics,  who  demanded 
the  restoration  of  the  Inquisition  and  the  rees- 
tablishment  of  the  unlimited  power  of  the  King. 
They  formed  themselves  (soon  after  the  revolu- 
tion of  1820)  into  an  Apostolic  Party,  whose 
leaders  were  fugitive  priests,  and  whose  troops 
were  snuigglers  and  robbers.  They  were  ])opu- 
larly  supposed  to  be  ruled  by  a  conunittee  known 
as  the  Apostolic  Junta.     After  taking  an  active 


part  in  all  the  subsequent  agitations,  they  finally 

merged   (1830)   in  the  Carlist  Party. 

APOSTOLIC  SUCCES'SION.  The  system 
according  to  which  a  person  is  consecrated  to 
episcopal  authority  and  otlice  by  those  who  have 
themselves  received  it  from  others,  tracing  their 
authority  back  by  successive  ascent  to  tlie  A])os- 
tles;  the  law  by  which  the  Church,  as  an  organic 
body,  is  made  self-perpetuating.  Outside  of 
scriptural  authority  for  the  doctrine,  the  Epis- 
tles of  Ignatius  (q.v. )  and  the  earliest  canon  of 
post-apostolic  times  (which  orders  that  the  con- 
secrators  shall  be  three,  the  purpose  being  that 
the  consecration  shall  be  open  and  well-known), 
are  appealed  to  as  proofs  of  the  continuity  of  its 
maintenance.  It  is  strictly  insisted  upon  by  the 
Roman  Catholic,  the  Eastern,  and  ( in  modern 
theory,  though  with  some  very  doubtful  points 
in  the  Sixteenth  Centurj-)  by  the  Anglican 
churches,  none  of  which  recognizes  as  legitimate 
ministers  those  who  have  not  received  ordination 
from  a  bishop  in  this  succession ;  and  a  few- 
minor  bodies,  like  the  Vaudois  and  the  Mora- 
vians, assert  that  they  can  trace  some  kind  of 
succession  in  a  direct  line  to  the  apostles.  See 
Bishop;  Roman  Catholic  Church.  Consult 
Haddan,  Apostolic  Succession  in  the  Church  of 
England   (London,  1869). 

APOS'TBOPHE.       See   Chlokoplast. 

APOTH'ECABY.      See  Chemists  and  Druq- 

GIST.S. 

APOTHEGM,  ap'6-them  (Gk.  dv6<pgcyna, 
apophtlicgiiia,  an  utterance).  A  term  used  to 
designate  any  truth  or  maxim  sententiously  ex- 
pressed. The  oracles  of  tlie  heathen  gods  often 
took  this  form,  as  also  the  proverbs,  memorable 
sayings,  etc.,  of  the  sages  of  antiquity.  In  mod- 
ern times,  Lord  Bacon  has  made  a  charming  col- 
lection of  apothegms. 

AP'OTHE'OSIS  (Gk.  dirof^^uo-is,  deification, 
from  aird.  upo,  away  +  Se6s,  th^-os,  god,  deity). 
The  raising  of  a  mortal  to  the  rank  of  a  god. 
From  the  polytheistic  point  of  view,  there  is 
nothing  monstrous  in  this  idea;  on  the  contrary, 
it  is  quite  natural,  and  a  necessary  part  of  the  ' 
system.  Among  pagans  generally,  and  especially 
among  the  Romans,  every  departed  spirit  became 
a  deity  (see  Lares)  ;  "and  as  it  was  common 
for  children  to  worship  (privately)  the  manes 
of  their  fathers,  so  was  it  natural  for  divine 
honors  to  be  paid  publicly  to  a  deceased  emperor, 
who  was  regarded  as  the  parent  of  his  country." 
At  the  Consecratio,  as  it  was  called,  of  a  Roman 
emperor,  the  body  was  burned  on  a  funeral  pile, 
and  as  the  fire  ascended,  an  eagle  was  let  loose 
to  mount  into  the  sky,  carrying,  as  was  believed, 
the  soul  of  the  Emperor  fnmi  earth  to  heaven. 
Many  coins  of  deified  Roman  emperors  are  found 
with  the  word  consecratio  surrounding  an  altar, 
with   fire  on   it. 

APOX'YOM'ENOS  (Gk.  d7ro|u6^eyos,  scraping 
one's  self,  from  iirS,  apo,  away  +  iieiv,  xycin, 
to  scrape).  A  well-preserved  marble  copy  in 
the  Vatican  of  a  statue  by  Lysippus,  represent- 
ing an  athlete  scraping  himself  with  the  strigil. 
It  was  found  in  Trastavere,  at  Rome,  in  1849. 
The  original  was  in  bronze,  and  stood  in  front 
of  the  baths  of  Agrippa. 

APPALACH'IAN     MOUN'TAIN     CLUB. 

A  society  of  persons  interested  in  the  mountains 
of  New  England  and  adjacent  regions.  It  was 
organized  in  1870,  incorporated  in  1878,  and  au- 


APPALACHIAN  MOUNTAIN  CLUB.   (5(52 


APPALACHIANS. 


thorized  by  legislative  act  of  1894  to  hold  luoun- 
tain  and  forest  lands  as  historic  sites.  The  club 
aims  to  preserve  the  beauty  of  mountain^  forests 
and  resorts,  to  render  them  attractive  to  visitors 
and  excursionists,  to  publish  accurate  maps 
thereof,  and  to  collect  scientific  data  concerning 
the  mountains.  Appalachia,  the  club  journal, 
has  (inoi)  reached  27  numbers,  constituting 
9  complete  volumes.  An  annual  Register  has 
been  published  since  1879.  Several  books  relat- 
ing to  mountaineering,  touring  trips,  etc.,  have 
been  published  under  the  auspices  of  the  society. 
The  club  library  consists  of  over  1000  volumes, 
500  pamphlets,  'l.300  maps  or  sets  of  maps,  and 
several  notable  collections  of  photographs  of 
mountain  views.  The  club,  which  in  1901  had 
1200  members,  conducts  excursions  and  field 
meetings  every  year. 

APPALACHIANS.  The  general  name  for 
the  extensive  mountain  system  in  the  eastern 
United  States.  It  extends  in  a  northeast-south- 
west direction  from  northern  Alabama  and  Geor- 
gia, to  the  vicinity  of  Albany,  N".  Y.  Some 
writers  include  the  Adirondack  Mountains,  but 
these  constitute  an  independent  though  com- 
paratively small  system,  geologically  distinct 
from  the  Appalachians.  The  Taconic,  Green, 
and  White  mountains  are  often,  and  with  more 
reason,  considered  a  part  of  the  general  system, 
as  also  are  the  ranges  stretching  from  northern 
Maine  to  the  Gaspe  Peninsula,  and  reappearing 
in  Newfoundland.  At  its  southern  end  the  sys- 
tem curves  slightly  to  the  westward,  and  beyond 
the  Mississippi  Valley  is  resumed  as  the  Oua- 
chita uplift  of  southern  Arkansas  and  Indian 
Territory. 

Ge.neral  Character.  The  region  proper  may 
be  described  as  a  long,  narrow  plateau,  from  70 
to  200  miles  in  width,  with  an  altitude  of  1500 
to  3000  feet.  It  is  bordered  on  the  east  by  the 
well-defined  Blue  Ridge,  and  on  the  west  by  the 
Alleghany  Jlountains,  which  two  ridges  lie  ap- 
proximately parallel,  and  75  to  100  miles  apart, 
throughout  their  lengths.  Between  these  outer 
.  ranges  lie  a  great  number  of  smaller  discon- 
nected mountain  ridges,  chiefly  parallel  to  the 
main  axis  of  the  system  in  the  central  and  north- 
ern part,  but  much  broken  in  the  southern  and 
southeastern  Appalachians.  These  mountain 
ridges  maintain  a  remarkably  uniform  altitude, 
gradually  increasing  from  both  directions  to- 
ward the  central  mass  in  western  North  Caro- 
lina. Lying  between  the  comparatively  narrow 
and  regular  wall  of  the  Blue  Ridge  and  Alle- 
ghanian  ranges,  west  of  it,  is  the  great  Appa- 
lachian Valle.v,  which  is  a  characteristic  feature 
of  the  to])ography,  for  it  extends  the  entire 
length  of  the  mountain  system.  Here  and  there 
it  is  broken  by  minor  ridges  into  two  or  three 
parallel  valleys,  but  the  general  nature  of  a 
trough  between  mountain  ranges  is  maintained 
throughout.  In  New  York  it  is  kno\\Ti  as  the 
Wallkill  Valley;  in  Pennsylvania,  the  Lebanon, 
Lancaster,  and  Cumberland  valleys;  in  Vir- 
ginia it  is  the  historic  Shenandoah  Valley,  or 
"Great  Valley  of  Virginia" ;  and  still  farther 
south  it  is  the  Tennessee  Valley,  extending  into 
Alabama  and  Georgia. 

Divisions.  The  Appalachian  region  has  not 
a  uniform  conformation  throughout  its  extent, 
but  is  divided  into  two  sections,  the  Northern 
and  the  Southern  Appalachians,  with  the  line  of 
separation  in  western  Virginia.    This  division  is 


not  merely  of  an  arbitrary  nature,  but  is  founded 
on  well-marked  differences  in  the  structural  and 
phvsiographic   features   of   the   two   regions.     In 
the  northern  division  the  Blue  Ridge  range  has 
gentle  slopes,  rising  usually  to  rounded  crests, 
which  show  a  gently  undulating  sky  line,  with 
here  and  there  a  peak  rising  a  little  higher  than 
the    usual    level.      (See   Bllie   Ridge.)      To   the 
west   of   this   ridge   is   a   more   or  less   elevated 
northerly    extension    of    the    great   Appalachian 
Valley,  "which   in  general   presents  a  succession 
of  depressions  and  heights,  the  former  worn  by 
streams  to  a  depth,  in  some  cases,  of  200  feet, 
while  the  latter  rise  to  a  height  of  usually  less 
than  1000  feet  above  the  depressions.     The  Alle- 
ghany   Mountains    rise    west    of    the    valley    in 
bolder  sculpturing  than  that  of  the  Blue  Ridge, 
the  side   toward  "the   great   interior   valley,   the 
"Alleghany  front,"  being  steep  and  rugged ;    bxit 
on  the  side  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  the  slope  is 
gradual,  descending  westward  in  lessening  ridges 
from    the    plateau    which    marks    the    summit 
region ;     this   configuration    is   due   to   the   fact 
that    the    stratified    rocks     (see    below)     incline 
westward,    exhibiting    their   upturned    edges    in 
precipices  toward  the  east.     Beginning  with  the 
Catskills.  the  line  is  broken  by  the  broad  valley 
of  the  Delaware,  but  reappears  in  several  promi- 
nent ranges  in  Pennsylvania.     The  westernmost, 
or  'front'  range,  is  confusingly  called  First,  or 
Blue  Mountain,  with   Peter's,  or  Second  Moun- 
tain, behind  it,  east  of  the  Susquehanna.  East  of 
the  Susquehanna,  the  Tuscarora,  Blacklog,  Jack's, 
Standing   Stone,    and    Tussey's   are   well-defined 
ranges  westward,  filling  the  whole  region  with 
crowded  heights  to  tlie  long  range  distinctively 
termed    Alleghany,    which    stretches    from    the 
border  of  New  York  down  into  West  Virginia. 
In  the  Virginias  both   the   Blue  Ridge  aod  the 
western    ranges    become    loftier    and    better   de- 
fined.    The  front  range  is  here  called  the  Great 
North  Mountain,  and  west  of  it  lie  successively 
the  Shenandoah  and  several  broken  ranges,  ris- 
ing to  the  continuation  of  the  Alleghanies  prop- 
er.    These  draw  together  at  the  southwest  ex- 
tremity  of   Virginia,    where   a    new   uplift,    the 
Cumberland    Mountains     (q.v.),    rises    west    of 
them,   and   terminates   in   the   Clinch   Mountains. 
The  valley  of  tlie  Tennessee  makes  a  break,  south 
of  which  the  range   reappears  in  the  prolonga- 
tions of  the  Cumberland  ilountains  in  northern 
Alabama.     In  New  -lersey  the  'Highlands'  of  the 
Blue  Ridge  rise  to  heights  of  1000  to  1500  feet; 
in  Pennsvlvania  to  2000  feet;   in  Virginia  from 
2000  to  -iOOO  feet   (Hawk's  Bill.  4066  feet),  and 
with  a  breadth  of  16  miles.     In  North  Carolina, 
near  the  Virginia  line,  the  Blue  Ridge  forks,  the 
Unaka  .Mountains,  of  somewhat  greater  altitude, 
but  of  lesser  continuity,  branching  oflf  toward  the 
southwest,  while  the  Blue  Ridge  proper  takes  a 
more  southerly  course.     The  Alleghanies,  which 
really   begin   with   the   Catskills,   in    New   York 
State   {highest  4200  feet),  have  in  the  northern 
part  a  general  elevation  of  about  2000  feet,  which 
increases  to  4400  feet  in  Virginia  and  Kentucky, 
and    still    farther   south    decreases    from    200   to 
2500  feet.     The  absence  of  any  isolated  peaks  is 
highly   characteristic  of  the  whole   Alleghanian 
region;    the   mountains   everywhere  present  the 
appearance   of   long,   evenly  topped   ridges,   and 
the  name  applies  to  the  whole  ridge. 

The  prominence  of  the  Blue  Ridge  is  the 
characteristic  feature  of  the  southern  division 
of  tlie   .\ppalachians.     This  rises  .suddenly  from 


APPALACHIANS. 


063 


APPALACHIANS. 


the  Piedmont  tableland,  east  and  south  of  it, 
to  heights  far  greater  than  the  AUeghanies  at- 
tain. Beginning  prominently  in  South  Moun- 
tain, in  southern  Pennsylvania,  it  stretches 
Bouthwestward  in  greater  and  greater  heiglits, 
through  Virginia  and  western  North  Carolina, 
where  it  divides,  the  northern  branch  continuing 
westward  to  Georgia  as  the  Unaka,  or  Great 
Smoky  Mountains.  These  form  a  broad  mass  of 
mountains  on  the  border  between  North  Caro- 
lina and  Tennessee,  containing  peaks  exceeding 
those  of  the  White  Mountains  of  New  Hamp- 
shire, and  consequently  tlie  highest  east  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  culminating  group, 
reaching  in  Mount  Mitchell  0710  feet,  is  known 
as  the  Black  Mountains  (q.v.),  and  contains 
many  peaks  above  6000  feet  in  height.  The 
Unaka  Mountains  are  cluiracterized  by  the  great 
sharp-ridged  spurs  which  leave  the  main  chain 
and  preserve  its-height  for  a  distance  of  several 
miles;  between  these  spurs  are  deep  valleys  only 
wide  enough  at  the  bottom  for  the  ereek-be<ls 
which  are  invariably  found  there.  The  altitudes 
of  the  extended  valleys  in  this  great  highland 
region  are  from  2000  to  3000  feet.  To  the  west 
of  the  steep-sided  Unaka  ridge  lies  a  valley, 
about  .50  or  00  miles  wide,  in  Tennessee,  which 
contains  the  Tennessee  River  and  its  tributaries, 
the  Clinch,  Holston,   and  French   Broad. 

Geology.  The  Appalachian  Mountains  are 
folded  mountains;  that  is,  they  have  been  formed 
by  plications  or,  folds  of  the  rock  layers  that 
make  up  the  crust  of  the  earth  in  this  region, 
and  the  particular  type  of  plication  is  so  well 
developed  in  this  region  that  it  has  received  the 
name  of  the  "Appalachian  type"  of  folding. 
The  Blue  Ridge,  along  the  eastern  side,  con- 
sists of  layers  of  crystalline  rocks,  the  oldest 
known  in  the  Appalachians,  that  have  suffered 
so  great  an  amount  of  metamorphism  a,s  to 
render  the  determination  of  their  exact  age  a 
matter  of  considerable  ditliculty.  They  are 
grouped  under  the  term  "fundamental  complex," 
and  it  is  certain  that  they  are  in  large  part  pre- 
Cambrian ;  and  some  are  even  Archrean  on  the 
eastern  edge  of  the  Blue  Ridge.  On  the  western 
edge  isolated  masses  of  Cambrian  rocks  are 
found.  All  these  rocks  of  the  Blue  Ridge  have 
been  much  folded  and  compressed,  so  that  the 
layers  now  stand  almost  on  end  and  are  even 
overturned.  Great  faults  and  overthrusts  are 
common,  and  add  to  the  difficulty  of  unraveling 
the  structure  of  the  district.  In  the  Appala- 
chian Valley  the  geological  structure  is  also  quite 
complex,  though  the  strata  are  not  so  intensely 
metamorphosed.  The  rocks  are  limestones, 
shales,  and  sandstones,  and  they  lie  in  closed 
folds  tliat  become  more  open  toward  the  western 
side  of  the  valley.  These  folds  are  peculiar  in 
that  their  eastward  slopes  are  alwa3's  steeper 
than  the  westward.  When  the  folds  are  over- 
turned the  inversion  is  toward  the  east ;  and 
overthrusts  are  also  toward  the  east,  and  often 
of  considerable  extent.  This  valley  is  largely 
the  result  of  the  erosion  of  a  great  limestone  for- 
mation, of  Cambro-Silurian  age,  that  extends  its 
entire  length.  The  Alleghany  Mountains  consist 
of  rocks  of  Paleozoic  age,  Caml)rian  to  Carbon- 
iferous, inclusive,  that  have  been  elevated  into 
folded  ridges  and  then  eroded  to  their  present 
topography.  .The  softer  beds  have  been  worn  into 
valleys,  and  the  harder  beds,  having  resisted 
erosion,  have  been  left  to  form  the  ridges  and 
benclics.     In  this  limestone  al.so  have  been  erod- 


ed the  wonderful  series  of  caves  of  the  Shenan- 
doah Valley  and  elsewhere,  of  which  that  at 
Luray,  Va.,  is  a  striking  example  (see  Caves). 
Anticlinal  and  synclinal  folds  alternate  in  di- 
minishing intensity  toward  the  west,  where 
they  disappear  in  the  nearly  horizontal  beds  of 
the  Cumberland  Plateau,  which  is  made  up  of 
carboniferous  rocks. 

Drainage  Development.  The  region  now  oc- 
cupied by  the  Appalachian  Mountains  has  been 
tlie  scene  of  many  physiographical  changes  too 
complex  to  explain  here.  At  a  comparatively  re- 
cent time,  however,  the  wliole  of  the  Appalachian 
system  consisted  of  a  great  rounded  plateau  with 
an  elevation  of  jierhajis  4000  feet,  the  surface  of 
which  is  called  by  geologists  the  Kittatinny 
Plain.  Above  this  plain  arose  to  a  moderate 
height  the  now  high  mountains  of  western  North 
Carolina.  Along  a  central  zone  the  land  in- 
creased in  altitude  to  a  region  in  Virginia  which 
thus  became  the  watershed.  The  rain  now  did 
its  work,  and  the  great  rivers — the  New,  the 
Roanoke,  James,  Potomac,  and  Susquehanna — 
cut  out  their  paths  through  the  then  nearly  level 
region,  and  a  well-developed  system  of  highlands 
and  drainage  was  established.  However,  tlie  sub- 
sequent elevation  of  land  in  this  region  by 
amounts  ranging  from  200  feet  in  the  north  to 
1700  feet  in  Virginia,  once  more  disturbed  the 
adjustment  of  the  water  systems,  and  gave  a  new 
impetus  to  the  work  of  the  flowing  waters. 

\\hile  the  Appalachian  Jlountains  form  the 
watershed  between  the  Atlantic  Slope  and  the 
Mississippi  Valley,  yet  throughout  there  is  no 
definite  watershed  line  on  one  side  of  which  the 
rivers  flow  to  the  west,  and  on  the  other  toward 
the  east.  In  the  nortliern  part  the  streams 
chiefly  break  through  the  mountains  from  the 
western  side  to  the  east.  In  the  middle  part, 
some  escape  toward  the  east  and  some  toward 
the  west;  while  at  the  south  the  eastern  moun- 
tain range  of  the  Blue  Ridge  forms  the  water- 
shed. The  water-courses  appear  to  be  independ- 
ent of  the  direction  of  the  mountain  ranges,  and 
instead  of  pursuing  what  appear  to  be  the  natu- 
ral directions  along  the  present  great  valleys, 
they  flow  across  the  ridges  through  deep  gaps  in 
tliem.  This  peculiar  circumstance  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  these  gaps  were  cut  by  the  streams  be- 
fore the  intervening  ridges  were  upheaved. 

The  chief  streams  draining  the  eastern  slope  of 
the  Appalachian  into  the  Atlantic  are  the  Hud- 
son and  its  branches  on  the  west,  the  Delaware, 
Schuylkill,  Susquehanna,  Potomac,  and  the 
.Tames,  which  cut  their  way  eastward  through 
the  mountain  ranges;  and  the  Rappahannock, 
Dan,  Yadkin  (Pedee),  Catawba,  Broad,  Saluda 
(branches  of  the  Santee),  and  the  Savannah, 
which  rise  from  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Blue 
Ridge,  whose  western  slopes  drain  into  the  Sus- 
quehanna, Shenandoah  (Potomac),  .lames  or 
Tennessee.  On  the  south  are  the  Chattahoochee 
(head  stream  of  the  Apalachicola )  and  the 
Coosa  (head  stream  of  the  Alabama),  flowing 
into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  streams  draining 
the  Appalachian  region  on  the  west  are  tributary 
to  the  Ohio  River.  They  are  they  Hiwassee.  the 
Little  Tennessee,  and  the  French  Broad,  which 
flow  from  the  Blue  Ridge  through  a  network  of 
high  mountains,  and  break  through  the  great 
Unaka  range  to  the  Tennessee;  the  Holston 
and  Clinch  rivers,  also  tributaries  of  the  Ten- 
nessee: the  Cumberland,  the  New  (head  of  the 
Kanawha),  the  Little  Kanawha,  Allegheny,  and 


APPALACHIANS. 


66-1 


APPARENT. 


Monongahela.  The  last  two  join  to  form  the 
Ohio. 

Climate.  The  climate  of  the  Appalachian 
Ifountaius  must  be  characterized  as  temperate, 
as  they  extend  from  a  region  in  which  the 
average  annual  temperature  is  46°  F.  south- 
ward to  a  region  of  61°  F.  The  region,  there- 
fore, partakes  of  the  general  climatic  conditions 
of  its  latitude,  modified  by  its  altitude.  As  the 
prevailing  winds  come  from  the  southwest,  they 
do  not  bring  much  moisture,  and  the  rainfall  and 
snowfall  are  not  excessive,  though  greater  ujjon 
the  heights  of  the  central  ranges  than  in  the 
lower  areas  outside.  The  rainfall  for  the  year 
averages  about  40  inches  throughout  most  of 
the  Appalachian  region,  but  in  the  southern  sec- 
tion increases  to  60  or  70  inches.  Droughts  fre- 
quently occur  at  the  north,  but  seldom  at  the 
south.  On  the  whole,  the  summer  climate  of  the 
Appalachian  region  is  delightful,  and  its  charms 
are  becoming  more  and  more  appreciated  by 
summer  visitors.  This  attractiveness  is  in- 
creased by  the  abundance  of  vegetation,  the 
beautiful  scenery,  in  whicli  grandeur  may  often 
be  found,  and  particularly  by  the  presence  in 
many  parts  of  the  mountains  of  springs  of 
saline,  chalybeate,  and  other  mineral-bearing 
waters,  both  hot  and  cold.  These  medicinal 
waters,  together  with  the  purity  and  energizing 
character  of  the  air,  has  long  given  the  moim- 
tains,  especially  in  North  Carolina  and  Virginia, 
a  high  repute  as  a  health  resort. 

Vegetation  and  Fauna.  The  Appalachian 
region  is  covered  with  a  dense  forest  growth 
where  it  has  not  been  removed  by  man,  forest 
trees  covering  the  mountain  slopes  practically  to 
their  summits,  except  where  the  barren  rocks 
furnish  no  soil.  The  chief  trees  in  the  north 
are  the  sugar  maple,  white  birch,  beech,  ash,  pine, 
and  hemlock :  in  the  south,  oaks  of  various  kinds, 
chestnut,  hickory,  poplar,  tulip,  ash,  beech, 
maple,  linden,  red  birch,  cherry,  with  a  sprink- 
ling of  a  dozen  other  varieties.  Especially  at 
the  south  extensive  thickets  of  laurel  and  rhodo- 
dendron border  the  water-courses.  Ferns,  wild 
flowers,  wild  grasses,  and  the  wild  pea  vine  fur- 
nish an  abundant  herbage.  In  the  northern  sec- 
tion most  of  the  valuable  timber  has  been 
removed  and  vast  areas  desolated  to  secure  tree 
bark  for  tanning  purposes.  At  the  South,  how- 
ever, the  forests  retain  much  of  their  primeval 
character  and  magnificence,  some  of  the  trees 
being  of  gigantic  size.  Of  the  larger  mammalia 
bears,  deer,  wildcats,  are  still  common,  but 
by  no  means  plentiful.  Wolves  and  panthers 
have  practically  disappeared.  Small  game  birds 
and,  at  the  South,  wild  turkeys  are  plentiful. 
Unfortimately,  rattlesnakes  and  copperheads  are 
to  be  found  all  over  the  mountains,  yet  rarely  in 
dangerous  numbers.  The  woods  and  streams 
aboimd,  beyond  almost  any  other  part  of  the 
Temperate  Zone,  in  fresh-water  moUusks. 

Minekal  Resources.  Economic  products  of 
considerable  importance  are  found  in  the  Appa- 
lachian region.  Coal  (q.v. )  is  far  the  most  im- 
portant; the  entire  anthracite  field  and  part  of 
the  bituminous  field  of  Pennsylvania  and  other 
States  lie  in  the  Alleghany  Mountains  and  the 
Cumberland  plateau  or  its  northern  extension. 
The  petroleum  and  oil  fields  of  New  York, 
western  Pennsylvania,  and  southward,  barely 
touch  the  edge  of  the  Appalachian  region.  Of  the 
metals,   iron  occurs   as   hematite,   limonite,   and 


magnetite  at  many  localities;  zinc  is  found  in 
association  with  magnetite  at  the  well-known 
localities  of  Franklin  Furnace  and  Ogdensburg, 
X.  J.,  and  as  blende^  calamine,  etc.,  associated 
with  lead,  at  the  Bertha  Mines  in  Wj'tlie  County, 
^"a.  Lead  has  been  found  in  snuill  amounts  at 
many  points,  but  does  not  occur  in  sufficient 
quantity  to  constitute  an  independent  industry. 
CVjpper  is  found  native  in  the  crystalline  rocks  of 
Virginia,  and  as  chaleopyrite  often  in  large 
masses,  as  at  Duckto-nii,  eastern  Tennessee.  Gold 
and  silver  occur  in  small  amounts  chiefiy  in 
Georgia  and  North  Carolina;  nickel  and  cobalt 
are  also  found  sparingly.  Bauxite,  one  of  the 
ores  of  aluminum,  has  assmned  great  importance 
in  Alabama,  and  manganese  has  been  mined  in 
large  quantities  in  Tennessee  and  Virginia. 
Natural  cement,  of  such  high  grade  as  to  make 
it  a  rival  of  Portland  cement,  is  found  at  many 
outcrops  of  the  Upper  Silurian  formations  in 
New  York,  New  .Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  and  Mary- 
land, and  lime  is  burned  throughout  the  region. 
Building  stone  of  good  quality  is  abundant,  and 
slate  of  excellent  grade  is  quarried  in  New  Jer- 
sey and  Pennsylvania.  Asbestos,  mica,  garnet, 
and  emery  are  mined  in  Virginia,  the  Carolinas, 
and  Georgia,  and  gems  of  many  kinds  are  found 
in  the  Blue  Ridge. 

Bibliography.  A.  Guyot,  "The  Appalachian 
^Mountain  System,"  American  Journal  of  Sci- 
ence, second  series,  Volume  XXXI.  (New  Haven, 
ISOl)  ;  C.  W.  Hayes,  "The  Mechanics  of  Appa- 
lachian Mountain  Structure,"  Annual  lieport 
United  Htatcs  Geological  Survey,  Volume  XIII., 
Part  11.  (Washington,  1892);  B.  Willis,  "The 
Northern  Appalachians,"  National  Geographic 
Monographs,  Volume  I.  (New  Y'ork,  1895)  ;  C. 
W.  Ilayes,  "The  Southern  Appalachians,"  Na- 
tional Geographic  Monographs.  Volume  I.  (New 
York.  1895)  ;  C.  W.  Hayes  and  M.  R.  Campbell, 
"Geomorphologj-  of  the  Southern  Appalachians," 
National  Geographic  Magazine,  Volume  VI. 
(Washington,  1S94)  ;  C.  W.  Hayes,  "Physi- 
ography of  the  Chattanooga  District  in  Tennes- 
,see,  Georgia,  and  Alabama,"  Annual  Report 
United  Slates  Gcoloqical  Survey,  Volume  XIX., 
Part  II.  (Washington,  1899)  ;  B.  Willis,  "Paleo- 
zoic Appalachia,  or  a  History  of  Maryland  Dur- 
ing Paleozoic  Time,"  Maryland  Geological  Sur- 
rey, Special  Publication,  Volume  VI.,  Part  I. 
(Baltimore,  ild.,  1900)  ;  Chapman,  Floi'a  of  the 
Southern.  States  (New  York,  1883)  ;  Lounsberry, 
Southern  Wildftotrers  and  Trees  (New  York, 
1901). 

See  Mountain;  Anticline;  Physioghapht; 
Geology:  United  States. 

AP'PARA'TTJS  ( Lat.,  from  ad,  to  +  parare, 
to  make  ready,  prepare).  In  the  sciences,  a 
collection  of  tools  or  instruments  for  experiment- 
ing or  working.  In  i)hysiolog^-,  a  group  or  col- 
lection of  organs  associated  in  a  single  function  ; 
as,  the  heart,  veins,  and  arteries  are  the  circu- 
lator\-  apparatus ;  the  legs  are  the  apparatus  of 
locomotion,  etc. 

APPARATUS,  Psychological.  See  Psy- 
chological .Apparatus. 

APPAR'ENT  ( Lat.  ad,  to  +  parere,  to  come 
forth,  lie  visible) .  A  term  used  to  express  a  num- 
ber of  important  distinctions,  especially  in  as- 
tronomy. The  apparent  diameter  of  a  heavenly 
body  is  the  angle  formed  by  two  lines  drawn 
from  its  opposite  ends  to  the  spectator's  eye ;  this 
obviously  depends  upon  the  distance  of  the  body, 


APPARENT. 


665 


APPEAL. 


as  well  as  upon  its  real  magnitude.  A  planet 
seen  from  the  surface  of  the  earth  seems  nearer 
the  horizon  tlian  if  seen  from  tlie  centre  of  the 
earth:  what  is  seen  from  the  surface  of  the 
earth  is  the  apparent  altitude  of  the  planet;  its 
real  altitude  would  be  seen  if  an  observation 
could  be  made  from  the  centre  of  the  earth.  The 
apparent  altitiule  differs  from  the  true  on  ac- 
count of  paralla.x  and  refraction  (qq.v.).  Appar- 
ent noon  is  when  the  visible  sun  is  on  the  merid- 
ian; true  or  mean  noon  is  tlie  time  wlien  the 
sun  would  be  on  the  meridian  if  his  motion  in 
the  heavens  were  uniform  and  parallel  to  the 
equator.  (See  Equation  of  Time.)  The  daily 
and  annual  motions  of  the  sun  in  the  heavens  are 
both  apparent  motions,  caused  by  two  real  mo- 
tions of  the  earth.  In  general,  apparent  phe- 
nomena are  the  phenomena  of  the  actual  visible 
heavenly  bodies,  while  the  corresponding  true 
phenomena  are  what  the  former  would  be  if  cer- 
tain disturbing  causes  were  eliminated.  See  also 
Appearance. 

AP'PARI'TION  (Lat.  apparitio,  an  appear- 
ance, from  ad.  to  +  parere,  to  come  forth,  be 
visible).  An  illusion  or  hallucination  in  which 
objects,  conuiionly  human  beings,  are  seen  with 
such  vividness  as  to  be  regarded  as  real.  The 
hallucinations  of  delirium  or  insanity  are  not 
included  under  this  term.  Before  the  diftusion 
of  modern  science,  there  existed  a  well-nigh  uni- 
versal belief  in  the  reality  of  apparitions.  Greek 
and  Roman  poetry  abounds  with  instances ;  folk- 
lore owes  nuich  of  its  attractiveness  to  its  wealth 
of  spectres  and  phantoms,  fairies  and  brownies, 
and  its  witches  and  ghost-haunted  houses.  Dr. 
Johnson  voices  the  universality  of  this  belief, 
and,  incidentally,  gives  us  a  glimpse  of  a  vein  of 
superstition  and  credulity  in  his  nature  when,  in 
his  Kasselas,  he  causes  Imlac  to  say:  "That  the 
dead  are  seen  no  more  I  will  not  undertake  to 
maintain  against  the  concurrent  testimony  of  all 
ages  and  all  nations.  There  is  no  people,  rude 
and  unlearned,  among  whom  apparitions  of  the 
dead  are  not  related  and  believed."  It  is  not 
difficult  to  imdcrstand  how  the  untutored  savage, 
encouraged  by  the  events  of  his  di'eam  conscious- 
ness which  led  him  to  believe  in  a  spirit-self  ex- 
isting apart  from  its  body-self,  should  come  to 
have  an  equally  strong  belief  in  the  external- 
ity of  the  apparitions  which  he  saw  in  his  wak- 
ing consciousness.  Indeed,  authorities  are  not 
wanting  who  see  in  the  attitude  of  earlj'  man  to 
apparitions  the  most  important,  if  not  the 
unique,  origin  of  religion.  Whether  this  be  true 
or  not,  we  know  that  many  social  phenomena 
which  present  religious  phases  (e.g.,  witchcraft), 
have  owed  the  possibility  of  their  existence  large- 
ly to  a  widespread  belief  in  apparitions. 

The  reign  of  universal  superstition  has,  it  is 
true,  given  way  before  the  onward  progress  of  the 
scientific  spirit;  but  the  more  subtle  variations 
of  the  belief  in  apparitions  have  not  as  yet  en- 
tirely disappeared.  There  still  prevails  a  belief 
in  the  supernormal  nature  of  apparitions  as  man- 
ifested in  clairvoyance  (q.v. ),  telepathy  (q.v.), 
and  spiritualism.  We  need  refer,  for  example, 
only  to  the  birth  in  1847  of  modern  spiritualism, 
as  a  direct  descendant  of  the  belief  in  "haunted 
houses."  In  1882  the  Society  for  Psychical 
Research  was  instituted  in  England.  One  of  its 
express  purposes  was  to  collect  data  upon  the 
subject  of  apparitions.  JIuch  material  has  been 
published  in  the  "Proceedings"  of  the  Society, 
Vol.  I.— 14. 


and  in  book  form  by  Gurney,  Myers,  and  Pod- 
more.  These  authors  express  the  relation  of  ap- 
paritions to  telepathy  in  the  following  passage: 
"This  book,  then,  claims  to  show  ( 1 )  that  ex- 
perimental telepathy  exists,  and  (2)  that  ap- 
partitions  at  death, etc., are  a  result  of  something 
beyond  chance,  whence  it  follows  (3)  that  these 
experimental  and  these  spontaneous  cases  of  the 
action  of  mind  on  mind  are  in  some  way  allied." 
The  opposing  position  is  that  of  Buckley,  who 
asserts  that  "before  endeavoring  to  explain  how 
phenomena  exist,  it  is  necessary  to  determine 
precisely  what  exists;  and  so  long  as  it  is  pos- 
sible to  find  a  rational  explanation  of  what  un- 
questionably is,  there  is  no  reason  to  suspect, 
and  it  is  superstition  to  assume,  the  operation 
of  supernatural  causes."  If  we  apply  this  cri- 
terion to  the  lately  collected  evidence  for  appari- 
tions, we  must  discount  for  errors  of  observa- 
tion, for  errors  of  memory,  and  for  the  strong 
influence  of  autosuggestion  (q.v. ).  We  shall  then 
find  that  we  have  left  certain  unexplained 
phenomena.  Those  who  do  not  believe  in  ap- 
paritions account  for  these  as  illusions  or  hal- 
lucinations (q.v.). 

BiBLiOGKAPiiy.  Buckley.  Faith  Healing,  Chris- 
tian f<eience,  and  Kindred  Phenomena  (New 
York.  1892)  ;  Hibbert,  Sketches  of  the  Philosophy 
of  Apparitions  (London,  1824)  ;  Gurney.  Myers, 
and  Podmore,  Phantasms  of  the  Living  (London, 
188G)  ;  Podmore,  Apparitions  and  Thonght- 
Transference  (Lomlon.  1S!)5):  Tylor,  Primitive 
Cult  are  (New  York,  !S71). 

APPEAL'  (from  Lat.  appcUarc,  to  address, 
appeal  to,  call,  summon).  In  English  legal  pro- 
cedure, a  term  that  has  two  distinct  meanings. 

( 1 )  It  denotes  an  accusation  by  a  private  person 
against  another  for  some  heinous  crime,  demand- 
ing punishment  on  acount  of  the  injury  to  the 
appellor,  rather  than  for  the  public  oil'ense.  This 
method  of  prosecution  remained  in  force  until 
abolished  by  act  of  Parliament  in  1819  (59  Geo. 
III.,  c.  46),  although  it  had  been  used  but  rarely 
for  a  century  prior  thereto.  The  last  appeal  of 
murder  brought  in  England  (which  led  to  the 
enactment  of  the  statute  above  referred  to) 
was  that  of  Ashford  vs.  Thornton,  instituted  in 
1818,  and  reported  in  1  Barnwell  and  Alderson, 
405.     See  Blackstone,   Conuncniaries. 

( 2 )  The  other  signification,  attached  to  the  term 
by  Blackstone,  is  that  of  a  complaint  to  a  su- 
perior court  of  an  injustice  done  by  an  inferior 
one.  The  object  of  sucli  an  appeal  is  td  secure 
the  reversal  or  modification  of  the  decision  of 
the  inferior  court  through  the  intervention  of  a 
superior  tribunal.  Originally,  the  word  was  con- 
fined to  a  proceeding  for  the'review  of  a  decision 
in  an  equity,  an  admiralty,  or  an  ecclesias- 
tical cause.  Common-law  judgments  were  re- 
viewed by  a  writ  of  error.  Thechief  distinction 
between  a  writ  of  error  and  an  appeal  was  that 
the  former  brought  before  the  higher  court  only 
errors  of  law  in  the  court  below,  while  the 
latter  brought  up  questions  of  fact  as  well  as 
of  law.  The  tendency  of  modern  legislation  is 
toward  the  abolition  of  forms  of  action  and  the 
substitution  of  an  appeal  for  a  writ  of  error. 
The  grounds  of  ajipeal,  the  courts  to  which  an 
appeal  nmy  be  taken,  and  the  methods  of  prose- 
cuting appeals,  are  regulated  in  the  various 
jurisdictions  by  statutes  and  court  rules.  These 
are  so  diverse  that  no  attempt  will  be  made 
here,  to  state  their  provisFons.  See  Coubt- 
Pleading. 


APPEAL. 


(566 


APPENZELIi. 


In  parliamentary  law,  appeal  denotes  the  pro- 
ceeding by  which  a  member  tests  the  correctness 
of  a  ruling  of  the  presiding  officer  by  calling  for 
a  vote  of  the  meeting  thereon.  See  Parliament- 
AKY  Law. 

APPEAR' ANCE.  (For  derivation,  see  Ap- 
parent.) A  term  used  in  its  most  general 
meaning  to  signify  what  is  presented  in  con- 
sciousness. It  is  that  of  which  consciousness  is 
cognizant  as  an  object  distinct  from  itself.  For 
instance,  in  a  perception  I  may  have  of  a  piece 
of  money,  its  yellowness,  its  weight,  its  hard- 
ness, are  all  appearances  to  me.  Now,  the  fact 
that  appearance  is  always  related  to  conscious- 
ness raises  a  metaphysical  problem:  namely. 
Is  there  anything  more  ultimate,  more  real,  than 
appearance?  And,  if  so.  are  tlie  yellowness,  the 
weight,  the  hardness,  and  other  appearances  of 
the  coin  really  a  revelation  of  wliat  the  coin  is  in 
its  deepest  nature,  or  are  tliey  merely  the  form  in 
which  that  ultimate  nature,  whatever  it  may  be, 
is  disguised  when  it  comes  into  my  consciousness  ? 
Bifl'erent  schools  of  philosophy  liave  given  dif- 
ferent answers  to  these  questions,  but  a  careful 
examination  of  the  answers  shows  that  they  are 
all  determined  by  the  view  taken  of  the  nature, 
of  reality. 

( 1 )  Assume  that  there  is  a  reality  different 
from  appearance,  that  what  a  thing  really  is.  is 
what  it  is  in  absolute  independence  of  all  its 
relations;  assume  that  "we  must  everj'where  dis- 
tinguish between  the  intrinsic  being  of  a  thing 
and  its  relations,"  adding  that  knowledge  is  al- 
ways a  relation,  and  it  becomes  clear  that  the 
reality  of  the  thing,  its  intrinsic  being,  need  not 
be  revealed  in  the  appearance  it  presents  to  con- 
sciousness. In  fact,  the  question  arises  whether 
appearances  must  not  be  always  deceptive.  An 
affirmative  answer  to  this  question  is  the  funda- 
mental tenet  of  dogmatic  skepticism  (q.v. )  and 
of  critical  philosophy  (see  Kant).  A  suspense 
of  judgment  on  the  problem  is  the  attitude  of 
the  ancient  Skeptics.  A  negative  answer  given 
without  giving  a  reason  for  it,  is  the  attitude  of 
dogmatism.  A  negative  answer  can  be  justified 
only  by  showing  how  consciousness  can  be  in  a 
cognitive  relation  with  reality  without  truly 
transforming  reality  from  what  it  is  in  its  ulti- 
mate character.  This  is  what  some  conceive  to 
be  the  problem  set  by  tlie  science  of  epistemology, 
or  theory  of  knowledge.  See  Knowledge,  Theory 
OF. 

(2)  .-Assume  we  do  not  and  cannot  know  whether 
there  is  a  reality  distinct  from  appearance,  but 
that  at  least  we  have  the  conception  of  its  pos- 
sibility; and  the  result  of  this  confession  is  a 
critical  skepticism. 

(.3)  Assume  that  there  is  no  reality  apart 
from  appearance,  and  we  have  on  the  one  hand 
Positivism  (q.v.),  ami  on  the  other  the  idealistic 
systems  of  philosophy. 

Thus  the  attitude  taken  toward  appearance 
may  form  tlie  basis  for  one  of  the  most  conve- 
nient classifications  of  the  different  systems  of 
philosophy. 

Consult;  Bradley,  Appearance  and  Reality 
(London.  1807)  ;  Royce.  Conrrption  of  God  (New 
York,  1898),  and  The  H'ofW  and  the  Individual 
(New  York,  1000)  ;  Lotz.  Sj/stem  der  I'hilo.iophie 
(Leipzig,  1884)  ;  translated  by  Bosanquct.  2 
vols.  (Oxford,  1888)  ;  Hegel,  Encjiclopiidir  der 
pliiloaophischen  \\lissrnxclinftrn  ini  Irrnndri.ise 
(Heidelberg,  ■18.'?0).  in  part  translated  into  Eng- 
lish by  \Vallace_.  under  the  titles,  Hegel's  Logic 


(Oxford,  1892-94)  and  Hegel's  Philosophy  of 
Mind   (Oxford,  1894). 

APPEARANCE.  The  legal  proceeding  by 
which  a  defendant  brings  himself,  or  is  brought, 
into  court,  and  made  subject  to  its  jurisdiction. 
In  modern  judicial  procedure  the  actual  presence 
of  the  defendant  is,  in  civil  cases,  dispensed  with, 
a  written  "appearance"  being  entered  in  lieu 
thereof,  though  in  criminal  proceedings,  espe- 
cially in  cases  of  felony,  actual  presence  is  still 
generally  necessary  in  order  to  give  the  proceed- 
ings regularity.  In  neither  case,  however,  is  ap- 
pearance necessary  to  give  tlie  court  jurisdiction 
of  the  person  of  the  defendant,  that  being 
effected  by  the  service  of  the  process  whereby  the 
action  is  instituted.  The  usual  method  of  mak- 
ing appearance  is  for  the  party  to  plead,  i.e.,  put 
in  his  answer  or  defense,  though  it  may  be  done 
formally,  by  serving  upon  tlie  opposing  party  a 
regular  notice  of  appearance,  or,  informally,  by 
any  act  whereby  the  jurisdiction  of  the  court  is 
recognized,  as  by  demanding  or  submitting  to  a 
preliminary  examination.  In  civil  cases,  appear- 
ance is  usually  by  attorney.  See  Action; 
Answer:  Pleading;  Procedure. 

APPEND'ANT  RIGHTS  (Lat.  ad,  to  + 
pendcre.  to  hang).  In  English  law,  certain  com- 
mon rights  in  tlie  land  of  another  (such  as  com- 
mon of  pasture)  which  have  existed  from  time 
immemorial,  and  which  are  historically  appurte- 
nant to  the  land  of  the  person  claiming  the  right. 
They  differ  from  appurtenant  rights  in  that  the 
latter,  though  also  connected  witli  the  land  of  the 
claimant,  may  be  of  modern  origin  and  maj-  be 
acquired  by  ordinary  prescription  (q.v.)  or  by 
grant :  whereas  appendant  riglits  are  invariably 
ancient  and  cannot  be  created  at  the  pleasure  of 
the  parties.  For  this  reason,  the  number  of  such 
rights  is  limited  and  cannot  be  enlarged.  They 
are  probably  survivals  of  community  rig'its  in 
common  lands,  whicli  have  persisted  notwith- 
standing the  inclosure  of  such  lands  and  their 
appropriation  by  private  owners.  See  Appurtf- 
nance;  E.\.sement;  Profit  a  Prendre;  and 
Real  Property. 

APPEN'DICI'TIS.       See     Vebmifoem     Ap- 

PE.XDIX. 

APPEN'DIX  VER'MIFOR'MIS.  See  Ver- 
miform Appendix. 

APPENZELL,  ii'pen-tscl  (anciently,  Lat. 
Ahbatis  Celhi.  abbot's  cell).  A  northeastern  can- 
ton of  Switzerland  (.Map:  Switzerland,  D  1), 
encircled  by  the  Canton  of  Saint  Gall,  and 
divided  into  the  denii-cantons  of  Ausserrhoden 
and  Innerrhoden.  Situated  among  the  Alps,  the 
region  is  noted  for  its  scenic  beauty;  in  alti- 
tude it  ranges  from  1.300  feet,  its  lowest  eleva- 
tion, to  8215  feet  in  Sentis.  Other  prominent 
points  are  Heiden,  Wildkirchili,  Saint  Anthony's 
Cliapel,  Ebenalp,  and  the  Hone  Kasten.  The 
Sitter,  a  trilmtary  of  the  Thur,  is  the  chief 
river.  '  The  mountainous  character  of  the  sur- 
face precludes  agriculture  on  a  large* scale;  but 
it  has  rich  pastures,  and  cattle-breeding  and 
dairy-farming  are  important  pursuits,  especially 
in  Innerrhoden.  which  has  an  area  of  61  square 
miles  (population,  in  1900,  13,499).  Ausserrho- 
den. with  an  area  of  101  square  miles  (popula- 
tion, in  1900,  55,281),  is  noted  for  its  cotton 
and  silk  manufactures.  Each  division  has  an  in- 
dependent local  government,  with  representation 
in  the  Federal  Parliament.  The  local  division 
took   place   after   the   religious   wars   of   1597 — ' 


APPENZELL. 


G67 


APPEKCEPTION. 


Innerrhoden  being  almost  entirely  Roman  Catho- 
lic, and  Ausserrhoden  Protestant.  Religious  in- 
tolerance is  still  strongly  marked  in  the  district. 
Trogen,  a  village  of  2578  inhabitants,  noted  as 
a  summer  resort,  is  the  capital  of  Ausserrhoden. 
Appenzell  (population,  431)0),  a  former  country- 
seat  of  the  abbots  of  Saint  Gall  (whence  its 
name),  containing  two  monasteries,  is  the  capital 
of  Innerrlioden.  Consult  Richnian,  Appenzell, 
Pure  DciiKH-iuci/  and  Pastoral  Life  in  Innerrho- 
den   (London,  I'Sflo). 

AP'PEBCEP'TION  (Lat.  ad,  in  addition  to 
-f  percipere,  to  seize  entirely,  observe,  perceive). 
A  term  first  employed  by  Leibnitz  (l(i46-1716), 
for  wliom  it  signified  a  spontaneous  activity  of 
the  ego  which  exercised  such  a  modifying  influ- 
ence upon  the  crude  "perceptions"  of  sense  that 
they  became  transformed  into  clear  and  ordered 
elements  of  knowledge.  This  metaphysical  con- 
cept was  used  by  Kant  (1724-1804)  in  his 
episteniology,  witli  sharp  emphasis  upon  the 
spontaneity  of  the  activity.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  term  was  taken  over  into  psychology  by  Her- 
bart  (1770-1841)  and  his  followers,  has  been 
reformed  and  exiiaustively  treated  by  Wundt, 
and  more  recently  has  received  extended  discus- 
sion at  tlie  hands  of  tlie  English  psychologist 
Stout. 

Herbart  and  his  school,  especially  Lazarus 
(1824)  and  Steinthal  ( 182.3-99) ,  lay  s'tress  upon 
the  practical  significance  of  apperception.  This 
principle  forms,  indeed,  the  corner-stone  both 
of  tlieir  psychology  and  of  all  modern  theories 
of  education  based  upon  it.  Apperception  is 
"that  psychical  activity  by  which  individual 
perceptions,  ideas,  or  ideational  complexes  are 
brought  into  relation  to  our  previous  intel- 
lectual and  emotional  life,  associated  with  it, 
and  thus  raised  to  greater  clearness,  activity, 
and  significance."  The  mental  resultant  of 
previous  experience  wherewith  we  meet  and  re- 
ceive a  new  experience  is  termed  an  "appercep- 
tion mass."  There  will,  of  course,  be  individual 
variations  in  the  natvire  of  this  mass;  different 
minds  are  unequallj-  prepared  for  a  particular 
experience.  One  child  will  call  butterfiies  "fiy- 
ing  pansies";  anotlier  knows  them  to  be  in- 
sects. Thus,  from  tlie  Herbartian  standpoint, 
it  is  of  extreme  importance  for  the  teacher  to 
acquaint  himself  with  the  existing  store  of  ideas 
in  the  minds  of  the  children  under  his  charge, 
in  order  that  tlie  new  matter  wliieh  he  presents 
may  be  received  by  appropriate  thought-atti- 
tudes. 

Wundt's  treatment  combines  the  psychological 
acumen  of  Herbart  witli  the  Kantian  emphasis 
upon  s]ioiitaiieity  as  tlie  characteristic  feature 
of  apperception.  It  includes  a  careful  analysis 
of  tlie  experience  of  spontaneity  into  it,s  ulti- 
mate psycliical  and  physiological  conditions.  The 
salient  points  of  Wundt's  doctrine  are  as  fol- 
lows: Apperception  designates  (1)  either  cer- 
tain phenomena  actually  given  in  consciousness, 
or  (2)  a  certain  activity  which  we  infer  from 
these  conscious  data — i.e.,  a  concept  or  category 
under  which  the  phenomena  are  grouped.  As 
regards  the  phenomena  themselves,  we  liave  to 
note  first  tliat  the  ditl'erent  components  of  a 
given  consciousness  vary  in  prominence.  Some 
ideas  are  clear,  standing  in  the  focus  of  atten- 
tion (q.v.)  ;  others  are  obscure.  Ideas  may, 
then,  be  in  consciousness  and  jet  not  be  "apper- 
ceived."  Furthermore,  the  relation  is  not  fixed. 
An  idea  may  disappear  from  the  focus  of  atten- 


tion and  another,  previously  obscure,  take  its 
place.  Clearness  is  not,  like  quality  or  extent  of 
sensation,  dependent  merely  upon  tlie  character 
of  the  stimulus.  It  is  not,  like  intensity,  which 
it  most  resembles,  a  function  of  a  single  idea, 
but  attaches  to  a  number  of  ideas.  S'ow  the 
entrance  of  an  idea  into  the  focus  of  attention  is 
by  no  means  a  simple  matter.  Analysis  dis- 
closes, besides  the  increase  of  the  given  idea  in 
clearness,  (1)  a  feeling  of  activity,  (2)  inhibi- 
tion of  other  ideas,  (.i)  strain  sensations  and 
concomitant  feelings  which  intensify  the  feeling 
of  activity,  and  (4)  the  reflex  effect  of  (3), 
which  intensifies  the  given  idea.  A  careful 
examination  of  Wundt's  writings  shows  that  the 
"feeling  of  activity"  is  not  ultimate  and  un- 
analyzable,  distinct  from  either  sensation  or 
affection  ( q.v. ) ,  but  rather  a  conventional  term 
representing  a  complex  of  sensation  and  affec- 
tion from  the  presence  of  which  in  consciousness 
we  infer  an  activity  or  spontaneity.  Wundt 
distinguishes  between  "active"  apperception, 
marked  by  the  feeling  of  activity,  and  "passive" 
apperception,  marked  by  a  feeling  of  passivity, 
a  lessening  of  the  intensity  of  the  concomitant 
phenomena,  and  less  clearness  of  the  focal  idea, 
in  typical  passive  apperception  the  clarifying 
of  the  idea  is  determined  unequivocally  and'  im- 
mediately. In  active  apperception  there  are 
several  rival  ideas;  the  result  is  equivocal  and 
frequently  delayed.  The  conditions  of  apper- 
ception are  either  (1)  objective,  viz.,  (a)  the 
intensity,  and  ( 6 )  the  frequency  of  the  presented 
occurrence;  or  (2)  subjective,  viz,,  (a)  the  na- 
ture of  the  immediately  preceding  consciousness, 
and  (6)  the  individual  disposition  of  the  mind, 
as  determined  by  its  entire  previous  history. 

Apperception  is  closely  related  to  association. 
Association,  according  to  Wundt.  furnishes 
all  the  possible  connections  of  ideas;  apper- 
ception decides  which  of  tlie  possibilities  shall 
be  realized.  Thus  the  idea  x  may  be  assoeia- 
tively  connected  with  o,  b,  c,  and  d,  but  apper- 
ception may  bring  it  about  that,  in  a  given  case 
of  the  arousal  of  x,  only  6  appears  in  attention. 
This  process  of  choice,  of  the  enhancement  of 
one  out  of  several  ideas,  together  with  the  feel- 
ing of  activity,  differentiates  apperception  from 
association.  Apperceptive  connections  them- 
selves may  be  eitiier  simultaneous  or  successive. 
The  former  are  subdivided  into  (a)  agglutina- 
tions, (6)  apperceptive  fusions,  and  (c)  con- 
cepts. (See  Abstr.\ction.)  The  judgment  is 
typical  of  the  successive  form  of  apperceptive 
connections.  Stout  defines  appercejition  as  the 
"process  by  which  a  mental  system  appropriates 
a  new  element,  or  otherwise  receives  fresh  de- 
termination." Great  stress  is  laid  upon  the 
"preformed  mental  system,"  which  is  regarded 
as  an  organic  whole,  not  (as  by  Herbart)  a 
mere  apperception-mass  of  presentations.  Ey  its 
reaction  upon  the  further  processes  of  attention, 
it  gives  us  the  clew  to  the  problems  of  mental 
growth  and  mental  organization.  Stout  further 
introduces  the  ideas  of  "negative"  and  "de- 
structive" apperception.  Negative  appercep- 
tion is  a  form  in  which  the  effort  to  appropriate 
a  new-  element  is  unsuccessful ;  destructive  ap- 
perception is  a  form  in  which  "one  system  by 
appropriating  a  new  element  wrests  it  from  its 
preformed  connection  with  another  system."  In 
each  case  there  results  some  positive  effect; 
former  systems  become  modified  or  new  sys- 
tems are  developed.     The  early  experimental  in- 


APPERCEPTION. 


668 


APPIUS  CLAUDIUS  CRASSUS. 


vestigations  of  apperception  deal  for  the  most 
part  with  the  time-relations  of  the  various  fac- 
tors involved;  the  later  investigations  have 
analyzed  the  conditions  under  which  appercep- 
tion occurs.  Valuable  results  have  been  gained 
by  a  study  of  the  apperception  of  ideas  as  con- 
veyed by  language  ( q.v. ) ,  both  spoken  and  writ- 
ten. 

Bibliography.  Leibnitz,  New  Essays  (New 
York,  1896)  ;  Herbart,  Text-Book  in  Psychology 
(New  York,  1891)  ;  Stout,  Analytic  Psychology 
(London,  1896)  ;  Wundt,  Grundsiige  der  physio- 
logischen  Psychologic  (Leipzig,  1893)  ;  Logik 
(Stuttgart,  1893)  ;  and  Outlines  of  Psychology 
(Leipzig,  1897).  Experimental:  Erdmann  and 
Dodge,  Psychologische  Unterstichungen  iiber  das 
Lescn  auf  experiment  eller  Grundlage  (Halle, 
1898)  ;  Lange,  Apperception:  A  Monograph  on 
Psychology  and  Pedagogy  (Boston,  1893).  See 
Knowledge,  Theoky  of';  Association  of  Ideas; 
Psychology. 

APPERT,  a'par',  Benjamin  Nicolas  JIarie 
( 1TP7-C.1847 ).  A  French  philanthropist  and 
educatoi',  bom  in  Paris.  He  introduced  into 
several  military  schools  a  system  of  mutual  in- 
struction, and  in  1820  founded  and  conducted 
gratuitouslj'  a  school  for  prisoners  at  ilontaigu. 
He  was  suspected  of  having  aided  the  escape  of 
two  prisoners  and  was  himself  confined  in  the 
military  prison.  Here  lie  made  a  study  of  the 
moral  and  physical  circumstances  of  the  prison- 
ers, and  after  his  liberation  he  devoted  much 
time  to  the  study  of  schools,  prisons,  and  hospi- 
tals, and  published  his  researches  in  his  Journal 
des  Prisons  (1825-30).  After  the  Revolution 
of  1830  he  was  employed  by  Louis  Philippe 
to  superintend  the  measures  taken  for  the  relief 
of  tlie  indigent  classes.  He  also  wrote  a  work 
entitled  Dix  ans  a  la  cour  du  roi  Louis-Philippe 
(1846).  In  his  Conferences  contre  le  systime 
cellulaire,  he  strongly  opposed  the  system  of 
solitary  confinement.  It  is  said  that  he  taught 
at  least  100,000  soldiers  to  read  and  write.  He 
has  been  criticised  for  one-sidedness,  but  seems 
to  have  been  a  sincere  and  warm-hearted  philan- 
thropist. 

APPERT,  Fr,\ncois  (?-1840).  A  French 
technologist,  the  brother  of  Benjamin  Appert. 
He  invented  ( 1804)  a  method  of  preserving  food, 
without  the  use  of  chemicals.  His  method  is 
fully  described  in  his  work  on  the  Art  of  Pre- 
serving Animal  and  Veqctahle  Substances  (Paris, 
1810;  English  translation,  London,  1811).  It 
is  the  well-known  method  of  placing  the  ar- 
ticle of  food  to  be  preserved  in  a  can,  after 
heating  it,  and  then  sealing  the  can  hermeti- 
cally. Tlie  publication  of  his  metliod  brought 
Appert  a  prize  of  12,000  francs  from  tlie  French 
Governiiiciit. 

AP'PETITE.  See  Digestion,  Organs  and 
Process  of,  in  JIan. 

APPIANI,  il'pe-ii'no,  Andrea  (17.54-1817). 
An  Italian  painter,  born  at  Milan.  His  artistic 
training  consisted  in  extensive  studies  of  antique 
sculpture  and  of  the  chief  masters  of  the  Re- 
naissance, especially  of  Raphael.  He  first  ac- 
quired fame  by  the  frescoes  of  the  palace  of 
Monza  and  of  the  cupola  of  Santa  Maria  presso 
San  Celso  (Milan),  and  was  appointed  first 
painter  of  the  court  of  Italy  by  Napoleon.  He 
portraj'ed  the  emperor,  the  viceroy  of  Italy,  and 
his  family,  and  decorated  the  royal  palace  at 
Milan.  After  his  patron's  fall,  he  was  afflicted 
by  poverty  and  illness,  and  died  of  apoplexy. 


AP'PIA'NUS  (Gk.  'AirTriavis,  Appianos) .  A 
native  of  Alexandria,  who  lived  during  the  reigns 
of  Trajan,  Hadrian,  and  Antoninus  Pius.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  Roman  history  in  Greek,  en- 
titled 'Pu^ira,  {Romaika) ,  in  twenty-four  books, 
of  which  only  eleven  are  extant.  It  was  not  re- 
markable for  anything  except  the  plan  on  which 
it  was  written.  Instead  of  proceeding  to  ex- 
hibit chronologically  the  growth  of  the  Empire, 
from  its  rude  beginning  on  the  Palatine  Hill  to 
the  period  when  its  power  held  the  whole  world 
in  awe,  which  is  at  once  the  popular  and  the 
philosophical  method,  he  divided  his  work  into 
ethnographic  sections,  recording  separately  the 
history  of  each  nation  up  to  the  time  of  its  con- 
quest by  the  Romans.  First  in  order  were  the 
books  devoted  to  the  old  Italian  tribes,  and 
afterwards  followed  the  history  of  Sicily,  Spain, 
Hannibal's  wars,  lyibya,  Carthage,  and  Numidia, 
Macedonia,  Greece  Proper  and  its  colonies,  Syria, 
Parthia,  the  Jlithridatic  wars,  the  civil  wars,  and 
the  imperial  wars  in  Illyria  and  Arabia.  As  an 
historian,  Appianus  is  a  mere  compiler,  and  not 
very  accurate  in  his  compilation.  His  geograph- 
ical knowledge  in  particular  is  singularly  de- 
ficient, considering  the  age  in  which  he  lived. 
The  best  edition  is  that  of  L.  Mendelssohn  ( Leip- 
zig, 1879-81):  translated  by  H.  White  (New 
York,  1899). 

APTPIAN  WAY  (Lat.  Via  Appia).  A 
Roman  road,  well  named  by  the  poet  Statius 
regina  riurnin  (the  queen  of  roads).  It  was  be- 
gun by  Appius  Claudius  Caeeus,  while  censor  (B.C. 
312).  It  is  the  oldest  and  most  celebrated  of  all 
the  Roman  roads.  It  led  from  the  Porta  Capena 
at  Rome  in  a  southerly  direction  to  Capua,  pass- 
ing through  Tres  Tabernoe,  Appii  Forum,  Ter- 
racina,  etc.  Subsequently,  it  Mas  carried  on  to 
Beneventum,  Tarentum,  and  thence  to  Brundu- 
sium.  It  was  carefully  built,  though  the  pave- 
ment of  large  hexagonal  blocks,  principally 
lava,  on  a  firm  foundation  and  strengthened  by 
cement,  is  probably  not  the  original  bed.  From 
Rome  to  Terracina  the  course  is  nearly  straight, 
in  S])ite  of  the  steep  grades  in  crossing  the  Al- 
ban  ilountains,  and  the  difficulties  of  the  Pon- 
tine marshes.  Near  Rome  the  road  was  lined 
with  tombs,  of  which  many  remains  can  still 
be  seen.  The  most  remarkable  of  these  tombs  are 
those  of  the  Scipios,  and  of  Caecilia  Metclla.  The 
ancient  pavement,  in  good  repair,  is  still  in  use 
in  ])lai-i's. 

APPIUS,  Market  of.    See  Forum  Apph. 

AP'PIUS  AND  VIRGIN'IA.  A  Roman 
legend  of  an  attempted  corruption  of  maidenly 
virtue,  which  has  since  proved  a  fertile  subject 
for  romancers.  The  story  was  originally  told 
by  Livy.  It  is  repeated  in  the  Pceorone  di  Gio- 
vanni Fiorentino,  published  in  1378,  and  again 
in  Painter's  Palace  of  Pleasure,  in  1566.  Modi- 
fications of  it  occur  in  the  Roman  de  la  Rose  and 
in  Gower's  Confessio  Amantis.  "The  Doctor" 
of  the  Canterbury  Tales  also  repeats  it  in  sub- 
stance. The  title  has  headed  no  less  than  three 
English  plays:  an  early  tragical  comedy,  by  an 
unknown  author  signing  himself  R.  R.,  a  tragedy 
by  Webster,  printed  in  1654,  and  a  tragedy  by 
Dennis,  in  1709.  It  is  also  the  subject  of  a  poem, 
"Virginia,"  by  Macaulay.  For  other  [days  on 
the  same  subject,  see  Virginius. 

APPIUS  CLAU'DIUS  CRAS'SUS.  A 
Roman  decemvir  (B.c  451-449)-  While  the  other 
decemviri  were  engaged  in  repelling  an  incursion 
made  by  the  Sabines,  Appius  Claudius  and  his 


APPIUS    CLAUDIUS    CRASSUS. 


669 


APPLE. 


colleague  Oppius  remained  in  Rome,  with  two 
legions  to  maintain  tlieir  authority.  Meanwhile, 
Appius  Claudius  had  been  smitten  by  the  beauty 
of  Virginia,  daughter  of  a  respeeted  plebeian 
named  Lucius  Virginius,  who  was  abroad  with 
the  army.  By  force  and  stratagem,  representing 
that  she  was  the  born  slave  of  JIarcus  Claudius, 
one  of  his  clients,  Appius  Claudius  gained  pos- 
session of  the  girl.  His  design  was  penetrated 
by  leilius,  who  was  betrothed  to  Virginia,  and 
who,  aided  by  Xumitorius,  her  uncle,  threatened 
to  raise  an  insurrection  against  the  decemviri. 
Virginius,  hurriedly  recalled  from  the  army  by 
his  friends,  appeared  and  claimed  his  daugliter; 
but,  after  another  mock-trial,  she  was  .again  ad- 
judged to  be  the  property  of  Marcus  tiaiulius. 
To  save  his  daughter  from  dishonor,  the  unhappy 
father  seized  a  knife  and  slew  her.  The  popular 
indignation  excited  by  the  case  was  headed  by 
the  senators  Valerius  and  Horatius,  who  hated 
the  decemvirate.  The  army  returned  to  Rome 
with  Virginius,  who  had  carried  the  news  to 
them,  and  the  decemviri  were  deposed.  Appius 
Claudius  died  in  prison  by  his  own  hand  (as 
Livy  states),  or  was  strangled  by  order  of  the 
tribimes.  His  colleague,  Oppius,  committed  sui- 
cide, and  Marcus  Claudius  was  banished. 

API'LE.  The  name  applied  to  a  tree  be- 
longing to  the  rose  family  of  plants,  as  well 
as  to  its  fruit.  The  conmion  juiple  is  known 
botanically  as  Pyrus  mains;  the  Crab  Apples  be- 
longing to  Pyrus<  bafcata.  All  the  cultivated 
apples  of  the  world  have  come  from  these  two 
forms.  The  fruit  of  the  apple  is  a  pome,  con- 
sisting of  a  thickened  fleshy  portion,  resulting 
from  the  development  of  the  calyx,  inclosing  the 
horny  cells  forming  the  core  and  'covering  the 
true  seeds. 

The  common  apple,  Pyrus  mains,  lias  been  in 
cultivation  since  prehistoric  times.  Charred  re- 
mains of  the  fruit  have  been  found  in  the  mud 
of  the  lakes  inhabited  by  the  Lake  Dwellers,  and, 
according  to  De  Candolle,  the  tree  was  probably 
indigenous  to  Anatolia,  the  south  of  the  Cau- 
casus, and  northern  Russia,  and  its  cultivation 
began  at  a  very  early  date.  The  Siberian  Crab, 
Pyrus  baccata,  is  a  native  of  the  north,  and  is 
of  great  importance  to  fruitgrowers  not  only 
on  account  of  its  own  hardy  and  resistant  char- 
acter, but  also  because  it  transmits  much  of 
its  hardiness  to  its  crosses  with  Pyrus  m/tliis. 
thus  producing  a  fruit  of  good  quality  that 
can  endure  northern  climates.  Besides  these 
European  apples,  North  America  has  several 
wild  species  which  are  more  or  less  notable. 
Among  these,  the  Prairie  Apple,  Pyrus  loensis, 
is  perhaps  the  most  promising  from  a  horti- 
cultural standpoint,  because  crosses  between  it 
and  Pyrus  malus  (to  which  class  the  so-called 
I'yrus  Koulardii  undoubtedly  belongs)  are  already 
valualile.  The  eastern  wild  apple,  Pyrus  corona- 
ria.  is  oi  little  value  for  its  fruit,  but  its  bloom 
is  beautiful.  China  and  .Japan  have  native  ap- 
ples which  are  of  little  economic  importance,  hut 
are  interesting  in  that  they  carry  the  genus 
througli  the  north  temperate  zone  around  the 
world. 

Crab  Apple,  or  Cr,\b.  A  term  applied  indis- 
criminately to  all  small  fruits  of  the  apple,  re- 
gardless of  species.  Sometimes,  however,  it  is 
confined  to  a  class  of  small,  long-stemmed  fruits 
belonging  to  Pyrus  baccata. 

Economically  the  apple  is  the  most  important 
fiuit  of  temperate  regions.     It  is  grown  over  a 


wide  area,  prospering  as  far  north  as  Scandi- 
navia and  as  far  south  as  the  southern  mountain 
districts  of  the  United  States.  It  has,  moreover, 
been  carried  into  the  Southern  Hemisphere,  and 
now,  with  rapid  ocean  transit.  New  Zealand  and 
Tasmanian  apples  are  annually  offered  during 
April  and  May  in  the  markets  of  London  and 
San  Francisco. 

North  America  is  the  leading  apple-growing 
region  of  the  world.  Apples  are  raised  on  a 
commercial  scale  from  Nova  Scotia  south  to 
Virginia  and  west  to  Wisconsin,  Iowa,  Nebraska, 
Kansas,  and  Missouri.  They  are  also  raised  in 
Oregon  and  California.  These  several  regions 
produce  an  annual  aggregate  product  of  one  ■ 
hundred  million  barrels.  The  great  portion  of 
this  yield  finds  a  ready  market  within  the 
domain  of  North  America ;  but  a  small  fraction 
of  the  crop  is  annually  exported,  mainly  to 
Liverpool,  London,  and  Glasgow.  The  export 
trade  is  gradually  increasing,  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean countries  may  be  counted  upon  as  a 
future  market  for  American  aj)ples. 

The  apple  is  propagated  both  by  budding,  and 
by  grafting  the  desired  sort  on  young  seedling 
trees,  which  are  usually  gro\\Ti  from  seeds  ob- 
tained from  apple  pomace  at  the  eider  mills. 
( See  Budding  ;  Grafting.  )  Such  seeds  give  a 
progeny  variable  both  in  hardiness  and  in  habit 
of  growth,  and  are  therefore  less  desirable  for 
stocks  than  seedlings  grown  from  seeds  of  the 
wild  Pyrus  malus  of  Europe.  Budded  trees  are 
preferred  by  most  growers,  as  well  as  nursery- 
men, in  the  southeastern  and  eastern  parts  of 
the  United  States.  To  the  nurseryman,  the  chief 
advantage  of  a  budded  tree  comes  of  its  quick 
growth,  which  shortens  the  time  during  which 
money  invested  is  non-productive.  The  root- 
grafted  tree  is  preferred  by  planters  in  the 
Northwest ;  such  trees  form  roots  from  the  scion, 
if  a  short  piece-root  is  used.  This,  sooner  or 
later,  produces  a  tree  on  its  own  root,  which  in 
turn  eliminates  the  uncertainty  of  the  seedling 
root  and,  when  "iron-clad"  scions  are  used,  gives 
a  perfectly  hardy  tree.  Grafting  is  again  im- 
portant for  the  purpose  of  converting  bearing 
trees,  of  several  years  standing,  from  one  variety 
to  another. 

Dwarf  apples  are  grown  as  espaliers  in  parts 
of  England.  The  dwarf  trees  are  obtained  by 
grafting  the  desired  variety  on  Paradise  or 
Doucin  stocks.  These  are  dwarf  forms  of  Pyrus 
malus.  New  varieties  of  apples  are  obtained  by 
sowing  the  seeds  of  cultivated  sorts.  Seeds  from 
such  fruits  are  more  variable  than  those  from 
wild  trees,  and  consequently  more  likely  to  give 
desirable  offspring.  This  operation  is  one  of 
chance;  frequently  thousands  of  seedlings  are 
grown  without  producing  one  valuable  tree. 
Apple  trees  grow  large  and  endure  many  years. 
In  planting  an  orchard,  therefore,  the  trees 
should  be  given  ample  room ;  40  feet  each  way 
is  close  enough  in  New  York  and  the  New  Eng- 
land States,  where  the  trees  grow  largest. 
Farther  south,  where  the  trees  do  not  attain 
great  size,  and  are  shorter-lived,  .3,3  to  35  feet 
apart  each  way  is  not  too  close.  In  the  North- 
west, trees  should  be  planted  even  closer  tlian 
this,  for  there  they  are  liable  to  injury  from  sun- 
scald  and  wind.  Closely  planted  and  low-headed 
trees  serve  as  a  mutual  protection.  Soils  for  the 
apple  which  have  given  the  best  crops  and  have 
produced  longest  lived  trees,  are  chiefly  com- 
posed  of   clay   or   clay-loam    impregnated   with 


APPLE. 


670 


APPLE. 


gravel.  Such  land,  situated  so  as  to  afford  good, 
air  as  well  as  land  drainage,  produees  more  regu- 
lar crops  of  highly  colored  and  highly  flavored 
fruits  than  lower  and  heavier  lands.  Atmos- 
pheric drainage  is  one  of  the  best  material  safe- 
guards against  late  spring  frosts,  and  good  land 
drainage  assures  a  warm,  congenial  soil  for  the 
plant. 

Two-year-old  apple  trees  contain,  in  the  air- 
dried  substance:  nitrogen,  0.891  per  cent.;  phos- 
phoric acid,  0.122  per  cent.;  potash,  0.44  per 
cent.;  and  water,  00.83  per  cent.  About  ten  tons 
of  such  matter  is  produced  upon  an  acre  of 
nursery  stock.  The  fruit  contains:  nitrogen.  0.13 
•percent.;  phosphoric  acid,  0.01  per  cent.;  potash, 
0.19  per  cent.  A  ton  of  ripe  apples  contains,  at 
the  usual  prices,  about  91  cents'  worth  of  valua- 
ble fertilizing  ingredients.  Generally  lands  such 
as  those  above  described,  contain  a  suflicient  sup- 
ply of  nitrogen  for  the  needs  of  the  tree,  but  as 
the.  greatest  demand  in  the  ripening  of  the  fruit 
and  seed  is  made  upon  potash  and  phosphoric 
acid,  these  are  the  two  ingredients  most  fre- 
quentlv  needed  by  the  orchard.  They  are  the 
ingredients,  too,  which  can  be  made  good  only 
by  the  applic.ition  of  a  manure  of  some  kind, 
while  if  nitrogen  be  lacking,  it  can  be  made  up 
by  gro^xing  a  leguminous  crop,  such  as  Canada 
peas,  cow-peas,  or  beans,  upon  the  soil  and  turn- 
ing it  under. 

CuLTiv.^TiON.  Good  cultivation  is  an  impor- 
tant part  of  orchard  management.  Two  crops  can 
seldom  be  profitably  grown  on  the  same  soil  at 
the  same  time.  The  orchard  should  not  be  used 
as.  a  pasture  lot  or  as  regular  farm  land.  Culti- 
vation should  be  done  earlv  in  the  season  to 
stimulate  early  growth,  but  discontinued  by  .July 
15th  in  the  United  States  in  order  that  growth 
may  be  checked  and  the  wood  mature  properly 
to  insure  hardiness  during  the  winter  and  a 
crop  the  following  season.  Another  essential  of 
orchard  management  is  proper  pruning.  This 
must  be  modified  to  suit  the  variety,  the  locality, 
and  the  purpose  for  which  the  tree  is  grown.  In 
general,  a  low  head,  wide-spreading  branches 
evenly  disposed  about  the  trunk  and  at  different 
heights  are  desirable  ends.  Harvesting  depends 
upon  the  season  of  ripenin,g.  Jlost  commercial 
fruits  are  so-called  "winter  apples"  and  are  al- 
lowed to  remain  upon  the  trees  as  long  as  pos- 
sible without  being  frozen.  Fruits  so  treated 
are,  as  a  rule,  better  flavored  and  more  highly 
colored  than  those  picked  earlv,  and  experiments 
indicate  that  they  are  less  liable  to  scald  in 
cold  storage. 

Varieties.  Each  section  of  the  world  pos- 
sesses a  certain  number  of  varieties  which  are 
peculiarl.v  suited  to  its  soil  and  climate.  When 
apple-culture  is  to  be  extended  to  a  new  region, 
the  problem  to  be  solved  is,  to  ascertain  which 
varieties  are  best  adapted  to  the  conditions  pre- 
vailing in  that  region.  In  the  United  States,  the 
varieties  held  in  highest  favor  by  the  inhabitants 
of  any  given  locality  have  usually  proved  safest 
to  plant  for  commercial  purposes. 

Uses.  The  apple  is  used  most  extensively  for 
cooking  and  for  eating  out  of  hand.  It  is  also 
employed  for  cider  making  and  vinegar  making, 
the  finest  vinegar  being  made  from  apple  juice. 
For  these  purposes  smaller  or  inferior  fruits  are 
usually  taken.  Brandy  and  other  beverages  are 
made  from  the  juice  also.  Large  quantities  of 
the  fruit  are  now  dried  in  evaporators,  the  prod- 


uct being  quite  extensively  e.xported  to  European 
countries. 

Apple  Disea.ses.  The  apple  is  subject  to  a 
number  of  well-known  fungous  diseases,  the  more 
important  of  which  are  the  rust,  scah,  and  bitter 
or  ripe  rot.  The  runt  is  due  to  the  fungus 
Itocstelia  piraia.  This  fungiis  is  peculiar  in  that 
it  spends  part  of  its  life  on  the  apple  tree  and 
part  on  the  cedar.  It  causes  yellow  spots  on  the 
leaves  of  the  apple  in  May  or  .June,  attacking 
the  fruit  about  the  same  time  and  rendering  it  ' 
worthless.  Upon  the  underside  of  the  leaves  and 
on  the  swollen,  diseased  parts  of  the  fruit,  vast 
quantities  of  spores  are  produced,  which  find 
their  way  to  some  cedar  or  juniper  tree.  Here 
they  cause  enlargements  on  the  branches.  These 
swellings,  or  cedar  apples,  as  they  are  called, 
are  half  an  inch  or  more  in  diameter,  and  ripen 
the  next  spring,  when  their  horn-shaped,  orange- 
colored  masses  are  easily  to  be  seen.  On  these 
are  borne  spores,  minute  and  easily  blown  about. 
Some  of  these  find  their  way  to  the  apples. 
The  form  on  the  cedar  is  known  as  Gi/nuwspo- 
rnnginm  macropus.  Instead  of  depending  upon 
the  cedar  for  the  alternate  generation,  the  myce- 
lium of  the  fungus  may  find  its  way  into  the 
buds  and  young  twigs  of  the  apple  tree,  and  from 
them  infest  the  ne.xt  crop.  Destroying  all  cedar 
trees  and  thoroughly  spra.ving  the  trees  with 
Bordeaux  mixture  (see  Fungicide)  upon  the 
appearance  of  the  leaves  will  aid  in  keeping  the 
disease  in  check.  The  apple-scab  is  caused  by  the 
fungus  Fusicladium  dendriticum.  Both  leaves  and 
fruit  of  the  apple  and  pear  are  subject  to  this 
disease.  Upon  the  fruit  dark  circular  spots  are 
formed.  The  centres  of  the  spots  are  dark  brown 
or  black,  witTi  light-colored  edges.  Often  a  mun- 
ber  of  spots  run  together,  when  the  fruit  usually 
cracks,  showing  hard,  brown  tissue  within.  The 
diseased  area  ceases  to  grow,  and  one-sided  fruit 
is  produced.  Upon  the  leaves  the  appearance  is 
somewhat  similar  to  that  upon  the  fruit,  except 
that  the  light  border  of  the  spot  is  lacking.  The 
leaves  become  crumpled  and  ra.i;ged,  and  finally 
fall  off.  This  is  undoubtediv  the  most  serious 
fungous  disease  to  which  apples  and  pears  are 
subject,  and  no  locality  seems  entirely  free  from 
it.  Differences  have  been  noticed  in  the  suscepti- 
bilit.v  to  the  disease  of  dift'erent  varieties.  Spitz- 
enberg,  Fameuse,  Fall  Pippin,  and  Harvest  apples 
are  especially  subject  to  scab;  while  Ben  Davis, 
King  Fallawater,  and  manv  others  are  less  seri- 
ously affected.  This  di-sease  and  the  loss  caused 
by  it  may  be  prevented  bv  thorough  spraying 
with  Bordeaux  mixture  or  similar  fungicide, 
three  applications  being  given  the  trees  at  inter- 
vals of  ab(mt  ten  days,  beginning  at  the  swelling 
time  of  the  buds.  In  many  of  the  Southern 
States,  as  well  as  in  northern  localities,  the 
bitter  rot  is  the  cause  of  much  lo.ss  to  fruit- 
growers. This  rot,  due  to  the  fimgus  Glwospo- 
rium  fructigenum,  attacks  the  fruit  at  any  stage 
of  growth.  The  diseased  tissue  becomes  brown 
and  very  bitter;  hence  the  name.  Spraying  as 
recommended  above,  is  the  preventive  treatment. 
.A.  black  rot  caused  bv  Spli(rropsis  malorum  is 
similar  to  the  bitter  rot,  and  yields  to  the  same 
treatment.  A  disease,  known  as  the  brown  spot 
of  Baldwins,  is  common  to  that  and  many  other 
varieties.  The  flesh  becomes  dry  and  brown  in 
any  part  of  the  fruit.  Its  origin  is  obscure,  and 
reliable  preventives  are  unknown.  A  serious 
disease  of  the  apple  tree  in  Europe,  lately  found  in 


APPLES 


'•«^'^'' 


.  IB02.  BT  OODD.  MEAO  1  COMPANV 


1  HYSLOP    CRAB  NATURAL   SIZE 

2  RED    ASTRACHAN  ^4  NATURAL    SIZE 

3  YELLOW    BELLFLOWER  */J  „ 


4  BEN    DAVIS 

5  NORTHERN    SPY 

6  HUBBARDSTON 


^*  NATURAL  SIZE 


APPLE. 


671 


APPLE  OF  DISCORD. 


the  United  States  also,  is  that  kno^vn  as  apple-tree 
canker,  caused  by  Xectria  ditissima.  The  fungus 
gains  entrance  throufjli  wounds,  destroying  the 
bark,  and  later  attacking  and  destroying  the 
wood.  Where  the  attack  is  slight,  cutting  out 
the  diseased  areas  and  coating  the  cut  surface 
with  tar  will  prove  bcnclicinl.  Where  the  tree 
is  seriously  affected,  it  should  be  cut  down  and 
burned,  as  it  cannot  be  restored  to  health  and  is 
a  menace  to  sound  trees.  This  same  fungus  at- 
tacks a  number  of  other  kinds  of  trees,  as  oak, 
alder,  dogwood,  maple,  etc. 
Insect     Pests.      A     large     number     of     in- 


tent-worms and  canker-worms  (q.v.)  are  promi- 
nent among  these.  In  Kurope  the  principal 
damage  is  done  by  a  small  while,  black-spotted 
ermine-moth  [Hj/piioineuta  paileltiis),  and  in 
Japan  by  a  moth  {Laveriia  hercllern) ,  whose 
larviE  live  in  the  core  of  the  fruit.  The  worst 
American  insect  of  this  class  is  the  codling-moth, 
which  may  be  treated  by  spraying  with  an  in- 
secticide (q.v.).  Paris  green  or  London  purple  is 
most  frequently  used  for  this  purpose.  A  calen- 
dar showing  tile  kind  and  approximate  time  of 
spraying  to  check  insect  pests  and  diseases  is 
given  below: 


SPRAY  CALENDAR  FOR  THE  APPLE. 


NAME  OF  TROUBLE. 

1  TREATMENT. 

U  TREATMENT. 

m  TREATMENT. 

IV  TREATMENT. 

V  TEEATMENT. 

Scab 

Copper  sulphate  so- 
lution before  buds 
break. 

Bordeaux     mixture 
at    same    time    aa 
Treatment  II    lor 
Apple  Scab. 

Bordeaux     mixture 
about  July  15  as  a 
safeguard. 

Paris    green    in    II 
treatment  for  Scab. 

Paris  green  or  Lon- 
don purple   before 
blossoms  open    or 
as  soon  as  they  fall. 

Paris  green  or  Lon- 
don purple.    Seelll 
treatment  (orscab. 

Paris  green  aa  soon 
as    tips    of    leaves 
show  in  bud. 

Bordeaux  mixture 
wheiileafbudsare 
open    but  before 
flower   bada    ex- 
pand. 

SameasIIIforAp- 
ple  Scab. 

Bordeaux  mixture 
10  days  later. 

Repeat  (I) In  8  to 
10  days. 

Repeat  (I)  before 
blossom  buds 
open. 

Bordeaux  mixture 
and   Paris  green 
as  soon  as  blos- 
soms huve  fallen. 

Same  as IVfor Ap- 
ple Scab. 

Ammoniacal  Car- 
bonate of  Copper 
as  substitute  for 
Bordeauxassoon 
as    fruits    are 
three-fourths 
grown. 

Repeat  (I)  in  two 
weeks  after  (II). 

Bordeaux  mixture 
10—12  days  after 
(HI). 

Repeat  (I)  if  sec- 
ond    brood     is 
troublesome. 

Repeat  (III)  once 

or  twice  at  inter- 
vals of  two  weeks. 

NoTE-This  disease 

Bitter  Rot 

is  liable  to  cause 
loss  of  foliage  near 
harvest  time.  Am- 
moniacal Copper 
Carbonate  should 
be  used  for  late 
treatjuente. 

Tent  Caterpillar 

NoTE-To  lessen  ex- 
pense, combine  in- 
secticides and  fun- 
gicides—i.e.,  use 
Paris  green  or 
London  purple 
with  Bordeaux 
mixture  whenever 
the  poison  is  de- 
sired. 

sects  injuriously  atTect  apple  trees  and  fruit, 
among  which  certain  beetles  and  moths  are  pre- 
eminent. Borers. — Wood-boring  beetles  are  very 
destructive,  especially  the  round-headed  borer 
{Saperda  randida)  (see  Plate  of  Beetles),  and 
the  flat-headed  borer  [Chrysobothris  feinorata). 
Tlie  former  is  the  worst  enemy,  after  the  codling- 
moth,  of  apple-culture  in  the  United  States;  and 
like  the  others  does  its  damage  as  a  grub,  born 
from  an  egg  laid  in  the  bark,  where  it  bores  into 
and  feeds  upon  the  sap-wood.  A  special  de- 
scription of  these  beetles  and  other  apple-eating 
beetles,  with  advice  as  to  control  of  similar  pests, 
is  given  by  F.  H.  Chittenden  in  Entomological 
Virciilar  A'o.  32,  second  .series,  and  Bullctiyi  22, 
of  tlie  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
(Washington,  1S98-1900).  Various  root-borers 
and  fruit-l)orers  are  also  to  be  feared  here  and  in 
foreign  lands,  especially  in  Australia,  where  also 
a  harlequin  fruit-bug  is  dangerous.  Moths. — 
Im])ortant  enemies  are  to  be  found  among  the 
Lepidoptera,  which  place  eggs  within  the  blos- 
som, whence  caterpillars  develop  within  the 
ripened  fruit;  or  which  destroy  the  leaves.    The 


Directions  for  making  and  applying  these 
sprays  may  be  found  in  the  article  Fungicide. 

Fossil  Forms.  The  genus  Pyrus  is  known  in  a 
fossil  state  from  the  Cretaceous  of  North  Amer- 
ica and  the  Tertiary  of  North  America  and 
Europe. 

Consult:  •!.  A.  Warder,  American  Pomology, 
Part  I.,  Apples  (New  York,  1867)  ;  Bailey,  Field 
Notes  on  Apple  Culture  (New  York,  1880)  ;  Re- 
port of  the  Kansas  State  Horticultural  Society, 
The  Apple  (Topeka,  ISnS)  ;  Reports  of  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Division  of 
Pomology    (Washington). 

APPLE  BBAN'DY.  Brandy  produced  by 
distilling  the  fermented  juice  of  apples.  It  was 
at  one  time  extensively  produced  in  New  .Jersey, 
where  it  was  known  as  "Apple-jack,"  and  on  ac- 
count of  its  ardent  and  intoxicating  qualities  as 
"Jersey  Liglitning."  The  process  of  manufacture 
is  similar  to  that  employed  in  distilling  the 
juices  of  other  fruits,  which  will  be  found  de- 
scribed in  the  article  Distilled  Liquors. 

APPLE  OF  DISCORD.  A  golden  fruit  bear- 
ing the  inscription,   "For   the   most   beautiful," 


APPLE    OF    DISCORD. 


672 


APPLETON. 


which  was  thro\vn  by  Eris,  or  Discord,  into  the 
midst  of  the  company  at  the  marriage  of  Peleus 
and  Thetis.  The  prize  was  claimed  by  Juno, 
Minerva,  and  Venus,  and  was  adjudged  to  Venus 
by  Paris,  who  was  called  in  to  make  the  award. 
The  decision  brought  about  the  Trojan  War. 
APPLE    OF    SOD'OM.      See    Sodom,    Apple 

OF. 

APPLE  SHELL,  or  APPLE  SNAIL.   A 

large,  globose,  amphibious  mollusk  of  the  warmer 
parts  of  Africa  and  America,  of  the  family  Am- 
pullariida?.  They  inhabit  marshes,  attaching 
their  large  eggs  to  the  leaves  of  water  plants, 
where  they  are  searched  for  and  devoured  by 
birds.  Tiiey  possess  both  lungs  and  gills,  and  in 
some  regions  us.j  both  these  organs  in  rapid  al- 
ternation, as  was  observed  by  Semper  (Animal 
Life,  New  York,  1881,  p.  191)"  in  the  Philippines. 
"The  ampullaria,"  he  remarks,  "lying  not  far 
from  the  surface  of  the  water,  protrudes  above 
it  a  breathing  siphon,  and  inhales  air  through  it; 
then  it  closes  its  lungs,  reopens  the  siphon,  and 
admits  a  stream  of  water  through  it  into  the 
branchial  cavity."  The  shells  are  large,  thin, 
brilliantly  striped  (see  colored  plate  of  Snails), 
and  are  known  in  South  America  as  idol-shells. 
See  plate  of  Ab.\lone,  etc. 

AP'PLETON.  A  city  and  the  county  seat 
of  Outagamie  County,  Wis.,  100  miles  north- 
west of  Milwaukee,  on  the  Chicago  and  North- 
western, and  Chicago,  Jlilwaukee,  and  St. 
Paul  railroads  (Map:  Wisconsin,  E  4).  It  is 
situated  on  the  falls  of  the  Fox  River,  which  by 
a  series  of  dams  is  navigable  for  steamboats  and, 
with  a  fall  of  about  fifty  feet,  supplies  extensive 
water  power  for  various  manufactures,  of  which 
paper  is  the  most  important.  Appleton  has  a 
public  library  and  is  the  seat  of  Appleton  Col- 
legiate Institute  and  Lawrence  University,  a 
Methodist  Episcopal  institution,  organized  1847. 
Appleton  was  settled  in  1840.  and  incorporated 
as  a  village  in  1853,  as  a  city  in  1857.  A  mayor, 
elected  biennially,  and  a  bicameral  city  council, 
composed  of  the  city  ollieials,  and  twelve  alder- 
men, are  provided  bv  the  amended  charter  of 
1886.     Population.  1890,  11,869;   1900,  15,085. 

APPLETON,  Charles  Edward  (1841-79). 
An  English  editor.  He  was  born  at  Reading, 
and  was  educated  at  Saint  .John's  College,  Oxford, 
and  in  Germany.  He  is  remembered  chiefly  as 
the  organizer  of  the  movement  for  the  "endow- 
ment of  research,"  and  as  founder  (1869)  and 
editor  (1869-79)  of  the  Academy,  the  distin- 
guishing characteristic  of  which  was  its  signed 
articles.  Consult:  John  H.  Appleton  and  A. 
H.  Savre,  Life  and  Literary  Relics  (London, 
■1881  ).■ 

APPLETON,  Daniel(178.5-1849).  An  Ameri- 
can publisher.  He  was  bom  in  Haverhill,  Mass.; 
first  engaged  in  the  dry-goods  business  there 
and  in  Boston,  and  in  1825  removed  to  New 
York  to  follow  the  same  business.  He  gradu- 
ally combined  the  importing  of  books  with  the 
dry-goods  trade,  and  finally  devoted  himself  en- 
tirely to  the  book  business,  publishing  his  first 
book  in  1831.  The  firm  which  he  established, 
known  ever  since  as  P.  Appleton  &  Co.,  is  con- 
tiniied  by  his  descendants. 

APPLETON,  Georoe  Swett  (1821-78).  An 
American  publisher,  the  third  son  of  Daniel 
Appleton.  He  was  bom  in  Andover.  Mass.. 
studied  at  l^eipzig,  and  for  a  number  of  years 


was  a  publisher  and  bookseller  in  Philadelphia. 
In  1849,  with  three  brothers,  John,  William,  and 
Sidney,  he  succeeded  to  his  father's  publishing 
business  in  New  Y'ork. 

APPLETON,  .James  (1786-1862).  An  Ameri- 
can temperance  reformer,  born  at  Ipswich, 
Mass.  He  fought  as  colonel  of  militia  in  the 
War  of  1812,  and  was  promoted  to  be  a  brigadier- 
general.  Having  removed  to  Maine,  he  was 
elected  to  the  Legislature  of  that  State  in  1836. 
In  1837  he  presented  to  the  Legislature  a  report 
in  which  were  advanced  the  principles  that  after- 
ward became  the  basis  of  the  Maine  liquor  law. 

APPLETON,  Jesse  (1772-1819).  An  Ameri- 
can educator.  He  was  born  at  New  Ipswich, 
N.  H. ;  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1792, 
and  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Congregational 
Church,  Hampton.  N.  H.,  in  1797.  From  1807 
to  1819  he  was  president  of  Bowdoin  College. 
President  Franklin  Pierce  was  his  son-in-law. 

APPLETON,  JoiiM  (1815-64).  An  Ameri- 
can diplomatist.  He  was  born  at  Beverly, 
Mass.,  and  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  in 
1834.  He  was  charrje  d'affaires  to  Bolivia 
(1848-49),  a  member  of  Congress  from  1851  to 
1853.  secretary  of  legation  in  London  (1855-56), 
assistant  secretary  of  state  (1857),  and  minister 
to   Russia    (1860-61). 

APPLETON,  Jo]ix  Howard  (1844—).  An 
American  chemist.  He  was  born  at  Portland, 
Maine,  and  received  his  education  at  Brown  Uni- 
versity, where  he  became  instructor  in  1863  and 
professor  of  chemistry  in  1868.  He  wrote  a 
series  of  popular  text-books  that  are  well  known 
for  their  attractive  form  and  clearness  of  exposi- 
tion. The  series  includes:  The  Young  Chem- 
ist (Philadelphia.  1878);  Qualitative  Chemical 
Analysis  (Philadelphia,  1878)  ;  Quantitative 
Chemical  Analysis  (Boston,  1881);  Chemistry 
of  the  Nnn- Metals  (Providence,  1884);  The 
Metals  of  the  Chemist  (Providence,  1891); 
Chapters  on  the  Carbon  Compounds  (Providence, 
1892)  ;  and  Lessons  in  Chemical  Philosophy 
(2d  ed.  New  \*ork,   1890). 

APPLETON,  Nathan  (1779-1861).  An 
American  merchant,  born  at  New  Ipswich,  N.  H. 
He  was  in  partnership  with  his  brother  Samuel 
in  Boston.  With  others,  he  started  the  first 
power-loom  for  weaving  cotton  in  the  United 
States.  He  was  one  of  the  Merriraac  Company 
whose  enterprise  founded  the  city  of  Lowell 
(q.v.).  He  served  several  terms  in  t^he  Massachu- 
setts Legislature;  in  1830  and  in  1842  he  was  a 
member  of  Congress,  where  he  was  one  of  the 
prominent  advocates  of  a  tariff  for  protection. 

APPLETON,  Samitel  (1760-1853).  An 
American  merchant  and  philanthropist,  brother 
of  Nathan  Appleton,  born  at  New  Ipswich,  N.  H. 
He  passed  his  boyhood  on  a  farm.  In  1794  he 
and  his  brother  Nathan  went  into  the  English 
trade  in  Boston,  and  afterwards  added  cotton 
manufacturing,  in  which  they  made  a  fortune. 
He  retired  from  active  business  in  1823.  and  de- 
voted his  entire  income  to  benevolent  and  scien- 
tific purposes,  for  which  he  bequeathed  $200,000. 

APPLETON,  Thomas  Gold  (1812-84).  An 
American  jioct.  artist,  and  scholar,  patron  of  art 
and  science,  born  in  Boston.  He  was  a  brother- 
in-law  of  the  poet  Longfellow,  and  was  a  noted 
wit  and  raconteur.  His  verses  are  collected  in 
Faded  Leaves;  his  prose  in  A  Vile  Journal 
(1870);    Syrian    Sunshine    (1877);    ^yindfalls, 


APPLETON. 


673 


APPONYI. 


etc.  His  Life  and  Letters  were  edited  by  Susan 
Hale  (1885).  He  founded  the  Boston  Literary 
Club. 

APPLETON,  William  Henry  (1814-99).  An 
American  publisher.  He  was  born  at  Haver- 
hill. Mass.,  and  studied  in  secondary  schools.  In 
1848  he  became  the  senior  member  of  the  firm  of 
D.  Appleton  and  Company,  and  for  sixty  years 
was  prominent  in  the  book  trade.  He  was  active 
in  the  struggle  for  an  international  copyright. 
Among  the  publications  bi-ought  out  by  him  were 
The  'Sen-  Americnn.  Ci/clopa-dia  (New  York,  1858- 
6.3)  and  the  Webster'))  t^pellinff-Book  (New  York, 
1858). 

APPLIQUE,  a'ple'ka'  (Fr.,  p.p.  of  appliquer, 
to  put  on).  In  needlework,  a  pattern  cut  out 
from  one  foundation  and  applied  to  another. 

APPOGGIATURA,  a-p6d'ja-too'ra  (It.,  from 
apjioiiyiinc,  to  lean,  rest).  One  of  those  me- 
lodic ornaments  which  are  regarded  as  accessory 
notes  having  no  time-value,  and  which  are 
printed  in  small  characters.  There  are  two  dis- 
tinct varieties  of  the  appoggiatura,  the  long  and 
the  short.  The  Long  Appoggiatura  was  a  device 
of  the  early  classic  composers,  who  disliked  to 
use  unprepared  suspensions,  and  invented  the 
idea  of  covering  or  disguising  them  by  writing 
them  in  small  notes,  as  mere  embellishments  of 
the  melody.  This  unhappy  inspiration  has  been 
a  soiirce  of  needless  trouble  to  the  music-student, 
who  is  obliged  to  learn  various  rules  for  the 
proper  execution  of  this  device,  in  which  a  note 
is  given  one  value  in  writing  and  another  in 
performance.  The  time  of  an  appoggiatura  is 
taken  from  that  of  the  following  or  "principal" 
note,  and  the  appoggiatura  note  is  marked  with 
its  actual  value,  while  the  principal  note  is 
marked  with  the  value  which  both  together  have. 
The  general  rule  for  its  execution  is  that  the 
appoggiatura  is  played  exactly  as  if  it  were  writ- 
ten as  a  large  note,  and  the  following  note  is 
given  what  remains  of  its  face  value,  as  shown 
in  the   following  examples: 


^ 


A 


^^  — 


WRITTEN   TH0S. 


I 


^ 


PLAYED  THUS, 


The  Long  Appoggiatura  always  occurs  on  the 
beat,  and  has,  therefore,  the  accent  which  the 
principal  note  appears  to  have.  When  written 
before  a  chord,  the  appoggiatura  only  delays  the 
note  to  which  it  belongs. 

This  device  has  been  entirely  discarded  by 
modern  composers,  and  Dr.  Hugo  Riemann 
wisely  suggests  that  in  new  editions  of  the  old 
works  it  should  be  removed,  and  the  notes  re- 
written in  the  form  in  which  they  are  to  be 
played. 

The  Short  Appoggiatura,  now  commonly  called 
a  grace-note,  also  originated  in  the  early  classic 
period.  It  is  written  as  an  eighth  not^-,  with  a 
stroke  through  the  stem,  ^  and  is  played  so 
quickly  that  it  really  has  no  perceptible  time- 


value.  Opinions  differ  as  to  whether  it  should 
be  played  on  the  heat  or  before  it,  tlie  difference 
being  merely  a  question  of  accent.  The  classic 
tradition  and  conservative  opinion  demand  its 
execution  on  the  beat,  but  many  musicians  of 
the  ])resent  day  consider  it  more  graceful  and 
more  truly  ornamental  if  played  without  accent, 
before  the  beat.  The  final  decision  must  be  left 
to  the  taste  of  the  performer. 

APPOINT'MENT  (Fr.  appointement) .  In 
English  and  American  law,  the  act  of  vesting 
an  estate  in  one's  self  or  in  another,  under  a 
power  or  authority  so  to  do,  conferred  by 
the  owner  of  the  land.  Such  powers  are  created 
by  deed  or  will,  and  must  be  exercised  in  the 
manner  prescribed  by  the  instrument  conferring 
the  power,  but  only  by  an  instrument  competent 
to  create  or  transfer  an  interest  in  real  estate. 
See  Power  of  Appointment,  and  the  authorities 
there  noted. 

Appointment  to  Office  is  the  formal  desig- 
nation, by  one  in  whom  the  authority  has  been 
lawfully  vested,  of  a  person  to  hold  a  public 
office  or  perform  a  public  duty.  The  term  is  not 
properly  applicable  to  the  choice  of  an  officer  by 
public  election.  The  manner  in  which  an  ap- 
pointment shall  be  made  is  prescribed  by  law. 
Usually  a  certificate,  or  commission,  in  writing, 
signed  by  the  appointing  officer,  is  required, 
and  this  becomes  a  public  record  and  consti- 
tutes the  appointee's  evidence  of  title  to  the 
office,  and  his  justification  for  exercising  its 
powers  and  authority.  The  exercise  of  the 
l)owers  of  an  office  without  such  formal  authori- 
zation constitutes  usurpation.  As  to  the  nature 
of  the  rights  conferred  by  an  appointment,  see 
Office,  and  articles  referred  to  there;  see  also 
De  Facto, 

APPOLD,  ap'old.  John  George  (1800-65), 
An  English  inventor.  His  chief  inventions  were 
an  improvement  of  the  centrifugal  pump,  a  proc- 
ess for  dressing  furs,  and  an  apparatus  for 
paying  out  submarine  telegraph  wire,  which 
was  very  useful  in  laying  the  Atlantic  cable. 

AP'POMAT'TOX  COURT'HOUSE.  A  vil- 
lage in  Appomattox  County,  Va.,  about  twenty- 
five  miles  east  of  Lynchburg.  Here  General  Lee 
surrendered  the  Army  of  Northern  Virginia  to 
General  Grant,  April  9,  1865,  virtually  ending 
the  Civil  War. 

APPONYI,  op'po-nyl,  Gyoegy  (George), 
Count  (1808-99).  A  Hungarian  .statesman.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Presburg  Diet  of  1843-44, 
and  Hungarian  court  chancellor  in  1847.  He  was 
the  leader  of  the  Conservative  Party,  and  opposed 
the  revolutionary  movement  of  1848-49.  He 
lived  in  retirement  until  1859,  when  he  became 
a  member  of  the  Reichsrath  of  Vienna,  where  he 
displayed  great  ability  as  a  leading  advocate  of 
various  plans  for  restoring  the  Constitution  to 
Hungary.  In  1801  he  opened  the  Diet  at  Buda- 
pest as  Royal  Commissioner  and  presided  over 
the  sittings  of  the  I'pper  House.  He  was  most 
influential  in  bringing  about  the  transformation 
of  Austria-Hungary  on  the  present  dual  basis. 
After  serving  till  1809  in  the  Diet,  he  retired  to 
private  life. — Apponyi,  Albert,  Count  (1846 — ). 
Son  of  the  preceding,  a  prominent  member  of  the 
Hungarian  Diet.  He  was  originally  the  leader  of 
the  Conservative  "National  Party,"  but  has  since 
1899  su])ported  the  Government.  He  is  one  of  tlie 
most  eloquent  orators  of  Hungary. 


APPORTIONMENT. 


674 


APPORTIONMENT  BILLS. 


APPOR'TIONMENT  (Lat.  ad,  to  +  portio, 
part,  share,  portion).  A  partition  and  read- 
justment of  legal  rights  or  obligations  to  con- 
form to  a  change  in  the  relations  of  the  parties 
thereto,  and  to  adjust  their  respective  interests 
in  the  subject-matter  affected  by  the  cliange. 
Apportionment  is  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the 
law,  and  may  conveniently  be  considered,  first, 
with  reference  to  the  division  of  claims,  or 
rights,  and,  second,  with  reference  to  the  divi- 
sion  of   obligations,   or   burdens. 

Apportionment  of  rights  occurs  where  a  per- 
son having  an  interest  in  land  or  a  contract 
right,  entitling  him  to  the  use  or  profits  of  the 
land  or  to  payments  of  money,  parts  with  such 
right  or  interest  to  another,  in  whole  or  in 
part.  Thus,  if  tlie  owner  of  land  which  is  sub- 
ject to  a  lease  at  a  fixed  rent,  sells  a  portion 
thereof,  the  purchaser  is  entitled  to  have  the 
entire  rent  apportioned  so  that  he  shall  receive 
the  share  due  from  the  parcel  of  which  he  has 
become  the  owner.  So,  also,  apportionment  of 
rent  takes  place  where  an  entire  tenement  or 
estate  is  partitioned  among  tenants  in  com- 
mon, or  passes  by  will  or  otherwise  to  several 
persons  in  parcels.  Again,  if  the  owner  of  land 
under  cultivation,  for  the  benefit  of  such  land 
and  of  everj'  part  of  it,  enjoys  an  easement  or 
profit  u  prendre  in  the  land  of  another,  as  to 
take  water  for  irrigation,  or  manure  or  sea- 
weed for  fertilizing  it,  a  conveyance  of  a  part 
of  his  land  carries  with  it  a  right  to  a  propor- 
tionate enjoyment  of  such  easement  or  profit. 
This  will,  of  course,  be  true  only  in  eases  where 
the  right  so  claimed  and  enjoyed  is  apportion- 
able  or  divisible  in  its  nature.  A  right  of 
way  or  a  right  to  pasture  one's  cattle  on  a 
neiglibor's  land  would  not  ordinarily  be  appor- 
tionable,  though  it  is  said  that  a  right  to 
pasture  a  certain  number  of  cattle  may  be  appor- 
tioned. The  foregoing  are  all  cases  of  appor- 
tionment "in  respect  of  the  estate  or  interest 
enjoyed,"  and  present  no  great  difficulty.  But 
where  the  apportionment  claimed  is  "in  respect 
of  time."  as  where  the  new  right  accrues  be- 
tween fixed  periods  of  payment,  the  law  is  not 
so  simple  or  consistent.  At  common  law,  rents, 
annuities,  dividends,  and  similar  payments  fall- 
ing due  at  fixed  periods  were  not  deemed  appor- 
tionable  in  respect  of  time.  That  is  to  say,  if 
an  annual  rent  or  a  dividend  were  due  on  the 
first  day  of  January,  a  conveyance  of  the  land 
or  of  the  corporate  shares  on  the  31st  of 
December  would  carry  with  it  the  entire  rent 
or  dividends.  Xo  part  of  it  being  due  until  the 
whole  was  payable,  it  was  not  considered  capa- 
ble of  being  apportioned.  Interest  on  money 
loaned  was  an  exception,  as  in  theory  of  law 
interest  was  earned — i.e..  accrued — from  day  to 
day  (per  diem  in  diem),  notwithstanding  the 
fact  that  by  agreement  of  the  parties  the  pay- 
ment was  postponed  to  a  fixed  date.  The  in- 
equitable operation  of  this  rule  regarding  fixed 
payments  and  the  inconveniences  resulting  from 
it  have  brought  about  a  general  change  in  the 
law,  by  statute,  both  in  England  and  in  the 
United  States,  and  it  is  now  provided  that  all 
rents,  annuities,  dividends,  and  other  periodical 
payments  in  the  nature  of  income,  are  to  be 
considered  as  accruing  from  day  to  day,  and  to 
be  apportionable  in  respect  of  time  accordingly. 
At  the  present  time  the  question  of  the  appor- 
tionment of  fixed  payments  presents  itself  most 
frequently     in    connection    with    the    respective 


claims  to  income  of  life  tenants  and  remainder- 
men, or  of  the  executor  of  a  deceased  testator 
and  the  person  entitled  under  his  will  to  cor- 
porate stocks  left  by  him.  The  calculation  of  the 
respective  shares  of  the  parties  is  sometimes 
intricate  and  diflicult,  depending  upon  tables  of 
longevity,  but  the  principles  governing  their 
interests  are  as  simple  as  they  are  just  and  con- 
venient. 

Apportionment  of  obligations  depends  on  very 
different  principles  from  those  which  result  in 
apportionment  of  rights  or  claims.  Indeed,  it 
may  be  asserted,  as  a  general  proposition,  that 
burdens  are  not  apportionable.  A  tenant  can- 
not, by  alienating  a  portion  of  his  tenement, 
relieve  himself  of  any  part  of  his  obligation  to 
pay  rent ;  nor  can  a  person,  by  rendering  only 
a  part  of  the  service  which  he  has  contracted  to 
perform,  entitle  himself  to  compensation  for  the 
service  rendered.  Rights  are  assignable:  obli- 
gations are  not  assign.able.  No  man  can  at  his 
own  will,  or  by  his  own  act,  rid  himself  of  a 
legal  duty  by  transferring  it  to  another.  This 
is  true  even  of  burdens  which,  in  theory  of  law, 
rest  upon  land,  as  mortgages,  servitudes,  and 
other  incumbrances.  The  partition  of  the  land 
among  several  owners  will  not,  in  general,  re- 
lieve any  portion  thereof  of  the  burden  which  ' 
rests  upon  the  whole  and  upon  every  part  and 
parcel  1  hereof,  although,  as  between  themselves, 
the  several  owners  may  be  entitled  to  an  equal- 
ization of  the  obligation  which  each  is  equally  lia-  ' 
ble  to  perform.  (See  Contribution;  Exonera- 
tion; SCBROGATION. )  The  severity  of  this  rule 
has  been  relaxed  in  a  few  exceptional  cases. 
Thus,  it  is  held  that  where  a  person  fails  to 
complete  a  contract  for  personal  services,  in  con- 
sequence of  subsequent  disability  or  death,  com- 
pensation may  be  recovered  for  the  services  actu- 
ally rendered.  (See  Rescission;  Contract.) 
Again,  in  cases  where  a  tenant  under  a  rent  is 
evicted  from  a  part  of  the  premises  by  para- 
mount title — i.e.,  by  some  one  having  a  title 
superior  to  that  of  his  landlord — the  rent  is 
apportioned,  the  tenant  being  liable  only  for  the 
use  and  occupation  of  the  part  actually  retained 
by  him.  If.  however,  the  eviction  be  by  the  land- 
lord himself  or  by  a  stranger,  or  even  if  it  be  by 
the  destruction  of  the  premises,  in  whole  or  in 
part,  there  will  be  no  apportionment  of  the 
rent,  the  tenant  in  the  former  case  being  freed 
from  all  his  obligations  under  the  lease,  and  in 
the  second  case  continuing  liable  for  the  whole 
rent,  notwithstanding  the  eviction.  See  Evic- 
tion; Landlord  and  Tenant;  Rent;  and  the 
authorities  noted  under  the  various  titles  above 
referred  to. 

APPORTIONMENT  BILLS.  In  the  United 
States,  laws  passed  by  Congress  after  each  decen- 
nial census,  to  define  the  number  of  members  of 
the  House  of  Representatives  to  which  the  sev- 
eral States  are  entitled.  Every  State  has  at 
least  one  member.  Eleven  apportionment  bills 
have  been  passed.  The  first  constitution  adopted 
by  the  original  thirteen  States  fixed  the  number 
of  members  at  (i5,  and  the  ratio  of  representa- 
tion at  30,000-  Representative  population  then 
meant  all  free  white  citizens  and  three-fifths  the 
number  of  slaves;  two- fifths  of  the  slaves,  all 
aliens,  and  Indians  not  taxed,  were  excluded 
from  any  share  in  choosing  members  of  Congress. 
The  Fifteenth  Amendment  to  the  United  States 
Constitution  conferred  the  franchise  on  the 
emancipated  slaves  in  the  South.    The  following 


APPORTIONMENT  BILLS.  675  APPREHENSION. 

fiinircs    show    the    variations    of    apportionment  a    rule,   conclusive   upon   tlie   parties   interested 

made  for  each  census:  therein. 

Pop.  to  a         APPREHEND'       ( Lat.      apprehender^      to 

Period.  States.    Members.    ■"™'^J;«''-  seize).     To  talce  a  person   into  custody  by  war- 

Ytwt'^'"'"""'"".'""'"""'.^^....  13  1U5  aaiuuu  rant  of  law  for  the  purpo.se  of  subjecting  him  to 

180O 16  m  Sa.uoo  criminal  process.     The  apprehension  of  the  per- 

l^'l J'  l^\  ^M^^T.  son  accused  of  crime  is  not,  strictly  speaking,  a 

1820 2i  21J  40.U00  ,      c  »i  ■      ■       i  i      .        "  i      •* 

lj.)(j 24  240  47,700  part  01  the  criminal  jirocess,  liut  nuiy  precede  it, 

1840 20  22;)  70,680  or  may  occur  at  any  stage  in  its  progress  prior  to 

Jj°[J ^  243  127381  c.vecution  of   the  sentence   imposed.     Indeed,   in 

l87o!!!!."!."!."!!!!!!!!!!!!!!"!!!!!!!.!  37  293  131,425  some   jurisdictions,    it    may    be   di.spensed    with 

1880 38  325  161,913  altogether,  where  the  sentence  does  not  call  for 

f^ :::":::::;:::::;::::::;:::::;: %       sse      i93,'i75  ^^e  physical  punishment  of  the  offender,    in 

ISngland    and    the    United    States,    however,    the 

The  House  had  grown   ra])idly  in  number  of  trial  of  a  person  accused  of  crime  cannot  proceed 

iiiemliers  until   1S3(J.  when  it  was  found  that  it  without  apprehension  or  personal  submission  of 

would    soon    become    unwieldy    unless    the    num-  tlie    accused   to   the   process   of   the   court.      The 

her    of    representative    pojnilation     required    to  term   arrest    (q.v.),   which    is,   in   strictness,   ap- 

a   member   should   be   largely    increased;    so   the  plicable  only  to  detention   in  civil  cases,  is  now 

ratio    was    increased   by   one-half    (raised    from  commonly  employed  in  all  cases  of  taking  into 

47,700  to  70,080).     Since  then  the  purpose  has  custody. 

been  to  keep  the  House  below  . -500  members,  and  AP'PREHEN'SION  (Lat.  n,,prehe„sw,  a 
the  ratio  is  raised  regularly  while  the  number  of  ^^^ting  upon,  grasping,  understanding,  from  ad, 
members  is  seldom  iiicveased  unless  by  the  addi-  ^„  ^  prehende^'e,  to  seize).  A  term  denoting  the 
tion  ot  new  S  ates.  In  that  ^^^.v  the  House  was  subjective  aspect  of  perception  and  imagination, 
increased  by  the  admission  of  Oregon  in  18o9,  ^^,  presentation  and  representation  denote  their 
Kansas  in  1861,  \\  est  \irg.niain  18G3,  Nevada  objective  side.  Two  special  uses  of  the  word 
in  8b4,  Nebraska  in  180,  Colorado  m  18,6,  ,^^^^  be  noticed.  (1)  The  phrase  "direct  appre- 
North  ?nd  South  Dakota.  Montana,  and  \\  ash-  hension"  is  employed  for  the  habitual  reco^i- 
ington  in  1889.  Idaho  and  Wyoming  in  1800  and  ^^^^  ^f  objects  and  persons  whose  presence  in  our 
Ltah  (making  the  forty-hfth  State)  in  1806.  surroundings  is  a  matter  of  course.  We  do  not. 
In  the  various  State  legislatures  a  similar  prac-  ;„  s„ictnels,  -'recognize"  the  clothes  that  we 
tice  prevails  At  stated  intervals,  generally  of  ^  „„  g,,^,.^.  ,„o,.ning,  the  pen  with  which  we 
ten  years  intermediate  with  the  Federal  period,  ^.^jte,  the  familiar  faces  of  our  household;  there 
a  reapportionment  IS  made.  This  period  is  often  j^  „„  ^^ace  of  associative  supplementing,  or  of 
taken  advantage  ot  by  the  party  in  the  majori-  ^^^  well-marked  mood  of  familiaritv.  Rather, 
ty,  who,  l;y  conilnnations  ot  various  kinds  '-ger-  ^^.^'  apprehend  them  dircctlv.  Their  look  and 
rymander  the  State,  and  so  redistrict  that  their  t^^^.j^'  .et  up  a  certain  bodilV  attitude,  the  atti- 
opponents  are  in  a  hopeless  minority  at  the  polls  ^jj^,  „(  g^,  !  "at-homeness" ;  "and  it  is  the  vague, 
on  many  succeeding  election  days.  ill-defined  mood  of  "at-homeness"  which  mediates 
AP'POSI'TION  (I.at.  appositio,  a  setting  the  recognition  (q.v.).  (2)  Stout  has  carried 
before,  from  ad,  to  +  ponere,  to  place).  A  term  this  reduction  a  step  further,  in  his  doctrine  of 
in  grammar  signifying  the  annexing  of  one  sub-  '•implicit  apprehension."  "It  is  possible,"  he 
stantive  to  another,  in  the  same  case  or  relation,  says,  "to  distinguish  and  identify  a  whole  with- 
in onler  to  explain  or  limit  the  first;  as,  my  out  apprehending  any  of  its  constituent  details." 
brother,  tlie  plnjsician  ;  Thomas  the  Rhymer.  It  is  possible,  e.g.,  to  understand  the  meaning  of 
Whole  sentences  or  clauses  admit  of  apposition,  a  word — somethmg  that  stands  for  a  highly  com- 
Thus:  "Xapoleon  sought  tlie  way  to  India  plex  combination — without  any  mental  imagery 
through  Russia,  a  stroke  of  genius."  Sometimes  whatsoever;  the  meaning  is 'implicitly  appre- 
a  connecting  word  is  used  where  logical  propriety  hended  by  an  imageless  thought.  There"  is  some- 
would  require  apposition ;  as,  the  city  of  London,  thing  fascin.ating  about  this  assumption  of  "a 
for  the  city  London.  mode  of  presentational  consciousness  which  is 
APPRAISE'MENT  (from  Eccles.  Lat.  ap-  not  composed  of  visual,  auditory,  tactual,  and 
prrtinre.  to  value  at  a  price,  to  rate,  from  Lat.  a(?,  other  experiences  derived  from  and  in  some  de- 
tn  4-  prrfiinn.  price).  The  official  or  formal  gree  resembling  in  quality  the  sensations  of  the 
valuation  ot  property,  in  accordance  with  legal  special  senses,"  yet  which  possesses  "a  repre- 
requirements,  or  b}'  agreement  between  the  par-  sentative  value  or  significance  for  thought";  but 
ties  interested.  Official  appraisements  in  legal  its  assumption  is  unnecessary.  By  the  law  of 
proceedings  are  regulated  generally  by  statute,  exclusion  (see  Association  of  Ideas),  the 
and  are  most  frequently  resorted  to  in  the  case  middle  terms  of  a  train  of  ideas  may  drop  out, 
of  merchandise  subject  "to  customs  duty:  of  the  with  frequent  repetition:  so  that  the  idea  x, 
personal  estate  of  a  decedent:  of  pro|)erty  taken  which  was  at  first  mediated  by  abed,  is  now 
for  public  use  under  the  right  of  eminent  do-  called  up  by  a  alone,  without  the  intervention  of 
main,  or  damaged  by  authorized  public  works,  led.  So  the  sound,  or  articulatory  "feel,"  or 
such  as  canals:  of  wrecked  property;  of  property  sight  of  the  word  might  come,  in  time,  to  carry 
of  bankrupts  or  insolvents :  and  of  property  lev-  the  meaning  which  had  originally  been  carried  by 
led  upon  under  judicial  process,  or  distrained  associated  images.  Moreover,  there  can  be  no 
for  rent.  Unofficial  appraisements  are  often  pro-  understanding,  even  of  the  most  familiar  word, 
vided  for  by  the  agreement  of  parties  interested,  without  the  arousal  of  the  mood  of  "at  home," 
as  in  the  case  of  insured  property  which  is  in-  with  its  constituent  organic  sensations;  and 
jurcd  or  destroyed.  When  an  appraisement  is  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  these  are  the  real 
duly  made,  in  a  legal  proceeding  or  by  mutual  vehicle  of  the  word's  meaning.  Consult:  G.  F. 
agreement,  the  value  set  upon  the  property  is,  as  Stout,  Analytic  Psychology    (London,   1896)  ;   E. 


APPKEHENSION. 


676 


APPRENTICE. 


B.  Titehener,  Outlines  of  Psychology  (New  York, 
1902). 

APPREN'TICE  (Low  Lat.  appreitficius, 
learner,  from  apprehendere,  to  grasp) .  A  person, 
generally  a  minor,  lawfully  bound  to  the  service 
of  another,  in  consideration  of  maintenance  and 
instruction  by  that  other  in  some  art  or  trade. 
At  present  the  apprentice  system  in  England  and 
in  many  of  our  Stiites  applies  chiefly  to  orphans 
or  to  the  cliildren  of  paupers,  and  to  some  ex- 
tent in  this  country  to  minors  who  have  been 
sent  to  houses  of  refuge  or  similar  institutions 
for  petty  otfenses.  It  is  regulated  by  statutes  in 
most  of  our  States,  and  their  provisions  must  be 
strictly  complied  with,  or  the  apprenticeship  will 
be  invalid.  Ordinarily  the  consent  of  the  minor, 
and  of  his  father,  mother,  or  guardian,  is  re- 
quired: the  apprenticeship  is  limited  to  the  age 
of  21  in  the  case  of  boys,  and  18  in  the  ease  of 
girls,  and  ceases  upon  the  death  of  eithet  the 
master  or  the  apprentice.  By  section  4509  of  the 
United  States  Revised  Statutes,  a  boy  who  has 
attained  the  age  of  12  years  may  be  apprenticed 
to  the  sea  service,  with  his  consent  and  that  of 
his  parents,  such  apprenticeship  to  cease  when  he 
becomes  18  years  of  age.  The  Thirteenth  Amend- 
ment to  the  United  States  Constitution,  prohib- 
iting "slavery  or  involuntary  servitude,  except  as 
a  punishment  for  crime,"  it  has  been  judicially 
declared,  does  not  relieve  an  apprentice  from 
doing  service  against  his  will.  See  Kent,  Com- 
vientaries  on  American  Law  (fourteenth  edition, 
Boston,  1896)  ;  Austin,  The  Law  Relating  to  Ap- 
prentices (London,  1890),  for  the  English  laws; 
and  the  works  referred  to  under  the  titles  Con- 
tract; Master  and  Servant. 

AppRENTiOK,  Nav.vl.  Apprentices  are  enlisted 
for  the  United  States  naval  service  between 
the  ages  of  15  and  17  to  serve  until  they 
reach  21  years  of  age.  Minors  between  the  ages 
of  15  and  17  are  not  enlisted  without  the  eon- 
sent  of  their  parents  or  guardians.  The  appli- 
cant must  be  of  robust  frame,  intelligent,  of  per- 
fectly sound  and  healthy  constitution,  free  from 
all  physical  defects  or  malformation,  and  not 
subject  to  fits.  He  must  also  be  able  to  read 
and  write.  In  special  cases,  where  the  boy  shows 
a  general  intelligence,  and  is  otherwise  qualified, 
he  is  enlisted,  notwithstanding  his  reading  and 
writing  are  imperfect.  Upon  enlistment  boys  are 
rated  as  third-class  apprentices  and  receive  $9 
per  month  and  one  ration.  After  completing 
their  tour  of  service  in  a  cruising  training-ship, 
if  qualified,  they  are  advanced  to  apprentices  of 
the  second  class  at  $15  per  month.  After  serving 
one  year  in  cruising  ships  of  war,  if  qualified, 
they  are  advanced  to  apprentices,  first  class,  at 
$21  per  month.  Apprentices,  first  class,  during 
the  last  year  of  their  enlistment,  may  be  given 
acting  appointments  as  petty  officers,  third  class, 
and  if  they  serve  the  probationary  period  in  the 
United  States  Xavy,  tliey  must  be  recommended 
to  a  permanent  appointment  previous  to  dis- 
charge. Upon  the  expiration  of  the  enlistment 
of  an  apprentice  he  will,  if  recommended,  receive 
an  honorable  discharge;  and  upon  reenlistment 
within  four  months  from  date  of  honorable  dis- 
charge he  will  receive  four  months'  extra  pay  of 
his  rating  when  discharged,  a  continuous  service 
certificate,  and  an  addition  of  $1.36  per  month 
to  his  pay.  When  first  received  on  board  a  train- 
ing-ship apprentices  are  furnished,  free  of  cost, 
with  an  outfit  of  clothing  not  exceeding  in  value 


the  sum  of  .$45.  This  outfit  is  furnished  on 
the  supposition  that  the  apprentice  will  serve 
during  his  minority.  Should  he  be  discharged 
at  his  own  request  prior  to  the  completion  of 
his  term  at  the  training  station  and  the  first 
practice  cruise,  he  must  refund  the  value  of 
the  outfit.  As  soon  as  practicable  after  the 
apprentices  are  enlisted,  they  are  forwarded 
to  the  naval  training-station  at  Newport,  where 
they  receive  instruction  in  English  studies  and 
in  the  rudiments  of  the  profession  of  a  sea- 
man, for  the  period  of  six  months.  At  the 
termination  of  this  period  the  apprentices  are 
transferred  to  the  cruising  training-ships.  There 
are  three  departments  of  instruction  and  train- 
ing— seamanship,  gunnery,  and  English,  the 
last  embracing  reading,  writing,  spelling,  geog- 
raphy, history,  and  arithmetic.  There  is  also 
special  instruction  as  buglers,  carpenters,  sail- 
makers,  and  blacksmiths.  When  apprentices  are 
to  be  discharged  their  parents  or  guardians  are 
informed,  and  ample  time  is  allowed  them  to 
come  themselves,  or  send  means  to  defray  the 
traveling  expenses.  The  course  of  instruction  on 
board  the  cruising  training  ships  is  of  six 
months'  duration.  The  instruction  begun  at  the 
shore  station  is  continued  aboard  the  cruising 
vessels  with  an  increase  of  practical  work.  When 
transferred  to  the  regular  service  cruisers,  the 
instruction  is  still  continued,  and  the  apprentices 
are  regularly  examined  before  being  advanced  in 
rating.  Should  the  term  of  enlistment  of  an 
apprentice  expire  while  he  is  abroad,  he  is  to  be 
sent  to  the  United  States  as  soon  as  practicable, 
unless  he  desires  to  reenlist. 

APPROACH'ES  (Fr.  approcher,  It.  ap- 
proccidic,  yi.  Lat.  appropiare,  come  near  to, 
from  Lat.  ad,  to  4-  prope,  near ) .  A  term  used  in 
the  science  of  fortification,  to  describe  the  sunken 
trenches  or  passages  constructed  by  an  attacking 
force  to  cover  and  protect  their  advance  on  a  for- 
tified position.  Care  is  taken  in  the  construction  of 
approaches,  which  are  usually  in  a  zigzag  course, 
to  avoid  enfilade  or  direct  fire,  particularly  the 
former.  The  style  of  approaches  built  will  de- 
pend altogether  on  the  character  and  strength  of 
the  besieged,  and  the  time  available  for  the  work. 
Generally,  continuous  lines  of  breastworks  are 
built,  parallel  to  the  opponents'  lines.  If  exca- 
vation is  diflicult  or  impossible,  breastworks  of 
sandbags  and  gabions  are  built  on  both  sides  of 
the  route.  The  most  important  examples  of  this 
branch  of  military  strategy  were  those  con- 
structed by  the  French  and  English  troops  in  the 
Crimean  War  of  1854.  at  the  siege  of  Sebastopol. 
More  recent  instances  are  rare,  owing  to  the 
great  change  that  has  taken  place  in  the  method 
of  conducting  modern  warfare.  See  Fortifica- 
tion and  Siege  and  Sieiie  Works. 

APPRO  PRIA'TION  (Late  Lat.  approjrria- 
tiu,  a  making  one's  own.  from  ad,  to  +  propriiis, 
one's  own).  ( 1 )  The  act  of  applying  specific 
projierty  to  a  particular  use.  (2)  The  act  of 
reserving  pi-operty  for  a  designated  use.  In  its 
first  signification,  the  term  is  applied  to  unlawful 
acts,  such  as  those  of  conversion  (q.v.)  or  em- 
bezzlement (q.v. )  :  and  to  lawful  acts,  such  as 
the  adoption  of  a  design  or  symbol  as  a  trade- 
mark, or  the  final  setting  aside  of  specific  goods 
under  an  executory  contract  of  sale  (q.v.)  for 
the  purpose  of  transferring  the  title  or  owner- 
ship to  the  buyer.  In  this  signification,  also,  it 
is  used  in  the  phrase  appropriation  of  payments. 


APPROPRIATION. 


677 


APRAXIN. 


When  X  owes  Y  several  debts,  X  has  the  right  to 
appropriate  a  payment  which  he  makes  to  any 
of  the  debts.  If  he  pays,  without  exercising  the 
riglit,  Y  may  appropriate  tlie  pajinent  to  any 
del)t.  In  case  a  payment  is  made  without  ap- 
propriation at  the  time,  by  either  X  or  Y,  and 
subsequently  tliey  disagree  as  to  its  appropria- 
tion, the  courts  will  apply  it  in  accordance  with 
their  conception  of  the  justice  of  the  case.  These 
conceptions,  as  announced  in  various  reported 
decisions,  are  tending  toward  the  establishment 
of  fixed  rules.  Sucli  rules  are  applied,  however, 
only  to  voluntary  payments,  of  which  the  debtor 
had  the  power  of  appropriation.  If,  for  ex- 
ample, a  payment  is  made  under  judicial  process, 
as  upon  the  sale  of  the  debtor's  property  under 
the  foreclosure  of  a  mortgage,  it  will  be  ap- 
propriated ratably  toward  the  claims  for  which 
tlie  mortgage  was  security. 

In  the  second  of  the  above  significations,  the 
term  aiipropriution  is  found  most  frequentl.v  in 
constitutional  and  statutory  provisions.  By 
Article  I,  Section  9,  of  tlie  United  States  Con- 
stitution, it  is  declared:  "Xo  money  shall  be 
drawn  from  the  treasury,  but  in  consequence 
of  appropriations  made  by  law."  In  England, 
"Xot  a  penny  of  revenue  can  be  legally  expended, 
except  under  the  authority  of  some  act  of  Par- 
liament." The  most  important  statute  of  this 
sort  is  the  annual  Api)ro])riation  Act,  by  which 
definite  sums  are  reserved  for  specified  objects. 
.See  the  works  mentioned  under  tlie  titles  re- 
ferred to  in  this  article,  and  for  appropriation 
by  a  debtor  those  referred  to  under  the  title: 
C'ontr.\ct;  for  appropriation  of  funds  by  the 
government  see  Story,  Commentaries  on  the  Con- 
stitKtioii  of  the  United  fitates  (fiftli  edition,  Bos- 
ton, 18111),  and  Von  Hoist,  Constitutional  Law 
of  tlie  United  Htates  of  .imerica  (Chicago,  1887). 

APPROVE'MENT.  A  term  relating  to  the 
law  of  connnon  (q.v.).  It  means  the  inclosing, 
by  the  lord  of  tlie  manor,  of  a  part  of  tlie  com- 
mon, or  waste  lands  of  the  manor,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  cultivation  and  improvement.  When 
the  acts  of  approvement  and  inclosure  were  com- 
pleted, the  land  so  inclosed  lost  its  character  as 
common  land,  and  was  converted  to  the  use  of 
the  lord.  In  general,  the  lord  could  not  exercise 
this  right  to  the  exclusion  of  those  having  rights 
of  common,  and,  therefore,  he  could  only  apjirove 
a  part  of  the  common  land.  Consult:  Pollock 
and  Maitland,  History  of  Enfilish  Law  (second 
edition,  Boston,  1809),  and  authorities  referred 
to  under  CoMMOX. 

APPROX'IMA'TION  (Lat.  approximare,  to 
approach,  from  ad,  to  +  proximus,  nearest).  A 
term  used  in  mathematics  to  designate  a  process 
or  a  calculated  result  not  rigorously  exact,  but 
whicli  approaches  the  truth  with  continually 
increasing  exactness,  or  near  enougli  for  a  given 
purpose;  e.g.,  the  process  of  solving  a  higher 
numerical  equation  by  Horner's  method  gives 
a  root  that,  as  the  process  is  extended,  ap- 
proaches tlie  true  root  with  continually  increas- 
ing exactness ;  multiplying  the  diameter  of  a 
circle  by  3.1416  gives  the  circumference  near 
enough  for  most  purposes.  It  should  be  re- 
membered that  a  result  cannot  be  more  accurate 
than  tlie  data,  and  that  in  mensuration  the 
data  are  not  usually  carried  beyond  thousandths 
of  a  unit;  hence  the  great  importance  of  ap- 
proximation, even  in  ordinary  arithmetical  cal- 
culations. 


APPUI,  d'pwc-'.     See  Point  d'.\ppdi. 

APPTJN,  iip'pi.in,  Karl  Ferdinand  (1820- 
72).  A  German  naturalist,  born  at  Bunzlau. 
In  1849  he  undertook  a  journey  of  explora- 
tion to  South  America,  where  he  remained  for 
nineteen  years.  The  three  years  from  1868 
to  1871  he  spent  in  his  native  country,  after 
which  he  returned  to  his  wanderings  in  South 
America,  where  his  death  was  caused  by  an 
accident  with  sulphuric  acid.  Appun's  studies 
were  extended  over  a  large  area  in  Venezuela, 
Brazil,  and  British  Guiana.  His  published 
works  include:  Unter  den  Tropen,  Wanderungen 
diirch  Venezuela,  am  Orinoco,  durch  Britisch- 
Guayana,  und  am  Amasonenstrom  in  den, 
Jahren  181,9-68   (.Jena,  I87I). 

APPTJR'TENANCE  (O.  F.  apurtenance, 
apartenance,  from  Lat.  ad,  to  +  pertinere,  to 
belong).  In  law,  an  incorporeal  property  right, 
which  is  an  incident  to,  and  belongs  with,  real 
estate.  Upon  conveyance  of  the  principal  real 
estate,  the  apjiurtenances  pass  to  the  grantee  as 
an  incident  without  being  expressly  mentioned 
in  the  grant.  An  appurtenant  right  is  the 
antithesis  of  a  right  in  gross,  which  is  a  prop- 
erty right,  attached  to  the  person  of  the  owner. 
It  is  not  an  incident  of  real  estate,  and  may  be 
conveyed  apart  from  it.  Appurtenances  are 
classified  as  profits,  or  rights  of  common,  and 
easements.  A  profit  appurtenant  is  the  right 
of  the  owner  of  real  estate,  as  such,  to  take  k 
profit  or  portion  of  the  product  from  the  land 
or  water  of  another,  as  to  pasture  cattle,  cut 
timber,  catch  fish,  or  the  like,  in  common  with 
the  owner  of  the  land.  An  easement  appur- 
tenant is  any  right  of  the  owner  of  real  estate, 
as  such,  in  or  o\'er  the  land  of  another,  which 
does  not  involve  taking  any  profit  or  product 
from  the  land,  as  a  right  of  «ay,  or  the  right  to 
have  light  and  air  pass  over  the  land  of  another. 
See  Easejient;  Profit;  Servitude;  and  the  au- 
thorities referred  to  under  the  title  Real 
Property. 

APRAXIN,  a-priiksln,  Fedoh  Matveye\itch: 
( ltJ71-1728) .  A  distinguished  Russian  ad- 
miral. When  hardly  twelve  years  of  age  he 
entered  the  service  of  Peter  the  Great,  who  con- 
ceived a  great  attachment  for  him,  which  lasted 
during  the  life  of  the  monarch.  After  the  year 
1700  he  became  the  most  powerful  and  influ- 
ential person  at  the  court  of  the  Czar,  who  made 
him  chief  admiral  of  the  Russian  navy,  of 
which  in  fact  Apraxin  may  be  considered  the 
creator.  While  Peter  was  fighting  the  Swedes 
in  the  north,  Apraxin  was  building  war-vessels, 
fortresses,  and  wharves  in  the  south.  In  1707 
he  was  appointed  president  of  the  admiralty; 
in  1708  he  defeated  the  Swedish  general  Ly- 
beker  in  Ingermanland,  and  saved  the  newly  built 
city  of  Saint  Petersburg  from  destruction ;  in 
1710  he  captured  the  important  town  of  Viborg, 
in  Finland,  and  in  1711  commanded  in  the 
Black  Sea  during  the  Turkish  War.  The  fol- 
lowing year  he  returned  to  the  north ;  and  in 
1713,  with  a  fleet  of  two  hundred  vessels,  he 
sailed  along  the  coast  of  Finland,  took  Helsing- 
fors  and  Borga,  and  defeated  the  Swedish  fleet. 
The  result  of  his  great  successes  was  that  at 
the  peace  of  Nystad,  in  1721,  Russia  obtained 
possession  of  the  coveted  Baltic  Provinces,  and 
became  the  leading  power  in  the  Baltic  Sea. 
In  1715,  and  again  in  1718,  Apraxin  was  found 


APEAXIW. 


678 


A  PRIORI 


guilty  of  embezzlement  and  extortion,  but  es- 
caped oerious  punishment  and  lost  nothing  in 
reputation.  In  1722  he  accompanied  Peter 
in  his  Persian  war,  and  was  present  at  the  siege 
of  Derbend.  His  last  naval  expedition  was  in 
1726,  when  he  repaired  with  the  Russian  fleet 
to  Reval,  to  defend  that  place  against  an  ex- 
pected attack  by  the  English.  He  died  at 
Moscow. 

APRAXIN,  Stepan  rEDOROviTcii,  Count 
(1702-00).  A  Russian  general.  In  1737  he 
served  against  the  Turks,  gaining  rapid  promo- 
tion, being  appointed  ambassador  to  Persia  in 
1742,  general-in-cbief  in  1746,  and  field-marshal 
in  1756.  In  Elizabeth's  court  he  was  a  strong 
opponent  of  Prussian  influence,  and  in  the 
Seven  Years'  War,  as  field-marshal,  led  an  army 
of  invasion  into  Prussia,  defeating  the  Prussian 
field-marshal  Lewald  at  Grossjagerndorf,  1757. 
In  the  midst  of  success,  he  retreated,  on  call  of 
Bestuzhefi',  who  wanted  to  raise  Paul  to  the 
Russian  tlirone  over  his  father  (Peter  III.),  who 
was  the  legitimate  heir,  as  the  Empress  Eliza- 
beth fell  dangerously  ill.  On  recovering,  the  lat- 
ter removed  Bestuzhefi",  and  put  Apraxin  into 
prison.  The  court-martial  reported  to  the 
Empress  that  the  prisoner  denied  any  guilt, 
whereupon  she  recommended  it  to  apply  the  last 
remedy — to  set  him  free.  At  the  next  session, 
when  Apraxin  persisted  in  claiming  innocence, 
the  president  of  the  court-martial  urged  his  col- 
leagues to  apply  "the  last  remedy."  At  these 
words,  Apraxin  fell  in  a  fit  of  apoplexy,  think- 
ing they  referred  to  torture. 

A'PRICOT  (Fr.  abricot,  Sp.  olbaricoque, 
Portuf;.  iilhricocjue,  from  Ar.  al-birquq,  al-bur- 
qiiq) .  A  fruit  ( Lat.  Primus  Armeniaca,  i.e.,  Ar- 
menian plum)  resembling  in  several  respects 
both  the  peach  and  plum,  and  really  inter- 
mediate between  them.  It  is  supposed  to  be 
a  native  of  China,  and  was  brought  into  Eu- 
rope at  the  time  of  Alexander  the  (Jreat.  The 
flesh  of  the  apricot  is  firm,  sweet,  and  aromatic; 
the  stone  is  smooth  and  slightly  furrowed,  like 
that  of  some  plums.  The  skin  is  downy,  like 
that  of  the  peach.  The  tree  resembles  the  plum 
more  than  the  peach,  in  that  it  has  ovate,  acu- 
minate, and  cordate,  smooth,  double-toothed 
leaves,  on  long  stalks,  and  solitary,  sessile,  white 
flowers  whicli  appear  before  the  leaves.  The 
danger  of  loss  from  frost,  owing  to  its  early 
blooming  liabit,  as  well  as  from  Plum  Curculio, 
has  discouraged  the  cultivation  of  the  apricot 
in  the  eastern  United  States.  In  California  and 
Oregon  it  is  extensively  raised.  In  England 
it  is  a  favorite  with  gardeners,  and  is  gro\vu 
both  in  the  open  and  as  espalier  or  cordon  on 
protected  walls.  In  the  eastern  United  States, 
when  trained  in  similar  manner  to  a  northern 
or  northeastern  wall,  it  does  well,  as  in  such  a 
situation  the  buds  are  sufficiently  retarded  to 
escape  frost.  The  tree  is  as  hardy  as  the  peach, 
but  it  has  the  bad  habit  of  early  blooming,  char- 
acteristic of  all  Oriental  fruits,  particularly  the 
Japanese  plums. 

In  the  eastern  United  States,  the  apricot  is 
usually  budded  or  grafted  upon  the  plum.  This 
fits  it  for  heavy  soils;  on  light  soils,  it  does 
well  when  worked  upon  the  peach,  and  in  Cali- 
fornia, where  apricot  stocks  can  be  obtained, 
it  is  worked  upon  the  apricot  itself.  In  New 
York  State  there  are  eonmiercial  orchards  of 
apricots,   top-worked    on    the   plum.      The   Rus- 


sian apricot  is  a  hardy  form  of  Prunus  Arme- 
niaca, and  although  not  in  itself  of  merit  for 
its  fruit,  may  j)rove  to  be  a  valuable  stock  for 
the  more  desirable  forms.  Orchard  culture  of, 
the  apricot  is,  in  general,  the  same  as  for  the 
peach.  (See  Peach.)  Like  all  fruits  which  have 
been  long  in  cultivation,  the  ajiricot  has  numer- 
ous varieties;  some  vahuable  varieties  are  Hol- 
land (Breda),  Moorpark,  Early  Golden,  and 
Peach.  The  fresh  fruit  of  the  apricot  is  now 
commonly  found  in  the  markets.  Large  quan- 
tities of  the  fruit  are  also  dried  in  California 
and  Oregon  in  fruit  evaporators.  The  product 
is  extensively  shipped  to  different  parts  of  the 
United  States  and  abroad,  for  cooking  purposes. 
For  composition  and  food  value  of  the  fruit,  see 
general  article  on  Fruit.  For  illustration  see 
Plate  of  Abutilon  and  Deupe.s. 

Diseases. — The  apricot  is  subject  to  the  same 
diseases  as  are  the  peach  and  plum.  The  most 
common  disease  is  the  leaf  rust.  It  may  be 
prevented  by  the  thorough  use  of  the  standard 
fungicides    (q.v. ). 

APBIES,  a'prl-ez  (Gk.  '  kTpl-qs,  Aprils; 
Uaphres,  Eg^-ptian,  Uah-eb-re') .  An  Egyptian 
king  of  the  twenty-sixth  dynasty.  In  the  Old 
Testament  he  is  called  Pharaoh-hophra.  He 
reigned  from  B.C.  589  to  570,  at  the  time  when 
the  Babylonians  subjected  Palestine  and  threat- 
ened Egypt.  He  aided  the  Jews  in  their  re- 
sistance against  Nebuchadnezzar,  but  was  unable 
to  prevent  the  fall  of  Jerusalem.  Apries  seems, 
however,  to  have  warded  off  the  Babylonian 
attack  upon  Egypt.  The  revolt  of  his  native 
troops  sent  against  the  Cyrenieans  in  aid  of 
the  Libyan  king  Adikran  led  to  the  usurpation 
of  Amasis  ( q.v. ) .  Herodotus,  who  in  general 
gives  a  strangely  distorted  account  of  Apries, 
relates  that  the  usurper  kept  him  alive  for 
some  tipie.  until  at  last  he  was  forced  to  yield 
up  the  dethroned  king  to  an  infuriated  mob. 
This  story  is,  however,  not  confirmed  by  the 
Eg^'ptian  inscriptions. 

A'PRIL.     See  iloNTH. 

APRIL  POOL.  The  first  of  April,  known 
as  "All  Fools'  Day,"  has  long  been  in  America, 
and  for  a  still  longer  period  in  many  European 
countries,  a  day  for  mocking  unxxary  persons 
by  sending  them  on  bootless  errands  or  making 
them  the  victims  of  some  other  practical  joke. 
The  custom  seems  to  have  lieen  unknown  to  Ger- 
man antiquity.  Grimm  regards  it  as  having  been 
introduced  into  Germany  from  France,  in  com- 
paratively modern  times.  Various  theories  have 
been  held  as  to  the  origin  of  the  custom.  One 
traces  the  custom  to  the  miracle-play  formerly 
represented  at  Easter,  which  sometimes  showed 
the  sending  of  Christ  from  Annas  to  Caiaphas, 
and  from  Pilate  to  Herod;  another  finds  the 
origin  in  some  ancient  pagan  festival  wliere 
similar  tricks  were  played,  such  as  the  Huli 
fcsti\al  held  by  the  Hindus  on  March  .31,  or 
the  Feast  of  Fools,  celebrated  by  the  Romans 
on  February  17.  In  France,  the  victim  is  called 
un  poisson'd'Avril,  an  April  fish  (possibly  from 
the  reopening  of  the  fisheries  at  that  season)  : 
in  Scotland,  a  gowk  or  a  cuckoo. 

A  PRIO'RI  (Lat.,  froni  something  prior, 
forej;uing.  (/.  fniiu,  and  prior,  prior).  In  Aris- 
totelian terminology,  a  designation  applied  to 
arguments  from  cause  to  effect,  as  opposed  to  a 
po'sleriori    (Lat.,  from   something  posterior,   fol- 


A  PRIOKI. 


679 


APSE. 


lowing),  vhieh  describes  arguments  from  effect 
to  cause.  But  since  Kant's  day  «  priori  has  be- 
come an  epithet,  often  polemic,  applied  to  judg- 
ments alleged  to  have  a  validity  independent  of 
experience.  Its  antonym  in  this  meaning  is  still 
a  posteriori,  which  means  resting  upon  experi- 
ential proof.  The  attitude  one  takes  toward  the 
question  of  the  possibility  of  a  priori  judgments 
is  one  of  the  most  crucial  tests  of  one's  affiliation 
among  the  philosophic  schools.  Rationalists,  In- 
tuitionalists,  and  Criticists  ( i.e.,  followers  of 
Kant)  maintain  that  many  of  our  judgments  are 
a  priori :  Empiricists  deny  it.  The  debate,  how- 
ever, seems  to  be  conducted  u])on  a  false  assuhip- 
tion,  shared  by  most  of  the  protagonists  on  either 
side,  viz.,  that  experience  comes  piecemeal,  or, 
technically,  is  atomistic  in  character.  If  such 
were  the  case,  then  any  valid  universal  judgment 
would  liave  to  be  a  priori,  for  no  numljcr  of  iso- 
lated experiences  could  point  to  a  general  law. 
But  experience  does  not  grow  by  the  accretion  of 
unrelated  elements :  rather  is  its  growth  a  proc- 
ess of  organic  expansion  under  stimulation,  which 
for  practical  purposes  must  be  regarded  as  pro- 
ceeding from  the  external  world.  In  the  knowl- 
edge thus  acquired,  there  is  the  cooperation  of 
what  may  be  distinguished  as  two  factors,  the 
nature  of  consciousness  and  the  nature  of  the 
stimulus  that  gives  rise  to  a  content  in  conscious- 
ness. Now,  these  two  factors  may  conveniently 
be  designated  the  a  priori  and  the  a  posteriori 
constituents  of  knowledge.  But  it  is  of  the  ut- 
most moment  to  guard  against  the  error  of  sup- 
posing that  antecedently  to  experience  there  is  a 
thing  called  mind  which  comes  to  the  act  of  ex- 
perience ready  equipped  with  either  a  determi- 
nate nature  or  with  full-blown  knowledge  of 
some  sort.  The  literature  of  the  subject  is  enor- 
mous. Omitting  all  reference  to  ancient  phi- 
losophers, some  of  the  noteworthy  books  bear- 
ing on  the  topic  are:  J.  Locke,  Essay  Concerning 
Human  Understandinf!,  best  edition,  by  Fraser, 
2  vols.  (Oxford,  189-i)  ;  Leibnitz,  youveatix  es- 
sais  sur  I'entendement  huniain,  English  by 
Langley  (New  York,  1896)  ;  also  selections  trans- 
lated by  Duncan  (New  Haven,  ISOO),  and  by 
Latta  (Oxford.  1898)  :  D.  Hume.  Treatise  of  Hu- 
man Mature.  Book  i..  part  iii.  (Selby-Bigge  ed., 
Oxford,  1888)  ;  id.,  An  Enquiri/  Coneerninfi  Hu- 
man Understanding  (Selby-Bigge  ed.,  Oxford, 
1894)  ;  Kant,  Kritik  der  reinen  ^'crnunft.  English 
by  Max  Miiller  (London,  1896)  ;  Hegel,  Enci/clo- 
P'iidie  der  philosopliischen  Wissenschaften  im 
Grundrisse  (Heidelberg.  1830),  in  part  trans- 
lated into  English  by  Wallace  under  the  titles, 
Hegel's  Loqic  (Oxford,  1892-94)  and  Het/el's 
riiilosophi/  of  Mind  (Oxford,  1894)  ;  E.  H.  Lotze, 
Logik  (Leipzig.  1880),  edited  in  English  bv  B. 
Bosanquet,  2  vols.  (Oxford,  1888)  ;  .T.  S.  Slill. 
Logic  and  Examinfition  of  Sir  W.  Hamilton's 
Philosophi/  (London,  ISfi";  last  in  author's  life- 
time, 1872)  ;  E.  Caird,  A  Critical  Account  of 
Ihe  Philosophy  of  Kant.  2  vols.  (New  York  and 
London.  1889)  ;  F.H.  Bradley.  Principles  of  Loqic 
(London.  1883)  ;  B.  Bosanquet,  Logic  (Oxford, 
1888)  ;  L.  T.  Hobhouse,  Theory  of  Knowledge 
(London,  1896).  See  also  Kant;  DF.nrcTiON : 
Inductiox  ;     Logic  ;     Empiricism  ;     and    Tr.^x- 

SCEXnKXTALISM. 

ATRON  (by  wrong  division  into  an  apron 
for  a.  napron,  O.E.  napron,  O.F.  naperon.  Fr.  nap- 
peron.  dimin.  of  nappe,  cloth,  tablecloth,  from 
Lat.  mappa,  cloth,  cf.  napkin).     An  outer  gar- 


ment, originally  of  linen,  but  often  of  cloth  or 
leather,  covering  the  front  of  the  i)erson  and  in- 
tended to  protect  other  clothes  from  injury.  It 
is  used  in  Coverdale's  translation  of  the  Bible 
(1535).  and  also  in  the  Authorized  Version,  to 
render  the  Hebrew  word  ehagorah,  applied  to  the 
covering  of  fig-leaves  made  by  Adam  and  Eve 
after  the  Fall.  It  has  also  been  apjilicd  to  va- 
rious mechanical  devices  used  for  purposes  of 
protection,  as  ( 1 )  in  military  afTairs,  a  rectangu- 
lar piece  of  lead,  with  a  projection  on  the  under 
side,  xised  to  cover  the  vents  in  old-fashioned 
cannon:  (2)  in  ship-building,  the  piece  of  curved 
timber  set  just  above  the  forward  end  of  the  keel, 
to  join  the  several  pieces  of  the  stem  and  con- 
nect them  more  iirmly  with  the  keel  (see  Ship- 
building) ;  (3)  in  engineering  structures,  a  plat- 
form placed  at  the  base  to  protect  it  from  heavy 
shocks;  (4)  in  carpentry,  the  horizontal  piece  of 
timber  which  takes  a  carriage-piece  or  rough  stiing 
on  a  staircase,  and  also  the  ends  of  joists  which 
form  the  half-space  or  landings;  (5)  in  plumb- 
ing, the  lead  sheeting  or  Hushing  dressed  on  the 
slates  in  front  of  a  dormer  window  or  skylight; 
(6)  in  mechanics,  the  piece  which  holds  the  cut- 
ting tool  in  a  planing  machine;  (7)  in  archi- 
tecture, a  more  or  less  flat  member  placed  against 
or  above  anything  for  ))rotection,  as  the  deco- 
rative member  under  a  veran<la  cornice.  Besides 
the  obvious  uses  of  aprons  in  the  original  sense, 
they  are  also  worn  in  elaborately  decorated 
forms,  as  part  of  the  costume  of  Freemasons 
(see  Masons,  Free)  in  the  lodge;  and  bishops 
and  deans  in  the  C'hurcli  of  England  wear  an 
apron  of  black  or  purple  silk  which  is  an  ab- 
breviation of  the  older  cassock. 

APSE.  (For  derivation,  see  Apsides.)  An  ar- 
chitectural term  used  by  Greeks  and  Romans  to 
designate  a  vaulted  structiire,  such  as  a  domical 
chamber,  or  even  a  triumphal  arch.  The  Romans 
applied  it  particularly  to  the  large,  semicircu- 
lar niche  that  projected  from  some  of  their  tem- 
ple-cellas  or  their  basilicas ;  in  the  temples,  it 
was  the  place  for  the  cult-image  of  the  god ;  in 
the  basilica,  it  was  the  prietor's  tribunal,  where 
he  sat  surrounded  by  liis  assessors.  In  both 
cases  it  was  the  culminating  point  of  the  struc- 
ture. The  partial  derivation  of  the  Christian 
church  or  basilica  from  the  Roman  basilica  or 
law-court  makes  it  natural  that  this  semi-circu- 
lar projection  or  apse  should  appear  as  an  inte- 
gral part  of  the  earliest  churches;  Early  Church 
writers  also  called  it  exedra,  concha,  or  conchula 
lematis.  Being  opposite  to  the  facade,  which 
usually  faced  west,  the  apse  end  of  the  church 
was  often  called  the  east  end.  The  higher  clergy 
were  seated  on  a  bench  around  the  apse;  the 
bishop  took  the  prsetor's  place  in  the  centre,  and 
the  presbyters  that  of  the  assessors.  The  altar 
rose  just  beyond  the  centre  of  the  semicircle. 
Being  the  most  sacred  part  of  the  church,  the 
apse  received  the  richest  and  most  artistic  deco- 
ration, and  the  most  sacred  subjects  were  de- 
picted upon  its  semidome  and  walls.  The  width 
of  the  apse  usually  corresponded  to  that  of  the 
nave  of  the  church,  whose  end  it  seemed  to  form. 
It  was  not  until  the  Seventh  or  Eighth  century 
that  two  smaller  apses  were  often  placed  on 
either  side  to  stand  in  the  same  way  at  the  ends 
of  the  aisles.  They  may  have  developed  from 
the  small  sacristies  which  had  for  centuries  usu- 
ally been  placed  there. 


APSE. 


680 


APULEIUS. 


Churches  without  apses  are  very  few.  But  in 
course  of  time  variations  of  form  were  intro- 
duced.    Byzantine   architects   gave   a   polygonal 


APSE   AND   APSID10LE9. 


form  to  tlie  exterior,  while  preserving  the  in- 
terior semicircular  outline  (e.g..  Ravenna). 
Square  apses,  found  at  first  only  as  out-of-the- 
wav  freaks,  became  common  in  the  tleventU, 
Twelfth,  and  Thirteenth  centuries,  especially  as 
thev  were  adopted  bv  the  Cistercian  monks  and 
those  who  felt  their  "influence.  The  development 
of  transepts  led  sometimes  to  the  use  of  apses 
at  their  terminations,  as  in  the  Romanesque 
churches  at  Cologne.  Another  arrangement,  sel- 
dom seen  outside  of  Germany,  was  a  double  apse, 
one  at  each  end  of  the  church,  which  made  it  nec- 
essary to  enter  the  cliurcb  at  the  sides;  this  is 
found  in  botli  Romanesque  and  Gothic  churches. 
Finallv,  the  apsidal  end  of  the  Romanesque 
church,  first  in  France  and  then  in  Germany, 
became  enriched  by  tlie  use  of  radiating  c liapels 
and  side-aisles,  taking  a  form  which  is  no  longer 
called  apse,  but  choir,  and  is  described  under 
that  head.  The  exterior  wall  of  the  apse  was 
very  plain  in  early  Christian  architecture,  but 
medieval  art  decorated  it  richly  with  false  and 
engaged  arcades  in  several  rows. 

APSHERON,  ap'sha-rftn.  A  peninsula  of 
Russia  nn  tlie  western  shores  of  the  Caspian 
Sea  ( Map :  Russia.  G  G ) .  It  is  fanious  for  its 
immense  deposits  of  na,,htha,  probably  *  >e  rich- 
est in  the  world.  The  soil  is  sterile,  and  strong 
winds  prevail.     See  Baku. 

AP'SIDES,  ap'si-dez  (Gk.  plur.  of  d^is, 
apsis,  loop,  juncture).  The  two  extreme  points 
in  the  orbit  of  a  planet-one  at  the  greatest, 
the  other  at  the  least  distance  from  tlie  sun. 
The  term  apsides  is  applie.l  in  the  same  manner 
to  the  two  points  in  the  orbit  of  a  satellite-one 
nearest  to,  the  other  farthest  from,  its  primary; 
corresponding,  in  the  case  of  the  moon,  to  the 
perigee  and  apogee.  A  straight  ine  connecting 
S  cxtrcmc%oints  is  called  the  ine  of  ap^ 
sides,  or  the  major  axis  of  the  orbit  In  the 
planetary  orbits,  this  line  has  no  fi>^<'d  position 
In  space,  but  undergoes  a  motion  in  the  plane 


of  the  orbit.  This  fact  in  the  orbit  of  the  earth 
oives  rise  to  the  difference  between  tlie  anomalis- 
tic (q.v.)  and  sidereal  years.  This  motion  of  the 
line  of  apsides  is  especially  remarkable  in  the 
orbit  of  the  moon,  an  entire  revolution  taking 
place  in  3232.57  days,  or  a  little  less  than  nine 
years. 

AP'SLEY  HOUSE.  The  mansion  built  by 
Lord  Bathurst  in  1785,  and  purchased  in  1820  by 
the  Government  for  the  Duke  of  Wellington  in 
reward  for  the  latter's  services  to  the  nation  in 
the  Napoleonic  wars.  In  1830  its  windows  were 
broken  bv  the  mob  on  the  anniversary  of  Water- 
loo, and  'the  Duke  was  forced  to  have  them  pro- 
tected by  iron  shutters. 

APT,"  iipt  (anciently,  Lat.  Apia).  The  capi- 
tal of  the  arrondisseinent  of  the  same  name,  in 
the  department  of  Vaucluse,  France,  on  the  Med- 
iterranean Railway  (Map:  France,  M  8).  It 
contains  a  communal  college,  library,  meteoro- 
lo"ical  station,  and  a  number  of  manufacturing 
establishments.  Its  cathedral  is  supposed  to 
have  been  built  about  the  Eighth  Century,  and  it 
contains  numerous  specimens  of  Romanesque 
architecture.  In  ancient  times  Apt  w-as  the 
chief  citv  of  the  Vulgientes  and  received  much 
attention  from  Julius  Cssar,  who  gave  it  the 
name  of  Apta  Julia.  It  came  into  the  posses- 
sion of  France  in  1481.  Population,  1901,  5948. 
AP'TERAL  ("having  no  wings,"  Gk.  4,  a, 
priv.  -t-  irrephv.  ptcron,  wing).  A  term  applied 
to  Greek  and  Roman  temples  without  lateral 
colonnades,  or  pteroinutu,  outside  the  celUi :  and 
also  to  Christian  churches  which  either  had  no 
aisles  or  whose  facades  had  the  form  of  a  single 
unbroken  gable,  not  divided  into  three  sections. 
AP'TERYG'OTA.  A  prime  division  of  In- 
secta  embracing  primitive  insects  without  wings, 
and  including  the  Thysanura  and  Collembola. 
See  Bristlet.\il  and  Springtail. 

AP'TERYX  (Gk.  d,  o.  priv.  +  irT^pu^,  pteryx, 
winf)  The  tvpe  genus  of  a  sub-class  or  group 
of  small  wingless  ratite  birds  of  New  Zealand, 
akin  to  the  epiornis  and  other  ancient  ostrich- 
like  birds.  The  species  of  the  genus  Apteryx  were 
called  In  the  Maoris  "kiwi-kiwi."  See  Kiwi. 
AP'THiE.  See  Aphth.e. 
AP'THORP,  WiLUAM  Foster  (1848—). 
An  American  writer  and  musical  critic,  born  in 
Boston,  Mass.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1869 
and  studied  music  under  J.  K.  Paine  and  B.  J. 
lianf  He  is  well  known  as  the  author  of  Hector 
Berlioz:  Selections  from  His  Letters  aiul  Mnt- 
inns,  with  a  biographical  sketch,  a  pioneer  work- 
in  English  on  this  composer;  and  books  ot 
musical  criticism,  including  ihtsiciaiis  and  iliisic 
hovers  and  The  Opera,  Past  and  Present.  He 
has  lectured  at  the  Lowell  Institute,  Boston, 
and  the  Peabodv  Institute,  Baltimore,  and  has 
tau-^ht  at  the  New  England  Conservatory,  Bos- 
ton" and  the  College  of  Music  of  Boston  Uni- 
versitv  From  1892  to  1901  he  wrote  the  analy- 
ses of  musical  compositions  which  appeared  in 
the  programme  of  the  Boston  Symiihony  Or- 
chestra. In  1881  he  became  musical  critic  of 
the  Boston   Transcript. 

APTJLE'IUS,  Lucius.  A  satirical  writer 
of  the  Second  Centun'-  He  was  born  at  Madaura, 
in  Africa,  where  his  father  was  a  magistrate,  and 
a  man  of  large  fortune.  Apuleius  first  studied  at 
Carthao-e,  which  at  one  time  enjoyed  a  high  rep- 
utatioiffor  its  school  of  literature.     Afterward 


APTJLEIUS. 


681 


AQUA. 


he  went  to  Athens,  wliere  he  entered  keenly  upon 
the  study  of  jjliilosophy,  displaying  a  special  pre- 
dilection for  the  Platonic  Scliool.  The  fortune 
bequeathed  to  him  at  his  father's  death  enabled 
Apuleius  to  travel  extensively,  lie  visited  Asia 
and  Italy,  and  was  initiated  into  numerous  re- 
ligious mysteries.  The  knowledge  which  he  thus 
acquired  of  the  priestly  fraternities,  he  made 
abundant  use  of  afterward  in  his  Ooldeti  Ass. 
His  first  appearance  in  literature  arose  from  a 
lawsuit.  Having  married  a  middle-aged  lady, 
named  Pudentilla,  very  wealthy,  but  not  particu- 
larly handsome,  he  drew  down  upon  his  head  the 
malice  of  her  relatives,  who  desired  to  inherit 
her  riches,  and  who  accused  tlu>  y<nilh  of  having 
eniploj'ed  magic  to  gain  her  affections.  His  de- 
fense (Apoloffia,  still  extant)  spoken  before 
Claudius  Maximus,  proconsul  of  Africa,  was  an 
eloquent  and  successful  vindication  of  his  con- 
duct. After  this  event  his  life  appears  to  have 
been  de\'oted  zealously  to  literature  and  public 
oratory,  in  both  of  which  he  attained  great  emi- 
nence. He  was  extremely  popular,  so  that 
Carthage  and  other  cities  erected  statues  in  his 
honor. 

The  Metamorphoses,  or  Golden  Ass,  the  work 
by  which  his  reputation  has  survived,  is  a  ro- 
mance or  novel,  whose  jirinciijal  personage  is  one 
Lucian,  supposed  by  some,  though  on  insufficient 
evidence,  to  be  the  author  himself.  It  is  generally 
understood  to  have  been  intended  as  a  satire  on 
the  vices  of  the  age,  especially  those  of  the  priest- 
hood, and  of  quacks  or  jugglers  affecting  super- 
natural powers,  though  Bishop  Warburton  and 
other  critics  fancied  they  could  detect  in  it  an 
indirect  apology  for  paganism.  Its  merits  are 
both  great  and  conspicuous,  as  are  also  its 
faults.  Wit,  humor,  satire,  fancy,  learning,  and 
even  poetic  eloquence  abound;  but  the  style  is 
disfigured  by  excessive  archaisms,  and  there  is  a 
frequent  affectation  in  the  metaphors,  etc.,  which 
proves  Apuleius  to  have  been  somewhat  artificial 
in  his  rhetoric.  The  most  exquisite  thing  in 
the  whole  work  is  the  episode  of  Cupid  and 
Psyche  (imitated  by  La  Fontaine;  separate 
edition  by  Jahn,  Leipzig,  18.56).  It  is  supposed 
to  be  an  allegory  of  the  progress  of  the  soul  to 
perfection.  Besides  the  Apologia  and  Golden 
Ass,  we  have  from  the  pen  of  Apuleius  an  an- 
thology in  four  books,  a  work  on  the  daemon  of 
Socrates,  one  on  the  doctrines  of  Plato,  one  on 
The  Universe,  etc.  A  consideraljle  number  of  his 
works  are  lost.  The  most  recent  and  careful 
■edition  is  by  J.  van  de  Vliet,  the  Metamorphoses 
(Leipzig,  1897)  ;  Apologia  and  Florida  (Leipzig, 
1000).  The  Golden  Ass  was  translated  into 
English  by  T.  Taylor  (London,  1822),  and 
again  by  Sir  G.  Head  (London,  1851).  A  still 
earlier  translation  by  Adlington  in  1500  has 
been  republished,  in  an  introduction  by  Whib- 
lery  (London,  1893).  An  English  version  of 
the  works  of  Apuleius  was  published  in  Lon- 
don,   1853. 

APTJ'LIA.  A  part  of  ancient  Italy  lying 
along  the  Adriatic  Sea,  and  bounded  on  the  west 
and  south  by  the  Frentani,  Samnium,  Lucania, 
and  Calabria  (Jlap:  Italy,  LO).  Modern  Apulia 
( Ital.  La  Piit/lia  )  comprises  the  provinces  of  Bari, 
Foggia,  and  Lecce.  It  is  a  vast  plain  drained  by 
numerous  small  streams  flowing  toward  the  Adri- 
atic. The  country  has  extensive  areas  of  pasture 
land,  and  the  raising  of  domestic  animals  is  the 
chief  occupation  of  the  inhabitants.  Chief 
towns:  Bari,  Brindisi,  Foggia,  and  Lecce.  Popu- 
VOL.  I.— 45. 


lation,  1881,  1,510,064;  1901,  1,949,423.  Accord- 
ing to  old  poetic  traditions.  Daunus.  King  of  the 
Apulians,  when  banished  from  lllyria,  had  come 
and  settled  here.  The  chief  towns  of  Apulia  were 
Arpi,  Barium,  Canusium,  Luceria,  and  Venusia 
(birthplace  of  Horace).  The  Romans  first  came 
in  contact  with  the  Apulians  in  n.c.  320,  when  a 
friendly  alliance  was  formed;  but  the  Apulians 
joined  the  Samnites,  the  Tarentines,  and  finally 
Hannibal  in  attempts  against  Roman  supremacy. 
Much  of  the  Second  Punic  War  was  fought  in 
.•\pulia,  and  here  the  Romans  lost  the  disastrous 
battle  <if  Canna^  (q.v.).  After  the  fall  of  Hanni- 
bal, Apulia  was  wholly  sul)jugated  by  IJome. 
When  Augustus  divided  Italy  into  districts,  the 
Regio  II.  was  made  to  include  Apulia  and  Cala- 
bria. 

APUEE,  a'poo-ra'.  An  important  tributary 
of  the  Orinoco,  rising  in  the  eastern  slopes  of 
the  Andes  near  Buearamanga,  in  Colombia, 
South  America.  Flowing  eastward,  it  enters 
Venezuela,  receiving  from  the  south  the  Cau- 
cagua  River  and  from  the  north  the  Portuguesa, 
the  Guarico,  and  others;  finally  joining  the 
Orinoco  200  miles  above  Ciudad,  Bolivia.  It  is 
more  than  700  miles  long,  navigable  through  the 
greater  part  of  its  cour.se.  The  vessels  of  the 
Orinoco    Steamship    Company   ply    its    waters. 

APURIMAC,  a-poo're-miik'  (Peruvian  upu, 
principal,  chief  +  j-ihioc,  oracle).  A  Peruvian 
river,  one  of  the  head  streams  of  the  Ucayale 
(q.v.)  (Map:  Peru,  CO).  It  rises  in  the  high 
Andes  in  lat.  15°  S.,  about  one  hundred 
miles  northwest  of  Lake  Titicaea,  and  flows 
northwest  throughout  about  five  hundred  miles 
of  its  course,  but  after  uniting  with  the 
Pirene  it  flows  under  the  name  of  Tambo  east- 
ward and  then  northward  for  a  distance  of 
a  hundred  miles  to  its  place  of  union  with 
the  t^iillabambi,  to  form  the  Ueayali,  which 
in  turn,  uniting  with  the  Maranon,'  forms  the 
Amazon.  The  Apurimac  possesses  the  peculiar- 
ity that  its  tributaries,  the  chief  of  which  are 
the  Pampas,  Mantaro,  and  Perene,  are  received 
from  the  west  side.  Among  the  tributaries  of 
the  Amazon,  the  Apurimac  probably  rises  near- 
est to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  Apurimac  and  its 
tributaries  are  of  the  nature  of  great  mountain 
torrents,  and  their  rocky  and  ruggeil  banks  are 
generally  difficult  of  access,  and  ofttimes  wholly 
inaccessible.  The  valleys  through  which  they 
flow  vary  in  climate  and  productiveness  •witii 
change  of  altitude.  The  lower  valleys  yield  the 
products  of  the  tropics,  and  the  upper  ones  those 
of  temperate  and  cold  clinuites.  The  basin  of  the 
Apurimac,  as  a  whole,  is  said  to  be  the  finest 
])art  of  Peru,  and  to  contain  the  largest  propor- 
tion of  native  population — the  best  specimens, 
apparently,  of  the  aboriginal  civilization. 

APURIMAC.  A  department  of  Peru,  bound- 
ed by  the  department  of  Cuzco  on  the  north  and 
east  and  A_vaeucho  on  the  south  and  west  (Map: 
Peru,  C  6).  Area,  8,187  square  miles.  The  sur- 
face is  largely  elevated  and  well  watered.  The 
population  was  officially  estimated  in  1806  at 
177.387.     Capital,  Abancay. 

A'QUA  (Lat.,  water).  A  term  often  used 
by  the  alchemists,  who  called  nitric  acid  aqua 
fort  is:  alcohol,  aqua  vitw,  etc.  A  mixture  of 
nitric  and  hydrochloric  acids  is  still  called  aqua 
regia.  In  modern  pharmacy  the  word  is  used  in 
the  following  terms:  Aqua  ainmoniw  (water  of 
ammonia),     aqua     ammonice     fortior      (strong 


AQUA. 


682 


AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 


water  of  anininnia) ,  aqua  rinii/flddkc  umnrm 
(bitter  almond  water),  aqua  anisi  (anise  water), 
aqua  aurantii  floruin  ( orange  -  flower  water), 
aqua  camphorm  (camphor  water),  aqua  chlori 
(chlorine  water),  aguu  chloroformi  (chloroform 
water),  aqua  cinnamomi  (cinnamon  water), 
aqua  creasoti  (creosote  water),  aqua  (Icstillata. 
(distilled  water),  aqua  fwniculi  (fennel  water), 
aqna  hyitroyenii  dioxidi  (peroxide  of  hydrogen 
solution),  aqua  menthw  piperatw  (peppermint 
water),  rt^ua  menthw  viriUis  (spearmint  water), 
and  aqua  rosw   (rose  water). 

AQU^  SEX'TI^  (Lat.,  Sextian  waters). 
A  town  of  ancient  (iaul.  famous  for  the  victory 
of  jMarius  over  the  Teutones,  Ambrones,  and 
other  German  tribes,  in  B.C.  102.  It  is  now 
known  as  the  French  town  of  Aix,  in  Provence. 

AQU.ffi  SO'LIS  (Lat.,  waters  of  the  sun). 
Now  the  Englisli  town  of  Bath ;  an  ancient  Ro- 
man city,  remarkable  for  its  magnificent  edifices 
and  for  the  medicinal  property  of  its  springs. 
Recent  excavations  at  its  site  iiave  brought  to 
light  the  remains  of  many  Roman  bath-houses. 

AQUAMARINE,  -ma-ren'  (Lat.  aqua,  water 
+  jiiariinifi.  lu'longing  to  the  sea).  A  bluish- 
green  variety  of  beryl  that  is  used  as  a  gem.  It 
is  found  in  a  number  of  localities  in  the  United 
States,  the  richest-colored  gems  coming  from 
Royalston,  Mass.  A  celandine  green  variety  of 
apatite  is  also  called  aquamarine. 

AQUA  RE'GIA  (Lat..  royal  water) .  A  name 
given  to  a  mixture  of  nitric  and  hydrochloric 
acids,  which  may  Ijc  used  as  a  solvent  for  gold, 
whence  its  name,  as  gold  was  called  by  the 
alchemists  the  king  of  metals.  It  is  usually  pre- 
pared by  mixing  one  part  of  nitric  acid  with 
from  three  to  four  parts  of  hydrochloric. 

AQUA'RIUM  (Lat.,  a  watering-place  for 
cattle,  from  aqua,  water).  A  tank  or  vessel 
containing  either  salt  or  fresh  water,  in  which 
either  marine  or  fresh-water  plants  and  ani- 
mals are  kept  in  a  living  state.  From  1854  to 
1860  there  was  a  mania  for  these  scientific  toys, 
and  they  became  not  only  an  aid  to  study,  but  a 
source  of  rational  amusement,  depending  in 
principle  upon  the  relations  discovered  by  science 
between  animal  and  vegetable  life,  and  particu- 
larly upon  the  consumption  by  ])lants  under  the 
action  of  light  of  the  carbonic-acid  gas  given 
forth  by  animals,  and  the  consequent  restoration 
to  t]\e  air  or  water  in  which  they  live  of  the 
oxygen  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  animal 
life.  The  aquarium  nuist,  therefore,  contain  both 
plants  and  animals,  and  in  something  like  a 
proper  proportion.  Zoophytes,  annelids,  mollusks, 
crustaceans,  and  fishes  may  thus  be  kept  in 
health  and  their  habits  observed.  The  water 
must  be  frequently  aerated,  which  can  be  accom- 
plished by  taking  up  portions  of  it  and  pouring 
them  in  again  from  a  small  height.  The  fresh- 
water a(]Uarium  is  frequently  jjrovided  with  a 
fountain,  which  produces  a  continual  change  of 
water;  but  even  wlierc  this  is  the  case,  the  pres- 
ence both  of  plants  and  animals  is  advantageous 
to  the  health  of  both.  When  sea  water  cannot 
be  easily  procured  for  the  marine  aquariinn,  a 
substitute  may  be  made  by  mixing  with  rather 
less  than  4  quarts  of  spring  water  .'ii/j  ounces  of 
common  table  salt,  %  ounce  of  epsom  salts,  200 
grains  troy  of  chloride  of  magnesium,  and  40 
grains  troy  of  chloride  of  potassium.  With  care 
the  water  may  be  kept  pure  for  a  long  time.  No 
dead  animal  or  decaying  plant  must  be  permitted 


to  remain  in  it.  Salt  water,  artificially  prepared, 
is  not  fit  for  the  reception  of  animals  at  once; 
but  a  few  plants  must  first  be  jjlaced  in  it,  for 
which  purpose  some  of  the  green  algae,  especially 
species  of  L'lva,  are  most  suitable.  The  presence 
of  a  number  of  mollusks,  such  as  shore  snails,  is 
necessary  for  the  consumption  of  the  continually 
growing  vegetable  matter,  and  of  the  multitu- 
dinous spores,  particularly  of  algoe,  which  would 
otherwise  soon  fill  the  water,  rendering  it  green- 
ish or  brownish,  and  non-transparent,  and  which 
may  be  seen  beginning  to  vegetate  everywhere  on 
the  pebbles  or  on  the  glass  of  the  tank.  In  a 
fresh-water  aquarium,  pond-snails,  such  as  spe- 
cies of  Lymnu'a  or  Planorbis,  are  equally  indis- 
pensable. For  large  aquaria,  tanks  of  plate 
glass  are  commonly  used;  smaller  ones  are  made 
of  bottle-glass  or  crystal. 

Aquaria  should  be  placed  where  they  have 
suflicient  access  to  good  light.  This  is,  of  course, 
essential  to  the  green  plants,  and  will  also  pre- 
vent the  excessive  growth  of  dangerous  fungi. 
The  gills  of  fishes,  their  eyes,  and  any  woimd  on 
the  body  are  frequently  attacked  by  these  fungi. 
These  can  often  be  removed  in  the  case  of  fresh- 
water forms  b.y  a  temporary  bath  in  a  common 
salt  solution,  sufficiently  strong,  and  for  a  suf- 
ficient length  of  time  to  kill  the  fungi.  The  fish, 
although  severely  affected  by  the  salt,  will  revive 
upon  being  flushed  with  an  abundance  of  fresh 
water.  The  plants  or  animals  with  which  the 
aquarium  is  to  be  stocked  must  vary  with  the 
tastes  and  purposes  of  the  individual.  Among 
fishes,  the  goldfish  (q.v. )  stands  first  in  beauty, 
variety  of  fantastic  forms,  and  in  tenacity  of 
life.  The  sticklebacks  (q.v.)  are  desirable  be- 
cause of  their  small  size  and  their  interesting 
nest-building  and  breeding  habits.  Besides  these, 
many  others  could  be  added.  Crabs  and  anemones 
are  common  objects  in  marine  aquaria.  Notable 
large  public  aquaria  are  maintained  in  various 
cities  of  Europe  for  the  instruction  and  amuse- 
ment of  the  people.  From  a  scientific  stand- 
point, the  aquaria  at  the  Naples  Marine  Station 
have  been  of  great  importance.  In  Great  Britain, 
the  Brighton  Aquarium  has  long  been  prominent, 
and  of  much  service  to  science  as  well  as  public 
entertainment  and  instruction.  In  America,  the 
United  States  Fish  Commission  Aquarium  at 
Washington,  D.  C,  and  the  New  York  City 
Aquarium  are  worthy  of  mention.  The  latter 
was  installed  in  old  Fort  Clinton,  on  the  Battery, 
long  known  as  Castle  (iarden,  where  in  1807  it 
was  ])erfected  by  Dr.  Tarleton  Bean.  It  has 
seven  great  floor-tanks,  or  pools,  and  nearly  one 
hundred  wall-tanks,  lighted  from  above  and  in 
the  rear,  and  disposed  in  two  tiers,  the  ujijjer 
viewed  from  a  gallery.  Both  marine  and  fresh- 
water fishes  and  other  aquatic  animals  are  dis- 
played, and  the  mechanical  arrangements  are 
of  the  highest  excellence.  It  is  sustained  by 
the  city,  under  the  control  of  the  Department  of 
Parks,  and  is  entirely  free  to  the  puldic. 

AQUA'RIUS  (Lat.,  the  water-bearer).  The 
eleventh  sign  of  tlie  zodiac,  through  which  the 
sun  moxcs  in  parts  of  the  months  of  January 
and  February.  It  is  also  the  name  of  a  zodiacal 
constellation,  whose  position  in  the  heavens 
may  be  found  by  producing  a  line  in  a  so\itherly 
direction  through  the  stars  in  the  head  of 
Andromeda  and  the  wing  of  Pegasus. 


AQUAT'IC     AN'IMALS. 

TKi.N  OF  Animals. 


See    DisTRiBU- 


AQUATIC    PLANTS 


I     CAT-TAIL   —    TYPHA   LATIFOLIA 
2    PON  0  WEED  —  POTAMOGETON    LUCENS 
3AMERICAN     LOTUS  —  N  E  LU  M  Bi  U  M     LUTEUM 


4    WATER      HYACINTH   —  EICMHORNIA   SPECiOSA 

3    ARROWHEAD    — SAGITTARIA     SAGITTIFOLIA 

6    WATER    -   LI  LY  ,    POND  -  LI  LY  —  NYMPH/€A    ODORATA 


AQUATIC  PLANTS. 


683 


AQUATINT. 


AQUATIC  PLANTS.  A  term  ajiplicd  to 
many  widely  distriljuted  plants  that  live  either 
wholly  or  partlj'  in  water.  Some  aquatic  plants 
.have  their  inllorescence,  and  even  part  of  their 
foliage,  above  the  surface  of  the  water;  others 
are  in  water  entirely;  still  others  are  attached 
by  roots  to  the  bottom.  The  algie,  whicli  are 
e.xclusively  aquatic,  seem  adajjted  to  perform 
under  water  all  the  functions  of  their  life. 
Aquatic  plants  are  generally  of  less  compact 
structure  than  plants  belonging  to  other  classes, 
and  are  therefore  better  adapted  for  rising  in 
their  growth  toward  the  surface  of  the  water. 
But  many  of  them,  including  some  of  the  alga;, 
are  also  provided  with  air-bladders  of  consider- 
able magnitude,  as  may  be  seen  in  some  of  the 
cnnunon  seaweeds.  Some  of  the  more  common 
a<inatic  plants  are  shown  in  the  accompanying 
plate  and   deserve   brief  descriptions. 

CUt-Tail  (Typhii  latifolia) ,  sometimes  called 
bulrush,  grows  to  the  height  of  five  or  six  feet. 
Its  root-stocks  are  astringent  and  diuretic,  and 
abound  in  starch.  Its  young  shoots  are  uuich 
eaten  by  the  Cossacks  of  the  Don,  and  arc  some- 
times used  in  England  under  the  name  of  "Cos- 
sack asparagus."  Its  pollen  is  intlannnable.  and 
has  been  used  as  a  substitute  for  lycopodium. 

LoXG-LE.WEU  Po.XDWEED  (PoUimoijctoii  luci'iis) 
is  one  of  some  05  species  and  a  number  of 
varieties,  included  in  the  genus  Potaniogcton, 
which  belongs  to  the  natural  order  Naiadaceie. 
The  long-leaved  pondweed  has  thin  elliptical 
leaves  that  lloat  on  the  surface  of  ponds  or  slow- 
streams.  It  is  indigenous  to  the  United  States 
and  is  foimd  from  New  Brunswick  to  Washing- 
ton, and  soutli  to  Florida  and  California. 

American  Lotu.s  (ydumbium  liileum),  also 
known  as  yellow  nelumbo,  yields  edible  tubers 
and  seeds.  The  seeds  are  sought  after  by  children, 
and  the  farinaceous  roots  are  agreeable  when 
boiled.  The  plant  is  found  as  far  north  as  On- 
tario. 

Water  Hyacinth  {Eichhoniiti  ci-asxipcs.  or 
Eichhnniia  spcciosn).  which  belongs  to  the  natu- 
ral order  Pontideriace*.  occurs  in  tropical  and 
subtropical  streams  of  the  American  continents, 
being  a  native  of  tropical  South  America,  artd  is 
widely  cultivated  in  Europe.  It  is  capable  of 
growing  on  marshy  banks,  but  attains  a  much 
larger  size  when  floating  on  the  water,  as  it  usu- 
ally does,  without  being  attached  to  the  bottom. 
The  rosettes  formed  by  its  leaves  above  the  sur- 
face of  the  water  are  sometimes  no  less  than  two 
feet  high.  The  rapidity  with  which  they  multi- 
ply may  be  seen  from  the  fact  that,  within  a  few 
years  after  h.aving  been  introduced  for  the  pur- 
pose of  beautifying  Saint  .John's  River,  in  Flor- 
ida, they  threatened  to  render  navigation  on  the 
river  an  impossibility.  Great  masses  of  these 
plants  accumulate  along  the  shores  and  are  often 
driven  by  wind  and  current  until  they  form  ob- 
structions extending  over  the  entire  breadth  of 
the  river,  and  through  which  not  only  small 
boats,  bvit  even  paddle-wheel  steamers,  cannot 
penetrate.  Such  obstructions  have  develojied  in 
northern  South  America,  and,  as  already  stated, 
on  Saint  John's  River  and  its  tributaries  in 
Florida.  An  agent  of  the  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  who  undertook,  in  1897, 
to  investigate  the  danger  thus  caused  to  naviga- 
tion in  Florida,  came  to  the  conclusion  that  per- 
haps the  best  way  of  extemiinating  the  nuisance 
is  to  spread   among  the  water  hyacinths   their 


natural  enemies,  the  water  weeds,  or  water  pests 
(I'hilotria  Vanadeitsis)  ;  further,  to  disseminate 
anmng  them  some  virulent  disease  capable  of  de- 
stroying them;  and  finally,  to  reconstruct  the 
bridges,  so  that  the  mass  of  obstructing  plants 
may  be  freely  carried  out  into  the  ocean. 

(^oMMON  Arrowhead  (Safiittaria  snr/itfifolia, 
or  Kagitfaria  rariubilis)  is  a  widely  distributed, 
beautiful,  white,  scentless  plant.  It  is  indige- 
nous to  North  America,  where  it  extends  as  far 
south  as  Mexico,  being  found  in  shallow  waters 
throughout  the  United  States  and  Canada.  The 
name  Arrowhead,  or  Sagittaria,  is  extended  not 
only  to  the  common  American  plant,  but  to  an 
entire  genus  of  aquatic  plants  belonging  to  the 
natural  order  Alismacese.  The  generic  name  of 
these  plants  refers  to  the  shape  of  their  leaves. 
The  plants  include  natives  of  both  cold  and 
warm  climates,  and  are  distinguished  by  unise.x- 
luil  flowers  having  thrive  herbaceous  sepals  and 
three  colored  petals,  with  numerous  stamens  and 
carpels.  This  species  is  also  a  native  of  Europe 
and  Asia.  The  Chinese  arrowhead,  Sagittaria 
Sinensis,  has  long  been  cultivated  in  China  and 
Japan  for  its  edible  corms,  which  abound  in 
starch.  It  is  grown  in  ditches  and  in  ponds,  and 
has  arrow-shaped,  acute  leaves  and  a  branched 
polj'gonal  scape  (leafless  stem).  A  large  num- 
ber of  species  and  varieties  of  arrowhead  are 
native  in  American  waters,  and  fossil  forms  of 
the  genus  have  been  recognized  in  the  Tertiary 
rocks  of  northern  and  middle  Europe. 

Water-Lily  {Nymphwa  odorata) ,  often  called 
the  "sweet-scented  water-lily,"  has  a  large  white 
flower  of  great  beauty  and  of  very  sweet  smell. 
Its  home  is  North  America.  Besides  this  plant, 
the  name  water-lily  is  commonly  applied  to  other 
species  of  Nyniphcea,  or  Castalia,  as  well  as  to 
plants  of  the  genera  Nuphar  and  Nelumbo,  all  of 
which  belong  to  tlie  natural  order  Nyniphsea- 
cea-.  CJreat  Britain  produces  three  species,  viz., 
Nympluea  alba  (the  white  water-lily),  Nuphar 
luteum,  and  Xuphar  minimum  (j-ellow  water- 
lilies)  ;  all  these  have  heart-shaped  leaves  float- 
ing on  the  water,  those  of  the  3'ellow  lilies  being 
raised  by  the  stalks  a  little  above  the  surface. 
The  seeds  of  these  species,  as  well  as  those  of 
the  water-lily  of  the  Nile  (\i/mpli<ra  lotus),  are 
farinaceous  and  are  sometimes  used  as  food. 
The  stems  of  Nuphar  luteum  are  used  by  the 
Turks  in  making  a  refreshing  beverage. 

Consult:  Britton  and  Brown,  Illustrated 
Flora  of  the  Northern  United  States,  Canada, 
and  the  British  Possessions  (New  York,  1896). 
The  structural  characters  of  aquatic  plants  are 
discussed  at  some  length  under  Hydrophytes. 
See  also  Benthos;  H.vi,oi'hyte.s;  Mangrove 
Swa.mp  ;  Plankton  ;  and  Swamp. 

A'QUATINT  (It.  ncqua,  Lat.  aqua,  water 
+  tinta.  dyed).  A  kind  of  emrraviui;  on  copper 
invented  in  1700  by  .Jean  Baptiste  Leprince. 
The  process  is  not  unlike  that  of  mezzotint,  but 
produces  more  rapid  results.  After  the  outline  . 
of  objects  has  been  tiaced,  the  plate  is  covered 
with  a  Ijvyer  of  fine  sand  or  powdered  rosin, 
over  which  the  passing  of  aqua-fortis  produces 
a  fine  graining,  which  renders  easy  an  imitation 
of  aquarelles  in  sejjia,  India  ink,  or  umber. 
The  aquatint  has  been  used  successfully  in  pic- 
tures as  an  element  of  expression,  affecting  the 
ph.-'siognomy  of  things  by  proilucing  shadows, 
and  deepening  and  spreading  color. 


AQUA  TOFANA. 


684 


AQUEDUCT. 


AQUA  TOFANA,  to-fii'na  (Lat.agHa. water, 
of  Tofana ;  see  below).  A  poisonous  liquid  de- 
scribed as  a  clear,  colorless,  tasteless,  and  odor- 
less fluid,  a  few  drops  of  which  were  sufficient  to 
produce  death,  which  resulted  slowly  and  with- 
out pain  or  fever,  under  a  constant  thirst,  and 
•weariness  of  life,  and  an  aversion  to  food,  the 
strength  of  the  victim  diminishing  gradually. 
It  is  said  to  have  been  invented  by  a  Sicilian 
woman  named  Tofana,  who  lived  about  1650- 
1730.  She  sold  the  preparation  in  vials  marked 
"Manna  of  Saint  Nicholas  of  Bari,"  and  it  was 
much  sought  after  by  young  wives  who  wished 
to  get  rid  of  their  husbands.  It  is  now  believed 
to  have  been  a  preparation  of  arsenic. 

AQUAVIVA,  ii'kwa-ve'va,  Claudio  (1.543- 
1615).  The  fifth  general  of  the  .lesuit  Order, 
appointed  in  1581.  He  was  noted  for  his  at- 
tempt to  increase  the  imjiortanee  and  effective- 
ness of  the  order  through  the  enforcement  of 
a  rigid  and  uniform  system.  To  this  end  he 
wrote  Tfo/irj  Htudionim  Societatis  Jesu  (1592, 
revised  edition,  1599),  and  Directorium  Exer- 
■citiorum  Hjiirilualium    (1599). 

AQ'UEDUCT    (Lat.  aqum  ductus,  a  conduit 
of  water).      Broadly  speaking,  this  word  means 
any  conduit  for  conveying  water,  but  usage,  both 
ancient  and  modern,  has  practically  limited  the 
word    to    masonry    conduits    with    little    or    no 
more  slope  than  is  necessary  to  cause  the  water 
to  flow  through  them  by  gravity.      Such  limita- 
tions generally  exclude  mere  channels  or  ditches 
(canals)     in  "the    natural    earth,    on    the    one 
hand,  and  closed  conduits    (pipes)    under  pres- 
sure, on  the  other.      Jlodern  aqueducts  are  oc- 
casionally, but  rarely,  under  low  pressures,  and 
frequentiv  sections  of  iron  or  steel  pipes  under 
heavy   pressure   are   used   to   convey   the   water 
of  aii  aqueduct  beneath  a  deep  valley.     Inverted 
siphons,  as  these  depressed  sections  are  called, 
are    the    modern    substitute    for    the    aqueduct 
bridges   of   earlier   days,    or   for   the   circuitous 
routes   necessary   to   avoid   the    construction    of 
such   bridges.     '  Siphons    were   not   unknown   to 
the    Romans,    who    lacked,    however,    knowledge 
of   east-iron   pipe,   or   any   other   pipe   of   large 
size,   capable   of   conveying   water   under   heavy 
pressure.       The    general    abandonment    of    \.\\% 
masonry  aqueduct  for  conduits  or  pipe  lines  of 
cast  or  wrought  iron,   steel   and  wood,  has   re- 
sulted from  a  variety  of  causes,  such  as  shorter 
routes,  due  to  the  jjossibility  of  taking  the  most 
direct   path   with   little   regard  to   hills,   valleys, 
and  streams;    smaller  conduits,   due  to  the  in- 
creased  velocity   that   accompanies   higher   pres- 
sures:  and  a  consequent  diminution  in  the  cost 
of  riffhts  of  way,   labor,  and  material.     Marked 
characteristics    of    the    modern    aqueducts    have 
been  great  boldness  and   freedom   in  the   use  of 
the  tunnel,  and  also  in  the  employment  of  long- 
span   arches    for   aqueduct   bridges,   or   the    sub- 
stitution of  iron  or  steel   (at  present  the  latter) 
for  masonry  bridges.      In  a  few  recent  instances, 
where  water  free,  or  nearly  free  from  pressure, 
was   to   be   conveyed,   vitrified   clay   pipes   have 
teen  emploved. 

Bearing  "in  mind  the  foregoing,  a  brief  review 
of  some  of  the  most  notable  masonry  aqueducts 
of  ancient  and  modern  times  will  be  given. 
Ancient  Oriental  peoples,  such  as  the  Persians 
and  Phoenicians,  used  a  system  of  subterranean 
channels  of  masonry  with  vertical  shafts  at  in- 
tervals, such  as  Polybius  described    (x.  23,  3) 


for  Hecatompylos,  the  capital  of  the  Arsacidae. 
The  Pelasgic  and  MyceuEean  cities,  such  as 
IMyeence  and  Argos,  were  thus  supplied.  Herodo- 
tus describes,  as  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
works  of  Greek  lands,  the  aqueduct  of  Samos, 
built  by  the  engineer  Eupalinos  with  a  gallery 
eight  feet  square.  He  also  saw  at  Tyre  three 
aqiieducts  with  arches  and  viaducts  which  were 
imitated  at  Carthage  before  the  Roman  conquest. 
The  early  Latin  tribes  in  Italy  continued  the 
Pel.asgie  "tradition,  as  is  shown  in  the  famous 
emissarv  of  the  Alban  Lake.  The  water  supply 
of  Athens  and  its  plain  can  still  be  studied  in 
a  variety  of  conduits  and  aqueducts  earlier  than 
Hadrian's  more  striking  constructions.  The 
custom  of  subterranean  aqueducts  was  at  first 
also  followed  by  the  Romans,  whose  Appian 
aqueduct  had  less  than  three  hundred  feet  sup- 
ported on  arcades  above  ground.  Gradually, 
with  the  increase  of  monumental  splendor,  com- 
bined with  the  desire  to  carry  the  water  to  the 
higher  level  of  the  hills  of  Rome,  a  larger  per- 
centage of  the  aqueduct  was  arcaded,  and  the 
water  brought  from  a  greater  distance. 

The  principle  of  the  inverted  siphon  was  used 
in  such  aqueducts  as  those  of  Patara,  Pergamum, 
and  Aspendos,  in  Asia  Minor,  at  Constantinople, 
at  Tebessa  in  Africa,  and  at  Lyons,  where  it  can 
be  studied  in  great  detail;  but  Vitruvius    (vii. 
6),    in    describing    this    method,    warns    against 
it  in  the  case  of  large  volumes  of  water,  whose 
pressure   would   not   be   withstood   by   the    lead 
or    terra  -  cotta    jiipes    then    in    use.     In    a    few 
cases   expensive   bronze    pipe    is   used   to   resist 
pressure.      The  careful  grading  of  the  aqueduct 
to    prevent    a    too    rapid    ilo\\'    was    assisted    liy 
curves    in    the    line    of    construction.     This    ex- 
plains apparent  peculiarities  in  direction.     Tun- 
nels were  often  cut,  sometimes  over  three  miles 
long.      The    fall    recommended    oy    Vitruvius    is 
six  irfches  in  every  one  hundred  feet,  but  it  was 
usually  greater.    "  At  the  head  of  the  aqueduct 
a    laro^e    reservoir   or   piscina   was   established; 
minor"  basins     were    constructed     at     inteii-als 
along  the   line   for   filtering  and  clarifying  the 
wate"   bv  passing  it  through  gravel.     The  chan- 
nel !or   the   water,   or   specus.  between   two  and 
four   feet   wide,   and   four   and   one-half   and   six 
and  one-half  feet  high,  was  originally  of  stone, 
lined  with  hydraulic  cement;  afterwards  of  con- 
crete  faced   with  brick.       At  frequent   intervals 
were   blowholes    through    the    top    or    sides,    to 
aflFord  ventilation  and  access  to  the  interior,  and 
their   place   was   taken  in   the  subterranean   sec- 
tions  by   inspection  wells,   or  pntci.     The   chan- 
nels  were   large   enough   to   admit   the   workmen 
along  their  entire  length   for   inspection  and  re- 
pair.     Leakages   were   frequent,   and   the   heavy 
lime   incrustations,   if   not   periodically  removed, 
gradually  reduced  the  size  of  the  channels  and 
the  amount  of  the  supply.     In  many  cases  sev- 
eral   water   supplies    were    carried    on    the   same 
arches,  being  joined  at  a  certain  distance  from 
tlieir  sourceT  ;ind  each   water  being  usually  car- 
ried  in   its   separate   channel.      This   is   the  case 
with  the  Marcia,  which  carries  also  the  Tepula 
and  the  Julia. 

At  the  city  end  of  the  aqueduct  an  enormous 
reservoir  was  constructed  called  a  castclUim 
aquarum,  where  the  water  was  cleared  by  pass- 
ing through  several  chambers,  and  from  which 
it  was  then  distributed  over  the  city.  These 
castella  were  sometimes,  as  in  the  case  of  tlie 


AQTJEDtrCT. 


685 


AQUEDUCT. 


Claudia  and  the  Alcxiindrina,  at  Rome,  impor- 
tant artistic  structures.  Here  tliere  were  sepa- 
rate purifying  and  storing.'  compartments  for 
cacli  class"  of  stnictures  supplied:  in  the  Re- 
publican period  there  were  only  three — public 
fountains,  baths,  and  private  houses.  But  under 
the  Empire  the  subdivision  became  much  more 
elaborate.  Certain  ver\'  large  single  buildings, 
such  as  baths,  had  separate  reservoirs,  or  tanks. 
The  water  was  carried  into  private  or  public 
buildings  by  lead  pipes  through  an  official  bronze 
joint  stamped  with  its  exact  capacity,  and  seiT- 
ing  as  a  meter.  The  conservation  and  regulation 
of  the  water  supply,  the  exact  allowance  to  indi- 
viduals, corporations,  and  public  buildings,  was 
secured  by  a  very  careful  administration  of  the 
water-works.  This  care  was  not  only  applied 
in  Rome  itself;  but  was  coextensive  with  the 
entire  line  of  aqueduct  as  it  was  tapped  at 
intervals  and  used  by  towns,  settlements,  and 
private  owners  for  drinking  and  irrigation.  To 
assist  the  administration,  a  strip  of  land  thirty 
feet  wide  was  reserved  along  the  entire  course, 
as  government  property,  and  marked  by  boun- 
dary stones  at  intervals  of  two  hundred  and 
forty  feet.  The  administration  was  under  the 
care'  of  the  censors,  and  then  of  the  qucestors 
and  sediles;  but  under  Augustus  the  bureau  was 
better  organized,  and  put  in  charge  of  a  Curator 
Aqnaniin.  with  his  two  assistants,  his  clerks, 
his  consulting  engineer,  and  his  various  classes 
of  ollicials  and  of  artisans  comprising  a  familiu- 
of  slaves:  ushei's,  lietors,  and  criers,  as  well 
as  pipe-layers,  pavers,  masons,  levelers,  meas- 
urers, inspectors,  reservoir  keepers,  etc.  As 
usual  with  Roman  buildings,  the  aqueducts  were 
built  by  contract,  and  the  use  of  unskilled  labor 
made  their  cost  relatively  small.  The  Appia  is 
said  to  have  cost  $675,000.  The  repairing  of 
the  Appia  and  Anio  Vetus,  and  building  of  the 
Mareia  in  B.C.  144-140,  cost  only  about  $8.50,000. 
Under  the  more  lavish  Empire  the  ('laudia  and 
the  Anio  Novus  cost  about  $4,000,000,  but  none 
Hi'  tlie  others  were  as  expensive  as  these. 

\mon,»  the  Roman  aqueducts,  those  of  Rome 
itself  possess  the  greatest  interest,  because  of 
their  number,  length,  and  boldness  of  design  and 
e.xecution.  Two  of  them,  in  fact,  are  still  in  use, 
and  water  from  the  very  source  that  supplied  one 
of  them  (!Marcia)  is  now  delivered  to  the  city 
through  a  modern  water-works  system.  Not 
only  are  they  in  remarkable  preservation,  but, 
most  happily  for  engineers  and  archa-ologists 
alike,  they  are  described  in  some  detail  by  a 
Roman  engineer  who  was  water  commissioner 
of  Rome  in  A.D.  97,  named  Sextus  Julius  Fron- 
tinus,  in  his  Two  Books  on  the  n'ater  Suppli/ 
of  Rome.  This  work  was  first  made  available 
to  English  readers  in  1899,  through  a  translation 
by  ^lr.  Clemens  Herschel,  an  American  hy- 
draulic engineer,  who  gives  not  only  the  Latin 
text,  but  also  a  photogi'ai)hie  reproduction  of 
the  oldest  Latin  MS.  in  existence,  in  the  library 
of  the  Benedictine  monastery  at  Monte  Cassino. 
Besides  all  this,  the  book  in  question  contains 
several  chapters  of  comment  by  the  translator, 
both  on  the  aqueducts  and  the  water  supply  of 
Rome  in  general.  Mr.  Herschel  concludes  that 
the  capacity  of  the  ancient  Roman  aqueducts  has 
been  greatly  overrated,  and  that,  instead  of  the 
400.000.000  gallons  .a  day  given  by  some  writers, 
based  on  Frontinus's  calculations,  "thirty-eight 
million  gallons  one  day  with  another"  is  "a  fair 


estimate  at  wliicli  to  M't  the  water  supply  within 
the  walls  of  ancient  Rome  in  A.D.  97,  though  the 
total  ranged,  no  doulit,  some  20,000,000  gallons 
per  day  either  side  of  that  mark  from  time  to 
time.  This  would  make  about  thirtj'-eight  gal- 
lons per  day  per  inhabitant,  which  is  still  a 
very  large  figure  when  use  alone,  not  waste,  is 
taken  into  account ;  and  when,  further,  we  con- 
sider that  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  people 
inidoubtedly  used  only  such  water  as  was  carried 
to  their  homes  in  jars  on  the  heads  of  slaves 
and  other  women."  Still,  Frontinus  describes, 
nine  aqueducts  in  use  in  his  day,  tlie  main  facts 
regarding  which  may  be  sununarized  as  follows: 

( 1 )  Aqua  Ap/iia,  b\iilt  by  and  named  after  the 
censor,  Appius  Claudius,  in  B.C.  312.  Its  springs 
were  between  the  sixth  and  seventh  milestones 
from  Rome,  and  its  course  was  about  11  miles 
long.  All  but  300  feet  was  underground.  The 
e.xact  size  of  its  channel  is  uncertain,  but  is 
given  by  several  authors  as  about  2.5  feet  wide 
and  5  feet  high  in  the  clear. 

(2 1  Anio  Vetus,  constructed  B.C.  272-270  by 
il.  Curius  Dentatus  and  Fulvius  Flaccus.  All 
but  1100  feet  was  underground.  Remains  may 
be  traced  both  near  Tivoli  and  near  the  Porta 
^laggiore.  Its  water  is  taken  from  the  river 
Anio,  about  the  twentieth  milestone,  three  miles 
beyond  Tivoli,  and  its  course,  which  is  very  cir- 
cuitous, is  about  43  miles  long.  About  3.7  feet 
wide  and  eight  feet  high  inside,  of  heavy  masonry 
of  peperino  stone,  plastered  on  the  inside. 

(3)  Atjua  Mareia,  named  after  the  prsetor, 
Quintus  Marcius  Rex,  D.c.  144-140,  had  its 
source  in  springs  between  Tivoli  and  Subiaco, 
near  the  thirty-sixth  milestone  from  Rome, 
was  over  62  miles  long,  carried  into  the  city 
195  feet  above  sea-level,  so  as  to  reach  the  top 
of  the  Capitol.  Near  its  head  it  is  5.7  feet  wide 
and  8.3  feet  high,  and  further  on  it  is  3  X  5.7  feet. 
This  and  the  two  preceding  aqueducts  were 
built  of  rough-hewn  dimension  stone,  18x18x42 
inches,  or  more,  while  the  later  ones,  except  Clau- 
dia, were  of  concrete  and  brick.  Tlie  greater  part 
of  ilarcia  was  underground,  but  there  were  some 
long  stretches  on  arches — over  seven  miles — some 
of  w  hieh  are  still  standing,  and  bear  parts  of  two 
and  three  other  aqueducts  (  Anio  Vetus,  Claudia, 
and  Anio  Xovus)  above  them.  This  is  especially 
the  case  near  Tivoli,  where  there  are  superb 
viaducts  and  bridges  alternating  with  tunnels. 
There  are  about  six  miles  of  arcades  near  Rome. 

(4)  Acjua  Tcpula,  B.C.  125,  leading  from 
springs  on  the  slopes  of  the  Monti  Albani,  had  at 
first  an  independent  channel,  on  the  arcades  of 
the  Mareia,  6  feet  above  it,  or  201  feet  above 
sea-level.  It  was  2.7  feet  wide,  by  3.3  feet  high, 
and  commenced  not  far  from  the  eleventh  mile- 
stone. 

(5)  Aqua  Julia, the  first  imperial  aqueduct,  con- 
structed by  M.  Agrippa,  under  Augustus,  in  33 
B.C..  took  water  from  springs  near  the  source  of 
Tepula  (twelfth  milestone),  and  was  mi.xed  with 
the  latter  to  cool  it,  and  entered  Rome  on  the 
arcades  of  the  Mareia,  about  212  feet  above  sea- 
level.  Its  channel  was  2  3  feet  wide  and  4.6  feet 
high.  Portions  of  Jlarcia,  Tepula,  and  .Julia, 
one  above  the  other,  are  still  in  existence  at 
Porta  Tiburtina. 

(6)  Aqua  Virr/o.  B.C.  19,  also  constructed  by 
Agrippa.  Aqua  Vergine,  as  it  is  now  called,  is 
still  entire,  having  been  restored  by  Popes 
Nicholas   V.   and  Pius   IV.     The   source  of  the 


AQUEDUCT. 


686 


AQUEDUCT. 


Aqua  Virgo  is  near  the  eighth  milestone,  only 
80  feet  above  sea-level;  its  channel  was  14 
miles  long,  and  it  entered  the  city  13  feet  lower. 
The  channel  was  about  1.6  feet  wide  and  6.6  feet 
high.  It  still  supplies  the  famous  Trcvi  foun- 
tain and  others. 

(7)  Aqua  Alsietina.  about  a.d.  10,  constructed 
by  Augustus,  now  called  the  Aqua  Paola,  starts 
at  a  pond  near  the  fourteenth  milestone,  and  sup- 
plies the  fountains  in  front  of  St.  Peter's  and  the 
i'ontana  Paola,  on  the  Montorio.  Its  original 
object  was  for  irrigating  purposes,  and  to  supply 
the  Nauniachia  of  Augustus,  which  was  a  sheet 
of  water  for  the  representation  of  sea  fights. 
Its  water,  which  was  undrinkable,  reached  Rome 
in  a  channel  24  miles  long,  about  55  feet  above 
the  sea,  the  lowest  level  of  any. 

(8)  Aqua  Chiiidia.  A.D.  38-52.  commenced  by 
Caligula  and  completed  by  Claudius,  starts  near 
the  thirty-eighth  milestone  and  is  about  45  miles 
long.  Its  line  of  nearly  ten  miles  of  magnificent 
arches  still  stretches  across  the  Campagna,  and 
forms  one  of  the  grandest  of  Roman  ruins.  At 
its  upper  end  its  channel  was  3.3  feet  wide  and 
C.6  feet  high.  When  it  reaches  the  Campagna  it 
carries  the  Anio  Novus  (see  below),  the  lower 
aqueduct  being  of  dimension  stone  and  the  upper 
of  brick,  lined  with  concrete.  The  water  of  these 
two  aqueducts  reached  the  Palatine  185  feet 
above  the  sea;  but  at  Porta  Maggiore  the  water 
in  Anio  Novus  was  at  an  elevation  of  230  feet 
and  Claudia  9  feet  lower. 

(9)  Anio  Novus,  also  a.d.  38-52,  was  nearly  62 
miles  long,  thus  being  the  longest  of  the  aque- 
ducts, and  starting  at  the  Anio,  near  the  thirty- 
eighth  milestone.  Its  channel  had  a  width  of  3.3 
feet  and  a  height  of  !>  feet.  Some  of  its  arches 
are  over  100  feet  high,  and  its  ruins  are  as 
superb  as  those  of  the  Claudia,  the  two  com- 
bining  before    entering   Rome. 

Aqua  Trajana,  built  in  a.d.  109,  started  at 
Lake  Bracciano,  was  about  40  miles  long,  fol- 
lowed nearly  the  same  route  as  Aqua  Alsietina 
and  its  waters  join  to  form  the  supply  of  the 
present  Aqua  Paola.  It  v,as  used  for  svipplying 
the  Janiculum  and  the  Trastevere.  In  a.d.  226 
an  eleventh  and  last  aqueduct  was  built,  called 
Aqua  Alcxandiina,  to  supply  the  Campus  Mar- 
tins. The  other  aqueducts  sometimes  credited 
to  old  Rome  were  probaljly  branches  of  some  of 
the  eleven. 

Although  stone  continued  in  use  for  aqueducts 
imder  the  Empire,  concrete  with  opus  rerticula- 
ium  and  concrete  with  brick  were  used  both  in 
various  parts  of  Italy  and  even  in  Rome  itself, 
especially  in  the  Aqua  Alexandrina  and  Nero's 
additions  to  the  Claudia.  There  remain  Tiiany 
imposing  Roman  aqueducts  in  different  parts  of 
the  Empire.  The  high  viaducts  and  bridges  in 
France,  such  as  those  near  Nimes,  Cahors,  and 
Lyons ;  in  Spain  at  Segovia,  Jlerida,  and  Tar- 
ragona :  at  Constantinople,  at  Beirut,  at 
Cherchel  and  Carthage  are  especially  imposing 
— higher  and  bolder  than  anything  at  Rome; 
some  have  two.  some  three  superposed  stories 
of  arcades,  with  a  total  height  of  between  100 
and  300  feet.  The  Pont  du  Card  and  the  aque- 
duct of  Segovia  are  tlie  finest  in  existence.  The 
stonework  in  the  provinces  is  even  superior  to  the 
average  in  Rome.  The  following  examples  may 
be  mentioned:  Itrili/:  ;\Iinturn:r  (fine  o/tus  reti- 
culatum,  very  decorative),  Genoa  {very  early, 
C.210  B.C.),  Puteoli,    Pompeii,  Termini  in  Sicily. 


(laul:  Nlmes  (Pont  du  Card),  Lyons  (4  aque- 
ducts in  opus  reticulatum,  with  siphons  and 
bridges),  Metz  (with  a  great  bridge  of  114 
arches),  Paris  (3  aqueducts  of  late  Roman 
date),  Frejus  (a  superb  example,  built  mider 
Claudius,  30  miles  long,  witli  many  arcades), 
Antibes  (2  aqueducts,  one  still  in  use),  Aries, 
Marseilles,  Aix,  Vienne,  Autun,  Besancon,  Poi- 
tiers (4),  Cahors  (a  superb  three-storied  via- 
duct), Toulouse,  and  many  others.  Gennant): 
Mainz,  Treves,  Cologne,  Solicinium.  Windisch. 
Spain:  Segovia  (built  under  Trajan.  12  miles 
long,  with  a  superb  viaduct  of  119  arcades,  818 
yards  long,  in  two  stories),  Tarragona  (built  in 
the  Republican  Period,  c.210  B.C.,  6  miles  long, 
with  magnificent  two-storied  viaduct  of  11  and 
25  arches),  Chelva,  Seville,  ML'rida(2  aqueducts, 
one  still  in  use;  the  other  by  Augustus,  with 
a  viaduct  of  three  stories),  Consuegra,  Calahor- 
ra.  Portugal:  Elvas,  Evora,  Beja.  Africa: 
Tebessa,  Constantine  (3),  Tipasa,  Cherchel 
(Csesarea),  Orleansville,  Carthage  (Punic  and 
Roman),  Makter  (with  a  viaduct).  Asia:  Ana- 
zarba.  Beirut  (with  a  bridge).  Palmyra,  Baal- 
bek. Petra,  Sinope,  Xicomedia,  Antioch,  etc. 

The  Oriental  provinces  of  the  Empire,  pre- 
serving Creek  engineering  traditions,  were  more 
scientific,  as  sho^vTi  b}'  frequent  use  of  siphons. 
The  Byzantine  emperors  continued  the  Roman 
traditions,  as  shown  by  the  aqueducts  of  Valens 
and  Justinian  at  Constantinople,  in  connection 
with  which  are  the  wonderful  cistern-reservoirs 
in  tlie  city  with  their  forests  of  columns.  Adana, 
Mopsuestia,  and  many  otlier  Eastern  cities  were 
provided  by  Justinian  with  aqueducts.  The 
Gothic  kings  attempted  the  same,  as  in  the  ex- 
tremelj'  bold  viaduct  at  Spoleto,  loftier  than  any 
Roman  work;  their  work  in  Sjiain  was  continued 
by  the  Moors,  as  at  Elvas.  The  Mohammedans 
throughout  the  East  continued  the  construction 
of  aqueducts ;  but  the  Middle  Ages  in  Europe 
were  comparatively  inactive  in  this  branch  of 
engineering.  The  Gothic  aqueduct  at  Solmona 
and  that  at  Coutances  are  perhaps  the  finest 
in  Europe  of  this  age.  The  Renaissance  renewed 
the  art,  beginning  with  the  Roman  popes  of 
the  Sixteenth  Century.  France  soon  followed 
suit,  as  in  the  aqueduct  of  Arceuil  at  Paris  built 
for  Marie  de  Medici  in  1613,  and  that  of  Jlain- 
tenon  umler  Louis  XIV.  In  1753  Charles  III. 
built  tlie  great  aqueduct  of  Caserta,  about  30 
miles  long.  The  aqueduct  of  Marseilles,  begun 
in  1847  and  over  40  miles  long,  with  75  tunnels 
and  several  viaducts,  is  the  only  work  of  modern 
engineering  construction  comparable  arti.stically 
to  the  Roman;  it  could  have  been  built  for  a 
fraction  of  the  cost  ($1,200,000)  by  using  si- 
phons. 

Among  the  European  aqueducts  constructed 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  Nineteenth  Century 
may  be  mentioned,  first,  that  conveying  water 
from  Loch  Katrine  to  Glasgow,  built  in  1855-60 
and  duplicated  quite  recently.  The  new  water- 
supply  conduits  of  Manchester  and  Liverpool, 
built  "in  1881-92  and  1885-04,  respectively,  are 
partly  masonry  structures  and  partly  pipe  lines. 
The  Liverpool  supply  is  brougiit  from  Lake 
Vyrnwy,  a  distance  of  68  miles,  partly  in  tun- 
nel. The  Manchester  su])ply  comes  from  Lake 
Thirlmcrc,  a  distance  of  nearly  96  miles,  through 
36  miles  of  concrete  conduit  and  14ti  miles  of 
tunnel,  making  50Vj  miles  of  masonry  aqueduct, 
and  through  45  miles  of  iron  pipe.     The  largest 


AQUEDUCT. 


687 


AQUEOUS  HUMOR. 


tunnel  is  SVL-  miles  in  length,  and  the  longest  in- 
verted siplion,  of  iron  pi])e,  is  aljovit  the  same 
length.  Another  inverted  siphon  is  under  a 
head  of  480  feet.  The  masonry  aipieduet  is  7 
feet  in  diameter.  In  the  United  States  notable 
aqueducts  were  completed  hy  New  York  in  1842 
and  a  second  in  IS'JO  (old  and  new  Croton)  ; 
Boston  in  1848  and  a  second  in  1878;  Brooklyn 
in  185!);  Baltimore  in  1802  and  a  second  in  1880; 
Washington  in  180;?,  with  a  second  one  begun  in 
1883,  abandoned  before  fully  completed  and  near- 
ing  completion  in  1!)01;  St.  Louis,  ilo.,  about 
1S93:  the  Metropolitan  Water  Board  (Boston 
and  surrounding  towns)  in  1897;  .Jersey  City, 
in  progress  in  1901,  but  on  this  work  masonry 
aqueducts  and  tunnels  are  used  only  where  steel 
pipe  lines  are  not  available.  Cast-iron,  steel,  or 
wood  pipe  is  used  in  jjlace  of  masonry  aqueducts 
for  nearl3'  all  American  water-works,  especially 
in  recent  years,  and  witli  tlie  introduction  of 
riveted  steel  pipes,  the  likelihood  of  using 
masonry  is  still  further  decreased.  The  one 
exception  to  this  is  in  the  case  of  tunnels,  and 
particularly  the  intake  tunnels  through  which 
Chicago  and  other  cities  on  the  Great  Lakes  draw 
their  supply.  These  intakes,  however,  hardly 
come  in  the  same  category  as  the  aqueducts  de- 
scribed here. 

The  Old  Croton  Aqueduct,  supplying  New 
York  City,  has  a  total  length  of  38.1  miles  and  a 
total  fall  of  43.7  feet,  the  ordinary  grade  being 
1.10S8  feet  per  mile.  It  is  of  brick-lined 
masonry,  the  bottom  being  an  inverted  arch  of 
0.75  feet  chord,  0.75  feet  versed  sine ;  sides,  4  feet 
high,  battered  to  7.42  feet  apart  at  top;  covered 
with  semi-circular  arch,  giving  total  interior 
height  of  8.64  feet  and  cross-sectional  area  of 
53.34  square  feet.  The  Harlem  River  is  crossed 
on  a  granite  masonry  arched  bridge,  100  feet 
high  in  the  clear,  and  about  1400  feet  long,  the 
water  l)eing  conveved  in  two  30-incIi  cast-iron 
and  one  9014-inch  wrought-iron  pipe,  the  latter 
added  in  1800.  The  Manhattan  Valley  is 
crossed  by  inverted  east-iron  pipe  siphons,  two 
miles  long,  the  original  two  36-inch  pipes  being 
supplemented  by  a  48-inch  in  1853  and  a  00-ineh 
in  1801,  the  latter  being  reported  as  the  largest 
iron  pipe  cast  up  to  that  time.  Tlie  aqueduct  was 
designed  to  carry  72,000,000  gallons  a  day.  In 
1805.  the  portion  of  aqueduct  below  Ninety- 
second  Street  was  replaced  liy  two  72-inch  cast- 
iron  ])ii)cs,  for  which  three  48-inch  pipes  were 
substituted  later  on.  In  1870  another  length  of 
aqueduct  within  the  city  was  rejdaced  by  six 
parallel  lines  of  48-inch  east-iron  pipe,  %  mile 
long.  This  aqueduct  was  carried  as  near  the 
surface  as  the  grades  would  permit.  Tlie  Vew 
Croton  Aqueduct,  like  the  old  one,  begins  at 
Croton  Lake,  formed  by  a  dam  on  the  Croton 
Tiiver,  and  extends  to  I35th  Street,  New  York 
City.  Its  total  length  is  30.87  miles,  or 
33.25  miles  if  the  pipe  line  extension  to  the 
Central  P.ark  reservoir  is  included.  Of  the 
masonry  aqueduct,  29.63  miles  is  in  tunnel, 
requiring  shafts  from  18  to  402  feet  deep  for 
its  construction.  In  general  the  aqueduct  is 
sliaped  like  a  horseshoe,  13.53  feet  high  and  13.6 
feet  wide,  has  a  fall  of  0.7  foot  per  mile  and  an 
original  rated  carrying  capacity  (see  below)  of 
about  318,000,000  gallons  a  day.  .At  the  .Jerome 
Park  storage  reser\-oir,  in  the  north  part  of  the 
city,  and  some  23  miles  from  the  upper  end,  it  is 
reduced  to  a   rated  capacity  of  250,000,000  gal- 


lons a  day  and  changed  to  a  circular  section, 
12V4  feet  in  diameter,  for  over  t)  miles.  It 
cros.ses  beneath  the  Harlem  River,  still  as  a 
masonry  aqueduct,  inider  55  pounds  pressure, 
when  full,  the  aqueduct  here  being  lOi/i  feet  in 
diameter,  lined  with  cast  iron.  The  cost  of  the 
aqueduct  varied  from  .$89.98  to  $123.25  per 
lineal  foot  in  ditl'erent  sections  and  under  vary- 
ing conditions.  Wlien  the  new  aqueduct  was  de- 
signed it  was  estimated  that  it  would  carry  318,- 
OOO.tlOO  gallons  a  day,  when  flowing  to  a  depth  of 
12.842  feet  in  the  horseshoe  sections.  Gaugings 
after  its  comidetion  fi.wd  the  carrving  capacity 
at  about  302,500,000  gallons.  Careful  studies 
made  by  Mr.  John  R.  Freeman  in  1899  {Report 
Upon  New  York's  Water  Supply,  New  York, 
1900)  led  him  to  conclude  that  the  aqueduct  was 
then  carrying  10  per  cent,  less  for  stated  depths 
than  shown  by  the  earlier  gaugings,  part  of  the 
difference  being  due  to  deterioration  of  the  inner 
surface. 

The  Wachusett  Aqueduct  for  Boston  and  vicin- 
ity has  a  rated  daily  capacity  of  300,000,000 
gallons.  It  is  12  miles  long,  if  the  3  miles  of 
canal  at  its  lower  end  are  included,  and  leads 
from  the  site  of  a  proposed  masonry  dam  on  the 
Nashua  River,  at  Clinton,  Mass.,  to  the  Sudbury 
reservoir,  a  part  of  the  old  Boston  water-works 
now  controlled  by  the  Metropolitan  Water  Board. 
From  tliis  reservoir  the  water  flows  through  the 
old  Sudbury  aqueduct,  completed  in  Boston  in 
1878.  The  first  two  miles  of  the  Wachusett 
aqueduct  is  in  tunnel,  through  rock  so  compact 
that  about  one-half  of  it  required  no  lining. 
Where  lining  was  needed  brick  was  used.  The 
floor  of  the  tunnel  is  of  brick,  with  a  slope  of  1 
foot  in  5000  feet.  After  the  tunnel  comes  7  miles 
of  aqueduct,  with  a  grade  of  I  foot  in  2500  feet, 
built  in  enfliankment  or  in  excavation.  Both 
tunnel  and  covered  aqueduct  were  built  in  the 
general  shape  of  a  liorseshoe,  from  llVi  to  13V4 
feet  wide  and  from  lOVi  to  II  feet  10  inches 
high,  and  were  of  concrete,  with  the  lower  por- 
tion lined  with  one  course  of  brick.  Below  the 
section  just  described  there  are  3  miles  of  open 
channel,  or  canal.  The  aqueduct  is  carried  over 
the  Assaljet  River  on  a  handsome  granite 
masonry  bridge  of  seven  29V.-feet  spans. 

Tlie  Cabin  John  Arch,  which  carries  the  first 
Washington  aqueduct  across  a  creek  of  the 
same  name,  was  for  many  years  the  largest  sin- 
gle-span masonry  bridge  in  the  world,  having 
a  length  of  220  feet,  and  rising  to  a  height  of 
101  feet  in  the  clear.  The  rise  of  the  arch,  from 
the  spring  line,  is  57 ^a  feet.  The  bridge  is  20 
feet  wide  and  its  total  length  is  420  feet.  It  was 
built  of  large  granite  blocks,  with  sandstone 
parapets  and  coping.     It  cost  $237,000. 

Consult:  Frontinus,  De  Aqitceductis  (edited 
by  Herschel,  New  Y'ork,  1900)  ;  Friedliinder, 
DarstcUungen  aus  der  Sittenffcschichtc  Roms 
(Leipzig,  1888-90)  ;  and  Leger,  Lcs  travaux 
publicf!  des  Roniainx  (Paris,  1875). 

A'QUEOUS  HU'MOR.  The  fluid  which  occu- 
pies llic  space  in  tlic  (•ye  between  tile  back  of  the 
cornea  and  the  front  of  the  lens,  which  in  foetal 
life  is  divided  into  an  anterior  and  a  posterior 
chamber  by  the  membrana  pupillaris  (q.v.),  and 
in  adult  life  hy  the  iris.  It  consists  of  water, 
with,  according  to  Berzelius,  about  a  fiftieth  of 
its  weight  made  up  of  chloride  of  sodium  and 
extractive  matters  held  in  solution.  This  watery 
secretion  is  produced  by  epithelial  cells  covering 


AQUEOUS  HUMOR. 


688 


AQUILEJA. 


the  posterior  surface  of  the  iris  and  the  ciliary 
muscle.  (See  Eye.)  It  is  rapidly  resccreted  if 
allowed  to  escape  by  any  wound  in  the  cornea. 
AQUEOUS  ROCKS.  In  geology,  rocks 
which  have  been  laid  down  as  mechanical,  chemi- 
cal, or  organic  deposits  from  water.  They  be- 
long to  the  sedimentary  rocks.  Avhich  also  include 
rocks  deposited  from  air   (seolian  deposits). 

I.  The  mechanical  deposits  from  water  are 
derived  from  the  destruction  of  preexisting 
rocks.  Rain  and  rivers  move  considerable  quan- 
tities of  disintegrated  material,  depositing  it 
wherever  the  load  is  too  great  for  the  volume 
and  velocity  of  the  current.  Waves,  rolling 
against  a  shore,  break  from  it  small  and  large 
fragments,  carry  these  fragments  back  with 
them,  and  deposit  them  in  layers  on  the  bottom 
of  the  basin.  The  coarse  particles  are  left  near- 
est the  shore,  forming  conglomerate  or  gravel; 
finer  particles  are  carried  somewluit  farther  out, 
forming  sand,  which  by  cementation  becomes 
sandstone,  quartzite.  novaeulite,  or,  when  mixed 
with  feldspar,  arkose  or  graywacke :  still  finer 
particles  are  carried  yet  farther  out  and  are 
<lcposited,  to  form  mud  or  clay,  which  by  cemen- 
tation or  consolidation  becomes  mudstone,  shale, 
or  slate. 

II.  Chemical  deposition  from  water  may  be 
due  to  the  mingling  of  solutions,  to  changes  in 
the  temperature  or  pressure  of  water  containing 
substances  in  solution,  or  to  the  simple  evapora- 
tion of  water.  For  convenience  in  discussion, 
chemical  precipitates  may  be  divided  into  three 
general  classes:  (a  I  precipitates  of  the  alkalies 
and  alkaline  earths,  giving  calcareous  tufa,  sin- 
ter, travertine,  stalactite,  onyx  marbles,  oolite, 
gypsum,  rock  salt:  (b)  siliceous  precipitates, 
giving  chert  (flint  or  hornstone),  geyserite,  sili- 
ceous sinter:  (c)  ferruginous  precipitates,  giv- 
ing iron  ores.  These  latter  are  largely  deposited 
through  the  aid  of  decaying  vegetable  matter, 
and  might  properly  be  considered  under  class 
III.,  but  the  deposition  is  due  rather  to  the 
chemical  efi'ect  of  dead  organisms  than  to  the 
activities  of  the  living  forms. 

III.  Organic  deposits  originate  in  the  growth 
and  decay  of  organisms,  either  in  situ  or  after 
transportation.  Deposits  of  this  character  are 
commonly  made  in  water  which  is  dee])er  and 
quieter  than  that  in  which  chemical  deposits 
are  made.  They  may  be  divided  into— (a)  cal- 
careous accumulations,  resulting  in  shell  marl, 
chalk,  limestone,  dolomite ;  (b)  siliceous  accumu- 
lations, such  as  infusorial  earth,  siliceous  ooze, 
some  forms  of  flint  or  chert:  (c)  ferruginous  ac- 
cumulations, resulting  in  certain  bog  ores:  (d) 
carbonaceous  accumulations,  loiown  as  peat,  lig- 
nite, browni  coal,  or  coal. 

Rocks  of  mechanical  and  organic  deposition 
form  the  great  mass  of  the  aqueous  rocks.  The 
common  order  of  occurrence  from  the  shore 
outward — conglomerate,  sandstone,  mud,  and 
limestone — corresponds  in  a  general  way  with 
increase  in  depth  of  water.  It  follows,  there- 
fore, that  if  at  any  point  the  body  of  water  is 
transgressing  on  the  land,  resulting  in  deepen- 
ing of  the  water,  the  vertical  order  of  super- 
position of  mechanical  deposits  will  be  conglom- 
erate, sandstone,  shale,  and  limestone ;  and,  vice 
versa,  if  the  water  is  receding,  the  order  will  be 
reversed.  'I'lierc  is  thus  a  change  of  chara<-ter  of 
the  sediments  in  any  series  both  laterally  and 
vertically.      The    aqueous   rocks   of    the   earth's 


crust  are  found  in  such  recurring  successions  and 
by  their  study  the  vertical  oscillations  of  con- 
tinents and  ocean  have  been  determined.  In  a 
very  general  way,  it  may  be  said  that  the  suc- 
cession of  aqueous  deposits  during  geological 
history  has  been  much  the  same  the  world  over. 
The  members  of  this  succession  have  been 
grouped  into  divisions  on  the  basis  of  their 
order  of  superposition,  their  structure,  and  their 
contained  fossils,  and  these  divisions  correspond 
to  the  time  divisions  of  geological  history.  See 
Geology:  Limestoxe:  Lithogexesi.s. 

AQUILA,  a'kwe-la,  Degli  Auruzzi  (It., 
Aquila  of  the  Abruzzi).  An  episcopal  city  in 
south  Italy,  on  the  Tcrni-SoluKina  Railway,  02 
miles  southeast  of  Terni  (ilap:  Italy,  H  5). 
It  is  pleasantly  situated  on  a  hill  beside  the 
.\verno ;  the  streets  are  broad,  the  houses  pic- 
turesque, the  churches  numerous  and  interesting. 
It  is  a  favorite  summer  resort  for  Italians.  .\s 
the  meeting-point  of  roads  leading  to  Apennine 
passes  that  have  been  compared  to  Thermopylae, 
it  is  of  great  strategic  importance.  Aquila  was 
built  about  1240  by  the  Emperor  Frederick  II. 
from  the  ruins  of  Anjiternum,  the  birthplace  of 
Sallust,  the  Roman  historian.  In  1703  it  was 
almost  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  in  which 
two  thousand  persons  perished.  It  has  linen, 
leather,  paper,  and  wool  factories,  and  is  an  im- 
portant saffron  market.  Population,  in  1881, 
11,720:  in  190],  21,188. 

AQ'UILA,  Greek  Aversion  of.     See  AQriL.\, 

PONTICCS. 

AQUILA,  a'kwe-la,  Joiian.n  Kasper  ( 1488- 
1500).  A  German  Protestant  reformer.  He  was 
born  in  Augsburg,  studied  at  Ulin  and  in  Italy, 
and  in  1515  was  appointed  chaplain  to  Fr.inz 
von  Sickingen.  He  accepted  Lutheranism  and 
was  imprisoned,  but  was  released,  and  while 
court  chaplain  to  the  Elector  of  Saxony  at  Wit- 
tenberg (1524-27),  through  his  knowledge  of  He- 
brew assisted  Luther  in  translating  the  Bible. 
Against  the  Interim  (q.v. )  he  wrote  Vhristliche 
Bedenken  aitf  das  Interim  (1548),  and  Das 
Interim  illuntiniert  (1548),  for  which  a  price 
was  set  on  his  head  by  Charles  \.  In  1552  he 
was  restored  to  his  pastorate  at  Saalfeld,  which 
Luther  had  procured  for  him  in  1527,  and  filled 
that  office  until  his  death. 

AQ'UILA,  PoNTicus,  i.e.,  Aquila  of  Pontus 
(Lat.  Aquila  Ponlictis) .  A  celebrated  translator 
of  the  Old  Testament  into  Greek,  who  flourished 
about  A.D.  130.  He  lived  in  Palestine  and  seems 
to  liave  been  a  pagan  converted  first  to  Chris- 
tianity and  subsequently  to  Judaism.  He  stud- 
ied' under  the  .Jewish  Rabbis,  notably  the 
celebrated  Rabbi  Akiba.  His  Greek  version, 
fragments  of  which  are  preserved  in  Origen's 
Flexapla,  was  marked  by  an  extreme  literalness 
of  translation:  it  was  probably  this  literalness 
that  made  the  .Tews  for  a  long  time  prefer  the 
version  of  .Aquila  to  the  Septiiagint  translation. 
A  recently  found  specimen  of  Aquila's  transla- 
tion has  been  published  by  F.  C.  Burkitt,  Frag- 
ments of  the  Book  of  Kinps.  according  to  the 
translation  of  Aquila  (Cambridge,  1897). 

AQ'UILA'RIA.      See  Aloes  Wood. 

AQ'UILE'GIA.     See  RAKU.NCULACEJi. 

AQUILEJA,  a'kwe-lfi'ya  (or  Aglar,  a-glilr', 
as  it  was  called  in  the  Middle  Ages).  A  small 
towii   of   the   Austrian   crown-land   of   Gorz   and 


AQUILEJA. 


C89 


AQUINAS. 


Gradisca,  situate!  on  the  Laguiiadi  Grailo,  which 
connects  it  with  the  Adriatic,  about  twenty-five 
miles  west-northwest  of  Trieste  (Map:  Austria, 
C  4).  Tliis  once  llourishing  seaport  has  dwindled 
to  an  insignificant  fishinji-place  of  less  than  a 
thousand  inhabitants,  with  little  to  remind  one 
of  its  former  prosperity  and  importance  but  its 
ancient  cathedral  and  the  remains  of  the  Patri- 
arch's Palace.  It  ofl'ers,  however,  a  rich  field  to 
antiquarians.  Colonized  by  the  Romans  in  B.C. 
182.  it  became  in  time  the  second  city  of  Italy, 
and  in  a.d.  108  was  so  strongly  fortified  by 
JIarcns  Aurelius  as  to  be  considered  the  first 
bulwark  of  the  Empire  on  the  north.  In  the 
reign  of  Hadrian,  its  population  was  between 
300,000  and  .500,000.  It  was  the  meeting-place 
of  the  -Emilian  Wny  and  the  roads  leading  to 
central  and  southeastern  Europe,  and  one  of  the 
principal  naval  ports.  Here  the  Emperor  Jlaxi- 
minus  perished  (238),  and  in  the  vicinity  Con- 
stantine  II.  lost  his  life  in  a  battle  against  his 
brother  Constans  (340).  Wlien  tlie  town  was 
destroyed  by  Attila  (452),  it  had  100,000  inhab- 
itants. It  never  recovered,  although  between 
556  and  1750  it  was  the  seat  of  a  patriarchate. 
In  1800  it  was  acquired  by  Austria. 

Consult:  Bartoli,  Le  Antichita  d'Aquileja 
(Venice,  1739)  ;  Zahn,  AnstrUi  Friulana  (Vi- 
enna, 1877)  ;  Meyer,  Die  Si)iiJluitg  des  Putri- 
urchuta  AqiiUeja    (Berlin,   1808). 

AQUI'NAS,  Thomas,  or  Thomas  of  Aquino 
(c.l22tj-1274) .    One  of  the  most  influential  of  the 
scholastic  theologians,   who  bears  the   honorable 
titles  and  epithets  of  Doctor  Coiiiinuiiis    ("Uni- 
versal   Doctor,"    Fourteenth    Century)  ;    Doctor 
Angelicus    ("Angelical   Doctor,"    Sixteenth   Cen- 
tury) ;     Princeps     Hcholasticorum      ("Prince     of 
Scholastics")  :   Doctor  Ecclesiw    ("Doctor  of  the 
Church,"  1567)  ;   "Patron  of  all  Catholic  ScJiools" 
(1880).     He  was  of  tlie  family  of  the  counts  of 
Aquino,  in  the  Kingdom  of  Najjles,  and  was  born 
in  the   castle   of   Rocco   Secca,   directly  north   of 
Aquino,   about   fifty  miles   northwest   of   Naiiles, 
about    1220.      He   received  the   rudiments   of   his 
education  from  the  Benedictine  monks  at  Monte 
Cassino,  which  was  only  a  few  miles  away,  and 
completed    his     studies    at    the    University    of 
Naples.     A   strong   inclination   to   philosophical 
speculation  and  theological  study  determined  the 
young  nolilcman,  against  the  will  of  his  family, 
to   enter    (1243)    the   Order  of   Dominicans.      In 
order   to   frustrate    the   attempts   of   his   friends, 
especially   his   niotlier,   to   force   him   to   give   up 
his  monastic  life  and  enter  the  world,  his  order 
sent  him  to  Rome,  and  thence  to  Paris.     On  his 
way  thither  his  brothers  overtook  him  at  Aequa- 
pendente,    and    by    force    brought    him    to    the 
castle   of   Saint   John,   near   Aquino,   and   there 
he   was   closely   guarded    for   a   year,   and   every 
effort  was  made  to  break  his  resolution  to  re- 
main a  monk.     But  at  length  his  mother  came 
to  his  release,  and   he  went,   in   the  company  of 
the    General    of    the    Dominicans,    to    Paris    and 
thence   to   Cologne,   about    1245,   where   he   stud- 
ied under  Albert  the  Great   (Albertus  Magnus). 
At  Cologne  he  pursued  his  studies   in   such   si- 
lence that  his   companions  gave  him   the  name 
of    the    "Dumb    0.\."      But    Albert,    his    master, 
is  reported  to  have  predicted,  "that  this  ox  would 
one  day  fill  the  world  with  his  bellowing."     He 
accompanied  him  to  Paris  in   1245  and  liack  to 
Cologne  in  1248,  W'hen  Albert  was  commissioned 
by  his  Order,  the  Dominican,  to  establish  a  theo- 


logical school  there.     In  it  Aquinas  taught  himself 
until  in  1251    (or  1252)   he  was  sent  to  Paris  to 
teach     in    the    Dominican    monasterv    of    Saint 
Jacques.     He  liad  taken  the  usual  degrees,  but  the 
highest,   the   doctorate,   was   not  conferred   upon 
him  till  1257,  by  the  University  of  Paris,  because 
of  the  tight  between  it  and  the 'Mendicant  Orders. 
He  defended  his  Order  in  his  Contra  Iminii/nanfcs 
Dp   Cult  urn  ct   lifiUriionem.     He  was   already   a 
distinguished  scholar  and  teacher.    He  continued 
to    lecture    with    great    applause    in    Paris,    till 
Urban  IV.,  in  1201,  called  him  to  Italy  to  teach 
philosophy   in   Rome,    Bologna,    Pisa,   and   other 
places.     Finally  he  came  to  reside  in  the  convent 
at  Naples   (1272-74),  where  he  declined  the  offer 
of  the  dignity  of  archbishop,  in  order  to  devote 
himself  entirely  to  study  and  lecturing.     It  was 
while  there  that  the  following  incident  is  said  to 
have  occurred.    One  day  Christ  appeared' to  him 
and   said:    "You   have   written   ablv   about   me. 
What  reward  would  you  like  to  have'?"    He  said: 
"Lord,    nothing,    excejjt    thyself."      Being    sum- 
moned   by    Gregory    N.    to    attend    the   general 
council   at  Lyons,  he   was  taken   ill   on  the   way 
in  the  castle  of  his  niece  at  Ceccano.     Realizin'o- 
that  it  was  his  last  illness,  he  was  at  his  own 
request  transferred  to  the  neighboring  Cistercian 
monastery    of    Fossaniiova,    so    that    he    mio-ht 
die   in  a   religious  house.     He  lingered  there  a 
month  and  died  on  JIarch   7,   1274.     Aceordino- 
to    a    report,    he    %\as    poisoned    at    the    instiua'^ 
tion  of  Charles  I.  of  Sicily,  who  dreaded  the  e^vi- 
(lence  that  Aquinas  would  give  of  him  at  Lyons 
Dante   held   this   opinion    (Piiryatory,   xx  "68) 
but   It   IS   probably   not   true.      His   relics   were 
tought  for,  and  his  right  arm  is  now  in  Saint 
Jacques,    Paris,     other    parts     in    Salerno    and 
Naples,  and  the  rest  of  his  body  in  Rome      He 
was  canonized  July  18,  1323. 

Even  during  his  life  Aquinas  enjoyed  the 
highest  consideration  in  the  Church.  His  voice 
carried  decisive  weight  with  it.  A  general  chap- 
ter ot  Dominicans  in  Paris  made  it  obIi<Tatorv 
on  the  members  of  the  Order,  under  pain  o'f 
punishment,  to  defend  his  doctrines.  Like  most 
of  the  other  scholastic  theologians,  he  had  no 
know  edge  of  Greek  or  Hebrew,  and  was  almost 
equally  ignorant  of  history;  but  his  writings  dis- 
play a  great  expenditure  of  diligence  and  dia- 
lectic art,  set  off  with  the  irresistible  eloquence  of 
zeal.  His  chief  works  are:  .1  Commentary  on  the 
Four  Books  of  Sentences  of  Peter  Lombard,  the 
l^umnia  Theolorjiw,  Qua-siloncs  Disputatce  et 
Quodlibetales,  and  Opuscuhi  Theoloqica.  He 
gave  a  new  and  systematic  foundation  to  tiie  doc- 
trine of  the  Church's  treasury  of  works  of  super- 
erogation, to  that  of  withholding  the  cup  from 
the  laity  in  the  communion,  and  to  that  of  tran- 
substantiation.  He  also  treated  Christian  morals 
according  to  an  arrangement  of  his  own,  and 
with  a  comprehensiveness  that  procured  him  the 
title  of  the  "Father  of  Moral  Philosophy."  The 
definiteness.  clearness,  and  coni|)letenes3  of  his 
method  of  handling  the  theology  of  the  Church, 
gave  his  works  a  superiority  over  the  text-books' 
of  the  earlier  writers  on  systematic  theology. 
His  Summa  Theolof/iw  is  the"  first  attempt  at"a 
complete  theological  system,  but  he  died  ere  he 
couhl  complete  it.  In  his  philosophical  writings, 
the  ablest  of  which  is  his  ,Summa  de  Veritate 
Catholiew  Fidei  contra  Gentiles,  he  throws  new 
light  upon  the  most  abstract  tniths.  The  cir- 
oum.stance  of  Aquinas  being  a   Dominican,  and 


AQUINAS. 


690 


ARABESQUE. 


boasted  of  by  his  Order  as  their  great  ornament, 
excited  the  "jealousy  of  the  Franciscans  against 
him.  In  the  beginning  of  the  Fourteenth  Cen- 
tury, Duns  Scotus  (q.v.),  a  Franciscan,  came 
forward  as  the  dechired  opponent  of  the  doc- 
trines of  Aquinas,  and  founded  the  philosophieo- 
theological  scliool  of  the  Seotists,  to  wlioni  the 
Thomists,  mostly  Dominieaiis,  stood  opposed. 
The  Thomists  leaned  in  philosophy  to  nominal- 
ism (q.v.),  although  they  held  the  abstract  form 
to  be  the  essence  of  things;  they  followed  the 
doctrines  of  Augustine  as  to  grace,  and  disputed 
the  doctrine  of  the  immaculate  conception  of  the 
Virgin.  The  Seotists,  again,  inclined  to  realism 
and  to  the  views  of  the'Semipelagians,  and  up- 
held the  immaculate  conception. 

Pope  Leo  XIII.  in  his  Encyclical,  ".Eterni 
patris"  (August  4,  1879),  declared  that  the  phi- 
losophy and  theology  of  Aquinas  was  the  proper 
basis  for  all  such  teaching  in  Catholic  Christen- 
dom. His  life  was  spent  in  such  great  toil,  not 
only  as  an  author  but  as  a  teacher  and  as  the 
trusted  servant  of  his  order  and  the  adviser  of 
popes,  that  it  was  comparatively  brief.  Yet  its 
literary  product  was  enormous.  His  mind  was 
remarkablv  clear,  so  that  although  he  was  the 
very  embodiment  of  the  scholastic  method  of 
endless  analysis  and  questionings,  he  wrote  in  a 
way  intelligible  and  interesting  to  the  modern 
reader.  One  of  his  great  services  is  the  promi- 
nence he  gives  to  Aristotle,  upon  whose  works  he 
wrote  elaborate  commentaries.  Plato  also  was 
his  master,  and  to  the  fathers  he  yielded  loyal 
submission.  He  also  was  a  profound  Bible 
student,  as  he  showed  in  his  Catena  Atirea,  which 
is  an  exhaustive  theological  interpretation  of 
the  Gospels.  In  fact,  take  him  all  in  all,  there 
is  no  theologian  of  the  past  who  deserves  and 
rewards  study  more  than  he,  and  the  Roman 
Church  does  well  in  accepting  him  as  her  great 
master  in  theology. 

His  works,  all  written  in  Latin,  were  first 
printed  bv  Pope  Pius  V.  (Eome,  1570-71,  17 
vols.,  folio;  mod.  ed.,  Paris,  1871-80,  34  vols., 
8vo. ;  probablv  final  form,  sanctioned  by  Pope 
Leo  XIII.,  Rome,  1882).  The  greatest  of  the 
works,  the  .S'»»ima  Theolorii<e,  was  reprinted 
in  eight  volumes  (Paris,  ISfiO)  ;  German  trans- 
lation, 12  volumes  (Ratisbon,  1886-92).  The 
Summa  de  Vcritate  Caiholicw  Fidei  has  been 
published  in  French,  with  Latin  text  (Paris, 
1854).  Modern  English  translations  of  parts 
of  all  the  works  have  been  published  as  fol- 
lows: Catena  Aurea  (8  volumes,  London, 
1841-45)  :  On  the  liulers  and  Members  of  Chris- 
tian States,  from  De  Regimine  Prindinim  (Lon- 
don, 1860);  Homilies  upon  the  Epistles  and 
Gospels  for  the  Sundays  of  the  Christian  Year, 
and  the  Festival  Jlomilies  (London,  1873)  ;  On 
the  Tiro  Commandments  of  Charity  and  the 
Ten  Commandments  of  the  Law  (London, 
1880)  ;  Xotes  on  the  Angels  (London, 
1888)  ;  Maxims  and  Prayers  and  the  Little 
Office  (London,  1800)  ;  On  the  Sacrament  (Lon- 
don, 1890^  ;  A'luinas  Ethicus,  or  the  Moral 
Teachinfjs  of  Saint  Thomas  (London,  1892)  ; 
The  Lord's  Prayer,  made  up  of  parts  of  the 
Summa,  in  condensed  transhation  (London, 
1892).  For  interpretation  of  his  work  in  gen- 
eral, consult:  L.  Schtitz,  Lexicon.  Sammlung, 
Vebersetzung  und  Erkliirung  der  in  s.ammtlichen 
Vi'erken  des  heilifirn  Thomas  von  .Aquinas  vor- 
kommenden    l\  unstausdriicK-c    und    tcisscnschafl- 


lichen  AussprUche  (Paderborn,  1895).  For  hia 
biographv,  consult:  In  English,  R.  B.  Vaughan 
(London,"  1893),  Pius  Cavanagh  (1890);  in 
German,  C.  Werner  (Regensburg,  1858-59),  J. 
Tansen  (Kevelaer,  1898);  in  Dutch,  H.  J. 
Schaepman   (Utrecht,  1898). 

AQ'UITA'NIA.  The  Latin  name  of  a  part 
of  Gaul,  originally  including  the  country  be- 
tween the  Pyrenees  and  the  Garonne,  peopled 
by  Iberian  tribes.  Augustus,  when  he  divided 
Gaul  into  four  provinces,  added  to  Aquitania 
the  country  lying  between  the  rivers  Garonne 
and  Loire.  Shortly  before  the  extinction  of  the 
Roman  Empire,  Aquitania  passed  into  the  hands 
of  the  West  Goths.  In  507  it  was  conquered  by 
Clovis,  King  of  the  Franks,  and  during  the 
Jlerovingian  dynasty  became  an  indejiendent 
duchy.  Though  subjugated  by  Charlemagne,  the 
Duchy  again  claimed  independence  under  the 
weak  monarchs  of  the  Carlovingian  dynasty.  In 
1137  Aquitania  (or  Aquitaine,  a  name  later 
supplanted  by  the  name  (luienne)  was  united 
to  the  crown  of  France  by  the  marriage  of  Louis 
A'll.  with  Eleanor,  heiress  of  Aquitania.  In 
1154  it  was  united  with  England,  as  the  result 
of  the  marriage  (11.52)  of  Henry  Plantagenet 
with  Eleanor,  whom  Louis  had  divorced,  and  a 
long  series  of  disputes  took  place  between  Eng- 
land and  France  respecting  Aquitania,  which 
was  at  length  ultimately  united  to  the  crown  of 
France  by  Charles  VII.  in  1451. 

ARA,  ii'ra.  or' Arar.\  (local  native  name). 
The  great  black  cockatoo  {Microgtossa  ater- 
rima)  of  the  Malayan  Islands  and  the  north 
coast  of  Australia.  It  is  the  largest  knouTi 
parrot,  reaching  a  length  of  about  thirty  inches, 
and  when  fully  adult  is  wholly  black,  except 
the  bare,  bright-red  cheeks.  Its  beak  is  of  ex- 
traordinary thickness  and  power,  enabling  it 
to  live  largely  on  the  stone-hard,  oily  fruit  of 
the  kanari  tree  (Canarium  commune)  :  it  al-i 
eats  palm  '"cabbage,"  and  hence  has  been  callfi 
the  great  palm  cockatoo.  It  lives  in  the  forest. 
in  pairs  rather  than  in  flocks,  is  shy.  and  utters 
a  low,  double  whistle.  It  is  rarely  kept  in 
captivity.  See  Cockatoo,  and  plate  of  Cocka- 
toos AND  Macaws. 

ARABAH,  a'ra-b;i.  The  valley  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  as  far  as  the  Gulf  of  Akabah  (Heb. — Deut.  i. 
1).  This  name  is  also  applied  to  the  valley  of 
the  Lake  of  Galilee  (Deut.  iii.  17),  and  many 
therefore  originally  have  been  used  to  designate 
the  entire  length  of  the  depression.  At  present 
El-Arabah  is  confined  to  the  southern  part,  while 
the  Jordan  Valley  is  called  El  Ghor.  See  El- 
Aabah. 

AR'ABA'TA  (native  South  American  name). 
The   straw-colored  howler.     See  Howler. 

ARABESQUE,  ar'a-besk'  (Fr.).  A  term 
which  means  merely  after  the  Arabian  manner; 
and,  so  far  as  etymology  is  concerned,  might 
therefore  be  general  in  its  apjilication.  In 
practice,  however,  it  is  used  to  characterize  any 
kind  of  carved  or  painted  decoration,  especially 
in  conjunction  with  architecture,  which  is  not 
in  close  imitation  of  natural  forms,  either  ani- 
mal or  vegetable,  but  admits  of  schematic,  her- 
aldic, and  fantastic  devices.  It  was  originally 
used  of  the  purely  geometric  ornamentation  of 
Mohannnedan  architecture,  but  is  equally  ap- 
plicable to  the  decorative  work  of  the  Alex- 
andrian   Greeks,    and    especially    that    of    the 


ARABESQUE. 


fi!ll 


ARABIA. 


Romans  (Pompeii,  Rome,  etc.),  which  wag 
taken  as  a  model  at  the  Remiissance,  and  has 
never  been  surpassed  in  variety  and  delicacy. 
The  arabesque  of  the  Mohammedans  dii5'ered 
from  otlier  forms  in  entirely  excluding  the  fig- 
ures of  animals  and  men,  tlie  representation  of 
which  was  forbidden  by  tlie  Moluimmedan  re- 
ligion, and  confining  itself  to  purely  geometric 
shapes  and  to  the  foliage,  flowers,  fruit,  and 
tendrils  of  plants  and  trees,  curiously  and  elab- 
orately intertwined.  Tliis  limitation  of  tlie  field 
of  arabesqjie  was  not  observed  in  Cliristian  art. 
The  Byzantine  schools  and  tlie  Northern  barba- 
rians —  Celts,  Goths,   Saxons,  Lombards  —  used 


MOHAirSIEDAN  KOSEWORE 

the  schematic  heraldic  forms  of  this  style.  So 
did,  to  a  lesser  degree,  tlie  Romanesque  artists. 
The  Gothic  style  returned  to  the  study  of 
natural  forms  almost  entirely,  but  the  Renais- 
Bance,  notwitlistanding  its  naturalism,  was  very 
partial  to  the  arabesque,  imitating  in  the  Fif- 
teenth Century  the  antique  carved  friezes  and 
pilasters,  and  in  the  Sixteenth  Century  tlie 
painted  designs  discovered  on  tlie  walls  of  the 
Baths  of  Titus,  the  Golden  House  of  Nero,  and 
the  imperial  palaces  on  the  Palatine.  Raphael's 
arabesques  in  the  Vatican  are  the  most  famous 
and  beautiful  of  these  imitations.  Further  im- 
petus to  this  type  of  design  was  given  in  the 
last  century  by  the  discoveries  at  Pompeii  and 
Herculaneum. 

ARABGIR,  ii'rab-ger'.     See  Arabkir. 

ARA'BIA.  The  great  southwestern  penin- 
sula of  Asia,  called  by  the  inhabitants  "Jazirat- 
al-'Arab,"  the  peninsula  of  Arabia  ;  by  the  Turks 
and  Persians,  "Arabistan."  It  is  situated  in  lati- 
tude 12°  40'  to  34°  N.,  and  longitude  3-2"  30' 
to  G0°  E.  Its  length  from  north  to  south  is  about 
1.500  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  about  1200; 
its  area  is  about  1,200,000  square  miles  (Map: 
Turkey  in  Asia,  DC).  It  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  Asiatic  Turkey;  on  the  east  by  the  Persian 
Gulf  and  the  Gulf  of  Oman;  on  the  south  by  the 
Indian  Ocean  and  the  Gulf  of  Aden,  and  on  the 
west  by  the  Red  Sea.  It  is  connected  with 
Africa  on  the  northwest  by  the  Isthmus  of 
Suez.  Through  the  centre  of  the  land,  be- 
tween Mecca  and  Medina,  runs  the  Tropic 
of  Cancer.  The  name  Arabia  has  been  derived 
by    some    from    Mradd    (which    means    a    level 


waste),  a  district  in  the  territory  of  Tihamali : 
by  others,  from  'Eher,  a  word  signifying  a  nomad 
("wanderer"),  as  the  primitive  Arabs  were  such. 
This  would  connect  it  with  the  word  Hebrew, 
which  has  a  similar  origin.  Others  again  are 
inclined  to  derive  it  from  the  Hebrew  verb 
'Arah.  to  go  down — that  is,  the  region  in  which 
the  sun  appeared  to'-set  to  the  Semitic  dwellers 
on  the  Euphrates.  There  is  also  a  Hebrew  word, 
'.1  rnhah.  which  means  "a  barren  place."  and  which 
is  occasionally  employed  in  Scripture  to  denote 
the  border  land  iietween  Syria  and  Arabia.  Ptol- 
emy is  supposed  to  be  the  author  of  the  famous 
threefold  division  into  Arabia  Pcfrcea,  Arabia 
Felix,  and  Arabia  Desierta.  which  has  been  gen- 
erally used  since  his  time;  the  first  included 
the  nortliwest  corner:  the  second,  the  west 
and  southwest  coasts;  and  the  third,  the  dimly 
known  interior.  This  division,  however,  is  not 
recognized  by  the  natives  themselves;  neither  is 
it  very  accurate  as  at  present  understood,  for 
Petyceu  was  not  intended  to  mean  rocky  or  stony. 
Ptolemy  formed  the  adjective  from  the  flour- 
ishing city  of  Petra  (the  capita!  of  the  kingdom 
of  the  Xabata>ans),  whose  proper  name  was 
Thamud — that  is,  the  rock  with  a  single  stream. 
The  word  Felix,  also,  arose  from  an  incorrect 
translation  of  Yemen,  which  does  not  signify 
"happy,"  but  the  land  lying  to  the  right  of 
Mecca — as  Al-Sham  (Syria)  means  the  land  lying 
to  the  left  of  the  same.  The  divisions  of  the 
Arab  geographers  are  as  follows:  (1)  Bahr-el- 
Tur  Sinai  (Desert  of  Mount  Sinai);  (2)  Ei- 
jaz  (a  barrier),  along  the  Red  Sea;  (3)  Ti- 
hamah  and  Yemen,  along  the  Red  Sea;  (4)  Ha- 
dramaut,  the  region  along  the  southern  coast; 
(5)  Oman,  the  sultanate  of  Muscat,  in  the  ex- 
treme east;  (6)  Bahrain,  on  the  Persian  Gulf: 
(7)  EhHasa.  along  the  Persian  Gulf;  (8)  TSlejd, 
the  central  highlands  of  Arabia. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  interior  of  Arabia  is  still 
very  imperfect  in  detail,  but  its  general  char- 
acteristics are  decidedly  African.  Tlie  largest 
portion  of  it  lies  in  that  great  desert  zone 
which  stretches  from  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic 
to  those  of  the  Northern  Pacific.  The  interior, 
so  far  as  it  has  yet  been  explored  by  Europeans, 
seems  to  be  a  great  plateau,  in  some  places 
reaching  a  height  of  8000  feet.  The  western 
border  crest  of  this  plateau  may  be  regarded 
as  part  of  a  mountain-chain,  beginning  in  the 
north  with  Lebanon,  and  stretching  south  to 
the  Strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb.  From  Bab-el- 
Mandeb  another  chain  runs  northeast,  parallel 
to  the  coast,  to  Oman.  The  elevation  of  the 
mountains  in  the  extreme  south  of  the  peninsula 
is  estimated  at  13,000  feet.  From  the  mountain- 
range  on  the  west  the  plateau  slopes  to  the 
northeast,  and  forms  in  general  a  vast  tract 
of  shifting  sands,  interspersed  here  and  there 
about  the  centre  with  various  ranges  of  hills, 
which,  like  the  shores  of  the  ijeninsula,  are 
generally  barren  and  uninteresting. 

One  of  the  chief  characteristics  in  the  physi- 
cal aspect  of  the  coimtry  is  the  scarcity  of  per- 
manent rivers.  With  the  exception  of  Maidan, 
at  the  southwestern  end  of  the  country,  the 
streams  of  Arabia  drj'  up  for  a  considerable 
part  of  the  year.  Like  most  desert  regions, 
Arabia  lias  a  large  number  of  dried-up  river 
courses,  or  readies,  among  which  the  Wadi  al- 
Rumen  is  the  longest,  traversing  under  different 
names    the   entire   countrv    from    west   to   cast. 


ARABIA. 


(592 


ARABIA. 


Springs  are  very  few,  and  in  the  cultivated 
parts  of  the  country  large  numbers  of  wells, 
cisterns,  and  reservoirs  are  prepared  for  the 
reception  of  rain  water. 

Arabia  has,  on  the  whole,  an  African  climate. 
Though  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  the  sea, 
its  chains  of  hills  exclude  in  a  great  measure 
the  modifying  inliuence  of  ■  air  currents  from 
the  ocean.  In  several  parts  of  Arabia  hardly  a 
refreshing  shower  falls  in  the  course  of  t\te 
year,  and  vegetation  is  almost  unknowii;  in 
other  torrid  districts  the  date-palm  is  almost 
the  only  sign  of  vegetable  life.  Over  vast 
sterile  tracts  hangs  a  sk_y  of  almost  eternal 
serenity.  The  time  and  duration  of  the  rainy 
season  varies  in  the  different  parts  of  the  coun- 
try. In  Yemen  it  lasts  from  .June  to  September, 
and  is  often  followed  by  a  shorter  rainy  season 
in  the  spring.  In  the  coast  regions  of  Hadra- 
maut  and  Oman  it  lasts  from  February  to 
April,  while  in  the  highlands  of  the  former  it 
takes  place  between  April  and  September. 
Light  frosts  mark  the  winters  in  the  centre  and 
northeast.  During  the  hot  season  the  simoom 
(q.v. )  blows,  but  only  in  the  northern  part  of 
the  land.  The  districts  which  are  not  too  arid 
for  culture  produce  wheat,  barley,  millet,  dates, 
tobacco,  indigo,  cotton,  sugar,  tamarinds,  coffee, 
balsam,  aloe,  mvrrh,  frankincense,  etc.  Arabia 
has  but  a  small  area  of  forests,  but  has  vast 
stretclies  of  desert  grass,  fragrant  with  aromatic 
herbs,  and  furnishing  admirable  pasturage  for  the 
splendid  breed  of  horses.  Coffee,  one  of  the  most 
important  exports,  is  an  indigenous  product  both 
of  Arabia  and  Africa,  as  are  also  the  date-palm 
and  banana.  The  trade  in  coffee,  dates,  figs, 
spices,  and  drugs,  though  still  considerable,  is 
said  to  be  only  a  shadow  of  the  old  commerce 
which  existed  before  the  circumnavigation  of 
Africa,  or  when  Aden  was  in  its  prime  and  tlie 
Ked  Sea  was  the  great  commercial  route  to  the 
East.  Arabia  has  few  manufactures,  but  carries 
on  a  transit  trade  in  foreign  fabrics,  besides  im- 
porting these  to  some  extent  for  its  own  necessi- 
ties. 

In  the  animal  kingdom,  an  African  character 
prevails  generally.  Sheep,  goats,  and  oxen  sat- 
isfy the  immediate  domestic  and  personal  neces- 
sities of  the  inhabitants,  to  wliom  the  camel  and 
horse  are  trusty  companions  in  their  far  wan- 
derings. Gazelles  and  ostriches  frequent  the 
oases  of  the  deserts,  where  the  lion,  ])anther, 
hyena,  and  jackal  hunt  their  prej'.  Monkeys, 
pheasants,  and  doves  are  found  in  the  fertile 
districts,  where  flights  of  locusts  often  make 
sad  devastation.  Fish  and  turtle  abound  on 
the  coast.  The  noble  breed  of  .\rabian  horses 
has  been  cultivated  for  several  thousand  years; 
but  the  most  characteristic  of  all  animals  in 
the  jMiiinsula  is  the  camel  (q.v.)  which  has 
been  both  poetically  and  .justly  styled  "the  ship 
of  the  desert."  The  breed  of  Oman  is  celebrated 
for  its  beauty  and  swiftness.  Among  the  min- 
erals of  Arabia  may  be  mentioned  iron,  copper, 
lead,  coal,  basalt,  and  asphaltum,  and  the  pre- 
cious stones  emerald,  carnelian,  ngate,  and  onyx. 
Pearls  are  found   in  the  Persian  Gulf. 

The  popul.ation  of  .Arabia  is  estimated  at 
between  ^..-iOO.OOO  and  .5,000,000,  including  about 
half  a  million  Bedouins.  Tlie  .Arab  is  of  medium 
stature,  compactly  built,  and  of  brown  complex- 
ion. Earnestness  and  pride  are  distinctive  char- 
acteristics: by  nature  he  is  quick,  sharp-witted. 


lively,  and  passionately  fond  of  poetry.  Cour- 
age, temperance,  hospitality,  and  good  faith 
are  his  leading  virtues;  but  these  are  often 
marred  by  it  spirit  of  sangtiinary  revenge  and 
rapacity.  His  wife  keeps  the  hotise  and  edu- 
cates the  children.  Edtieation  is  widespread 
and  illiteracy  is  tinknown;  even  in  the  desert 
the  children  are  taught  to  read,  write,  and 
calculate.  The  Aral)  cannot  conceive  a  higher 
felicity  than  the  birth  of  a  camel  or  a  foal,  or 
that  his  verses  should  be  honored  with  the  ap- 
plause of  his  tril)e.  Tlie  Arabs  are  generally 
monogamists,  although  frequently  the  wealthy 
chiefs  have  several  wives.  Matrimonial  ties  are 
sever'id  at  will,  and  the  ill-treated  wife  can 
always  find  refuge  in  her  father's  tent.  The 
Arabs  are  all  Mohammedans. 

Arabian  life  is  either  nomadic  or  settled. 
The  wandering  tribes,  or  Bedouins,  are  well 
known  to  entertain  very  loose  notions  of  the 
rights  of  property.  The  located  tribes,  styled 
Hadesi  and  Fellalis,  are  despised  by  the  Be- 
dotiin,  who  scorns  to  be  tied  down  to  the  soil, 
even  where  sticli  bondage  might  make  him 
^^•ealthy. 

The  prehistoric  home  of  the  Arabians  was 
in  the  southern  interior  of  the  peninsula 
nanted  after  them,  thotigh  some  ethnologists 
are  inclined  to  assign  them  an  original  home 
with  other  Semites  in  Africa.  In  their  own 
persons,  or  by  their  language,  etilture,  and 
religion,  they  have  made  their  infltiencc  felt 
over  a  great  part  of  Africa,  southern  Europe, 
southern  atid  central  Asia,  and  the  Indian 
Archipelago.  They  have  contributed  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  world  the  psettdo-science  of 
alchemy,  a  certain  numl)er  of  terms  ttsed  in  the 
mathematical  and  physical  sciences,  and  the 
Araljic  numerals,  really  borrowed  from  the 
Hindu.  Tlic  Arabic  alphabet  is  found  among 
peoples  as  widely  distant  as  the  Vei  of  West 
Africa  and  the  Btigis  of  Celebes.  The  Arabs  fos- 
tered commerce  and  geographical  exploration  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  created  a  new  order  of  archi- 
tectur."?,  made  the  prodtictions  of  the  ancient 
Greek  intellect  accessible  to  European  nations, 
and  in  the  cultivation  of  the  sciences,  philosophy, 
literature,  and  art  were  long  in  advance  of  the 
rest  of  the  world.  According  Co  Brinton,  the 
Arab  "preserves  in  his  language  ihc  oldest  and 
ptirest  form  of  Semitic  speech,  and  in  mind  and 
body  its  most  pronounced  mental  and  physical 
ty))e";  but  the  purity  of  the  Arab  type  has  been 
exaggerated,  for,  like  the  .Jew,  he  presents  exam- 
ples of  the  tall  and  the  short  type,  the  long- 
headed and  the  broad-headed,  the  brunette  and 
the  blond,  the  straight-haired  and  the  wavy- 
haired,  evidencing  considerable  intermixture  with 
Negroid  and  Aryan  elements.  As  a  special 
branch  of  the  Semitic  stock,  the  Arabians  in- 
clude the  Bedouins  of  northern  and  central 
.\rabia,  as  well  as  those  who  have  wandered 
into  Egypt,  other  parts  of  northern  Africa, 
Palestine,  and  ^Mesopotamia  ;  the  tribes  dwelling 
in  Hadramaut,  Yemen,  Hejaz,  Oman,  and  on 
tlie  shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf;  the  various  Arab, 
rather  than  Bedouin,  comnuuiitics  of  Asia 
Minor  and  other  cotnitries  to  the  east.  In  the 
Arabian  group  belong,  also,  the  ancient  Hiniyar- 
ites,  or  Sab;i?ans  (the  people  of  the  famous  Queen 
of  Sheba),  who  have  left  behind  them  in  the 
southwest  of  the  peninsula  many  inscriptions 
and    other    relics    of    an    important    culture    de- 


ARABIA. 


693 


ARABIA. 


stroyod  by  their  ludtT  successors.  By  language 
many  of  tlie  peoples  of  Abyssinia,  and  some  out- 
side its  borders,  are  Arabians,  their  speech  being 
more  or  less  related  to  llie  old  Himyaritic.  Sueh 
are  the  tribes  speaking  Tigrc,  Tigrina.  and  Am- 
liarie.  These  Ethio|)ian  Semites — or,  rather, 
Semitized  Ethiopians — are  the  result  of  ii  secon- 
dary migration  from  Arabia  into  Africa.  A 
great  port  of  the  "Arabs"  of  northern  Africa 
and  central  and  eastern  Asia  are  merely  Hamites, 
Negroes,  Aryans,  jMongolians,  and  Malays  who 
have  r(*cived  a  large  infusion  of  Arab  blood. 
Keane  (ISnO)  is  right  in  emphasizing  the  ab- 
sorptive power  of  the  Arabs,  to  whom  the  mass 
of  the  other  Semites  in  Asiatic  Turkey  are  be- 
coming more  and  more  assimilated.  See  plate. 
Rac'E,s  of  Asia,  accompanying  Asia. 

Politically,  Arabia  is  divided  as  follows:  The 
Sinai  Peninsula  forms  a  dependenc}-  of  Egypt. 
The  western  coast,  forming  the  two  provinces  of 
Hejaz  and  Yemen,  as  well  as  the  region  of  al- 
Hasa,  on  the  eastern  coast,  belong  to  Turkey. 
Oman  is  administered  by  an  independent  imam, 
while  Aden  (q.v. )  forms  a  dependency  of  Great 
Britain,  which  exercises,  a  protectorate  over  a 
considerable  territory.  The  remainder  of  the 
country  is  divided  into  a  number  of  independe'nt 
or  semi-independent  states,  under  hereditary  or 
chosen  chiefs,  bearing  the  title  of  emir,  sheik, 
or  imam.  Their  function  appears  to  be  limited 
to  leading  the  troops  in  time  of  war,  to  levying 
tribute,  and  to  the  administration  of  justice.  A 
spirit  of  liberty  in  the  people  moderates  the 
authority  of  their  chieftains :  but  instances  of 
extreme  despotism  have  not  been  unfrequent.  both 
in  early  and  modern  times.  The  most  important 
cities  cf  Arabia  are  Mecca,  Muscat,  Jiddah,  Ho- 
deida,  iledina,  Riad,  Aden,  and  Mocha. 

History.  Of  the  first  settlement  of  Arabia 
nothing  is  known.  From  time  immemorial  the 
Arabian  Peninsula  has  been  the  home  of  Semitic 
tribes ;  and  the  tendency  of  modern  scholarship 
is  to  regard  Arabia  as  the  original  home  of  the 
Semites.  Arabic  writers  follow  in  this  respect 
the  popular  distinction  between  the  northern 
and  southern  tribes,  and  trace  each  back  to  fic- 
titious ancestors — the  former  to  Ishmael,  the  son 
of  Abraham ;  the  latter  to  Kahtan,  a  mythical 
hero;  but,  naturally,  all  sueh  notices  have  no 
historical  value  whatsoever.  The  distinction, 
however,  between  the  northern  and  southern 
inhabitants  is  Justified,  and  applies  to  Arabic 
history  until  the  union  of  all  the  tribes  under 
the  influence  of  Islam.  Cidture  proper  began 
in  the  south,  and  by  the  lielp  of  numerous  in- 
scriptions, found  especially  by  Glaser,  it  is  pos- 
sible now  to  trace  back  Arabian  history  to 
about  B.C.  l.'JOO,  at  which  time  we  find  a  flour- 
ishing nation  in  the  south,  knowii  as  the  Him- 
yarites.  The  stronghold  of  the  Himyaritic 
power  was  in  the  kingdom  of  Yemen,  in  the 
southwestern  corner  of  the  peninsula,  where  also 
the  earliest  traces  of  Arabic  civilization  may 
be  found.  Less  important  ])rincipalities  existed 
all  over  the  southern  part  of  the  peninsula,  ex- 
tending across  its  entire  breadth,  from  the  Red 
Sea  to  the  Persian  Gulf.  The  Himyaritic  king- 
dom was  succeeded  by  the  Sali.Tpan,  which  lasted 
well  into  tlie  Christian  era.  As  contrasted  with 
the  nomad  tribes  of  central  and  nortlicrn  Arabia, 
the  inhabitants  of  Y'emen  were  a  highly  advanced 
race,  dwelling  in  cities,  actively  engaged  in 
commerce,   and  possessing  well-defined   political 


institutions.     The  tril)es  of  the  north  were  never 
recognized  by  the  southern   inhabitants  as   pure 
Arabs.     For  a  very  long  i)eriod  they  were  more 
or    less    under    the    authority    of    the    kings    of 
Yemen,  but  in  the  fifth  century  after  Christ  they 
successfully   asserted    their   independence.      They 
did  not,  however,   institute  any  form  of  govern- 
ment  in  place  of  the  one  they  h.ad  overthrown, 
and  fen-  about  two  hundred  years  they  remained 
split   up    into   numerous   clans   engaged    in    con- 
tinuous   warfare.      From    foreign    invasion    the 
ancient    inhaliitants    were    comparatively    free. 
The  rulers  of  the  Mesopotamian  empires,  of  Per- 
sia, and  of  Egypt  failed  to  reduce  them  to  sub- 
mission.  Alexander   the   Great   determined    ujion 
the  invasion  of  the  cmmtry,  but  was  interrupted 
in   his   plans   by   death.      Three   centuries   after 
Alexander,    in   the   reign   of   Augustus,   an   army 
inider  the  prefect  of  Egypt  invaded  Yemen:   but 
no  definite  results  followed  the  expedition.     The 
only  considerable  period  of  foreign  rule  was  that 
lietween  52!)  and  tiOo,  when  \emen  was  held  by 
tlie    Abyssinians.      The    Arabs,    therefore,    were 
left  to  work  out  their  own  destinies,  and  the  force 
that   was   to   unify   the   warring  tribes   into   one 
great  nation  was  to  c-ome  from  among  themselves. 
In  \Vestern  Arabia,  as  early  as  the  Fifth  Cen- 
tury, the  tribe  of  Koreish,  living  in  Mecca,  had 
risen   to  great   prominence   on   account   of   their 
noble  descent  and  their  wealth.     In  addition  to 
til  is    they    became    the    perpetual    guardians    of 
the  sacred  Jvaaba  at  Mecca.     This  structure  from 
the  earliest  times  had  been  a  place  of  pilgrimage 
for  the  peoples  of  the  entire  jieninsula.      In  the 
great    fairs    which    were    annually    held    not    far 
from   Mecca,   the    first  steps   toward   Arab   unity 
were  made.    Tliese  annual  meetings  were  marked 
by  the  celebration  of  athletic  games,  and  poetic 
contests,  and  partook  also  of  a  certain  religious 
character    which    made    them    in    some    respects 
similar  to  the  Olympian  Games  of  ancient  Greece, 
with  which  they  may  also  be  compared  for  their 
effect  upon  the  building  up   of  an  Arabian  na- 
tionality.    The  way,  then,  was  prepared  for  JIo- 
hammcd,  who,  through  the  gospel  of  Islam,  was 
destined  to  unite  the  entire  peninsula  under  his 
rule   within   the   short   period   of   ten   years;    for 
after    he    had    won    over    the    powerful    Koreish 
to  his  doctrine,  and  had  provided  himself  in  this 
manner  with  an  efficient  army,  the  chaotic  con- 
dition of  political  life  in  Arabia  made  the  spread 
of  his  faith  all  the  more  easy.     Arabia  enjoyed 
the  most  prosi)erous  period  of  its  history  during 
the   reigns  of   tlie   first  three"  caliphs    ( (532-6.56  " 
under  whom  Syria,  Eg^-pt,  and  Persia  were  con- 
quered.   Then  the  tide  of  Moslem  conquest  swept 
westward  over  the  whole  of  northern  Africa  and 
the  Spanish  Peninsula,  and  seemed  about  to  en- 
gulf ancient  Gaul,  when  it  was  nrrested  between 
Poitiers  and  Tours  by  Charles   Martel,   ruler  of 
the  Franks   (7.32).     \Vith  the  spread  of  Moham- 
medan dominion,  the  importance  of  Aral)ia  itself 
declined.     This  was  especially  true  after  the  year 
750,    when    the    Ommiads    were    overthrown    by 
the  descendants  of  Abbas.     So  long  as  Damascus 
had  been  the  centre  of  the  Moslem   world,  the 
Arab    element    had    been    preeminent,    and    the 
great  generals  and  administrators  of  the  caliphs 
had  been  drawn  chiefly  from  among  the  inhabit- 
ants  of   the   peninsula;    but   with   the   establish- 
ment of  the  Abbasside  dynasty  of  caliphs,  «ho 
removed  the  seat  of  the  Mohainmedan  power  in 
the  East  to  Bagdad,  and  the  ri.se  of  a  great  Mo- 


AKABIA. 


694 


ARABIAN  MUSIC. 


hammedan  realm  in  the  extreme  West  the  mac- 
nificent  role   which   Arabia   had  played  came  to 
an   end,   and   the  country  which   ha"d   furnished 
the  means  of  war  to  Mohammed's  immediate  suc- 
cessors    fell    into    the    condition    in    which    the 
prophet  had  found  it  in  the  "Days  of  Ignorance." 
Numerous  jirincipalitics  once  more  arose,  enjoy- 
ing  complete    independence,   except    at    rare   mo- 
ments,   when    some    foreign    invader   established 
his  power  over  sections  of  the  country,  as  was 
the  case  with  Yemen,  which  was  for  some  time 
held  by  the  rulers  of  Egypt.    In  151 7  the  tribes  of 
Yemen  and  Hejaz  were  subjected  under  the  rule 
of  the  Turkish   Sultan.     In   10.3.3.   however,  they 
virtually   regained    their   independence,   .and   the 
last  native  ruler  in  Yemen  was  not  overthrown 
till    1871.     In   the   East  the  kingdom   of   Oman 
attained  considerable  importance.    From   1508  to 
1659  its  capital,  Muscat,  was  held  by  the  Portu- 
guese, but  it  finally  fell  into  the  possession  of  the 
native  princes,  who  succeeded   in  extending  and 
consolidating   their    power.      In    the    interior 'of 
Arabia  the  most  important  princes  are  the  Wah- 
habi   rulers,   whose   dynasty   was   founded   in   the 
middle  of  the  Eighteenth  Century  by  Abd  alWah- 
hab,  a  religious  reformer  who  attempted  to  re- 
store  the   pure   faith   of  Mohammed   and   banish 
all  later  accretions,  and  made  the  propaganda  of 
his  religious  views  a  means  for  seizing  on  politi- 
cal power.     Under  his   successors   the  Wahhabi 
sphere  of  influence  expanded  until  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Nineteenth  Century  Mecca  itself  fell 
into  their  hands.     In   1811  they  became  involved 
in  conflict  with  :Meheniet  Ali  of  Egs'pt,  and  after 
seven  years'  warfare  their  power  "was   shattered 
by  Ibrahim  Pasha.   The  Wahhabi  monarchv,  how- 
ever, took   a   new   lease  of  life   after   IS-IO'.  when 
the  struggle  between  tlie  Viceroy  of  Eg>-pt  and  the 
Sultan  prevented  any  effective  assertion  of  Otto- 
man supremacy.    The  Mohanunedan  world  is  even 
yet  not  free  from  danger  of  a  Wahhabi  incursion. 
Bibliography.    Jomard,  Etudes  geographiques 
et  historiiiiics  siir  I'Arabie  (Paris,  1839)  ;  Ritter, 
Erdknnde  von  Aruhien  (Berlin,  1810-17)  ;  Spren- 
ger.  Die  alte  Oeographie  Arabicns   (Bern,  1875)  ; 
Zehme,  Arabicn  uiid  die  Araher  seit  hundert  Jali- 
ren   (Halle,  1875)  :  Niebuhr,  Description  of  Ara- 
bia, trans,   by   Sealy    (Bombay,    1889)  ;    D'Avril, 
h'Arabie  contemporaine  (Paris,  1868)  ;  Palgrave, 
"Sarrative    of   a   Journey    Through    Central   and 
Eastern  Arabia  (London,  1871)  ;  Maltzan,  Reise 
nach    ^Udarabien     (Brunswick,    1873);     Wrede, 
Reise  in  Hadhramaul,   etc.,   edited   by   ilaltzan 
(Brunswick,   1873);   I'pton,   (llranuuis  from    the 
Desert  of  Arabia  (London,  1881)  ;  Huber,  Voyage 
dans    VArabie   centrale,    1878-82    (Paris,    1885); 
id.    Journal    d'un     royage    en    Arable,    1883-84 
(Paris,  1891)  ;   Doughty,  Travels  in  Arabia  De- 
sert'i     (Cambridge,    188S);    Harris,    A    Journey 
Through    the    Yemen    (Edinburgh    and    London, 
1893)  ;     Nolde,     Reise     nach    Lnnerarabien,    etc. 
(Brunswick,      1895);      Bent,     Southern     Arabia 
(London,   1900);    Hull,   Memoir  on  the   Geology 
and  Geography  of  Arabia  I'ctrwa,  etc.    (London, 
1886)  ;  Caussin  ile  Perceval,  Essai  snr  I'histoire 
des  Arabes  nrant  Vlslamisme    (Paris,   1847-49); 
Osborn,  Islam  under  the  Arabs  (London,  1876)  ; 
[sedillot,    Histoire   gcn/rale   des   Arabes    (Paris, 
1877). 

ARABIA  DESER'TA  (Lat.,  Deserted  Ara- 
bia). The  name  applied  by  ancient  geographers 
to  the  northern  and  central  third  of  the  country. 
It  is  a  region  of  hard,  gravelly  soil,  diversified 


here  and  there  by  patches  of  stunted  bush  and 
meagre  grass. 

ARABIA  FE'LIX  (Lat.,  Happy  Arabia). 
The  name  given  to  the  southeastern  part  of 
Arabia ;  a  tolerably  fertile  region. 

ARABIAN  ART.  It  is  an  erroneous  habit 
to  call  by  the  name  of  "Arabian"  the  architecture 
or  other  branches  of  art  developed  by  Moham- 
medan nations  after  the  Arabs  had  carried  their 
new  religion  over  most  of  the  East  i.nd  part  of 
the  West.  Neither  is  there  an  art  that  could 
be  called  "Moorish."  For  all  such  art  see  the 
articles  Mohammedan  Art:  and  Architecture. 
The  Arabs  themselves  were  never  an  artistic  na- 
tion, only  patrons  of  art.  Even  in  \>men,  where 
the  tribes  lived  not  a  nomadic,  but  a  sedentary 
life,  only  a  primitive  form  of  art  was  developed 
in  antiquity. 

ARABIAN  GULF.     See  Red  Sea. 

ARABIAN  MUSIC.  The  influence  of  the 
Arabs  upon  modern  )nusic  is  distinctly  felt  in 
many  of  our  orchestral  instruments.  Their 
musical  system,  however,  has  left  no  traces,  be- 
cause it  was  rather  a  philosoijhical  and  mathe- 
matical speculation  titan  a  practical  system. 
Although  in  early  times  the  .\rabs  had  primitive 
instruments  and  characteristic  melodies,  we  can- 
not speak  of  a  distinctly  Arabic  system  of 
music  until  after  the  conquest  of  Persia  by  the 
Arabs  in  the  Seventh  Century  a.d.  With  won- 
derful rapidity  the  conquerors  assimilated  the 
musical  art  of  the  conquered,  so  that  in  a  short 
time  the  pupils  rose  to  the  position  of  masters. 
Since  then  the  music  of  Persia  and  Arabia  is 
like  two  great  streams  flowing  side  by  side  and 
frequently  intermingling.  Already  in  the  Eighth 
Century  we  find  theoretical  writings  on  music  by 
Arabic  authors.  When  Al  Farabi,  in  the  Tenth 
Century,  attempted  to  supplant  the  Arabic  sys- 
tem by  that  of  the  Creeks,  he  failed,  because 
the  Arabic-Persian  .system  had  already  reached 
a  high  development.  The  theoretical  founder  of 
the  Arabic-Persian  school  is  Sifa  al-Din,  an  Arab 
by  birth,  who  lived  in  the  Fourteenth  Century. 
The  Arabic  system  constructed  a  scale  by  join- 
ing together  a  tetrachord  (D,  E,  Ffi,  G),  and  a 
pentachord  ( G,  A,  B,  c,  d ) ,  so  that  the  semi- 
steps  are  between  the  third  and  fourth  and 
sixth  and  seventh  degrees.  Each  whole  tone  was 
divided  into  three  third  tones,  so  that  the 
octave  contained  17  third  tones.  These  third 
tones  were  not  regarded  as  chromatic  alterations 
of  a  fundamental  tone,  but  were  denoted  by  tlie 
theorists  by  separate  numbers,  so  that  the  fir.st 
tone  of  the  second  octave  was  18,  of  the  third 
octave  35.  Octaves  and  fourths  are  regarded 
as  consonances,  thirds  and  sixths  as  disso- 
nances. The  fifth  was  a  disputed  interval.  Oiit 
of  a  possible  number  of  84  scales,  the  theo- 
rists selected  12  as  practicable.  These  were 
called  Makamat.  Besides  these  complete  scales 
there  were  recognized  six  Aicasat,  combinations 
of  from  five  to  nine  third  tones,  which  stood  in 
the  same  relation  to  the  scales  as  the  tropes  of 
the  Plain  Chant  stood  to  their  respective  modes. 
While  the  theorists  continually  introduced  new 
systems  of  wonderful  ingenuity,  the  practical 
musicians  were  guided  chiefly  by  their  ear,  and 
this  led  them  to  conceive  their  melodies  in  a 
scale  corresponding  exactly  to  our  D  major.  The 
I)rincipal  instrument  of  the  Arabs  was  the  lute 
(q.v.),   which    they   adopted    from   the   Persians. 


ARABIAN  MUSIC. 


695 


ARABIAN  NIGHTS. 


Tlie  tanbur  had  a  circular  or  oval  body,  a  very 
long  neck  and  three  strings.     The  kanun  was  a 
kind    of    cembalo    with    seventy-five    giit  strings 
(three  to  each   tone)    over  a   square   resonator. 
Among  the   instruments  played  with   a   bow   the 
principal  one  was  the  rcbab  or  rcbic,  which  has 
developed   into   our   violin.      The   kcmangeh    was 
made  of  a  cocoanut  over  which  was  stretched  a 
membrane.      Tlie    strings    were    fastened    on    an 
e.\cessively  long  and  thin  neck.     The  chief  wind- 
instrument  was  the   zamr  or  zurna,  a  kind  of 
oboe.     The  nefyr  is  a  trumpet  similar  to  ours. 
The  nakarieh  is  our  kctlle-drum.     The  number 
of  instruments  used  by  the  Arabs   is  enormous. 
There  are  '.il  kinds  of  lutes.  12  kinds  of  kanuns. 
14   instruments   played   witli   a   bow,   S   kinds   of 
lyre,  28  kinds  of  llute,  22  kinds  of  oboes,  8  kinds 
of  trumpets,   and   drums.      Con.sult   Land,   Over 
de  Tooidadders  der  Arab.  Mustek  (Amst.,  1880). 
ARA'BIAN  NIGHTS.     An  extensive  collec- 
tion of  tales   forming  part  of  .\rabie   literature, 
and    the    more    exact    title    of    which    is    "The 
Book  of  the  Thousand  and  One  Xights."    Arabic 
manuscripts  vary  considerably,  no  tw-o  agreeing 
either  as  to  the  number  of  separate  tales  or  as 
to  their  order.     In  their  most  complete  form  we 
have  2G2  tales,  though  this  does  not  include  one 
of  the  most  famous  stories,  that  of  Aladdin,  an 
Arabic  text  of  which  has  only  recently  come  to 
light    (published  by  H.  Zotenberg).     This  varia- 
tion in  the  manuscripts,  while  also  an  index  of 
the   popularity  which   the  collection   enjoyed,    is 
due  to  their  gradual  growth  and  to  the  different 
centres   in   which   the  traditions   regarding  them 
developed.      They    were    first    made    known    to 
Europe  bv  Antoine  Galland    (a.d.    164f!-1715),   a 
French    orientalist,   who    succeeded,    after   much 
effort,  in  obtaining  a  manuscript,  which  he  sup- 
plemented  by  gathering  tales   from   professional 
story-tellers  with  whom  he  came  in  contact  dur- 
ing his  travels   in  the  East.     Between   1704  and 
1717,  Galland  published   in  twelve  volumes  his 
French    translation   of   the    tales   which    he   en- 
titled Mille  et  tine  Xitits,  eontes  Arabes  tniduits 
en  FraitQais.     While  received  with  great  enthu- 
siasm by  the  general   public,  doubts  were  freely 
expressed  in  learned  circles  as  to  their  genuine- 
ness.    Oriental  scholars  did  not  hesitate  at  first 
to   declare   against   their   authenticity,   and   de- 
nounce  them   as   forgeries.     Having  taken  only 
an  obscure  place  in  the  literature  of  the  East, 
and  their  style  unfitting  them  from  being  classed 
among  models  of  eloquence  or  taste — having  no 
object  of  a  religious,  moral,  or  jjhilosophical  kind 
in  view,  while  the  manners  and  customs  deline- 
ated  in   them    were    dilTcrent    from    all    received 
ideas  of  those  of  the  Moslem  nation.s — their  suc- 
cess  took   the   critics   by   surprise.      It   was   not 
long,  however,  before  such  skepticism  gave  way, 
ami   they  were   recognized   not   only  as  genuine 
productions  but  as  a  characteristic  expression  of 
Eastern   thought  and   manners.     The   success   of 
Galland's  translation  spread  the  tales  through- 
out  Euro])e.      Few   books   have   been   translated 
into  so  many  difi'crent  languages,  and  given  de- 
light to  so  large  a  number  of  readers.     In  addi- 
tion to  the  translations  into  European  languages 
we  must  bear  in  mind  that   the  Arabic  original 
has  also  been  the  source  of  renderings  into  many 
Eastern  tongues,  notably   Persian,  Turkish,  and 
Hindustani,   so   that  more   than   any   other  com- 
pilation, with  the  single  exception  of  the  Bible, 
the    Arabiun    yights    has    encircled    the    entire 


world.     It  may  be  said  that,  in  these  Oriental 
tales,    there    has    sprung    up    a    new    branch    of 
literature,  for  their   inlluence  on  the   literature 
of  the  present  day  is  easily  discernilile.     Here 
are   found   de])icted   with   much    simjdicity   and 
great  effect,   tlie   scenes   of   the   town-life   of   the 
.Moslem.     The  prowess  of  the  Arab   knight,   his 
passion    for   adventure,    his   dexterity,    his    love 
and    his    revenge,    the    craft    of    his "  wives,    the 
hypocrisy  of  his  religious  teachers,  and  the  cor- 
ruptibility  of   his   judges,   are   all   dramatically 
delineated — far  more  vividly  represented,  in  fact, 
than    is    possible    in    a   book    of   travels;    while 
gilded  palaces,  charming  women,  lovely  gardens, 
and  exquisite  repasts  captivate  the  sense  of  the 
reader,  and  transport  him  to  the  land  of  wonder 
ami  enjoyment.      Besides  entertaining  the  mind 
with  the  kaleidoscopic  wonders  of  a  teeming  and 
luxurious    fancy,    which    is    their    most    obvious 
merit,    they    present   a    treasure    of    instruction 
upon  life  in  general,  and  Oriental  life  in  particu- 
lar.   And  this  is  undeniable,  notwithstanding  the 
fact   that  the  aspects  of  society  they  depict  are 
far  from  standing  high  in  the  soeial' scale  either 
as  to  civilization  or  morality.     A  clue  to  the  ori- 
gin of  the  framework  of  tlie  Arabiun  Xights   is 
furnished   by  the   authors  of  the   bibliograpliical 
work  Kitab  al-Fihrist.     Ibn  Yakub  relates  that 
he  was  acquainted  with  a  Persian  collection  of 
tales  entitled  "llazar  Afsan,"  meaning  "Thousand 
Nights;"   the   argument   of   which,   such   as   de- 
scribed by  him,  has  many  points  of  resemblance 
with   the   Arabian    Xii/hts.     In   both,   the   frame- 
work  is   essentially   the   same — a   king   who   was 
in  the  habit  when  wedding  a  damsel  to  kill  her 
alter    having   spent    one    night    with    her,   and   a 
damsel   who  entertained  a  king  with  stories  so 
fascinating  that  he  respited  her  each  night  in  or- 
der that  he  might  hear  the  continuation.     This 
continued   for  a   thousand  nights,  at  the  end  of 
which   period    the   king   decided   to   preserve   his 
consort's  life.     Ibn  Yakub  gives  the  name  of  the 
heroine   of   the   framework   in   its   Persian   form, 
Sharazad,  mother  of  Humai,  wife  of  Artaxerxes 
Longimanus.     As  Artaxerxes   is  supposed  to  be 
identical    with    the   Ahasuerus    of   the    Book    of 
Esther,  which,  as  de  Goeje  pointed  out,  has  cer- 
tain elements  in  common  with  the  framework  of 
the    Arabian    Nights,    it    is    probable    that    they 
are    both    derived    from    a    Persian    folk    tale. 
The  Arabian   Xights,   however,    is   a   most   com- 
posite    production,     and     whatever     its     indebt- 
edness     may      be      to      the      Persian      Thousand 
Tales,    it    contains    stories    gathered    from    all 
parts    of    the    Eastern    workh      The    tales    may 
have   circulated   for   a    long   time   orally   before 
being  committed  to  writing,  and  to  this  day  they 
form   the   theme   frequently   of   the    professional 
story-tellers   or   writers   who   are   found   in   the 
East — in   Morocco,    Algiers,    Egypt,    Syria,    and 
Persia.      When    and    where    they    began    to    be 
gathered    into    manuscripts    are  "questions    hard 
to    determine.      Thirteen    tales    which    may    be 
regarded    as    the    nucleus    of    the    collection    ap- 
l.ear   to   have   licen    reduced   to   writing   as   early 
as   the   Tenth   Century,   and   while   the  collection 
as    a    whole    assumed    a    definite    shape    in    the 
Thirteenth  Century,  there  are  a  few  tales  which 
may  be  as  late  as  the  Sixteenth  Century. 

Regarding  the  character  of  the  stories  and 
the  material  contained  in  them,  w^e  may  dis- 
tinguish three  categories:  (1)  Beast  fables; 
(2)    Fairy  tales;  and    (3)    Anecdotes.     Of  these. 


ARABIAN  NIGHTS. 


690 


ARABICI. 


the  beast  fable*  represent  probably  the  oldest 
structure,  reverting,  as  they  eventually  do,  to  the 
primitive  beliefs  which  attributed  to  animals 
human  powers  and  evident  superhuman  faculties. 
The  fairy  tales  show  the  Eastern  imagination 
at  its  best,  though  it  should  be  remembered  that 
some  of  the  tales  are  transformed  myths  that 
again  belong  to  a  more  primitive  age  tlian  one 
which  was  able  to  exercise  the  imaginative  fancy 
for  its  own  sake,  independent  of  doctrines  or  of 
symbolical  purposes.  Burton  assumes  that  the 
fairj-  tale  proper  in  the  Arabian  yights  is 
"wholly  and  purely  Persian"  {Terminal  Essay  to 
his  translation,  page  127).  and  so  far  as  the 
stimulus  toward  this  branch  of  literature  is  in- 
volved, he  is  unquestionably  right,  for  the 
genuine  Arab,  while  of  a  higlily  poetic  tempera- 
ment, is  restrained  in  his  fancy  through  the 
sober  and  austere  character  of  his  i-eligionrwhich 
discountenances  the  products  of  the  pure  imagi- 
nation. Characteristically  Arabic,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  the  stories  introduced  to  prove  a  jjoint 
or  to  point  a  moral,  while  the  incidents  and 
anecdotes,  historical  and  otherwise,  are  likewise 
the  genuine  production  of  the  Arabic  mind. 

In  judging  of  the  obscene  allusions  with  which 
many  of  tlie  tales  are  well  stocked,  and  the 
frankly  indelicate  manner  in  which  incidents 
are  related  that  shock  Occidental  sensibilities, 
it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  many  themes  may 
be  discussed  in  the  Orient  with"  perfect  sim- 
plicity, that  would  be  regarded  as  improper 
among  us,  so  that  not  everything  which  seems 
obscene  was  really  intended  to  be  such.  But 
making  due  allowance  for  this  difference  between 
the  Oriental  and  Occidental  point  of  view,  there 
remains  a  large  residuum  of  erotic  material  that 
is  undoubtedly  introduced  to  add  piquancy  to 
the  tales.  Such  material,  however,  has  its  value 
for  the  student  of  customs  and  manners,  who  is 
given  an  insight  into  conditions  existing  at  one 
time  in  the  Orient  which  is  not  to  be  had  in  any 
other  waj'.  Indeed,  apart  from  the  entertaining 
character  of  the  tales  (when  freed  from  their 
objectionable  features),  they  abound  in  refer- 
ences to  religious  and  social  customs  and  man- 
ners of  thinking  that  make  them  a  perfect  store- 
house of  valuable  material  for  the  one  who 
wishes  to  study  the  Orient,  and  modern  scholars 
have  done  much  toward  utilizing  this  material 
in  their  researches  regarding  ilohanmiedanism 
and  Arabic  antiquities  as  well  as  Arabic  his- 
tory. 

The  best  editions  of  the  Arabic  text  are  those 
01  Macnaghton (Calcutta,  1839-1842 ;  lithographed, 
Bombay,  1879)  and  the  Bulak  editions  of  1835 
(2  vols.)  and  1885  (4  vols.).  A  shorter  and  at 
times  expurgated  text  is  given  bv  M.  Habicht 
(12  vols.,  Breslau  1825-1843)  and  Salhani  (5 
vols.,  Beirut,  1888-1890).  Galland's  French 
translation  (1704)  was  soon  followed  by  an  Eng- 
lish rendering,  which  as  early  as  1713  had 
already  reached  a  fourth  edition.  Of  English 
translations  based  on  the  Arabic,  there  are  now 
three — the  first  by  E.  W.  Lane,  whose  edition 
is  abridged  (1839-41);  a  popular  edition  was 
published  in  1847,  The  Thousand  and  One  Xights. 
The  notes  constitute  a  valuable  feature.  Lane's 
edition  has  been  repeatedly  reissued,  tlie  last  one 
being  in  six  volumes,  edited  by  Joseph  Jacobs 
(London,  1898).  .Tohn  Payne's  translation,  based 
upon  the  Macnaghton  MSS.  and  prepared  for  the 
Villon  Society,  was  issued  in  nine  volumes  ( l»ndon. 


1882-84).  It  takes  rank  with  Sir  Richard  Bur- 
ton's translation  in  ten  volumes  ( 1885-86),  with  a 
'•Terminal  Essay"  embodying  the  results  of  Bur- 
ton's researches  as  to  the  origin,  age,  and  charac- 
ter of  the  tales.  To  this  he  subsequently  added 
six  supplemental  volumes  ( 1887-88),  containing 
tales  not  included  in  Macon's  edition  and  drawn 
from  other  printed  texts  and  manuscripts.  An 
abridged  and  expurgated  edition  of  Burton'3 
work  was  prepared  by  Lady  Burton  and  issued 
in  six  volumes  (London,  1887-88).  Tliere  are 
four  noteworthy  translations  in  German.  The 
earliest  was  that  of  Habicht  published  at  Breslau 
in  fifteen  volumes,  1824-25.  This  was  followed  by 
a  translation  by  Zinserling,  which  was  based  upoii 
the  French  translation  of  Hammer-Purgstall  (3 
vols.,  Stuttgart,  1823).  Gustav  Weil's  transla- 
tion appeared  in  three  volumes  at  Stuttgart  in 
1838-43.  There  has  been  added  lately  a  spirited 
translation  by  Max  Henning  in  the  iteclani  Uni- 
versal liihlioihek  (Leipzig.  180tj  ct  seq. ).  Of 
these  the  most  reliable  is  that  of  Weil.  In 
France  Galland's  translation  has  been  superseded 
by  that  of  Mardrus  (Paris,  1899,  et  seq.)  and 
editions  have  been  issued  bv  Caussin  de  Perceval 
(Paris,  1806.  9  vols.),  Ed'ward  Gautier  (1822- 
24,  7  vols.).  M.  Destain  (1823-25,  6  vols.),  Sil- 
vestre  de  Sacy   (1838,  3  vols.),  and  others. 

The  success  of  Galland's  venture  gave  rise  to 
many  imitations  that  appeared  in  France,  Eng- 
land, and  Germany,  all  more  or  less  expurgated 
and  altered  to  adapt  them  for  popular  use.  A 
complete  bibliography  of  the  Arahian  'Sifihts  is 
given  in  Chauvin.  Bihliographie  des  onrru(ics 
arnhrs.  V.    (Paris.   1901). 

ARABIAN  SEA  (anciently,  Lat.  Mare  Fry- 
Ihneu'n,  or  the  lied  Hea)  (Map:  Asia.  F  7). 
The  northwestern  part  of  the  Indian  Ocean, 
lying  between  Arabia,  India,  and  Baluchistan. 
Its  southern  limit  is  generally  supposed  to  be 
on  a  line  from  Cape  Comorin,  in  Hindustan,  to 
Cape  Guardafui,  in  Africa.  By  the  Gulf  of  Aden 
it  communicates  with  the  Red  Sea  and  also 
with  the  Mediterranean  through  the  Suez 
Canal  (q.v. ).  On  the  northwest  it  forms  the 
Gulf  of  Oman,  with  its  continuation  called  the 
Persian  Gulf.  Among  its  eastern  inlets  may  be 
mentioned  the  gulfs  of  Cuteh  and  Cambay.  The 
only  important  river  it  receives  is  the  Indus, 
from  the  east.  The  most  important  islands  in 
the  .\rabian  Sea  are  the  Laccadives  and  Socotra. 
The  commercial  significance  of  the  Arabian  Sea 
was  very  great  in  ancient  times  when  the  prod- 
ucts of  the  Orient  were  conveyed  hitlier  by  sea 
to  be  transported  by  caravans  to  Europe.  But 
with  the  discovery  of  the  all-sea  route  to  India, 
in  1497.  its  importance  was  lost  until  the  open- 
ing of  the  Suez  Canal  in  1869  gave  a  fresh  stimu- 
lus to  commerce  in  that  quarter.  At  present  it 
is  again  a  busy  water  thoroughfare.  Consult: 
C.  F.  Oldham,  "Topography  of  the  Arabian  Sea," 
in  Volume  LXIV.  Aniatic  Journal  (Calcutta, 
1896). 

ARABIA  PETR^'A  (Lat..  Rocky  Arabia). 
The  norlliwcstcrn  and  more  hilly  region  of 
Araliia.  into  which  Arabia  Deserta  merges. 

ARAB'ICI,  or  Ara'bi.\ns.  A  sect  in  Arabia, 
in  tlie  Third  Century,  which  held  that  the  soul 
dies  with  the  body  and  will  be  raised  again  with 
it.  Eusebius  says  that  Origen,  at  their  invita- 
tion, held  a  debate  with  them  at  a  considerable 
synod,  convinced  them  of  their  error,  and  they 
renounced  it. 


ARABIC  LANGUAGE. 


ARABIC  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERA- 
TURE. 'Die  Arabic  langiuige  furiiis  u  brauth  oi 
the  South-Semitic  tongues,  aud  witli  the  excep 
tion  of  Aramaic  (q.v.)  is  the  only  Semitic  speech 
•which  deserves  to  be  called  a  living  tongue.  It 
is  still  spoken  in  Palestine,  Syria,  Mesopotamia. 
Arabia,  Egypt,  northern  Africa,  and  Malta,  and 
it  is  more  or  less  understood  in  all  countries  into 
v.hich  Mohammedanism  has  penetrated.  We  may 
distinguish  between  the  so-called  (a)  classical 
Arabic  of  the  old  poets,  the  Koran  and  the 
schools;  (b)  the  Middle-Arabic  of  the  post- 
classical  period;  and  (c)  Modern  Arabic,  which 
is  subdivided  into  the  following  chief  dialects; 
( 1 )  of  Syria  and  Palestine ;  ( 2 )  of  Egj-pt ;  ( 3 ) 
of  Mesopotamia;  (4)  of  Oman  and  Zanzibar; 
(.■))  of  Tunis,  Morocco  and  Algiers;  (0)  of 
JIalta;  and  (7)  the  Mehri  in  Soutli  Arabia,  the 
ancient  form  of  which  is  preserved  in  the 
Minsean  and  Saba>an  inscriptions  {see  Mi.n.eans: 
S.'^B.E.ITCS) .  The  distinguishing  features  of  the 
language  are  an  exceedingly  extensive  vocabulary 
and  complicated  grammatical  forms.  The  Ara- 
bic alphabet,  which  is  derived  through  the  Naba- 
tiean(see  X.\bat.eaxs)  from  the  ancient  Aramaic 
script,  consists  of  twenty-eight  characters,  of 
which  eleven,  however,  are  merely  distinguished 
by  diacritical  points  placed  above  or  beneath,  so 
tiiat  there  are  only  seventeen  di^;tinct  characters 
used.  The  direction  of  the  writing  is  from  right 
to  left. 

Arabic  literature  may  be  broadly  divided  into 
two  periods,  the  first  containing  the  Arabic  na- 
tional literature,  extending  to  the  close  of  the 
Onimiad  dynasty,  c.7.50  a.d.,  and  the  second  con- 
taining the  Islamic  literature  in  Arabic.  In  ths 
second  period  four  svdidivisions  may  be  noted : 
(a)  C.750  to  c.  1000,  when  literary  activity  reached 
its  height;  (b)  c.1U00-c.12.j8,  the  post-classical 
period;  (c)  c. 1258-1517.  the  period  of  decline  and 
decay;  and  (d)  1517  to  the  present  time.  Noth- 
ing has  survived  earlier  than  the  time  of  Mo- 
hannned  except  in  verse,  in  which  the  pre-Islaniic 
Arabs  attained  a  high  degree  of  proficienc.^'. 
They  had  poetical  tournaments,  and  the  poets  vied 
witn  each  other_at  such  annual  fairs  as  that  held 
at  Okaz  (Ar.,  'Ukas) ,  near  Mecca.  The  subjects 
treated  were  tribal  strifes,  vengeance,  love, 
friendship,  and  hospitality.  The  most  cclebrali>d 
of  these  are  those  called  Mii'alhil.iit,  comprising 
the  ])oems  of  Amiu  al-Kais,  Tarafah,  Zuhair,  La- 
bid,  Anir  ibn  Kulthum,  Antarah  and  al-Harith, 
though,  according  to  some  collectors,  Xabighah 
and  Aslia  take  the  place  of  the  last  two.  Frag- 
ments of  the  prodttctions  of  mtn-e  than  two  hun- 
dred jjre-Islamic  poets,  among  \vhom  were  Jews 
:inrl  Christifius.  were  collected  in  the  tenth  cen- 
tury. The  largest  collections  are  the  Hamdsnh 
01  Abu  Taminam  (S40);  the  Kitiih  (iI-Agliiinl 
(Book  of  Songs)  of  Abu  al-Faraj  al-Isfahani 
(S07),  and  the  Janiharat  asli'Or  nl-'Arnh  of 
Abu  Zaid  (tenth  century).  A  new  period  began 
with  ilohammed  (571-632).  The  Koran,  which 
gave  birth  to  a  religion  and  which  founded  the 
greatest  politico-religious  system  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  soon  dominated  all  branches  of  intellectual 
activity.  The  earliest  products  of  this  domina- 
tion were  grammar  and  lexicography,  the  neces- 
sary instruments  for  the  expsjesis  of  the  Koran. 
Schools  were  founded  in  Basra.  C'ufa.  and  Bag- 
dad, where  the  sciences  were  studied,  especially 
by  Persian  Mohammedans.  Such  a  one  was  the 
first  grammarian  of  Basra.  Abd  al-Rahman  ibn 
Vol.  I.-- 46. 


697  ARABIC   LANGUAGE. 

Hormuzd  (c.730).  Among  the  noteworthy  gram- 
marians and  lexicographers  may  be  mentioned: 
Abu  al-Walid  al-Duali  (eighth  century),  the  in- 
ventor of  the  diacritical  points;  al-Khalil,  the 
founder  of  Arabic  metrics  and  the  author  of  the 
lirst  Arabic  lexicon,  KituO  ul-'M»;  Sibawai'.ii 
(7!Hi),  author  of  an  extensive  gr:immar  (trans- 
lated into  Gernum  by  Jahn,  Berlin,  1S'J4)  ;  Ibn 
Duraid  (d,"J34),  author  of  the  lexicon  al-Jain- 
Iturah ;  Ismail  ibn  Abbad  ;il-Sahib  (d.9!J5). 
author  of  the  lexicon  al-Muhlt;  ibn  Mukarram 
(d.l311),  author  of  an  extensive  lexicon.  Lisfni. 
ul-'Arab;  al-Zamakhshari  (d.ll43),  author  of  a 
grammar  al-Miifasml,  and  a  lexicon  .-lssa.s;  and 
ibn  Malik  (d.l273),  who  wrote  a  grammar  in 
one  thousand  verses  under  the  title  Kitiib  al- 
AlfUjuh. 

As  all  Mohammedan  philosophy,  theology,  law, 
and  statecraft  is  derived  primarily  from  the 
Koran,  its  interpretation  became  the  object  of 
discussion  at  a  very  early  period.  Hence  an 
immense  literature  of  commentaries  and  super- 
commentaries  grew  u]),  only  the  most  important 
of  which  can  be  mentioned;  those  by  al-Tabari 
(d.023),  al-Hasan  al-N'isaburi  (d.ioio),  ilo- 
hainnied  al-Kurtubi  (d.l272),  of  al-Zamakhshari 
(d.ll43),  of  Fakhr  al-Din  Pvazi  (d.l209),  of  al- 
Baidawi  {d.l280),  and  Jalal  al-Din  al-Suyuti 
(d.1505).  But  .Mohannnedanisin,  as  a  sj'stem, 
rests  as  much  U]X>n  tlie  oral  as  u])on  the  written 
law.  The  sayings  and  doings  of  jlohammed  and 
his  immediate  followers  form  the  science  of  the 
Hadith  or  traditions,  which  vary  both  as  to  value 
and  authenticity.  Around  these  there  has  also 
grown  up  a  large  literature;  the  three  great  col- 
lections of  such  traditions  were  made  by  al-Bu- 
khaxi  ( d.870 )  .Muslim  ( S74  )  .and  al-Tirmidhi  ( 892 ) . 

As  early  as  the  end  of  the  seventh  century  a 
school  of  Mohammedan  iuris])rudcnce  \\as 
founded  in  Medina  by  Abd  Allah  ibn  Masud  and 
Abd  Allah  ibn  Abbas.  Its  decisions  were  col- 
lected toward  the  end  of  the  eighth  century  by 
the  distinguished  jurist  Malik  ibn  Anas,  whose 
al-Muiratta'  became  the  code  for  the  Hejaz.  Tunis, 
Algeria,  and  Jlorocco.  There  are  three  other 
recognized  codes,  of  Abu  Hanifah  (q.v.),  of  INIo- 
hammed  al-Shatii  (d.S20) .  and  of  Ahmad  ibuHaii- 
bal  (d.855).  Other  codes,  to  the  numl)er  of  seven- 
ty-two. are  prescribed  as  heretical.  These  have 
produced  an  extensive  literature  of  comment,aries 
and  pandects,  which  has  not  exhausted  itself  in 
our  o«Ti  days. 

The  activity  of  the  ^Mohammedans  was  not  con- 
fined to  philological  and  theological  studies. 
With  the  accession  of  the  Abbassides  a  new  field 
was  opened  by  the  introduction  of  foreign  civili- 
zations. I^earned  men  were  invited  from  other 
countries  and  renuineratcd  in  a  princely  manner. 
The  works  of  Greek,  Syriac,  Old-Persian,  and 
Indian  writers  were  translated  into  Arabic. 
Schools  of  philosophy  were  founded  at  Bagdad, 
Cordova,  Cairo,  etc.,  where  the  writings  of  Aris- 
totle. Plato,  and  the  Alexandrine  philosophers 
were  expounded  and  commented  u]ion.  Dog- 
mas, hitherto  regarded  as  sacred,  were  freely 
discussed  and  rejected.  (See  Mutazilites.) 
From  these  schools  issued  the  philosophers  al- 
Kindi  (eiehth  century).  al-Farahi  (900).  Ibn 
Sina  (Aviccnna  980-1037).  al-f!hazzali  (1111). 
Ibn  Badi;ih  (1138),  Ibn  T\ifail  (d.llSo),  and 
Ibn  Poshd(  Averroes,  1153-98),  whose  works,  sub- 
sequently translated  into  Latin,  were  studied  for 
many  centuries  in  European  universities. 


ARABIC  LANGUAGE. 


698 


ARABIC  LANGUAGE. 


In  iiiatheniatics  the  Mohaiiimedans  mado  great 
advances  by  introducing  the  numerals  and  other 
modes  of  notation,  the  sine  instead  of  the 
chord,  and  by  extending  the  application  of  al- 
gebra. Astronomy  was  zealously  cultivated  in 
the  schools  of  Bagdad,  Cairo,  and  Cordova.  Ac- 
cording to  Ibn  al-Xadbi  (1040),  the  library  at 
Cairo  possessed  two  celestial  globes  and  si.v  thou- 
sand astronomical  works.  In  the  ninth  century 
the  three  sons  of  the  lilirarian,  Musa  ibn  Shakr, 
calculated  accurately  the  diameter  of  the  earth 
and  the  jnecession  of  the  equinoxes.  At  the  same 
time  lived  al-Farghani,  author  of  an  astronomi- 
cal encyclopaedia,  which  was  translated  in  the 
twelfth  century  by  .Johannes  Hispalensis.  In 
the  tenth  century  al-Battani  ( Albatagnius) 
jlourished,  to  whose  name  is  attached  the  intro- 
duction of  trigonometrical  functions,  and  tlie 
observation  of  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic. 
Among  the  astronomers  whose  works  were  trans- 
lated into  Latin  may  be  mentioned  Thabit  ibn 
Kurrah  (901),  .Jabir  ibn  Allah,  who  in  1196  con- 
structed the  first  observatory  at  Seville,  and 
Xasir  al-Din  al-Tusi.  the  paraphraser  of  Euclid. 
Jledicine  and  natural  history  were  cultivated  by 
the  Jlohanmiedans  with  a  like  success.  In  the 
seventh  century  the  wTitings  of  Galen.  Hip- 
pocrates, Paul  of  Aegina.  etc.,  were  translated 
from  the  Greek  into  Arabic.  Ibn  Abi  Usaibiah 
( 1203-69 )  devotes  a  whole  vohnne  to  the  medi- 
cal literature  in  Arabic.  Among  the  medical 
writers  may  be  mentioned  ilohammed  al-Razi 
( tenth  century ) ,  whose  works  were  translated 
into  Latin:  Ali  ibn  Ridwan  (1061):  Ibn  Sina 
(Avicennal  ;  Abu  al-Kasim(  1107).  who  wrote  on 
surgery  and  surgical  instruments :  Abd  al-Jlalik 
ibn  Zuhr  (1162).  and  Abd  Allah  ibn  al-Baitar 
(1248),  whose  Materia  Medica  had  great 
vcgue. 

Histoiy  in  all  its  forms  was  cultivated  at  an 
earh'  time  by  the  llohanunedans :  several  chron- 
icles were  written  in  the  days  of  the  Ommiad 
dyna.sty.  Persian  historiogi'ajihy  influenced  tlie 
Arabs  to  record  the  events  of  their  past  life  as  a 
people:  and  the  growing  interest  in  the  prophet 
and  his  times  funiished  a  healthy  stimulus. 
From  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century  we  have 
an  uninterrupted  series  of  historians.  The  ear- 
liest of  these  were  ilohammed  ibn  Ishak  (7fiS), 
whose  biography  of  ilnhamnied  was  enlarged  by 
Ibn  Hisham  (821).  .and  ^Mohammed  al-Waki'li 
(823),  who  wrote  the  history  of  the  prophet  at 
Medina.  No  less  than  140  titles  of  works  writ- 
ten by  al-Kalbi  (c.819)  are  mentioned,  dealing 
largely  with  historv  and  genealogy'.  It  was  a 
Persian.  Abu  Jafar  al-Tabari  (838-923),  who 
produced  the  first  universal  history  in  Arabic, 
beginning  with  creation.  A  similar  work  was 
produced  by  Ibn  al-Athir  (1160-12.34).  Of  the 
early  historians  mention  must  also  be  made  of 
Ibn'Kutaibah  (892)  and  al-Baladhuri  (892), 
who  deals  especially  with  the  early  conquests 
of  the  Arabs.  In  the  tenth  centuiy  wrote  al- 
Hamdani  (94.5).  Hamzah  al-Isfahani'  (961).  and 
r.l-^Iasudi  (9.56),  who  has  left  us  a  history  of 
civilization.  Among  the  historians  of  later  cen- 
turies mention  niav  be  made  of  Ibn  !Maskawai 
(1030).  al-Makin  (1273).  Ibn  al-Amid  (b.12.54). 
al-Birimi  (1308).  historian  of  chronology-  and 
the  Herodotus  of  India.  .Mm  al-Fida  (1331). 
and  Ibn  Khaldun  (1400).  the  first  to  compose  u 
philosophy  of  history.  The  chief  historians  of 
Spain  we're  Ahmad  al-Dhabbi   (1195),  Ibn  Bash- 


kuwal  (1182),  Jlohammcd  ibn  al-Abbar  (1259), 
and  Ahmad  al-Makkari  (1631).  Among  the 
noted  historians  of  Egypt  were  Abd  al-Latif 
(1231)  and  al-Makrizi  '(1441).  More  charac- 
teristic of  Arabic  historiography  are  the  numer- 
ous local  histories  and  biographical  monographs 
jiroduced.  Among  the  most  remarkable  of  these 
are  the  works  of  Jalal  al-Din  al-Suyuti  (1505), 
author  of  510  works,  among  which  were  histories 
of  Cairo  and  Damasctis ;  of  Abu  Ubaidah  (824), 
autlior  of  105  monographs,  among  which  are  his- 
tories of  Mecca  and  Medina :  of  Ali  ibn  Asakir 
(1175),  author  of  a  history  of  Damascus  in 
eighty  volumes,  and  of  Baha  al-Din  ibn  Shaddad 
(1234),  author  of  a  history  of  Aleppo.  Moham- 
med al-Shahra.stani  (1153)  wrote  a  history  of 
religiotis  and  philosophical  sects  which  is  still 
our  chief  authority  on  the  subject.  The  most 
noteworthy  biographical  writers  were  Abu  Za- 
kariyah,  al-Nawawi  (1274  1  and  Ibn  Khallikan 
( 12S2) ,  who  treats  of  805  persons.  Bibliography 
was  treated  of  by  Mohammed  ibn  Ishak  al-Nadim 
(995),  Ali  ibn  Yusuf  al-Kifti  (1248),  and  Hajji 
Khalfa  (1658).  With  the  exception  of  Ibn 
Khaldun  the  Arabic  historians  lack  critical 
sense;  they  are  mostly  mere  chronographers.  In 
geography  they  displayed  nnieh  greater  ability 
and  have  left  us  works  of  lasting  value.  The 
chief  geographical  writers  are  Ibn  Hisham.  Khur- 
dadhbah  (912),  JIasudi.  Ahmad  ibn  Fadlan 
(921),  Abu  Ishak  al-Istakliri  (tenth  century), 
Ibn  Haukal  (977).  al-ilukaddasi  (985),  the 
traveller  Ibn  Batutah  (1377),  Yakut  (1178), 
who,  like  al-Bakri  (1094).  wrote  an  extensive- 
geographical  dictionary,  al-Kaz\vini  (1276)  and 
Abu  al-Fida. 

Besides  these  advances  in  the  solid  branches 
of  knowledge  the  genius  of  the  Arabs  continually 
tiowered  into  ]ioetry.  From  Bagdad  to  Cordova 
the  ilohanunedan  world  was  full  of  sweet  sing- 
ers. Collections  of  the  works  of  older  poets 
(Dlwans)  were  made,  of  single  writers,  of  the 
poems  of  individual  tribes,  or  arranged  according 
to  the  subject  matter  of  tiie  poems.  L'mar  ibn 
Rabiah  (1328),  the  Arabian  ilinnesinger ;  Abu 
Xuwas.the  Heine  of  the  court  of  Ha  run  al-Rashid; 
the  royal  poets  Abd  al-Rahman  (788)  and  Al-Mu- 
tamid"  (1095)  of  Spain:  iluslim  ibn  al-Walid 
(757):  Abd  Allah  ibn  al-Mutazz  (1502);  Abu 
Firas  (968)  :  al-Tughrai  (1120)  :  and  the  pane- 
gyrist of  Mohammed,  al-Busiri  (1279),  are  a  few 
of  the  brightest  stars.  Though  much  of  this 
poetry  was  scholastic  in  form,  al-Mutanabbi 
(965)  is  considered  one  of  the  greatest  Moham- 
medan poets  and  his  Dlicun.  with  its  289  poems, 
was  always  widely  read.  A  new  s]iecies  of  poetry 
was  invented,  the  Mul-fimOt.  a  sort  of  rhymed  prose 
in  a  finished  and  most  ornamental  style  and  ex- 
hibiting merely  tlie  literary  prowess  of  the  writer. 
Of  such  a  kind  were  the  writings  of  Ahmad  al- 
Hamadhani  (1007)  and  Abu  Mohanuned  al- 
Hariri  of  Basra  (1121).  Side  by  side  with  this 
scholastic  poetry  there  grew  up  a  large  mass  of 
popular  verse,  which  refused  to  be  botmd  by  the 
canonical  metres  and  which  developed  the  strophe, 
otherwise  unknowni  to  Arabic  literature.  A  par- 
ticular form  of  this  was  the  ^flura.'<hlth^h.  or 
girdle  poem.  A  popular,  and  at  times  fantastic 
pojndar  prose  literature  also  made  its  appear- 
ance, in  which  the  Eastern  craving  for  the  won- 
derful and  gorgeous  was  richly  gratified.  This 
was  largely  influenced  by  non-.\rabic  literatures, 
as   in   the  Fables   of  Bidpai.   translated   in   750 


ARABIC   LANGUAGE. 


699 


ARABIC  LANGUAGE. 


bv  Alid  Allah  iliu  al-iliiUaira  liuiii  the  Persian, 
in  The  ;>'ei'f/i  Wise  Masters,  and  in  the  Arabiun 
Mights  (q.v.).  Pure  Bedouin  runianees  are  tlio 
stories  of  l!>(iif  ihu  dhi  Yuzuii,  of  the  litmu  UilOl, 
of  al  Zh;  and  especially  the  Antur  I/oiiikikv, 
xvliich  gives  the  most  faithful  picture  of  desert 
life,  and  which  was  not  without  inlluence 
upon  the  ronuince  and  chivalry  of  niedianal 
Europe. 

All  this  culture  of  the  early  centuries  of  Mo- 
liammedanisni  presents  a  slmny  contrast  to  the 
decline  which  is  evident  from  the  ascendancy  of 
the  Turks  in  the  sixteenth  century  to  our  own 
day.  Scholastic  discussions  ou  dogmatics  and 
jurisprudence,  and  tedious  grammatical  discpiisi- 
tions  became  the  order  of  the  day.  Tlie  expedition 
of  Napoleon  to  Egypt  presaged  the  introduc- 
tion of  Western  culture  to  the  East,  and  a  slow 
intellectual  resurrection  has  commenced.  The 
printing  presses  of  Bulak.  Fez,  Constantinople, 
Beirut  and  of  several  Indian  cities  are  extremely 
productive,  and  edition  after  edition  is  <|uickly 
exhausted.  Newspapers  in  Arabic  are  now  pub- 
lished all  over  the  East,  and  even  in  Western 
cities,  e.g.  Paris  and  New  York.  Writers  have 
also  begun  to  attempt,  with  more  or  less  success, 
to  imitate  European  forms  of  thought  and  senti- 
ment. Of  these  may  be  mentioned  ilichael  Sab- 
bagh  of  Syria  {La  Colomhe  Mcasdyere.  Arabic  and 
French.  Paris,  1805)  :  the  Sheik  Rifaa  of  Cairo 
{Tlie  Brol-en  Lyre,  Paris,  1827):  Manners  and 
(Uistoins  of  tlie  Europeans  (Cairo.  1S.'?4)  :  Travels 
in  France  (Cairo.  1825).  But  despite  all  this, 
the  results  obtained  in  Eg;s'pt  during  the  period 
from  1708  down  to  the  English  tutelage,  in  1882, 
are  meagre.  Mehemet  Ali  introduced  the  print- 
ing-press in  1821,  and  founded  a  school  for 
mathematics.  Some  of  the  works  of  the  best 
European  writers  were  translated  into  Arabic; 
the  vice-regal  library  was  founded  in  Cairo  in 
lb70.  Few  great  scliolars  and  writers  have  as 
yet  appeared:  and  it  is  questionable  wliether  the 
attempt  to  develop  the  common  speech  into  a 
literary  language  will  be  more  successful.  The 
erideavor  to  substitute  the  Roman  script  for  the 
.\rabic(  furthered  notably  by  Professor  W.  Fiske) 
will  certainly  not  aid  the  regeneration.  The  fol- 
lowing modern  poets  deserve  mention :  Hasan  al- 
Attar  (17CG-18.38)  ;  Abd  Allah  Pasha  al-Fikri 
(1834-00):  Aisha  Ismat  Hanun.  daughter  of 
Ismail  Pasha;  and  ilohammed  Utiiman  .Talal 
(b.l820).  the  translator  of  Racine  and  Moli^re. 
To  these  may  be  added  the  historians  Abd  .\llali 
al-Sharkawi"  (1737-1812).  and  Abd  al-Rahmau 
al-.Tabarti(d.l82(j).  both  historians  of  the  French 
occupation:  AH  Pastta  Mubarak  (1823-03).  the 
topographist  of  Cairo  and  Alexandria;  and  the 
great  jurist  Ibrahim  al-Bajuri  (1783-18(51),  rec- 
tor of  the  al-Azhar  University.  In  Syriiv  the 
dearth  of  literary  etTort  was  still  greater.  The 
beginnings  of  a  new  life  are  due  to  European  and 
-American  etlorts.  The  American  Presliyterian 
missionaries  and  the  French  .Jesuits  (since  ISOO) 
have  started  a  new  life  in  Beirut  by  means  of 
tlie  printing-press  and  modern  schools.  A  real 
interest  in  the  old  literature  has  been  awakened, 
many  of  the  masterpieces  being  reedited  in  a 
critical  spirit.  In  this  connection  nniy  be  men- 
tinned  the  philologist  and  poet  Nasif  al-Yaziji 
(1800-71),  who  wrote  the  critical  observations 
in  Do  Sacv's  edition  of  Hariri  (E/iistohi  Critiea. 
U-ipzig.  1848);  Butrus  al-Bistani  (1810-1883), 
author  of  a  dictionary  and  a  general  encyclope- 


dia; Ahmad  Faris  al-Shidyak(d.l884) ,  tlie  gram- 
marian; Khalil  Sarkis  (1877),  the  historian  of 
Jerusalem;  and  Louis  Cheikho,  the  learned  editor 
of  the  old  Arabic  poets.  .  In  the  old  home  of  the 
faith,  Mecca,  literarj-  activity  still  continues  to 
our  own  day.  but  iipon  the  old  theological  and 
dogmatic  lines.  Wortliy  of  mention  are  Ahmad 
Dablan  (C.1S8U),  theologian  and  historian,  the 
autlior  of  mure  tlian  twenty  works,  and  Jloham- 
med  ibn  Omar  al-\awawi  (c.1885),  by  origin  a 
Jlalay,  the  author  of  eighteen  works  upon  dill'er- 
ent  subjects.  In  India  European  inlluence  in 
literature  is  confined  to  tlie  publications  of  the 
Bibliea  Indiea ;  and  to  a  few  writers  such  as 
Siddik  Hasan,  husbaiid  of  the  Sultaneo  of  Bhopa. 
The  same  condition  prevails  in  the  Maghrib 
(Northwest  Africa).  French  culture  has  had  no 
perceptible  influence  upon  Arabic  literature  in 
.Algiers ;  Morocco  is  as  dead  to  European  in- 
fluences as  if  it  were  in  the  heart  of  Arabia.  The 
productions  of  the  lithographic  press  at  Fez  are 
all  confined  to  the  older  Islamic  theological, 
legal,  and  historical  literature. 

BiBLiOGKAPHY.  (1)  General  works:  Brockel- 
mann.  Gesehiclite  der  arahiseheU'  Litteratur  (Wei- 
mar, 1898-1002),  and  his  more  popular  work 
(with  translations)  published  nnder  the  same 
title  (Leipzig,  1001),  in  the  c<dlection.  Die  Lit- 
teraturen  des  Ostens  in.  Einzeldarstellungcn,  vol. 
vi.;  Cliauvin,  Bihliographie  .4r(((K'' (Li&ge,  1892, 
sqq.)  ;  Hammer  -  Purgstall.  Litteraturyeschichfe 
der  Arqier  (7  vols.,  Vienna,  1850-56;  anti- 
quated); .Arbuthnot,  Arabic  A-Uthors  (London, 
1800)  ;  Von  Kremer,  Culturgeschiehte  des 
Orients  (Vienna,  1877);  Goldziher,  Moham- 
niedanische  Stndien  (Halle,  1880-00);  Zenker, 
Bibiiotheea  Oricntalis  (Leipzig.  184(i;  for  printed 
books)  ;  Hartraann.  .-Irobic  Press  of  Egypt  (Lon- 
don, 1808)  ;  Hajji  Khalfa,  Lexicon  bibtiograficum 
(ed.  Flugel,  Leipzig-London.  1835-58)  ;  .Ahlwardt. 
]'crzeicliniss  der  arabiselieii-  Handseliriften  der 
liinigliehen  Bibliothek  ::n-  Berlin  (Berlin.  1887 
sqq.).  (2)  Poetry:  yH'iMcke.  Beitriige  znr  Kennt^ 
niss  der  Poesie  der  alten  .lr«!)fr( Hanover.  1864)  ; 
Ahlwardt,  Ueher  Poesie  nnd  Poctik  der  Araber 
(Gotha.  1856);  Schack,  Poesie  nnd  Ktinst  der 
Araber  in  Hpanien  and  Hizilien  (Berlin,  1865); 
Basset,  La  poesie  arabe  unteislaniique  (Paris, 
1880)  ;  .Jacob.  Studien  in  arabisehen  Diehtern 
(i.-iii.,  Berlin,  1803-05)  ;  Ilartmann.  Das  am- 
tiische  Strophengedieht  (Weimar.  1806-07):  Car- 
lyle.  Specimens  of  Arabic  Poctrg  (London.  1840)  : 
Clouston,  Arabic  Poetrg  (London.  1S80)  ;  Lyall, 
Ancient  Arabic  Poetry  (London.  1885).  (3) 
History:  Wiistenfeld,  Die  Geschichtsschreiber  der 
Araber  (Ciiittingen,  1882).  (4)  Geography; 
Wiistenfeld.  Die  Littcrntur  der  ErdbcschreihtuKi 
bet  den  Arubern  ( Jlagdeburg,  1842) .  (5)  Philol- 
ogy; Fliigel.  Die  (irnnimatischen  f^cliulen  der 
Araber  (Leipzig,  1862).  (6)  Philosophy:  De 
Boer,  Gcschichte  der  Philosophic  in  Islam  (Stutt- 
gart, 1001);  Munk,  Melanges  de  philosophic 
jnire  ct  arabe  (Paris,  1850)  ;  Dugat,  Histoire  des 
pihilosophes  et  des  thcolofliens  mnsulmans  (Paris, 
1870)  ;  Dieterici,  Die  Philosophic  der  Araber  im 
X.  Jahrhundert  (I.eipzig,  1876-78) .  (7)  Science: 
Wiistenfeld.  Gcschichte  der  arabisehen  Acrzte 
(Gcittingen.  1840)  ;  Leclerc.  Histoire  de  la  nu'de- 
cinc  arabe  (Paris.  1876)  :  Sedillot.  Matcriaux 
ponr  servir  a  Vhistoire  comparee  des  sciences 
nKithcmatif/ncs  chcr  les  Grces  ct  les  Orientaux 
(Paris,  1845-49)  ;  Steinsehneider.  Die  arabisehen 
Vcbersetzungen  aiis  dem   Griechischcn    (Leipzig, 


ARABIC  LANGUAGE. 


700 


ARACHNOID  MEMBRANE. 


1889-93)  ;  Wiedemann,  Ueber  die  7\aturwissen- 
schaften  bei  den  Arabern  (Hamburg.  1890)  ; 
Suter.  Die  Mathemaiiker  und  Astrotwincn  der 
Araber   (Leipzig.   1900). 

ARABIC  NU'MERALS.  See  Numerals; 
and  Algorism. 

ARABIC  VER'SIONS.     See  Bible. 

AR'ABIN.  The  chief  constituent  of  giim- 
arabic,  obtained  by  precipitating  an  acidulated 
aqueous  solution  "of  gum-arabic  with  ordinary 
alcohol. 

ARABI  PASHA.'  a-ra'be  pa-shii',  properly 
Ahmed  Arabi  (c.  1837—).  Leader  of  the  na- 
tional party  in  Egypt  in  1882.  He  was  born  of 
fellah  parents  in  Lower  Egj'pt,  and  his  early 
youth  was  spent  as  a  laborer.  He  sen'ed  for  twelve 
years  as  a  private  soldier  in  the  Egyptian  army, 
and  gradually  rose  to  the  rank  of  colonel.  He  took 
advantage  of  the  discontent  which  prevailed  in 
Egypt  on  account  of  the  foreign  influence  to 
organize  a  rebellion  on  the  issue  of  "Egypt  for 
the  Egyptians."  Tlie  lack  of  energy  shown  by 
the  Khedive  Tewfik  permitted  Arabi  to  acquire 
great  influence.  He  participated  in  tlie  revolt 
against  Xubar  Pasha,  obtained  the  removal  of 
the  ministry,  and  entered  the  new  cabinet  as 
minister  of  war  (1882).  In  this  position  he  be- 
came a  virtual  autocrat,  setting  aside  the  Anglo- 
French  financial  control.  Enghind  now  inter- 
vened and  a  war  ensued.  On  July  11-12,  1882, 
an  English  fleet  bombarded  Alexandria.  Arabi 
withdrew,  and  the  British  undertook  a  vigorous 
campaign  against  him,  completely  defeating  him 
September  13.  1S82,  at  Tel-el-Kebir.  He  surren- 
dered tlie  following  day,  and  a  sentence  of  death 
was  passed  upon  him,  but  it  was  commuted  to 
life  exile  in  Ceylon.  The  movement  he  had 
headed  collapsed!  and  its  only  result  was  the 
permanent  estalilishment  of  British  control  in 
Ewypt.  He  was  pardoned  by  the  British  Govern- 
ment in  December,  1900,  and  permitted  to  re- 
turn to  Egypt. 

Consult:  Long,  The  Three  Prophets — Chinese 
GordoH,  Mohammed  Ahmed  {el  Mahdi).  AraU 
Pusha  (\ew  York,  1884)  :  Broadley,  How  ^Ye 
Defeated  Arabi  und  His  Friends  (London,  1884). 
See  Egypt. 

ARABKIR,  ii'rab-ker'.  A  town  of  Asiatic 
Turkev,  about  one  lunulred  and  seventy  miles 
northwest  of  Diarbekr  (Map:  Turkey  in  Asia, 
H  3 ) .  It  lies  on  tlie  route  from  Aleppo  to  Trebi- 
zond  and  is  of  considerable  commercial  impor- 
tance. Population  estimated  at  from  23,000  to 
30,000,  including  a  considerable  number  of 
Armenians. 

AR'ABY.  A  poetical  form,  especially  cur- 
rent in  the  Renaissance,  for  Arabia. 

ARACAJTJ,  ii'ra-ka-zhoo'.  The  capital  and 
cliief  port  of  the  Brazilian  State  of  Sergipe,  situ- 
ated aliout  seven  miles  from  the  coast  on  the 
river  Cotindiba  (Map:  Brazil,  K  0).  The  city  is 
regularly  built  and  ccmtains  an  agricultural 
school.  It  is  connected  by  rail  with  Capella  and 
Signao  Diaz  in  the  interior,  and  has  an  estimated 
population  of  (iOOO,  including  a  number  of  In- 
dians. 

AR'ACAN'.     See  Abakan. 

ARACARI,  a'ra-kii're  (Port.).  A  toucan  of 
the  genus  Pteroglossus.    See  Toucan. 


ARACATf,  a'r:i-ca-te'.  A  port  in  the  State 
of  Ceara,  Brazil,  on  the  river  .Jaguaribe.  ten  miles 
from  its  mouth,  and  seventy-five  miles  southeast 
of  Ceara  (Map:  Brazil,  K  4).  Its  harbor  is  shal- 
low, with  a  shifting  bar  at  the  entrance,  but  can 
be  entered  at  high  tide.  Its  exports  are  hides, 
cotton,  and  sugar.  It  maintains  regular  steam- 
ship communication  with  Pernambuco.  and  has  a 
population  of  about  (>000.  It  was  foimded  in 
1723. 
ARA'CE.ffi.  See  Abum. 
ARACHIS,  ar'a-kis.  See  Peanut. 
ARACHNE,  a-rak'ne  (Gk.  ''Apaxurj.  arachne, 
lit.  spider).  The  mythical  Lydian  girl  who.  hav- 
ing excited  Athene's  anger  by  challenging  her  to 
a  contest  in  weaving,  was  changed  by  the  irate 
goddess  to  a  spider.  Her  fate,  and  especially  her 
skill  with  the  shuttle  and  the  loom,  have  been  a 
favorite  tlienie  among  the  poets. 

ARACH'NIDA  (Gk.  dpax^v,  arachiic,  a 
spider).  A  class  of  air-breathing  arthropods 
including  the  mites,  scorpions,  spiders,  and  a  few 
other    less    well-known    groups.  The    typical 

Arachnida  have  the  head  and  the  thorax  more 
or  less  fused  into  a  "cephalothorax,"  four  pairs 
of  legs,  and  no  aiitenn;^,  the  maxillary  palp., 
functioning  as  antenn:!'.  The  eyes  are  all  simple, 
and  vary  in  number  from  two  to  twelve.  By  the 
number  and  arrangement  of  these  eyes  the 
species  of  spiders  are  determined.  The  abdomen 
possesses  no  true  legs,  but  the  three  aljdomiiial 
spinnerets  of  s]>iders  are  homologous  with  legs. 
Besides  the  spinneret-glands  in  the  abdominal 
region  of  spiders  there  are  poison-glands  in  the 
last  abdominal  scgiiieut  of  scorpions,  located  at 
the  base  of  the  sting.  In  other  forms  the  poison 
is  emitted  tlirough  the  hollow  Jaws.  The 
Arachnida  breathe  by  means  of  trachea?,  like 
other  insects,  or  by  means  of  sacklike  bodies 
called  "lungs"  that  open  on  the  under  side  of  the 
abdomen ;  but  some  forms  breathe  by  both 
tracheie  and  lungs.  All  the  Arachnida  are  carniv- 
orous save  some  of  the  mites,  which  live  on  plant- 
sap.  Most  of  the  animal-feeders  jirey  upon 
other  insects,  and  hence  are  the  friends  of  agri- 
culture. A  few  forms  are  parasitic  on  warm- 
blooded vertebrates  and  fish,  and  eau.se  or  accom- 
pany such  diseases  as  itch  and  mange.  The  his- 
tory of  this  class  goes  back  to  Palteozoic  times. 

Classifieation. — The  Arachnida  are  divided  into 
seven  orders:  (1)  Solpugida,  or  wind  scor- 
pions; (2)  Scorpionida,  or  scorpions;  (3)  Pseu- 
doseorpionida.  book-scorpions;  (4)  Pcdipalpida, 
or  whip-scorpions;  (.3)  Phalangida,  or  harvest- 
men;  (6)  Araneida.  or  spiders;  and  (7)  Acarida, 
or  mites.  The  following  groups  are  believed  by 
many  to  fall  into  the  class  Arachnida.  but  their 
relationships  are  doubtful:  Linguatulida,  or 
tongue-parasites  of  the  dog;  Tardigrada,  or 
w  ater-bears ;  Pycnogonida,  or  sea-spiders ; 
Xiphosura.  or  king-crabs.  See  MiTEs;  Scor- 
pions :  Spiders  :  Harvest-Man. 

ARACH'NOID  MEM'BRANE.  One  of  the 
three  coverings  of  tlio  Itrain  and  spinal  cord.  It 
is  a  thin,  glistening  membrane,  which,  by  its 
parietal  layer,  adheres  inseparably  to  the  dura- 
mater  on  its  outer  side,  and  more  loosely  to  the 
pia-mater,  which  is  between  it  and  the  brain 
substance.  Between  the  pia-mater  and  the  araeli- 
noid  membrane  in  some  situations  there  are  con- 
siderable intervals  (sub-arachnoid  spaces).  See 
C'erebro-Spixal  Fluid;  Nervous  System. 


ARA  C(ELI.  701 

A'RA  CCE'LI  (Lat..  Altar  of  Heaven).  Tlie 
name  f.'iven  t(i  the  famous  ehinvli  of  tlie  Virgin 
erected  on  tlie  summit  of  the  Capitoline  Hill  in 
Rome.  It  was  the  only  Christian  ediliee  on  the 
Capitol,  and  was  for  centuries  called  Sancta  Maria 
in  Capitolio;  but  popular  lejjend  connected  it 
with  the  possession  by  Christianity  of  the  strong- 
hold of  Paganism,  and  the  Middle  Ages  imagined 
a  dream  of  Augustus,  to  whom  the  Sibyl  an- 
nounced that  here  was  the  altar  of  the  Son  of 
(Jod;  lience  Ara  Cocli.  The  church  took  over  all 
the  celebrity  of  the  pagan  Capitol,  and  was  the 
meeting-place  for  the  city  council  and  the  people. 

ARAD,  or'od.  Two  towns  of  the  Kingdom 
of  Hungary.  (1)  Old  Akad  (Hung.  0-Arad). 
The  capital  of  the  county  of  Arad,  situated  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Maros.  a  tributary  of  the 
Theiss,  about  thirty-seven  miles  north  of  Temes- 
viir  (Map:  Hungary,  G  3).  The  town  has  many 
handsome  streets  and  fine  modern  buildings, 
such  as  the  theatre,  town-hall,  and  the  palaces  of 
justice  and  industry.  The  former  strong  foi-ti- 
■fications  are  now  rather  out  of  date.  Arad  is  the 
seat  of  a  Greek-Oriental  and  of  a  Rumanian 
bishop.  It  is  one  of  the  most  important  indus- 
trial towns  of  Hungary.  Its  manufactures  in- 
clude alcohol  (one  of  the  largest  distilleries  in 
Europe),  starch,  leather,  and  machinery.  There 
is  also  a  considerable  export  trade  in  grain,  to- 
bacco, wine,  and  cattle.  Population,  in  1890, 
42,050. 

During  the  Seventeenth  Century  it  was  often 
captured  by  the  Turks.  Its  new  fortifications, 
erected  in  1763,  made  Arad  an  important  posi- 
tion in  the  Revolutionary  War  of  1848-49,  when 
it  was  occupied  for  a  considerable  time  by  the 
Austrian  general,  Berger,  Avho  capitulated  here 
in  July,  1849.  From  this  place  Kossuth  issued 
the  last  proclamation  to  the  Hungarian  patriots. 
After  the  capitulation  at  Vilagos,  August  13, 
1849,  Arad  was  surrendered  to  the  Russians  by 
the  order  of  Gorgey.  Here,  on  October  6th  of 
the  same  year,  a  number  of  Hungarian  generals 
were  executed  by  order  of  the  Austrian  com- 
mander, Haynau. 

(2).  New  Arad  (Hung.  Vj-Arad).  A  town  in 
the  count}'  of  Temes,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Maros  opposite  Old  Arad,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  a  long  wooden  liridge.  It  has  a  large 
trade  in  Hour  and  wood.  Population,  1890, 
6000. 

AR'ADTJS  (now  Ruad).  An  ancient  Phoeni- 
cian town  situated  on  a  small  island  of  the  same 
name,  aliout  35  miles  north  of  the  town  of  Trip- 
olis  (Map:  Turkey  in  Asia,  F  .5).  Strabo  says 
that  the  city  of  Aradus  was  founded  by  fugitives 
from  Sidon.  It  was  independent,  ruled  over  the 
adjacent  coast,  and  assisted  the  Macedonians  in 
the  siege  of  Tyre.  In  638  the  Caliph  Omar's 
commander  destroyed  Aradus,  and  it  was  not 
rebiiilt.  The  ruins  show  that  it  was  once  a  very 
strong  place.  Tlie  Hebrew  name  of  tlie  town  was 
Arvad.  The  present  village  of  Ruad  lia.s  a  small 
population. 

ARAF,  iiVaf,  or  more  accurately  AlA'raf. 
The  name  given  in  the  Koran  (Sura  vii.  44)  to 
the  partition  separating  heaven  from  hell.  Mo- 
hammed vividly  portrays  those  standing  by  the 
partition  saluting  the  happy  inhabitants  of  Para- 
dise without  being  able  to  enter  it,  while  on  the 
other  hand  they  are  also  terrified  at  the  sight  of 
those  who  are  condemned  to  the  tortures  of  hell- 


ARAGO. 


fire.  In  .Mohammedan  theology.  El-Araf  is  a  sort 
of  limbo  for  those  whose  good  and  evil  works 
so  balance  one  another  that  they  cannot  enter 
Paradise  until  the  last  day  of  judgment;  but  in 
addition  to  this  class,  there  are  others  who,  ac- 
cording to  the  views  of  some  theologians,  are 
consigned  to  El-Araf. 

ARAFAT,  a'ra-fiit'.  ilouxT,  or  .Tebei,  ai,- 
Kaiimah  I  Mount  of  Jlercy).  A  granite  hill 
some  twelve  miles  east  of  Mecca.  According  to  the 
Mohammedans,  when  Adam  and  Eve  were  cast 
forth  from  Paradise  for  eating  the  wheat  which 
deprived  them  of  their  pristine  purity,  Adam  fell 
at  Ceylon,  and  Eve  on  Mount  Arafat:  and  after 
much  wandering, Adam  finally  joined  Eve  on  this 
mountain.  The  mount  is  about  two  hundred  feet 
high  and  a  mile  and  a  half  in  circuit.  The  mount 
is  the  real  goal  of  the  Jlohammedan  pilgrimage 
to  Jlecca,  for  while  the  visit  to  the  Kaaba — the 
sanctuary  at  Jlecca — may  be  made  at  any  time, 
it  is  known  as  the  "small  pilgrimage."  The  "great 
pilgrimage,"  which  ends  with  a  visit  to  Arafat, 
can  only  be  made  in  the  month  Dim  ainijjah.  i.e. 
"month  of  pilgrimage."  The  ninth  day  of  this 
month,  the  most  sacred  of  the  year,  is  spent  by 
the  pilgrims  at  Arafat,  to  which  they  proceed  in 
a  body  on  the  eveninc  of  the  eighth  day.  The  day 
is  spent  in  prayers  and  in  listening  to  a  sermon 
which  always  lasts  many  hours.  See  Burton's 
account  in  his  Pilfirimage  to  El-Medina  and  Kaa- 
ha,  Mecca  and  Medina,  chapter  xxviii.  See,  also, 
Kaasa;   IMecca;   Islasi. 

ARAGO,  a'ra-gfl;  French  pron.  a'ra'g6'. 
Dojn.NiQUE  Francois  (1786-18.53).  A  celebrat- 
ed French  astronomer  and  natural  philosopher, 
born  at  Estagel,  near  Perpignan,  in  the  Depart- 
ment of  Basses-Pyrenees.  At  the  age  of  seven- 
teen he  entered  the  Ecole  Polytechnique  at  Paris, 
where  the  spirit,  promptitude,  and  vivid  intelli- 
gence he  exhibited  in  his  answers  to  the  ques- 
tions of  Legendre  excited  the  admiration  of 
every  one.  In  1805  he  became  secretary'  to  the 
Bureau  des  Longitudes  at  Paris.  Two  years 
afterwards  he  was  engaged,  with  Biot  and 
others,  by  the  French  Government,  to  carry  out 
the  measurement  of  an  arc  of  the  meridian, 
which  had  been  commenced  by  Delambre  and 
^lechain.  Arago  and  Biot  had  to  extend  it  from 
Barcelona  to  the  Balearic  Islands.  The  two 
savants  established  themselves  on  a  lofty  sum- 
mit near  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Spanish  penin- 
sula, where  they  lived  for  many  months,  com- 
municating by  signals  across  the  Mediterranean 
with  their  Spanish  collaborators  in  the  little 
isle  of  Iviza.  Before  Arago  comjdeted  his  cal- 
culations, Biot  had  returned  to  France,  and  war 
had  broken  out  between  France  and  Spain.  Ara- 
go was  now  held  to  be  a  spy;  his  signals  were 
interrupted :  and  with  great  difl!iculty  he  suc- 
ceeded in  making  his  escape  to  JIajorca,  where 
he  voluntarily  imprisoned  himself  in  the  citadel 
of  Belver,  near  Palma.  At  last  he  obtained  his 
lilierty  on  condition  of  pro<'eeding  to  Algiers, 
which  he  did;  but  on  his  way  back  to  France 
was  captured  by  a  Spanish  cruiser,  and  sent  to 
the  hulks  at  Palamos.  He  was,  however,  liber- 
ated after  a  time  and  sailed  once  more  for 
France ;  but  almost  as  he  was  entering  the  port 
of  JIarseilles,  a  tempest  arose  which  drove  the 
vessel  across  the  Mediterranean  all  the  w-ay  back 
to  the  coast  of  Africa,  landing  it  at  Bougia.  He 
went   by   land   to   Algiers,   where   he    was   com- 


AKAGO. 


702 


ARAGO. 


pelled  to  remain  about  half  a  veav,  and  whence 
he   again   set   out    for   Marseilles    in   the   latter 
part    of    June,    1809.      After    havin<;    narrowly 
escaped  another  capture  by  an  English  frigate, 
Arago  finally  found  his  way  to  Marseilles.    As  a 
reward  for  his  sufferings  in  the  cause  of  science, 
the  Paris    Academy    of    Sciences    suspended    its 
standing   rules   in   his   favor;    and   though    only 
twenty-three  years  of  age,  he  was  elected  mem- 
ber in'the  place  of  Lalande,  who  had  just  died,  and 
was  appointed  professor  of  analytical  geometry 
and 'geodesy  in  the  Ecole  Polytechniqne.     After- 
wards, his  attention  was  devoted  more  to  astron- 
omy,  magnetism,   galvanism,   and   the   polariza- 
tion of  light.     In  1811  he  read  before  the  Acade- 
my a  paper  of  fundamental  importance  on  chro- 
matic polarization.   In  1812  he  began  his  extraor- 
dinary   course    of    lectures    on    astronomy,    etc., 
whicli    fascinated    all    Paris  —  the    savants    by 
their  scientific  rigor  and  solidity,  the  public  by 
their   brilliancy   of   style.      In    ISlti,   along  with 
Gay-Lussac,   Arago   established   the   Annales   de 
Chiniie   et    de    Physique,    and    demonstrated   the 
value  of  the  undulatory  theory  of  light.     In  the 
same  year  he  visited  England,  making  the  ac- 
quaintance of  various  persons  distinguished  in 
science,  especially  Dr.  Thomas  Young.     In  1818 
appeared  his  Recueil  d'observations  gcodesiqiies. 
astroiiomiqucs  et  physiques.     In   1820  he  turned 
his  facile  and  inventive  genius  into  a  new  chan- 
nel, and  made  several  important  discoveries  in 
electro-magnetism.     Oersted   had   shown   that  a 
magnetic  needle  was  deflected  by  a  voltaic  cur- 
rent passing  along  a  wire.     Arago  pursued  the 
investigation,  and  found  that  not  only  a  magnetic 
needle,  but  even  non-magnetic  substances,  such  as 
rods  of  iron  or  steel,  were  subject  to  deflection, 
exhibiting  during  tlie  action  of  the  voltaic  cur- 
rent, a  positive  magnetic  power,  which,  however, 
ceased  with  the  cessation  of  the  current.     Some 
time  after,  he  demonstrated  that  a  bar  of  copper, 
and  other  non-magnetic  metals,  when  moved  cir- 
cularly, exert  a  noticeable  influence  on  the  mag- 
netic needle.     For  this  discovery  of  the  develop- 
ment of  maaiietism  by  rotation,  he  obtained  in 
1825  the  Coplev  Medal  of  the  Royal   Society  of 
London,  and  in  1834,  when  he  again  visited  Great 
Britain,  especial  honors  were  paid  to  him  by  the 
friends   of   science    in   Edinburgli   and   Glasgow. 
Four  years  previoiis  to  this  second  visit  to  Great 
Britain,  he  was  made  perpetual  secretary  of  the 
Academy    and    director    of    the    oliservatory,    a 
position"  which   he   retained  till   bis   death.     As 
secretary  of  the  Academy  he  wrote  his  famous 
Soqes  of  deceased  memliers,  the  beauty  of  which 
has  given  him   so   high   a   place   among   French 
prose  writers.     In  politics,  too,  his  career  was 
ienu\rl<al)Ic.      He   was   a    keen    Republican,   and 
took  a   prominent  part  in  the  Jidy  Revolution 
of   1830.     In  the  following  year  he  was  elected 
by    Perpignan    as    member    of    the   Chamber    of 
Deputies,   where   he   occupied   a   position   on   the 
extreme    Left.      In   the   February    Revolution    of 
1848,  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Provisional 
Government,  and  appointed  minister  of  war  and 
marine.      In   this   position  he   resisted   the   pro- 
posed  measures   of   the   Socialist   Party,   regard- 
ing  the    Constitution   of   the   United   States   as 
the  ideal  of  democracy.     His  popularity  in  his 
own  department  was  the  means  of  preventing  the 
discontented  population  of  Basses-Pyrenees  from 
proceeding  to  lawless  and  violent  measures.     He 
opposed  the  election  of  Louis  Napoleon  to  the 


Presidency,  declared  himself  against  the  policy 
of  the  new  ilinistry,  and  refused  to  take  the 
oath  of  allegiance  after  the  coup  d'etat  of  1851. 
Napoleon,  in  a  letter,  paid  a  high  tril)ute  to 
his  talents  and  virtues,  and  excused  him  from 
taking  the  oath  as  director  of  the  observatory. 
In  his  general  character  Arago  was  sociable,  and 
a  brilHant  conversationalist.  He  was  the  inti- 
mate friend  of  Alexander  von  Humboldt.  His 
collected  works,  edited  by  Barral,  were  published 
in  Paris  (17  vols.,  including  a  biography  of 
Arago,  18.54-62).  Alexander  von  Humboldt  wrote 
an  introduction  to  the  German  translation  oi 
Arago's  works. 

ARAGO.  Etiexne  Vincext  (1803-92).  A 
French  dramatist  and  politician,  a  brother  of 
the  famous  scientist,  Dominique  Francois  Arago 
(q.v. ),  born  near  Perpignan.  Basses  -  Pyrenees. 
He  was  the  author,  with  various  collaborators,  of 
a  large  number  of  comedies  and  vaudeville  pieces 
which  were  successfully  produced  in  Paris, among 
them  Les  I'liyes  de  Bassompierre  and  Les  Me- 
moires  du  dinhle.  and  was  director  of  the  Vaude- 
ville from  1829  to  1840.  As  a  journalist,  he  was  . 
one  of  the  founders  of  La  Reforme,  an  advanced 
Republican  newspaper.  His  poetical  comedy, 
Les  Aristocrat ies  (1847),  the  success  of  which  at 
the  Theatre  Francais  was  ended  only  by  the 
Revolution  of  1848,  was  an  expression  of  the 
same  radical  sentiments  which  made  him,  as  a 
mendier  of  the  Constituent  Assembly,  an  oppon- 
ent of  Louis  Napoleon's  pretensions,  and  caused 
his  own  exile  (1849-59).  His  highest  political 
station  had  been  as  director-general  of  the  post- 
office  for  several  months  in  1848.  Upon  the 
restoration  of  the  Republic  in  1870,  he  resumed 
a  position  of  influence,  being  for  a  short  time 
mayor  of  Paris.  In  1871  he  was  elected  to  the 
National  Assembly,  but  soon  resigned.  He  lie- 
came  archivist  of"  the  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts  in 
1878.  and  later  director  of  the  JIusee  du  Luxem- 
bourg. 

ARAGO,  Francois  Victor  Emmaxiel  ( 1812- 
96).  A  French  politician,  son  of  the  astronomer. 
He  became  an  ardent  Republican,  and  on  Febru- 
ary 24.  1848,  when  the  abdication  of  the  King 
was  announced  in  the  Chamber,  Arago,  who  had 
penetrated  thither,  demanded  the  deposition  of 
the  Orleans  family,  and  protested  in  the  name 
of  the  people  against  a  regency.  Under  the  pro- 
visional government,  he  was  sent  to  Lyons  as 
commissary-general,  and  prevented  a  serious  in- 
surrection'liv  applving  half  a  million  francs  to 
relieve  immediate '  distress.  A  little  later  he 
was  elected  to  the  Constituent  Assembly,  and 
was  soon  sent  as  envoy  to  Prussia,  where  he 
interested  himself  for  the  oppressed  Poles,  pro- 
curing the  liberation  of  General  Microlawski. 
He  resigned  as  soon  as  Louis  Napoleon  was 
elected  to  the  presidency,  and  became  in  the 
Constituent,  and  later  in  the  Legislative  As- 
sembly, one  of  tlie  future  Emperor's  most  active 
opponents,  vigorously  ])rotesting  against  the  ex- 
pedition to  Rome.  After  the  coup  d'etat  (De- 
cember 2,  1851),  he  quitted  political  life  and  re- 
turned to  his  law  practice,  but  in  1870  became 
a  member  of  the  Government  of  National  De- 
fense, first  as  minister  of  justice,  and  later 
as  minister  of  tlie  interior,  replacing  Gamlielta 
in  the  latter  office.  In  1871.  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  National  Assembly,  and  on  the 
oro-anization  of  the  Senate  in  1876,  he  was  elect- 


ABAGO. 


703 


ARAGONITE. 


ed  to  tlint  body,  where  he  sat  until  his  appoint- 
iiiont  as  Ambassador  to  Switzerland  in  1880.  He 
retired   in   1894. 

ARAGO,  Jacques  Etiexxe  Victor  (1790- 
1855).  A  French  traveler  and  writer,  brotlier 
of  the  aslroniiiner.  In  ISl"  lie  aecompanicd  an 
expedition,  under  Freyeinet.  in  a  voyage  round 
the  world.  Afterwards  lie  wrote  plays,  poems,  and 
novels,  and  in  1835  undertook  the  management 
of  the  theatre  at  Rouen,  but  having  become  blind 
in  1837  he  resigned.  His  early  voyage  he  de- 
scribed in  two  books  of  travel:  Promenade  autour 
(hi  monde  (1822),  and  Yoyiuje  autour  du  mondc 
(1838).  In  1841),  though  deprived  of  sight,  he 
formed  a  company  of  speculators  and  started  for 
California  in  search  of  gold.  But  his  compan- 
ions deserted  him  at  Valparaiso.  On  his  return, 
he  pulilished  his  painful  e.xperiences,  under  the 
title,  foliage  (Tun  arcuf/Ie  en  Californie  et  duns 
ies  rcgionx  auri feres   (1851).     He  died  in  Brazil. 

ARAGON,  nr'a-gon.  A  captaincy-general  of 
Spain  and  former  kingdom,  situated  in  the  north- 
eastern part  of  tile  country,  and  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  Pyrenees,  which  separate  it 
from  France,  on  the  east  by  Catalonia  and  A'a- 
leneia,  on  the  south  by  Valencia  and  New  Castile, 
and  on  the  west  by  Xew  and  (.)ld  Castile  (Map: 
Spain,  E  2).  It  coin]irises  the  three  provinces 
of  Saragossa,  Teruel,  and  Huesca,  with  a  total 
area  of  17,976  square  miles.  The  southern  and 
northern  ))arts  of  the  country  are  mostly  moun- 
tainous, while  the  central  portion  is  occupied  by 
a  plain,  intersected  by  the  Ebro  and  its  tribu- 
taries. The  climate  is  varied,  owing  to  the 
difl'crence  in  the  elevation  of  the  surface.  In  the 
mountains  it  is  cool,  wliile  in  the  lower  parts  it 
is  exceedingly  hot  and  dry. 

This  difference  in  the  climate  is  accompanied 
by  a  corresponding  variation  in  vegetation,  and 
the  agricultural  products  of  the  region  embrace 
both  the  hardier  grains,  such  as  corn  and  wheat, 
as  well  as  delicate  fruits  like  the  olive  and  vine. 
Agriculture  is  in  a  backward  stiite  owing  in  part 
to  scarcity  of  population,  but  chiefly  because  of 
the  burdens  laid  In-  tlie  Government  on  agrarian 
communities.  In  the  Province  of  Teruel  are  found 
deposits  of  .sul])hur,  co]iper,  lead,  and  salt,  wliich 
are  mined  to  some  extent.  The  manufacturing 
industries  are  confined  to  the  production  of  linen 
and  woolens  and  some  leather  goods.  The  com- 
merce of  the  region  is  insignificant  both  on  ac- 
count of  the  agricultural  and  industrial  back- 
wardness, as  well  as  of  the  lack  of  transportation 
facilities.  Population,  1887,012,187;  1897,892,- 
240.  Capital,  and  seat  of  the  Captain-General, 
Saragossa. 

Aragon  came  into  the  possession  of  Rome  after 
tile  overthrow  of  the  Carthaginian  power  in 
Spain,  and  was  made  a  part  of  the  Province  of 
Hispania  Tarraconensis.  It  was  conquered  by 
the  Visigoths  early  in  the  Fifth  Century,  and 
these  in  turn  were  subdued  liy  the  Moors  after 
711.  A  remnant  of  the  Christian  inhabitants  who 
escaped  to  the  mountains  and  settled  in  the 
region  between  the  Sierra  dc  la  Peiia  and  the 
Pyrenees,  managed  to  maintain  their  independ- 
ence. For  a  long  time  Aragon  was  ruled  by 
counts  of  Gothic  origin.  Subsequently  it  was  in- 
corporated with  Navarre,  but  in  1035  it  attained 
its  independence  under  Ramiro  1.,  the  son  of 
Sancho  the  Great,  and  now  made  its  appearance 
as  a  kingdom.     Hemmed  in  by  Navarre  on  the 


west  and  by  the  little  State  of  Sobrarbe  on  the 
east,  Aragon,  of  necessity,  took  a  southward  ex- 
jiansion.  A  long  eonfiict  was  carried  on  with 
tlie  Arabs,  amininting.  ])erliaps,  to  nothing  more 
at  times  tliau  mere  guerrilla  raids,  but  result- 
ing in  the  gradual  acquisition  of  individual 
strongholds  and  towns.  On  the  capture  of 
Huesca  in  1090,  the  caiiital  of  the  country  was 
removed  from  the  mountain  valleys  to  the  piateau 
of  northern  Spain.  The  concpiest  of  .Saragossa  in 
1118  brought  the  valley  of  the  Ebro  under  the 
rule  of  the  kings  of  Aragon.  In  1 137  Aragon  was' 
united  with  Catalonia  by  the  marriage  of  Petron- 
ella,  the  daughter  of  Ramiro  II.,  with  Count 
Raymond  Berengar  IV.  of  Barcelona.  This  union 
at  once  raised  Aragon  to  a  iiredominant  position 
in  the  Iberian  Peninsula.  Through  the  activity 
of  the  .seafaring  population  of  Catalonia,  the 
kings  of  Aragon  gained  possession  of  the  Balearic 
Islands,  Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  Naples  in  the 
course  of  the  two  following  centuries.  At  the 
same  time  the  consolidated  strength  of  the  king- 
dom was  directed  against  the  Mohammedans,  and 
in  1238  the  important  city  of  Valencia,  with  the 
surrounding  region,  fell  into  its  power.  During 
the  later  Middle  Ages,  Aragon  possessed  the  freest 
jiolitical  institutions  in  Europe.  The  power  of 
the  King  was  greatly  limited  by  the  privileges 
enjoyed  by  the  towns,  which  in  "effect  formed  a 
republican  State  within  the  monarchy.  Their 
affairs  were  administered  by  municipal  oflicers 
and  their  representatives  met  in  juntas,  which 
were  charged  with  the  maintenance  of  public 
safety  and  the  control  of  common  affairs.  At 
the  head  of  tlie  united  towns  stood  the  Justiciar 
of  Aragon,  to  whom,  on  certain  questions.  e\en 
the  King  had  to  yield.  The  towns  availed  them- 
selves of  the  King's  financial  embarrassments  to 
wring  charters  of  privileges  from  the  crown. 
Pedro  IV.,  in  the  Fourteenth  Century,  first  at- 
tem|)ted  to  assert  the  i)ower  of  the  crown  over 
the  cities;  but  though  he  was  partially  success- 
ful, the  task  was  not  completed  until  after  the 
union  of  Aragon  with  Castile.  During  this 
period  Barcelona  developed  into  one  of  the 
greatest  Mediterranean  ports,  and  entered  into 
rivalry  with  the  Italian  cities,  and  especially 
with  Genoa,  against  which  continual  wars  were 
waged.  By  the  marriage  of  Ferdinand  of  Ara- 
gon with  Isabella,  heiress  to  the  crown  of  Cas- 
tile, in  1409,  tile  two  States  were  united  in 
1479.  The  bond  lietween  the  two,  however,  was 
only  a  personal  one  until  1510,  when,  on  the 
accession  of  Charles  I.,  they  were  definitely 
merged  into  a  new  Spain,  with  which  tlie  sub- 
sequent history  of  Aragon  is  identified. 

ARAGONA,  a'ra-go'na.  A  city  of  Sicily, 
08  miles  south  of  Palermo,  and  ll' miles  north 
of  Girgenti.  In  this  vicinity  are  rich  sulphur 
mines,  and  the  mud-volcano  of  Maccaluba,  which 
is  about  135  feet  high  and  800  feet  above  the  sea, 
and  which  emits  carbureted  hydrogen  gases. 

AR'AGONITE  (named  after  Aragon,  see 
below).  An  anhydrous  calcium  carbonate  differ- 
ing from  calcite  by  crystallizing  in  the  ortho- 
rhombic  system,  while  calcite  crystallizes  in  the 
hexagonal.  In  color  it  is  generally  white,  but 
gr.ay,  yellow,  green,  and  violet  varieties  are 
known.  Some  of  the  known  varieties  of  aragonite 
differ  considerably  in  their  structure.  Flos  ferri 
is  a  coralloidal  form  found  in  beds  of  iron  ore; 
Satin  spar  is  a  silky,  fibrous  variety;   Sprudel- 


ARAGONITE. 


704 


ARAL. 


stein  is  a  stalaetitic  or  stalagniitic  variety.  Ara- 
gonite  was  first  found  in  Ara.eon,  Spain,  from 
which  it  derives  its  name.  It  also  occurs  in 
Boliemia,  Austria,  and  in  Sicily.  The  localities 
in  the  United  States  include  Hoboken,  N.  J. ; 
Lockport,  Edenville,  and  Rossie.  N.  Y. ;  Chester 
County,  Pa. :  Dubuijue.  Iowa,  and  Mine-la-Mottc. 
lie.  It  is  cut  and  polished  for  ornamental  pur- 
poses, and  the  well-known  varieties  of  ilexican 
onyx,  so  largely  used  by  architects  for  wain- 
scoting and  interior  decoration,  are  forms  of 
aragnnite. 

AKAGUATA,  :rra-g\va'ta  (native  name). 
The  ursine  howler.     See  Howler. 

ARAGUAYA,  il'ra-gwa-ya',  or  Kio  Grande. 
A  large  river  of  Brazil,  rising  in  the  Serra 
Cayapo,  in  latitiule  18°  10'  S.,  and  longitude 
51°  30'  W.  (Map:  Brazil,  H  5).  It  flows 
northeasterly  between  the  States  of  Goj'az  and 
Matto  Grosso,  inclosing  in  its  course  the  large 
Island  of  Bananal  (q.v.).  Near  San  Francisco, 
in  latitude  5°  30'  S.,  the  Araguaya  joins  the 
Tocantins,  which  empties  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
about  50  miles  to  the  east  of  the  main  estuary 
of  the  Amazon.  The  Aragi^iaya  is  more  than 
1300  miles  long  and  navigable  for  more  than 
half  that  distance.  A  line  of  small  steamers 
plies  its  waters  to  the  Raj^ids  of  Santa  Maria. 

ARAI  HAKUSEKI,  a-ri'  ha'koo-sa'ke  ( 1657- 
1725).  One  of  the  most  noted  of  modern  Japa- 
nese scholars,  Confucianists,  and  stylists,  who, 
by  his  life  and  writings,  illuminated  and  adorned 
the  ideas  that  long  molded  Japanese  society. 
When  I.yeyasu  "caused  confusion  to  cease  and 
order  to  prevail,"  native  and  Chinese  learning 
revived  in  Japan,  and  a  brilliant  group  of 
scholars  in  Yedo  set  forth  the  philosophical 
doctrines  of  Chu-Hi.  Of  these,  Arai  is  best 
known.  He  became  more  liberal  than  his  mas- 
ter, Seiga,  but  he  was  still  orthodox,  as  against 
the  Kogaku,  or  (in  government  view)  "heretical" 
school  of  philosophy.  As  patronized  by  I.yeyasu 
and  his  successors,  the  T.vcoons,  from  1615  to 
1868,  this  philo.sophieal  sj'stem  became  a  sort  of 
established  church,  and  heretics  w-ere  made  to 
feel  severe  political  opposition,  which  sometimes 
ended  in  imprisonment  and  death.  Yet  scat- 
tered over  the  country,  the  pupils  of  Arai  and 
other  masters  instructed  young  gentlemen  and 
helped  powerfully  to  mold  the  public  opinion 
by  which  the  ilikado  was  restored  to  power  in 
1868.  He  wrote  a  book  in  three  volumes,  Sei  Yo 
lii  Bun,  or  Annals  of  the  Western  Ocean,  which 
was  translated  by  S.  R.  Brown,  in  the  Trans- 
actions of  the  North  China  Branch  of  the  Asiatic 
Society   (London,  1827-31). 

ARAKAN,  ii'ra-kan',  or  Aracan.  The  north- 
ern division  of  Lower  Burma,  British  India,  ex- 
tending along  the  Bay  of  Bengal  from  about  18° 
to  21°  33'  northern  latitude,  and  covering,  with 
the  adjacent  islands,  an  area  of  18,540  square 
miles.  The  surface  is  very  mountainous  in  the 
interior,  which  is  traversed  by  several  parallel 
chains.  There  are  vast  forests  and  marshes 
covered  with  a  thick  growth  of  grasses  and  un- 
derbrush. The  climate  is  exceedingly  unhealth- 
ful.  The  lower  parts  of  the  country  are  well 
adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  rice,  indigo,  pepper, 
and  raw  sugar,  and  many  tropical  fruits  are 
found  in  a  wild  state.  The  chief  articles  of  ex- 
port are  rice,  salt,  and  teak-wood.  The  chief 
port   is  Akyab.      The   town   of  Arokan,   situated 


in  the  interior  to  the  northwest  of  Akyab,  which 
before  the  British  conquest  is  said  to  have  num- 
bered nearly  100,000  souls,  is  now  a  place  of 
ruins.  The  natives  of  Arakan  are  shorter  and 
somewhat  less  round-headed  than  the  Burmese 
proper,  with  whom  the)'  belong  by  race  and  lan- 
guage. A  caste  system  with  monogamy  pre- 
vails among  them.  The  population  increased 
from  671,899  in  1891  to  760,848  in  1901.  About 
sevent}'  ]ier  cent,  of  the  inhabitants  are  Bud- 
dhists, while  the  remainder  is  made  up  chiefly 
of  ilohammedaus.  Arakan  was  formerly  an  in- 
dependent kingdom.  At  the  end  of  the  Seven- 
teenth Century  it  began  to  decline,  owing  to  in- 
ternal strifes,  and  a  century  later  fell  into  the 
possession  of  Burma,  from  which  it  passed  to 
Great  Britain  in  1826.  Anthropological  details 
concerning  the  peoples  of  Arakan  will  be  found 
in  Lewin.  Wild  Races  of  Southeastern  India 
(London,  1870),  and  Risley,  Tribes  and  Castes  of 
Bengal   (Calcutta,  1891).  " 

ARAKTCHEYEFF,  il'rak-cha'yef.  Alexei 
AxDREYEViTcii,  Count  (1769-1834).  A  Russian 
statesman.  Of  noble  though  poor  family,  he 
rose  rapidly  to  high  rank  under  the  favoritism 
of  Paul,  who  made  him  commandant  of  his  body- 
guard at  Gatchina.  On  his  accession  to  the 
throne,  Paul  made  him  commandant  of  Saint 
Petersburg,  conferred  upon  him  the  baronial 
title,  dismissed  him  in  a  short  while,  made  him 
Count  in  1799,  and  again  retired  him  in  eight 
months.  After  Paul's  assassination,  Araktche- 
yetf  was  kept  near  the  person  of  Alexander  I., 
became  minister  of  war  in  1806.  and  in  the 
late  years  of  that  Emperor's  reign  was  his  all- 
powerful  adviser  in  matters  of  internal  policy. 
■The  will  of  the  Emperor,  whom  he  almost  wor- 
shiped, was  carried  out  at  all  hazards,  and  as 
the  energetic  Arakteheyeff  did  not  stop  short 
of  any  cruelty,  his  name  became  s^iionymous 
with  terror  to  all  liberal  thinkers.  In  1833  he 
deposited  50,000  rubles,  of  which  three-quarters 
of  the  principal  and  accumulated  interest  is  to  be 
awarded  in  1925  for  the  best  history  of  Alex- 
ander's reign.  It  was  provided  that  the  re- 
mainder shall  cover  the  expense  of  printing  the 
work,  to  form  a  second  prize,  and  to  be  paid 
for  translations  of  the  work  into  French  and 
German.  As  he  left  no  heirs  and  made  no  will, 
Nicholas  I.  granted  his  estate  at  Gruzino  and  all 
his  possessions  to  the  Novgorod  Corps  of  Cadets, 
henceforth  known  as  Arakteheyeff  Corps,  so  as 
to  perpetuate  the  memory  of  the  statesman. 

ARAL,  ai-'ffl  {Russian  pron.  a-riil').  or 
Aral-Dengis,  Lake.  (For  derivation  see  below.) 
A  lake  east  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  within  the  limits 
of  Russian  Central  Asia,  between  latitude  43°  43' 
and  46°  45'  N.,  and  traversed  bv  the  meridian 
of  60°  E.  longitude  (Map:  Asia,  E.  4).  It  lies  in 
the  Aralo-Caspian  lowlands,  is  bounded  by  the 
steppes  and  deserts  of  Khiva,  by  the  land  of  the 
Kirghis,  and  by  the  plateau  of  Ust-Urt,  separat- 
ing it  from  the  Caspian  Sea.  Its  greatest  length 
is  about  230  miles;  its  greatest  width  is  182 
miles ;  and  its  area,  according  to  Strelbitski, 
is  25,050  square  miles;  this  does  not  include 
its  four  large  islands,  occup3'ing  about  1000 
square  miles.  After  the  Caspian  Sea,  it  is 
the  largest  lake  in  the  Eurasiatic  continent, 
and,  next  to  Lake  Superior  and  the  Victoria 
Nyanza,  it  is  the  fourth  largest  in  the  world.  It 
lies   at  a   height   of    163   feet  above   the   level   of 


ARAL. 


705 


ARAM. 


the  ocean,  and  about  2.50  feet  above  tliat  of  the 
Caspian.  Its  numerous  islands  gave  rise  to  its 
•name  of  Aral-Denfiis  (Kirgliiz.  Turk,  at-al. 
island  +  dengis,  sea,  lake).  The  bluish  tinge 
of  its  water  suggested  to  the  Russians  the  name 
of  Blue  Sea.  In  ancient  times  it  was  called 
the  Lake  of  Oxiana,  and  during  the  Middle  Ages 
the  Sea  of  Khovaresm,  or  Kliuarisiii.  It  is  fed 
by  the  Syr-Darya  (the  ancient  Jaxartes)  on  tlie 
east  side  and  the  .\mu-Darya  (or  ancient  Oxus) 
on  the  south.  It  is  shallow,  its  average  depth 
hardly  reaching  fifty  feet.  There  are  unmis- 
takable signs  of  its  drying  up,  especially  in  its 
southern  part.  The  Aral  is  a  salt-water  lake, 
but  it  contains  less  salt  than  the  ocean.  It 
freezes  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the 
shore.  It  is  very  rich  in  fish,  whicli  are  caught 
here  in  great  quantities.  It  is  remarkable  that, 
of  all  the  varieties  of  fish  in  the  Aral,  there  is 
not  a  single  salt-water  variety.  In  the  affluents 
of  the  -Aral  the  Scapliirhynchus  species  of  fish 
lias  recently  been  discovered,  a  variety  not  found 
anywhere  else  in  the  world  at  present,  but  which 
was  abundant  in  the  Tertiary  period.  Owing 
to  the  shallowness  of  its  waters,  navigation 
is  difficult ;  but  Russian  steamers  have  been 
launched  upon  it,  and  took  part  in  the  operations 
against  Khiva  in  June,  1873.  The  history  of 
the  Sea  of  Aral  is  very  remarkable.  Sir  Henry 
Rawlinson  and  Colonel  Yule  collected  refer- 
ences made  to  it  in  Greek,  Latin,  Arabic,  and 
Persian  writers,  and  tried  to  establish  the  fact 
that  the  area  it  now  occupies  has  been  dry  land 
twice  within  historical  times — the  .Jaxartes  and 
the  Oxus  then  running  south  of  the  Sea  of  Aral 
to  the  Caspian.  It  is  very  remarkable  that  the 
Amu  has  changed  its  bed  very  considerably 
within  one  decade,  as  is  proven  by  a  comparison 
of  the  maps  carefully  prepared  in  18.59  and  1870. 
See  Proceedings  of  Royal  Geographical  Society, 
Vol.  XL,  Vol.  XVI.,  and  Vol.  I.  (new  series, 
1879)  ;  also  The  Shores  of  Lake  Aral,  by  Major 
Wood   (London,  1876). 

ARA'LIA  (derivation  uncertain).  A  genus 
of  plants,  the  type  of  the  natural  order  Aralia- 
cecc.  This  order  is  dicotyledonous,  and  consists 
of  trees,  shrubs,  and  herbaceous  plants,  resem- 
bling the  Umbellifera\  both  in  their  general 
habit  and  in  their  botanical  characters,  but  dif- 
fering essentially  in  the  fruit,  which  is  not 
formed  of  two  separable  carpels  as  in  the  L'm- 
belliferae.  The  fruit  of  the  AraliaceiE  consists 
of  several  one-seeded  cells,  and  is  often  succulent. 
The  order  contains  about  four  hundred  known 
species,  natives  of  tropical,  temperate,  and  cold 
climates,  generally  possessing  stimulant  and  aro- 
matic properties.  The  principal  genera  are  Ara- 
lia,  Panax,  Hcdera,  and  Fatsia.  Poisonous 
qualities  are  not  developed  as  in  the  Umbelli- 
fer;p.  The  herbage  of  many  species  affords  good 
food  for  cattle,  and  some  are  used  for  human 
food.  The  genus  Aralia  contains  a  considerable 
number  of  species — trees,  shrubs,  and  herbaceous 
plants.  It  has  a  succulent  fruit,  with  five  or 
ten  cells,  crowned  with  the  styles.  Aralia  nudi- 
cauUs,  commonly  called  wild  sarsaparilla,  is  a 
native  of  the  L'nited  States.  It  is  a  species 
of  low  growth,  having  a  solitary  radical  leaf 
with  a  trifid  stalk  and  ovate  serrated  segments; 
the  scape  is  shorter  than  the  leaf.  The  root 
is  said  to  be  equal  in  value  to  sarsaparilla 
as   an   alterative   and   tonic.     Aralia   racemosa, 


well  known  as  spikenard,  has  large,  spicy,  aro- 
matic roots.  Aralia  spiHosu,  and  Aralia  hispida, 
also  natives  of  North  America,  produce  an  aro- 
matic gum-resin.  .Aralia  spinosa  is  sometimes 
called  toothache-tree;  it  also  bears  the  name  of 
angelica-tree.  It  is  a  native  of  nioist  w^oods  in 
\'irginia  and  Carolina,  growing  to  a  height  of 
ten  or  twelve  feet,  with  a  single  stem,  spreading 
head,  doubly  and  trebly  pinnate  leaves  and  ovate 
liafiets,  and  is  verj-  ornamental  in  a  lawn.  Ara- 
lia polaris,  found  in  the  southern  island  of  New 
Zealand,  and  in  the  greatest  abundance  and  lux- 
uriance in  the  .\uekland  Islands,  is  a  herba- 
ceous perennial,  four  to  five  feet  high,  with  large 
orbicular  masses  of  green  foliage  and  waxy 
Dowers,  whicli  present  a  very  striking  appear- 
ance. Aralia  cdiilis,  now  called  Aralia  conlafa, 
is  employed  in  China  as  a  sudorific.  Its  shoots 
are  very  delicate  and  pleasant  when  boiled ;  and 
the  roots,  which  have  an  agreeable  aromatic 
llavor,  are  used  by  the  Japanese  as  carrots  or 
parsnips  are  by  Europeans.  Aralias  abound  in 
the  warm  valleys  of  the  Himalaya.  The  natives 
collect  the  leaves  of  many  as  fodder  for  cattle, 
for  which  purpose  they  are  of  great  value  in  a 
country  where  grass  for  pasture  is  scarce;  but 
the  use  of  this  food  gives  a  peculiar  taste  to  the 
butter.  Chinese  rice-paper  is  cut  from  cylinders 
of  the  pith  of  Aralia  papyrifera.  Ginseng,  the 
root  of  Panax  quinquefolia,  is  one  of  the  most 
important  products  of  the  order  Araliacea;. 
Large  quantities  of  ginseng  are  collected  and 
shipped  to  China,  where  wonderful  medicinal 
qualities  are  attributed  to  it.  For  fine  speci- 
mens almost  fabulous  prices  are  paid.  Jlodern 
pharmacy  does  not  consider  it  of  great  value. 
The  astringent  roots  of  Gunnera  seabra,  some- 
times classed  with  the  Aralias,  are  used  in  tan- 
ning, and  its  fleshy  leaf-stalks  are  eaten  like 
those  of  rhubarb.  It  has  been  seen  on  the  sand- 
stone clift's  of  Chile  with  leaves  nearly  eight  feet 
in  diameter,  each  plant  bearing  four  or  five  of 
these  enormous  leaves.  It  has  been  introduced 
into  Great  Britain,  and  is  found  to  succeed  well 
in  the  climate  of  Edinburgli.  The  only  repre- 
sentative of  this  order  in  the  British  'flora  is 
the  iv)'  (q.v.).  Bedera  helix.  Fatsia  horrida,  a 
member  of  this  family,  is  common  along  the 
Pacific  coast,  extending  well  into  Alaska.  It  has 
slender,  rope  -  like  stems,  crowned  with  large 
leaves.  Stems  and  leaves  are  covered  with 
prickles  that  sometimes  make  severe  sores  upon 
persons  who  come  in  violent  contact  with  them. 
The  popular  name  for  the  plant  is  Devil's  Club. 

Fossil  Form.s.  The  genus  Aralia  and  an  allied 
genus,  Aralia>phyllum,  have  been  described  from 
many  localities  in  the  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary 
rocks  of  North  America  and  Europe,  where  they 
are  represented  by  about  twenty-five  species. 

A'RAM,  Eugene  (1704-1759).  An  English 
schoolmaster  and  scholar,  born  at  Ramsgill, 
Netherdale,  in  Yorkshire.  His  father  was  a 
gardener,  and  could  aftord  to  keep  Eugene  at 
school  for  only  a  short  time;  but  even  while  as- 
sisting his  father  the  boy  found  time  for  study. 
He  married  early,  and  became  a  schoolmaster, 
first  in  Netherdale,  and  afterward  at  Knares- 
borough,  where  he  continued  to  teach  till  1745. 
At  Knaresborough  lived  one  Daniel  Clarke,  a 
shoemaker,  and  an  intimate  acquaintance  of 
Aram.  On  one  occasion  Clarke  happened  to  buy 
a  quantity  of  valuable  goods,  which  he  easily 
obtained  on  credit;   but,  to  the  surprise  of  every- 


ARAM. 


706 


ARAMAIC. 


body,  lie  soon  after  disappeared,  and  no  trace  of 
him  could  be  discovered.  Suspicion  lighted  upon 
Aram,  not  as  Clarke's  murderer,  but  as  his  con- 
federate in  fraud.  His  garden  was  searched, 
and  in  it  were  found  some  of  the  goods  which 
Clarke  had  bought.  Aram  was  arrested  and 
tried,  but  acquitted  for  want  of  evidence.  He 
now  left  his  wife  at  Knaresborough,  and  went 
to  London  and  other  parts  of  England,  teaching 
here  and  there;  and,  in  spite  of  his  roaming  life, 
contrived  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  botany,  her- 
aldry, Chaldee,  Arabic,  Welsh,  and  Irisli,  and 
was  planning  a  comparative  dictionary  of  all 
the  European  languages.  His  most  important 
scholastic  a<?hievement  was  his  discovery  of  the 
similarity  of  the  Celtic  to  other  Euro])ean  lan- 
guages. He  was  at  work  on  his  dictionary  when 
he  was  suddenly  dragged  away  from  his  usher- 
ship  of  Lynn  Academy,  in  Norfolk,  and  commit- 
ted to  prison  on  a  charge  of  murder.  The  remain- 
der of  the  story  is  well  known.  In  1759  a  skeleton 
was  dug  up  near  Knaresborough,  which  the  in- 
habitants suspected  to  be  that  of  Clarke ;  for 
they  had  now  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
unfortunate"  man  had  met  with  foul  play,  espe- 
cially as  Aram's  wife  had,  on  several  occasions, 
made  strange  statements  to  the  effect  that  her 
husband  and  a  man  named  Houseman  knew  more 
of  Clarke's  disappearance  than  they  chose  to  tell. 
Houseman  was  now  confronted  with  a  bone  of 
the  skeleton  which  had  been  discovered.  He 
very  emphatically  denied  that  it  was  Clarke's. 
People  naturally  wondered  how  he  could  be  so 
positive,  and  they  became  convinced  that  if  the 
skeleton  was  not  Clarke's,  Houseman  must  know 
where  Clarke's  body  was.  At  last  he  confessed 
that  he  had  been  a  spectator  of  the  murder  of 
Clarke  by  Aram  and  one  Terry.  He  named  the 
place  where  the  body  had  been  hidden.  The 
skeleton  was  dug  up,  and  Aram  was  tried  at 
York  for  the  murder  of  Clarke,  on  August  3, 
1759.  He  conducted  his  own  defense,  and  at- 
tacked, with  great  acumen,  the  doctrine  of  cir- 
cumstantial evidence ;  but  to  no  effect,  for  a 
verdict  of  guilty  was  returned,  and  he  was  con- 
demned to  be  executed  within  three  days.  In 
the  interval  he  confessed  his  guilt  to  two  clergy- 
men. While  in  the  condemned  cell  he  wrote  a 
defense  of  suicide,  but  failed  in  a  practical  illus- 
tration of  the  doctrine.  For  further  details 
consult:  N.  Scatcherd,  Memoirs  of  Eiif/ene  Aram 
(London,  1838),  and  for  an  idealized  portrait, 
Bulwer,  Eugene  Aram  (London,  1832)  ;  Hood, 
The  Dream  of  Eiifieve  Aram  (London,  1845). 

AR'AMA'IC.  The  name  given  to  a  branch 
of  the  Semitic  languages,  which  embraces  numer- 
ous subdivisions.  According  to  the  classification 
now  generally  adopted,  Semitic  speech  is  divided 
into  four  broad  divisions,  as  follows :  ( 1 )  Baby- 
lonian-Assyrian;  (2)  Aramaic;  (3)  Hebrseo- 
Phoenician;  (4)  South  Semitic.  Passing  over  the 
early  Aramaic  inscriptions,  these  languages  may 
be  divided  into  a  Western  and  an  Eastern  branch. 
To  the  former  belong  (a)  Biblical  Aramaic;  (b) 
Palmy rcne;  (e)  Nabatican;  (d)  Jewish  Ara- 
waic  in  certain  Targuniim  and  the  Palestinian 
Talmud;  (e)  Christian-Palestinian;  (f)  Samari- 
tan; (g)  Modern  dialects  in  the  Lebanon.  East- 
ern Aramaic  are:  (a)  much  of  the  Babylonian 
Talmud;  (b)  Manda-an;  (e)  Syriac:  (d)  Neo- 
Syriac  in  Northern  Mesopotamia,  Kurdistan,  and 
the  neighborhood  of  Lake  Unni.  Of  these 
the    most    interesting    and    important,    so    far 


as  literary  productions  are  concerned,  are  Bibli- 
cal Aramaic,  Babylonian  Aramaic,  and  Syriac. 
Examples  of  Biblical  Aramaic  are  in  the  Books- 
of  Daniel  (c.l65  B.C.)  and  Ezra  (e.250  B.C.), 
with  some  scattered  words  elsewhere  in  the  Old 
Testament.  The  discussions  of  the  Babylonian 
rabbis  on  the  Pentateuchal  and  post-biblical 
laws  are  almost  exclusively  in  the  Aramaic  dia- 
lect, which  w-as  adopted  by  the  .Tews  on  coming 
to  Babylonia,  and  which  forms  the  language 
of  the  most  of  the  vast  compilation  known 
as  the  Babylonian  Talmiid.  (See  Talmud.) 
Roughly  speaking,  this  compilation  covers  the 
four  centuries  from  A.D.  200  to  600,  though 
theie  are  both  earlier  and  later  portions  in 
it.  The  Syriac  literature  is  almost  exclusivelj' 
Christian,  and  for  the  greater  part  theological. 
Its  dialect  is  more  properly  that  of  Edessa,  for 
through  the  translation  of  the  Biljle  known  as 
the  Peshito  (i.e.  the  plain  or  unadorned  render- 
ing), in  the  Second  Century  A.n.,  the  literary 
language  of  Edessa  spread  throughout  Mesopo- 
tamia and  Palestinian  Christendom.  From  this 
time  until  the  Fourteenth  Century  a  large  litera- 
ture was  produced,  embracing  not  only  doctrinal 
and  homiletic  expositions,  rituals,  and  religious 
])oetrj',  Ijut  also  history  and  romance.  Even 
after  the  Arabic  conquest,  Syriac  continued  for 
some  centuries  to  be  the  current  language  in 
Mesopotamia  and  northern  Palestine.  See 
Sykiac. 

Of  tlie  other  Aramaic  languages,  the  Pales- 
tinian Aramaic  is  represented  chiefly  in  the 
literary  remains  of  the  Aramaic-speaking  Chris- 
tians of  Palestine  and  the  discussions  of  the 
Rabbis  in  the  Palestinian  schools  on  the  minute 
regulations  of  post-exilic  .Judaism,  while  the 
Samaritan  is  of  importance  chiefly  because  of  the 
translation  of  the  Pentateuch  into  this  speech. 
The  ilandaie,  (me  of  the  Christian  dialects  of 
Mesopotamia,  has  but  scanty  literary  remains, 
and  is  of  importance  chiefly  for  the  insight  it 
affords  into  the  peculiarities  of  the  Mandiean 
sect.  Palmyrene  and  Xabatfean  are  represented 
chiefly  by  mortuary  and  commemorative  inscrip- 
tions, belonging  to  the  early  centuries  of  our  era, 
while  the  modern  dialects  have  now  a  large  litera- 
ture— Bible  translations,  Sunday-school  books,  and 
religious  works — due  to  the  efforts  of  various  mis- 
sionary societies.  A  feature  of  the  Aramaic  speech, 
which  is  illustr;ited  by  the  above  sketch,  is  the 
large  geographical  extent  occupied  by  it,  covering 
as  it  does  practically  the  entire  range  of  Semitic 
settlements,  witli  the  exception  of  Southern  .\rabia 
and  Abyssinia.  As  early  as  the  Eighth  Century  B.C. 
we  find  Aramaic  a  current  s)iecch  in  the  extreme 
north  of  Syria  at  the  foot  of  the  Taurus  range. 
Monuments  of  rulers  in  this  district,  found  by 
German  explorers  at  Senjerli,  contain  inscriptions 
in  Aramaic.  The  southern  limit  of  Aramaic  is 
marked  by  inscriptions  found  at  Teima  in  north- 
ern Arabia,  and  belonging  to  the  period  before 
Mohammed.  In  the  later  days  of  the  Babylonian 
Empire,  Aramaic  even  superseded  the  native 
Babylonian  as  tlie  current  speech  of  the  people, 
so  that  the  Hebrews,  upon  coming  to  Babylonia, 
adopted  Aramaic  and  not  Babylonian,  in  place 
of  Hebrew.  In  Palestine  proper,  Aramaic  also 
crept  in  at  a  comparatively  early  period.  After 
the  return  of  the  Hebrews  from  the  Babylonian 
exile,  Hebrew  rapidly  declined  and  assumed  the 
character  of  a  sacred  and  learned  language  in 
contrast  to  the  ever-growing  popularity  of  Ara- 


ARAMAIC. 


707 


ABANSAS. 


iiiaie  as  the  speech  of  tlic  people.  For  the  spe- 
cial traits  of  Aramaic,  see  Semitic  Langiages. 

15IBLI0GRAPHY.  Zimiiiem,  Vergleicheiide  Gram- 
niatih  der  seinitischen  Sprachen  (Berlin,  18'J8)  ; 
the  grammars  of  Biblical  Aramaic  by  Kautzsch 
(1884),  JIarti  (1890),  ami  Strack  (IS'JTj  ;  Ual- 
man,  Grdminiitik  dcs  jii<lis(;)t-pul«isliiiii<chen  Ara- 
iiidtisch  (Leipzig,  18114)  ;  Levias.  <!ruini>iar  of  the 
liuhjjlonkni  Talmud  (Cincinnati,  1!)00)  ;  Petcr- 
mann,  Brcvis  Lhujttfv  i^amttrittnuv  (jratinnatica 
(Leipzig,  1867);  Xiildeke,  Mdiidiiisclie  liramma- 
iik  (Halle,  1875)  ;  id.. Si/risclie  (Iruinmatik  (Leip- 
zig, 1898):  id.,  (Irciiiunatik  dcr  iieusyrischen 
Hprache  (Leipzig,  1SU8)  ;  Dnval,  Graminaire  sy- 
riciquc  ( l^iris,  1881)  :  Maclean.  Gmmmar  of  Ver- 
nacular Syriae  (Cambridge.  1895)  ;  Ndldeke, 
Gram,  dcr  neu.si/n'schcu  Hpraclic  (l^ipzig,  1863). 

ARAMAIC  VER'SIONS.      See  Hiule. 

AR'AME'ANS.  By  Aranieans,  or  Sj'ro- 
Chaldeans,  Keane  (1890)  denotes  certain  Semitic 
peoples  of  Syria,  parts  of  Palestine,  and  the 
Lower  Euphrates,  while  Brinton  (1890)  makes 
Aramean  a  subdivision  of  the  more  general  Chal- 
dean, and  Featherman  (1881)  uses  it  to  include 
all  the  Semitic,  Haniitic,  and  related  peoples. 
As  Arameans  we  n.ay  reckon  the  ancient  Baby- 
lonians (in  so  far  as  they  were  Semites),  the 
Assyrians,  the  Syrians,  or  Western  Arameans; 
the  so-called  Chaldeans,  or  Eastern  Arameans, 
and  the  Samaritans  (in  part),  besides  some 
peoples  of  less  importance.  As  a  result  of  the 
vitality  of  Arabic,  and  the  absorbing  power  of 
the  people  who  carried  it  north,  the  Eastern  Ara- 
maic is  now  reduced  to  the  dialects  of  a  few 
communities  in  Northern  Mesopotamia,  Kurdis- 
tan, and  around  Lake  Urmi.  The  Western 
Aramaic  is  of  interest,  as  it  was  probably  the 
cvery-day  speech  of  Palestine  in  the  time  of 
.Tesus,  and  used  by  him  as  the  quotations  in  the 
New  Testament  show.  Aramaic  became  the  lan- 
guage of  general  intercourse  in  later  Bal)ylonian 
and  Assyrian  times,  and  seems  to  have  driven  the 
Semitic  dialects  of  that  region  out  of  popular 
r'se.     See  Syeiac  Laxgu.\ge;  Semites. 

AR'AMIN'TA.  A  favorite  name  among  the 
Restoration  dramatists,  although  never  given 
by  them  to  very  prepossessing  characters.  Van- 
brugh.  in  The  Confederacy,  christens  with  it  the 
wife  of  Moneytrap,  a  snolibisli  creature  with  a 
weakness  for  titles,  and  Congreve  gives  it  to  the 
principal  female  character  in  his  comedy  of  The 
Old  Bachelor. 

ARAMIS,  a'r.n'mes'.  Tlie  least  exaggerated 
and  most  sympathetic  of  Dumas's  Three  Musket- 
eers, whose  mildness  and  modesty  make  him 
more  pleasing  to  modern  readers  than  his  more 
self-assertive  comp-inions.  He  finally  enters  the 
C'hurch  as  an  ahhe. 

ARAN,  ar'an,  South  Lsles  of.  Three  small 
islands  situated  at  the  entrance  to  Cialway  Bay, 
otr  the  wcstei'n  coast  of  Ireland.  The  principal 
and  the  most  western  of  them  is  called  Inishmore, 
and  is  seven  miles  long,  and  two  miles  broad. 
The  nc,\t  is  called  Inishmaan.and  the  third,  lying 
to  the  southeast,  Inishere.  Their  total  area  is 
about  eighteen  square  miles,  and  they  all  form 
the  barony  of  Gore.  The  soil  is  for  the  most 
part  sandy',  and  the  only  remarkable  feature  of 
the  islands  is  the  number  of  old  relics  found  on 
them.  The  islands  contained  at  one  time  about 
twenty  cluirches  and  monasteries.  There  e.xist 
some  remains  of  old  fortresses,  supposed  to  have 


been  built  in  the  First  Century  a.d.  The  main 
industry  is  fishing,  and  the  principal  village  is 
Kilronan,  on  inishmore,  with  a  population  of 
750, 

ARANDA,  a-riin'da,  Don  Pedro  Pablo 
Abarac.v  de  Bolea,  Count  of  (1718-99).  A 
Spanish  statesman,  born  in  Saragossa,  of  a  dis- 
tinguished Aragonese  family.  He  at  first  fol- 
lowed a  military  career,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of 
general.  In  1700  he  was  appointed  by  Charles 
III.  ambassador  to  the  court  of  Augustus  III., 
King  of  Poland.  In  1700  he  was  recalled  to 
Madrid  on  account  of  its  disturbed  state,  and 
became  president  of  the  Coimeil  of  Castile  and 
lirime  minister.  He  soon  restored  order  in  the 
capital,  expelled  the  Jesuits  from  Spain,  sup- 
pressed the  banditti  in  the  Sierra  Morena,  and 
promoted  a  liberal  policy.  In  1773  he  was  re- 
moved from  his  post  through  the  influence  of 
the  clergy,  and  sent  as  ambassador  to  France, 
where  he  remained  until  1787.  In  1792  he  was 
again  made  prime  minister,  but  was  soon  de- 
posed again  through  the  agency  of  Godoy,  Duke 
of  Alcudia,  the  Queen's  favorite.  .He  remained 
inesident  of  the  (Council  of  vState,  which  he  had 
organized;  but  upon  opposing  the  foreign  policy 
of  Clodoy  he  was  banished  to  Aragon,  where  he 
died. 

AR'ANE'IDA.  An  order  of  Arachnida.  See 
Spiders. 

ARANGO  Y  PARRENO,  a-ran'go  e  pa-ra'- 
nyo,  Francisco  de  ( 1705-1837  ) .  A  Cuban  states- 
man. He  was  born  at  Havana,  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1789,  and  twice  represented  Cuba 
in  the  Cortes  of  Spain.  It  was  through  his 
exertions  that  the  tobacco  monopoly  was  done 
away  with,  and  the  ports  of  Cuba  were  opened 
to  foreign  trade.  He  is  best  known  for  his 
works  treating  of  Cuban  economies,  many  of 
which  have  been  translated  into  other  languages. 

ARANJUEZ,  a'ran-iiweth'  (From  Lat.  Ara 
■Joris,  altar  of  .Jupiter).  A  town  in  the  Prov- 
ince of  iladrid,  Spain,  situated  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Tagus,  28  miles  south-southeast  of  Ma- 
drid, in  a  beautifully  wooded  valley  (Map: 
Spain,  D  3).  The  town  is  built  in  the  Dutch 
style  and  has  broad  and  regular  streets  intersect- 
ing each  other  at  right  angles.  It  is  famed  for 
its  palace  and  gardens.  The  place  owes  its  exist- 
ence to  an  idiosyncrasy  of  Philip  II.  He  erected 
a  splendid  palace  where  had  been  but  a  shooting 
villa,  and  for  several  months  of  the  year  Aran- 
juez  became  the  seat  of  government.  The  place 
naturally  acquired  more  or  less  importance  from 
this  circumstance,  its  population  at  one  time 
reaching  20,000.  The  various  sovereigns  who 
occupied  Aranjuez  beautified  it  by  erecting  new 
structures  or  extending  the  gardens.  Aranjuez 
is  known  historically  for  tbe  treaty  of  alliance 
concluded  here  between  France  and  Spain  on 
April  12,  1772,  and  as  the  scene  of  the  abdica- 
tion of  Charles  IV.  on  March  19,  1808.  Pop., 
1900,   11,172. 

ARANSAS,  a-r:'in'zns.  Bat.  An  inlet  of  the 
Gidt  of  ilexico,  on  the  coast  of  Texas,  about 
15  miles  northeast  of  Corpus  Christi  Bay  (Map: 
Texas,  F  6).  It  has  a  length  of  about  18  miles, 
and  its  greatest  width  is  about  8  miles.  It  is 
connected  with  the  Gulf  by  a  narrow  channel, 
known  as  .\ransas  Pass.  It  has  a  sandy  bar, 
which  detracts  from  its  commercial  importance, 
and  is  protected  by  a  lighthouse.     On  November 


ARANSAS. 


708 


ARARAT. 


20,  1864,  the  pass  was  the  scene  of  a  battle  be- 
tween tlie  Confederate  and  the  Federal  troops, 
which  resulted  in  the  capture  of  the  former's 
fortifications  at  the  pass. 

ARANSAS  PASS.     See  Ak.\nsas  Bay. 

ARANY,  O'ro-ny',  Janos  (1817-82).  Next 
to  Petofi  the  greatest  of  modern  Hungarian 
poets.  He  was  born  at  Nagy-Szalonta,  March  1, 
1S17.  His  parents  were  simple  peasants  and 
very  poor,  l)ut  he  was  their  only  son  and  the 
chiid  of  their  old  age,  and  they  spared  no  effort 
to  give  him  an  education.  At  four  he  had  al- 
ready learned  to  read  from  letters  traced  in  the 
ashes  on  the  hearth,  and  the  Psalms  were  his 
first  spelling-book.  From  the  first  he  was  an  in- 
defatigable reader,  and  liad  soon  exhausted  the 
resources  of  the  local  library,  botli  in  Hungarian 
and  in  Latin.  At  tlie  age  of  fifteen  he  entered 
the  college  at  Debreczin,  where  he  quickly  dis- 
tinguished himself,  but  liis  dreams  were  of  a 
romantic  career.  Like  Petofi,  he  had  felt  the 
fascination  of  the  stage,  and  in  1836  joined  a 
company  of  strolling  players;  but  after  a  few 
months,'  poverty  and  hunger  brouglit  him,  foot- 
sore and  discouraged,  back  to  his  father's  house. 
Here  he  put  aside  romantic  aspirations,  and  hav- 
ing obtained  an  appointment  as  notary,  settled 
down  to  be  a  mere  "everyday"  man.  It  was  not 
until  the  summer  of  1845  that  certain  absurdi- 
ties in  the  life  of  the  county  officials  "awoke 
the  voice  of  satire  within  him,"  and  inspired  his 
first  poem,  a  satirical  ejiic,  Az  nlveszett  alkot- 
muiuj  ("The  Lost  Constitution"),  and  the  Kis- 
fahidy  Society  of  Pesth  having  offered  a  prize 
for  tiie  best  "humorous  poem,  he  submitted  it 
and  was  successful.  Two  years  later  he  obtained 
a  second  prize  with  the  first  part  of  his  great 
trilogy,  ToUli,  an  epic  founded  wholly  upon  Mag- 
yar traditions,  which  inunediately  brouglit  him 
into  widespread  popularity,  and  won  him  the 
friendship  of  the  leading  men  of  letters  of  his 
day  and  country.  Petiifi,  among  others,  wrote 
to  "him,  saying:  "While  others  win  their  laurels 
leaf  by  leaf,  we  must  grant  you  at  once  the  full 
crown."  Arany's  popularity  soon  extended  to 
the  lowest  ranks  of  the  people,  for  he  had  satu- 
rated himself  in  childhood  with  the  folklore  of 
his  race,  and  he  excelled  above  all  in  the  art  of 
weaving  these  old  legends  and  traditions  into 
the  fabric  of  his  poems,  and  in  appealing  to  that 
spirit  of  national  pride  which  is  a  leading  char- 
acteristic of  the  ilagyar  race.  From  this  time 
on  his  career  was  determined.  In  1860  he  re- 
moved to  Pesth,  becoming  first  director  and  then 
secretary  of  the  Kisfaludy  Society,  and  in  1870 
general  secretary  of  the  Hungarian  Academy  of 
Science,  a  position  which  he  held  until  shortly 
before  his  death,  October  22,  1882.  A  monument 
was  raised  to  his  memory  at  Pesth  in  1893. 
Among  his  more  notable  works  should  be  men- 
tioned: Miirtinii  ostroma  ("The  Siege  of  ilu- 
rflny")  ;  King  Biida's  Death,  an  epic  in  twelve 
cantos:  the  secon<l  and  third  parts  of  the  Toldi 
cycle,  Tohli's  Love  and  Toldi's  Evening;  some 
exquisite  ballads,  which  many  Hungarian  critics 
think  have  been  unsurpassed,  and  numerous 
translatiims,  including  .Vristophanes,  and  por- 
tions of  (Joethe,  Tasso,  and  Shakespeare.  .\rany's 
own  estimate  of  his  worth  is  interesting:  "My 
talent,"  he  wrote,  "is  always  urging  me  onward, 
but  my  Lack  of  energy  constantly  drags  me  back: 
and  so  I  remain,  like  the  greater  part  of  my  work 
— a  fragment!"    This  verdict  falls  far  below  that 


of  his  countrymen,  who  unite  in  regarding  him 
as  the  poet  who  raised  Hungarian  poetry  to  a 
hitherto  unknown  height,  as  unequaled  in  his 
versatility  and  artistic  finish,  and  in  his  power 
of  combining  the  spirit  of  the  primitive  Magyar 
folksong  and  the  classic  polish  of  his  own  verse 
in  perfect  harmony.  There  are  numerous  Ger- 
man translations  of  his  poems,  among  others, 
Kertbeny  (Leipzig,  18,51);  L.  Kurodi  (Kron- 
stadt,  iS63)  ;  Sponer  (Leipzig,  1880)  ;  and 
Dux    (Pesth,   1861). 

ARAP'AHO  (probably,  tattooed  people). 
An  important  Algonkian  tribe  of  the  North 
American  plains,  living  in  three  principal  divi- 
sions, viz.,  the  Hitunena,  "Beggars"  or  Grosven- 
tres,  associated  with  the  Assinihoin  in  northern 
Montana  (600);  the  Xorthern  Arapahos,  liv- 
ing with  the  Shoshonis  upon  a  reservation  in 
Wyoming  (800)  ;  and  the  Southern  .-Vrapahos, 
associated  with  the  C'heyennes  in  Okhihuma 
( 980 ) .  These  last,  together  with  the  Chej-ennes, 
sold  their  reservation  by  treaty  in  1892,  and  are 
now  citizens,  holding  allotments  in  severalty. 
In  character  the  Arapahos  are  friendly  and  ac- 
commodating, and  dis])lay  a  superior  adaptabil- 
ity to  civilization.  They  are  also  of  a  fervent 
religious  spirit,  and  were  among  the  principal 
adherents  and  propagators  of  the  ghost  dance 
leligion  some  ten  years  ago.  In  the  early  border 
wars  they  were  usually  friendly  or  neutral,  not- 
withstanding the  fact  that  their  allies,  the  C'hey- 
ennes, were  among  the  most  determined  of  the 
hostiles. 

ARAPAIMA,  ii'ia-pi'nui  (probably  native 
name).  A  genus  of  South  American  river  fislies, 
closely  related  to  the  herrings,  and  having  the 
body  covered  with  a  mosaic  of  strong,  bony,  com- 
pound scales.  They  are  the  largest  fresh-water 
fishes  in  the  world,  attaining  a  length  of  15 
feet  and  a  weight  of  400  pounds.  They  are  much 
\alued  as  food,  both  in  the  fresh  and  in  the  salted 
condition,  by  the  people  of  Brazil  and  Guiana. 
The  principal  species  is  Arapaiina  gigas,  which 
is  taken  by  spearing. 

ARAPILES,  a'ni-pe'las.  A  village  of  Spain 
in  the  Province  of  Salamanca,  situated  about 
four  miles  southeast  of  the  town  of  Salamanca 
(Map:  Spain,  C  2).  It  was  famous  as  the  place 
of  the  battle  of  Salamanca,  in  which  the  French 
forces  under  ilarmont  were  defeated  by  the 
allied  troops  under  Wellington,  on  July  22, 
1812. 

AR'ARAT  (Aii-arat,  in  the  old  .Armenian 
dialect  Aitirnt,  i.e.  the  plains  of  the -■Aryans) .  The 
ancient  name  of  the  fertile  plateau  through  w  hich 
flows  the  river  Aras.  or  Araxes.  Ararat  appears 
in  the  Old  Testament  (II.  Kings  xix.  37)  as  the 
place  to  wdiich  the  sons  of  Sennacherib  fled  after 
murdering  their  father.  In  Assyrian  texts  the 
country  is  also  mentioned  frequently  from  the 
Ninth  Century  B.C.  onward  under  the  form  Urarti, 
though  it  would  appear  that  the  name  was  used 
somewhat  indefinitely  for  a  larger  district  than 
the  Ararat  of  classical  writers.  It  was  the 
ambition  of  the  Assyrian  kings  to  include  Urarti 
in  their  dominions,  and  frequent  military  expedi- 
tions were  made  against  Xaiyi,  as  the  vast  tract 
to  the  north  and  northeast  of  Assyria  was  com- 
monly termed.  It  occupies  the  centre  of  the 
mountainous  region  of  Armenia,  belonging  partly 
to  Turkey  and  partly  to  Russia,  .\ccording  to 
Genesis  (viii.  4)  it  was  on  the  "mountains  of 
Ararat"  that  Noah's  .^rk  rested  after  the  Del- 


ARARAT. 

uge,  from  wliich  it  ap]iears  that  Ararat  was 
properly  the  designation  of  an  entire  district. 
Such,  however,  was  the  general  interest  attach- 
ing to  the  Bihlical  tradition,  that  the  name 
Ararat  became  attached  to  a  particular  moun- 
tain, the  one  called  by  the  Armenians  Masis 
Leusar,  or  "'mountains  of  the  ai"k" ;  by  the 
Turks  Agliri-Dafih,  "steep  mountain";  and  by 
the  Per'<ians.  Knh-i-S'iih,  "Noah's  mountain."  It 
rises  in  two  volcanic  cones,  known  as  the  greater 
and  lesser  Ararat;  the  former,  which  attains 
the  height  of  16,912  feet  (according  to  another 
measurement,  17,212  feet)  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  is  covered  with  perjictual  snow.  It  is,  next 
to  Mount  Demavend,  the  highest  elevation  of 
Western  Asia,  and  since  1827  it  forms  the  point 
where  the  Russian,  Turkish,  and  Persian  ter- 
ritories meet,  its  summit  being  in  Russian  terri- 
tory. In  1840  the  form  of  the  mountain  was 
partially  changed  by  a  frightful  and  destructive 
earthquake.  Previous  to  this  period,  at  the  base 
of  the  mountain  and  at  a  point  where  a  stream 
luns  from  a  wild  gorge,  there  stood  the  village 
of  Arguri,  or  Aguri.  It  was  surrounded  bj' 
gardens  and  orchards,  and  had  upwards  of  one 
thousand  inhaliitants.  In  the  ravine,  2300  feet 
above  the  village,  stood  the  Armenian  convent  of 
St.  James,  and  1000  feet  higher  still  a  chapel 
dedicated  to  St.  James.  The  beauty  and  mild 
air  of  the  district  made  Arguri  a  favorite  sum- 
mer resort  of  tlie  richer  inhabitants  of  Armenia. 
It  was  destined  to  imdergo  a  great'Change,  how- 
ever. On  July  2,  1840,  dreadful  shocks  of 
earthquake  were  felt,  (ireat  masses  of  the  moun- 
tain were  thrown  into  the  plain,  the  ravine  was 
closed,  the  convent  and  chapel  disappeared,  and 
the  village  and  the  gardens  which  surrounded  it 
were  buried  under  roeks,  earth,  and  ice,  with  all 
the  inliabitants. 

ARARAT,   or  PI'LOT   MOXIN'TAIN.        A 

mountain  about  3000  feet  high,  situated  in  Sur- 
rey County,  N.  C. 

ARARI,  il-rii're,  Sekra.  A  low  mountain 
cluiin  forming  the  southwestern  boundary  of 
the  States  of  Ceara  and  Piauhy,  Brazil  (ilap: 
Brazil,  Jo).  It  forms  part  of  the  mountain 
system  that  extends  soutliward  from  tlie  north- 
cast  coast  at  a  point  just  to  the  west  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Parahiba  River.  It  is,  besides, 
the  watershed  between  that  river  system  and  the 
Sao  Francisco,  to  the  eastward. 

ARAS,  a-r;is'(the  ancient  Gk,  'Apd|t)s.  Sraxt's) . 
A  river  in  Armenia,  formed  by  the  junction  of 
the  liingol-Su  and  the  Kaleh-Su,  and  uniting  its 
waters  with  those  of  the  Kur  (ancient  Cyrus), 
after  a  cour.se  of  about  500  miles.  The  main  . 
stream  is  the  Bingol-Su,  which  rises  in  the  Bin- 
gol-Dagh  Jtountains,  Asiatic  Turkey,  in  latitude 
41°  30'  N.  and  longitude  41°  10'  E.;  and  flowing 
north-northeast,  is  joined  a  little  below-  Hasan- 
Kaleh  by  the  Kaleh-Su,  after  which  the  combined 
stream  is  called  the  Aras  (Map:  Turkey 
in  Asia,  M  3).  About  52  miles  west  of 
Kazyman  it  crosses  the  Russian  frontier,  trav- 
erses the  territory  of  Kars  and  the  government 
of  Erivan ;  then  forms  for  a  long  distance  the 
boundary  line  between  Russia  and  Persia,  and  by 
a  sharp  turn  south  it  flows  on  until  it  meets  the 
Kur.  On  its  banks  are  found  many  traces  of 
ancient  canals  and  other  proofs  that  the  sur- 
rounding coimtry  was  once  densely  populated. 
The  ancient  writers  claimed  that  the  Aras  flowed 


700 


ARATUS. 


directly  into  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  modern  re- 
search has  proven  this  to  have  been  the  case. 
Near  the  village  of  Janfitze  the  old  bed  of  the 
Aras  is  visible  for  about  twenty  miles.  This 
former  bed  of  the  river  passed  through  Armavir, 
the  ancient  capital  of  Armenia. 

ARA'TOR.  A  Christian  Latin  poet  of  the 
Sixth  Century.  He  was  born  in  Liguria,  .studied 
at  Milan,  became  a  jurist  under  Theodoric,  and 
was  an  oHicial  under  Athalaric,  Theodoric's  suc- 
cessor. About  540  he  took  orders  as  a  subdea- 
con  of  the  Roman  Church.  He  is  best  known 
for  his  De  Act  is  Apostolonim,  a  poem  in  very 
creditable  hexameters,  but  much  overweighted 
with  reflective  and  allegorical  passages.  He  also 
wrote  an  Epislola  nrl  Pnrt)irniiiin  in  the  elegiac 
distich. 

ARA'TUS  ((;k.  "Aparos,  Anitos)  ( n.c.  271- 
213).  A  distinguished  statesman  and  general  of 
Sicyon.  At  the  time  of  Aratus's  youth,  Sicyon 
was  in  the  hands  of  tyrants,  who  were  chiefly 
partisans  of  the  Macedonian  kings.  Clinias,  the 
father  of  Aratus,  was  an  active  supporter  of  the 
opposite  side,  and,  in  the  course  of  a  party  strug- 
gle, he  was  assassinated,  B.C.  24(3.  Many  mem- 
bers of  his  party  were  obliged  to  flee  from  the 
city,  and  Aratus  was  rescued  by  a  relative  and 
taken  to  Argos.  Here  he  spent  his  youth  and 
became  a  recognized  leader  of  the  exiled  band. 
In  his  twentieth  year  (B.C.  251),  putting  himself 
at  the  head  of  a  few  followers,  lie  made  his  way 
to  Sicyon,  secretly  entered  the  town,  drove  out 
the  tyrant,  and  reestablished  a  government  of 
the  people.  t)wing  to  the  long  rule  of  the  ty- 
rants, he  at  flrst  met  with  many  difliculties  in 
his  efforts  at  reorganization,  but  he  successfully 
overcame  these,  and  was  recognized  as  the  first 
man  in  the  state.  Under  his  lead,  Sicj'on  joined 
the  Acha;an  League,  in  which  it  soon'  rose  to  a 
position  of  first  importance.  In  B.C.  245  he  was 
made  general  of  the  League,  an  oflice  which  he 
held  in  the  course  of  his  career  seventeen  times. 
Through  his  influence,  many  other  Greek  cities 
joined  the  confederacy.  Iu'b.c.  224  the  League 
was  hard  pressed  by  the  Spartans  under  Cleo- 
mencs,  and  Aratus  found  himself  obliged  to 
join  hands  with  Antigonus,  King  of  Jlacedonia. 
An  alliance  was  made,  and  the  Spartans  were 
defeated  at  Sellasia,  in  B.C.  221 ;  but  through 
this  step  the  Macedonians  gained  a  foothold  in 
Pelojionnesus.  Aratus  was  a  greater  statesman 
than  general,  but  he  was  sincere  throughout  his 
life  in  his  efforts  to  enlarge  and  strengthen  the 
league.  He  was  finally  poisoned,  in  B.C.  213,  by 
order  of  Philip,  the  successor  of  Antigonus.  "Two 
annual  festivals  (the  Aratea)  were  instituted 
by  his  countrymen  in  his  honor.  Near  the  end 
of  his  life  he  wrote  his  memoirs,  in  thirty  books. 
Consult  Miiller,  Fragmenta  Historiconi'm  Orw- 
coriim  (Paris,  1808-74). 

ARATUS  OF  Sqli.  A  Greek  physician  and 
poet  of  t:ilicia.  About  B.C.  270,  at  "the  request 
of  the  Macedonian  king,  Antigonus  Gonatas,  he 
wrote  a  Greek  didactic  poem,  entitled,  Phenom- 
ena, founded  on  the  astronomical  system  of 
Eudoxus  of  Cnidos,  and  appended  to  it  another 
poem,  Dioscnicia,  giving  rules  for  prognostication 
of  the  weather.  A  pure  style  and  correct  versi- 
fication mark  both  poems,  which  were  translated 
into  Latin  by  Cicero,  Caesar  Germanicus,  and 
Rufus  Festus  Avienus.  Aratus  was  a  native  of 
the  same  province  as  St.  Paul,  who  quotes  from 


AKATUS. 


710 


ARAUCARIA. 


him  in  his  speech  on  Mars'  Hill  (Acts  xvii.  28). 
Critical  edition  by  Maass  (Berlin,  1892). 

ABATJCANIA,  a'rou-kii'nc-a.  The  country 
of  the  Araucos  or  Araucanian  Indians,  a  terri- 
tory in  the  southern  part  of  Chile,  occupying  a 
large  portion  of  the  province  of  Arauco.  The 
country  is  divided  from  north  to  south  into  four 
parallel  regions,  which  were  fonnerly  adminis- 
tered by  hereditary  tor/uis.  The  population  can- 
not be  given  with  accuracy,  but  is  estimated  at 
50.000. "  In  physical  type  they  resemble  their 
kindred  of  the'  pampas.  Their  language  is  of 
such  harmonious  and  adaptable  character  that  a 
serious  attempt  was  once  made  by  a  missionary 
student  to  introduce  it  into  Europe  to  super- 
sede Latin.  The  Araucanians  remained  inde- 
pendent longer  than  any  other  native  tribe  on 
the  American  continent,  "and  had  fought  for  their 
liberty,  with  intervals  of  precarious  truce,  from 
1537  'to  1773.  During  the  war  between  Spam 
and  the  Cbilean  colonists,  Araucania  remained 
neutral.  In  1861,  a  French  adventurer  named 
Antoine  Tounens  was  elected  King  of  Araucania, 
under  the  name  of  Orelie  .\ntoine  I.,  but  was 
deposed  and  sent  bacj<  to  France  by  the  Chil- 
ean Government.  The  rule  of  Chile  was  recog- 
nized bv  the  Araucanians  in  1870.  Consult  A. 
Polakowsky,  "Die  heutigen  Aurakanen,"  in 
Globus,  No.  74  (Brunswick,  1898). 

ARAU'CAN  STOCK.  A  group  of  South 
American  tribes  formerly  occupying  the  pampas 
region  of  Argentina,  fi'om  about  35°  south  to 
the  Fvio  Negro  and  the  adjoining  portion  of 
Chile,  including  the  island  of  Chiloe.  The  stock 
name  {Aucanian  of  Brinton)  is  derived  from 
aiicani,  "wild,  indomitable."  In  their  general 
character  and  habit  the  Indians  of  this  stock 
closely  resemble  our  oami  plains  tribes;  or  rather, 
perha'ps,  the  Navajos,  most  of  them  wandering 
constantly  from  place  to  place  in  quest  of  fresher 
pasture  for  their  herds  of  horses,  cattle,  and 
sheep,  dwelling  in  low  skin  tents  and  subsisting 
almost  entirely  upon  meat,  despising  agriculture, 
but  expert  in  dressing  skins,  forging  lance  blades 
and  knives,  and  weaving  the  wool  of  their  sheep 
into  blankets  and  ponchos.  They  seem  to  have 
but  a  loose  organization,  many  of  the  tribal 
names  being  merely  direction  names.  As  a  race 
they  are  warlike  aiid  independent,  refusing  civili- 
zat'ion  or  Christianity.  Among  their  tribes  are 
the  Araucano,  Chono.  Huilche,  Moluche,  Puel- 
ehe,  Ranquele.  and  others. 

AB'ATJCA'BIA  (from  Araucania,  a  territory 
in  the  south  of  Chile).  A  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Conifeme  or  pines,  consisting  of 
lofty  trees,  natives  of  South  America  and  Aus- 
tralasia. The  species,  of  which  there  are  fifteen, 
are  all  evergreen.  The  leaves  are  broader  than 
those  of  pines  and  firs,  which,  however,  the  trees 
resemble  in  their  general  manner  of  growth.  Ar- 
aucaria  imhricata,  sometimes  called  the  Chile 
Pine,  a  native  of  the  Andes  of  Chile,  form- 
ins  forests  on  their  western  declivities,  attains  a 
height  of  150  feet.  Its  trunk  is  quite  straight 
and  free  from  knots.  The  bark  of  the  young  trees 
is  studded  with  leaves  from  the  base  upward, 
even  until  the  tree  is  12  or  15  years  of  age.  The 
branches  are  in  whorls  of  five  to  eight.  Young 
trees  have  branches  almost  from  the  ground ;  old 
trees  haA'e  tall  naked  stems,  with  a  crown  of 
branches.  The  female  strobile  (c(me)  is  roundish 
ovate,  six  to  eight  inches  in  diameter,  with  scales 


terminated  by  a  long  awl-shaped  point,  and  seeds 
wedge-shaped  and  more  than  an  inch  in  length. 
The  outer  and  inner  bark  of  full-grown  trees  are 
each  four  to  six  inches  in  thickness.     From  both 
outer  and  inner  bark,  and  indeed  from  all  parts  of 
the  tree,  resin  Hows  readily  and  in  great  abun- 
dance.  The  leaves  are  lanceolate,  about  an  inch  in 
length,  and  half  an  inch  in  breadth  near  the  base, 
sharp-pointed.     The  timber  is  heavy,  solid,  hard, 
fibrous,  yellowish  white,  and  beautifully  veined. 
It   is   suitable   for  masts   of   ships.     The   resin, 
which   is  white,  has  a   smell   like  frankincense, 
and  a  not  unpleasant  taste.    The  seed  is  pleasant 
to  the  taste,  not  unlike  the  chestnut,  and  is  a 
most     important     article     of     food    among    the 
natives.     It  is  eaten  raw,  boiled,  or  roasted.     A 
spirituous  liquor  is  distilled  from  it.     A  single 
strobile  sometimes  contains  between  200  and  300 
seeds,  and  one  tree  nuiv  be  seen  loaded  with  20  or 
30   of   these   great    strobiles.      This     Araucaria 
was   introduced   into   Great  Britain  at  the   end 
of   the   Eighteenth   Centurj',  and  is  now   pretty 
frequently    planted.      Arai'icaria   BranUiaiw,    the 
Brazil   Pine,    has   loosely   imbricated   lanceolate 
leaves,  and  a  looser  and  more  spreading  habit 
than   Araucaria   imhricata.     The   seeds   or  nuts 
are  sold  as  an   article  of  food   in  Rio  Janeiro. 
The  resin  which  exudes  from  the  tree  is  mixed 
with  wax  to  make  candles.     Araucaria  excelsa, 
the   Norfolk   Island   Pine,   a   native   of   Norfolk 
Island.  New  Caledonia,  etc.,  attains  a  height  of 
160  to  220  feet,  free  from  branches  to  SO  to  100 
feet,  with  a  trunk  sometimes  11  feet  in  diameter. 
The  wood  is  white,  tough,  close-grained,  and  so 
heavy  as  almost  to  sink  in  water.     The  leaves 
of    tiie   young   trees    are    linear    and    spreading; 
those  of  the  "adult  are  ovate,  and  closely  imbri- 
cated.     The    cones    are    four   to    five    inches    in 
diameter.      Araucaria      Cunninghamii,      nearly 
globular,   the   iloreton    Bay   Pine,    a   native   of 
the   shores   of   iloreton   Bay   and   banks   of   the 
Brisbane  River  in  New  South  Wales,  very  uuich 
resembles  the  last.     It  attains  a  height  of  150  to 
200  feet,  and  a  diameter  of  three  to  six  feet.    The 
leaves  of  the  adult  trees  are  lanceolate  and  im- 
bricated.    The  wood  is  yellowish,  and  is  used  for 
boat-building,  house-carpentry,  and  the  common 
kinds    of    furniture.      Araucaria    Biduillii,    the 
Bunya  Bunva.  is  an  important  tree  of  Queens- 
land", where  it  attains   a  height  of   100  to   150 
feet  and  a  diameter  of  three  to  four  feet.     The 
timber   is  not  quite  so  valuable   as   that   of  the 
Moreton  Bay  Pine.    The  seeds,  of  which  there  is 
said  to  be  .in  abundance  every  three  years,  are 
as  much  as  two  inches  long  and  three-quarters 
of  an  inch  broad,  and  are  much  used  for  food  hy 
the  aborigines.     An  important  resin  is  obtained 
from  this  tree.  .     . 

There  are  a  number  of  species  and  varieties 
grown  in  greenhousesin  the  United  States,  where 
they  are 'prized  for  their  graceful  appearance. 
This  is  especially  true  of  Araucaria  excelsa.  The 
species  do  mit  Ihnirish  in  the  open,  exceiit  in  the 
southern  States.  Nearly  all  the  leading  species 
are  successfully  grown  as  ornamentals  in  Cali- 
fornia. 

Fossil.  Forms.  Araucaria.  and  several  allied 
genera,  have  been  found  abundantly  in  rocks  of 
Mesozoic  and  Tertiary  ages  in  nearly  all  parts 
of  the  world.  The  oldest  representative  of  the 
group  is  the  genus  Walchia,  which  occurs  in 
rocks  of  Permian  or  uppermost  Carboniferous 
Age,  and  which  grew  to  a  great  size,  equaling 


ARAUCARIA 


1^ 


,0^^>. 


1.  ASPHODEL    (Asphodelus  albus).  4.  A   FOSSIL  SPECIES  OF   NORFOLK   PINE    (Araucarla). 

2.  JERUSALEM    ARTICHOKE    (Helianthus  tuberosus),  5.  NORFOLK    PINE    (Arauoaria  excelsa). 

showing  tubers.  5A.  TIPS    OF    BRANCHES    OF    NORFOLK    PINE. 

3.  A   WESTERN    ASTER    (Aster  townsendii).  6.  CONE    AND    BRANCH    OF    A    FOSSIL    ARAUCARIA. 

7.  GLOBE    ARTICHOKE  (Cynara    scolymus). 


ARAUCARIA.  711 

that  of  the  tallest  spruces  of  ino<lorii  times. 
Throughout  Jlesozoic  rocks  of  America,  Europe, 
and  Asia,  the  genus  Araucaria  and  its  allies  have 
been  widely  recognized  by  their  leaves,  branches, 
fruits,  and  in  some  cases  by  even  large  trunks. 
The  type  genus  Araucaria  appears  fij-st  in  rocks 
of  Lower  Jurassic  Age ;  it  reached  a  considerable 
degree  of  expansion  in  Cretaceous  time  all  over 
northern  Europe  and  (Greenland,  and  at  the 
end  of  the  Eocene  Tertiary  it  became  extinct 
over  that  region,  proliably  because  of  climatic 
changes  which  forced  it  to  migrate  farther  to 
the  southward.  It  will  hence  be  seen  that  the 
modern  representatives  of  this  genus  are  mere 
relies  of  a  once  extensive  group  of  plants  which 
in  those  earlier  times  furnished  the  great  forest 
trees  that  covered  a  large  part  of  Europe  and 
Asia,  and  to  a  Jesser  degree  portions  also  of  the 
American  continent. 

Consult:  F.  von  ilueller.  Select  Extra-Tropical 
Plants  Readily  Eliijihle  for  Industrial  Culture 
(Melbourne,  1895)  ;  G.  Bentham,  Flora  Aus- 
iraliensis  (London,  1863-78);  G.  Nicholson, 
Illustrated  Dictionari/  of  Gardfniiiff  (London, 
1888)  ;  L.  H.  Bailey,  Cyclopwdia  of  American 
Horticulture  (New  "York.  I'.)()0-01).  See  also 
article  Conifer.e. 

ARAUCO,  a-rou'ko.  A  province  of  Chile, 
bounded  by  the  provinces  of  Conccpcion,  Bio- 
Bio,  Malleco,  and  Cantin,  and  the  Pacific  Ocean 
(Map:  Chile,  C  11).  Its  area  is  4248  square 
miles.  It  has  a  fertile  soil  and  contains  some 
minerals.  Formerly  the  province  occupied  a  far 
larger  area.  The  population  in  1895  was  59,237, 
excluding  Indians.  Capital,  Lel)u,  with  a  popu- 
lation of  2784.     See  Ak.\i'c.\ni.\. 

AKAUJO  DE  AZEVEDO,  a-rou'zhft  dS  ii'- 
za-vfiMo,  Anto.nio  de  ( Conde  da  Bnrca)  (1754- 
1817).  A  Portuguese  statesman  and  diplomatist, 
born  at  Sa,  near  Ponte  de  Lima.  In  1789  he  was 
appointed  ambassador  to  Thg  Hague.  In  1797 
he  negotiated  at  Paris  a  treaty  with  France,  but 
it  was  rejected  by  the  Directory.  A  few  months 
later  he  went  as  ambassador  to  Berlin.  After  the 
Peace  of  Amiens  he  served  as  ambassador  to  Saint 
Petersburg.  In  1803  he  was  recalled  to  Lisbon, 
to  assume  the  office  of  minister  of  foreign  affairs. 
As  head  of  the  State  he  did  much  for  its  material 
advancement ;  but  with  the  capture  of  Lisbon  by 
Napoleon  and  the  dethronement  of  the  ro.yal  fam- 
ily in  1S07.  he  accompanied  the  court  to  Brazil. 
During  the  first  years  of  his  residence  in  the 
New  World,  he  devoted  himself  to  scientific 
and  literary  pursuits.  He  founded  at  Rio  de 
Janeiro  a  school  of  fine  arts  and  one  of  medicim 
and  chemistry.  He  introduced  the  cultivation  of 
tea,  and  in  many  ways  encouraged  agriculture 
and  industries.  In  1814  he  was  minister  of 
marine  for  the  colonies  of  Brazil,  and  the  next 
year  received  the  title  of  the  Count  of  Barea.  At 
his  death  he  was  minister  of  foreign  atTairs. 
Among  his  literary  works  were  two  tragedies, 
and  translations  from  Horace,  Gray,  and  Dryden. 
He  died  in  Rio  de  .Janeiru. 

ARAUJO  POBTO-ALEGRE,  pOr'to  a-la'- 
gra.  Mangel  de  (1800-79).  A  Brazilian  ar- 
chitect and  poet.  He  was  born  at  Rio  Pardo.  in 
the  Province  of  Sao  Pedro,  stiulied  art  at  Rio 
de  Janeiro,  and  art  and  architecture  in  Paris 
and  Italy,  and  in  1837  was  appointed  professor 
Hi  the  Academy  of  Art  at  Rio  de  .Taneiro.  He 
Was  appointed  consul-general  at  Stettin  in  1859. 


ARAWAKAN  STOCK. 


He  designed  the  church  of  Santa  .\na  and  the 
Rio  Bank,  wrote  a  numlicr  of  moderately  suc- 
cessful comedies,  Colombo  (an  iincompleted 
epic),  and  a  volume  of  poems  entitled  Brasil- 
ianas  (18G3). 

ARATJNA,  a'ra-oo'na.  A  South  American 
tribe  of  Tacanan  stock,  living  along  the  iladre  de 
Dios,  a  northern  tributary  of  the  Ben!  River,  on 
the  Peru-Bolivia  frontier.  Although  evidently 
of  considerable  importance,  contemporary  ac- 
counts concerning  them  differ  radically,   Heath 

(1883)  assorting  that  they  are  naked  cannibals, 
ugly  and  ill-formed,  while  Labre  ( 1885)  describes 
them  as  sedentary  agriculturists,  and  Armentia 

(1887)  says  that  they  are  gentle  and  friendly, 
and  of  remarkably  light  complexion.  According 
to  Labre  also,  they  have  temples  with  images  of 
wood  and  polished  stone,  and  hold  women  so  im- 
pure as  to  exclude  them  from  religious  rites,  and 
not  even  to  permit  them  to  know  the  names  of 
the  gods. 

ARATJRE,  a-rou'rfl.  A  town  in  the  State  of 
Lara,  Venezuela,  on  the  Acarigua  River,  twenty 
miles  south  of  Barquisimeto  (Map:  Venezuela, 
D  2).  The  surrounding  region  is  noted  for  its 
fertility  in  the  production  of  cotton,  coffee,  and 
cattle,  while  near  by  is  the  scene  of  the  battle 
of  Arame,  December  4,  1813.     Population,  4000. 

ARAVTJLLI,  ar'a-vul'le.  A  mountain  range 
in  Rajputana,  British  India,  extending  from 
about  latitude  22°  40'  N.,  longitude  74°  E.,  to 
latitude  26°  50'  N.,  longitude  75°  E.  (Map: 
India,  B  3).  It  is  about  300  miles  long,  with  a 
width  ranging  from  6  to  60  miles.  The  river 
system  of  the  .\ravulli  ilountains  is  very  exten- 
sive, especially  on  the  northern  and  southern 
slopes.  The  vegetation  is  very  poor,  and  the 
valleys  inclosed  between  the  hills  are  mostly 
sandy  and  utterly  devoid  of  vegetation. 

ARAWAK,  a'ra-wak.  A  tribe  living  on  the 
Corentyn  River  in  Dutch  Guiana,  from  which  the 
great  Arawakan  stock  (q.v.)  derives  its  name. 
The  word  signifies  "meal  eaters,"  in  allusion  to 
cassava  bread,  which  forms  a  principal  article  of 
diet  with  the  tribe.  The  Arawak  cultivate  both 
cassava  and  corn,  biit  depend  largely  also  on 
hunting  and  fishing.  They  have  the  clan  system, 
with  descent  in  the  female  line,  and  practice,  the 
couvade. 

ARAWAKAN,  a'ra-wii'k«n,  STOCK.  The 
most  widelj'  extended  linguistic  stock  of  South 
America,  its  tribes  formerly  reaching,  with  inter- 
ruptions, from  southern  Brazil  and  Bolivia  to 
the  northernmost  extremity  of  the  continent,  and 
including  also,  until  the  irruption  of  the 
Caribs,  the  whole  of  the  West  Indies,  several 
villages  being  even  established  upon  tlie  main- 
land of  Florida.  Columbus  made  his  first  land- 
ing and  earliest  discoveries  in  Arawakan  terri- 
tory, and  the  nannes  preserved  from  Haiti,  Cuba, 
and  the  Bahamas  are  readily  explained  from  the 
existing  dialects  of  this  stock.  The  Arawakan 
tribes  were  pressed  upon  by  the  Caribs  from  the 
lower  Orinoco,  and  these  fierce  invaders  had 
already  seized  many  of  the  southern  Antilles  at 
the  time  of  the  discovery,  the  occupation  being 
then  so  recent  that  the  women  of  the  island 
Caribs,  most  of  whom  were  Arawak  captives, 
still  spoke  that  language.  Physically,  the  Ara- 
wakan tribes  are  rather  undersized,  with  appar- 
ently low  vitality.     Their   plane  of  culture   is 


ARAWAKAN  STOCK. 


712 


ARBITRATION. 


rather  above  that  of  their  nei^'hbors.  Those  of 
the  islands  cultivated  corn,  manioc,  and  cotton, 
as  well  as  tobacco,  which  came  first  to  European 
knowledge  through  them.  They  were  skillful 
weavers  and  artisans  in  wood,  stone,  and  native 
gold.  Considerable  study  has  been  made  of  the 
mythologies  of  the  stock.  Of  perhaps  a  hundred 
existing  Arawakan  tribes,  the  most  important  are 
the  Anti,  Arawak,  Barre,  Baure,  Goajiro,  Guana, 
Juri,  JIanaos.  JIaneteneri,  Maipure,  Maranho, 
Moxo,  Pass^,  Piro,  Taruma. 
ARAX'ES.      See  Abas. 

ARAYAT,  a-ri'at.  A  town  of  Luzon,  Philip- 
pines, in  the  Province  of  Pampanga,  about 
twelve  miles  northeast  of  Bacolor  (Jlap:  Luzon, 
E  6 ) .  It  •was  occupied  by  American  troo])s  luider 
General  Young  on  October  12,  1899,  during  the 
Filipino  insurrection.     Population,  14,000. 

AR'BACES  {Gk.'Apl3dKTj!,Arbakes).  Accord- 
ing lo  Ctesia^.  a  general  of  Sardanapalus  (i.e. 
Asshurbanipal) ,  King  of  Assyria,  who  in  con- 
nection with  Belesys,  commanding  the  Babylon- 
ian troops,  organized  a  conspiracy  against  As- 
syria, and  after  defeating  Sardanapalus  (B.C. 
876).  founded  the  Jledian  Empire.  The  dynasty 
established  by  Arbaces  lasted  till  its  overthrow 
by  Cyrus (c. 559  B.C.).  This  account  does  not  tally 
with"  what  we  now  know  through  the  cuneiform 
inscriptions  of  the  manner  in  which  Assyria  fell 
(see  Assyria),  nor  with  our  present  knowledge 
of  the  founding  of  the  Median  Empire.  Belesys 
may  be  a  corruption  of,  or  intended  for.  Nabopo- 
lassar,  and  if  there  is  any  historical  basis  for 
Ctesias's  account,  Arbaces  may  be  the  name  of 
the  'Scythian'  chief  who  joined  Nabopolassar 
in  the  attack  upon  Assyria  under  the  last  king, 
Sin-sharishkun,  or  the  name  may  even  be  a  dis- 
tortion of  the  latter. 

AR'BACES.  ( 1 )  The  king  of  Iberia  in  Beau- 
iiiont  iind  Fletcher's  King  and  .\o  King.  (2)  The 
ruler  of  .Media  in  Byron's  Sanlanupalas. 

AR'BALEST  (Lat.  arcus,  bow  -|-  ballista,  a 
military  engine,  from  Gk.  ^dWeiv,  ballein,  to 
throw),  Akbalist,  Arcubalist,  Arblast.  A 
weapon  of  indefinite  antiquity,  known  also  as 
cross-bow  or  bow-gun.  Some  Roman  forms  are 
depicted  on  extant  monuments,  and  it  was  from 
the  Romans,  possibly  indirectly,  that  the  arba- 
lest in  use  in  the  Middle  Ages  was  derived,  ^t 
was  employed  chietly  in  the  Twelfth  Century  and 
later,  although  it  was  not  unknown  in  the  Tenth 
and  Eleventh  centuries.  There  were  at  least  eight 
distinct  forms,  varjing  in  size  and  construction. 
Some  were  carried  by  foot-soldiers,  others  were 
permanently  fixed  on  fortifications  like  modern 
cannons;  some  hurled  short,  thick  arrows  (called 
'quarrels'  or  bolts)  :  others  shot  stones,  leaden 
balls,  or  other  projectiles.  The  larger  ones  were 
worked  by  placing  the  foot  in  a  loop,  drawing 
the  cords  up  with  the  hands,  while  the  gun  was 
maintained  in  an  inverted  position.  When  the 
weapon  became  so  imjiroved  that  the  bow  was 
made  of  steel,  it  required,  in  order  to  bend  it, 
a  separate  machine  called  a  'moulinet.'  In  the 
crude  forniatiims  of  mcdi;pval  tactics  the  arbales- 
tiers  or  cross-l)owmen  were  an  important  branch, 
and  were  usually  advanced  to  the  first  line  of  bat- 
tle. They  were  divided  into  two  branches,  the 
mounted  and  dismounted,  and  their  supplies  of 
arrow  ammunition  were  carried  in  carts.  The 
use  of  the  arbalest  against  Christians  was  pro- 
hibited by  tlie  Lateran  Council  of   11.39  on  the 


ground  that  it  was  "a  thoroughly  diabolical 
weapon."  But  this  prohibition  was  ineffective. 
Richard  the  Lion-Hearted  was  noted  for  his  skill 
with  the  arbalest.  One  clause  of  the  Magna 
Charta  prohibited  King  .John  from  employing 
foreign  cross-bowmen.  In  the  Fourteenth  Cen- 
tury the  arbalest  was  superseded  in  England  by 
the  long-bow.     See  Archery. 

ARBE'LA  (Gk.  "App-nXa.  Aasjr.  Arbailu,  the 
city  of  four  gods,  from  arba,  four  +  i7,  god) .  An 
ancient  town  of  Assyria,  now  the  Turkish  town 
of  Erbil  or  Arbil,  situated  in  latitude  36°  9'  N., 
longitude  44°  4'  E.,  to  the  southwest  of  Mosul. 
It  is  famous  as  having  given  name  to  the  battle 
in  which  Alexander  finally  defeated  Darius,  B.C. 
331.  The  battle  was  reallj-  fought  near  Gauga- 
niela  to  the  northwest  of  Arbela. 

AR'BER,  Edward.  An  English  scholar.  Fel- 
low of  King's  College,  London,  and  emeritus  j)ro- 
fessor  of  English  literature  in  Mason  College, 
Birmingham.  To  him  English  scholarship  is 
greatly  indebted  for  many  careful  reprints.  They 
comprise  Tyndale's  yew  Testament,  lo2o  (1871)  ; 
A  Transcript  of  the  Registers  of  the  Companij  of 
atatioiiers  of  London,  looli-lGJiO  (1875)  ;  English 
lieprints  (14  vols.,  1868-71)  ;  An  English  Garner 
(8  vols.,  1877-96)  ;  ,4)!  English  Scholar's  Library 
(16  nos.,  1878-84)  ;  British  Anthologies  (10  vols., 
1899-1900)  :  The  First  Three  English  Books  on 
America  (1885);  The  Story  of  the  I'ilgrim 
Fathers,  160G-23   (1897). 

ARBITRAGE,  ar'bi-traj  or  iir'bi-triizh' 
(Lat.  arbiter,  umpire,  judge).  A  term  applied 
to  transactions  which  take  advantage  of  differ- 
ences of  prices  for  the  same  articles  in  dirt'erent 
markets.  At  tlie  same  time  that  the  trader  buys 
in  the  cheaper  market,  he  sells  in  the  dearer. 
The  margin  between  the  two  prices  must  be  suffi- 
cient to  do  more  than  cover  the  costs  of  ex- 
change to  insure  a  profit.  The  rate  of  profit  is  of 
necessity  small,  bteing  frequently  measured  in 
small  fractions  of  one  per  cent.  The  objects 
of  such  arbitrage  transactions  may  be  bullion  or 
coin,  bills  and  exchanges,  or  stocks  and  bonds. 

ARBITRA'TION  (LaJ.  arbitrafio,  judg- 
ment, from  arbiter,  umpire,  judge).  The  submis- 
sion of  a  dispute,  which  might  otherwise  be  the 
suliject-matter  of  a  civil  litigation,  to  the  de- 
cision of  a  private  person  instead  of  a  court  of 
justice.  This  is  not  permitted  in  criminal  cases; 
nor  are  the  parties  to  a  civil  dispute  necessarily 
bo\ind  by  an  agreement  to  arbitrate,  even  tliough 
the  agreement  be  upon  a  valuable  consideration. 
At  common  law,  contracts  for  the  adjustment 
and  settlement  by  arbitration  of  all  disputes  and 
differences  lietwcen  the  contracting  jiarties  are 
not  treated  as  binding  so  as  to  oust  tlie  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  courts.  For  example,  if  a  landowner 
grants  to  another  the  privilege  of  laying  water- 
pipes  across  certain  land,  in  consideration  of  the 
latter's  payment  of  a  sjiccified  sum,  and  of  his 
agreement  to  pay  all  damages  caused  by  the 
breaking  or  leaking  of  the  pipe,  a  stipulation 
that  the  damages  shall  be  fixed  by  arbitration  is 
not  enforceable.  The  landowner  can  maintain  an 
action  at  law  for  any  damages  so  caused,  and 
refuse  to  abide  by  his  agreement  to  arbitrate 
them.  This,  it  has  been  judicially  declared,  both 
in  England  and  the  L'nited  States,  rests  "upon 
.  the  general  policy  of  the  law.  that  parties  cannot 
enter  into  a  contract  which  gives  rise  to  a  right 
of  action  for  the  breach  of  it,  and  then  withdraw 


ARBITRATION.  71:! 

such  a  case  from  llic  jurisdictiiiii  of  the  or(linar\ 
tribunals."  On  the  other  lianil.  if  a  property- 
owner  ami  an  insurer  enter  into  an  agreement 
that- the  former  shall  i)ay  a  certain  premium,  in 
consideration  of  which  the  latter,  upon  the 
destruction  of  the  property,  shall  pay  the  former 
such  a  sum  of  money  as  shall  he  settled  and 
ascertained  by  arbitration,  the  contract  is  bind- 
ing in  all  of  its  provisions,  and  the  insured  has 
no  cause  of  action  until  an  arbitration  has  been 
had,  or  it  has  been  ])rcvented  or  dispensed  with 
by  the  insurer.  The  legal  distinction  between 
these  two  classes  of  cases  is  well  established,  but 
it  is  not  always  easy  to  determine  within  which 
class  a  particular  controversy  falls.  If  it  falls 
within  the  first  class,  either  party  has  the  power 
to  revoke  the  arbitration,  even  after  his  sub- 
mission of  the  dispute  to  the  arbitrator: 
although  by  so  doing  he  subjects  himself  to  an 
action  for  damages  for  breach  of  contract,  if  his 
agreement  to  arbitrate  was  ujion  a  valuable  con- 
sideration. 

This  power  of  revoking  a  submission  has  been 
modified  by  statute  in  England  and  in  many 
American  jurisdictions.  It  is  provided,  in  some 
of  our  State  constitutions,  that  the  legislature 
shall  enact  laws  providing  for  arbitration,  or 
shall  establish  courts  of  conciliation.  The  ten- 
dency of  modern  statutes  is  to  extend  the  limits 
of  private  arbitration,  to  conform  the  pro- 
ceedings therein,  so  far  as  practicable,  to  those 
of  a  court  or  an  official  referee,  and  to  give  to 
an  award  of  arbitrators  the  force  and  effect  of  a 
judicial  decision.  In  the  absence  of  legislation, 
however,  a  jmlgment  cannot  be  entered  on  an 
award,  nor  can  the  determination  of  an  arbi- 
trator be  enforced  by  execution.  If  the  defeated 
party  refuses  to  carry  out  the  award,  his 
opponent  must  sue  upon  it.  There  is  no  appeal 
from  an  award,  as  there  is  from  the  decision  of 
an  inferior  court;  but  it  may  be  corrected  in 
some  cases,  and  it  may  be  set  aside  for  various 
reasons,  such  as  fraud  practiced  by  the  prevail- 
ing party,  or  misconduct  on  the  ])art  of  the 
arbitrators,  or  their  failure  to  conform  to  the 
terms  of  the  submission.  As  a  rule,  however,  an 
award  will  not  be  set  aside  for  purely  technical 
or  formal  defects.  Unless  some  flagrant  error  in 
the  proceedings  is  disclosed,  courts  are  disposed 
to  uphold  an  award  in  an  arbitration  to  which 
the  parties  have  assented,  and  on  which  they  have 
been  fairly  heard.  Consult:  Morse,  Law  of  Ar- 
hitrnfion  and  An-ard  (Boston,  1872):  Watson, 
Trratise  on  the  Law  of  Arbitration  and  Aivards, 
third  edition  (Philadelphia.  1848);  Russell,  A 
Trentisr  on  the  Pou-er  and  Duty  of  an  Arbitrator 
and  the  Ijaw  of  fSubmissions  and  Aivards,  eighth 
edition   (London,  inOO). 

AR'BITRA'TION,  International.  The 
settlement  of  disputes  between  states  by  judges 
of  their  own  choosing  and  in  conformity  with 
their  respective  rights.  Arbitration  tribunals 
may  be  special  or  general,  temporar.y  or  perma- 
nent, restricted  or  open.  It  is  essential  thiit 
the  contracting  states  formally  agree  to  refer 
their  difTercnces  to  an  independent  tribunal  and 
bind  themselves  to  aliide  by  its  award.  The 
persons  or  states  chosen  as  arbitrators  should 
formally  accord  their  consent  and  accept  the 
obligation.  The  reference  is  usually  made  by 
special  agreement  signed  on  behalf  of  the  con- 
tending parties,  stating  the  questions  to  be  sub- 
mitted, summarizing  the  points  of  law  or  fact 
Vol.  I.— 17. 


ARBITRATION. 


involved,  defining  the  limits  of  the  arbitration, 
and  in  many  cases  indicating  the  course  of  pro- 
cedure. It  ma.v  result  either  from  a  general 
treaty,  a  special  or  arbitration  treaty,  or  an 
arbitral  clause  inserted  in  a  treaty  providing  for 
this  method  of  settlement  of  disputes,  or  a 
jirutocol  (q.v. )  of  an  international  congress  to 
which  the  particular  states  were  parties. 

Arbitration,  while  not  unknown  to  the  ancient 
world,  is  largely  an  outgrowth  of  the  complex  in- 
ternational relations  of  the  Xineteenth  Century, 
and  the  consequent  development  and  recognition 
of  international  duties  and  liabilities.  The  atti- 
tude of  Greek  civilization  toward  the  barbarian 
world  rendered  the  application  of  methods  of 
conciliation  impossible;  while  the  employment 
of  arbitration  among  the  Greeks  themselves  was 
confined  rather  to  disputed  questions  touching 
upon  religion,  commerce,  boundaries,  and  the 
possession  of  contested  territory  between  the 
several  states  than  to  great  political  questions. 
The  Amphictyonic  Council,  while  primarily  a 
deliberative  body,  later  assumed  distinct  polit- 
ical functions,  and  became  the  tribunal  for  the 
settlement  of  various  difl'erences,  though  its  sen- 
tences lost  their  effectiveness  through  the  im- 
potence of  that  body  to  enforce  their  execution. 
The  foreign  policy  of  Rome  aimed  at  universal 
conquest,  and  so  from  the  outset  precluded  the 
eniplo3'ment  of  referendum  methods,  since  arbitra- 
tion presupposes  a  conflict  between  independent 
states.  During  the  Middle  Ages,  under  the  in- 
fluence of  religious  and  feudal  ideas,  arbitra- 
tions were  frequent.  With  the  breaking  up  of 
the  Roman  EmiJire,  the  predominance  of  the 
I)opes,  as  delegates  of  God,  from  whom  all  sov- 
ereignty emanates,  constituted  them  the  natural 
judges  of  all  international  causes,  and  brought 
to  their  tribunal  many  of  the  difl'erences  between 
kings  and  peoples.  So  strongly  did  this  idea 
impress  itself  upon  the  times  that  the  great  prel- 
ates were  often  chosen  .as  voluntary  arbitrators, 
though  perhaps  oftener  on  occasions  involving 
l)rivate  interest  and  internal  policy  than  on 
those  of  actual  international  conflict.  One  of 
the  most  celebrated  of  arbitration  decis- 
ions is  that  of  Pope  Alexander  YI.,  tracing  an 
imaginary  line  from  pole  to  pole  in  his  division 
of  all  lands  discovered  in  the  New  World  between 
Spain  and  Portugal.  Even  after  the  decline  of 
papal  supremacy,  Gregory  XV.  acted  as  arbi- 
trator of  the  question  of  the  "Valtelline"  forts 
in  the  Seventeenth  Century,  and  Pope  Clement 
XI.  gave  the  casting  vote  as  umpire  between 
Louis  XIV.  and  Leopold  I.,  the  chosen  arbitra- 
tors by  Article  8,  of  the  Treaty  of  Ryswick. 
I'nder  the  feudal  system,  vassals  were  natural- 
ly predisposed  to  look  to  their  lords  for  the 
determination  of  their  csnflicting  claims.  The 
ertorts  of  the  emperors  of  the  Holy  Roman 
Empire  to  succeed  to  the  position  of  the  popes 
in  this  regard  never  resulted  in  more  than  an 
occasional  recognition  of  their  jurisdiction — 
never  of  their  supremacy.  With  the  establish- 
ment of  absolute  monarchies,  arbitration  as  a 
method  of  settlement  of  difl'erences  naturally 
declined. 

The  change  in  international  relations  pro- 
duced by  modern  means  of  transportation,  with 
the  resultant  complex  social  and  political  inter- 
course and  the  vast  economic  loss  involved  in 
modern  war,  has  tended  more  and  more  to  the 
employment  of  the  method  of  arbitration  in  in- 


ARBITRATION. 


714 


ARBITRATION. 


ternational  disputes,  and  its  gradual  recognition 
as  the  most  humane,  economical,  and  enduring 
method  for  their  determination.  The  questions 
submitted  involve  not  only  the  adjustment  of 
claims  relating  to  the  rights  of  nations  as  be- 
tween themselves,  but  also  those  of  individuals 
against  foreign  governments.  During  the  Nine- 
teenth Century,  including  cases  now  pending, 
there  have  been  over  one  hundred  and  thirty 
important  arbitrations,  not  to  mention  almost 
as  many  more  minor  commissions  for  the  settle- 
ment of  purely  financial  claims.  Both  in  the 
numbers  and  tlie  questions  involved  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain  have  luiquestionably 
led  the  way.  The  most  important  of  these,  and 
one  forming  a  landmark  in  the  history  of  arbi- 
tration, is  the  Joint  High  Commission,  which 
met  at  C4eneva  in  1871  and  determined  the  ques- 
tions relating  to  the  Alabama  Claims  (q.v.). 
This  was  only  one  of  the  four  articles  of  the 
Treaty  of  V^'ashington  (q.v.),  submitting  to  arbi- 
tration matters  then  in  dis]jute  between  the 
two  countries.  Besides  actual  causes  sub- 
mitted to  such  tribunals  for  settlement,  various 
international  conferences  have  been  held  and 
conventions  adopted,  some  of  the  most  significant 
of  which  are: 

The  proposal  for  the  establishment  of  a  per- 
manent court  of  arbitration,  made  by  the  Com- 
mittee of  the  International  Law  Association, 
which  met  at  Brussels  in  189.5;  the  Inter- 
parliamentary Conference  on  Arbitration  and 
Peace,  at  Brussels  in  1897 ;  the  proposal  for  the 
arbitration  for  the  settlement  of  disputes  be- 
tween the  States  of  North,  Central,  and  South 
America,  signed  at  Washington,  1890;  the  Anglo- 
American  Arbitration  Treat.y,  signed  at  Wash- 
ington, January  11,  1897,  but  never  ratified  by 
the  Senate  of  the  United  States:  the  Italy-Argen- 
tine Republic  GJeneral  Treaty  of  Arbitration, 
signed  at  Eome,  July  23,  1898;  The  Hague  Con- 
vention, adopted  at  a  plenary  meeting  of  the 
Peace  Conference  at  The  Hague,  July  29,  1899. 

The  arbitration  treaty  between  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States  mentioned  above,  pro- 
vided for  the  submission  of  all  questions  fall- 
ing of  diplomatic  adjustment  to  arbitrators. 
The  questions  were  divided  into  three  classes: 
(1)  Pecuniary  claims  not  aggregating  £100,000, 
not  involving  territorial  questions;  (2)  pecuni- 
ary claims  of  over  £100.000,  not  involving  ter- 
ritorial questions ;  (3)  questions  involving  rights 
of  a  territorial  nature.  The  tribunal  for  the 
settlement  of  the  first  class  of  questions  was  to 
be  composed  of  three  members ;  for  the  second, 
of  five;  for  the  third,  of  six.  The  odd  member  in 
each  of  the  first  two  classes  was  to  be  selected 
by  tlie  United  States  Supreme  Court  and  the 
British  .Judicial  Comoiittce  of  the  Privy  Coun- 
cil, acting  jointly,  or,  on  their  failure  to  agree, 
by  the  King  of  Sweden  and  Norwaj'.  The  de- 
cisions of  these  courts  were  to  be  final.  For 
the  last  class,  the  court  was  to  be  composed  of 
three  members  of  the  United  States  Supreme 
Court  and  three  members  of  the  British  Supreme 
Court  of  Judicature.  Only  awards  in  which 
five  of  the  six  concurred  were  to  be  final.  For 
the  provisions  of  the  Hague  Arbitration  and 
Mediation  Convention,   see  Hague  Peace  Con- 

FEKENCE. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  some  of  the  principal 
arbitrations  and  adjustments  to  which  the 
United  States  has  been  a  party: 


(1)  Between  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain,  under  the  Jay  Treaty  of  1794,  providing 
for  three  mixed  commissions:  one  to  settle  the 
identity  of  the  Saint  Croix  River,  forming  a  part 
of  the  northeastern  boundary ;  one  to  determine 
the  compensation  due  to  British  subjects  in 
consequence  of  impediments  imposed  by  some  of 
the  States  to  the  collection  of  debts  by  British 
creditors,  in  violation  of  the  treaty  of  peace ; 
and  a  third  for  the  settlement  of  the  question 
of  contraband,  the  rights  of  neutrals,  and  the 
finality  of  decisions  of  prize  courts. 

( 2 )  Between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain 
under  the  Treaty  of  Ghent,  1814,  providing  for 
three  commissions:  one  to  settle  the  ownership 
of  certain  islands  in  Passamaquoddy  Bay  and  the 
Bay  of  Fundy;  a  seconj  to  determine  the  north- 
east boundary  of  the  United  States  from  the 
river  Saint  Croix  to  the  river  Saint  Lawrence; 
and  a  third  to  determine  the  northern  boundary 
of  the  United  States  along  the  middle  of  the 
Great  Lakes  to  the  water  communication  between 
Lakes  Huron  and  Superior,  and  the  further  de- 
termination to  the  Lake  of  the  Woods.  On  the 
latter  point  the  commission  could  not  agree. 

(3)  Between  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain,  in  1818,  regarding  the  obligation  of 
Great  Britain  to  restore  slaves  in  the  British  pos- 
sessions at  the  time  of  signing  the  Treaty  of 
Ghent.  Referred  to  the  Emperor  of  Russia,  who 
decided  that  the  L'nitcd  States  was  entitled  to 
compensation  for  slaves  transported  from  terri- 
tories restored  under  the  treaty.  Two  mixed 
boards  were  created  to  determine  the  claims; 
but  these  boards  disagreeing,  the  sum  of  $1,204,- 
9(i0  was  finally  accepted  by  the  United  States 
in  full  satisfaction. 

( 4 )  Between  the  United  States  and  Spain,  in 
1819,  regarding  the  s.atisfaction  of  American 
claims  against  Spain  during  her  occupation  of 
Florida.  By  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Florida, 
the  United  States  agreed  to  settle  these  claims. 

(5)  Between  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain,  in  1827,  for  the  settlement  of  the  dispute 
regarding  the  northeastern  boundary.  The  King 
of  the  Netherlands  was  chosen  arbitrator,  but  his 
award  was  not  accepted  by  thc'  L^nited  States. 
I'he  matter  was  afterwards  settled  by  compro- 
mise, in  the  Webster-Ashburton  Treaty. 

(0)  Between  the  United  States  and  France, 
the  claims  of  Aiuerican  citizens  growing  out  of 
French  depredations  at  sea  during  the  Napoleon- 
ic wars,  and  the  French  Beaumarchais  Claim, 
and  claim  to  special  commercial  privileges  under 
the  Louisiana  Cession  Treaty,  were  adjusted  by 
Minister  Rives  after  long  negotiation  in  1831 
by  an  indemnity  to  the  United  States  of  .'}!5..558,- 
108.07.  But  the  French  Government  delayed  in 
executing  the  convention  and  a  diplomatic  rup- 
ture resulted,  only  allayed  by  the  mediation  of 
Great  Britain,  in  i836,  when  the  full  amount  was 
paid. 

(7)  Between  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain,  in  1840,  for  the  settlement  of  the  San 
Juan  water  boundary.  It  had  been  decided  to 
continue  the  line  between  the  British  Possessions 
and  tlie  United  States  southerly  from  the  mid- 
dle of  the  channel  separating  Vancouver's  Island 
from  the  continent,  through  the  said  channel 
and  Fuca  Straits  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The 
dispute  as  to  the  latter  portion  of  the  boundary 
was  referred  to  a  commission  which  disagreed. 
By  the  Treaty  of  Washington   (1871)   the  quea- 


ARBITRATION. 


715 


ARBOGAST. 


tion  was  referred  to  the  Emperor  of  Germany, 
who  rendered  an  award  sustaining  the  American 
chiims  to  the  Haro  Channel  as  the  true  interpre- 
tation of  the  treaty.  This  boundary  was  finally 
lixed  by  the  protocol  of  1873. 

(S)  Between  the  United  States  and  Great  Brit- 
ain in  IS55  to  determine  by  a  mi.xed  commission 
the  reciprocal  "Reserved  Fisheries  Rights" 
\nider  the  Reciprocity  Treaty  of  1854,  which  re- 
newed tlie  privileges  renounced  under  the  Con- 
vention of  1818  by  taking  and  curing  fisli  in 
"unsettled  bays,  harbors  and  creeks"  along  the 
('anadian  shore.  The  work  of  the  commission 
was  to  define  tlie  "rivers  and  river-mounts"  re- 
served under  tlie  treaty,  and  was  not  concluded 
until  1860. 

(9)  Between  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain  under  the  Treaty  of  1803,  by  which  the 
claims  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  and  Puget's  Sound 
Agricultural  Companies  arising  under  the  Oregon 
Treaty  (Treaty  of  1840)  were  settled  by  refer- 
ence to  two  conunissioners,  one  from  each  State, 
who  chose  an  umpire.  They  awarded  .$450,000  to 
the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  and  !i!200,000  to  the 
Puget's  Sound  Company,  in  return  for  which  the 
companies  executed  deeds  of  release  of  their  pos- 
sessory claims  in  the  Oregon  region  to  the  United 
States. 

(10)  Between  the  United  States  and  Vene- 
zuela, in  180(),  by  a  mixed  commission — one 
from  each  State,  and  an  umpire,  in  settlement 
of  claims  of  American  citizens  against  the  latter. 
The  award  was  $1,253,310.30  in  favor  of  the 
United  States,  but  was  subsequently  impeached 
for  alleged  fraud.  By  treaty  in  1885  these  claims 
were  resubmitted  to  a  second  commission  of  simi- 
lar cliaracter,  which,  in  1888,  awarded  $980,- 
572.00  to  the  United  States. 

(11)  Between  the  United  States  and  Mexico, 
in  1808,  for  variois  claims  and  counterclaims 
subsequent  to  the  Peace  of  Guadalupe-Hidalgo,  in 
1848.  The  award  was  rendered  in  favor  of  the 
United  States;  but  objection  was  raised  later 
to  some  of  the  evidence  admitted.  Pending  the 
investigation  of  these  charges,  distribution  has 
never  been  made  of  the  funds. 

(12)  Between  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain,  in  1S71,  by  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of 
Washington,  providing  for  tlie  submission  to 
arbitration  of:  (1)  The  San  Juan  water  boun- 
dary ( see  7 ) .  Referred  to  the  Emperor  of  Ger- 
man}', who  sustained  the  American  claim.  (2) 
The  Nova  Scotia  fishery  rights.  (3)  Claims 
and  counterclaims  growing  out  of  the  Civil  War, 
other  tlian  the  Ahibama  claims.  (4)  The  Ala- 
hiiDia  claims  (q.v.).  Under  the  second,  an 
award  of  £1,100.000  was  given  to  Great  Britain, 
and  under  the  tliird  £386,000. 

(13)  Between  tlie  United  States  and  France, 
in  1880,  for  claims  for  injuries  growing  nut  of 
the  Jlcxiean  War  of  1862-67,  the  Civil  War,  and 
the  Franco-Prussian  War.  An  award  of  $612,- 
000  was  rendered  against  the  United  States. 

(14)  Between  the  United  States,  Great  Britain, 
and  Germany,  in  1889,  to  determine  their  con- 
flicting claims  in  the  island  of  Samoa.  The  ap- 
pointment of  the  Chief  Justice  of  Samoa  was  to 
be  referred  to  the  King  of  Sweden  and  a  joint 
commission  established.  In  1899  complications 
aro.se,  resulting  in  a  joint  high  commission  pro- 
ceeding to  the  Samoan  Islands.  As  a  result  of 
this  investigation,  an  agreement  for  their  par- 


tition was   signed   in   Washington,  December  2, 
1899. 

(15)  Between  the  United  States,  Great  Brit- 
ain, and  Portugal,  for  the  determination  of  the 
dispute  arising  from  the  seizure  and  annulment 
of  the  charter  of  the  Delagoa  Baj'  Railway,  con- 
structed by  an  American  citizen.  The  claims 
were  referred  to  tliree  jurists  appointed  by  the 
President  of  the  Swiss  Confederation. 

(16)  Between  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States,  in  1892,  regarding  the  Bering  Sea  seal 
fisheries.  The  commission,  which  sat  in  Paris, 
gave  a  divided  award,  mainly  in  favor  of  Great 
Britain,  in  1893;  but  in  favor  of  the  United 
States'  admission  of  the  necessity  for  regula- 
tion of  pelagic  sealing  and  the  proposal  for 
such  regulations.  Later,  in  1896,  a  further  com- 
mission was  created  to  award  the  amount  of 
damages  due  to  Canadian  sealers  under  the  de- 
cision of  the  Bering  Sea  Arbitration  Court,  to 
which  reference  was  made  above.  This  was 
fixed  at  $471,151. 

(17)  Between  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States,  in  1897,  to  determine  the  boundary  be- 
tween Alaska  and  the  British  Possessions.  After 
reaching  a  decision,  the  commission's  work  was 
interfered  with  by  an  act  of  the  British  Colum- 
bia Legislature.  A  subsequent  determination 
of  the  question  was  reached  on  the  same  lines  in 
1899. 

Consult:  Balch,  International  Courts  of  Arbi- 
tration (Philadelphia,  1896)  ;  Moore,  History 
and  Digest  of  International  Arbitrations  to 
which  the  United  t^tates  has  been  a  Part]/ 
(Washington,  1898)  :  Darby,  International  Arbi- 
tration. International  Tribunals  (London,  1900)  ; 
and  works  under  International  Law.  For  labor 
arbitration,  see  Industrial  Arbitration. 

ARBOGA,  ar-biVga.  An  ancient  city  in 
Sweden,  in  the  Province  of  Westmannland,  10 
miles  from  tlie  mouth  of  tlie  Arboga  River,  by 
which,  with  the  aid  of  a  canal,  the  lakes  Hjel- 
mar  and  Malar  are  united  (Map:  Sweden,  F  7). 
Arboga  is  connected  by  steamer  with  Stockholm, 
and  used  to  be  an  important  commercial  town; 
but  it  has  now  sunk  into  insignificance,  and 
only  possesses  an  historical  interest,  from  the 
antiquities  in  its  neighborhood.  Of  all  its 
churches,  cloisters,  and  chapels,  there  onh'  now 
remain  the  town  and  parish  churches,  the  for- 
mer with  an  altar-piece  of  Rembrandt's.  Sev- 
eral kings  of  the  family  of  Vasa  have  resided 
here.  Church  assemblies  were  held  here  in  1396, 
1412,  1417,  1423,  and  1474;  diets  in  1435  (the 
first  in  Sweden),  1440,  1471,  1529,  and  1561, 
in  which  last  year  also  certain  articles,  known 
as  the  Arboga  Articles,  were  passed,  by  which 
Erie  XIV.  was  enabled  to  limit  the  power  of  the 
nobles;  and  in  1625  Gustavus  Adolphus  issued 
an  edict  here,  commanding  that  the  copper  coin 
of  the  realm  should  contain  its  full  worth  of 
copper.     Population,  1901,  5250. 

AR'BOGAST  (?  -394).  A  Frank  who  be- 
came a  distinguished  general  in  the  Roman 
service.  During  the  reign  of  Gratian  he  suc- 
cessfully commanded  an  expedition  against  the 
Germans,  and  under  Valentinian  II.  was  com- 
mander in  Gaul.  After  winning  the  favor  of 
his  army,  he  defied  the  authority  of  the  Em- 
peror, who  was  killed,  probably  by  Arbogast'a 
order,  in  392.  Eugenius,  Arbogast's  client,  was 
proclaimed  Emperor;  but  Arbogast,  after  suffer- 
ing a  defeat  at  the  hands  of  Theodosius,  near 


ARBOGAST. 


716 


ARBROATH. 


the  river  Frigidus,  nortli  of  Aquileia,  killed  him- 
self. 

ARBOLEDA,  Ur'bci-la'Da.  .Truo  (1817-62). 
A  Colombian  poet  and  political  leader.  He 
was  born  at  Barbacoas  and  was  educated  in 
Europe.  In  1856  he  joined  the  Conservative 
revolt  in  Antioquia,  and  soon  became  the  leader 
of  his  faction.  He  concluded  an  alliance  with 
President  Jloreno,  of  Ecuador,  and  made  war 
upon  the  Federalist  dictator,  Mosquera.  With 
the  support  of  the  States  of  western  Colombia, 
lie  assumed  supreme  power,  but  soon  afterwards 
was  assassinated.  In  a  literary  way  he  is 
chiefly  known  for  his  poems,  which,  including 
Dios  y  la  virtiid,  Estot/  en  la  cdrcel,  and  J/o 
aiissento,  gave  him  high  rank  among  Spanish- 
American  poets.  The  manuscript  of  his  most 
important  work,  Gonzalo  de  Oyon,  was  almost 
completely  destroyed  by  an  enemy,  and  only 
fragmentary  copies  are  preserved. 

AR'BOR  DAY  (Lat.  arbor,  tree).  A  day  set 
apart  by  the  legislatures  of  most  of  the  States 
and  Territories  of  the  United  States  for  the 
annual  planting  of  trees  by  the  people,  and 
more  especially  by  the  school  children.  B.  G. 
Korthrop,  while  secretary  of  the  Connecticut 
Board  of  Education,  seems  to  have  been  the 
first — in  1865 — to  suggest  the  annual  planting 
of  trees  under  the  direction  .of  a  State  govern- 
ment. J.  Sterling  Morton  was  probably  the 
first,  however,  to  propose  the  setting  apart  of 
a  certain  day  annually  for  the  purpose,  and  in 
1872,  largely"  through  I'lis  effoi'ts,  the  custom  was 
instituted  in  Nebraska.  At  present  Arbor  Day 
is  observed  in  nearly  every  State  and  Territory ; 
in  some  as  a  legal  holiday,  in  others  as  a  school 
holiday.  In  addition,  several  States,  including 
New  York,  publish  an  Arbor  Day  manual.  Tlie 
exact  date  is  not  uniform  throughout  the  coun- 
try, though  it  generally  falls  late  in  April  or 
early  in  JIay. 

ARBOR  DIA'N^  (Lat.,  tree  of  Diana,  the 
alchemic  name  of  silver).  An  arborescent  pre- 
cipitate of  metallic  silver  from  a  solution  of 
silver  nitrate,  produced  by  the  addition  of  a 
metallic  element  such  as  mercury.  The  pro- 
portions recommended  are  as  follows:  Dissolve 
twenty  grains  silver  nitrate  in  one  fluid  ounce 
of  water  in  a  convenient  bottle,  add  one-half 
dram  of  pure  mercury,  suspend  a  jjieee  of  zinc 
by  means  of  a  fine  thread  secured  to  the  cork, 
and  in  a  day  or  two  the  arborescent  appearance 
will  present  itself. 

AR'BORE'TUM  (Lot.,  from  arlor,  a  tree  I.  A 
collection  of  specimen  trees  in  a  park  or  nurs- 
ery.    See  Botanic  Gardens:   Forestby:   Horti- 

CULTURK;    NlRSEKY. 

AR'BORICUL'TITRE  (Lat.  arhor.  tree  + 
cultura,  care,  cultivation).  A  term  referring  to 
the  scientific  cultivation  of  trees.  It  embraces 
that  part  of  horticulture  which  treats  of  the 
planting  and  cultivation  of  ornamental  and  fruit 
trees,  and  that  part  of  forestry  known  as  sylvi- 
culture. Tlie  horticultural  growing  of  various 
trees  is  discussed  under  the  corresponding  sjiecial 
licadings.     Forest  practices  are  described  under 

FORESTRV. 

AR'BOR  VIT.a:  (Lat..  tree  of  life), 
Thuja.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  order  Coni- 
ferse,  allied  to  the  cypress,  and  consisting  of 
evergreen  trees  and  shrubs  with  compressed  or 
flattened  branchlets — small,  scale-like,  imbricated 


leaves.  Species  of  arbor  vit*  arc  found  in  the 
north  temperate  zones  of  both  hemispheres.  The 
common  arbor  vita?  {Thuja  occidciitalis)  is  a 
native  of  North  America,  especially  between 
latitude  45°  and  latitude  49°,  but  has  long  been 
well  known  in  Europe.  It  is  a  tree  forty  to  fifty 
feet  high ;  its  branches  are  horizontally  ex- 
panded, and  the  strobiles  (cones)  small  and 
obovate.  The  young  leafy  twigs  have  a  balsamic 
smell,  and  both  they  and  the  wood  were  for- 
merly in  great  repute  as  a  medicine;  the  oil 
obtained  by  distillation  from  the  twigs,  which 
has  a  pungent  and  camphor-like  taste,  has  been 
recommended  as  a  vermifuge.  The  wood  of  the 
stem  is  reddish,  soft,  and  very  light,  but  com- 
pact, tough,  and  durable,  bearing  exposure  to 
the  -weather  remarkably  well.  Tlie  tree  is  com- 
mon in  Great  Britain,  jjlanted  chiefly  as  an 
ornament.  It  seldom  attains  so  great  a  size 
as  in  its  native  country.  It  flourishes  in  cool, 
moist  localities.  The  Chinese  arbor  vitie.  Thuja 
orientalis,  a  native  of  China  and  .lapan,  which 
is  inunediately  distinguishable  from  the  former 
species  by  its  upright  branches  and  larger,  al- 
most globose  and  rough  strobiles,  is  also,  in 
Great  Britain  and  upon  the  continent  of  Europe, 
a  common  ornament  of  pleasure  grounds ;  but  it 
does  not  attain  so  great  a  size  as  the  preced- 
ing, and  is  more  sensible  of  the  cold  of  severe 
winters.  The  balsamic  smell  is  very  agree- 
able. The  tree  j'ields  a  resin  with  a  pleasant 
odor,  to  which  medicinal  virtues  were  once 
ascribed:  hence  the  name,  arhor  riiw,  given  to 
this  species  and  extended  to  the  genus.  There 
are  several  other  species  of  Thuja,  some  of  which 
seem  well  suited  to  the  open  air  in  the  climate 
of  Great  Britain,  and  others  require  the  protec- 
tion of  greenhouses.  Among  the  former  are- 
Thuja  plicata.  California  to  Alaska,  and  Thuja 
dolahrata.  a  native  of  Japan,  a  tree  of  great 
height  and  thickness,  which  will  not  im- 
probably prove  one  of  the  most  important 
of  the  whole  genus.  In  favorable  forest  con- 
ditions both  Thuja  occidentalis  and  Thuja 
plicata  become  rather  large  trees,  the  timber  of 
which  is  very  valuable.  There  are  about  sixty 
horticultural  varieties  of  the  American  species, 
that  vary  in  habit  of  growth,  color  of  foliage, 
or  other  characteristics.  Slany  of  these  are 
popular  in  landscape  gardening.  A  tree  com- 
mon in  North  America  and  there  known  by  the 
name  of  White  Cedar  is  sometimes  included  in 
the  genus  Thuja,  under  the  name  of  Thuja 
sphwroidea,  but  is  more  generally  ranked  in  the 
genus  Cupressus  as  Cupressus  thyoides.  See 
Cypress.  Closely  allied  to  the  genus  Thuja  is 
Callitris.     See  Saxdarac. 

Fos.sii.  Forms.  Tlie  genus  Thuja,  like  many 
other  forms  of  conifers,  is  represented  by  an- 
cestral forms  in  Cretaceous  rocks  of  northern 
Europe,  and  with  the  advance  of  time  is  found 
to  migrate  from  northerly  to  more  soutlierly 
regions,  till  during  Pliocene  time  it  disappeared 
from  Europe.  Thuja  is  also  known  in  tlie 
Jliocenc  lipcls  of  Dakota. 

ARBROATH,  iir-lirr.xil'  (Celt.  ahcr.  conflu- 
ence, uioutli  +  Jirothorl;) .  .Xberbrotkwick, 
al/er-broth'ik.  or  AnERnROTiiocK.  -uk.  .\  .sea- 
port town  in  Forfarshire,  Scotland,  on  the 
North  Sea,  about  seventeen  miles  east-north- 
east of  Dundee  (Map:  Scotland,  F  3).  Here 
King  William  the  Lion  founded  a  Tyronen- 
sian     abbev     in     honor    of    Thomas     a     Becket 


ARBROATH. 


T 


ARC. 


in  1178.  The  King  was  iutorrcd  in  it  in 
1214.  In  the  abbey,  Bruce  and  the  Scottish 
nobles  met  in  1320,  to  resist  the  claims  of  Ed- 
ward II.  to  Scothuid.  Its  ruins,  wliich  are 
cruciform,  270  bj'  l(iO  feet,  are  very  picturesque, 
j)rcsenting  lofty  towers,  columns,  gothic  win- 
dows, etc.  Tlie  chief  industries  of  Arljroath  are 
tlax-spinning,  jute-spinning,  and  the  manufacture 
of  sail-cloth.  The  new  harbor,  begun  in  1841, 
admits  vessels  of  400  tons;  it  is  protected  by 
a  breakwater.  The  chief  ex])orts  are  grain, 
potatoes,  fish,  pork,  and  paving-stones.  Ar- 
broath is  a  royal  burgh,  and,  in  conjuction  with 
]Montrose,  Brechin,  Forfar,  and  Bervie  burghs, 
returns  one  member  to  Parliament.  Popula- 
tion, with  suburbs,  in  1901,  22,372.  The  famous 
Bellrock  lighthouse  stands  in  the  sea  twelve 
miles  southeast  of  Arbroath. 

ARBU:6S,  ar-bwas',  Pedro  (1441-8.5).  A 
Spanish  inquisitor.  He  was  born  at  Epila, 
Aragon ;  became  a  member  of  the  Augustinian 
College  at  Saragossa,  and  in  1484  was  ap- 
pointed first  inquisitor  of  Saragossa  by  Tor- 
quemada,  inquisitor-general.  He  was  a  tireless 
persecutor  of  all  heretics,  real  or  suspected,  and 
was  finally  slain  through  a  conspiracy  of  the 
friends  of  his  victims.  He  was  canonized  by 
Pope  Pius  IX.  in  18G7. 

AR'BUTHNOT,  John  (1667-1735).  A 
Scotch  author  and  physician,  the  contemporary 
and  friend  of  Pope  and  Swift.  He  was  the  son 
of  an  Episcopal  clerg^•man,  and  was  born  at 
Arbuthnot,  Kincardineshire.  He  studied  medi- 
cine at  Aberdeen,  but  took  his  degree  at  Saint 
Andrews.  Arbuthnot's  father  lost  his  pre- 
ferment at  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution.  His 
sons'  prospects  being  thus  blighted  in  their  own 
country,  the  family  "were  compelled  to  go  abroad 
to  seek  their  fortune.  John  went  soon  after  to 
London,  and  there  supporteil  hini'iclf  by  teach- 
ing mathematics.  In  1007  he  published  an  ex- 
amination of  Dr.  Woodward's  account  of  the 
Deluge,  which  brought  him  into  notice  as  a 
person  of  unusual  ability.  Accident  called  him 
into  attendance  on  Prince  George  of  Denmark, 
who  thenceforth  patronized  him.  In  1709  he 
was  appointed  physician  in  ordinary  to  the 
Queen,  and  in  171o"was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Royal  College  of  Physicians.  On  the  death  of 
Queen  Anne^  in  1714,  he  lost  his  place  at  court, 
and  his  circumstances  were  never  so  prosper- 
ous afterward.  In  1717,  Arbuthnot,  with  Pope, 
helped  Gay  in  a  farce,  entitled  r/irce  Hours  After 
Marriage,  which,  however,  proved  a  complete 
failure.  In  1723  he  was  chosen  second  censor  of 
the  Royal  College  of  Physicians,  and  in  1727 
he  pronounced  the  Harveian  oration  for  the 
year.     He  died  at  Hampstead  in  1735. 

Arbuthnot's  literary  fame  rests  upon  two 
humorous  pieces.  In  1712  he  published  the 
History  of  John  Bull,  one  of  the  most  amusing 
of  political  satires.  After  his  death  appeared 
(in  Pope's  Works,  1741)  the  Memoirs  of  Mar- 
liiius  Scriblerus  (q.v.),  in  which  all  kinds  of 
pedantrv  is  ridiculed.  John  Bull  as  a  nickname 
for  England  has  been  traced  back  no  farther 
than  Arbuthnot,  and  Scriblerus  is  one  of  the 
important  sources  of  Sterne's  Tristram  Shandy. 
Arbuthnot  was  one  of  the  most  amiable  of  men. 
To  him  Pope  addressed  his  best  i:iiisllr.  and 
Swift  said  that  if  there  were  a  dozen  Arbuth- 
nots   in  tlie  world  he  would  burn  his   Travels. 


Consult   G.    A.    Aitkin,   Life   and    ^yorks   of  Ar- 
lulhnot   (London,  1892). 

ARBUTHNOT,  Marriot  (1711-94).  A  Brit- 
ish admiral.  He  became  a  commander  in  1746 
and  .a  captain  in  1747:  was  commissioner  of 
the  navy  at  Halifax,  \.  S..  from  1775  to  1778; 
became  a  rear-admiral  in  1778,  and  in  1779  was 
appointed  vice-admiral  and  placed  in  command 
of  the  North  American  Station.  In  conjunction 
with  Sir  Henry  Clinton  he  captured  Charleston, 
S.  C,  after  a  long  siege,  in  1780  (May  12), 
and  in  March,  1781,  fought  an  indecisive  en- 
gagement with  a  French  fleet  off  Cape  Henry. 
He  surrendered  his  command  to  Rear-Admiral 
Graves  in  July,  1781,  returned  to  England, 
and  though  he  saw  no  more  actual  service,  he 
became  by  seniority  Admiral  of  the  Blue  in 
1793.  As  a  naval  officer  he  was  absurdly  in- 
efficient, being  ignorant  of  even  the  rudiments 
of  naval  tactics,  and  as  a  man  he  seems  to  have 
been  known  to  his  contemporaries  as  a  coarse 
and  blustering  bravo.  Consult  Ralfe,  Xaval 
Biography    (London,   1820). 

ARBTJTTJS,  iirliii-tus  or  iir-bvi'tus  (Lat.,  the 
wild  strawberry  tree).  A  genus  of  plants  of 
the  order  Ericacew.  The  species,  w-hich  number 
about  twenty,  are  mostly  European  and  North 
American  shrubs  and  small  trees.  In  many 
species  the  leaves  are  evergreen  and  shining,  the 
branches  usually  smooth  and  red.  Such  a  species 
is  Arbutus  unedo,  the  Strawberry  Tree,  exten- 
sively planted  as  an  ornament  in  parks.  It 
is  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe,  and  is  not 
hardy  in  the  colder  parts  of  the  United  States. 
It  is'  highly  valued  in  California.  The  flowers, 
which  are  white,  are  produced  in  great  abun- 
dance :  the  fruit,  which  resembles  a  strawberry 
in  size  and  color,  is  ripened  the  second  year. 
In  this  way  flowers  and  fruits  occur  together, 
and,  with  the  bright  green  leaves,  make  the  tree 
very  attractive.  The  fruit  is  edible  and  often 
utilized,  especially  in  Spain,  where  sugar  and  a 
spirit  are  manufactured  from  it.  A  second 
species,  Arbutus  Menziesii,  is  the  madroua  of 
California.  It  is  fairly  hardy,  and  as  a  tree 
often  attains  a  height  of  eighty  to  one  hundred 
feet.  Arbutus  Arizonica,  a  tree  forty  to  fifty  feet 
high,  has  the  bark  of  the  trunk  white,  of  the 
branches  red.  which,  together  with  the  pale-green 
leaves,  make  a  pleasing  contrast.  A  few  fossil 
forms  have  been  described  under  the  name  Ar- 
butites.  from  the  Eocene  of  Europe. 

ARBUTUS,  Trailing  {Epigcea  repens) .  A 
prostrate  or  trailing  plant,  called  Mayflower  in 
New  England  and  Ground  Laurel  in  the  Southern 
States,  with  evergreen  leaves,  rusty,  bristly 
shoots,  and  axillary  clusters  of  fragrant,  rose- 
colored  or  white  flowers,  opening  in  early  spring; 
found  in  sandy  or  rocky  soil,  especially  in  the 
shade  of  pines.  It  grows  from  Canada  to  Texas, 
but  is  particularly  abundant  in  New  England, 
the  Jliddle  and  South  Atlantic  States,  as  well 
as  in  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota. 

ARC  (Lat.  areus.  a  bow).  --^ny  part  of  a 
curved  line.  It  is  usually  limited  to  a  part  not 
including  a  cusp,  and  more  particularly  is  ap- 
plied topart  of  the  circumference  of  a  circle,  as 
in  the  following  statements:  The  straight  lino 
joining  the  ends  of  an  arc  is  called  its  chord. 
.\rcs  of  dift'erent  circles  are  similar  when  they 
subtend  equal  central  angles  of  their  respective 
circles;    if   these   circles   are   equal,   so   are   the 


AKC. 


718 


ABCADIA. 


similar  arcs.  Circular  arcs  have  the  same 
numerical  measure  as  the  central  angles  which 
they  subtend,  and  hence  are  commonly  said  to 
measure  and  to  be  measured  by  those  angles. 
Like  their  subtended  central  angles,  arcs  may 
be  considered  as  positive  or  negative  and  as 
exceeding  360°  (see  Angle).  An  arc  is  dis- 
tinguished as  major  or  minor,  according  as  it  13 
greater  or  less  than  a  semi-circumference.  The 
arc  equaling  in  length  the  radius  of  a  circle  is 
called  a  radian;  it  is  nearly  57°  17'  44. S".  There 
are,  therefore.  2  v  radians  in  a  circumference. 

ABC,  Electbic.  See  Electric  Arc  and  Elec- 
tric Lighting. 

ARC,  Jo.vN  OF.     See  Joan  of  Arc. 

ARCACHON,  iir'ka'shoN'.  A  French  town 
and  favorite  watering-place  on  the  Bay  of  Bis- 
cay, in  the  Department  of  Gironde,  which  has 
grown  up  since  18.54,  on  the  south  side  of  the  Bas- 
sin  d'Arcachon,  thirty-four  miles  southwest  of 
Bordeaux  by  rail.  The  fine  broad  sands  are  ad- 
mirably adapted  for  bathing,  and  the  place  is 
sheltered  by  sandhills  covered  with  extensive 
pine  woods  of  the  Landes.  Its  main  street 
stretches  two  and  one-half  miles  along  the 
shore,  with  the  pine  forests  immediately  be- 
hind. The  climate  is  always  temperate,  averag- 
ing in  summer  47°  F.  and  in  winter  41°.  Its 
numerous  villas  among  the  firs  are  much  fre- 
quented in  the  winter  by  invalids  afflicted  with 
lung  disease.  Scientific  oyster  culture  is  prac- 
ticed here  on  a  large  scale.  Pop.,  1901,  82.59. 
Consult  Airachon    (Paris,   1899). 

ARCADE'  (Fr.,  from  Lat.  amis,  bow,  arch, 
vault).  A  row  of  arches  supported  by  columns 
or  piers,  either  having  an  open  space  of  greater 
or  less  width  behind  them,  or  in  contact  with 
masonry.  The  arcade  in  Christian  architecture 
corresponds  to  the  colonnade  in  classical  archi- 
tecture ;  the  difference  between  them  is  mainly 
in  the  substitution  of  arches  for  the  straight 
architrave.  The  term  'arcade'  is  sometimes  ap- 
plied to  the  row  of  piers,  or  columns  and  arches, 
by  which  the  aisles  are  divided  from  the  nave  of 
a  church,  or  by  which  cloisters  are  inclosed;  but 
it  is  more  generally  confined  to  those  series  of 


smaller  arches  which  are  employed  simply  for 
purposes  of  ornamentation.  They  form  the  main 
decorative  feature  of  both  outside  and  inside 
meditEval  architecture,  especially  in  the  form 
of  real  or  blind  galleries,  adding  a  play  of  light 
and  shade,  a  richness  of  detail,  and  a  variety  of 
form  that  contrast  with  the  early  Christian 
simplicity  and  the  exclusive  use  of  color  by  the 
Byzantines.      The    term    is    also    applied,    im- 


properly, to  a  glass-covered  street  or  lane  with 
a  row  of  shops  or  stalls  on  each  side. 

AR'CADELT,  .Jacob.  A  Flemish  composer 
who  assisted  in  founding  the  classical  Italian 
school  of  music.  The  date  of  his  birth  is  un- 
certain, but  is  believed  to  have  been  during  the 
first  quarter  of  the  Sixteenth  Century.  His 
works  are  among  the  masterpieces  of  contra- 
puntal music  of  the  Middle  Ages.  He  was  the 
most  popular  composer  of  his  day,  and  his  popu- 
larity induced  many  persons,  for  business  rea- 
sons, to  add  his  name  to  works  written  by  others. 
During  a  residence  in  Rome  (1539-55),  as 
teacher  and  as  singer  in  the  Papal  Chapel,  he 
composed  many  madrigals.  His  works  also  in- 
clude motets  and  masses.  Arcadelt  probably 
died  about  1570-75,  while  in  Paris  with  Cardinal 
Charles,  Duke  of  Guise,  whose  service  he  entered 
in  1557.  Consult:  Burney,  General  History  of 
Music,  Vol.  III.  ( London]  1789)  ;  Ambros.  Ge- 
schichte  dcr  Musik,  Vol.  II.  (Breslau,  1862-82). 

ARCADES,  ar'ka-dez.  A  masque  written  by 
John  IMilton  in  1634  and  published  in  1645.  It 
was  acted  shortly  after  Comus,  before  the 
Countess-Dowager  of  Derby,  wife,  first  of  Fer- 
nando, Earl  of  Derby,  and  afterwards  of  Thomas 
Egerton,  liord  Ellesmere,  when  she  was  living  at 
Harefield,  near  Uxbridge.  It  was  set  to  music 
by  Mr.  Lawes  at  the  same  time.  In  it  the 
Countess's  guests  appear  on  the  scene  in  pastoral 
habit  and  move  toward  the  seat  of  state  with 
a  prefatory  song  of  compliment.  A  "genius 
of  the  wood"  then  comes  forward  and  describes 
the  significance  of  the  occasion,  after  which  the 
piece  closes  with  two  more  songs  of  flattery. 

ARCA'DIA  (Gk.  'ApKaSla,  Arkadia).  The 
middle  and  highest  part  of  the  Peloponnesus, 
boimded  on  the  north  by  Achaia,  on  the  east 
by  Argolis,  on  the  south  by  Messenia  and  La- 
conia,  and  on  the  west  by  Elis.  According  to 
Pausanias,  it  derived  its  name  from  Areas,  the 
son  of  Callisto.  Next  to  Laconia,  Arcadia  was 
the  largest  country  in  the  Peloponnesus.  It  had 
an  area  of  1800  square  miles,  and  was  girt  round 
by  a  circle  of  mountains,  which  cut  olT  to  a 
large  extent  its  conununication  with  the  rest  of 
the  peninsula.  Mountains  also  intersected  it 
in  diflferent  directions,  forming  a  number  of 
small  cantons.  The  western  part  of  what  was 
anciently  Arcadia  is  wild,  bleak,  and  rugged, 
and  covered  with  forests :  the  eastern  is  more 
fertile;  and  in  the  southeast  are  two  plateaus, 
in  which  lay  the  chief  ancient  cities.  The  lofti- 
est peak  in  Arcadia  is  Mount  Cyllene,  in  the 
northeast,  7790  feet.  Tlie  small  rivers  are  either 
tributaries  of  the  Alpheus  (q.v.),  or  empty  into 
inland  lakes  drained  by  underground  channels 
ikatavothra) .  The  chief  cities  were  Tegea 
(q.v.)  and  Mantinea  (q.v.)  in  the  sovitheast, 
and  the  great  city.  Megalopolis  (q.v.),  founded 
in  B.C.  370  by  Epaminondas  as  the  capital  of  the 
Arcadian  Confederacy.  Further  north  were  Or- 
chomenus.  Pheneus,  Clitor,  and  Psophis.  Owing 
to  its  isolation,  Arcadia  remained  little  af- 
fected by  the  Dorian  conquest  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, and  its  inhabitants  were  regarded  as 
belonging  to  the  original  population  of  the 
peninsula ;  a  belief  confirmed  by  their  dialect, 
which  preserves  some  early  forms  and  shows 
strong  resemblances  to  the  Cyprian.  The  nature 
of  the  country  also  prevented  any  lasting  union 
among  the  inhabitants,  and  enabled  the  Spartans 


ARCADIA. 


719 


ARCH. 


to  maintain  their  supremacy  until  the  battle 
of  Leuetra.  Tlie  confederation  organized  by 
Epaminondas  had  no  real  permanency,  and  until 
the  Roman  conquest  the  country  was  the  scene 
of  civil  strife.  The  inhabitants  were  brave, 
hardv,  and  fond  of  fighting,  so  that  they  were 
in  great  demand  as  mercenaries.  Among  their 
shepherds  and  hunters  the  chief  deities  seem  to 
have  been  Pan,  Artemis,  and  Zeus,  who  was 
worshiped  with  human  sacrifices  on  Mount 
Lycaeon  till  a  comparatively  late  date.  A  form 
of  pastoral  poetry  seems  to  have  developed  in 
Arcadia,  which  was  at  first  crowded  into  the 
background  by  the  Sicilian  bucolics  of  Theocri- 
tus; "but  later  revived  and  influenced  the  Roman 
poets,  wlicnce  Arcadia  has  become  a  synonym 
for  an  idyllic  pastoral  country  of  peace,  inno- 
cence, ami  simplicity. 

ARCADIA.  The  title  of  various  pastoral 
romances,  suggested,  doubtless,  from  the  use 
of  the  word  in  Vergil's  Eclogues,  where  it  is 
spoken  of  as  a  realm  of  bucolic  content.  One  of 
these  romances  is  by  Sannazaro,  and  appeared 
at  the  close  of  the  Fifteenth  Century;  another  is 
by  Sir  Pliilip  Sidney,  and  was  published  in  1.590; 
a"  third  is  by  Robert  Greene,  published  in  1589; 
and  a  fourth  by  I.ope  de  Vega,  in  1598.  In  1G40 
Shirley  wrote  a  dramatization  of  Sidney's  tale. 

ARCA'DIUS  (c.377-408).  The  first  Em- 
peror of  the  East  (a.d.  395-408).  He  was  born 
in  Spain,  and  was  the  son  of  the  Emperor  Theo- 
dosius,  after  whose  death  the  Roman  Empire 
was  divided  into  the  Eastern  and  Western,  .\rca- 
dius  lived  in  Oriental  state,  and  his  dominion  e.K- 
tendcd  from  the  Adriatic  Sea  to  the  river  Tigris, 
and  from  Seythia  to  Ethiopia  ;  but  the  real  rulers 
over  this  vast  empire  were,  first,  the  Gaul  Rufi- 
nus,  and  afterwards  the  eunuch  Eutropius.  who 
openly  assumed  the  reins  of  government  and  the 
command  of  the  army,  while  Arcadius  reposed  in 
luxurious  indifVcrence.  In  399  Eutropius  was 
deposed  by  another  usurper,  Gainas,  who,  in  his 
turn,  sooii  fell  a  victim  to  his  own  ambition. 
Afterwards  Eudoxia,  the  wife  of  the  Emperor, 
assumed  the  supremacy.  One  really  great  man 
adorned  this  period,  the  virtuous  and  eloquent 
Chrj-sostom,  who  was  persecuted  by  Eudoxia, 
and  through  her  influence  exiled  in  404,  on  ac- 
count of  his  firm  opposition  to  .\rianism,  which 
the  Empress  herself  favored.  During  the  reign 
of  Arcadius  his  territories  suffered  by  barbarian 
incursions,  earthquakes,  and  famine,  but  nothing 
could  disturl)  the  indilTerence  of  the  monarch. 
He  died,  unlamented,  .\.r).  408.     See  HoNORlUS. 

ARCA'NI  DIS'CIPLI'NA.  See  Disciplina 
Arcani. 

ARCA'NUM,  The  Great.  In  the  Middle 
Ages  the  Latin  word  arcanuiii.  literally  meaning 
secret,  was  used  of  any  of  tlie  most  valued 
preparations  of  alchemy  (q.v.)  ;  but  the  name 
great  arcanum  was  especially  applied  to  the 
highest  problems  of  the  science,  the  discovery 
of  such  supposed  great  secrets  of  nature  as  the 
elixir  of  life  or  the  philosopher's  stone. 

ARC  DE  TRIOMPHE  DE  L'ETOILE,  -irk 
dc  tre'oNf  de  la'twal'  (Fr.,  triumphal  arch  of 
the  star).  The  largest  triumphal  arch  in  the 
world.  It  stands  at  the  head  of  the  Cham])s 
Elysees,  Paris,  and  was  begun  by  Napoleon  in 
180(1,  and  completed  by  Louis  Philippe  in  1831). 
It  was  designed  by  Chalgrin.  and  is  profusely 
■ornamented  with   reliefs  representing  the  Napo- 


leonic victories,   in  commemoration  of   which   it 
\\a^  erected.     Sec  Ari'II,  Tru-iipual. 

ARC  DE  TRIOMPHE  DU  CARROUSEL, 
iirk  de  tre'oNf  di.i  ka'roTT'zel'  (Fr.,  triumphal 
arch  of  the  tilting-match) .  An  arch  built  by 
Napoleon  I.  at  Paris,  in  the  square  inclosed  by 
the'Tuileries  and  the  Louvre,  in  commemoration 
of  his  victories  during  1805-00.  It  is  a  smaller 
copy  of  the  Arch  of  Constantine  at  Rome.  See 
Arch,  Triumpual. 

AR'CE,  .S'poH.  pron.,  iir'tha,  Francisco 
(1822-78).  A  California  pioneer.  He  removed 
to  Alta  California  in  1833,  and  soon  afterward 
became  secretary  to  (Jcneral  Jos6  Castro,  then 
commanding  the  Californian  forces.  In  I84G, 
while  bringing  a  number  of  horses,  supposed  to 
belong  to  the  Californian  Government,  from  So- 
noma to  the  south,  he  was  attacked  (June  6) 
by  a  company  of  Americans,  supposedly  insti- 
gated by  Captain  John  C.  Fremont.  The  "Arce 
aft'air"  '  attracted  widespread  attention,  and 
marked  the  beginning  of  the  Bear-Flag  Revolt, 
which  resulted  in  the  seizure  of  California  by 
tlie  .\mericLin>. 

AR'CESILA'TJS  (Gk.  'ApKcalXaos.Arkesilaos) 
(B.C.  316-241).  A  Greek  philosopher,  founder 
of  the  Middle  .\cademy.  He  was  born  at  Pitane, 
in  ^^olis;  studied  piiilosophy  at  Athens,  first 
under  Theophrastus,  the  Peripatetic,  and  after- 
wards under  Grantor,  the  Academician,  and 
through  the  latter  became  acquainted  with  Pole- 
mon  and  Crates,  by  whom,  as  well  as  by  Grantor, 
he  was  profoundly  influenced  in  his  philosophic 
views.  After  the  death  of  Grantor,  he  became 
the  head  of  the  Academic  school.  .4rcesilau3 
marks  a  reaction  against  the  dogmatism  of  the 
Stoic  school  of  philosophy,  and  an  intended  re- 
currence to  the  method  and  attitude  of  Plato 
and  Socrates.  He  denied  the  Stoic  doctrine  of  a 
"convincing  conception,"  which  he  affirmed  to  be, 
from  its  very  nature,  unintelligible  and  contra- 
dictory. He*  also  denied  the  certainty  of  intel- 
lectual and  sensuous  knowledge,  and  recommend- 
ed abstinence  from  all  dogmatic  judgments.  In 
practice,  he  maintained,  we  must  act  on  grounds 
of  probability.  Though  Areesilaus  confined  his 
activity  to  teaching  by  the  Socratic  method,  and 
wrote  nothing,  his  influence  on  the  future  course 
of  philosophic  thought  was  far-reaching.  He 
had  clearness  of  thought,  cutting  wit,  and  readi- 
ness of  speech ;  his  frank  and  generous  disposi- 
tion charmed  his  opponents  as  well  as  his  dis- 
ciples. Consult  Zeller,  Geschichte  der  griech- 
ischen  Philosophie  (Leipzig,  1893). 

ARCH  ( Lat.  arcus,  anything  curved,  a  bow, 
vrult.  arch).  A  term  used  in  architecture  to 
designate  any  curved  form  that  spans  an  open- 
ing or  recess.  It  may  be  decorative,  as  a  floral 
arch ;  or  constructional,  as  a  stone  or  brick  arch. 
It  may  be  a  detached  structure,  a  memorial  or 
triumphal  arch ;  or  it  may  be  a  part  of  a  large 
building.  A  constructional  arch  may  be  a  false 
arch,  consisting  of  horizontal  courses  of  masonry, 
each  projecting  over  the  one  below  it,  the  edges 
being  chamfered  to  give  the  form  of  the  arch 
without  the  carrying  function;  or  it  may  be  a 
true  arch,  with  a  keystone,  as  is  usually  the  case, 
and  may  be  of  the  greatest  variety  of  shapes: 
a  primitive  triangle,  formed  of  two  slanting 
stones  ;  a  flat  arch,  with  wedge-shaped  voussoirs  ; 
a  segmental  arch,  or  very  low  arch,  used  often 
within  walls,  as  a  discharging  arch,  for  strength; 


ARCH. 

a  usual  round  or  one-centred  arch:  a  stilted 
arch ;  a  usual  pointed  or  two-centred  arch ;  a 
cusped  or  lobed  arch  (trefoil,  quatrefoil,  cinq- 
foil  )  ;  a  horseshoe  arch ;  a  reverse-curve  or  ogee 
arch;  a  basket-handle  arch  (both  three-centred). 
The  arch  is  formed  of  voussoirs;  the  central  one 
is  the  keystone,  the  lower  ones  are  the  springers. 
The  inner  side  of  the  arch  is  the  intrados,  the 
outer  the  extrados.  See  Abutment;  Archivolt; 
Spandrel. 

History. — The  supporting  power  of  the  arch 
ap{)ears  to  have  been  known  to  most  nations  of 
antiquity,  but  the  power  was  not  regarded  as 
artistic.  The  Egyptians  knew  the  round  arch, 
but  relegated  it  to  works  of  engineering  and  pri- 
vate architecture;  the  arch  never  appears  in 
their  temples,  tombs,  or  any  other  large  monu- 
ments. In  this  they  held  precisely  the  position 
held  later  by  the  C4reeks.  The  arch  in  the  As- 
sembly Hall  at  Priene  (time  of  Alexander),  re- 
cently discovered,  is  supposed  to  be  the  only 
decorative  Greek  arch  found :  the  few  others  are 
in  fortifications,  etc.  But  the  Babylonians  and 
Assyrians  knew  and  used  various  kinds  of  arches 
in  their  palaces,  tombs,  and  temples:  the  false 
arch ;  the  pointed  and  the  semicircular  arches. 
All  the  openings  in  Assyrian  palaces  were  arched. 
In  ancient  Italy,  the  Pelasgic  and  Etruscan 
populations  used  the  arch  in  the  same  way  for 
secular  and  sepulchral  buildings;  for  gates, 
bridges,  passages.  Only  in  temple  architecture, 
borrowed  from  the  Greeks  of  the  historic  age, 
was  the  architrave  supreme.  This  custom  was 
inherited  by  the  Romans,  most  of  whose  secular 
buildings  were  arched,  while  their  temples  were 
not.  But  the  Romans  of  the  Early  Empire  did 
not  invent  the  arcade — that  is,  an  uninterrupted 
series  of  arches  supported  on  columns  or  piers. 
This  was  first  introduced  at  Diocletian's  palace 
in  Spalato,  and  developed  in  early  Christian 
religioiis  architecture.  Etruscans.  Romans,  and 
early  Christians  knew  only  the  semicircular  arch. 
But  the  Persians  and  ilohauimedans.  beginning 
in  the  Sixth  and  Seventh  centuries,  brought  into 
use  a  variety  of  other  forms:  the  pointed,  the 
horseshoe,  the  ovoid,  the  stilted  arches.  These 
forms  later  penetrated  sporadically  into  Europe, 
especially  where  there  were  political  or  com- 
mercial relations  with  the  Orient.  The  pointed 
arch  became,  in  fact,  the  favorite  Mohammedan 
form.  It  was,  perhaps,  a  knowledge  of  this 
Oriental  usage  that  suggested  to  French  build- 
ers of  the  time  of  the  First  Crusade  the  use 
of  this  form  in  vaulting:  and  thus  was  laid  the 
basis  for  Gothic  construction,  though  otherwise 
there  cannot  be  any  connection  between  the 
pointed  style  of  the  East  and  Gothic  architec- 
ture. In  Europe  the  round-arched  style  of  the 
Romanesque  Period  was  succeeded  by  the  more 
flexible  pointed  style  of  Gothic.  Gothic  archi- 
tects produced  the  greatest  number  of  sub-forms 
and  by-forms  of  the  arch,  not  all  of  them  pointed. 
Then  the  Renaissance  returned  to  the  round  arch. 
Jlodern  architects  have  no  style  to  hamper  them, 
and  tlierefore  use  all  kinds. 

AKCH,  Triumph.vl.  or  Memori.\l.  Usually 
a  freestanding  arch,  spanning  a  road;  though 
sometimes  city  gates  and  monumental  doorways 
are  turned  into  memorial  arches.  These  arches 
are  erected  to  connnemorate  triumphs  or  suc- 
cessful campaigns,  or  even  great  peaceful  events, 
or  an  entire  reign,  or  even  a  great  family.  They 
appear    to    have    originated    with    the    Romans. 


r:2() 


ARCH. 


Nearly  one  hundred  and  fifty  such  Roman  arches 
remain  wholly  or  in  part,  of  which  about  sixty- 
are  in  North  Africa.  At  Rome  they  were  placed 
along  the  Triumphal  Way  followed  by  the  tri- 
umphing general  and  his  army  from  the  Field  of 
Jfars  to  tlie  Capitol.  The  custom  spread  from 
Rome  elsewhere.  The  earliest  arches  mentioned 
at  Rome  are  those  of  Stertinius  (b.c.  190)  and 
Scipio  Africanus  (b.c.  100).  Then  the  Fabian 
gens  erected  one  to  itself  (c.l20  B.C.).  But 
it  was  under  Augustus  that  the  custom  took  root 
everywhere,  as  is  shown  in  the  Roman  Forum, 
at  Aosta,  Susa,  Rimini,  Fano,  etc.  From  that 
time  until  the  fall  of  the  Empire  in  the  Fifth 
Century  such  arches  followed  Roman  dominion 
throughout  the  civilized  world,  and  they  are 
found  in  France  (Saint  Remy,  Orange,  "etc. ) , 
Spain  (Caparra,  Bara),  North' Africa  (Timgad, 
Tebessa,  Thugga,  Haidra),  Syria  (Palmyra, 
Gerasa,  Baalbek),  Asia  Jlinor,  etc.  The  early 
arches  were  of  stone  and  without  nuich  carving, 
being  mainly  arched  bases  for  a  group  of  tri- 
umphal statuary.  But  under  the  Empire,  though 
still  crowned  by  the  triumphal  quadriga  and 
other  figures  in  bronze,  the  arches  themselves 
became  of  great  artistic  importance,  and  often 
represent  the  most  successful  efTort  of  Roman 
genius  at  combining  architectural  and  sculptural 
design.  They  were  then  built  of  marble.  The 
number  of  openings  varied  from  one  to  four, 
according  as  special  arcades  were  or  were  not 
made  for  foot-passengers,  or  two  main  arches 
provided  for  vehicles  in  place  of  one.  Still  an- 
other favorite  form  was  the  Janus  arch,  or 
Tetrapylon,  a  solid  cube,  with  arches  at  right 
angles,  usually  placed  at  the  intersection  of 
avenues,  as  at  Philippopolis,  Gerasa,  and  Rome. 
Few  cities  were  built  under  the  Empire  without 
one  or  more  of  these  arches,  but  only  in  Italy 
and  South  France  were  they  profusely  decorated 
with  relief  sculptures.  The  most  perfect  of  all 
such  sculptured  arches  is  that  of  Trajan,  at 
Benevento  (a.d.  114)  ;  then  come  those  of 
Titus  (a.d.  80),  Septimius  Severus  (a.d.  203), 
and  Constantine  (a.d.  312)  at  Rome,  and  that 
of  Tiberius  at  Orange.  The  sculptures  commemo- 
rated events  of  these  emperors'  reigns,  and  the 
attic  contained  the  dedicatory  inscription.  One 
of  the  slenderest  and  most  elegant  is  the  one 
erected  on  the  Mole  at  Ancona,  to  celebrate  the 
enlargement  of  this  port  by  Trajan.  The  Renais- 
sance resurrected  the  arch  after  a  lapse  of  a 
thousand  years  (Arch  of  Alfonso  at  Naples, 
Fifteenth  Century),  and  it  has  since  the  Seven- 
teenth Century  steadily  increased  in  popularity 
in  Italy  (Arco  della  Pace.  Milan);  France 
(Arc  de  I'Etoile,  Arc  du  Carrousel)  ;  Germany 
( Brandenburger  Thor,  Berlin;  Siegesthor,  Mu- 
nich), and  America  (Washington  Arch,  New 
York;  Memorial  Arch,  Brooklvn).  Consult: 
Baumeister,  Doikmiiler  des  Klassischen  Alter- 
tuma  (Munich,  1885-88)  :  Daremberg  and  Saglio, 
Dicfioiiitnire  des  antiquiirs  (irccques  et  ro- 
nmiiies  (Paris.  1881-02)  ;  Bellori.  ^'('feres  Arcus 
Aiiiiustorum  (Rome.  1600)  :  and  Philippi,  Ueher 
die  rominchrn  Triumphnlrcliefe  (Leipzig,  1874). 
ARCH,  .TosEPii  (1820—).  An  English  labcu- 
leader.  He  was  born  in  humble  circumstances; 
was  a  farm  laborer:  educated  himself,  and  be- 
came a  PriTuitive  Methodist  preacher.  In  1872 
he  headed  the  movement  for  the  betterment  of 
the  condition  of  farm  laborers  in  England,  and 
founded  and  was  president  of  the  National  Agri- 


ARCHES 


A.  TRIANGULAR 

B.  SEMI-CIRCULAR,   Primitive. 

C.  SEMI-CIRCULAR,  With  keystone 

D.  SURMOUNTED. 

E.  HORSESHOE. 

F.  SEGMENTAL. 


G.  SURBASEDOROVAL. 
H.  DEPRESSED. 
I.    ELLIPTICAL. 
J.    INDENTED. 
K.  TRUNCATED 

ANGULAR. 
L.   LANCE-SHAPED. 


M.  OGIVAL. 

N.  LANCET. 

O.  FLAMBOYANT. 

P.  FLAT. 

Q.  TUDOR. 

R.  THREE-LOBED. 


S.   FIVE-LOBED. 

T.   REVERSED    OGEE. 

U.   INFLECTED,  COUNTER  CURVED. 

V.  OGEE. 

W.  RAMPANT. 

X.  ZIG-ZAG. 


AKCH. 


r2i 


ARCHEOLOGY. 


cultural  Laborers'  I'liion.  In  l.ST.'i  lio  visited 
Canada  and  the  L'nited  States  to  study  tlie  con- 
dition and  prospects  of  labor,  and  the  question 
of  emigration.  In  1885  he  was  elected  to  I'arlia- 
Eient  from  Northwest  Norfolk  as  a  Liberal;  was 
defeated  in  188(1,  and  reelected  in  1802  and  in 
1895.  In  1898  his  autobiography,  edited  by  the 
Countess  of  Warwick,  was  puldished. 

ARCH.ffiAN  (arke'nn)  SYSTEM  (from  Gk. 
ipxalos.  arcJiaios,  ancient).  A  name  proposed 
by  .1.  D.  Dana,  in  1872,  for  the  entire  series  of 
crystalline  rocks  that  forms  the  oldest  under- 
lying fundamental  complex  of  the  earth's  crust. 
Earlier  names  applied  to  this  series  were:  Azoic, 
Primitive,  Huronian,  and  Laurentian,  of  Ameri- 
can geologists,  and  Vryebirgp  and  Primitivge- 
birge  of  the  still  earlier  Germans,  Werner  and 
Lehmann.  The  rocks  of  this  system  consist  of  a 
complex  series  of  gneisses,  granites,  and  schists, 
with  a  host  of  associated  massive  igneous  intru- 
sions, all  of  which  have  sulfered  profound  dis- 
turbances and  metamorphism  to  such  an  extent 
that  it  is  extremely  doubtful  if  at  the  present 
day  there  exist  any  traces  of  their  original 
characters.  They  form,  as  a  rule,  the  cores  of 
the  great  mountain  masses,  and  are  the  original 
sources  from  which  were  derived,  by  erosion 
through  countless  ages,  all  the  forms  of  later 
Bedimentarv  rocks,  which  they  underlie  with 
marked  unconformity.  Various  classifications  of 
Arch;ran  rocks  have  been  made  in  the  attempt 
to  organize  them  into  stratigraphic  groups,  but 
owing  to  the  com])lex  nature  of  the  series,  and 
to  the  almost  complete  absence  of  reliable  data 
for  determining  the  relative  age  of  the  com- 
ponent formations,  no  one  classification  has  as 
yet  received  general  recognition.  Tliese  Archae- 
an rocks  of  undoubted  primeval  origin,  together 
with  certain  others,  which  because  of  their  prob- 
able sedimentary  derivation  have  been  separated 
under  the  name  Algonkian,  antedate  in  respect 
of  the  time  of  their  formation  the  rocks  of  the 
Cambrian  system,  and  can  be  described  to  better 
advantage  under  the  title,  Pre-Cambri.\n  Forma- 
tions, to  which  article  the  reader  is  referred  for 
further  information.  See  also  Algonkian  Sys- 
TKM  ;  and  Taconic  Sy.stem. 

ARCHEOLOGICAL  (ar'ke-fi-lojlkal)  IN- 
STITUTE OF  AMERICA.  A  society  for  the 
promotion  of  archaeological  investigation  and 
research.  It  was  organized  in  Boston  in  1879, 
and  has  since  established  nine  affiliated  societies, 
with  headquarters  in  difl'erent  American  cities. 
The  Institute  foiuided  the  American  School  of 
Classical  Studies  in  Athens  in  ISSl  :  the  Ameri- 
can School  of  Classical  Studies  in  Rome  in  1895, 
and  the  American  School  in  Palestine  in  1900. 
These  are  supported  partly  by  private  subscrip- 
tion and  partly  by  the  aid  of  several  American 
colleges.  The  society  conducted  important  ex- 
cavations of  the  site  of  ancient  Assos  in  ISSl-S.S, 
and  has  aided  the  School  at  Athens  in  its  exca- 
vation of  Grecian  sites,  notably  that  of  the 
Herteum,  in  the  Argolid.  The  official  organ  of 
the  society  is  the  Amrrlcnn  Journtil  of  Arclia;- 
ology,  a  bi-monthly  magazine.  Besides  this  the 
society  publishes  various  pa])ers  and  supple- 
mental reports,  and  more  important  publications 
are  in  course  of  preparation,  notably  a  fac- 
simile reproduction  of  the  Codex  Venetus  of 
Aristophanes,  and  important  descriptions  of  the 
results  of  special  archaeological  investigations. 
The  membership  of  the  society  is  about  one  thou- 


sand. Its  presidents  have  been:  Prof.  Charles 
Kliot  Norton,  1879-90;  Seth  Low,  1890-90;  Prof. 
John  Williams  White  (of  Harvard),  1896. 

ARCH.a:OLOGY,  ar'kf-61'o-jl  (Gk.  ipxaio- 
\oyia,  (irchdiologia,  antiquarian  lore,  from  dpxaoj, 
archaios,  ancient  +  XA70S,  logos,  science).  The 
science  of  anti(iuities — tliat  is,  of  the  material 
remains  of  ancient  peojdes.  But  from  the  fact 
that  in  its  origin  and  development  it  has  been 
primarily  and  chiclly  concerned  with  the  ar- 
tistic and  architectural  renniants  of  the  Gra?co- 
Eonian  world,  it  is  often  taken  to  mean  the 
science  of  Greek  and  Koman  antiquities,  in  which 
sense  the  term  will  be  used  in  this  article,  witli- 
out  losing  sight  of  tlie  cimnection  subsisting 
between  these  monuments  and  those  of  the  more 
ancient  peoples  to  whom  they  owe  in  great  meas- 
ure their  inception. 

As  a  science,  arch-Teology  cannot  justly  be  said 
to  have  existed  before  the  last  century,  although 
tlie  way  had  been  gradually  paved  for  it  from 
the  time  of  the  Italian  Renaissance.  The  pas- 
sion for  the  artistic  relics  of  Gripco-Roman  civili- 
zation, which  at  the  end  of  the  Fifteenth  Cen- 
tury took  such  surprising  hold  upon  the  cultured 
classes  of  Italy  under  the  Paj)al  sway,  led  to  the 
foundation  of  museums,  in  wliicli  were  gathered 
statues  of  bronze  and  marble,  vases,  inscriptions, 
gems,  jewelry,  and  coins,  afl'ording  material  for 
study  and  comparison.  The  spoils  brought  over 
from  Greece  by  her  Roman  conquerors,  and  the 
mania  for  collecting  treasures  from  the  same 
source  which  had  been  displayed  by  many  Ro- 
man amateurs,  as  well  as  the  "great  artistic  and 
architectural  activity  in  imjierial  Rome  under 
the  guidance  of  Greek  masters,  rendered  that  city 
a  mine  for  the  early  archaeologists;  and,  further- 
more, much  filtered  in  from  Greece  itself.  (Cf. 
Lanciani,  Ancient  Rome  in  the  Light  of  Recent 
Discoveries,  Boston  and  New  York,  1889.)  It 
must  be  admitted  that  these  collectors  w^ere  en- 
thusiastic rather  than  scientific,  and  that  the 
works  of  art  discovered  were  ruthlessly  restored 
to  present  a  pleasing  appearance,  often  at  the 
complete  sacrifice  of  accuracy.  Heads  an<l  bodies 
of  totally  difl'erent  stjde  we're  frequently  joined 
in  hybrid  works  which  still  mislead  the  unin- 
formed. 

The  father  of  modern  arclurology  is  Johann 
.loachim  Winckelmann  (1717-08)  (q.v.),  whose 
writings,  althougli  superseded  in  many  points, 
are  still  of  value,  and  who,  by  his  genius,  marked 
out  tlie  field  since  so  successfully  cultivated.  He 
first  presented  to  European  scholars  an  authentic 
account  of  the  discoveries  made  in  the  Cam- 
panian  city  of  Herculaneum  (q.v.),  and,  more 
than  all,  first  wrote  a  systematic  history  of 
ancient  art  {Geschichfe  der  Kiinst  des  Alter- 
(/turns,  1764:  vid.  Winckelmann's  complete  works, 
edited  by  Meyer  and  Sehulzc,  Dresden,  1808-20). 
By  a  passage  in  \Vinekelinann's  writings,  Les- 
sing  was  stimulated  to  the  composition  of  his 
great  lesthetie  essay,  "Laocoiin,"  and  Goethe  also 
was  powerfully  influenced  by  him.  Thus  the  .seed 
of  the  new  science  was  planted,  to  develop  after 
the  era  of  the  wars  of  the  French  Revolution. 
Like  his  predecessors,  Winckelmann  was  able  to 
know  Greek  art  only  through  the  copies  of  the 
Roman  period,  or  the  few^  originals  of  later 
times:  but  even  through  this  haze  he  was  able 
to  distinguish  some  of  the  characteristics  of  the 
period,  and  his  works  prepared  the  way  for  the 


AKCH-ffiOLOGY.  7: 

better  appreciation  of  the  discoveries  of  the  early 
Nineteenth  Century. 

Napoleon's  invasion  of  Egj^pt  opened  the  treas- 
ures of  the  Nile  Valley  to  European  scholars, 
and  the  discovery  of  the  key  to  the  hierogh'phio 
writing  (q.v. )  threw  new  light  on  the  early  his- 
tory of  the  East.  In  Greece  itself  English  schol- 
ars were  at  this  time  doing  what  could  be  done 
under  the  Turkish  regime.  The  chief  resiilt  was 
the  splendid  work  of  Stuart  and  Revett,  The  An- 
tiquities of  Athens  (4  vols.,  1702-1816).  The 
expedition  sent  out  by  the  .Society  of  Dilettanti 
to  continue  their  work,  accomplished  but  little. 
The  true  character  of  the  art  of  the  Fifth  Century 
B.C.  became  clear  wlien,  in  1803-12,  Lord  Elgin 
brought  tlie  sculptures  of  the  Parthenon  to  Lon- 
don. (See  Elgin  JIarbles.)  These, together  with 
the  reliefs  from  the  temple  of  Apollo  Epicurius 
at  BassiE,  near  Phigalia,  in  Arcadia,  discovered 
in  1812,  were  subsequently  acquired  by  the  Brit- 
ish Government,  and  form  a  most  important 
part  of  the  arehieological  treasures  of  the  Brit- 
ish Museum.  In  1811  the  same  English  and  Cier- 
nian  explorers  who  subsequently  brought  to  light 
the  Phigalian  inarl)les  discovered  the  remains  of 
the  remarkable  pedimental  groups  of  the  temple 
on  the  island  of  .-Egina.  which  were  purchased  by 
Prince  Ludwig  of  Bavaria,  and  placed  in  the 
Glyptothek  at  Munich.  (See  .Egiketan  Sculp- 
tures.) The  successful  termination  of  the  Greek 
War  of  Independence  ( 1821-2II)  opened  anew  mine 
from  which  something  was  immediately  realized 
by  the  French  exploration  of  the  ilorea  (Pelo- 
ponnesus) in  1829,  which  brought  to  the  Louvre 
the  first  specimens  of  the  OlJ^npic  sculptures. 
Soon  after,  the  little  temple  of  Athena  Nike  rose 
again  on  the  Acropolis  of  Athens,  rescued  from 
the  Turkish  bastion  which  had  been  built  of  its 
stones.  In  Sicily  the  exploration  of  the  many 
Greek  sites  led  to  the  discovery  of  the  early 
sculptures  of  Selinus,  while  the  systematic  ex- 
cavation of  Pompeii  (q.v.)  brought  to  light  the 
paintings  and  household  ornaments  of  the  First 
Century.  At  about  the  same  time,  the  discovery 
of  the  great  necropolises  of  Etruria,  especially 
that  of  Vulci,  in  1828,  not  only  opened  the  whole 
field  of  Etruscan  art,  and  especially  of  mural 
painting,  to  study,  but  also  added  thousands  of 
vases,  Greek  and  Etruscan,  to  the  material  for 
reconstructing  the  life  and  thought  of  the  past. 
I'he  importance  of  the  vases,  not  for  art  alone, 
but  for  the  study  of  daily  life  and  mytliology,  was 
at  once  recognized :  but  unfortunately  the  strict 
methods  of  scientific  interpretation  were  not  at 
first  followed,  and  for  many  j'ears  the  wildest 
subjectivity  sought  to  find  a  whole  system  of 
mystic  symbolism  in  these  gifts  to  the  dead. 
Fortunately,  this  has  now  been  generally  super- 
seded by  a  careful  study  of  the  language  and 
methods  of  the  Greek  potter.  This  growth  of 
material  made  necessary  some  organization  of 
the  laborers  in  the  new  science,  and  the  founda- 
tion of  the  "Istitnto  di  Corrispondenza  Archeo- 
logica,"  by  Bnnsen,  C4erliard,  the  Duke  of  Luynes, 
and  others,  on  December  9,  1828,  was  one  of  the 
most  important  steps  in  the  history  of  archieo- 
logical  progress.  This  institution,  now  the  Im- 
perial (Jerman  .\rclueologieal  Institute  (Kaiser- 
lich-Deutsches  Archiiologisches  Institut),  has,  bj' 
its  publications  and  by  the  training  of  young 
scholars,  been  of  inestimable  value.  The  French 
School  of  Archa-ology.  established  at  Athens  in 
1846,  as  well  as  the  activitv  whicli  began  to  be 


>.2  ARCHEOLOGY. 

displayed  by  certain  Greek  savants  under  the 
Bavarian  regime,  had  also  an  important  influ- 
ence on  the  development  of  our  science.  An  im- 
portant part  in  this  development  Avas  played  by 
the  pupils  of  F.  A.  Wolf,  especially  by  A.  Boeckh, 
whose  aim  was  a  complete  reconstruction  of 
ancient  life,  and  who  were  therefore  ready  to 
welcome  light  from  other  sources  than  the  liter- 
ary monuments  which  had  so  long  aljsorbed  the 
attention  of  classical  scholars.  The  discoveries 
of  Layard  at  Nineveh  (184.')-46),  and  the  subse- 
quent decipherment  of  the  cuneiform  inscrip- 
tions, revealed  the  ancient  civilization  of  Assyria 
and  Babylonia,  and  gave  new  material  for  a 
more  accurate  estimate  of  the  relative  position 
of  (ireek  culture  and  art.  We  nuist  not  omit  lo 
mention  here  the  important  addition  made  to  the 
British  :\luseum  by  the  discoveries  of  Sir  Charles 
Fellows  in  Lyeia' (  1840) ,  of  Wood  at  Ephesns 
(1867-74),  and  of  Newton  at  Branchidse,  Hali- 
carnassus    (q.v. ),  and  Cnidtis    (q.v.). 

The  study  of  Greek  inscriptions  (.see  Inscrip- 
TIOK.S)  under  Boeckh  and  Franz,  and  of  compara- 
tive linguistics  under  Bopj)  and  liis  successors, 
contributed  their  share  to  the  modern  archaeolo- 
gist's equipment.  \^'e  have  now  brought  the  ac- 
count down  to  the  last  thirty  years  of  the  Nine- 
teenth Century,  during  which  a  series  of  discov- 
eries \Acre  made,  whose  full  importance  cannot 
yet  be  estimated. 

The  first  place  in  this  series  must  be  given  to 
the  excavations  of  Heinrich  Schliemann  (q.v.)  at 
Troy,  Myeena>,  and  Tiryns,  which  brought  to 
light  the  remains  of  pre-Homeric  CJreece,  and 
revolutionized  our  conceptions  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  early  Jigean  civilization.  These  dis- 
coveries have  been  supplemented  and  explained 
by  the  work  of  Flinders  Petrie  and  others  in 
Egypt,  of  the  English  on  Melos,  and  especially 
by  the  most  recent  explorations  in  Crete.  The 
peculiar  Cj'priote  civilization,  which  first  at- 
tracted attention  in  the  collections  of  Cesnola, 
has  since  been  studied  scientifically  by  Ohne- 
falsch-Richter  and  other  German  and  English 
scholars.  Of  the  greatest  importance  in  the  de- 
velopment of  •  archaeological  study  in  Greece  has 
been  the  establishment  of  other  foreign  schools 
besides  the  French  Institute  in  Athens.  The  first 
of  these  was  tlie  Athenian  liranch  of  the  German 
Arch*ological  Institute  (1874),  which  was  fol- 
lowed 1)V  the  American  School  of  Classical  Stud- 
ies (1882),  the  British  School  (1886),  and  a 
branch  of  the  Austrian  Archoeological  Institute 
(1897).  Italy,  Russia,  and  Denmark  have  also 
made  provision  for  their  archa'ologists  who  de- 
sire to  study  in  (ireek  lands.  Through  the  aid 
of  foreign  archseologists  many  of  the  most  im- 
portant excavations  in  Greece  and  Asia  Jlinor 
have  been  made  possible.  Thus,  the  Germans 
have  e.\cavated  Olympia  (1875-81),  Pergamus, 
Priene.  and  Miletus;  the  French,  Delos  and 
Delphi;  the  Americans,  Eretria,  the  temple  of 
Hera,  near  Argos  (1892-0.5),  and  Corinth;  the 
British,  Megalopolis  and  Melos,  and  the  Austri- 
ans,  Ephesus.  Side  by  side  with  the  foreign- 
ers, lias  worked  the  Circek  Arclueological  Society 
('EXXeHKr;  ■A/)X'"''^<'7"''!  Eraipla,  Hellrnike  Archaio- 
lofiil,!'  llctdiiiu),  founded  in  1830,  and  always 
one  of  the  most  active  agencies  in  the  e.xjjlora- 
tion  of  Greek  soil.  To  it  is  due  the  excavation 
of  the  southern  slope  and  the  sununit  of  the 
Acropolis,  the  great  sanctuaries  of  Elensis,  E])i- 
daurus   and   Oropos,  and   the   palace  and   many 


ARCHEOLOGY. 


l■2■.^ 


ARCHEOLOGY. 


graves  at  ^Mywiia'.  lii  Italy  tlip  profrress  of 
discovery  lias  been  somewhat  limited  Ijy  a  re- 
fusal to  permit  forei^iers  to  engage  in  the  work; 
but  archseologieal  study  flourishes  not  only 
among  the  Italians,  but  under  the  direction  of 
the  German  and  French  Institutes  and  the  Amer- 
ican School    (1895). 

As  may  be  inferred  from  this  brief  outline, 
archeology  is  an  eminently  progressive  science, 
and  in  al!  its  departments  subject  to  constant  re- 
vision. The  steady  increase  of  material,  and  the 
tilling  of  gaps  in  the  general  structure,  as  well  as 
continual  correction  or  rejection  of  hastily 
formed  theories  and  insufficiently  supported  con- 
clusions, will  occupy  savants  for  generations  to 
come.  We  can  deal  only  provisicmally  with  the 
most  certain  and  generally  acc<'pte(l  data,  supple- 
menting the  stah-ments  of  ancient  writers  by  the 
monuments,  and  interpreting  the  monuments  in 
turn  bj'  our  literary  sources. 

BiBLiooR.vPMY.  For  the  history  of  archaeologic- 
al study:  Stark,  Si/fiteiiiatil:  tind  (leschichte  der 
Archdologle  der  Kunst  (Leipzig,  1880);  Sittl, 
Aichiiolofiie  der  Kunst  with  atlas  (Volume  VI.  of 
Jliiller,  Handl>ii<h  der  klass.  Alterthumsirissen- 
schuft,  JIunich,  IS'.lo)  ;  this  is  the  only  recent 
work,  l)ut  must  be  used  with  caution.  On  the 
general  subject:  ilUUer,  Ancient  Art  and  Its 
Hemnins,  translated  by  Leitch  (London,  18.50), 
is  still  valuable;  CoUignon,  Manual  of  Greek 
Arcliwologi/,  translated  by  J.  H.  Wright  (New 
York,  188(i)  ;  A.  S.  Murray,  Handbook  of  Greek 
Arcluvologij  (London,  1S92);  Baumeister,  Dpiifc- 
mdler  des  klass.  Alterthunis  (ilunich,  1885-88)  ; 
Perrot  and  Chipiez,  Histoire  de  I'art  dans  Van- 
iiquite,  seven  volumes  published  (Paris,  1881 
seq.).  For  the  history  of  discoveries,  besides  the 
works  mentioned  under  the  separate  places,  good 
brief  accounts  are  to  be  found  in  P.  Gardner, 
yew  Chapters  in  Greek  History  (London,  1892), 
and  Diehl,  Excursions  in  Greece,  translated  by 
E.  R.  Perkins  (London,  1893).  For  a  summary 
of  recent  results,  see  Hogarth,  Authority  and 
Arclueolor/y  (London,  1S99).  The  record  of  dis- 
coveries is  preserved  chiefly  in  periodicals,  of 
which  the  most  important  is  the  old  series  of  the 
German  Archaeological  Institute ;  Amiali  and 
Bnllelino  dell'  Istituto  di  Corrispondenza 
Archeologica  (Rome,  1829-85),  and  the  Monu- 
ment i  Inedoti,  twelve  volumes  and  supplen.ent 
(Rome,  1829-85:  Berlin,  1891)  ;  Archiiologische 
7,eitvng  (Berlin,  1843-85).  Other  important  peri- 
odicals are:  In  German,  Jahrhuch  des  kaiser- 
Vch  deutschen  areliiiotogischcn  Instituts  (Ber- 
lin, 1885  If.);  Mittheilungeii  des  kaiserlich 
deutschen  archiiologisehen  Instituts,  Athenische 
Abtheilung  (Athens,  1870  ft'.);  liomische  Ab- 
theihinq  (Rome,  1886  ft'.)  :  Antike  Denkmiiler, 
folio  (Berlin,  1887  tf.)  ;  Jahrbiirher  des  Vereins 
der  AUertumsfreunde  im  Hheinlande  (Bonn, 
1842  ft'.).  For  the  Roman  antiquities  of  Ger- 
many, Archiiologisch-epigra ph Isehe  Mittheilungeii 
(iH.s  Osterreieh  (Vienna.  1877-97),  superseded  by 
Jahreshefte  des  /islerrricliischcn  archiiologisehen. 
Instituts  (Vienna,  1898  ft'.).  In  French,  Revue 
oreheologique  (Paris,  18S4  ft'.)  ;  Gazette  arche- 
ologue  (Paris,  1875-89)  ;  Bulletin  de  Carre- 
spondance  HelUuiquc  (Athens,  1877  ff.).  In 
Italian,  Monumenti  antichi  (Jlilan,  1889  ff . )  : 
Xotizie  degli  scari  di  Aniiehita  (Rome,  187(J 
fl'. ).  In  Greek,  ^E4>-n/j.epls^Apxai.o\oyiKri.  Ephemeris 
Archuiologikc  (Athens,  1837-()0;  lS(!2-74;  1883 
ti'. ).     In   English,   Journal   of   Hellenic   Studies 


(London,  1880  ff.),  and  American  Journal  of 
Archwology  (Baltimore,  Boston,  Princeton,  Nor- 
wood, 1885  ft'.).  The  American  School  of  Clas- 
sical Studies  at  Athens  has  published  six  vol- 
umes of  papers  (1885-97)  and  the  British  School 
an  Annual  since  1895. 

For  our  purpose  we  may  divide  the  general 
subject  of  classical  arch.Tologj',  from  an  histori- 
cal point  of  view,  into  the  following  periods: 

I.  Pre-Mycena'an  Period,  from  the  earliest 
times  to  c.1800  B.C. 

II.  M.ycena?an  Perio<l,  from  e.lSOO  B.C.  or 
earlier,  to  the  Dorian  conquest,  e.lOOO  B.C. 

III.  Earlier  Hellenic  Period,  from  c.lOOO  B.C. 
to  the  era  of  the  Persian  Wars,  e.500  B.C. 

1\.  Period  of  Hellenic  Prime,  from  c.oOO  B.C. 
to  the  Macedonian  supremacy,  c.350  B.C. — the 
period  of  Phidias  and  Praxiteles. 

V.  Period  of  Hellenic  Dissemination  and  De- 
cline, from  e.350  B.C.  to  the  Roman  con<piest, 
C.150  B.C. — the  period  of  Lysippus  and  of  the 
Rhodian  and  Pergamene  Schools,  so  called. 

VI.  Roman  Period,  from  c.150  B.C.  to  c.150 
.\.D.  or  later — the  period  of  the  union  and  united 
achievement  of  Greek  and  Roman  civilization. 

For  convenience,  the  consideration  of  Roman 
art,  properly  so  called,  will  be  reserved  to  the 
last  ])eriod.  Space  will  permit  only  a  brief  men- 
tion of  the  chief  monuments  and  important  char- 
acteristics of  each  period. 

I.  The  Pre-Mycen.ean  Period.  This  period 
has  naturally  no  definite  chronological  beginning, 
nor  even  a  distinctly  marked  close.  As  its  name 
shows,  it  includes  the  remains  of  the  Stone  and 
early  Bronze  ages,  which  by  their  position  in  the 
archieological  strata,  and  their  distinctive  types, 
plainly  preceded  the  appearance  and  spread  of 
the  highlj'  characteristic  civilization  which 
marks  our  second  period.  This  primitive  age 
lasted  much  longer  in  some  regions  than  in 
others.  On  the  island  of  Cyprus  it  lingered  in 
the  interior  long  after  the  Mycen.nean  products 
had  appeared  on  the  coast.  On  the  islands  of 
the  -Egean,  at  least  on  Thera,  Melos,  and  Crete, 
it  i)roduced  pottery,  paintings,  and  buildings  lit- 
tle inferior  in  merit  to  those  of  the  succeeding 
age.  though  sufficiently  distinct  in  character  to 
indicate  a  non-Mycenfean  origin.  The  period  is 
represented  by  the  lower  strata,  especially  the 
second  city,  at  Troy,  the  earliest  remains  on  the 
Acropolis  of  Athens,  and  at  Tiryns,  and  espe- 
cially by  the  numerous  graves  on  the  islands  of 
the  .Egean — ,\morgos,  Syros,  Siphnos,  Naxos, 
Paros,  and  others — and  the  buried  villages  and 
tombs  of  Thera  and  Melos.  As  usual,  the  pottery 
is  the  most  characteristic  and  abundant  survival. 
In  the  earliest  deposits  it  is  hand-made,  and 
often  rude  in  texture  and  form,  though  some  of 
the  later  ware,  especially  from  Cyprvis  and 
Thera,  shows  considerable  skill  in  molding.  The 
decorations  are  commonly  incised  lines,  some- 
times filled  in  with  a  white  substance.  The 
color  is  usually  gray  or  red  (produced  by  burn- 
ing), and  the  surface  is  smooth  and  polished. 
The  burials  are  in  cist-graves.  Implements  are 
chiefly  of  stone,  though  small  objects  of  copper 
are  found,  and  in  the  later  remains  bronze  ap- 
pears. Very  characteristic  are  the  rude  "idols," 
images  of  terracotta  and  stone,  which  commonly 
represent  a  nude  female,  and  have  been  associat- 
ed by  some  archa'ologists  with  the  cult  of  the 
great  eastern  goddess  Ishtar  or  Astarte.  To- 
ward the  end  of  this  period  a  marked  advance 


ARCHAEOLOGY. 


724 


ARCHAEOLOGY. 


can  be  distingniished ;  the  building  of  great  walls 
and  many-roomed  dwellings  shows  increased 
power  in  dealing  with  material;  walls  orna- 
mented in  painted  stucco,  an  increased  use  of 
bronze,  and  the  intn^diiction  of  the  potter's  wheel 
and  painted  decoration  on  the  vases  mark  the 
transition  from  the  rude  civilization  of  the  end 
of  the  Stone  Age  to  the  real  splendor  of  the  suc- 
ceeding epoch.  This  period  lias  sometimes  been 
designated  as  that  of  the  '•Cycladic,"  or  "Island." 
or  "Carian"  civilization,  the  former  names  being 
derived  from  the  region  where  it  has  been  best 
preserved,  the  last  from  a  somewhat  doubtful 
ethnological  attribution.  See  Melos;  Saxtobix  ; 
Troy. 

In  the  West  this  period  is  represented  by  the 
pre-Sicel,  and  first  Sicel  graves  in  Sicily,  and 
the  earlier  remains  of  Italy.  It  may  be  noted 
here  that  the  developments  of  the  Bronze  Age  in 
Italy  are  independent  of  the  Jlycena'an  Period. 
The  products  of  Jlycenican  art  reached  the  West 
only  as  importations,  and  apparently  late  and  in 
small  quantities. 

II.  MyCEN-55.\N  Period.  The  remains  of  this 
period  were  first  brought  prominently  into  view 
by  the  excavations  of  H.  Schliemann  at  ily- 
tena>,  and  from  this  fact  is  derived  the  name 
adopted  for  this  civilization.  It  is  not  to  be  sup- 
posed that  Jlycenie  was  the  centre  from  which 
the  art  spread,  though  the  characteristic  series 
of  vases  is  more  completely  illustrated  in  Ar- 
golis  than  at  any  other  single  site.  The  char- 
acteristic products  of  this  period  have  been  found 
on  the  mainland  of  Greece  in  Bceotia  (Orcho- 
menns.  Ghal,  Attica  (Athens,  Eleusis,  Sparta, 
Thoricus),  Thessaly  (near  Volo),  and  especially 
in  Argolis  and  Laconia  (Amychc)  ;  Delphi  and 
the  island  of  Cephalleniii  have  also  yielded  ily- 
cena'an  remains.  It  will  be  noticed  that  these 
sites  are  for  the  most  part  in  eastern  and  south- 
ern Greece.  The  same  civilization  is  found  on 
Melos,  Thera,  Amorgos,  and  at  lalysus,  on 
Rhodes :  but  the  most  splendid  remains  are  in 
Crete,  M'hieh  plays  a  prominent  part  in  the 
heroic  legends,  and  is  now  known  to  have  had 
cities  and  palaces  far  finer  than  anything  yet 
found  on  the  mainland.  Troy  is  also  a  ilycen- 
S'an  site;  but  with  this  e-xception  Asia  Minor 
has  not  been  brought  within  this  culture. 

The  remains  of  this  period  fall  naturally  into 
.several  groups:  (1)  The  fortifications,  repre- 
sented by  the  walls  of  the  sixth  city  at  Troy,  a 
large  part  of  those  of  Mycen.T,  and  especially  the 
well-known  wall  surrounding  Tiryns,  as  well  as 
the  defenses  of  many  other  less  important  sites. 
These  walls  are  built  of  huge  stones,  roughly 
hewn,  and  laid  in  clay  mortar.  In  general,  there 
is  only  one  great  gate,  though  there  are  also 
smaller  gates,  or  mere  sally-ports.  The  gate  is 
flanked  by  a  large  tower,  and  is  often  approached 
by  a  narrow  and  crooked  passage.  (2)  Tlie 
dwellings,  chiefly  the  royal  palaces.  The  latter 
are  best  seen  at  Tiryns.  Myceuiv.  and,  above  all, 
at  Cnossus,  in  Crete.  The  usual  plan  shows  a 
court,  on  one  side  of  which  is  situated  a  great 
hall,  containing  the  hearth,  and  approached 
through  a  vestibule.  Around  this  hall  and  the 
coiirt  is  arranged  a  complex  of  lesser  rooms,  and 
the  whole  structure  is  carefully  placed  inside  the 
great  fortification,  which  in  general  seems  to 
have  contained  little  but  the  residence  of  the 
ruler  and  his  immediate  dependents.  The  palace 
was  built  of  wood  and  sun-dried  brick,  but  the 


walls  were  stuccoed  and  ]iaintcd,  and  metal  in- 
crustations, and  decorations  of  carved  alabaster 
and  glass  paste  were  often  employed.  The  palace 
at  Cnossus  has  yielded  remarkable  specimens  of 
wall  painting,  and  its  plan  shows  a  much  greater 
extent  than  is  found  in  Greece,  but  it  is  not  as 
yet  (1902)  wholly  cleared.  The  smaller  houses 
found  in  some  places,  as  at  Melos,  Troy,  Crete, 
and  Mycence,  also  show  the  large  hall  and  its 
vestibule,  but  as  a  rule  no  further  rooms.  Addi- 
tional accommodation  seems  to  have  been  ob- 
tained by  juxtaposition  of  unconnected  buildings, 
rather  than  by  a  series  of  connected  rooms. 
(3)  The  tombs  form  the  third  great  class  of 
Mycenaean  buildings.  The  most  important  are 
the  "bee-hive"  tombs,  of  which  the  most  notable 
examples  are  those  of  ilyceiiie.  and  the  so-called 
"Treasui-y"  at  Orchomenus,  in  Boeotia.  These 
tombs  are  built  of  huge,  carefully  squared  stones, 
laid  in  regular  circles,  so  arranged  that  each 
course  projects  inward  beyond  the  course  below, 
thus  making  the  interior  a  dome.  The  whole 
structure  is  held  together  by  the  weight  of  the 
earth  outside,  and  therefore  the  side  of  a  hill  is 
usually  hollowed  out  to  receive  the  building, 
wliicli  is  wliolly  concealed  by  the  replaced  earth. 
The  a])proach  is  always  by  a  long  passage,  with 
side  walls  of  stone,  and  the  facade  of  the  tomb 
was  richly  decorated  with  columns  and  adorn- 
ments in  colored  stone,  elaborately  carved.  The 
interior  A\as  carefully  smoothed  and  decorated 
with  metal  plates  or  rosettes.  In  some  cases  a 
small  side  chamber  for  the  dead  is  found.  Be- 
sides the  great  tombs,  a  series  of  similar  grave 
chambers,  cut  in  the  rock,  or  excavated  in  the 
hillsides,  and  approached  by  similar  ))assages, 
sliow  the  common  Mycenajan  mode  of  disposing 
of  the  dead.  Burning  seems  to  have  been  un- 
known at  this  time.  (4)  It  is,  however,  in  the 
products  of  its  art,  even  more  than  in  its  archi- 
tectural triumphs,  that  this  period  is  sharply 
characterized.  The  excavation  of  Mycena-  and 
Tiryns  yielded  a  series  of  painted  vases,  which 
still  occupy  a  place  by  themselves  in  the  history 
of  Greek  ceramics.  Made  on  the  wheel,  of  grace- 
ful form,  they  are  decorated  with  marine  plants 
and  animals,  birds,  and,  in  the  later  work,  rude 
drawings  of  men  .and  animals.  The  decoration  is 
by  means  of  a  "glaze"  paint,  varying  from  lirown 
to  black,  or  under  intense  heat  becoming  red. 
(For  details,  see  Vases.)  Even  more  marked 
are  the  gems  and  gold  work  of  this  time.  The 
drawing  is  often  rude,  but  the  spirit  and  vigor 
are  astonishing.  The  gold  cups  of  Va))hio,  with 
scenes  in  relief  representing  the  capture  and 
taming  of  wild  bulls,  shows  an  art  which  is  not 
that  of  Egypt  or  Assyria,  but.  whatever  its  ori- 
gin, has  much  of  the  quality  which  distinguishes 
the  later  Hellenic  products.  More  Oriental  in 
technique  and  decoration  are  the  sword  blades, 
inlaid  with  scenes  of  hunting  and  wild  life, 
M-hich  much  resemble  objects  found  in  Egyidian 
tombs.  Of  larger  works  of  art.  the  noble  lions 
over  the  gate  of  Mycena".  and  the  rudely  carved 
slabs  which  once  marked  the  site  of  shaft  graves, 
wei'c  for  a  long  time  the  only  representatives,  if 
we  omit  the  purely  ornamental  sjiirals  and  other 
motives  forming  part  of  the  decoration  of  the 
facades.  Crete,  however,  has  yielded  reliefs  of 
bulls  and  other  sculptures  not  yet  published, 
which  are  said  to  show  that  the  Mycena'an 
art  did  not  confine  its  .skill  to  small  objects 
only.      Space    does    not    permit    a    detailed    de- 


ARCH/EOLOGY  — MYCEN/EAN     AND     EARLY    GREEK 


1.  THE    VAPHIO    CUP. 

2.  GOLD    INTAGLIOS. 


3.  INLAID    SWORD    BLADE. 
4-5.  TWO    CUPS. 


ARCHEOLOGY.  7: 

soription  or  even  list  of  the  Jlyoeiixaii  works; 
they  may  be  found  fully  illustrated  in  the  works 
mentioned  below. 

These  two  periods  were  not  without  their  rec- 
ords. In  C'l-ete  have  been  found  tablets  of  clay 
bearing  inscriptions  in  at  least  two  ditl'ercnt  sys- 
tems of  writing,  neither  of  which  has  been  de- 
ciphered.    See  Wkitixc. 

The  ethnological  i-elations  of  these  civilizations 
are  a.s  yet  an  unsolved  problem.  Some  scholars 
hold  that  we  have  here  a  more  or  less  homo- 
geneous race,  developing  along  its  own  lines,  but 
largely  inlluenced  by  the  intercourse  w'ith  the 
East,  "which  is  clearly  proved  for  the  Mycentean 
and  later  pre-!Mycena>an  periods.  Some  even  go 
so  far  as  to  deny  any  Hellenic  or  Indo-European 
character  to  this  race.  Such  views  ])rol)ably  go 
too  far.  More  probable  is  the  view  that,  while  the 
Stone  Age  and  the  earlier  Bronze  Age  reveal  to 
us  the  presence  of  a  pre-Greek  i)eoj)le,  possibly 
the  ancestors  of  the  later  Carians  and  Eteocre- 
tans,  the  llycena5an  remains  belong  to  the  con- 
(liiering  Greek  race,  the  Achaeans  of  the  Homeric 
poems  \\hich  contain  a  reminiscence  of  this  early 
age  of  splendor,  as  preserved  by  the  Greek  colo- 
nists of  Asia  Alinor.  This  is  not  to  say  that  all 
the  descriptions  of  the  poems  apply  to  life  in  this 
early  age,  for  the  poet  has  naturally  used  cus- 
toms of  his  own  time:  and  it  is  merely  the  gen- 
eral conditions  and  the  traditional  glories  of  the 
past  that  he  has  embodied  in  his  verses.  The 
chronological  limits  of  these  periods  are  deter- 
mined by  the  presence  of  datable  Egyptian  ob- 
jects in  western  sites,  and  more  closely  perhaps 
by  the  presence  of  ^ligean  importations  in  Egj^jt. 
The  details  are  still  much  disputed,  but  the  gen- 
eral results  show  that  the  later  developments  of 
the  pre-Mycenaean  Period  may  be  placed  from 
C.2500  B.a  to  1800  B.C.,  while  the  Mycempan 
products  were  known  in  Egypt  at  least  as  early 
as  n.c.  1550  in  a  well-developed  form.  The  ily- 
C'ena?an  Age  ends  about  B.C.  1000,  or  possibly  a 
little  later,  and  for  a  century  or  more  before  that 
time  there  is  an  obvious  decline  in  artistic  power. 
It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  though 
superseded,  the  peculiar  Jlycem^an  motives  do 
not  seem  to  have  been  lost,  for  they  reappear  at 
various  points  in  the  following  period,  especially 
in  some  of  the  local  varieties  of  painted  vases. 

BIBLIOORAPIIY.  Schuchhardt,  Schliemaiin's- 
AusgrabiDuieii  im  Lichte  der  heutigen  ^yis.1en- 
srhaft  (Leipzig,  1800),  the  best  resume  of  the 
subject.  English  translation,  edited  by  Leaf 
(London.  1801)  ;  Jlilchhufl'er,  Anfimyc  der  Kuiist 
in  Griecheiihind  (Leipzig,  1883),  a  thorough 
and  scientific  discu.ssion  of  the  subject:  Jlitchell, 
History  of  Ancient  Scnlpttire  (New  York,  1883), 
Vol.  I.  chap  X.,  where  Milchhiiffer's  work  is 
summarized :  Baumeister,  "Mykenai,"  "Tirjnis," 
"Kyklopenbau"  in  Dcnknuilrr  des  klassisclirn 
Altcrtliionn.  admirably  illustrated  (Munich, 
1884-88)  :  Perrot  and  Chipiez,  Histoirr  de 
Vart  drills  I'antiqtiitc.  Volume  VI.  (Paris, 
1894)  ;  the  English  translation  is  sadly  inac- 
curate and  cannot  be  recommended;  the  work 
is  r-ichly  illustrated:  Tsountas  and  Manatt, 
The  Mycenwan  Age  (Bo.'iton,  1807),  a  valuable 
summary  at  the  date  of  publication;  Hall.  The 
Oldest  CiviIi-:atlon  in  Greece  (London  and  Phila- 
delphia, 1001);  Ridgeway,  The  Early  Age  of 
Greece  (Cambridge,  1001)  ;  valual)le  for  its  ma- 
terial, but  the  author's  theories  are  not  gener- 
ally accepted.     Most  of  the  recent  reports  and 


15  ARCH.a;OLOGY. 

discussions  are  to  l)e  found  in  the  periodicals 
named  above. 

HI.  E.\RLY  Hellenic  Perioo.  Tlie  dark  age, 
from  the  Dorian  invasion  to  the  rise  of  sculpture 
in  the  Seventh  Century  B.C.,  is  bridged,  from  an 
archicologieal  point  of  view,  chielly  by  the  paint- 
ed vases,  the  earliest  varieties  of  which  have 
been  already  mentioned.  It  seems  clear  that  we 
are  now  in  the  presence  of  a  new  element.  The 
whole  style  of  ornamentation  is  changed.  For 
the  Age  of  Bronze  we  now  find  the  Age  of  Iron. 
Gold  ornaments  are  nuich  rarer.  The  whole  style 
of  the  pottery  has  changed.  The  prevailing  deco- 
ration, not  merely  on  vases,  but  on  metal  or- 
naments, is  the  'geometric,'  i.e.  meander-pat- 
terns, circles,  and  various  combinations  of 
straight  lines.  The  situation  well  agrees  with 
the  overturning  of  the  old  Achaean  kingdoms  by 
the  invading  Dorians,  as  pictured  in  Greek 
legend. 

Tlie  funereal  urns  and  other  representatives  of 
the  so-called  "Dipylon  style"  ( from  the  Dipylon 
gate  of  Athens,  in  ancient  tombs  near  which  the 
finest  specimens  of  this  class  have  been  discov- 
ered) appear  to  extend  over  a  period  from  about 
B.C.  1000  to  about  B.C.  700  at  latest.  The  pat- 
terns upon  this  pottery  are  "geometric,"  derived 
from  carving  and  textile  fabrics,  rather  than 
from  nature,  as  in  the  Mycenaean  ware.  The 
human  and  animal  figures  upon  them  are  emi- 
nently schematic  and  conventional.  Figures  of 
nautical  scenes  (sea-fights  and  the  like)  and 
funeral  processions  are  prominent.  The  figured 
examples  seem  to  be  introduced  later  than  those 
with  merely  a  geometric  pattern,  though  this 
style  continues  in  use  till  the  end.  It  is  not  im- 
probable that  Athens  was  the  seat  of  its  manu- 
faetui'e. 

The  Mycensean  influences  seem  to  have  sur- 
vived on  the  islands  and  the  Asiatic  coast,  where 
also  the  connection  with  the  Orient  was  main- 
tained, and  in  consequence  we  find  in  these  re- 
gions the  development  of  a  number  of  local  types, 
all  strongly  influenced  by  Oriental  motives,  and 
yet  with  well-marked  peculiarities.  The  favorite 
decoi'ation  is  with  rows  of  animals;  lions,  boars, 
panthers, '  cattle,  deer,  as  well  as  griffins  and 
s))hinxes,  appear,  either  in  procession,  or  grouped 
heraldically.  By  the  Seventh  Century  these  have 
crowded  back  the  geometric  types,  and,  further, 
the  merely  ornamental  decoration  begins  to  give 
place  to  actual  scenes,  eitlier  of  daily  life  or 
from  the  legends  of  the  past.  For  the  pottery, 
see  VA.SES. 

About  the  opening  of  the  Seventh  Century 
begins  the  class  of  Corinthian  vases  still  strong- 
ly Oriental,  but  later  exhibiting  the  mythological 
scenes.  The  commercial  im|)ortance  of  Corinth 
during  the  Seventh  and  Sixtli  centuries  gave  this 
ware  a  wide  distribution,  and  many  of  the  best 
specimens  have  been  found  in  Italy.  Chalcis 
also  developed  a  local  style  of  wide  distribution, 
and  both  Corinth  and  Chalcis  contriliuted  to  the 
formation  of  the  Athenian  style,  which,  begin- 
ning at  the  end  of  the  Sixth  Century  B.C..  as  the 
result  of  a  gradual  transition  from  the  Dipylon 
methods  rapidly  became  so  popular  as  practical- 
ly to  drive  out  of  the  general  market  all  other 
styles.  The  reddish  color  of  the  clay  was  arti- 
ficially heightened,  and  the  decoration  was  ap- 
jdied  in  a  very  lustrous  black  paint,  relieved 
only  by  the  occasional  employment  of  purple,  red, 
and  white.    Toward  the  end  of  this  period  a  new 


ARCHEOLOGY.  726 

style,  the  "red-figiued."  begins  to  displace  the 
"black-figured"  technique.  Here  the  body  of  the 
vase  is  covered  with  the  black  glaze,  the  figures 
being  left  in  the  color  of  the  clay,  while  details 
are  represented  by  fine  black  lines.  The  greater 
delicacy  which  this  style  made  possible  brought 
it  at  once  into  favor,  and  in  it  were  executed  the 
great  masterpieces  of  Greek  ceramic  art. 

Painting  in  Greek  archa-ology  can  hardly  be 
separated  from  ceramics,  architecture,  and  sculp- 
ture before  the  time  of  Polygnotus  (Fifth  Cen- 
turv  B.C. )  We  therefore  take  up  next  the  consid- 
eration of  these  two  latter  developments,  in  brief 
outline,  referring  for  details  to  the  special  arti- 
cles on  Greek  Abt;  and  Architecture. 

The  history  of  the  origin  of  Hellenic  architec- 
ture rests  largely  upon  conjecture  and  reasoning 
from  analogs'.  Although  in  its  development,  as 
known  to  us"  from  existing  monuments,  we  have 
to  deal  with  it  as  manifested  chiefly  in  temple- 
building  (private  dwellings  being  of  compara- 
tivelv  little  account  among  the  Greeks),  it  is 
plain  that  we  have  to  seek  for  its  primitive 
principles  in  domestic  structures,  which  were  of 
sun-dried  brick  and  wood.  It  is  during  this 
period  that  the  temple  forms  became  fixed,  and 
the  oldest  stone  buildings  erected,  thougli  the 
full  perfection  of  architecture  is  not  manifested 
till  the  Fifth  Century.  The  point,  however,  which 
chiefly  concerns  us  in  this  place,  is  the  rise  of  the 
two  great  orders,  connected,  as  their  names  im- 
ply, with  the  two  great  branches  of  the  Greek 
race — the  Dorians  and  the  lonians.  The  main 
distinguishing  marks  of  these  orders  are  to  be 
found  in  the  form  of  the  columns  employed :  and 
it  is  to  these  that  we  must  turn  our  attention 
here,  leaving  the  discussion  of  the  several  vari- 
eties of  temple,  whether  in  ant  is  (with  the  front 
recessed  and  columns  between  the  projections  of 
the  side  walls),  prostyle  (with  columns  across 
the  front),  amphiprostyle  (with  a  front  at  either 
end ) ,  or  peristyle  ( surrounded  by  columns ) ,  as 
well  as  the  details  of  the  architrave  and  roof, 
for  another  page. 

The  Doric  column,  which  we  find  to  have  been 
emploved  in  the  Hera>um  at  Olympia,  in  the  old 
'  temple  at  Corinth,  and  in  those  of  Selinus,  as 
well  as  in  other  buildings  of  this  and  the  suc- 
ceeding periods,  and  which  is  traceable  to  the 
Seventh  Century  B.C.,  is  characterized  in  general 
by  the  absence" of  a  distinct  base  (though  this 
seems  clearly  to  have  been  an  original  element 
of  this  species  of  column ) ,  by  an  outward  sweep 
at  the  top  called  the  echinus,  and  by  a  square 
plate  (the  abacus)  between  the  echinus  and  the 
architrave,  as  well  as  by  the  fact  that  the  edges 
of  the  fluting  (q.v.)  are  sharp,  and  not  flat,  as 
in  the  Ionic.  The  nearest  prototypes  of  this 
form  of  column,  which  is  marked,  particularly  in 
the  oldest  examples  kno\vn  to  us,  by  great  heavi- 
ness of  proportion,  seem  to  be  Egyptian,  al- 
tho\igh  Doric  architecture  offers  a  new  element 
in  the  entasis  (or  slight  bulge)  in  the  shaft, 
which  serves  to  correct  a  familiar  optical  illu- 
sion. 

The  Ionic  column,  on  the  other  hand,  which  is 
of  lighter  and  more  ornamental  design,  has  al- 
ways a  distinct  base,  with  a  succession  of  mold- 
ings above  it,  while  the  grooves  in  its  shaft  do 
not  meet  in  arrises,  but  are  separated  by  flat 
bands.  Its  chief  point  of  interest,  the  capital, 
consists  of  double  spirals,  parted  in  the  earlier 
forms  by  a  palmette  device.     Over  the  origin  of 


ARCH.ffiOLOGY. 


this  form  of  capital  much  has  been  written ;  and 
although  the  question  is  not  as  yet  settled,  it 
seems  likely  that  it  goes  back  to  an  Oriental 
jirototype,  whether  a  conventionalized  Assyrian 
palm-fonn  or  a  derivative  of  the  Egyptian  lotus. 
See  American  Journal  of  ArchcEology  1S86,  pp. 
1-20,  "A  proto-Ionic  Capital,"  by  .J.  T.  Clarke; 
id.,  pp.  2G7-283,  "A  Doric  Shaft  and  Base  Found 
at  Assos,"  same  author  (containing  a  full  bib- 
liography of  the  subject  in  lioth  articles)  ;  Good- 
year, id.,  p.  271  sqq.  (an  attempt  to  derive  all 
palmette  as  well  as  lotus  patterns  from  tlie 
Egyptian  lotus),  and  especially,  Puchstein,  Das 
ionische  Capital   (Berlin,  1887). 

The  Corinthian  capital,  with  its  acanthus 
leaves,  so  extensively  used  by  the  Romans  on  ac- 
count of  its  more  elaborate  character,  may  be 
considered  a  variety  of  the  Ionic  influenced  by 
metal-work.  It  does  not  come  into  use  until  the 
next  period,  and  was  never  very  common  until 
after  the  Fourth  Century  B.C.  (Of.  Baunieister, 
op.  cit.,  art.  Bauktinst,  with  the  authorities  there 
cited.) 

While  in  painting,  metal-work,  and  architec- 
ture, it  is  possible  to  trace  the  connection  from 
the  ^Iycena?an  Age.  in  sculpture  the  line  seems 
aliruptly  broken.  It  is  not  till  the  latter  part 
of  the  Seventh  Century  n.c.  that  monumental 
sculpture,  whetlier  in  the  round  or  in  relief, 
again  begins  to  develop  among  the  Hellenes.  We 
find  shapeless  fetiches  of  wood  and  stone  vener- 
ated in  various  parts  of  Greece  down  to  the  Sec- 
ond Century  .\.d..  and  later.  A  step  beyond  this 
primitive  worship  brings  us  to  rude  cultusstat- 
ues  of  wood  and  stone.  We  should  expect  the 
same  Oriental  influences  to  manifest  themselves 
here  as  in  the  case  of  ceramic  art;  and  when  we 
look  to  the  early  statues  themselves,  such  as  the 
various  so-called  Apollo-figures  of  the  Seventh 
and  Sixth  centuries  (typical  is  the  famous 
"Apollo  of  Tenea,"  in  ilunich),  we  seem  to  find 
unmistakably  Egyptian  elements.  The  angular- 
ity of  the  figure,  the  heavy  masses  of  hair,  the 
high  set  of  the  ears,  the  advancement  of  the  left 
leg  in  such  statues  are  unmistakable  reminis- 
cences of  Egyptian  works,  with  which  the  Greeks 
were  especially  brought  into  contact  about  this 
period.  On  the  other  hand,  statues  like  the 
■"Xicandra"  of  Islos.  the  "Hera"  of  Samos,  and 
other  closely  draped  female  figures,  with  the  feet 
just  appearing  below  the  drapery,  may  be  com- 
l>ared  with  the  seated  statues  from  Branchidfe,  in 
the  British  Jluseum,  and  with  what  seem  to  be 
their  older  Chaldican  prototypes  from  Tel-lo. 
The  closely  draped  standing  female  figures  show- 
markedly  the  influence  of  sculpture  in  wood ; 
either  from  the  flat  board,  as  the  "Xicandra,"  or 
the  round  log,  as  the  "Hera."  Such  works  are 
frequently  spoken  of  as  Xoana.  Though  the  in- 
spiration for  these  types  may  have  been  derived 
from  the  Asiatic  connections  of  the  lonians,  and 
the  trade  with  Egypt  through  Naucratis.  the 
Greek  artist  was  by  no  means  a  mere  imitator, 
but  early  began  to  strive  after  development  and 
variety   along  various   lines. 

The  series  of  works  of  archaic  sculpture  from 
the  period  under  discussion  has  rapidly  increased 
through  recent  excavations,  and  we  are  able  to 
trace  with  tolerable  clearness  the  attempts  made 
by  the  vigorous  Greek  artists  to  gain  increased 
naturalness  and  lifelikeness  in  their  figures,  while 
"radnallr  acquiring  the  full  mastery  of  material 


ARCH/EOLOGY  — MYCEN/EAN     AND     EARLY     GREEK 


1.  ISLAND    IDOL. 

2.  HEAD   OF    BULL    FROM    CNOSSUS. 

3.  SIEGE    SCENE    FROM    SILVER    VASE. 


4.  GOLD    MASK. 

5.  SILVER    PIN    AND    GOLD    ORNAMENT. 

6.  GEM. 


ARCHEOLOGY. 


727 


ARCHEOLOGY. 


and   toclmiqup   requisite   for   the   free   exposition 
of  the  sculptor's  ideal. 

To  the  opening  of  the  marlile  qunrries  of  Xaxos 
and  Pares  we  owe  niueh.  'J'he  marlilc  thence  ob- 
tained is  a  wonderfully  lit  material,  easily 
worked,  and  in  its  very  hue  imitating  human 
Mesh.  Tlic  earlier  material  had  been  wood  or 
coarse  limestone,  the  so-called  "poros,"  which 
could  not  be  given  fine  carving,  and  needed  to  be 
jjainted  in  order  to  show  details.  The  early  mar- 
ble statues  show  that  the  technique  of  wood-carv- 
ing, easily  available  for  the  softer  "poros,"  was 
at  first  used   for  the  new  and  harder  material, 

'  and  at  all  times  color  was  largely  employed  in 
(ireek    sculpture. 

Of  inestiniablc  value  for  the  study  of  the 
sculptures  of  this  period  are  the  archaic  statues 

!  discovered  on  the  Acropolis  of  Athens,  which  cer- 
tainly antedate  (how  much  we  cannot  say)  the 
Persian  invasion  of  u.c.  480.  The  tyranny  of  Pi- 
sistratus  in  the  Sixth  Century  certainly  formed 
an  epoch  in  the  artistic  as  well  as  literary  life  of 

\_      Athens,  only  to  be  paralleled  by  the  Periclean  Age. 

■  Material  and  style  show  that  we  have  to  do 
with  various  schools,  partly  the  marble  scul])(ors 
from  the  islands,  partly  the  native  Attic  artists, 
developing  along  the  lines  of  the  heavier  "poros" 
style,  but  largely  influenced  by  the  more  delicate 
and  elaborate  Ionian  developments.  For  an 
account  of  the  painted  decoration  of  some  of 
the  female  statues,  cf.  an  illustrated  article  by 
Russell  Sturgis,  in  Harper's  .l/ajro^ine  for  Sep- 
tember, 1890. 

But  the  development  of  the  period  was  not 
confined  to  Attica  alone,  nor  merely  to  sculpture 
in  the  round.  The  pedimental  groups  of  the 
gigantonuiehy  from  the  Megarian  treasure-house 
at  Olynipia,  and  of  "Heracles  and  the  Hydra" 
from  the  Acropolis  of  Athens,  wrought  in  high 
relief  from  'poros,'  a  sort  of  tufa,  and,  like  all 
such  work,  stuccoed  and  painted,  are  also  of 
special  note,  together  with  the  early  metopes  of 
Selinus  in  Sicily;  while  the  elaborate  grave- 
steloe  of  the  "Warrior  of  Marathon"  type  (Stele 
of  Aristion),  with  complete  and  minute  poly- 
chrome decoration  supplementing  the  details  of 
the  bas-relief,  are  the  forerunners  of  the  exqui- 
site monuments  of  the  Ceramicus  to  be  mentioned 
hereafter.  To  this  period  also  belong  the  pedi- 
ment sculptures  of  .-Egina  ( see  ^Eginetan  Sculp- 
TUBE.S)  and  the  reliefs  from  the  treasuries  of 
Cnidus  and  Athens  at  Delphi. 

Figures  like  the  winged  Victory  of  Archermus, 
and  the  sphin.x,  if  not  also  the  lion,  show  the 
inlluence  of  the  East,  particularly  of  the  Asiatic 
Orient,  in  the  sculpture  of  this  epoch.  But  we 
feel,  in  contemplating  the  Acropolis  statues,  that 
we  are  on  Greek  ground,  and  that  the  artists 
are  rapidly  bringing  in  a  nobler  native  art. 

We  have  hardly  entered  upon  the  list  of  these 
important  monuments:  but  it  nuist  suffice  for 
this  place  to  have  indicated  to  some  degree  their 
relations,  and  we  now  pass  to  the  mention  of  the 
kindred  class  of  bronze  works. 

Together  with  the  rude  terra-cotta  dedicatory 
figurines  of  early  workmanship,  we  find  also 
many  small  bronzes,  which  exhibit  a  gradual 
development  from  the  rvule  and  primitive  to  the 
delicate  and  refined.  An  elaborate  aiul  truly 
rcnuirkal)!c  technique,  however,  is  manifested  in 
such  consununate  works  of  archaic  Greek  art  as 
the  bearded  bronze  head  found  on  the  .Acropolis, 
or  the  similar  head  of  Zeus  from  Olynipia.     The 


art  of  hollow  easting  in  bronze,  long  known  in 
Egj'pt,  seems  to  have  been  brought  to  Greece  by 
Samian  artists,  and  by  the  end  of  the  Sixth  Cen- 
tury was  adopted  for  larger  works.  .-Egina  early 
attained  fame  for  its  artists  in  bronze,  of  whom 
(Jnatas  was  the  chief,  and  the  inlluence  of  this 
technique,  with  its  sharp  lines  and  fine  engrav- 
ing, is  plainly  seen  in  the  marble  .sculptures  of 
the  -Eginetan  temple.  The  new  art  came  to  be 
regarded  as  more  noble  than  the  cutting  of 
marble,  and  was  especially  cultivated  in  the 
.\rgive  and  Sicyonian  schools. 

To  the  period  under  discussion  belongs  another 
develo])ment  in  metal- work,  namely,  the  minting 
of  coins.  The  earliest  coins,  properly  so  called, 
seem  to  date  from  about  the  beginning  of  the 
Seventh  Century  B.C.,  and  to  have  been  struck 
by  the  Lydian  monarchs  (possibly  first  by 
Gyges).  Their  material  is  electrum,  or  "w'hite 
gold,"  a  native  alloy  of  gold  and  silver,  in  about 
the  proportion  of  three  to  one.  Phidon  of  Argos, 
a  tyrant  of  uncertain  date,  but  not  earlier  than 
the  Seventh  Century,  is  said  to  have  been  the 
first  to  issue  coins  among  tlie  Greeks,  ,Egina 
being  the  seat  of  their  mintage,  and  the  name 
"tortoises"  being  bestowed  upon  them  from  the 
figure  on  the  obverse,  the  reverse  (which  was 
the  side  struck  by  the  upper  die  in  minting) 
having  upon  it  the  familiar  "incuse-square,"  or 
punch-nuirk  so  prevalent  in  archaic  coinage. 

In  Greece  Proper,  sprang  up,  subsequent  to 
the  .Eginetan,  a  coinage  at  Corinth,  the  so-called 
"colts,"  from  the  Pegasus  on  the  obverse,  and  at 
Athens  the  so-called  "maidens,"  or  "virgins," 
from  the  Athena-head  of  the  obverse,  or  "owls" 
from  the  type  of  the  reverse.  We  see  in  all  these 
tj'pes  a  sacred  symbolism,  which  continues  un- 
broken in  coinage  till  the  Macedonian  Period. 

The  greatest  Greek  cities  in  this  early  period 
were  the  Acha'an  colonies  of  Magna  Grfecia,  fore- 
most among  which  was  Sybaris,  afterward  over- 
thrown by  her  great  rival  Croton.  The  coinage 
of  the  Aeluean  Confederacy,  which  seems  to  have 
existed  in  this  region,  is  far  superior  in  artistic 
workmanship  to  that  of  Eastern  Hellas,  and  is 
distinguished  by  having,  instead  of  an  incuse- 
square  on  the  reverse,  an  incuse  type,  generally 
tlie  same  as  that  of  the  obverse  (Poseidon,  bull, 
boar,  etc. ) . 

Sicilian    coinage,    notably    that    of    Syracuse, 
which  in  the  Fifth  and  Fourth  centuries  reached    • 
so  high   an  artistic  position,  also  began  in  the 
Sixtli  Century. 

All  the  coinage  here  mentioned,  except  the 
Lydian,  is  of  silver.  For  a  full  discussion  of 
ancient  coins,  with  exhaustive  bibliography,  con- 
sult Head's  Historia  Xumorum  (Oxford,  1887)  : 
also  particularly  Percy  Gardner's  admirable 
Ti/pes  of  Greek  Coins  (Cambridge,  1883).  The 
period  here  outlined  corresponds  to  Head's  ar- 
chaic   period,    B.C.    700  -  480.  •  See   also    NuMis- 

JIATICS. 

The  minting  of  money  became  gradually  dif- 
fused through  the  Greek  world,  so  that  there  was 
hardly  a  town  of  any  consequence  without  a 
coinage,  some  towns  being  known  to  us  only  from 
their  coins. 

Intimately  connected  with  die-cutting  is  gem- 
engraving,  for  the  details  of  which  see  the  work 
of  Middleton.  The  Eiu/raved  Gems  of  Classical 
Times    (Cambridge,   1891). 

IV.  PEKion  OF  Hellenic  Prime.  The  period 
which  we  now  enter  upon  is  naturally  subdivided 


ARCHEOLOGY. 


728 


AKCHEOLOGY. 


by  that  great  convulsion  of  tlie  Greek  world,  the 
P'eloponnesian  War  (B.C.  431-404),  into  an  earlier 
nnd  a  later  half,  in  which  diverse  sociar  and 
political  influences  are  at  work,  wherefore  it  will 
he  of  advantage  to  keep  this  subdivision  in  mind. 
The  most  noteworthy  development  of  this  time 
for  lis  is  tliat  of  sculpture  and  statuary,  the 
great  monuments  of  the  painter's  art  having 
irretrievably  perished.  It  must  be  home  in 
mind  that  no  hard  and  fast  line  separates  these 
Greek  periods,  such  as  divides  the  Mycenaean 
from  tlie  later  times.  The  great  development  in 
Greek  art  is  indeed  later  than  the  Persian  wars, 
but  the  germs  are  in  the  later  Sixth  Century,  and 
many  works,  which  artistically  belong  to  the 
archaic  period,  were  made  after  B.C.  ,500.  The 
same  remark  applies  to  all  the  later  periods ;  the 
dates  given  are  merely  convenient  approxima- 
tions. 

In  the  early  part  of  this  period  the  develop- 
ment of  bronze  statuary  was  continued  chiefly  by 
the  so-called  Argive-Sicyonian  School.  We  find 
Ageladas  of  Argos  and  Canachus  of  Sicyon 
famous  as  statuaries  in  bronze  about  the  end  of 
the  Sixth  Century.  Gold  and  ivory  ( in  the 
famous  chryselephantine  work)  and  marlile  were 
more  popular  in  Attica,  where  the  quarries  of 
Pentelicus  furnished  inexhaustible  material. 
Pythagoras  of  Rhegiuni  (the  author  of  the  limp- 
ing "Philoctetes"),  and  Calamis  and  Myron 
among  Attic  artists,  the  latter  famed  for  his 
"Discobolus"  and  bronze  cow,  are  the  forerun- 
ners of  "Phidias"  in  the  development  of  the 
great  art  of  the  Fifth  Century.  Here  also  be- 
long the  sculptures  from  the  temple  of  Zeus, 
at  Olympia  (q.v.).  whose  artistic  origin  has 
been  sought  in  many  schools,  perhaps  with  most 
probability  in  Ionia. 

Greek  sculpture,  however,  reached  its  highest 
ideal  development,  though  not  its  full  legitimate 
growth,  in  Phidias  (q.v.),  son  of  Charmides,  and 
pupil  of  Ageladas,  of  Argos,  the  superintendent 
of  the  Parthenon  (q.v.)  sculptures,  and  the  art- 
ist of  the  chryselephantine  .-Vthena  Parthenos, 
as  well  as  the  creator  of  the  highest  anthropo- 
morphic type  of  Greek  religion  in  the  great 
chryselephantine  Zeus  at  Olympia,  of  whose  calm 
and"  marvelous  beauty  and  dignity  we  can  now, 
unfortunately,  gain  but  feeble  conception. 

We  have  noticed  Phidias's  activity  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Parthenon,  but  we  must  not  leave 
unmentioned  the  other  great  buildings  of  the 
time,  the  Pro[)ylrea,  the  so-called  Theseum,  the 
Krcchtheum,  the  temple  at  Eleusis,  and  that  at 
P.hamnus,  while  a  like  architectural  activity 
was  going  on  across  seas  in  Ionia,  Sicily,  and 
Magna  Grircia. 

Painting  as  a  great  and  independent  art  was 
developed  contemporarily  with  Phidias,  by  Po- 
lygnotiis,  of  Thasos,  whose  paintings  in  the 
Lesche  (portico)  at  Pelphi  have  been  fortu- 
nately described  to  us  by  Pausanias.  He  must 
have  powerfully  influenced  the  art  of  the  cera- 
mic painters,  as  we  seem  to  be  able  to  trace  in 
their  works.  After  him  may  be  mentioned 
Agatharchus,  of  Samos ;  Apollodoriis,  the  first 
painter  of  pictures  in  the  more  modern  sense 
(i.e.,  on  flat,  movable  surfaces,  anciently  not  of 
canvas,  but  of  board)  :  Zeuxis,  the  contemporary 
of  Socrates,  whose  "Centaur  Family"  is  mi- 
nutely described  to  us  by  Liician,  and  Parrhasius, 
of  Ephesus. 

The  work  of  the  Argive-Sicyonian  School  was 


carried  forward  by  Polyclitus  (q.v.).  He  was 
the  author  of  the  Doryphorus  (spear-bearer), 
and  Diadumenus  (youth  binding  on  head-band), 
which  are  known  to  us  through  Roman  copies; 
and  he  established  a  canon  of  proportion  charac- 
terized by  a  certain  squareness  and  heaviness. 

After  the  stormy  period  of  the  Peloponnesian 
War  w'e  find  Cephisodotus  and  Praxiteles 
(q.v.),  probably  his  .son,  carrying  out  Greek 
plastic  art  to  its  legitimate  and  logical  conclu- 
sion, and  to  fullest  bloom  and  perfection.  The 
"Eirene"  (Peace)  with  the  baby  "Plutus,"  pre- 
served in  ]\Iunich,  a  replica  of  a  work  of  Cephis- 
odotus, is  a  gracious  and  lovely  figure;  but 
Praxiteles's  marble  "Hermes,"  with  the  baby 
"Dionysus,"  found  in  the  place  designated  by 
Pausanias,  the  Hera?um  at  Olympia,  in  exquisite 
sensuous  beauty,  in  perfection  of  manly  strength 
and  grace,  and  in  the  combination  of  the  divine 
ideal  with  human  form,  as  well  as  in  complete 
mastery  of  technique,  surpasses  all  that  is  left 
us  of  ancient  art,  while  the  pensive  expression 
of  the  god's  face  indicates  but  too  clearly  the 
speculative  thought  that  was  undermining  the 
old  faith.  There  is  no  more  perfect  image  of 
the  period  than  this  marvelous  statue.  It  is  to 
Praxiteles  that  we  are  to  attribute  the  develop- 
ment, if  not  the  invention,  of  languid  but  not 
yet  effeminate  figures,  with  hand  supported  on 
hip,  such  as  the  famous  "Faun,"  of  which  sev- 
eral replicas  exist,  perhaps  even  the  torso  of  the 
original.  Praxiteles  is  preeminently  the  sculp- 
tor of  youthful  beauty,  not  merely  in  man  but 
also  in  woman,  as  proved  by  his  famous  "C'ni- 
dian  Aphrodite,"  inadequately  preserved  in 
replicas. 

Side  by  side  with  Praxiteles  must  be  men- 
tioned Scopas  (q.v.),  of  Paros,  whose  art  was 
rather  that  of  the  Peloponnesian  School,  while 
Praxiteles  is  Attic.  The  remains  of  his  work 
from  the  temple  of  Athena  Alea  at  Tegea, 
though  scanty,  make  it  possible  to  recognize  his 
style  in  a  number  of  other  sculptures,  such  as 
the  Meleager,  the  Ares  Ludovisi,  and  a  head 
of  the  _youthful  Heracles.  These  show  dis- 
tinctly his  power  in  "tragic  intensity  of  ex- 
pression." 

To  the  last  half  of  the  Fifth  and  first  half  of 
the  Fourth  Century  we  may  assign  those  most 
exquisite  funereal  monuments  of  the  Athenian 
Ceramicus,  such  as  that  of  Dexileos,  and  the 
deeply  pathetic  relief  of  Hegeso.  The  early  re- 
liefs show  decidedly  the  influence  of  Phidias, 
while  later  the  work  of  Scopas  evidently  became 
the  model.  Indeed  many  archa'ologists  are  dis- 
po.scd  to  see  the  actual  work  of  this  master  in 
some  of  the  best  of  these  monuments. 

Portraiture  also  began  in  this  period  with 
Silanion,  and  from  this  time  probably  date  the 
beautiful  Lateran  Sophocles,  and  some  of  the 
types  of  Socrates  and  Plato.  Heretofore  the 
statues  set  up  in  honor  of  men  had  been  ideal 
in  their  type  rather  than  a  portrayal  of  the  real 
features  of  those  honored. 

The  growth  of  the  Attic  drama  in  the  fifth 
century  led  to  the  architectural  development  of 
the  theatre,  though  most  of  the  buildings  kno^Ti 
to  us  belong  at  the  end  of  this  period,  or  early 
in  the  next.  For  a  consideration  of  the  form 
and  development  of  these  structures,  see  Tue.\- 

IRE. 

In  ceramics  we  must  consider  the  ."Mtic  de- 
velopment, which  in  this  period  is  of  absorbing 


ARCHEOLOGY. 


729 


ARCHEOLOGY. 


interest,  and  gives  us  much  light  on  painting 
on  a  larger  scale,  as  well  as  on  contemporary 
manners  and  customs.  The  rise  of  Attic  black- 
figured  ^^■are  has  already  been  mentioned.  As  a 
special  form  of  this  we  uuist  mention  particu- 
larly the  fine  Panathcnaic  amphoras,  with  figures 
of  the  anned  Athena,  in  which  the  sacred  oil 
was  presented  to  victors  at  the  Panathenaic 
games.  These  vases  are  interesting  as  being 
continued  in  an  archaistic  form  into  the 
Fourth  Century  (cf.  Baumeister,  DenKmiiler, 
art.  I'anathenaia) .  A  special  class  of  peculiarly 
Attic  vases  are  the  beautiful  white  Iccylhi  (oil 
or  perfume  flasks),  which  were  interred  with  the 
dead,  and  which  contain  scenes  from  the  burial, 
and  also  from  the  daily  life,  exquisitely  depicted 
in  colors  on  the  white  slip  with  which  the  body 
of  the  vase  is  covered.  The  series  begins  early 
in  the  Fifth  Century,  and  continues  during  the 
Fourth,  in  the  variations  of  style  throwing  much 
light  on  tile  development  of  painting,  and  form- 
ing an  interesting  parallel  to  the  contemporary 
series  of  gi'ave  reliefs. 

In  the  "red-figiu-ed"  ware,  which  far  surpasses 
in  artistic  merit  the  black-figured,  and  of  which 
the  rise  as  a  separate  variety  has  already  been 
mentioned,  scenes  from  the  myths,  while  not 
excluded,  yet  make  room  for  delightful  bits  of 
social  and  domestic  life.  In  tlie  development  of 
this  style  the  "cyli.x,"  or  shallow  cup  on  a  rather 
high  foot,  plays  an  important  part,  especially  in 
the  early  ]iart  of  the  Fifth  Century,  when  such 
masters  Hourished  as  Euphronios,  Dnris,  Hiero 
and  Brvgos.  See  Hartwig,  Griechische  Meister- 
xchiiloi'  (Stuttgart  and  Berlin,  1893). 

Various  grotesque  forms  of  vases,  such  as  the 
rhyton  (in  the  shape  of  a  head,  generally  that 
of  an  animal),  later  came  into  use,  and  we  find 
numerous  examples  of  the  pj'xis,  or  woman's 
toilet-box.  But  the  art  gradually  sank,  and 
vase-])ainting  was  fast  dying  out  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Alexandrian  Period. 

In  the  domain  of  numismatics  we  must  brief- 
ly mention  the  periods  of  transitional  art  (B.C. 
480-41.5)  and  of  finest  art  (B.C.  415-33()).  We 
have  here  not  to  deal  particularly  with  Athenian 
coinage,  which,  like  the  Panathenaic  amphoras, 
keeps  a  designedly  rude  and  archaic  character  in 
order  to  maintain  its  position  with  foreign  peo- 
ples, with  whom  the  Attic  State  came  in  contact 
through  its  wide  maritime  relations  and  com- 
mercial dealings,  but  rather  with  such  beauti- 
ful work  as  that  of  the  Syracusan  die-cutters 
Euanietus  and  Cimon,  in  the  period  subsequent 
to  B.C.  41.5,  whose  splendid  decadrachms  are 
justly  reckoned  among  the  highest  achievements 
in  this  class.  We  may  trace,  however,  through 
the  coins  of  this  entire  epoch  that  same  gradual 
mastery  of  material  and  development  from  the 
more  severe  to  the  more  graceful,  which  is 
marked  in  other  lines  of  art.  But  coinage  still 
maintains  the  sacred  symbolism  which  character- 
ized it  from  the  beginning,  the  purely  human  and 
individual  element  appearing  distinctly  only  in 
the  special  marks  of  magistrates  and  mint- 
masters,  which  are  kept  subordinate  to  the  main 
design. 

V.  PERron  OF  Hetxentc  Dissemination  and 
Decline.— The  development  of  Maeedon  under 
Philip  and  the  conquests  of  Alexander  change 
the  entire  aspect  of  the  Greek  world.  We  have 
henceforth  to  consider  a  Hellenism  synonymous 
Vol..  I— 18. 


with  eivilization  rather  than  the  geographical 
Hellas  with  her  outlying  colonies. 

In  Greece  itself  the  greatest  influence  is  exerted 
at  the  opening  of  this  period  by  Lysippus  of 
Sieyon,  who  not  only  continued  the  prestige  of  the 
Argive-Sicyonian  school,  but  also  introduced  a 
new  canon  in  statuary,  nuiking  the  figure  more 
slender  and  the  head  proportionally  smaller  than 
in  the  preceding  art  and  forming  a  marked  con- 
trast to  the  canon  of  Polycletus.  His  work  is 
known  to  us  from  copies  of  his  "Apox}-omenos" 
(a  youth  scraping  himself  with  the  strigil)  ; 
and  a  marble  copy  at  Delplii  of  a  series  of  stat- 
ues of  the  family  of  Daochos,  of  which  the 
bronze  originals  were  at  Pharsalia.  He  was 
also  a  sort  of  court-seulptor  to  Alexander  the 
Great,  as  Apelles  was  his  painter.  His  influ- 
ence extends  immediately  to  Rhodes  in  Chares 
of  Lindus,  one  of  his  i)est-known  pupils,  and 
artist  of  the  fanuius  "Colossus  of  Rhodes." 

The  splendid  "Victory  of  Samothrace,"  now  in 
the  Louvre,  which  may  be  dated  about  the  begin- 
ning of  tlie  Third  Century,  is  one  of  the  great- 
est monuments  of  this  period,  and  deserves  to  be 
ranked  with  such  splendid  figures  as  the  "Victory 
of  Pa'onius  of  Mende,'  set  up  at  Olympia  a  ceri- 
tnr3'  or  more  earlier,  and  with  the  Victories  from 
the  balustrade  of  the  Temple  of  Athena  Nike,  at 
Athens. 

The  Perganiene  art,  cultivated  especially  under 
the  .Attalid  kings,  and  of  which  we  see  such  as- 
tonishing examples  in  the  frieze  of  the  gi-eat  altar 
of  Zeus  at  Pergamon  (q.v.),  of  the  earlier  part 
of  the  Second  Century  B.C.,  representing  a  co- 
lossal gigantomachy,  exhibits  great  mastery  of 
technique,  violence  of  action,  and  the  free"  e.x;- 
pressimi  of  physical  suffering,  the  two  latter  be- 
ing qualities  of  sculpture  rather  than  of  painting. 
Somewhat  earlier  than  the  great  altar  are  the 
well-known  statues  of  tlie  "Dying  Gaul"  (mis- 
called "Gladiator"),  and  the  Gaul  and  his 
wife  in  the  Ludovisi  Gallery.  As  intimated 
above,  it  is  the  grand  finale'  of  Greek  sculp- 
ture, in  which  this  art  still  appears  great, 
though  overstepping  its  due  bounds.  To  this 
period  also  belongs  probably  the  development  of 
the  Rhodian  School,  though  some  scholars  pre- 
fer to  date  the  great  product  of  that  school,  the 
Laoeoiin  group,  now  in  the  \"atican,  at  the  end  of 
the  Second  Century  or  beginning  of  the  First 
Century  B.C.  To  this  school  in  its  Asiatic  de- 
velopment belongs  the  great  work  of  Apollonius 
and  Tauriscus  of  Tralles,  the  "Farnese  Bull." 

Single  statues  which  seem  to  belong  to  this 
period,  but  cannot  be  assigned  with  certainty  to 
any  definite  artist,  are  the  "Aphrodite  of  Melos," 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  works  of  the  later 
classical  art;  the  "Apollo  Belvedere"  (q.v.)  ;  and 
the  "Torso  of  the  Belvedere,"  a  noble  fragment, 
whose  correct  restoration,  though  often  at- 
tempted, has  not  yet  been  found.  To  this  period 
also  belongs  the  full  development  of  genre 
scenes,  though  this  begins  still  earlier.  Such 
are  the  group  of  the  "Boy  and  the  Goose,"  the 
"Drunken  Old  Woman,"  the  "Fisherman,"  and 
especially  the  large  mass  of  reliefs,  which  seem 
to  owe  their  origin  to  Alexandria,  and  to  be  the 
product  of  the  same  tendencies  which  led  to  the 
bucolic  poetry.  Portraiture  also  flourished, 
not  only  in  statues  and  busts  of  the  living,  but 
in  ideal  portraits  of  the  great  men  of  the  past, 
as  Homer  and  Anacreon. 

With  the  painting  of  the  Alexandrian  Period 


ARCHEOLOGY.  730 

we  come  more  closely  into  contact  than  with  the 
earlier  art  in  this  kind  through  the  wall  decora- 
tions of  Herculaneum,  Pompeii,  and  Rome,  which 
follow  the  traditions  of  tiiis  epoch.  Apelles 
(q.v.)  of  Colophon  represents  the  highest  devel- 
opment of  Greek  painting.  His  idealized  por- 
traits of  Alexander  were  as  famous  as  Lysippus's 
statues.  Protogenes  of  Caunus,  who  worked  at 
Rhodes  about  the  end  of  the  Fourth  Century,  is 
also  distinguislied  in  this  department.  Anti- 
philus  at  the  court  of  Ptolemy  is  characterized  as 
"most  eminent  in  facility."  But  the  list  of  great 
Greek  painters  closes  with  Theon  of  Samos,  of 
the  Third  Century  (cf.  the  article  "Malerei,"  in 
Baumeister,  op.  cit.). 

In  other  species  of  art  we  find  the  eminent 
gem-engraver  Pyrgoteles,  employed  by  Alexan- 
der; and  this  branch  of  the  sculptor's  profession, 
ever  excessively  popular  among  the  ancients,  was 
fostered  by  that  monarch's  successors. 

In  vase-painting  we  note  little  else  than  de- 
cline, the  latest  development  manifesting  itself 
in  Magna  Grsecia,  Etruria,  and  Campania.  The 
painted  vases  of  southern  Italy,  which  present  a 
distinctly  fimereal  element  side  by  side  with  a 
marked  influence  from  the  drama,  give  us  nuich 
valuable  arch.Tological  material.  Asteas  (of 
Psstum  ? ) ,  Pytho,  and  Lasimus  are  its  only  mas- 
ters known  to  us  by  signature.  We  have  also 
some  Campanian  vases  with  Latin  inscriptions 
of  the  Third  Century.  The  end  of  vase-painting 
seems  to  fall  about  the  beginning  of  the  Second 
Century  B.C. 

We  may  here  depart  from  our  chronological 
order  to  consider  briefly  the  peculiar  ware  of 
Etruria  ( q.v. ) ,  when,  side  by  side  with  primi- 
tive geometric  pottery,  continued  seemingly  over 
a  long  period,  and  more  or  less  skillful  imitations 
of  Greek  painted  ware  (particularly  Attic),  we 
find  the  so-called  i-asi  di  hucchero,  a  peculiar 
class  of  pottery  of  black  clay,  about  which  we  have 
but  little  exact  knowledge  and  of  which  examples 
have  been  found  not  merely  in  Etruria,  but  also 
in  the  Orient,  in  Cj'prus,  in  Greece  proper,  and 
on  the  coasts  of  the  Black  Sea.  The  earliest  of 
such  vessels  in  Etruria  are  made  without  the 
potter's  wheel,  but  in  tlie  manufacture  of  the 
later  (and  darker)  ware,  this  tool  was  employed. 
The  earliest  figures  are  scratched  in ;  subse- 
quently relief-decoration  appears.  In  the  latter 
ease,  Greek  types  are  employed,  at  first  roughly, 
afterwards  more  skillfully  and  with  a  mold  or 
incised  roller.  In  individual  cases  polychrome 
painting  occurs.  This  art  seems  to  have  con- 
tinued into  the  Sixth  Century. 

Before  leaving  the  subject  of  pottery  we  must 
also  notice  the  so-called  Samian  and  Megarian 
relief-ware,  assigned  to  the  Third  and  Second 
centuries  B.C.,  and  the  Aretine  ware,  apparently 
of  the  First  Century  B.C.  and  later. 

In  numismatics  the  new  development  under 
Alexander  and  his  successors,  designated  as  "the 
period  of  later  fine  art  from  the  accession  of 
Alexander  to  the  death  of  Lysimachus"  (B.C. 
336-280),  and  marked  by  the  influence  of  Ly- 
sippus,  is  succeeded  by  a  period  of  decline  in  art 
extending  to  the  Roman  conquest  (b.c.  280-146). 
Types  of  sovereigns,  first  that  of  the  deified  Alex- 
ander, then  those  of  other  and  living  princes, 
make  their  appearance  upon  coins,  and  continue 
down  to  the  later  Roman  Empire  a  valuable  series 
of  historical  portraits.  (Jold  coinage  now  begins 
to  occupy  a  prominent  position,  and  continues 


ARCHEOLOGY. 


side  by  side  with  silver  and  bronze  to  be  a 
niediimi  of  exchange  under  the  Roman  Empire. 

In  small  art  our  attention  is  particularly 
drawn  to  the  terra-cotta  figurines  of  this  period, 
particularly  those  of  Tanagra  in  Boeotia,  which 
in  their  charming  shapes  and  lovely  coloring 
give  us  so  many  delightful  pictures  of  Greek 
life.  Such  figures  have  their  origin  in  very 
early  times,  but  from  the  time  of  Praxiteles, 
whose  style  they  often  reproduce,  down  to  the 
Roman  period  and  later,  they  formed  a  favorite 
household  decoration,  and  were  buried  in  great 
numbers  with  the  dead.     See  Terr.4-Cott.\. 

Bronze  mirrors  may  also  be  alluded  to  here 
before  we  pass  out  of  the  domain  of  Greek  classic 
art.  Of  these  some  most  beautiful  specimens 
exist,  their  lids  forming  a  class  of  (•hefs-d'osacre 
in  metal-graving,  while  their  handles  are  often 
statuettes  of  finest  workmanship. 

VI.  Roman  Period.  The  passion  of  the  Ro- 
man connoisseurs  for  objects  of  Greek  art  has 
already  been  alluded  to ;  but  in  the  period  upon 
which  we  are  now  entering  certain  other  ele- 
ments demand  our  attention.  As  among  the 
Greeks,  the  introduction  of  foreign  art  was  met 
by  a  native  element,  which  at  first  colored  and 
afterwards  completely  ovcrjiowered  by  the 
strength  and  vigor  of  its  own  development  exter- 
nal influences ;  so  we  find  in  Italy,  among  the 
Etruscans,  the  masters,  in  so  much,  of  the 
Romans,  and  whose  peculiar  bucchero-ware  has 
already  been  mentioned,  a  native  element  which 
reacted  upon  the  art  from  without,  though  in  a 
much  sligliter  degree  than  that  of  Greece  and 
with  inferior  genius.  Their  art  was  not  the 
oldest  in  Italy;  for  we  find  specimens  of  situlm 
(pails)  of  beaten  metal,  perhaps  to  be  designated 
as  Umbrian,  the  decoration  of  wliich,  while  it 
seems  to  show  certain  elements  derived  through 
the  Greeks,  has  but  little  affinity  with  Etruscan 
art. 

The  influences  at  work  among  the  Etruscans 
were  principally  Greek,  as  we  have  noticed  in  the 
case  of  their  figured  pottery.  The  native  ele- 
ments were  chiefly  their  sombre  religion,  and  a 
marked  aptitude  for  portraiture.  We  lind  "real- 
ism combined  with  poverty  of  style."  The  chief 
Etruscan  monuments  are  funereal,  consisting  of 
decorated  tombs,  sarcophagi,  and  ash-ums,  in 
which  Greek  ornamentation  and  Etruscan  por- 
traiture are  not  very  happily  blended. 

The  same  tendency  to  portraiture  appears 
among  the  Romans,  fostered  b_y  the  importance 
attached  to  ancestral  imagines  (portraits  in 
wax),  which  played  so  marked  a  part  in  their 
funeral  ceremonies.  Their  masters  in  this  were 
Etruscan  artists. 

Hand  in  hand  with  the  art  of  plastic  por- 
traiture, in  which  Roman  artists  learned  from 
Etruscan  masters,  went  that  of  honorary  statu- 
ary in  bronze,  and  after  the  Second  Punic  War 
such  statues  were  to  be  seen  at  Rome  in  large 
nimibers,  most  Romans  of  any  distinction  being 
honored  in  this  way.  It  was  just  after  this  time 
that  their  Grecian  conquests  began  to  bring  the 
Romans  decidedly  under  the  sway  of  Hellenic  art. 

In  architectui'e  the  markedly  Roman  feature 
is  the  great  employment  of  the  arch,  which, 
although  not  unknown  to  the  Greeks,  was  but 
rarely  used  by  them.  This  rendered  possible 
such  great  works  as  the  aqueducts,  to  say  noth- 
ing of  the  Colosseum,  the  Pantheon,  and  the 
other  huge  structures  of  imperial  times.    In  tem- 


AKCH-ffiOLOGY. 


731 


ARCHEOLOGY. 


pie  const  met  ion  wc  liml  ICtruscan  inlhu'ncc  at 
work  in  tlic  earlier  ])erio(l,  in  Ixitli  form  and 
(U'foration.  Later  Greek  arcliiteeture  is  eom- 
liined  with  native  elements  in  elaborate  and  lux- 
uriant structures. 

The  so-called  Attic  Renaissance  in  sculpture 
about  the  bcfiinninfc  of  the  period  we  are  now 
considerinf;.  i.e.  when  Greece  had  been  brought 
under  Kouian  dominion,  introduced  no  new  ele- 
ments, but  carried  on  with  enfeebled  ability 
the  old.  This  revival  is  best  known  to  us 
through  the  "Farnese  Hercules,"  an  exaggerated 
work  of  which  the  motive  is  derived  from 
Lysippus. 

The  school  of  the  First  Century  n.c,  founded 
by  Pasiteles,  a  native  of  southern  Italy,  and  con- 
tinued by  his  pupil  Stephanus,  and  Stepbanus's 
pupil,  Menelaus.  deserves  mention  as  exercising 
somewhat  of  independent  inllnence.  It  is  char- 
acterized by  a  return  to  the  types  and  style  of 
the  end  of  the  archaic  period,  hut  combines  them 
with  types  and  tecbni(|ue  belonging  to  its  own 
time.  During  tliis  period  we  also  find  the  growth 
of  the  archaistic  style,  which  imitated  the  stiff 
drapery,  awkward  smile,  and  other  peculiarities 
of  the  archaic  art. 

The  most  active  class  of  sculptors  at  Rome  in 
the  time  of  the  late  Republic  and  early  Empire 
were  from  Asia  Jlinor.  Best  known  among  such 
is  Agasias,  the  artist  of  the  so-called  '"Borghese 
Gladiator." 

From  the  time  of  .\ugustus  on.  we  meet,  side 
Iiy  side  Avith  a  vast  im]iortati(in  of  ancient  Greek 
works  and  re])roductions  of  them  in  copies,  a 
host  of  portrait  statues  and  busts,  triumphal 
arches  and  elaborate  public  and  private  buildings 
of  all  kinds.  A  most  splendid  specimen  of 
Roman  portrait-statuary  is  that  of  .\ugustus  in 
general's  uniform,  now  in  the  Vatican.  In  it  are 
admirably  condjined  grand  and  realistic  por- 
traiture and  rich  decorative  effects,  particularly 
in  the  cuirass.  Especially  notewortliy  also  are 
the  reliefs  of  the  Ara  Pacis  Augusti  and  of  the 
triumphal  arches,  such  as  tliat  of  Titus.  In 
these  fields  of  portraiture  and  historical  relief, 
the  art  of  Roman  times  offers  much  that  shows 
originality  and  strength,  but  in  general  it  is 
imitative  of  the  Greek.  Consult:  Wickotf,  Ro- 
man Art,  translated  by  Eugenie  Sellers  Strong 
(London  and  New  York,  1900). 

Of  idealistic  bronze  statuary  we  have  a  beau- 
tiful example  in  the  "Victory  of  Brescia"  of  the 
First  Century  a.d. 

The  era  of  Hadrian  is  the  last  period  of  vigor- 
ous impulse  in  art  among  tlie  Romans.  That 
Emperor's  passion  for  ancient  art.  both  Egyptian 
and  Greek,  and  his  encouragement  of  new  works, 
both  at  home  and  abroad,  is  well  known.  To  his 
reign  arc  to  be  assigned  the  various  idealized 
portraits  of  his  famous  Bithynian  favorite  An- 
tinoiis. 

In  numismatics  the  last  period  of  continued 
decline  (n.c.  14fi-2").  that  of  the  coinage  of  the 
Roman  Empire  down  to  Galliemis  (n.c.  27  to  ,\.n. 
268).  falls  in  here.  The  material  is  vasf;  and 
here,  too,  the  element  of  realistic  portraiture  is 
prominent. 

The  luxui-y  of  the  Romans  manifested  itself  in 
the  multiplication  of  elaborate  mosaics,  rich 
jewelry,  wonderful  intaglios,  both  in  stone  and  in 
paste,  costly  glassware  and  the  like.  But  of  all 
this  art.  which  cannot  be  fully  discussed  here, 
suffice  it  to  say  that  it  involves  no  new  principles. 


It   is  merely  tlic  bloom  of  that  decay  which  was 
fast  consuming  the  ancient  world. 

Further  information  concerning  single  branches 
of  archa'ological  research  is  presented  under  the 
titles  of  ancient  countries.  The  articles  on 
these  countries  include  the  art,  monuments,  lan- 
guage, religion,  laws,  etc.,  of  the  early  inhabi- 
tants. Among  such  articles  are:  As.svRiA ; 
Babylonia;  Koypp;  Piicexicia;  China;  Japan; 
Persia;  Ceylo.v;  and  India.  For  information 
with  regard  to  the  arts  of  ancient  countries,  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  series  of  special  articles 
on  .\.s.syi!1an  Art;  Babylonian  ,-\rt:  Eoyptian 
.Art;  Bible  Antiqi'Ities:  Chinese  .\rt;  .Japan- 
ese Art;  Inoian  Art;  Anolo-Saxon  Am.  etc. 
More  specific  infornuition  about  discoveries  at 
particular  places  is  included  under  the  titles  of 
those  places — as,  for  example,  Karnak;  Koyln- 
.iik:  Persepolis — and  under  the  names  of  the 
excavators,  such  as  BoTTA ;  Ledyard;  Petrie; 
Peters;  Mariette;  1Iasp£ro,  etc.  See  further 
the  articles  on  .\GRiciLTrRE;  .Aqieduct;  .Archi- 
tecture; Armies;  Navies;  Brick;  Building; 
Costume;  Cuneiform  Inscriptions;  Glass; 
Hieroglyphics;  Numismatics;  Rosetta  Stone; 
-Xjiarna  Letters.  For  biblical  archa?olog>-.  in 
addition  to  the  general  title,  see  .\tonement, 
Day  of  ;  Baal  :  Dagon  ;  Es.senes  ;  Festivals  ; 
Judges,  Book  of;  Levites;  Magic;  Nazirite; 
Priests;  Proselyte;  Purim;  Remphan;  Rim- 
MON ;  Sabbath  ;  Sacrifices  ;  Sadducees  ; 
Scribes;  Tabernacle;  Tammuz;  Temple;  Tera- 

PIIIM;    I'RIM   AND  ThUMMIM;    VoWS. 

ARCHAEOLOGY,  .American.  In  many  re- 
spects the  Western  Hemisphere  forms  a  distinct 
areha-oiogic  field,  and  one  of  peculiar  interest  to 
the  student.  In  the  first  place  the  two  great 
continents,  with  their  insular  appendages,  form  a 
single  ethnic  province,  .i.e.,  from  the  earliest 
times  up  to  Caucasian  discovery,  the  lands  were 
inhabited  by  the  single  tribe  or  race  of  man- 
kind known  as  the  -Amerind,  or  American  type; 
and  though  the  province  is  vast,  yet  throughout 
its  extent  the  tribes  and  their  works  bear  what 
may  be  called  the  family  resemblance  ia  a  strik- 
ing degree.  In  the  second  jilace,  the  .American 
aborigines,  from  the  .Arctic  to  the  Antarctic,  were 
remarkably  similar  in  cultural  development. 
True,  some  of  the  tribes  discovered  by  Caucasians 
represented  lower  savagery,  while  others  (as  in 
ilexico  and  Peru)  occupied  the  higher  planes 
of  barbarism  verging  on  civilization,  yet  the 
cultural  range  reju'esented  by  their  works  is 
narrower  than  that  of  any  other  ethnic  province 
save  -Australia.  Furthermore,  the  aboriginal 
tribes  survived  until  the  spirit  of  inquiry  among 
the  European  invaders  of  the  Continent  had  been 
developed,  and  until  observation  and  records  were 
well  advanced.  By  reason  of  the  several  condi- 
tions, a  distinctive,  if  not  a  novel,  science  of 
arehiieology  has  grown  up  in  the  Western  Hemi- 
sphere. In  the  -American  system,  prehistoric  arti- 
facts are  interpreted  in  the  light  of  the  observed 
uses  of  artifacts,  recorded  by  earlj'  explorers  or 
studied  by  modern  investigators:  the  modern 
artifacts  are  interpreted  in  the  light  of  primi- 
tive thought  ascertained  by  current  inquiries  into 
primitive  arts,  industries,  laws,  languages,  and 
faiths — and  thus  the  ancient  and  the  modern, 
the  prehistoric  and  the  historic,  the  living  and 
the  dead  are  correlated  in  a  simple  yet  compre- 
hensive scheme  at  once  coextensive  with  the 
world's  greatest  ethnic  province  and  sufliciently 


AECHiEOLOGY. 


732 


AKCH^OLOGY. 


definite  to  outline  a  considerable  part  of  the 
course  of  luunan  development. 

The  object  matter  of  American  archteolog^' 
comprises  ( 1 )  human  remains  imbedded  in 
natural  deposits  or  entombed  in  prehistoric 
structures,  and  (2)  artifacts  in  wide  variety, 
including  (a)  habitations,  (b)  mounds  and 
other  structures  connected  with  habitations  or 
places  of  worship,  (c)  gaminj;  devices,  (d)  tools, 
implements,  and  weapons,  (e)  ceremonial  ob- 
jects, (f)  domestic  and  ceremonial  utensils,  (g) 
shrines  and  monuments,  (h)  petroglyphs,  (i) 
moldings  in  stucco,  (j)  sculptures,  (k)  mis- 
cellaneous inscriptions.  (1)  wrought  metal  ob- 
jects, etc.  The  various  artifacts  may  be  grouped 
under  a  few  general  designations  based  on  pre- 
vailing types  siich  as  earthworks,  stone  imple- 
ments, pottery,  etc. 

Human  Remain.?.  Bones  of  prehistoric  men 
are  exceedingly  common  in  the  mounds  and  other 
burial  places  of  central  and  eastern  United 
States;  skeletons,  with  and  without  integument. 
have  been  found  in  caves  throughout  nearly  all 
of  both  Americas,  and  are  fairly  common  in  the 
arid  districts:  and  complete  mununics  of  pre- 
historic bodies,  with  complete  wrappings,  have 
been  found  in  large  numbers,  especially  in  Peru. 
The  chief  lesson  taught  by  these  remains  is  that 
the  prehistoric  inhabitants  of  the  various  dis- 
tricts (so  far  back  as  this  record  runs)  cor- 
responded more  or  less  closel.y,  in  most  cases 
exactly,  with  the  tribes  found  there  by  Caucasian 
explorers,  the  correspcindence  extending  to  the 
mode  of  burial,  the  preparation  of  the  body,  and 
the  mortuary  sacrifices,  as  well  as  to  tlie  somatic 
or  physical  characteristics  of  the  individuals.  In 
some  cases  diversities  between  the  living  and  the 
dead  have  been  found  of  such  sort  as  to  indicate 
migrations  or  displacements  of  tribes,  and  in  a 
few  instances  tliese  have  thrown  useful  light  on 
early  movements  of  the  aborigines;  but  in  a  gen- 
eral view,  these  indications  are  of  minor  impor- 
tance. By  some  students,  numbers  of  prehistoric 
crania  have  been  grou|)C(l  by  types — e.g.  dolicho- 
cephalic and  brachycephalic — assumed  to  repre- 
sent distinct  genetic  stocks  or  races;  but  since 
the  ty])es  merge  in  very  large  series,  since  both 
are  sometimes  found  in  the  same  mound  or  ceme- 
tery (and  even  in  the  same  living  clan) .  the  value 
of  the  cranial  classification  would  seem  hut  secon- 
dary at  the  best.  In  some  instances  the  prehis- 
toric skeletons,  especially  the  crania,  throw  light 
on  customs;  thus  the  iluniz  collection  of  10011 
Peruvian  crania,  of  which  10  were  trephined  in 
24  distinct  operations,  proves  that  the  pre- 
historic folk  of  this  region  performed  this 
critical  operation  with  a  frequency  higher 
even  than  that  of  a  modern  militarv  hos- 
pital, and  with  a  degree  of  success  hardly 
exceeded  by  that  of  the  best  modern  surgery. 
Similarly  the  di-^tribution  of  deformed  crania 
throws  light  on  cradle  customs  and  on  the  half- 
intentional  fiatteniui;  of  infantile  heads  in  pre- 
historic times;  while  the  pathologic  conditions 
occasionally  revealed  by  the  buried  bones  serve 
to  exteryl  our  knowledge  of  certain  diseases  and 
■wounds,  and  of  the  medical  practice  of  the  early 
tribes. 

In  a  few  instances  human  bones  have  been 
found  in  such  associations  as  to  suggest  the  high 
geologic  antiquity  of  man  in  America.  The  best- 
known  instance  is  that  of  the  Calaveras  skull 
alleged  to  have  been  found  in  auriferous  gravels 


beneath  lava  beds  near  Angels,  Cal, ;  and  its  in- 
terest was  enhanced  Ijy  frequent  reports  of  the 
finding  of  stone  implements  (pestles,  mortars, 
spear-heads,  etc.)  in  gravels  of  a  corresponding 
age.  At  the  time  the  associations  were  reported, 
the  gravels  were  supposed  to  be  Pleistocene  or 
Quaternary,  and  the  lava  still  newer,  so  that 
the  accounts  had  an  air  of  credibility.  During 
18S0-95,  several  geologists  resurveyed  the  region, 
and  ascertained  that  the  auriferous  gravels,  and 
even  tlie  overlying  lava-beds,  are  of  Tertiary 
(probably  early  Tertiary)  age,  so  that  the  alleged 
associations  would  seem  unworthy  of  considera- 
tion unless  supported  by  the  strongest  possible 
direct  evidence.  In  1897  the  region  was  re- 
examined critically  by  Holmes  and  McGee,  who 
discovered  (1)  that  all  the  alleged  occurrences 
of  human  relics  in  the  gravel  reported  during 
recent  years  may  be  ascribed  to  a  natural  mis- 
aj)prehension  on  the  part  of  workmen  and  others 
(the  objects  falling  from  the  surface  into  the 
gravel  stratum,  to  mix  with  the  pebbles  in  the 
sluice  boxes)  ;  (2)  that  most  of  the  mortars  and 
pestles  alleged  to  have  been  found  in  the  gravels 
were  manufactured  from  the  volcanic  rock  over- 
lying the  gravel  beds ;  ( .3 )  that  the  obsidian 
blades  reported  from  the  gravels  are  made  from 
material  of  much  newer  formations ;  (4)  that  the 
Calaveras  skull  is  of  a  type  corresponding  pre- 
cisely with  that  of  Indians  still  living  in  the  same 
vicinity;  (5)  that  its  state  of  preservation  cor- 
responds closely  with  that  of  modern  bones  after 
a  few  .vears'  burial  in  the  limestone  caverns  or 
calcareous  earths  of  the  region:  and  (fi)  tliat  the 
contemporary  testimony  concerning  the  finding  of 
the  cranium  is  contradictory,  with  the  burden 
against  the  original  allegation.  Other  reports 
of  the  occurrence  of  human  remains  in  geologic 
de])osits  have  come  from  Trenton ;  the  first  case 
was  that  of  a  supposed  Eskimo  cranium,  al- 
leged to  have  been  found  in  Pleistocene  deposits, 
but  which  was  afterward  examined  by  Russell 
and  found  to  be  of  modern  Algonquian  type; 
another  was  a  human  fenuir  reported  from  the 
same  deposits,  which  is  yet  imdcr  discussion. 
On  the  whole  it  may  be  said  that  while  the  pre- 
historic human  remains  of  America  throw  much 
light  on  ethnic  problems,  on  the  habitats  and 
migrations  of  tribes,  on  primitive  customs,  and 
so  on  the  later  chapters  in  the  development  of 
the  aborigines,  they  throw  little  light  on  such 
questions  as  those  relating  to  the  origin  and 
antiquity  of  mankind. 

Earthworks.  The  most  conspicuous  prehis- 
toric works  of  America  arc  mounils  and  other 
elevations  of  earth,  such  as  occur  abundantly  in 
the  Mississippi  Valley;  perha])s  the  best-known 
examples  being  Cahokia  jlound.  near  East  Saint 
Louis,  and  the  Etowah  Mound  in  northeastern 
Georgia.  The  mounds  range  from  barely  per- 
ceptible elevations  to  two  hundred  feet  in  height, 
from  three  to  four  yards  to  over  half  a  mile  in 
diameter,  and  from  a  hundred  square  feet  to 
several  acres  in  extent :  they  number  tens,  if  not 
hundreds,  of  thousands:  and  while  they  arc  most 
abundant  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  jlississippi 
and  its  tributaries,  they  occur  in  every  State 
and  Territory  of  the  United  States  and  in  every 
American  country  and  district  thus  far  ade- 
quately examined.  Many,  if  not  most,  of  the 
simple  mounds  are  tumuli  or  burial  places;  a 
considerable  part  of  those  examined  have  been 
found  to  contain  human  skeletons,  sometimes  in 


AKCH^OLOGY. 


733 


ARCHEOLOGY. 


large  numbers,  togetluT  witli  a  wide  variety  of 
artifacts  attesting  lavish  mortuary  saorilices. 
In  some  instances  structures  of  wood  or  stone 
have  beeu  found  in  the  mounds;  and  in  south- 
western United  states,  Mexico,  Yucatan.  Hon- 
duras, and  some  South  American  countries,  many 
of  the  mounds  are  but  ruins  of  habitations, 
temples,  or  other  structures  reiluced  by  weather- 
ing. In  some  districts  the  tumuli  are  associated 
with  embankments,  either  simple  or  in  circular 
or  rectangular  form ;  and  these  are  sometimes 
eondjined  and  connected  with  conical  or  pyra- 
midal mounds  in  claljorate  systems.  8quier, 
whose  investigations  of  the  aboriginal  earthworks 
of  the  Ohio  Valley  are  classic,  deemed  the  earth- 
built  circles  accurate  and  the  squares  perfect; 
and  while  later  surveys  have  revealed  imperfec- 
tions in  tlie  engineering,  the  extent  and  sym- 
metry of  the  works  must  be  regarded  as  re- 
markable. In  some  cases  the  earthworks  have 
been  shown,  by  early  observation  or  otherwise, 
to  be  designed  as  fortifications;  but  similar  evi- 
dence indicates  that  many  of  the  most  remark- 
able works  were  ceremcmial.  and  connected  with 
elaborate  systems  of  faith  and  forms  of  worship. 
In  Wisconsin.  Minnesota,  and  Iowa,  and  to  some 
extent  elsewhere,  many  mounds  are  rudely 
shaped  in  animal  forms,  representing  various 
mammals,  birds,  and  reptiles;  these  elhgy  mounds 
denoted  the  totems  (or  zoic  tutelaries)  of  local 
clans  and  tribes.  One  in  Wisconsin,  known  as 
"the  Elephant  Jlound."  from  its  resemblance  to 
the  elephantine  form,  has  attracted  much  atten- 
tion, though  it  is  the  prevailing  opinion  of  in- 
vestigators that  the  resemblance  is  fortuitous; 
but  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  example  of  its 
class  is  "the  Serpent  Jlound"  of  Summit  County. 
Ohio,  described  by  Putnam,  and  through  his  ef- 
forts preserved  in  a  public  park.  Along  most  or 
all  of  the  American  coasts  shell-mounds,  or  mid- 
dens, occur,  sometimes  in  great  size  and  profusion. 
Those  of  the  ilaine  coast  have  been  examined  by 
Uiany  investigators,  and  have  been  found  to  con- 
sist primarily  of  shells,  bones,  and  other  refuse 
of  a  shoreland  dietary,  together  with  inqilements, 
utensils,  and  ornaments  lost  in  the  debris  from 
lime  to  time,  so  that  they  afl'ord  a  clear  picture 
of  prehistoric  life;  and  similar  records  have  been 
obtained  from  the  middens  of  Alaska,  British 
Cohunbia.  California,  Greenland,  and  other  parts 
of  the  North  American  coast.  The  shell  movnuls 
of  Florida  yielded  a  remarkably  clear  record 
under  the  investigations  of  Wyman;  and  this 
record  was  greatly  extended  on  the  western 
coast  of  Florida  by  Gushing,  who  found  the  coast- 
wise kevs  and  other  small  islands  raised  and 
strengthened  by  carefully  laid  walls  of  conch 
and  other  shells,  and  who  obtained  from  adjacent 
muck-beds  remarkable  series  of  utensils,  orna- 
ments, ceremonial  objects,  etc..  preserved  in  the 
peaty  mass  in  remarkable  perfection.  The  shell 
mounds  of  the  Lo\iisiana  coast  also  are  of  great 
extent,  though  they  have  not  been  fully  exam- 
ined ;  while  Moore  and  others  have  found  those 
of  the  Alabama  coast  to  throw  nuich  light  on 
local  characteristics  of  the  aborigines.  Perhaps 
the  largest  American  shell  mouml  is  that  fiirming 
Punta  Antiaualla,  opposite  Tiburon  Island  in  the 
Gulf  of  California;  it  is  about  ninety  feet  high, 
and  although  a  large  but  unknown  ])ortion  of  it 
has  been  carried  away  by  wave-wear,  it  still 
ccjvers  an  area  of  some  seventy-five  acres;  it  is 
wholly  of  local  shells,  chiefly  those  of  the  clam, 


and  contains  pottery  and  stone  implements  pre- 
cisely like  those  used  by  the  surviving  aborigines 
of  the  district,  from  base  to  summit. 

The  origin  of  the  custom  of  building  mounds 
lias  been  discussed  by  Gushing;  he  conceived  the 
original  mound  to  be  a  midden  of  shells  and 
other  refuse  aceumulaled  under  a  slioreland  pile- 
dwelling  to  such  heiglit  as  eventually  to  form  a 
suiqiort  for  the  habitation;  and  that  the  asso- 
ciation of  mound  and  dwelling  eventually  be- 
came so  deeply  fixed  in  the  minds  of  the  dwellprs 
that  when  new  habitations  were  erected  further 
inland,  the  mound  was  regarded  as  a  necessary 
accompaniment,  and  was  built  of  earth  in  lieu  of 
refuse.  During  the  earlier  two-thirds  of  the  Nine- 
teenth Century  the  0])inion  prevailed  that  the 
"ilound  Builders"  were  a  distinct  people  or  race, 
antedating  the  Amerind  tribes  found  inhabiting 
the  coimtry  by  the  Caucasian  invaders;  this  was 
shown,  chiefly  by  Powell  and  later  by  Thomas, 
to  be  an  error.  The  latter  described  the  earth- 
works of  the  eastern  United  States  in  detail,  and 
identified  many  of  them  with  the  aborigines  re- 
siding in  their  vicinity  up  to  the  time  of  white 
settlem-cnt.  The  demonstration  of  the  identity 
of  "ilound  Builders"  and  "Indians"  may  be  said 
to  have  been  completed  by  Holmes,  who  in  vari- 
ous publications  established  the  unity  of  iesthetic, 
technic,  and  sj-nibolic  motives  in  the  mounds 
and  among  the  living  tribesmen.  The  moimd 
proper,  with  its  variants  in  the  form  of  embank- 
ments, efiigies.  etc.,  may  be  regarded  as  pertain- 
ing to  hiunid  lands,  and  the  shell-mounds  to 
shorelands;  while  in  arid  lands  the  earth-work- 
ing sometimes  differentiated  into  a  .style  of 
house-building  known  in  parts  of  Spanish  Amer- 
ica as  cajon  (so  called  from  the  bo.x-like  arrange- 
ment of  parallel  boards  between  which  puddled 
earth  was  laid  and  allowed  to  harden  in  suc- 
cessive ledges,  or  strata,  varying  from  a  few 
inches  to  a  foot  or  more  in  vertical  thickness)  ; 
and  this  type  of  structure  is  widely  dilfused  in 
the  more  arid  regions  of  both  American  conti- 
nents, the  best  example  in  the  United  States 
being  the  ruin  known  as  Gasa  CJrande  (q.v.),near 
Florence,  Ariz.  Modernly  the  cajon  structure 
grades  into  adobe — i.e..  sim-dried  bricks  of  pud- 
dled silt;  but  there  is  some  question  whether  the 
tise  of  adobe  proper  ("dobies"  in  the  vernacular) 
antedated  the  Caucasian  invasion.  From  cajon 
to  a  plaster  of  earth  and  stone  over  wicker  walls 
was  an  easy  stej).  which  was  taken  by  many 
tribes,  as  attested  by  buried  ruins  of  the  arid 
region  as  well  as  by  vestiges  among  living  tribes, 
e.g..  the  Papago;  and  the  step  thence  to  wrought 
stucco  was  little  harder,  and  was  taken  by  the 
ancient  Mexicans.  Yncateeans,  Central  Ameri- 
cans, and  some  South  Americans,  as  well  illus- 
trated in  several  ruined  cities  (noted  luider 
Architecture.  Ancient  American). 

WoonEN  Structi'RE.s.  While  wood  was  un- 
doubtedly used  largely  by  the  prehistoric  tribes 
of  America  for  habitations  as  well  as  for  imple- 
ments, utensils,  etc..  comparatively  little  of  the 
material  remains  for  study.  In  certain  large 
tumuli  described  by  Thomas,  remains  of  wooden 
structures  were  found  under  such  conditions  as 
to  indicate  that  earth  was  heajied  over  a  house  or 
stout  wigwam  in  such  manner  as  to  form  a  lofty 
moiuid;  the  stumps  of  prehist(uic  piles,  probably 
used  either  to  support  palafittes  (or  pile  dwell- 
ings) or  as  adjtmcts  to  large  fish  weirs,  were 
found  by  Cresson  in  Delaware  River,  near  Clay- 


ARCHEOLOGY. 


734 


ARCHAEOLOGY. 


mont ;  in  the  prehistoric  Ca»a  Grande  of  Arizona, 
as  well  as  in  neighboring  pueblos  of  prehistoric 
origin,  upper  floors  and  roofs  were  supported  on 
joists  and  rafters  consisting  of  round  cedar  or 
j)ine  poles,  which  must  in  some  instances  have 
been  transported  over  many  miles  of  desert  from 
the  wooded  moiuitains;  in  even  the  most  impos- 
ing and  massive  temples  of  Yucatan  and  Peru, 
wooden  lintels  were  introduced — and  the  decay 
of  these  was  one  of  the  factors  in  hastening  the 
downfall  of  these  noble  structures.  These  in- 
stances of  the  use  of  wood  are  quite  in  accord 
with  the  large  employment  of  this  material 
among  the  tribesmen  found  by  the  first  invaders; 
and  the  two  records — unwritten  and  written — 
coincide  not  only  as  to  the  use  of  the  material, 
but  as  to  the  jjrimitive  modes  through  which  it 
was  reduced  to  serviceable  condition  by  aid  of 
crude  stone  tools  and  fire.  Closely  connected  in 
aboriginal  thought  with  the  fixed  home  was  the 
floating  habitation,  also  commonly  of  wood  or 
bark:  the  greater  water-craft,  capable  of  navi- 
gating all  parts  of  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  are  known  through  the  descriptions  of 
Columbus  and  his  companions,  as  well  as  from 
models  found  by  Cushing  in  the  peat-beds  of 
■western  Florida ;  while  fragments  of  birch  bark 
from  the  mounds  of  Wisconsin,  and  bits  of  cane 
from  the  great  shell-mound  of  Seriland,  are 
among  the  indications  that  the  pre-Columbian 
warrior  ]iaddlcd  the  liglit  canoe  or  propelled  the 
graceful  balsa  just  as  do  his  descendants  of  the 
fifteenth  generation. 

Stoxe  Structures.  More  or  less  extensive  ruins 
of  stone  structures,  the  work  of  aborigines  during 
prehistoric  times,  occur  in  many  districts  through- 
out the  Western  Hemisphere ;  they  range  from 
simple  cairns  of  loose  pebbles  to  imposing  tem- 
ples of  wrought  stone.  The  types  are  too  numer- 
ous for  easy  listing;  but  several  examples  throw 
light  on  the  technic  of  the  ancient  artisans.  Thus 
most  of  the  puel)los  and  clitT-dwcllers  of  the  south- 
western United  States  and  northern  Mexico  are 
of  coarse  rubble — i.e.,  of  natural  slabs  laid  with 
slight  regard  to  the  prodviction  of  even  surfaces. 
Some  of  the  ancient  walls  are  of  slabs  finished  oft" 
on  one  or  both  edges  by  smooth  jointage  planes  so 
selected  and  laid  as  to  form  surfaces  hardly  less 
regular  than  cut  stone;  while  Hodge,  in  1890, 
found  in  New  JMexico  certain  stone  ruins  in 
which  the  walls  were  evidently  smoothed  by  rub- 
.  bing  or  grinding  after  the  structure  was  other- 
wise complete — the  corners  in  one  case  being 
neatly  squared  and  in  another  beautifully 
rounded  to  a  radius  of  several  inches.  Yet  even 
these  fine  structures  showed  that  the  primitive 
mason  did  not  grasp  the  principle  of  breaking 
joints  or  that  of  the  niortar-bond.  In  Central 
Mexico  and  Y'ucatan  massive  stones  were  laid  in 
substantial  walls :  but  even  here,  as  shown  by 
Holmes,  the  quarrying  and  dressing  were  effected 
wholl.v  with  stone  tools  and  by  painfully  clumsy 
methods,  while  none  of  the  builders  grasped  the 
principle  of  the  arch.  Much  the  .same  may  be 
said  of  the  remarkable  stonework  of  Peru.  The 
architectural  features  of  -American  stone  struc- 
tures (so  far  as  architecture  was  developed  in 
the  Western  Hemisphere)  are  described  else- 
where; but  it  is  worthy  of  special  note  that  the 
many-storied  pueblo  grades  into  the  clitT-house, 
and  this  again  into  the  cavate  lodge  dug  into  the 
softer  stratum  of  the  cliff,  and  this  in  turn  into 
the  simple  rock  shelter,  the  open  cavern  used  for 


temporary  lodgment  by  primitixe  folk  every- 
where. It  may  be  noted  also  that  the  early 
Americans  used  stone  structures  chiefly  for  habi- 
tations and  places  of  worship,  and  seldom,  if 
ever,  for  fortresses.  True,  rude  fortifications  of 
loose  rubble  crown  hilltops  adjacent  to  villages 
in  Wisconsin  and  northern  Mexico,  as  noted  by 
Bandelier  and  described  by  McGee  luider  the 
local  designation  trincheras,  while  similar  forti- 
fications have  been  observed  in  other  districts; 
yet  even  these  are  places  of  ceremonial  observ- 
ance as  well  as  of  defense — and  true  fortifications 
of  stone  are  conspicuouslj'  absent  from  the 
greater  part  of  America. 

Stone  Implements.  The  diversity  between  the 
archa?ology  of  America  and  that  of  Europe  cul- 
minates in  the  classification  of  stone  implements 
and  the  definition  of  culture-stages  based  on  this 
classification.  This  diversity  arises  naturally  in 
the  modes  of  approach,  that  of  America  being 
through  observation  of  primitive  customs,  and 
that  of  Europe  through  the  logic  of  the  civilized 


J 


FLINT  AKHOW-POINTS,   FROM  TEXXESSEE. 

mind.  On  both  hemispheres  stone  implements 
are  numerous — commonly  the  most  abundant 
relics  of  the  prehistoric  period;   on  the  Ameri- 


AHROW-POINT   AND   PERFORATOR. 

can  hemisphere  they  are  still  in  use.  in  aboriginal 
fashion,  by  a  considerable  class  of  the  population. 
Throughout  the  eastern  United  States  aboriginal 
ariow-points  of  stone  may  be  foiuid  on  nearly 
every  hillside,  while  larger  implements,  which 
may  have  been  used  as  spear-heads  or  knives, 
can  be   picked   up   in  every  township.     Usually 


ARCH/EO  LOGY -AMERICAN 


STAGES  IN  MANUFACTURE  OF  CELTS  FROM  RIVER 
PEBBLES.  Ranging  from  partially  chipped  pebble 
to  finished  Implement,  from  near  Lupay,  Vir- 
ginia. 


STAGES  IN  MANUFACTURE  OF  CHIPPED  IMPLE- 
MENTS FROM  QUARTZITE  COBBLES.  Ranging 
from  '-Turtle  Back"  or  "  Paleotith  "  to  ar- 
rowpoint,  from   District  of  Columbia. 


AKCH>ffiOLOGY. 


735 


ARCHEOLOGY. 


they  are  ratlier  rudely  chipped  from  quartz, 
"quartzite.  argillite,  or  other  loeal  or  neigliboring 
rocks;  and  Holmes  in  JIaryland,  Fovvke  in  Vir- 


EMBLEMATIC  GORGET.    FROM    RHEA  COUNTY,   TENN. 

pinia,  Mercer  in  Pennsylvania,  and  Phillips  in 
Illinois,  have  traced  the  material  to  its  orijiinal 
sources,  and  have  deserilied  the  quarries  and 
workshops  whence  the  implements  came — indeed, 
the  tirst  of  these  investigators  has  been  able  to 
trace  the  distribution   of  given   materials   from 


PLnMMET,   MADE    OF    SANDY    LIMESTO.N'E,    FROM    LOUISIANA. 


]iarticular  quarries,  and  has  thus  been  able  to 
throw  light  on  aboriginal  migrations  and  com- 
merce. Associated  with  these  implements  are 
found  vessels  of  steatite  (soapstone),  elaborately 
wrought  stone  pipes  of  material  ranging  in 
hardnes.s  from  steatite  to  quartz,  and  a  great 
variety  of  gorgets,  pendants,  etc.,  of  polished 
stone,  as  well  as  stone  disks,  such  as  were  used 
by  the  aborigines  in  games  up  to  the  time  of  the 
white  settlement.  These  various  types  of  stone 
artifacts  have  been  found  on  the  siirfaee  in 
tumuli  associated  with  skeletons,  in  shell-mounds 
on  hundreds  of  village  sites,  and  about  scores 
of  quarries  and  quarry  workshops ;  and  both  the 
certain  relations  that  are  found  to  prevail 
among  prehistoric  artifacts  and  the  observa- 
tion of  living  peoples  indicate  that  the  flaked, 
chipped,  and  polished  objects  were  made  at 
the  same  time  and  by  the  same  tribes — indeed, 
scores  of  specimens  bear  the  unmistakable  traces 
of   manufacture   by   a   combination   of   processes 


ranging  from  flaking  and  chi])])ing,  to  battering, 
grinding,  and  polishing.  Toward  the  Pacific 
coast  the  stone  implement  types  are  much  the 
same,  though  their  relative  abundance  is  differ- 


-^s^lSSi^ 


FLINT   CORE,   FROM   WHICH   FLAKES   WERE  CHIPPED,  AND 
FLINT   FLAKE  USED   AS  A   KNIFE. 

ent ;  chipped  arrow-points  and  spear-heads  are 
comparatively  rare,  while  polished  stone  pestles 
and  mullers  are  abundant,  associated  with 
equally    abundant    mortars,    either    portable,    or 


TYPICAL   POLISHED  CELT   (SIDE   VIEW  AND  SECTION). 
FROM   LINCOLN  COUNTY.   ARKANSAS. 

shaped  in  natural  ledges  and  great  bowlders; 
while  here,  as  in  much  of  Mexico,  and  to  some 
extent  in  the  Pueblo  country,  blades  of  beauti- 
fullj'  flaked  and  chipped  obsidian  (volcanic 
glass)  are  frequently  found  in  ancient  mounds 
and  graves,  as  well  as  in  the  possession  of  aged 
shamans  among  the  living  tribes.  Some  of  the 
California   tribes   noted   bv   Powers   make   little 


ARCHEOLOGY. 


736 


ARCHAEOLOGY. 


use  of  stone  for  cutting,  etc.,  tliough  tlie^y  employ 
natural  pebbles,  so  eleft  as  to  give  sharp  edges, 
for  certain  purposes ;  while  the  8eri  Indians  of 
Tiburon  Island  use  wave-worn  cobbles  for  break- 
ing up  green  turtles,  large  game  animals,  etc., 
and  gradually  reduce  them  by  wear  to  synmietrie 
form  and  well-polished  condition,  yet  eschew 
them  with  horror  if  accidentally  broken  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  form  sharp  edges. 


M 


A\t 


W4 


'^r} 


-i',^^: 


m 


M„ 


V"^.:; 


'M 


CELT.   ROUGHLY  CUT   BY  CHIITING,    A.Nn    FINIBHKD   BY   GRIND- 
ING.     FROM   ALEXANDER  COUNTY,   ILL. 

The  various  types  of  stone  implements,  both 
prehistoric  and  modern,  grade  in  some  respects 
into  implements  of  shell,  tooth,  bone,  and  wood; 
and  the  method  of  interpretation  in  terms  of 
primitive  thought,  affords  a  means  of  classifying 
the  entire  series  of  implements  in  simple  and  in- 
structive fashion.  Thus  it  is  found  that  the 
lowest  peoples  give  preference  to  tooth  and  bone, 
to  chitinous  beak  and  claw,  to  sharp-edged  sliell 
and  piscine  spine,  as  material  for  tool  and 
weapon,  and,  moreover,  that  they  prefer  to  use 
these  materials  in  a  manner  mimetic  of  the 
actual  or  imputed  motions  of  their  zoic  tute- 
laries;  so  that  this  stage  of  culture  has  been  re- 
garded as  primal,  and  defined  as  zoiimimic.  It 
is  found  also  that  the  somewhat  more  advanced 
savages  give  preference  to  stone  used  in  natural 
forms,  to  whicli  zoic  attributes  are  iniptited  (as 
when  pebbles  are  designated  as  teeth),  and  grad- 
ually shape  and  polish  these  by  the  wear  of  use. 


v\ithout  antecedent  design;  and  this  stage  of  de- 
signless stonework  is  defined  as  protolithic.  In 
like  manner  it  is  found  that  the  more  advanced 
tribes  shape  their  iinplements  first  by  a  com- 
bination of  wear  like  that  of  the  previous  stage, 
later  by  battering  and  chipping,  and  last  of  all 
Ijy  rtaking.  in  accordance  with  preconceived  de- 
signs ;  and  the  implements  so  produced,  and  the 
culture-stage  which  they  represent,  have  been 
defined  as  technolithic.  Tliis  classification  is  set 
forth  elsewhere  (Man,  Science  of)  in  some  de- 
tail; but  it  is  desirable  to  note  that  the  classi- 
fication is  based  largely  on  prehistoric  material, 
while,  conversely,  it  illumines  in  useful  fashion 
a  considerable  part  of  the  course  of  cultural  de- 
velopment on  tlie  Western  Hemisphere. 

Metai.  Prodi'CTS.  Large  numbers  of  metallic 
artifacts  have  been  found  in  the  mounds  of  the 
eastern  United  States,  in  the  cemeteries  of  the 
arid  region,  in  the  crypts  of  Mexico,  and  in  the 
linacas  of  South  America.  The  prevailing  ma- 
terial, especially  in  North  America,  is  copper, 
evidently  found  native  and  wrought  cold,  or  at 
low  heat,  with  implements  of  stone,  deer  horn, 
etc.  Most  of  the  copper  objects  are  implements 
evidently  designed  in  imitation  of  stone  celts, 
a.xes  (tomahawks),  spear-heads,  knives,  etc.; 
while  many  objects,  usually  wrought  from  sheets, 
were  evidently  decorative  or  ceremonial,  some  of 
the  largest  pieces  from  the  moinids  being  zoic 
images,  or  effigies,  evidently  of  totemic  charac- 
ter. In  the  Pueblo  region,  and  tliencc  southward 
through  Mexico  to  Bolivia  and  Peru,  silver  and 
gold  were  used  in  considerable  quantity,  ordina- 
rily for  decorative  or  symbolic  purposes;  these 
metals,  too,  were  undoubtedly  found  native,  and 
wrought  (usually)  at  low  temperatures;  but  a 
few  interesting  types  of  gold  ornaments,  de- 
scribed by  Holmes,  were  evidently  produced  by 
partial  fusing  of  slender  bars  or  wires,  while 
some  objects  seem  to  have  been  produced  by  a 
sort  of  casting,  in  which  the  metal  must  have 
been  fused,  at  least  to  a  moderately  fluent  con- 
dition. Some  of  the  mounds  have  yielded  or- 
namental pieces  of  iron,  evidently  of  meteoric 
origin,  and  wrought  cold  or  at  low  temperature ; 
their  preservation  being  due  to  the  resistance  of 
.':iderite  to  oxidation,  and  their  .shapement  de- 
pending on  the  fact  that  this  material  is  "hot- 
short,"  yet  malleable  at  low  temperatures.  There 
are  a  few  examples  (including  one  brought  to 
light  in  the  neighborhood  of  C'asa  Grande,  Arizo- 
na, in  1808)  of  the  aboriginal  use  of  heavy  mas.ses 
of  iron ;  the  Casa  Grande  specimen  was  a  circu- 
lar plate  of  fairly  synunetrieal  form,  some  two 
feet  in  diameter,  and  nearly  two  inches  in  thick- 
ness: the  material  was  greatly  oxidized  and  dis- 
integrated, but  bore  some  appearance  of  meteoric 
origin.  On  the  whole,  the  metallic  artifacts  of 
prehistoric  America  indicate  that  the  aborigines 
never  mastered  smelting,  and  that  most  of  tlieir 
standards  of  metal-working  were  borrowed  from 
their  more  characteristic  stone  craft. 

Fictile  Ware.  Next  in  abundance  to  stone 
implements  among  the  relies  of  ancient  America 
is  pottery;  it  may  be  fovmd  in  sherds  and  smaller 
fragments  in  every  commonwealth,  if  not  in  every 
county  of  the  United  States,  in  every  State,  if 
not  every  district,  of  Mexico,  and  in  equal  abun- 
dance throughout  most  of  Central  America  and 
South  America,  as  well  as  in  some  abundance 
over  much  of  Canada.  In  general,  the  prevalence 
of  fictile  ware  in  the  domestic  economy  of  the 


AKCH^OLOGY. 


737 


ARCHAEOLOGY. 


various  tribes  was  inversely  proportionate  to 
(1)  basl<etry,  (2)  gourds,  ci)  shells,  (4)  wood- 
tnware  (often  shaped  in  imitation  of  shells), 
(5)  horns  of  buflalo,  musk  ox,  etc.,  and  (C)  bireh- 
bark,  etc. ;  yet  so  far  as  the  relics  yo,  they  indicate 
that  the  prevailing  utensils  of  pre-Columbian 
America  were  of  fietile  ware.  The  ware  varies 
widely  in  qualit}',  from  rude  inch-thick  ware  to 
delicately  shaped,  artistically  painted  and  semi- 
glazed  bowls  and  vases;  while  in  tlie  Mississippi 
Valley,  the  Pueblo  region,  ile.xico.  Central  Amer- 
ica, Peru,  and  to  some  extent  elsewhere,  elaborate 
figures  of  symbolic  and  ceremonial  character 
were  wrought  in  clay,  and  fired  Avith  a  skill  little 
short  of  that  of  the  Old  World.  By  Gushing 
and  others,  the  genesis  of  the  pottery  bowl  has 
been  traced  to  the  basket,  the  germ  appearing 
when  a  flat  basket  was  lined  with  earth  for  use 
in  parching  corn  (by  mixing  the  grain  with  hot 
coals  and  shaking  them  within  it  I  :  and  this  in- 
terpretation has  been  measurably  verified  by  the 
finding  of  sherds,  and  some  entire  pieces  bearing 
the  impress  of  the  baskets  in  which  they  were 
molded  in  certain  mounds  and  cemeteries.  The 
molded  and  painted  designs  on  aboriginal  ware 
have  received  much  attention,  notably  from 
Holmes  and  Fewkes;  they  have  been  foxnid  to  be 
symbolic,  and  in  many  eases  susceptible  of  inter- 
pretation as  totemic  emblems,  etc.  Closely  related 
to  the  fictile  ware,  and  especially  to  tlie  figur- 
ines, is  the  stucco  work  of  Central  ilexico.  Yuca- 
tan, Honduras,  Costa  Rica,  and  other  districts. 
These  stucco  designs,  which  have  been  carefully 
studied  by  Saville.  Holmes,  and  many  other 
students,  are  sometimes  of  calendric  character, 
and  are  related  on  the  one  hand  to  the  stone 
sculptures  of  the  same  districts,  and  on  the  other 
hand  to  the  native  books,  or  codices,  inscribed 
on  maguey  paper.  Viewed  collectively,  the  fic- 
tile ware  of  pre-Columbian  America  is  of  interest 
as  marking,  in  many  respects,  the  highest  intel- 
lectual advancement  of  the  Western  Hemisphere; 
for  the  better  grades,  at  least,  represent  well- 
developed  aesthetic  standards,  fair  technical  skill, 
a  highly  dilTerentiated  religious  symbolism,  and 
the  germ  of  writing.  Yet  it  is  to  be  remem- 
bered that  even  the  finest  products  of  the  Ameri- 
can claypit  and  kiln  were  but  earthenware 
rather  than  porcelain  or  delft,  and  that  both  the 
potter's  wheel  and  true  glazes  were  unknown  to 
its  makers. 

In.scription.s  and  Codices.  The  early  travelers 
and  settlers  in  many  parts  of  America  found 
designs  inscribed  or  painted  on  trees  and  rocks; 
and  throughout  the  more  mountainous  portions 
of  the  Western  Hemisphere,  petroglyphs  ( usually 
formed  by  battering  the  rock-face  with  a  harder 
stone,  but  sometimes  sharply  incised)  are  numer- 
ous and  striking.  These  rude  inscriptions  grade 
into  the  sculptures  and  stucco  moldings  of 
Mexico  and  Peru,  as  well  as  into  the  designs 
molded  and  painted  on  the  fictile  ware ;  at  the 
same  time  they  are  related  to  the  inscriptions 
of  the  maguey  codices  which  were  found  in  great 
numbers  by  the  Conquistadores,  but  were  sacri- 
ficed under  hasty  ecclesiastic  impulse  befrM'e  their 
value  was  imderstood — all  save  the  few  speci- 
mens looted  by  subalterns  or  privates,  and  sent 
surreptitiously  to  Europe  as  souvenirs  of  per- 
sonal success.  The  various  aboriginal  records  are 
not  onlv  alike  in  general  character,  but  tell  a 
consistent  story  of  intellectual  advancement  on 
the   part  of   the   earliest   Americans;    and   their 


testimony  is  corroborated  by  modern  observation 
<d  the  autographic  records  of  tribesmen  in  many 
districts.  On  putting  together  the  various 
records,  it  appears  that  none  of  the  pre-Colum- 
bian aborigines  had  grasped  the  idea  of  arbitrary 
cliaraeters,  but  were  satisfied  with  crude  symbols 
undcistood  only  by  themselves,  or  conventions 
understood  bj-  special  classes  only  (like  the  fig- 
urines on  the  wampum  treaty  belts,  each  recall- 
ing a  clause  or  item  in  the  vaguely  remembered 
contract)  ;  and  tliat  even  the  most  elaborate  in- 
scriptions were  little  more  than  sacred  calendars 
designed  to  control  ceremonial  observances,  and 
imderstood  only  Ijy  the  priests.  Accordingly,  the 
inscriptions  attest  a  germ  of  writing,  yet  prove 
that  the  germ  remained  largely  inchoate  up  to 
the  coming  of  Columbus,  and  the  introduction 
of  incomparably  higher  intellectual  standards* 
True,  the  North  American  Indian  Sequoyah 
invented  a  syllabary  which  aided  his  kind  in 
their  strife  for  intellectual  advancement  and 
which  m.ight  have  developed  a  written  language; 
but  there  is  some  question  as  to  whether  his  in- 
vention was  not  stimulated  by  European  sugges- 
tion. 

HuM.\N  AxTiQuiTT.  The  arclueologists  of 
America,  like  those  of  other  countries,  are  in  con- 
stant search  for  evidences  of  human  antiquity, 
and  hundreds  of  suggestive  observations  are  on 
record.  On  generalizing  these,  it  must  be  said 
that  none  of  tlie  acceptable  observations  indicate 
an  antiquity  of  man  on  the  Western  Hemisphere 
at  all  comparable  to  that  indicated  by  appar- 
ently trustworthy  observations  in  Europe  and 
Asia.  Briefly,  there  is  a  strong  presumption 
tliat  mankind  existed  in  North  America  about, 
if  not  anterior  to,  the  last  ice  invasion  of  the 
Pleistocene,  i.e.  ten  thousand  to  fifty  thou- 
sand years  ago ;  yet  positive  evidence  is  far  from 
complete,  as  indicated  by  the  fact  that  not  a 
single  reported  association  of  human  remains 
with  even  the  latest  Pleistocene  deposits  is  un- 
questionably accepted  by  either  anthropologists 
or  geologists. 

Pre-Columbian  Discoveries.  There  have  been 
many  suggestions  of  discoveries  of  America  an- 
terior to  the  time  of  Cohnnbus,  by  both  Euro- 
peans from  the  East  and  Asians  from  the  West; 
.some  of  the  latter  are  particularly  striking,  and 
are  now  under  critical  examination,  partly 
through  an  admirable  series  of  expeditions  sup- 
ported by  .Jesup,  directed  by  Putnam,  and  con- 
ducted by  Boas  and  others.  The  most  striking 
indications  of  pre-Columbian  discovery  falling 
clearly  within  the  domain  of  arch.Tology  are  the 
cairns,  house  remains,  and  stone  pavements  of 
eastern  Massachusetts,  which  have  been  described 
and  compared  with  the  Norse  structures  of  Ice- 
land and  Scandinavia  by  iliss  Horsford.  The 
case  cannot,  perhaps,  be  considered  closed,  pend- 
ing inquiries  in  related  lines;  but  it  is  important 
to  note  that  some  of  the  woj'ks  cm  Charles  River 
— in  the  Vinland  the  Good  of  the  Sagas — are 
unlike  those  produced  by  any  known  native 
tribe,  and  are  like  those  of  the  Norse  settlers 
in  Iceland. 

bibliography. 

General  Works.  Abbott.  Primilire  Industry, 
etc.  (Salem.  1881);  Baldwin,  Ancient  America, 
etc.  (New  Y'ork,  1872)  ;  Dellenbaugh.  The  T^orfh 
Amrricrinf!  of  YeS'terdat/  (New  Y'ork,  IflOl)  ;  Fos- 
ter, Prehistoric  Races  of  the  United  .S7a <es,  sixth 
edition    (Chicago,    1887)  ;    Fowke,   "Stone   Art," 


ARCHEOLOGY. 


738 


ARCHEOLOGY. 


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Thurston,  Antiquities  of  Tennessee  (Cincinnati, 
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Key  Dwellers.  Cushing,  "Exploration  of 
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Mound  Builders.  Brower,  Harahey  (Saint 
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mal Carvings  from  Mounds  of  the  Mississippi 
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tery East  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,"  Twen- 
tieth Report,  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology 
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Jones,  "Explorations  of  the  Aboriginal  Remains 
of  Tennessee,"  Smithsonian  Contributions, 
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Wisconsin,"  Smithsonian  Contributions,  Volume 
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N.  S.  P.,  Volume  X.  '( Philadelphia,  1895); 
Moore,  "Certain  Aboriginal  Jlounds  of  the  Geor- 
gia Coast,"  Journal  A.  N.  S.  P.,  Volume  XI. 
(Philadelphia,  1900)  ;  "Certain  Aboriginal  Re- 
mains of  the  Alabama  River,"  Journal  A.  N.  S. 
P.  (Philadelphia,  1900)  ;  Maclean,  Mound  Build- 
ers   (Cincinnati,    1897)  ;    Moorehead,    Primitive 


Man  in  Ohio  (New  York,  1890)  ;  Peet,  Pre- 
historic America  (Chicago,  1890)  ;  Potter,  Ar- 
chceologicat  Remains  in  Southeastern  Missouri 
(Salem,  1850)  ;  Squier  and  Davis,  "Ancient 
Monuments  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,"  Smith- 
sonian Contributions,  Volume  I.  (Washington, 
1848)  ;  Thomas,  "Report  on  Mound  Explora- 
tions," Twelfth  Report,  Bureau  of  American  Etli- 
nology  (Washington,  1890-91)  ;  Squier,  "Aborigi- 
nal ilonuments  of  the  State  of  New  York," 
Smithsonian  Contributions,  Volume  II.  (Wash- 
ington, 1851). 

Cliff  amd  Ca\-e  Dwellers  ;  Piieblos.  Cush- 
ing, "Study  of  Pueblo  Pottery,"  Fourth  Report, 
Bureau  of  American  Ethnology  (Washington, 
1882-83)  ;  Fewkes,  "Archfeolo'gical  Expedition 
to  Arizona,"  Seventeenth  Report.  Bureau  of 
American  Ethnology  (1895-9(3);  Hodge,  "The 
Enchanted  Mesa,"  National  Geographical  Maga- 
::ine.  Volume  VIII.  (Washington,  1897)  ;  Holmes, 
"Pottery  of  the  Ancient  Pueblos,"  Fourth  Re- 
port, Bureau  of  American  Ethnoloqy  (Washing- 
ton, 1882-83)  ;  C.  Mindeleff,  "Aboriginal  Re- 
mains in  Verde  Valley,  Arizona,"  Thirteenth 
Report,  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology  (1891)  ; 
id.,  "Casa  Grande  Ruin,"  ib. ;  "Cliff  Ruins  of 
Canyon  de  Chelly,"  Sixteenth  Report,  Bureau 
of  American  Ethnology  (Washington,  1894-95)  ; 
y.  ilindeleft',  "Study  of  Pueblo  Archicology," 
Eighth  Report,  Bureau  of  American.  Ethnology 
(1880-87);  Powers,  Stone  Implements:  Yates, 
Aboriginal   Weapons  in   California    (Cincinnati. 

1900)  ;  Prehistoric  Man  in  California  (Santa 
Barbara,  1887)  ;  Fewkes,  "Tiisayan  Migration 
Traditions,"  Nineteenth  Report,  Bureau  of 
American  Ethnology    ( Wasliington,   1901). 

Localities  and  Tribes.  Abbott,  "Stone  Age 
in  New  .Jersey,"  Smithsonian  Report  (Salem, 
1872)  ;  C.  C.  Jones,  Jr.,  Antiquities  of  the  South- 
ern Indians  (New  York,  1873);  Putnam,  "Re- 
ports on  Archfeological  and  Ethnological  Col- 
lections," United  States  Geographical  Surveys 
West  of  the  One  Hundredth  Meridian,  Volume 
VII.  (Washington,  1879);  Smith,  "Archsologj' 
of  the  Thomjjson  River  Region,"  American  Mu- 
seum of  Natural  History,  Memoirs,  Volume  II. 
(New  York,   1900). 

Mexicans  and  Central  Americans.  Bande- 
lier,  A.  F.  A.,  "Report  of  an  Archseologieal  Tour 
in  ^Mexico,"  Papers  of  the  Archceological  Insti- 
tute of  America  (Boston,  1884)  ;  Brasseur  de 
Bourbourg,  Monuments  anciens  du  Mexique 
(Paris,  1806);  Charnav,  Ancient  Cities  of  the 
New  World  (New  I'ork,  1887);  Catherwood, 
Vieu^s  of  Ancient  Monuments  in.  Central  America, 
Chiapas,  and  Yucatan  (London,  1844)  ;  Holmes, 
"Archa-ological  Studies  Among  the  Ancient  Cities 
of  Jlexico,"  Field  Columbian  Museum  Publica- 
tions (Chicago,  1895-97)  ;  ilaler,  "Researches  in 
(he  Central  Portion  of  the  Usumasintla  Valley," 
Memoirs  of  Peabody  Museum,  Volume  II.  (Cam- 
bridge, 1901)  ;  Maudslay,  "Archfeologj-,"  in  Bio- 
logia  Centrali-Americana  (London,  1899-1901); 
Penafiel,  Teolihuacan  (Mexico,  1900)  ;  Thomas, 
"Mayan  Calendar  Systems,"  Nineteenth  Report, 
Bureau  of  American  Ethnology  (Washington, 
1901). 

Peruvians.  Dorsey,  "Archfeological  Investiga- 
tions on  the  Island  of  La  Plata,  Ecuador,"  Field 
Columbian      Museum      Publications      (Chicago, 

1901)  ;  McGee,  "Primitive  Trephining  in  Peru," 
Sixteenth  Report,  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology 
(Washington,  1894-95). 


ARCH^OPTERIS.  T39 

ARCH^OPTERIS,  ar'k.'i-op'ten.s  (Gk.  dp- 
Xaws,  archaios,  ancifiit  +  irrepis,  pteris.  t>rn). 
A  genus  including  scjine  of  llie  oldest  known 
fossil  ferns,  originally  described  by  Dawson  in 
1863  to  include  species  from  the  Chemung  group 
of  the  Upper  Devonian.  The  leaves  are  bipin- 
nate  with  obovate  inequilateral  pinnules;  the 
fertile  leaves  having  oval  spore-cases  instead 
of  pinnules.  Perhaps  the  largest  species  is 
An-hu-opterls  Jaclsoni,  fine  examples  of  which, 
attaining  a  lengtli  of  five  feet,  are  often  found  in 
the  Uagstone  quarries  of  the  upper  horizons  of 
the  Catskill  group  in  the  central  portions  of  the 
Catskill   Jlountains   of   New   York.      See   Febn; 

L'AKIiOMKEROl'.S    SySTKM  ;    DEVONIAN    SYSTEM. 

ABCH^OPTERYX,  iir'ke-op'te-riks  (Gk.  ip- 
Xa'os,  archaios,  ancient,  primitive  +  Trripv^, 
ptcryx,  wing,  bird).  The  oldest  knowTi  bird, 
found  fossiPin  the  Jurassic  lithographic  stone 
of  Solenhofen,  Bavaria,  where  it  was  discovered 
in  1801.  It  was  a  creature  about  the  size  of 
a  crow,  bird-like  in  form,  having  a  rather 
short,  blunt  beak,  the  upper  jaw  of  which  was 
furnished  with  thirteen  teeth,  and  the  lower 
with  three  teeth  on  each  side,  each  planted 
in  a  separate  socket.  Its  most  extraordinar_y 
feature,  however,  is  a  lizard-like  tail  of  twenty 
vertebr.TP,  from  each  of  which  springs  a  pair  of 
well-developed  quill  feathers.  "The  vertebr;^  of 
the  neck  and  back  were  biconcave,  the  sternum 
seems  to  have  been  keeled,  and  the  inanus  had 
three  free  digits.  The  tibia  and  fibula  do  not 
coalesce,  and  the  former  was  furnished  with  a 
series  of  feathers   (wing-quills)    very  similar  to 


ARCHANGEL. 


ARCH.EOPTEHYX   MACKUBA. 

(Specimen  from  Solenhofen,  studied  by  Owen.) 

those  of  the  tail."  These  are  divisible,  as  in 
modern  birds,  into  primaries  and  secondaries. 
That  it  was  able  to  11}'  is  not  to  be  doubted;  the 
form  of  its  feet,  also,  indicate  arboreal  habits, 
and  that  it  scrambled  about,  as  well  as  made 
short  flights,  is  suggested  by  the  fact  that  each 
finger  of  the  hand,  as  well  as  the  toes,  was  armed 
with  a  claw.  The  tail  must  have  impeded  rather 
than  assisted  Hight,  and  it  is  interesting  to  note 
that  in  later  birds  this  cumbersome  member  soon 
became  modified  into  substantially  tlie  present 
form  before  the  Cretaceous  era  came  to  a  close. 
( See  BiKDS. )  It  was  first  thoroughl}'  studied  by 
Owen  (Philosophical  Transactions,  London, 
18G3)  ;  later  information  is  summarized  in  New- 
ton, Diclioiuin/  of  Birds,  .Article  "Fossil  Birds" 
(New  York,  1803-00). 

ARCHA'IC  (Gk.  dpx"''''*'-  archaikos,  old-fash- 
ioned, primitive,  from  apx'fi,  archc,  beginning, 
origin).  A  term  applied  to  the  primitive  stage 
of  the  art  of  a  good  period,  csi)ecially  to  Greek 


art  before  Pericles.  Archaistic  is  applied  to 
an  imitation  of  this  style;  as,  when  Greek  artists 
under  Augustus  reproduced  (ireek  sculpture  of 
the  Sixth  and  Fifth  centuries. 

ARCHAN'GEL,    or  ARKHANGELSK,   ar- 

Ktin'gelsk.  A  government  of  Russia,  between  61° 
and  71°  N.  lat.  and  28°  to  00°  E.  long.,  extend-^ 
ing  along  the  White  Sea  and  Arctic  Ocean  from' 
Finland  and  Norway  east  to  the  Ural,  and 
bounded  on  tlie  south  by  the  governments  of 
Vologda  and  Olonetz.  It  occupies  an  area  of 
320,-500  square  miles,  including  the  islands  of 
Nova  Zembla  and  Vaigatch.  It  is  the  largest  gov- 
ernment of  the  Empire,  and  occupies  the  entire 
north  of  European  Russia.  Its  greatest  length, 
from  west  to  east,  is  900  miles;  its  greatest  . 
width,  from  north  to  south,  is  132  miles.  Four 
large  navigable  rivers  flow  througli  Archangel; 
the  Petchora  for  .528  miles,  the  Onega  132  miles, 
the  northern  Dvina  205  miles,  and  the  Mesen 
265  miles,  all  emptying  their  waters  into  the 
White  Sea.  The  northwestern  and  the  north- 
eastern parts  are  nioinitainous,  reaching  a 
height  of  more  than  4900  feet.  The  climate  of 
Archangel  is  verv  severe  in  the  central  part  of 
the  government.  At  its  northwestern  extremity 
the  climate  is  perceptibly  milder,  and  the  open 
sea  is  never  frozen.  The  great  wealth  of  Arch- 
angel is  in  its  forests,  which  cover  more  than  half 
of  its  area.  Lumbering  is  therefore  the  leading 
industry.  The  inhabitants  are  besides  engaged  in 
agriculture  which,  at  its  best,  in  the  south  is  but 
poorly  developed,  in  fishing  and  hunting  along 
the  shores  of  the  Arctic  and  the  White  Sea,  and 
in  the  rearing  of  deer,  which  constitutes  the  al- 
most exclusive  occupation  of  the  Samoyeds.  The 
population  of  the  government  was  331,200  in  1890, 
and  347,000  in  1897.  Ninety-eight  per  cent,  of 
the  people  are  Riissians.  Of  the  difl'erent  abo- 
riginal tribes,  as  the  Lopars,  Zyrans,  Samoyeds, 
etc.,  there  are  not  more  tlian  0000  ])crsons.  Arch- 
angel is  the  most  sparsely  populated  government 
of  Russia.  Consult  A.  P.  Englehardt,  A  Rus- 
sian Prorince  of  the  North  (Westminster,  1889). 

ARCHANGEL.  The  capital  city  of  the  Rus- 
sian Government  of  Archangel,  situated  in  lat. 
G4°  33'  N.,  and  long.  40°  33'  E.,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Dvina  River,  20  miles  above  its  en- 
trance into  the  White  Sea,  and  740  miles  north- 
east of  Saint  Petersburg  (Map:  Russia,  F  2) .  It 
is  the  largest  and  most  important  city  in  the 
world  situated  so  near  to  the  Arctic  Circle.  The 
city  is  of  ancient  origin,  and  among  its  most 
noteworthy  buildings  is  the  handsome  cathe- 
dral finished  in  the  beginning  of  the  Nineteenth 
Century.  It  is  said  to  be  the  handsomest  and 
best-liglited  cathedral  in  Russia.  The  other 
buildings  of  interest  are  the  bazaar  or  mart,  the 
marine  ho.spital,  and  the  wooden  "little  house" 
of  Peter  the  Great.  The  importance  of  the  city  ia 
consideraiile,  since  it  serves  as  an  outlet  for  the 
jiroducts  of  the  far  northern  and  western  part  of 
Siberia.  The  chief  articles  of  traffic  are  fish, 
skins,  furs,  timber,  wax,  iron,  tallow,  bristles, 
and  caviar.  At  its  annual  fair,  in  September, 
about  14,000,000  rubles  worth  of  goods  change 
hands.  The  value  of  its  ex])orts  and  imports 
amounts  to  about  8,000,000  rubles  ($4,500,000) 
annually,  and  it  is  visited  by  some  800  vessels 
during  the  months  of  .July  to  September,  the  only 
period  of  the  year  when  the  harbor  of  Archangel 
is  entirely   free   from   ice.     Of   the  foreign   ves- 


ARCHANGEL. 


740 


ARCHBISHOP. 


sels  visiting  the  port  the  British  and  Xorwegian 
are  tlie  most  numerous.  Considerable  inland 
shipping  is  carried  on  by  a  large  number  of 
smaller  vessels  navigating  the  Dvina.  The 
fact  that  the  harbor  is  ice-bound  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  year  has  been  the  greatest 
obstacle  to  the  commercial  growth  of  the  city, 
fever  since  its  foundation  in  1584  by  Czar  Feodor. 
The  city  was  named  after  the  monastery  on  the 
Dvina,  founded  here  by  the  Archbishop  of  Nov- 
gorod in  the  Twelfth "  Century  with  a  view  to 
missionarv  work  among  the  pagan  Choods.  Pop. 
1897,  20.il'3.3. 

ARCHANGEL  (Gk.  dpx',  prefix  denoting 
dignity  of  rank  -|-  a77eXos,  messenger,  angel). 
A  term  occurring  twice  in  the  New  Testament, 
I.  Thess.  iv.  16  (referring  indefinitely  to  an  ex- 
alted angelic  being),  and  Jude  9.  The  idea  con- 
tained in  the  term  is  due  to  the  Old  Testament 
development  of  the  conception  of  angels,  which, 
in  its  earliest  stage,  involved  nothing  more  than 
the  positing  of  supernatural  beings,  whose  vo- 
cation, generally  speaking,  was  to  be  in  varied 
ways  agents  of  God.  Gradually,  however,  the 
idea  of  moral  distinctions  among  these  angelic 
beings  appeared,  some  of  them  being  thought  of 
as  doing  evil,  as  when  in  Gen.  vi.  1-4,  the  'sons 
of  God'  are  spoken  of  as  being  led  into  a  love 
for  the  'daughters  of  men,'  and  some  of  them 
being  pictured  as  instigating  men  to  wickedness, 
as  in  I.  Chron.  xxi.  1,  where  Satan  is  repre- 
sented as  moving  David  to  number  Israel.  Final- 
ly, among  the  hosts,  in  which  more  or  less  they 
had  been  understood  as  existing,  appeared  the 
idea  of  ranks  and  even  names,  the  book  of  Daniel 
referring  to  Gabriel  (viii.  16;  ix.  21)  and  to 
Jlichael,  who  is  represented  as  "the  great  prince 
who  standeth  for  the  children  of  the  people" 
(xii.  1).  Both  of  these  developed  ideas — moral 
distinctions  and  ranks  and  names — are  carried 
over  into  the  New  Testament  writings,  where 
use  is  frequently  made  of  them.  The  first  place 
in  these  ranks  is  evidently  intended  to  be  re- 
ferred to  in  our  term.     See  Angel. 

ARCHANGEL.  New.     See  Sitka. 
ARCHANGELICA,       iirk'an-jel'i-ka.         See 

AXGELlC.i. 

ARCHAS,  iir'kos.  A  character  in  Fletcher's 
The  Loyal  Subject ;  a  much  too  "loyal  subject" 
of  the  unworthy  and  thankless  monarch  in  that 
play. 

ARCHBISHOP,  arch'bish'up  (Gk.  dpx'-, 
archi-,  chief  +  4irlirKOTros.  riiiskopos,  overseer). 
The  title  given  to  a  metropolitan  bishop  who 
superintends  the  conduct  of  the  suffragan  bishops 
in  his  province,  and  also  exercises  episcopal 
authorit.y  in  his  own  diocese.  The  archbishop 
was  probably  originally  the  bishop  of  the  chief 
town.  The  oflice  appears  as  early  as  the  Fourth 
Century.  In  the  Oriental  Church  the  archbishops 
are  still  called  'metropolitans,'  from  the  cir- 
cumstance mentioned.  In  the  African  Church,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  term  used  was  'primvis.'  The 
great  archl)isho])ri(s  of  the  early  Church  were 
those  of  .Jerusalem,  .\nfioch.  Ephesus.  .-Vlexan- 
dria.  Constantinople,  and  Rome.  Since  the  Sixth 
Century  the  Archbishop  of  Rome  has  borne  the 
name  of  Pope  {papa).  There  is  an  official  letter 
by  Justinian,  addressed  to  "John.  Archbislio|i  of 
Rome  and  Patriarch."  and  several  ecclesiasti- 
cal constitutions  are  addressed  to  "Epiphanins, 


Archbishop  of  Constantinople  and  Patriarch." 
The  Synod  of  Antioch,  in  341,  assigned  to  the 
archbishop  the  superintendence  over  all  the  bish- 
oprics and  a  precedence  in  rank  over  all  the 
bishops  of  the  Church,  who,  on  important  mat- 
ters, were  bound  to  consult  him  and  be  guided 
by  his  advice.  By  degrees  there  arose,  out  of 
this  superiority  of  rank,  privileges  which  at 
length  assumed  the  character  of  positive  juris- 
diction in  ecclesiastical  matters.  JIany  of  these 
rights  passed  to  the  patriarchs  (q.v. )  toward 
the  end  of  the  Fourth  and  during  the  Fifth  Cen- 
tury, and  still  more  to  the  Pope  in  the  Ninth. 
The  archbishops  still  retained  jurisdiction,  in  the 
first  instance,  over  their  suffragans  in  matters 
whieli  were  not  criminal,  and  over  those  who 
were  subject  to  them  they  acted  as  a  court  of 
appeal.  The.v  possessed  also  the  right  of  calling 
together,  and  presiding  in.  the  provincial  synods; 
the  superintendence  and  power  of  visitation  over 
the  bishops  of  the  metropolitan  see;  the  power 
of  enforcing  the  laws  of  the  Church;  the  dispen- 
sation of  indulgences,  and  the  like.  The  arch- 
bishops further  enjoyed  the  honor  of  having  the 
cross  carried  before  them  in  their  own  arclii- 
episcopate,  even  in  presence  of  the  Pope  himself, 
and  of  wearing  the  pallium. 

In  the  Established  Church  of  England  there 
are  two  archbishops,  both  appointed  by  the 
sovereign,  of  whom  the  one  has  his  seat  at  Can- 
terbury, the  capital  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of 
Kent;  the  other  at  York,  the  capital  of  North- 
umbria.  But  though,  as  ruling  over  a  province 
in  place  of  a  single  diocese,  both  have  enjoyed  the 
rank  of  metropolitans  from  the  first,  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  has  all  along  enjoyed,  not 
merely  precedence  as  the  successor  of  Augustine 
and  the  senior  archbishop,  but  as  possessing  a 
preeminent  and  universal  autliority  over  the 
whole  kingdom.  This  preeminence  is  marked 
in  the  titles  which  they  respectively  assume — the 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury  being  styled  the  Pri- 
mate of  All  England  {mctropolitanus  et  primus 
lotius  Aitfiliw),  while  the  Archbishop  of  York 
is  simply  called  Primate  of  England  {primus  et 
metropolitanus  Aiifilice).  It  is  also  indicated  by 
the  places  whicli  they  occupy  in  processions — 
the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  who  has  precedence 
of  all  the  nobility,  not  only  preceding  the  Arch- 
bishop of  York,  but  the  Lord  Cliancellor  being  in- 
terposed between  them.  Previous  to  the  creation 
of  an  archbishopric  in  Ireland  the  authority  of 
the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  extended  to  that 
island.  The  amount  of  control  which  belongs  to 
an  archbishop  over  the  bishops  of  his  province  is 
not  very  accurately  defined :  but  if  any  bishop 
introduces  irregularities  into  his  diocese,  or  is 
guilty  of  immorality,  the  archbishop  may  call 
him  to  account  and  even  deprive  him.  In  1822, 
the  Archbishop  of  Armagh,  who  is  Primate  of 
.\11  Ireland,  deposed  the  Bishop  of  Cloglier  on 
the  latter  ground.  To  the  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury belongs  the  honor  of  placing  the  crown  on 
the  sovereign's  head  at  his  coronation;  and  the 
Archbishop  of  York  claims  the  like  privilege  in 
the  case  of  the  Queen-Consort,  whose  perpetual 
chaplain  he  is.  The  province  of  the  Archbishop 
of  York  consists  of  the  six  northern  counties,  with 
Cliesliire  and  Nottinghamshire.  The  .rest  of  Eng- 
land and  Wales  form  the  province  of  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury.  The  dioceses  of  the  two 
archbishop.s — that  is  to  say,  the  districts  in 
which  they  exercise  ordinary  episcopal  functions 


ARCHBISHOP. 


ni 


AKCHEGONIUM. 


— were  reniodo'ed  by  0  and  7  \^'i^.  IV.  c.  77.  The 
diocese  of  Cauterhurv  eoniprises  Kent,  e.Kcept  the 
city  and  doancry  of  Rochester,  and  some  parishes 
transferred  liy  this  act;  a  number  of  ])arisli('s  in 
Sussex  called  'peculiar';  with  small  districts 
in  other  dioceses, particularly  London.  The  diocese 
of  the  Archbishop  of  York  embraces  the  county 
of  York,  except  that  portion  of  it  now  included 
in  the  dioceses  of  Ripon  and  Manchester;  the 
whole  county  of  Nottingham,  and  some  other  de- 
tached districts.  In  Ireland  there  are  two 
Protestant  archbishops,  elected  by  their  fellow- 
bishops  out  of  their  number,  and  four  Roman 
Catholic.  Of  the  former,  the  Archbishop  of  Ar- 
magh is  Primate  of  All  Ireland ;  the  Archbishop 
of  Dublin  being  Primate  of  Ireland.  They  for- 
merlj'  sat  alternately  in  the  House  of  Lords:  the 
three  bishops  who,  along  with  them,  represented 
the  Church  of  Ireland,  being  chosen  by  rotation. 

The  Roman  Catholie  Cliurch  in  England  and 
Wales  luis  one  archbishop;  in  Scotland  two  arch- 
bislio]is.  while  the  Episcopal  Church  in  tliat 
country  h.ns  no  archbishop,  but  a  prinnis.  An 
Englisli  arehliisluip  writes  himself,  "by  divine 
providence" ;  a  bishop  being,  "by  divine  per- 
mission"; and  an  archbishop  has  the  title  of 
"Grace,"  and  "Jlost  Reverend  Father  in  God," 
while  a  bishop  is  styled  "Lord,"  and  "Right  Rev- 
erend Father  in  God."  The  archbishop  is  enti- 
tled to  present  to  all  ecclesiastical  livings  in  the 
disposal  of  diocesan  bishops,  if  not  filled  within 
si.\  months ;  and  every  bishop,  'Hhetlier  created  or 
translated,  was  formerly  bound  to  make  a  legal 
conveyance  to  the  archbishop  of  the  next  avoid- 
ance of  one  such  dignity  or  benefice  belonging  to 
his  see  as  the  archbishop  should  choose. 

The  only  archbishops  in  the  United  States  are 
tliose  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  now  four- 
teen in  nvnnber.  Up  to  17S9  the  ecclesiastical 
government  of  that  Church  in  this  country  con- 
tiniied  under  the  vicar  apostolic  of  the  London 
district,  the  local  superior  at  that  time  being 
Fatlier  .lolin  Carroll,  of  Baltimore.  In  178!) 
Baltimore  was  erected  into  an  episcopal  see,  and 
Father  Carroll  became  bishop.  In  1S08,  after 
Mew  Orleans,  New  York,  and  Boston  had  been 
erected  into  sees,  Baltimore  was  raised  to  metro- 
politan rank.  Father  Carroll  becoming  the  first 
archbishop,  as  he  had  been  the  first  bisliop.  in 
this  country.  The  dates  of  the  establishments  of 
other  archiepiscopal  sees  in  this  country  arc  as 
follows — the  first  date  being  that  of  the  founda- 
tion of  the  see,  and  the  second  of  its  elevation 
to  a  metropolis:  Oregon  City,  1846,  1846:  Saint 
Louis,  1826,  1847;  New  Orleans,  179.3,  1850;  New 
York.  1808.  1850;  Cincinnati.  I8'21,  18.50; 
Dubuque,  1837,  1893;  San  Francisco,  1853,  18.53; 
Milwa\ikee,  1844,  1875;  Boston,  1808,  1875; 
Philadelphia.  1808.  1875:  «anta  Fe.  1850.  1875; 
ChicUL'...   1844.  1880;  Saint  Paul,  1850,  1888. 

AECHDALE,  jireh'dal,  ,Totik.  A  colonial 
governor  of  North  Cai'olina,  born  in  England. 
He  eame  to  New  England,  as  the  agent  for  Gov- 
ernor Gorges,  of  Maine,  in  1604:  was  a  com- 
missioner for  Gorges  (1687-88)  :  and  was  Gover- 
nor of  North  Carolina,  of  which  he  was  also  a 
'proprietary.'  He  reorganized  the  administra- 
tion of  the  colony,  conciliated  the  Indians,  and 
introduced  the  cultui'e  of  rice.  He  published 
A  Neir  Description  of  the  Fertile  niid  Pleasant 
Province  of  Carolinn,  jrith  a  Brief  Account  of 
Jts  Discover!/,  Seltlinfi,  and  Oorernment  up  to 
This  Time   (London,  1707). 


AKCHDEACON,  arclrde'kun  lGkMpxi-,archi-, 
chief  -\-  SioKocoy,  diakunus,  servant,  minister  of 
the  Church).  An  ecclesiastical  dignitary  whose 
jurisdiction  is  immediately  suliordinate  to  that 
of  the  bishop.  The  archdeacon  originally  was 
simply  the  chief  of  tlie  deacons,  who  were 
the  attendants  and  assistants  of  the  bishop  in 
Church  affairs.  His  duties  consisted  in  attend- 
ing the  bishop  at  the  altar  and  at  ordina- 
tions, assisting  him  in  nutnaging  the  revenues 
of  the  Church  and  directing  the  deacons  in 
their  duties.  From  being  (lius  mere  assistants, 
archdeacons  in  the  Fifth  Century  began  to  share 
the  bishop's  ])owers,  and  step  by  step  attained 
to  the  authority  they  now  enjoy,  which  from 
the  Ninth  Century  became  in  many  respects  dis- 
tinct from  that  of  the  bishop.  Several  synods 
protested  against  the  innovation,  but  it  was  con- 
tinued in  the  Eleventh  and  Twelfth  centuries, 
when  the  archdeacons  were  recognized  as  the 
most  influential  of  prelates.  In  the  Thirteenth 
Century,  their  powers  were  limited  by  the  estab- 
lishment of  episcopal  courts.  Their  dignity  and 
influence  is  now  very  much  reduced  in  the 
Roman  Catholie  Church,  and  many  of  their 
former  functions  are  now  exercised  by  vicar- 
generals. 

There  are  now  eighty-three  archdeaconries  in 
the  Established  Church  of  England.  No  person 
can  be  appointed  to  this  office  who  has  not  been 
six  years  a  priest.  His  duties  include  visitation 
of  the  parishes,  holding  synods,  ordering  repairs 
of  churches,  and  in  other  ways  being,  as  the 
canon  law  calls  him,  'the  bishop's  eye.'  He  is 
addressed  as  'Venerable.'  In  the  American  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  Church  the  archdeacon  exercises 
analogous  functions,  but  the  office  is  found  in 
only  thirty-nine  out  of  the  seventy-six  dioceses, 
and  the  number  in  the  dioceses  where  it  has  been 
introduced  varies  from  one  to  six.  The  office 
is  found  in  all  branches  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land and  also  in  the  Lutheran  Church. 

ARCHBTJKE,  iireh'duk'  (arch  +  duke,  from 
Gk.  dpxi-  arehi-.  chief  +  Lat.  dux,  leader) .  Arch- 
duke and  archduchess  are  titles  now  taken  by 
all  the  princes  and  princesses  of  the  house 
of  Austria.  The  title  seems  to  have  originated 
about  the  middle  of  the  Twelfth  Century,  though 
it  came  into  use  only  gradually.  Rudolph  IV. 
of  Austria  called  himself  Palatinus  Arehidux. 
The  name  was  fornuiUy  conferred  on  the  Haps- 
burgs  by  Frederick  III.  in  1453.  Various  noble 
houses,  especially  that  of  Bavaria,  disputed  the 
title  with  the  Hapsburgs,  but  since  Rudolph  II., 
German  Emperor  from  1576  to  1612,  their  pre- 
cedence has  been  established. 

ARCHEDEMTJS,  •ir'k.'-de'mus  (Gk.  'Apxi- 
Sriixos,  Archcdemos) ,  called  Gr..\MON'  (the  'blear- 
eyed').  A  demagogue  and  popular  speaker  in 
Athens  at  the  end  of  the  Fifth  Century  and 
the  beginning  of  the  Fourth  Century  B.C.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  a  foreigner  who  worked 
his  way  by  fraud  into  the  Athenian  franchise, 
was  poor,  and  was  generally  disliked  by  reason 
of  his  restless  activity  and  uKMldlcsomeness.  By 
bringing  an  accusation  against  Erasinides,  he 
took  the  first  steps  toward  the  impeachment  of 
tlie  Athenian  generals  who  took  part  in  the 
battle  of  Arginusa',  n.c.  400. 

ARCHEGONIUM,  -ir'ke-go'ni-um  (Gk.  &p. 
X^oras,  archeqonos,  first  of  a  race,  primal). 
The  peculiar  female  organ  of  mosses,  ferns,  coni- 


ABCHEGONIUM. 


742 


ABCHELAUS. 


fers,  etc.,  which  togetlier  are  often  spoken  of 
as  Arehegoniutes.  It  is  a  Hask-shaped  organ, 
consisting  of  a  neck  more  or  less  elongated  and 
a  venter  more  or  less  bulbous.  A  single  egg 
occupies  the  venter,  and  in  the  process  of  fer- 
tilization the  sperm  enters  by  the  open  neck  of 
the  arehegonium  and  comes  in  contact  with  the 
egg.  Among  the  mosses  the  arehegonium  is  a 
free  and  often  stalked  organ.  Aniong  the  liver- 
worts the  arehegonia  are  variously  disposed  on 
the  thallus-body,  while  in  mosses  they  are  borne 
in  a  cluster  at  the  apex  of  the  leafy  shoot  or 
of  its  branches,  the  terminal  rosette  of  more  or 
less  modified  leaves  forming  what  is  often  called 
a  'moss  flower.'  Among  the  ferns  the  arehegonia 
are  usually  borne  upon  the  under  side  of  tlie  in- 
conspicuous sexual  plant  (prothallium) ,  the  ven- 
ters being  imbedded  in  the  tissue  and  the  necks 
more  or  less  projecting.  In  the  water  ferns, 
quillworts,  and  little  club-mosses,  the  female 
plant  is  developed  as  a  tissue  within  the  spore, 
whose  heavy  wall  breaks  or  ci-acks  at  a  certain 
place,  and  in  the  exposed  part  of  the  female 
plant  the  arehegonia  are  developed.  Among 
the  conifers  the  spore,  %\ith  its  contained  female 
plant,  is  retained  within  the  ovule,  and  hence 
the  arehegonia  are  not  exposed,  but  lie  im- 
bedded in  the  superficial  part  of  the  female  plant 
(endosperm),  toward  the  micropyle  (the  pas- 
sageway left  by  the  integument).  Among  the 
conifers  the  male  cells  are  brought  to  the  arehe- 
gonium by  growing  pollen-tubes.  The  pollen- 
grain,  containing  the  male  cells,  rests  at  the 
base  of  the  micropyle,  upon  the  apex  of  the 
nueellus  (central  part  of  the  ovule).  The  tube 
penetrates  the  tissue  of  the  nueellus  and  reaches 
the  embrvo-sac  (megaspore),  just  within  which 
are  the  arehegonium  necks.  It  then  pierces  the 
sac-wall,  enters  and  crushes  the  neck,  and  dis- 
charges its  male  cells  into  the  egg. 

Among  the  flowering  plants  no  arehegonia  are 
developed,  the  embr3'o-sac  containing  a  free  egg, 
along  with  other  free  cells  of  a  much-reduced 
female  plant. 


ARCHEOONIA. 


•  (a)  of  a  moss.  (/>)  of  a  forn.  and  (c)  of  a  liverwort,  show- 
ing in  each  case  the  neck  and  tlie  venter eontainiii^rtiie  e^r*r. 


The  development  of  an  arehegonium  and  its 
preparation  for  fertilization  are  matters  of  great 
morphological  interest.  It  begins  as  a  single 
superficial  cell  of  the  sexual  plant.  By  repeated 
cell  divisions  the  layer  of  cells  constituting  the 
neck  and  venter  is  formed,  and  this  surrounds 
a  single  row  of  axial  cells.  The  cells  of  this 
row  (variable  in  number)  which  lie  within 
the  neck  are  called  the  "neck  canal  cells."  while 
the  lowest  cell  of  the  row,  the  one  within  the 
venter,  forms  the  egg.  When  tlie  areliegonium. 
is  nearly  mature  the  row  of  neck  canal  cells 
breaks  down  and  leaves  an  open  neck :  and 
usually  just  before  fertilization  the  cell  in  the 
venter  cuts  off  a  small  cell  toward  the  neck 
called  the  "ventral  canal  cell,"  which  rapidly 
disorganizes  and  leaves  the  egg  free  and  alone 
in  the  venter,  ready  for  the  approach  of  the 
sperms  through  the  neck. 

One  of  the  interesting  facts  in  connection  with 
arehegonia  is  that  the  apical  neck  cells  secrete 
a  substance  which  attracts  the  sperms  toward 
them.  For  example,  this  substance  is  not  the 
same  in  mosses  and  ferns,  so  that  even  if  arehe- 
gonia of  the  two  groups  are  close  together  the 
moss  sperms  and  the  fern  sperms  will  be  at- 
tracted only  to  their  own  arehegonia. 

ARCHEGOSATJRUS,  iir'ks-go-sa'rus.  Se« 
Stegocephalia. 

ARCHELAUS,  iir'ka-la'us  (Gk.  'ApxAaos, 
Archel'Kj.i) . —  (ll  One  of  the  Heraclid*  who, 
when  driven  by  his  brothers  from  his  native 
land,  fled  to  ^Macedonia  and  founded  the  town  of 
-Egfe.  He  was  the  mythical  founder  of  the 
royal  house  of  ilacedonia. —  (2)  A  Greek  philoso- 
pher and  pupil  of  Anaxagoras.  He  was  born  at 
Athens,  and  was  tlie  son  of  ApoUodorus  or 
Jlyson.  The  outlines  of  his  system  were  those 
of  his  teacher,  but  for  the  details  of  his  cosmol- 
ogy he  went  back  to  the  ideas  of  the  earlier  Ionic 
physicists.  He  admitted  a  primitive  matter,  con- 
sisting of  infinite  particles  similar  in  nature  to 
the  bodies  formed  from  them.  He  also  admitted 
a  ruling  ilind.  flatter  and  mind  he  held  to  be 
mingled,  and  identified  the  primitive  matter  with 
air.  Out  of  this  air,  tlius  endowed  with  mind, 
there  arose,  by  processes  of  thickening  and  thin- 
ning.cold  and  heat,  or  water  and  fire — the  former 
passive,  tlie  latter  active.  From  the  action  of 
fire  and  water  were  formed  the  atmosphere  and 
the  mud  out  of  which  the  heavenly  bodies  were 
developed.  Living  organized  beings,  at  first  of 
low  type,  sprang  from  the  mud,  and  gradually 
the  races  of  animals  were  formed.  JIan  he  held 
to  be  superior  In  other  beings,  by  reason  of  his 
artistic  and  moral  powers. —  ( 3 )  King  of.  Mace- 
donia, natural  son  of  Perdiccas  II.  He  came 
to  the  throne  in  B.C.  413.  after  murdering  the 
rightful  heir.  Archelaus  improved  the  internal 
condition  of  his  kingdom,  introduced  clumges  in 
the  currency,  improved  the  army,  and  showed 
himself  a  warm  patron  of  a'rt  and  literature. 
Euripides,  Zeuxis,  and  other  men  of  eminence 
visited  his  court,  and  only  Socrates  refused  an 
invitation  to  go  thither.  The  palace  of  Archelaus 
was  adorned  with  magnificent  paintings  by 
Zeuxis.  Archelaus  was  either  murdered  or  acci- 
dentally slain  by  his  favorite,  Craticus  or  Cra- 
teras,  i'n  B.C.  30!). —  (4)  A  distinguislied  general 
of  ilithridates.  In  the  winter  of  B.C.  88-S7  he 
was  sent  to  Greece  with  a  large  fleet  and  army 
to  oppose  the  Romans   in  that   quarter.     On  the 


ARCHELAXJS. 


743 


ARCHER. 


way  lie  seized  the  Cyclades.  tcigether  with  Delos, 
and,  by  granting  the  latter  island  to  Athens,  won 
over  that  city  to  the  side  of  Mithridates.  (*n  his 
appearance  in  Greece,  the  Achsans,  the  Laeoni- 
ans,  and  the  Ba»otiaus  at  once  Hocked  to  his 
standard.  A  three  days'  l)attle  was  fought  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Thespia?,  with  indecisive  result, 
but  Archelaus  was  forced  to  fall  back  upon 
.\thens  and  Pirirus.  In  the  niunmer  of  B.C.  87, 
Sulla  landed  in  (Ireeee  and  proceeded  against 
Archelaus.  After  long  and  hard  lighting  Athens 
and  Pira'us  were  taken,  and  Arel\claus  retreated 
to  Chalcis.  Here  he  was  joined  by  reinforce- 
ments from  Mithridates,  and  in  March,  B.C.  80, 
met  with  a  crusliing  defeat  at  Chjeronea.  Of 
120,000  men  that  .\relielaus  led  into  battle,  barely 
10,000  reassembled  at  Chalcis.  In  the  meantime 
Mithridates  sent  into  Greece  a  further  force  of 
80,000  men  under  Dorylaus.  With  this  force 
.Archelaus  faced  the  enemy  at  Orehomenus  in  n.c. 
85.  His  arm.v  was  almost  entirely  destroyed, 
but  Archelaus  himself,  after  hiding  for  several 
days  in  a  swamp,  finally  escaped  to  Chalcis. 
Peace  followed,  but  Archelaus,  though  innocent, 
awakened,  by  his  conduct  in  the  negotiations,  the 
suspicions  of  .Mithridates,  and  was  as  a  result 
driven  to  side  with  the  Romans  in  the  second  arid 
third  Mithridatie  wars. —  (5)  Son  of  the  preced- 
ing. He  married  Berenice, daughter  of  King  Ptole- 
mteus  Auletes,  in  B.C.  56,  and  ruled  over  Kgypt 
for  the  short  space  of  si.x  months  during  the 
banishment  of  Ptolem.TUs.  The  usurper  lost  his 
life  in  a  battle  against  Aulus  Gabinius,  procon- 
sul of  Syria. —  ((i)  Grandson  of  the  preceding. 
He  obtained  from  ilarcus  .4ntonius  the  Province 
of  Cappadocia,  which  he  retained  during  the 
reign  of  .Augustus.  Tiberius  accused  him  of 
political  innovations  and  condemned  him  to 
death;  but  he  was  already  old  and  broken,  and 
he  died  at  Rome  soon  after  liis  trial,  in  .\.D.  17. — 
(7)  A  Greek  sculptor,  celebrated  for  his  bas-re- 
lief representing  the  'Apotheosis  of  Homer,' 
which  was  found  in  the  Seventeenth  Centiiry  on 
the  Via  Appia,  near  Bovillip.  The  relief  appears 
to  be  the  votive  oticring  of  a  poet  made  for  a 
victory  won  at  a  poetic  contest.  Its  time  is 
placed  all  the  way  from  B.C.  150  to  the  begin- 
ning of  the  first  century  a.d.  The  relief  was 
purchased  in  ISIO  for  the  British  Museum. — 
1 8)  Son  of  Herod,  tyrant  of  Jud;ea.  He  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  B.C.  4,  and  maintained  his 
position  against  an  insurrection  raised  by  the 
Pharisees.  His  heirship  to  the  throne  being 
disputed  by  his  brother  Antipas,  Archelaus  went 
to  Rome,  where  his  authority  was  confirmed  by 
.Augustus,  who  jnade  him  Ethnarch  of  .ludtea, 
Samaria,  and  Iduniipa.  After  a  reign  of  nine 
years  he  was  deposed  by  Augustus,  on  account  of 
his  cruel  tyranny,  and  banished  to  Vienna  in 
Gaul,  where  he  died.  His  territories  were  added 
to  the  Roman  Province  of  Syria. 

ARCHENHOLZ,  iir'Ken-holts,  Johan>-  Wil- 
JIELM,  Baron  von  (17-13-1812).  A  German  his- 
torian. After  service  in  the  army,  he  gained  his 
discharge  at  the  close  of  the  Seven  Years'  War, 
and  passed  several  years  in  travel,  visiting 
almost  all  the  principal  cities  of  Europe,  and 
supporting  himself  by  authorship.  He  wrote 
Ocschichte  des  siehcnjiilirificii  Kricges  (History 
of  the  Seven  Years'  War)  (two  volumes,  179.3), 
which,  when  compared  with  the  generally  dry 
style  of  his  German  contemporaries,  deserves 
praise  on  account  of  its  narrative  interest.     He 


also  wrote  Anttaloi  der  hritischen  Geschichte 
(Annals  of  British  History)  (twenty  volumes, 
178!)-ii8),  and  biographies  of  t^ueen  Elizabeth 
of  England  and  Gustavus  Vasa  of  Sweden. 

ARCH'ER,  Belle  (ISGO-inOO).  An  American 
actress,  named  Arabella  S.  Mingle,  but  known  as 
Miss  Archer  after  her  marriage  in  1880  to  Her- 
bert Archer,  from  whom  she  was  divorced  in 
1889.  She  was  born  at  Easton,  Pa.,  and  made 
her  df'but  at  Washington,  D.  C,  with  William 
Florence  in  The  Mighty  Dollar.  Afterward  she 
appeared  in  I'hiafore,  Hazel  Kirke,  etc.,  and  for 
some  time  played  with  E.  H.  Sothcrn,  as  Rose 
in  Lard  Vhumley  (1888),  and  in  other  pieces. 
She  also  supported  Alexander  Salvini,  and  in 
Daly's  company  took  the  part  of  Maid  ilarian 
in  the  later  productions  of  Tennyson's  Foresters. 
in  1894,  after  having  left  the  stage  for  a  time, 
she  resumed  her  career  as  a  star,  and  afterward 
was  for  a  while  leading  woman  with  Sol  Smith 
Russell. 

ARCHER,  Branch  T.  (1790-1856).  A  Texas 
patriot.  He  was  born  in  Virginia,  where  in  early 
life  he  practiced  medicine.  In  1831  he  went  to 
Texas,  took  part  in  the  Revolution,  and  in  1835 
presided  over  the  "consultation'  called  by  the 
American  settlers  to  consider  the  subject  of 
independence.  During  the  same  year  he  was  one 
of  the  three  commissioners  sent  to  VA'ashington  to 
solicit  aid  from  the  United  States.  In  1836  he 
was  speaker  of  the  Texas  House  of  Representa- 
tives, and  from  1839-42  was  secretary  of  war 
for  the  new  Repul>lic. 

ARCHER,  Frederic  ( 1838-1901 ) .  An  Ameri- 
can organist,  born  at  Oxford,  England.  He 
studied  nuisic  in  London  and  Leipzig,  and  held 
musical  positions  in  England  and  Scotland  until 
1880,  when  he  was  appointed  organist  of  Pl\nn- 
outh  Church,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  Afterward  he 
became  conductor  of  the  Boston  (ilass. )  Ora- 
torio Society,  director  of  Carnegie  Music  Hall, 
Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  and  in  1899  organist  of  the 
Church  of  the  Ascension,  Pittsburg.  He  founded, 
in  1885.  the  Keynote,  which  for  a  time  he  edited. 
He  published,  besides  numerous  compositions  for 
the  organ,  a  treatise  entitled  The  Organ  and  The 
College  Organist. 

ARCHER,  John  (1741-1810).  He  was  bom 
in  Maryland  and  graduated  at  Princeton  in  1760, 
the  first  man  in  the  United  States  to  receive  the 
degree  of  doctor  of  medicine,  that  degree  coming 
to  him  when  he  graduated  at  the  Philadelphia 
Medical  College  in  1768.  He  was  an  officer  in 
the  army  of  the  Revolution,  a  member  of  the 
JIaryland  General  Assembly, and  a  representative 
in  Congress  from  that  State  for  three  terms, 
1801-07. 

ARCHER,  William  (185(;— ).  An  Eng- 
lish dramatic  critic,  bom  at  Perth,  Scotland. 
He  received  the  degree  of  M.A.  at  Edinburgh 
University  in  1876,  and  was  on  the  staflF  of  tlie 
Edinburgh  Evening  News  from  1875  to  1878. 
He  was  dramatic  critic  of  the  London  Figaro 
from  1879  to  1881  ;  was  called  to  the  bar  at  the 
Middle  Temple  in  1883,  and  succeeded  Dutton 
Cook  as  dramatic  critic  of  the  London  World 
in  1884 — a  position  which  he  still  held  in  1902. 
Among  his  works  ])ertaining  to  tlie  English 
dr.ama  are:  Enqlish  Dramatists  of  To-day 
(1882);  Henry  Irving,  a  study  (1883);  About 
the  Theatre  (1880);  Study  in  the  Psychology 
of  Acting  (1880)  ;  11'.  C.  .Macready,  a  biography 


ARCHER. 


744 


ARCHERY. 


(1890).  Since  1893  he  has  published  a  year- 
book of  dramatic  criticisms,  made  up  of  his 
contributions  to  the  World,  usually  under  the 
title,  The  Theatrical  World.  Archer  has  gained 
wide  recognition  for  his  translations  of  Ibsen's 
dramas  and  his  attempts  to  popularize  them 
on  the  English  stage.  His  translation  of  The 
Doll's  Bouse  was  performed  at  the  Novelty 
Theatre,  London,  June  7,  1889,  and  in  1890-91 
appeared  Ibsen's  Prose  Dramas,  in  five  volimies. 
He  also  translated  from  the  Norwegian  Kiel- 
land's  beautiful  Tales  of  Two  Countries  (1891), 
and  from  the  Danish  a  large  part  of  Georg 
Brandes's  iri7/ia»)!  Shakespeare  (1898).  He 
visited  the  United  States  in  1899  to  study  the 
dramatic  situation  here.  His  America  To-day 
appeared  in  1900. 

ARCH'ER-FISH .  Any  of  the  small  spiny- 
rayed  East  Indian  fishes  of  the  family  To.xo- 
tidie.  They  are  said  to  eject  from  their  mouths 
drops  of  water  aimed  at  insects.  These,  when 
the  aim  is  good,  fall  to  the  water  and  are  seized 
as  prey  by  the  fish.  Specifically,  the  name  is 
applied  to  Toxotes  jaeulator,  which,  because  of 
this  interesting  habit,  is  often  kept  in  house 
aquaria  in  the  East. 

ARCH'ERY  (O.  F.  areherie,  from  Low  Lat. 
arcarius,  bowman,  from  Lat.  arctis,  bow).  The 
use  of  the  bow  and  arrow  is  still  practiced  by 
enthusiasts  as  a  means  for  the  capture  and 
destruction  of  game;  but  its  main  use  to-day, 
e.xcept  in  a  few  remote  nations,  is  as  a  recrea- 
tion and  healthful  exercise.  The  use  of  the 
bow  and  arrow  is  coeval  with  man's  authentic 
history;  thus  Ishniael  "dwelt  in  the  wilderness 
of  Paran  and  became  an  archer"  (Gen.  xxi. 
20).  The  archery  of  Jonathan  is  specifically 
referred  to  in  Holy  Writ,  and  .Josephus,  the 
.Jewish  historian,  alleges  that  the  bow  was  con- 
sidered the  most  efficient  weapon  of  the  Jews. 
It  was  deadly  in  the  hands  of  their  conquerors, 
the  Babylonians,  who  have  left  many  sculptured 
memorials  of  their  prowess  with  it.  It  is  not 
surprising,  therefore,  to  fiiid  that  their  near 
neighbors,  the  Persians,  cultivated  its  practice, 
or  that  the  vScythians  carried  the  lesson  of  its 
value  to  the  Greeks,  from  whom  it  passed,  with 
the  empire  of  the  world,  to  tlie  Romans.  These, 
in  their  turn,  were  vanquished  by  the  superior 
skill  of  the  archers  of  the  Goths,  Huns,  and 
Vandals. 

Both  as  a  weapon  of  the  chase  and  for 
military  purposes,  the  how  was  for  centuries  most 
formidable  in  the  hands  of  the  English.  With 
the  long-bow  they  decided  the  fate  of  nations, 
a?  at  Crcoy  (l.'54fl)  and  Poitiers  (l^i'M)  and 
Agincourt  (1415).  The  skill  of  their  hunters  and 
the  wonderful  feats  of  their  arcliers  have  come  • 
down  to  us  from  many  sources.  Especially  are 
the  ballads  rich  in  incidents  of  their  prowess. 
One  old  black-letter  ballad,  reprinted  in  Percy's 
lleliques,  tells  of  "Three  Archers,"  one  of  whom, 
shooting  before  the  King,  si)lit  a  wand  in  two 
at  a  distance  of  four  hundred  yards:  and  then, 
not  satisfied  with  this  example,  tied  his  eldest 
son,  a  lad  of  seven  years  of  age,  to  a  stake  one 
hundred  and  twenty  yards  off,  and  cleft  an  apple 
placed  on  his  head. 

In  a  treatise  on  martial  discipline,  by  Ralph 
Smithe,  written  in  the  time  of  Elizabetli,  we  have 
a  picture  of  the  English  archer:  "Captens  and 
officers  should  be  skillful  of  that  most  noble 
weapon    the    long-bow;    and    to    see    that    their 


soldiers,  according  to  their  draught  and  strength, 
have  good  bowes.  well  nocked,  well  strynged, 
everie  strynge-wliippe  in  their  nocke,  and  in  the 
niiddes  rubbed  with  wax  braser,  and  shutting- 
glove,  soniQ  spare  strynges  trymed  as  aforesaid; 
every  man  one  shefe  of  arrows,  with  a  case  of 
leather  defensible  against  the  rayne,  and  in  the 
same  four-and-twenty  arrowes,  whereof  eight 
of  them  should  be  lighter  than  the  residue,  to 
gall  or  astoyne  the  eneniye  with  the  hailshot  of 
light  arrowes  before  tliey  shall  come  within  the 
danger  of  their  harquebus  shot.  Let  every  man 
have  a  l)rigandine  or  a  little  coat  of  plate,  a 
skull  or  huflcyn,  a  maule  of  leade  of  five  foote 
in  lengthe,  and  a  jiike,  and  the  same  hanging  by 
liis  girdle  with  a  hook  and  a  dagger." 

In  (^ueen  Elizabeth's  reign  the  practice  of 
archery  ceased  to  be  a  national  necessity;  yet 
she  was  able  to  ofl'er  Charles  IX.  of  France 
0000  men,  one-half  of  whom  should  be  archers; 
and  shortly  before  the  beginning  of  her  reign  the 
celebrated  scholar,  Roger  Ascham,  who  was  a 
lover  of  all  kinds  of  sport,  wrote  the  classic  work 
on  archery,  Toxophilus,  or  the  Schole  of  Shoot- 
inij,  in  1.145,  in  which  he  gave  minute  directions 
on  attitude  and  the  manner  of  drawing  the  bow. 
It  is  a  very  practical  book;  indeed,  one  i)oint  he 
makes  is  worth  transcribing  even  to-day.  Young 
archers,  he  says,  generally  fall  into  tlie  fault  of 
fixing  the  eye  on  the  end  of  the  arrow  rather 
than  on  the  mark.  To  obviate  this  evil  he  ad- 
vises them  to  shoot  in  the  dark  by  night  at 
lights  set  up  at  their  proper  distances — a  very 
shrewd  bit  of  advice. 

England  had  not  a  monopoly  of  skill  in  arch- 
ery: even  in  the  Middle  Ages  the  Egj-ptians, 
-■\rab3,  and  Turks  ran  them  close.  Baumgarten, 
indeed,  relates  that  he  saw  00,000  Mamelukes 
asseniljled  in  a  spacious  plain,  who  exhibited  al- 
most incredible  agility  in  shooting  on  horse- 
back, shooting  arrows  while  in  full  career,  and 
mounting  and  remounting  on  either  side  of  their 
horses  and  shooting  time  and  again,  yet  seldom 
or  never  missing  their  mark.  He  even  asserts 
that  horsemen  shot  while  guiding  two  horses,  one 
under  either  foot,  as  men  ride  in  a  circus,  and 
their  arrows  found  their  mark. 

So  universal,  indeed,  was  the  skill  in  arch- 
ery before  the  advent  of  gunpowder  that  no 
coimtry  has  been  discovered  in  which  it  was  not 
the  chief  reliance  of  the  natives  in  the  chase  and 
war.  Vasco  da  Gama  found  it  in  the  East 
Indies  and  Columbus  in  the  West.  The  Amazons 
of  South  America  opposed  the  invading  Span- 
iards with  it.  It  was  found  by  Cabral  in  Brazil, 
and  in  the  uttermost  solitudes  of  the  Arctic 
regions  it  was  in  use  among  the  Eskimos. 
Even  to-day  the  pigmy  Bosjemen,  in  the  far  in- 
terior of  .Africa,  bring  the  mightiest  of  game  to 
earth  with  their  poison-tipped  arrows:  a  very 
ancient  and  widespread  practice  to  which  Justin 
bears  witness  in  the  time  of  Alexander,  and 
Pliny  among  the  Gauls,  as  well  as  Vergil  and 
numerous  other  classical  chroniclers. 

But  the  introduction  of  gunpowder  gradually 
put  an  end  to  the  vise  of  the  bow  and  arrow, 
notwitlistanding  valiant  efforts  to  maintain  the 
ancient  traditions.  The  Rolls  of  Parliament  are 
full  of  indications  of  the  gradu.al  falling  off  of 
the  voluntary  practice  of  archery  at  the  town 
butts.  It  was  almost  unheard  of  \intil  it  came 
into  new  life  in  London  in  the  year  1700  as  an 
exercise  conducive  to  the  improvement  of  health, 


ARCHERY.  7 

and  as  such  it  iiiet  with  a  very  favoral)le  recep- 
tion— so  nuicli  so  tliat  liy  1781  tlie  Royal  Tox- 
ojihilite  Society  was  formed.  Tlie  almost  con- 
tinuoxis  wars  in , which  Great  Britain  for  the 
next  thirty  years  was  involved  put  a  limit  to 
it;  l)ut  after  the  peace  of  1813  archery  gradually 
assiuned  a  stronger  position,  attested  even  to  this 
day  by  numerous  societies,  popular  gatherings, 
and  contests.  .Modern  practice  in  archery  is 
mainly  confined  to  shooting  at  targets,  althougli 
a  few  sportsmen  use  it  for  still  hunting.  The 
modern  targets  are  set  at  various  ranges,  and 
the  concentric  rings  of  gold  (in  the  centre),  red, 
blue,  and  l)hick  and  white  have  a  value  in  count- 
ing of  9,  7,  5,  3,  and  1,  respectively.  In  America 
there  are  annual  competitions  of  the  National 
Archery  Association,  and  other  annual  contests 
by  the  Potomac  Archery  Association  and  the 
Eastern  Archery  Association.  In  these  there 
are  contests  in  "double  natioiuil  rounds"  of 
86  arrous  at  60  j'ards  and  48  arrows  at  50 
yards;  ''Double  Columbia  rounds"  of  48  arrows 
at  50  yards,  48  arrows 'at  40  yards,  and  48  ar- 
rows at  30  yards;  "Double  York  rounds"  of  144 
arrows  at  100  yards,  IKi  arrows  at  80  yards, 
and  48  arrows  at  60  yards:  "Double  American 
rounds"  of  (iO  arrows  at  tiO  yards,  (iO  arrows  at 
50  yards,  and  00  arrows  at  40  yards;  "Potontac 
rounds"  of  24  arrows  at  80  yards,  24  arrows  at 
70  yards,  and  24  arrows  at  60  yards;  as  well 
as  competitions  for  the  longest  Hight  and  team 
competitions  of  96  arrows  at  60  yards  for  men 
and  96  arrows  at  50  yards  for  women. 

The  cross-bow,  or  arbalest,  was  shorter  than 
the  long  bow.  It  was  mounted  on  a  stock,  and 
discharged  by  means  of  a  catcli  or  trigger.  This 
form  of  arcliery  was  cliielly  used  by  the  Englisli 
at  the  sieges  of  fortified  pl.aces  and  in  naval 
battles.  L'ltimatelv  its  use  was,  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  VII.  ( 1485-1509  ) .  forbidden  by  law,  but 
continued  intermittently  for  a  long  time. 

Consult:  Roger  Ascham,  Toxophihis,  or  the 
Schole  of  Hlwoting  (London,  1868)  ;  G.  A.  Han- 
sard, The  Bool;  of  Archery  (London,  1840); 
E.  S.  Jlorse,  Archery,  Ancient  and  Modern 
(Worcester,  Mass.,  1792)  ;  T.  Roberts,  The  Eng- 
lish Bowman  (London.  1801);  T.  Waring,  A 
Treatise  nn  Archery    (London,   1828). 

ARCH'ES,  Court  of.  The  court  of  appeal 
of  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  as  metropolitan 
of  the  province.  The  name  is  derived  from  the 
ancient  place  of  sitting,  which  was  in  the  Church 
of  Saint  Mary  of  the  Arches,  now  usually  called 
Bow  Church,  in  London.  The  judge  of  the  Court 
of  Arches  is  styled  the  Official  Principal,  al- 
though he  has  for  several  centuries  received  the 
additional  title  of  Dean  of  the  Arches.  Appeals 
from  judgments  of  this  court  are  heard  before 
the  judicial  committee  of  the  Privy  Council 
(q.v. ).  The  Court  of  Arches  is  empowered  to 
hear  such  suits  as  are  sent  up  to  it  by  letter 
of  request  from  the  consistorial  courts  of  the 
bishops  of  the  Province  of  Canterbury  after  they 
have  issued  commissions  of  inquiry  and  the 
commissioners  have  made  their  report.  The 
Court  of  Arches  is  the  only  ecclesiastical  tribunal 
which  has  authority  to  pass  sentence  of  depriva- 
tion against  a  clerk  in  holy  orders.  Since  1875 
the  judge  of  the  provincial  courts  of  Canterbury 
and  York  has  performed  the  functions  of  official 
principal  of  the  Court  of  Arches,  under  the  Pub- 
lic Worship  Regulation  Act  of  1874. 
Vol.  I.— 19. 


[r,  ARCHIBALD. 

ARCHETYPE,  iir'k.-tj|>  (Gk.  apx^rvTrot. 
(irrhelyi)os:  Lat.  (irchet/iinini,  a  stamp,  die,  or 
model ) .  The  original  design  or  pattern  from 
which  anything  is  made  or  copied.  In  numis- 
matics, an  archetype  is  the  standard  coin  to 
who.se  weight,  shape,  and  design  all  others  of  the 
issue  must  conform.  In  i)aheography,  the  name 
is  applied  to  an  original  manuscriptfrom  which 
a  number  of  others  are  copied,  these  being  then 
described  as  constituting  a  single  'famih'.'  (See 
Textlal  CRiTici.sir.)  In  l>iology,  the  archetype 
is  an  assumed  system  or  structure  (.n  which  any 
group  of  living  organisms,  whether  animal  or 
vegetable,  is  said  to  have  been  made. 

ARCHEVITES,  ar'ke-vlts.  If  the  text  is 
sounil,  the  term  nuist  refer  to  the  people  of 
Erech,  a  city  mentioned  in  Gen.  x.  10,  be- 
tween Babel  and  Accad.  whose  inhabitants  were 
de]iorted  to  Samaria  by  "the  great  and  noble 
Asnappar" — i.e..  Ashurbanipal  (n.c.  668-626)  — 
possibly  because  they  had  united  with  Baby- 
lon in  the  revolt  of  Shamash-shumukin.  as 
Ryle  suggests.  But  it  is  not  imjiossiljle  that  tlie 
text  in  Ezra  iv.  9  has  sullcred  in  transmission, 
and  origiiuilly  read  "who  were  Cutha'ans,"  as  II. 
Kings  xvii.  24  mentions  people  deported  "from 
Babylon  and  from  Cuthah." 

ARCHI- ANNELIDA,  ar'ki-rm-nel'i-da  (Gk. 
apxi-.  (irelti-.  chief,  first,  primitive  +  Xeo-Lat. 
Annelida,  from  Lat.  nnnellus,  anellus,  little 
ring).  A  group  of  small  primitive  marine  worms, 
regarded  by  Parker  and  Haswell  as  a  class,  em- 
bracing only  the  families  Polygcu'diidtie  and  His- 
triodrilida>.  the  latter  minute  egg-devouring 
parasites  of  the  lobster. 

ARCHIAS,  ilr'ki-os  (Gk.  'Apx^aj,  Arehias) , 
Ari.is  LiciNius.  A  Greek  poet,  known  only 
through  tlie  famous  oration  I'ro  Archia  Poeta, 
which  Cicero  delivered  in  his  behalf  in  B.C.  02. 
He  was  born  in  Antioch  and  early  settled  in 
Rome,  where  he  gained  the  patronage  of  the 
prominent  men  of  the  day,  as  Marius  and  Lu- 
cuUus,  by  writing  poems  on  their  warlike  deeds. 
He  had  obtained  citizenship  in  lleraclea,  but  ille- 
gality was  charged,  and  it  was  on  this  accusation 
that  Cicero  defended  him.  The  decision  of  the 
judges  is  not  known. 

ARCHIATER,  iir'kl-iS'ter  (Gk.  dpxiaTpos,ar- 
chialros,  chief  physician,  whence  Ger.  Arzl.  phy- 
sician). A  title  given  by  some  Ronuin  rulers 
to  their  favorite  medical  attendants,  who  were 
usually  Greeks.  The  use  of  the  title  and  the 
office  spread  to  all  large  towns,  and  a  certain 
number  of  doctors  were  selected  as  archiatri, 
with  salaries  and  perquisites,  but  were  required 
to  minister  to  the  poor  without  charge.  They 
also  served  in  the  same  capacity  as  modern 
health  officers.  See  Watson,  The  Medical  Profes- 
sion  in  Ancient  Times    (New  York,   1856). 

ARCH'IBALD,  Sir  Ad.\ms  George  (1814-92). 
A  Canadian  statesnuin.  He  was  a  native  of 
Nova  Scotia,  and  was  twice  chosen  to  the 
Colonial  Legislature,  and  four  years  afterward 
attorney-general.  In  1856  he  was  solicitor-gen- 
eral, and  one  of  the  Liberal  leaders.  He  was 
active  in  bringing  al)out  the  confederation  of  the 
British  Provinces,  and  in  1S07  was  president  of 
the  council  in  the  Cal)inet  foi'med  by  Sir  .John 
Young,  and  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Provinces. 
During  1870-72  he  was  lieutenant-governor  of 
Manitoba,   and  afterward  served   two   terms  as 


AECHIBALD.  7-1:6 

lieutenant-governor  of  Xova  Scotia.  He  was 
knighted  in  1885.  In  1880  he  was  returned  to 
the  Dominion  House  of  Commons. 

ARCHIDAMUS,  ar'kl-da'miis  (Gk.  'Apx'- 
oaMos.  Archidamos)  II.  (  ?-B.c.  427).  A  son  of 
Zcu.\idamus.  and  King  of  Sparta.  He  became 
king  after  the  banishment  of  his  grandfather, 
Leotyehides,  B.C.  469.  In  the  fourth  year  of  his 
reign  Greece  was  shaken  by  a  terrible  earthquake, 
and  Sparta  was  left  a  he'ap  of  ruins.  Archida- 
mus  was  at  that  time  foremost  in  crushing  the 
uprising  of  the  Helots.  Before  the  Peloponnesian 
War,  he  spoke  in  favor  of  arriving  at  a  peace- 
able settlement  of  the  matters  under  dispute.  In 
B.C.  431  he  led  an  army  into  Attica,  and  in  the 
three  following  years  conducted  campaigns.  He 
was  the  father  of  the  famous  Agesilaus. 

Archidamis  III.  (  ?-B.c.  .338),  son  of  Agesi- 
laus and  King  of  Sparta.  He  succeeded  his  father 
in  B.C.  358.  In  B.C.  367  he  defeated  the  Arcadians 
in  the  so-called  "Tearless  Battle."  In  B.C.  362, 
shortly  before  tlie  battle  of  JIantinea.  he  success- 
fully defended  Sparta  against  Epaminondas.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  Sacred  War  he  attacked  the 
Phoeians.  In  B.C.  338  he  led  an  army  to  Italy 
to  aid  the  Tarentines,  and  was  killed  in  battle  on 
the  same  day  on  which  Philip  won  the  battle  of 
Chferonea. 

Archidajius  IV.,  a  grandson  of  Archidamus 
III.,  and  King  of  Sparta.  It  is  not  known  when 
he  came  to  the  throne  or  how  long  he  ruled.  He 
was  king  in  B.C.  294,  for  he  was  defeated  in  bat- 
tle in  that  year  by  Demetrius  Poliorcetes. 

Archidamus  V.,  a  grandson  of  Archidamus 
IV.,  brother  of  Agis  IV.,  and  King  of  Sparta. 
On  the  occasion  of  his  brother's  murder,  he  fled, 
but  subsequently  returned  with  the  object  of 
reestablishing  his  power.  He  was,  however,  al- 
most immediately  slain  by  his  brother's  mur- 
derers, who  feared  his  vengeance.  Arcliidamus 
V.  was  the  last  king  of  the  Eurypontid  line. 

ARCHIDAMUS.  A  Bohemian  lord  in  Shake- 
speare's A  ^yinter's  Talc,  appearing  only  in  Act 
i.,  Scene  1. 

ABCHIL,  iir'kll  (of  uncertain  origin),  or 
ORCHIL,  (-.r'kil  (Orseille).  A  coloring  sub- 
stance obtained  from  various  species  of  lichens. 
The  archil  is  not  originally  present  in  the  lichens, 
but  is  developed  by  the  following  treatment;  The 
lichens,  collected  "from  rocks  near  the  sea,  are 
ground  into  a  pulp  with  water  and  diluted  am- 
monia is  added;  certain  colorless  acids  (erythric 
acid,  etc.)  contained  in  the  lichens  gradually 
change,  under  this  ti-eatment,  into  a  purple  sub- 
stance, orcein,  which  is  the  coloring  principle  of 
archil.  (If  in  tlie  same  process,  the  carbonate  of 
sodium  or  of  potassium  is  added  to  the  pulp, 
ordinarv  litmus  is  produced  in  place  of  orcein.) 
Archil  'is  used  in  the  dyeing  of  silks  and  of 
woolen  cloth  where  a  beautiful  brown  color  is  re- 
quired; but  though  a  brilliant  rich  hue  is  im- 
parted to  the  fabric,  the  color  is  not  permanent, 
being  easilv  acted  upon  by  the  rays  of  the  sun. 
Hence  archil  is  seldom  used  by  itself:  the  fabric 
is  first  dyed  by  another  coloring  matter,  nnd 
then  archil  is  applied  to  impart  to  it  a  brilliant 
lustre. 

Archil  imparts  a  beautiful  and  durable  violet 
color  to  marble.  It  has  also  been  used  in  coloring 
wiii^s.  It  is  brought  into  the  market  in  three 
diffeient  forms.     The  name  archil  is  commonly 


ARCHIMAGE. 


applied  to  the  ordinary  pasty  form.  'VMien 
ottered  in  the  form  of  a  dry  mass  it  is  called 
persis,  while  powdered  arcliil  is  known  as  cud- 
bear. Tlie  lichens  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
archil  grow  on  tlie  rocky  coasts  of  South  America, 
Madagascar,  Zanzibar,  the  Canary  Isles,  and  a 
number  of  other  places.  They  belong  principally 
to  the  genus  Roccella.  Tliey  are  sometimes  called 
orcliel  la-weed,  or  dyer's  moss. 

ABCHILOCHTJS,  iir-kil'o-kus  (Gk.'Ap,r'Ao,i'Of, 
Archilochos).  A  native  of  the  island  of  Paros, 
who  flourislied  in  the  Seventh  Century  B.C.,  and  is 
regarded  as  the  first  of  the  Greek  lyric  poets, 
although  the  origin  of  the  elegy  is  claimed  by 
Callinus,  a  writer  whose  age  seems  to  liave 
sliglitly  preceded  that  of  Archiloehus.  Glimiises 
of  Ills  life,  especially  of  the  calamities  which  be- 
fell him,  were  freqiiently  given  in  his  writings. 
His  father's  name  was  Telesicles;  his  mother  was 
a  slave  called  Enipo.  At  an  early  age,  becoming 
entangled  in  political  contests,  he  abandoned  his 
native  town  and  led  a  jolony  of  its  citizens  to 
Thasos,  in  650  or  640  B.C.  While  here,  as  lie  in- 
forms us  in  some  extant  verses,  he  lost  his  shield 
in  a  liattle  against  the  Thracians,  yet  not 
through  cowardice.  Subsequently  he  was  ban- 
ished from  Sparta,  to  which  he  had  gone,  some 
say  liecause  he  had  vindicated  his  conduct  in 
running  away  from  the  fight,  others,  because  of 
the  license  of  his  verses.  He  is  said  to  have 
gained  the  laurel-wreath  at  the  Olympic  games 
by  an  ode  in  lionor  of  Hercules,  but  this  is 
doubtful.  Having  returned  to  Paros,  he  took 
part  in  the  war  which  broke  out  between  it  and 
Xaxus.  in  the  course  of  which  he  lost  his  life. 
The  Delphian  oracle  pronounced  a  curse  upon 
his  slayer.  Variety,  novelty,  and  satirical  bit- 
terness characterized  his  lyric  poems ;  so  much 
so  that  "Archilochian  bitterness"  and  "Parian 
verse"  became  bywords  in  ancient  times.  He 
scourged  his  enemies  in  tlie  most  merciless 
fashion,  and  always  displayed  the  most  malicious 
skill  in  selecting  for  his  sarcasm  the  points  on 
which  they  were  most  sensitive.  It  is  said  that 
I.ycambes,  who  had  promised  his  daughter  Neo- 
biile  in  marriage  to  Archiloehus,  having  failed 
to  fulfill  his  promise,  was  so  severely  satirized 
by  the  poet  that,  to  escape  ridicule,  both  father 
and  daughter  hanged  themselves.  Among  the 
ancients.  Archiloehus  was  ranked  with  Homer. 
They  dedicated  the  statues  of  both  on  the  same 
day,  and  placed  tlie  head  of  Archiloehus  beside 
that  of  Homer  on  tlie  same  herni.  As  Homer  was 
the  creator  of  epic  poetry,  so  Archiloehus  was 
regarded  as  the  inventor  of  the  ]ioetry  of  the 
passions  and  of  biting  raillery,  and  he  became 
the  model  for  the  Old  Athenian  Comedy  and  for 
later  poets — e.g.,  for  Horace  in  his  earlier 
period.  He  is  said  to  have  invented  many 
new  metrical  forms,  Init  his  fame  and  inlhience 
were  due  primarily  to  his  native  genius.  Only 
bare  fragments  of  liis  compositions  remain:  ed- 
ited by  Bergk,  for  tic  Li/rici  (Jrcrei  (Leipzig, 
1882)  ;"  Eeitzenstein.  "Zwei  neue  Fragmente  der 
Epoden  des  Archilochos,"  in  Sitzunn^berichle  der 
prcii.ssisehcn  Aliulrniie  der  ^yissen!iclutf^en  (Ber- 
lin, 1899) . 

ARCHIMAGE,  ar'kim;-ij.  (I)  The  foul 
magician  who.  in  Spenser's  Faerie  Queene,  as- 
sumes the  guise  of  the  Red  Cross  Knight,  and 
thereby  entices  Una  from  her  search.  He  stands, 
in  tlie'  allegory,  for  the  personification  of  False- 


ARCHIMAGE. 


747 


ARCHIMEDES'  SCREW. 


hood.      (2)    Tlie  jiorsmiilicatioii  of  Indolence  in 
Thomson,  Cunllc  of  Indnlcncc  (1748). 

ARCHIMANDRITE,  ar'kiman'drlt  (Late 
Ck.  (2/3,\7/iai't5p/V;/^',  archimandritf's,  from  Gk.  api[i-, 
archi-,  fhiet'  +  fiuviSpa,  mandni.  a  fold,  i.e.,  a 
convent).  The  title  of  the  highest  order  of 
superiors  of  convents  in  the  tJrcck  Church,  cor- 
responding to  abbot  (<i.v. )  in  the  Latin  C'hurcli ; 
except  tliat,  strictly  speaking,  an  arcliimandrite 
presides  over  several  monasteries,  whereas  the 
litfliimcnos  was  over  onlj-  one,  and  so  the  latter 
was  nearer  to  an  ordinary  abbot.  Tlie  Russian 
bishops  are  chosen  from  among  the  archiman- 
.   drites. 

ARCHIMEDEAN  MIR'ROR,  ar'ki-me-de'un. 
See  iliiiiiOK. 

ARCHIMEDES,  iir'ki-me'dez  (from  Arclii- 
iiicdes'  Scrcir :  see  below).  A  genus  of  fossil 
Hryozoa  of  the  family  Fenestellida?,  common  in 
some  so-called  '"Archimedes  Limestones"  of  the 
early  Carboniferous  age  in  the  Mississippi  Valley 
and  in  some  of  the  southwestern  States.  The 
minute  animals  of  this  genus  dwelt  in  colonies  at- 
tached to  the  ocean  floor,  and  secreted  acalcareous 
framework  of  spiral  form,  the  a.\is  of  which  re- 
sembles llu>  Arehiiuodes"  screw  (q.v.) .  Continuing 
the  comparison — the  thread  of  the  screw  is  pro- 
duced as  a  reticulated  expansion,  upon  the  ujiper 
surface  of  wliich  are  situated  the  cells  that 
served  as  dwelling-places  for  the  individuals. 
The  cell-bearing  portion  of  the  colony  is  seldom 
found  connected  with  the  spiral  axis,  having,  by 
reason  of  its  delicacy,  been  usually  broken  off  by 
the  action  of  the  waves.  Some  nearly  complete 
examples  have  l)een  found  in  the  .soft  shales  of 
tlie  Keokuk  group  at  Crawfordsville,  Ind. 
See  also  Bryozo.\ ;  CARnoNiFEROus  System;  and 
for  illustration,  see  plate  PoLyzoA. 

ARCHIMEDES  (Gk.  'Apx'MiiS))!.  Archimedes) 
(B.C.  287-212).  A  tireek  geometrician  and 
mechanician,  the  greatest  mathematician  of  an- 
tiquity. He  was  bom  in  the  State  of  Syracuse,  in 
the  Island  of  Sicily.  He  studied  probably  under 
(.'onon  at  the  University  of  Alexandria,  sjjcnding 
the  major  part  of  his  life  in  Sicily.  He  was 
killed  in  the  sack  of  Syracuse.  The  most  im- 
portant among  his  extant  worlcs  include  three  on 
plane  geometry,  three  on  solid  geometry,  one  on 
arithmetic,  and  three  on  mechanics.  In  the 
treatise  on  the  measurement  of  the  circle,  the 
value  of  If  is  given  as  a  number  less  than  SI 
and  greater  than  3'".  He  also  gave  formiilas 
for  tlie  area  of  the  circle  and  the  ellipse,  and  for 
the  sector  of  a  sjiiral  whose  equation  is  r  =  c0. 
His  demonstration  that  the  area  of  a  segment  of 
a  ])arabola  is  two-thirds  that  of  the  inclosing 
parallelogram  is  the  first  real  example  of  the 
quadrature  (q.v.)  of  a  curvilinear  surface.  His 
method  of  exhaustion  is  suggestive  of  tlie  modern 
methods  of  calculus.  In  the  works  on  solid 
geometry  are  treated  the  volumes  of  spheroids 
and  conoids.  His  aritlimetical  work,  known  by 
its  L.atin  title,  AiTiiaiius  (sand-reckoner),  con- 
tains his  famous  attempt  to  express  tlie  amount  of 
sand  required  to  fill  the  universe.  Tliis  work  has 
given  rise  to  tlie  conjecture  that  Archimedes 
invented  a  new  and  powerful  system  of  notation, 
all  knowledge  of  which  perished  with  the  work 
itself.  Besides  his  work  in  pure  mathematics, 
Archimedes  also  made  valuable  contributions  to 
applied  mathematics,  including  applications  of 
geometry  to  tlie  theory  of  machines,  as  levers, 


pulleys,  and  screws.  He  also  improved  the 
methods  iif  lindiiig  centres  of  gravity.  In  accord- 
ance witli  a  wish  of  Archimedes,  Jlarcellus  rai.sed 
in  his  honor  a  tomb,  on  which  was  engraved  a 
sphere  inscribed  in  a  cylinder.  Cicero,  in  his 
Tuscan  Uisputations,  gives  a  charming  account 
of  his  discover}^  of  the  tomb  in  B.C.  75.  The  most 
noted  editions  of  Archimedes'  works  are  those  of 
.1.  Torelli  (Oxford.  1792)  :  .T.  L.  Hciberg  (Leipzig, 
1881)  ;  and  T.  L.  Heath    (Caiiil)ridge,  1897). 

ARCHIMEDES'  SCREW  (called  also  Spirai, 
Pump).  A  machine  for  raising  water,  said  to 
liave  been  invented  by  Archimedes,  during  liis 
stay  in  Egypt,  for  draining  and  irrigating  the 
land.  Its  simplest  form  consists  of  a  llexible 
tube  bent  spirally  round  a  solid  cylinder,  the 
ends  of  which  are  furnished  with  pivots,  so  as  to 
admit  of  the  whole  turning  round  its  axis,  as  is 
shown  in  Fig.  I.  The  machine  is  placed  in  an 
inclined  position,  so  that  the  lower  mouth  of  the 
tube  may  dip  below  the  surface  of  the  water  to 
be  raised.  The  lowest  bend  of  the  tube  will  be 
tilled  Avith  water,  and  if  now  the  handle  be  made 
to  turn  in  the  direction  of  the  hands  of  a  watch, 
tlie  mouth  of  the  spiral  tul)e  will  be  raised  above 
tlie  surface ;  and  the  water  inclosed  in  the  tube, 
having  no  means  of  escape,  will  flow  within  it 
until,  after  one  revolution,  it  will  occupy  the 
second    bend.      The    first    bend    has    meanwhile 


Fio.  I. 


Fig.  II. 

received  a  second  charge,  which,  after  a  second 
revolution,  flows  up  into  the  second  bend,  and 
takes  the  place  of  the  first  charge,  which  has  now- 
moved  up  to  the  third  bend.  When,  therefore,  as 
many  revolutions  of  the  cylinder  have  been  made 
as  there  are  turns  in  the  spiral  tube,  each  of  the 
lower  bends  will  be  filled  with  water;  and  in 
the  course  of  another  revolution,  there  being  no 
higher  bend  for  the  water  of  the  first  charge  to 
occupy,  it  will  flow  out  of  the  tube  by  its  upper 
mouth.  At  each  succeeding  revolution,  the 
lowest  bend  will  be  charged,  and  the  highest  dis- 
charged. It  will  be  seen  that  there  may  be  room 
to  dispose  a  second  tube  side  by  side  with  the 


ARCHIMEDES'  SCREW. 


748 


ARCHITECTURE. 


first,  round  the  i-ylinder.  in  wliich  ease  the  serew 
would  he  called  double-threaded.  In  the  ordinary 
construction  of  these  niaohines,  the  cylinder 
itself  is  hollowed  out  into  a  double  or  triple- 
threaded  screw,  and  inclosed  in  a  water-tight 
case,  which  turns  round  with  it,  the  space  be- 
tween the  threads  supplying  the  place  of  tubes. 
It  is  sometimes  found  convenient  to  fix  the 
exterior  envelope,  and  to  make  the  screw  work 
within  it,  the  outer  edge  of  the  latter  being  as 
close  as  possible  to  the  former  without  actual 
contact,  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  2.  This  modifica- 
tion of  the  Archimedes'  Screw  receives  the  name 
of  'water-screw,'  and  frequently  of  'Dutch  screw,' 
from  its  use  in  Holland  for  draining  low  grounds. 

ARCHIMEDES,  The  Principle  of.  One  of 
the  most  important  principles  in  the  science  of 
hydrostatics,  so  called  because  the  discovery  of  it 
is  generally  ascribed  to  the  Syracusan  philoso- 
pher. It  may  be  thus  stated:  A  body,  when 
entirely  surrounded  by  a  fluid,  is  buoyed  up  by  a 
force  equal  to  the  weight  of  the  fluid  it  displaces. 
Tliis  is  an  inunediate  consequence  of  the  princi- 
ples of  fluid  pressure,  which  prove  also  that  the 
line  of  action  of  tlie  upward  force  is  vertically 
through  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  displaced 
fluid.  When  bodies  lighter  than  water  are 
wholly  immersed  in  it,  they  displace  an  amount 
of  water  of  greater  weight  tlum  their  own,  so 
that  if  left  free  to  adjust  themselves,  they  rise 
to  the  surface  and  float,  only  as  much  of  their 
bulk  being  submerged  as  will  displace  a  quantity 
of  water  weighing  the  same  as  themselves.  Ac- 
cordingly, while  bodies  heavier  than  water  dis- 
place, when  put  into  it,  their  own  volume,  bodies 
lighter  than  water  displace,  when  allowed  to 
iioat  on  the  surface,  their  own  weight  of  the 
fluid.  Bodies  of  the  same  density  as  water,  ac- 
cording to  the  [)rinciple  of  Archimedes,  have  no 
tendency  to  rise  or  sink  in  it,  for  the  water  dis- 
placed by  them  weighs  precisely  the  same  as  they 
do.  Siniilar  statements  may  be  made  with  re- 
spect to  bodies  surrounded  by  other  liquids  or  by 
gases — e.g.,  the  atmospheric  air.  The  buoyancy 
of  balloons  is  an  illustration  of  the  principle  of 
Arcliimedes  as  applied  to  the  atmosphere.  See 
Hydrostatics. 

ARCHIPELAGO,  iir'kl-pel'a-go  (Gk,  npf*- 
■kDmi'oc,  archipeUirios,  chief  sea,  originally  the 
.ligean  Sea,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  other 
smaller  Grecian  waters;  from  apxi-,  archi-,  chief 
+  -n-e'Aayo^,  pclagos,  sea).  A  term  now  applied 
to  any  definite  sheet  of  water  interspei'sed  with 
many  islands,  but  formerly  restricted  to  the 
-•Egean  .Sea  (with  its  islands),  which  lies  between 
(Jreece  and  Asia  Minor.  The  islands  are  usually 
divided  into  two  groups,  the  Cyclades  and  the 
Sporades.  Of  the  former  group  Delos,  Lyra, 
Oythnos,  Thera,  Andros,  and  Melos  are  more 
prominent ;  of  the  Sporades,  which  belong  to 
Turkey,  Rhodes,  Cos,  Patmos,  Samos.  and 
l.einnos  are  the  more  signiilicant.  They  are  of 
volcanic  origin,  have  a  healthful  climate  and 
beautiful  scenery.  These  islands  have  played  a 
great  part  in  the  course  of  Greek  history,  giving 
to  the  world  poets  and  philosophers.  For  a 
more  detailed  description,  see  Cycl.vdes  ;  Spo- 
BADF.s :   and  inrlividual  islands. 

ARCHITECTS,  iir'kl-tekts,  American  In- 
stitute OF.  A  societv  established  in  18.57.  In 
1900  it  had  20  chapters,  41(!  fellows,  116  associ- 
ate members,  and  .54  honorary  members. 


ARCHITECTURE,  ar'ki-tcktfir  (Lat.  archi- 
tectura,  Gk.  apxircurovia,  architektonia,  from 
ap^i-,  (irchi-,  chief  -+-  tsk-uv,  teuton,  worker  in 
wood;  carpenter,  craftsman).  In  its  widest 
sense  this  term  includes  any  kind  of  construction, 
such  as  works  of  military  and  naval  architec- 
ture and  civil  engineering;  but  strictly  speak- 
ing it  is  building  raised  by  certain  iJesthetic  qual- 
ities to  the  rank  of  art,  as  distinguished  from 
purely  utilitarian  or  mechanical  building.  Its 
name  shows  tliat  it  was  regarded  by  the  ancients 
as  the  chief  art,  comprising  all  others,  the  archi- 
tect being  director  of  works,  and  responsible  for 
whatever  sculpture  and  painting  was  used  in 
connection  with  .the  building.  This  ancient  tra- 
dition ruled  throughout  the  Middle  Ages,  and 
it  was  not  until  the  Renaissance  in  the  Fifteenth 
Century  that  architecture  lost  its  right  to  govern 
the  other  arts.  Because  architecture  had  this 
character  of  the  most  universal  art,  using  sculp- 
ture and  painting  in  subordination,  the  forma- 
tion of  what  we  call  an  architectural  st.yle — like 
the  Greek  or  the  Gothic  style — was  a  complex 
and  gradual  process.  For  architecture,  being  one 
of  the  earliest  and  most  constant  expressions  of 
civilization,  is  not  the  artificial  product  of  the 
free  conception  of  a  few  artists,  but  is  funda- 
mentally affected,  on  the  one  side  by  the  religious 
and  social  elements  of  society,  who.se  demands  it 
must  meet,  and  on  the  other  by  the  material 
elements  such  as  the  influences  of  climate,  of 
materials  of  construction  and  decora,tion,  which 
limit  or  in  certain  directions  stimulate  artistic 
originality.  So  that  in  every  age,  architecture 
is  a  faithful  mirror  of  contemporary  soeiet.y,  and 
at  once  the  most  material  and  the  most  ideal  of 
the  fine  arts. 

Egypt.  In  respect  to  historic  development, 
EgA^pt  and  Babylonia — the  valleys  of  the  Nile, 
and  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates — are  rivals  for 
seniority  in  the  field,  which  they  seem  to  have 
held  alone  for  one  or  more  thousand  years,  while 
the  rest  of  the  world  went  without  architecture. 
It  is  true  that  the  early  monuments  of  Egj'pt 
between  c. 50(11)  and  2500  n.c.  are  works  of  mere 
building  rather  than  of  art.  The  pre-pyramidal 
tombs ;  the  pyramids  themselves :  the  primitive 
chapels  or  temples  connected  with  them  (such  as 
the  "Temple  of  the  Sphinx")  :  the  early  nuistaba- 
tomI)s  and  all  other  works  of  the  Ancient  Em- 
pire, have  few  truly  architectural  features.  The 
pyramids  are  a  mere  mass  of  material;  the 
tentples  and  tombs,  even  when  supported  by  piers, 
have  no  moldings,  decorations,  or  details  that 
indicate  style.  It  is  only  in  the  iliddle  Empire 
(c.2,500)  tiiat  the  type  of  columnar  temple  was 
evolved,  which  became  the  glory  of  Egj-pt,  and 
that  tombs  were  made — as  at  Beni-Hassan 
(see  article  on  Tomb) — where  there  were 
columns  and  other  features  with  a  distinct  artis- 
tic character — such  as  the  'Doric'  type  and  the 
clustered-palm  type.  The  destructive  invasion 
of  the  Shepherd  Kings  has  forever  obscured  this 
second  stage  of  Egyptian  architecture,  and  for  a 
knowledge  of  its  possibilities  the  Golden  Age  is 
that  of  the  \ew  Empire,  especially  between  c. 
1600  and  1400.  supplemented  l)y  the  much  later 
constructions  of  the  Ptolemaic  Age,  almost  equal- 
ly magnificent.  Some  of  the  temples  were  entirely 
excavated  in  the  rock,  like  those  at  Ahu-Simbel 
(q.v.  for  illustration)  ;  others  were  partly  exca- 
vated, partly  structural,  as  at  Deir-el-Bahari ; 
but  the  great  majority  were  built  entirely  in  the 


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ARCHITECTURE. 


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ARCHITECTURE. 


open  aiul  of  stone  masonry.  A  few  are  sepnl- 
clirnl  temples,  sueli  as  the  Raniessenni  (q.v.)  of 
Ranieses  II.  at  5Ieclinet  Habu.  liut  with  these 
exceptions  they  are  purely  temples  to  the  gods. 
Each  temple  of  tl.e  usual  type  was  approached 
through  a  long  avenue  of  sphinxes  or  statues, 
vas  preceded  by  an  immense  facade  of  pylons 
connected  with  an  encircling  wall,  with  an  open 
columnar  court,  at  the  opposite  end  of  which 
was  a  hall  of  columns  forming  the  prelude  to  the 
dark  inner  sanctuary.  This  is  undoubtedly  the 
earliest  conception  of  a  large  columnar  interior 
in  architectural  liistory,  and  though  its  propor- 
tions may  be  heavy,  the  composition  was  artistic 
and  imposing,  and  both  .sculpture  and  color  were 
used  with  architectural  details  to  enhance  the 
etTect.  Karnak,  Luxor,  Edfu,  and  Philje  are  the 
master])ieees  over  a  period  of  some  fifteen 
hundred  years  (for  illustrations  of  Edfu  and 
Luxor,  see  those  titles).  Xo  vaults,  arches,  or 
piers  were  used  in  any  part  of  tliis  architecture 
— only  the  straiglit  lintel  and  column.  The  heavy 
columns,  of  so  many  forms  as  to  rebel  at  any 
classification  by  orders,  were  placed  very  close 
together,  so  that  the  eliect  was  not  one  of 
spaciousness. 

Babyloma  axd  Assyria.  Babylonian  archi- 
tecture is  less  known,  but  there  is  enough  infor- 
mation about  it  to  show  that  it  reached  its  full 
development  as  an  art  long  before  the  Eg^y-ptian, 
and  that  while  the  latter  remained  isolated, 
Babylonia  stood  at  the  head  of  a  long  architec- 
tural genealogy:  for  Elam  and  Assyria  literally 
copied  it;  Persia,  the  Ilittites,  and  Phceniciana 
and  other  nations  borrowed  from  it.  and  its 
induence  was  felt  even  to  China  and  India.  There 
could  be  no  sharper  contrast  than  tliat  wliich 
exists  between  these  two  primitive  architectures. 
In  Babylonia  vaults  and  arches  were  used  in  place 
of  straight  lintels  and  flat  ceilings,  and  there 
were  no  long  lines  of  eolunnis,  and  consequently 
no  larger  interiors  than  could  be  secured  by  the 
span  of  a  single  dome  or  tunnel  vault;  brick  was 
used  in  place  of  stone,  thus  increasing  the  heavi- 
ness of  walls  and  proportions.  The  Babylonian 
style  appears  to  have  existed  at  least  (iOOO  years 
B.C..  and  to  have  lasted  without  essential  change 
until  the  time  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  The  temples 
had  no  large  interiors,  but  were  stepped  pyra- 
mids, remarkable  mainly  for  their  great  height, 
their  external  mass,  and  the  brilliant  coloring 
of  their  receding  stories,  faced  with  glazed  tiles. 
Only  in  the  royal  palaces  did  the  Babylonians 
excel,  creating  a  t\-pe  which  the  Assyrians  de- 
veloped with  numerous  halls  and  chambers 
grouped  around  three  main  courts.  The  palace 
at  Tello.  the  temjiles  at  Erech  and  Ur.  give  the 
usual  types ;  but  the  excavations  at  Xippur  and 
Babylon  Sre  disclosing  other  sjilendors.  Mean- 
while the  better  preservation  and  more  thorough 
study  of  the  Assyrian  ruins  enables  to  judge 
somewhat  of  the  details  of  the  earlier  style.  The 
temple  observatory  and  the  palace  of  Sargon  at 
Khorsabad  were  destroyed  by  some  great  catas- 
trophe— probably  by  fire — when  they  were  still 
occupied,  perhaps  at  the  time  of  the  fall  of 
Xineveh ;  and  not  only  their  plan,  but  also  a 
large  part  of  their  structure  and  decoration  in 
sculpture  and  color,  can  be  reconstructed.  Still, 
the  Babylonian-Assyrian  ruins  suffer  by  compari- 
son with  the  Egvnitian.  from  their  poor  preserva- 
tion, largely  du«  to  their  easily  disintegrated 
brickwork. 


HiTTiTK.s  AND  PiicE.xiciAXS.  The  Hittites,  the 
rivals  of  both  Egypt  and  Assyria,  were  great 
builders;  like  the  Egyi)tians,  they  used  stone 
and  were  constructors  of  forti-esses.  Of  their 
temple  architecture  little  is  known;  but  their 
palaces — one  of  which  has  been  excavated  at  8en- 
jerli  and  another  at  Boghaz-Kiii — appear  to 
have  been  of  a  type  similar  to  the  Assyro-Baby- 
lonian.  Their  works  were  scattered  from  the 
confines  of  Assyria  to  the  Syrian  coast  and  as  far 
northwest  as  the  interior  of  Asia  Minor.  Of  the 
architecture  of  the  Phcenicians  very  little  re- 
mains; they  also  built  in  stone,  and  like  the 
Hittites  used  at  first  the  Cyclopean  and  poly- 
gonal masonry.  The  great "  fortifications  and 
ports  of  Arvad.  Tyre,  Sidon,  and  the  colonies 
of  Africa  and  Italy  show  that  the  utilitarian  side 
of  this  architecture  was  more  developed  than 
the  religious;  for  the  temples  themselves  were 
but  small  shrines,  none  of  them  equaling,  appar- 
ently, the  temple  of  Jerusalem  in  size  and  splen- 
dor, though  the  actiuU  work  on  this  temple  was 
done  by  Phoenician  artisans  and  artists. 

The  -Egean  Style.  It  was  the  migrating 
Pelasgic  tribes  of  Asia  Minor,  the  Mediterranean 
islands,  Greece  and  Italy,  whose  works  formed 
the  first  link  between  these  early  architectures 
of  Western  Asia  and  that  of  the  pre-Hellenic  and 
Hellenic  world,  forming  what  is  called  the 
-Egean  style,  which  flourished  mainly  between 
c.2nnn  and  1000  n.c.  The  cities  of  Crete,  as 
Cnnssus.  and  of  other  islands,  of  Troy  and  other 
cities  in  Asia  Minor.  Tiryns.  Mycenic.  Argos.  and 
others  in  Greece,  besides  many  early  Italian 
cities,  such  as  Norba  and  Lignia,  show  how  im- 
pressi\e  and  rugged  a  style  of  construction  was 
combined  by  these  races  with  a  delicate  and 
varied  decoration,  especially  in  the  bee-hive 
domical  tomlis  (ilycena-.  Tlioricus.  Vaphio,  etc.) 
in  the  royal  palaces,  whicli  were  as  important 
in  their  way  as  those  of  tlie  Assyrian  kings. 

PER.SIA.  The  second  connecting  link  was  Per- 
sia. Its  great  palaces  and  tombs  at  Susa,  Per- 
sepolis  (q.v.  for  illustration),  ileshed  Murgab, 
and  Pasargadte,  with  monuments  from  Cyrus  to 
Artaxer.xes,  show  the  influence  of  Egypt  in  their 
great  columnar  halls — though  they  are  far  more 
spacious  and  light  than  the  Egj-jUian — of  Baby- 
lon and  Assyria  in  the  use  of  brickwork,  sculp- 
tured colossi,  and  friezes  of  reliefs  in  the  curious 
double-animal  capitals  and  the  enameled  tiles. 
From  Lycia  and  the  Greeks  of  Asia  Minor  came 
the  high  stone  basements  for  their  structures,  the 
flutings  of  their  columns,  and  many  details.  The 
hall  of  Xer.Kcs  at  Persepolis  is  more  than  twice 
the  size  of  the  great  hall  at  Karnak,  and  shows 
how-  such  columnar  interiors,  once  introduced 
into  Western  Asia,  were  ajjpreciatcd  and  devel- 
oped. The  later  dynasties  of  Persia — both 
Parthian  and  Sassanian — threw  ofT  many  of 
these  foreign  elements  in  a  tendency  to  return 
to  the  brickwork,  the  domes,  vaults,  and  arches 
of  tr\ily  Oriental  ty]>e.  as  can  be  seen  in  the 
palaces  at  Sarbistan.  Firuzabad  (q.v.  for  illus- 
tration), and  Ctesiphon. 

Greece.  Meanwhile,  even  before  the  rise  of 
Persian  architecture,  the  fJreeks  had  originated 
the  Doric  and  Ionic  (for  illustration,  see  these 
titles)  orders  in  all  their  essential  features.  The 
temple,  which  is  the  one  central  figure  in  this 
architecture,  appears  to  have  developed  out  of 
the  main  hall  of  the  Pelasgic  royal  palace,  as  it 
is    seen    in    Crete,    Troy,    Tiryns,    and    Mycense, 


ARCHITECTTJBE. 


750 


ARCHITECTUBE. 


through  a  middle  stage  of  crude  brick  walls, 
•nooden  colunuis,  architraves,  and  gables,  with 
terra-cotta  re\'etment  and  decoration,  into  the 
final  tj-jje  of  stone  temple  which  was  reached  as 
early  as  the  Seventh  Century  B.C.  It  is  in  Sicily 
and  Southern  Italy  that  the  earliest  works  of  the 
Doric  style  are  to  be  found  (Syracuse,  Selinus, 
JNIetapontum),  while  the  earliest  Ionic  temples 
were  in  Asia  Jlinor,  at  Samos  and  Ephesus:  but 
these  hardly  rival  the  Doric  in  age,  and  their  ruins 
do  not  belong,  like  those  of  the  Doric  temples,  to 
the  primitive  structure.  The  normal  type  of  these 
temples  was  a  building  raised  on  a  three-storied 
basement,  and  consisting  of  one  main  cella- 
chamber  (naos)  usually  supplemented  at  one  end 
by  a  smaller  chamber  (opisthodomos) ,  and  pre- 
ceded at  the  other  end  by  a  pronaos,  the  whole 
being  surrounded  by  a  colonnade  on  all  four 
sides,  surmounted  by  an  entablature  and  crowned 
on  the  two  short  ends  by  gables.  The  oesthetio 
Greeks  did  not  plan  great  columnar  halls  or 
courts  like  those  of  the  Egj'ptian  temples,  but 
relied  on  external  effects  almost  entirely;  on  re- 
fined beauty  of  outline  and  proportion.  Never, 
until  the  period  of  decadence,  was  there  any  at- 
tempt at  impressive  size  or  picturesqueness.  The 
Doric  style  was.  hea^-y  in  proportion  and  plain  in 
ornament,  in  comparison  with  the  Ionic,  but 
provided  for  more  considerable  figured  sculpture 
in  the  friezes,  metopes,  and  gables.  It  prevailed 
at  first  over  nearly  the  entire  Hellenic  world, 
gaining  gradually  in  delicacy  and  lightness,  espe- 
cially when  handled  by  artists  with  Ionian  blood, 
as  was  the  case  at  Athens,  which  contains  in  the 
Parthenon  and  the  Theseuni  the  two  finest  works 
of  the  developed  Periclean  Age,  tliough  they  are 
almost  rivaled  by  some  Italian  and  Sicilian 
works,  such  as  the  temples  of  Pa'stum  (q.v.  for 
illustration)  and  Girgenti.  At  this  time  other 
works,  such  as  the  Propylnea  at  Athens,  became 
worthy  to  stand  lieside  the  temples,  and  here  the 
two  styles — Doric  and  Ionic — were  for  the  first 
time  combined.  The  originality  and  daring  of  this 
Attic  school  were  also  shown  in  the  Porch  of  the 
JIaidens  in  the  Erechtheum  (q.v.  for  illustra- 
tion). The  succeeding  Age  of  Praxiteles,  and  the 
Alexandrian  Pciiod  brought  even  slimmer  Doric 
proportions,  increased  favor  for  the  more  decora- 
tive Ionic  style  (temples  of  lliletus  and  Ephe- 
sus), invention  of  the  still  richer  Corinthian 
(see  article  Column),  and  the  development  of 
colossal  forms  of  public.  ■  civil,  and  sepulchral 
architecture  ( such  as  the  propylaeas,  theatres, 
odeons,  stoas,  the  altar  at  Perganius,  the  mauso- 
leum of  Halicarnassus) ,  in  which  Oriental  splen- 
dor and  love  of  the  colos.sal  overruled  Hellenic 
reticence. 

Rome.  This  prepared  the  way  for  Roman 
architecture.  In  the  Royal  and  Early  Republican 
Periods,  Rome  had  followed  the  Etruscan  and 
Latin  types :  \\ ooden  tem])!es  with  terracotta 
revetments  in  the  Doric  style  and  civil  struc- 
tures of  stone,  vaulted  and  arched.  These  two 
types  remained  fundamental,  except  that  before 
the  close  of  the  Republic  stone  had  replaced  wood 
and  terra-cotta  in  the  temples,  the  Ionic  style  had 
been  introduced  by  (Jreek  artists,  and  the  Greek 
orders,  with  their  lintels  and  columns,  had  been 
added  as  a  surface  decoration  and  framework 
to  the  constructive  arcades  in  secular  buildings. 
Tlie  Greek  spirit  informed  the  Roman  in  the 
sphere  of  art.  without  conquering  it,   for  ordi- 


narily it  is  not  difficult  to  distinguish  the  two 
styles.  The  Roman  temples  are  not  peristyles, 
but  in  antis,  with  a  very  deep  colonnade  in  front, 
and  this  alone  would  be  sutticient  to  make  their 
appearance  differ  fundamentally,  even  without 
the  substitution  of  the  heavier  Corinthian  and 
eomposite  forms  for  the  Doric  and  Ionic.  But 
the  true  nature,  of  Roman  architecture  appears 
in  its  civil  structures:  in  theatres  and  amphi- 
theatres, aqueducts,  triumphal  arches,  palaces, 
villas,  and,  above  all,  in  the  baths  and  thermae. 
The  Roman  genius  for  composition  shines  in 
such  great  combinations  of  structures  as  the 
Villa  of  Hadrian,  the  Palace  of  the  Osars,  the 
Forum  of  Trajan  (see  article  FoEUM),  and  the 
r.aths  of  Caracalla  and  Diocletian.  And  the  great 
vaulted  interiors  of  some  of  these  buildings,  such 
as  the  Basilica  of  Maxentius  and  the  Baths  of 
Caracalla,  surpass  anything  previously  conceived 
of  in  architecture.  With  the  Greeks,  architecture 
had  been  plastic:  with  the  Romans,  who  devel- 
oped the  ideals  of  the  Alexandrian  Greeks,  it  was 
pictorial.  It  also  combined,  in  the  highest  degree, 
utility  and  comfort  with  showincss  and  imposing 
and  costly  appearance.  The  whole  civilized  world 
was  filled  with  the  monuments  of  this  art — which 
fell  heir  to  the  cultures  of  both  the  Orient  and 
CJreece; 

Eablv  Christian.  When  religion  again  be- 
came paramount,  with  the  advent  of  Christianity, 
architectural  law  and  development  coincided  with 
the  building  and  decorating  of  churches.  The 
scheme  involved  the  development  of  large  inte- 
riors for  a  crowd  of  worsliipers — quite  a  different 
problem  from  that  confronting  pagan  architects. 
Th^  public  basilica  of  the  Roman  fora  and 
the  basilical  halls  of  private  houses  offered 
models  for  such  a  type.  The  early  Christian 
architecture,  with  thin  brick  walls,  wooden  ceil- 
ings, and  long  colonnaded  interiors,  at  first  pre- 
vailed everywhere,  the  poverty  of  architectural 
form  and  detail  being  partly  concealed  by  rich 
mosaic  and  marble  ornamentation. 

Byzantine  and  Basilral  Styles.  But  as 
early  as  tlie  Sixth  Century  the  Oriental  con- 
structive spirit  asserted  itself  once  more  in  the 
Hellenic  Provinces,  and  two  sharply  contrasted 
styles  henceforth  flourished  side  liy  side:  the 
Byzantine  domical  architecture  in  the  Empire  of 
the  East,  and  the  wooden-roofed  Latin  basilical 
architecture  in  the  West,  especially  in  Italy. 
Rome,  Ravenna,  Salonica,  Central  Syria,  North 
Africa,  are  full  of  early  basilicas.  Constanti- 
nople with  Saint  Sophia  (q.v.  for  illustration) 
and  others,  Ravenna,  Greece,  Asia  Minor,  Syria 
possess  numerous  Byzantine  churches.  While  the 
Byzantine  style  underwent,  in  the  course  of.  suc- 
ceeding centuries,  certain  changes,  such  as  the 
heightening  of  the  drums  of  the  domes,  the  deco- 
ration of  the  exterior  with  marble  or  alternate 
courses  of  stone  and  brick,  the  use  of  accessories 
like  porches,  colonettes,  etc.,  these  differences 
were  of  minor  importance. 

Mohammedan.  In  the  West,  on  the  contrary, 
the  new  civilization  resulting  from  the  awaken- 
ing of  the  northern  races  in  the  Eleventh  Century 
and  their  fusion  with  the  old  stock,  created  for 
itself  a  new  architecture  of  which  the  first  phase 
is  called  Romanesque,  the  second  Gothic.  But 
before  describing  its  characteristics,  a  phase  of 
Oriental  architecture  which  arose  in  the  mean- 
time must  not  be  omitted — that  of  the  Moham- 


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ARCHITECTUKE. 


ARCHITECTURE. 


niedan  peoples  in  tlie  great  empire  founded  by 
tlie  Arabs  in  the  Seventh  Century.  Sj'ria,  Pales- 
tine, Persia,  Egypt,  North  Africa,  Spain,  Asia 
Jlinor,  and  other  hinds,  wrested  mainly  from  tlie 
Byzantines,  were  tilled  witli  monuments  of  a 
varied  and  rich  style,  Ijased  largely  on  Byzantine 
and  Persian  models  ada])ted  to  new  purposes  and 
ditl'erent  ideals.  The  luosciues  and  mausoleums, 
minarets,  khans,  hospitals,  and  bazaars,  palaces, 
oratories,  and  fountains  form  a  varied  group  of 
buildings.  The  Jloorish  School  of  Sjiain  from  the 
time  of  the  mosque  of  Cordova  to  the  Alhambra 
(q.v.  for  illustration)  of  tiranada ;  and  the 
Egyptian  School  of  Cairo,  from  the  mosques  of 
Hasan  and  Talun  to  that  of  Kait  Bey,  are  the 
best  known ;  but  the  Syrian  and  Palestinian 
School,  centred  at  Damascus,  and  the  Persian 
School,  centred  at  Bagdad  and  Ispahan,  were 
fully  as  important — the  latter  sending  out  ofi'- 
shoots  as  far  as  distant  India  and  Asia  Minor. 
Tlie  development  of  the  dome,  the  stilted  horse- 
shoe and  pointed  arches,  stalactite  vaulting,  geo- 
metrical decoration,  particularly  in  brilliant 
faience  and  mosaic — these  are  characteristics  of 
the  Mohammedan  schools.  T'wy  spread  coin- 
eidently  with  the  political  conquests  of  Islam. 
The  Golden  Age  began  in  the  Tenth  Century.  Up 
to  that  time  there  had  been  two  types  of  mosque, 
both  of  them  with  flat  wooden  ceilings:  that 
founded  on  the  type  of  the  Christian  church  with 
a  completely  inclosed  interior,  as  the  mosque  at 
Cordova  (q.v.)  :  and  that  based  on  the  open 
court  surrounded  by  colonnades  like  a  cloister, 
the  colonnade  being  deepest  on  the  one  side 
where  the  sanctuary  was  placed,  as  the  mosques 
of  Kairwan.  Damascus,  and  Cairo.  The  famous 
Aksa  Jlosque  at  .Jerusalem  held  an  intermediate 
position,  while  the  Dome  of  the  Rock,  also 
at  Jerusalem,  showed  how  Byzantine  domical 
buildings  were  at  first  sometimes  imitated.  But 
in  the  Eleventh  Century  the  final  fixed  types 
had  been  reached.  Tlie  court-plan  and  pointed 
arch  were  supreme:  tlie  geometrical  style  of  orna- 
ment was  complete  with  its  bewildering  tracery, 
and  the  dome  had  triuniplied  over  the  flat  ceiling. 
When  the  Mongols  and  Tatars  overran  Islam 
they  adopted  the  architecture  they  found,  espe- 
cially the  Persian  forms.  The  latest  addition  to 
the  artistic  heritage  was  tlirough  the  Turkish 
conquest  of  Constantinople  in  the  Fifteenth  Cen- 
tury, which  led  to  a  return  in  even  greater  force 
of  the  primitive  influence  of  Byzantium. 

Romanesque.  Meanwhile  Europe  had  enjoyed 
the  architectural  revival  of  the  Romanesque 
period.  First  Germany  and  Italy,  then  France, 
and  finally  England  arid  Spain  had  felt  the  new 
artistic  currents.  There  were  no  national  styles, 
far  less  was  there  any  unity  throughout  Europe. 
Each  province  had  special  characteristics.  In 
parts  of  Italy,  such  as  Tuscany  and  Rome,  the 
iirrangcnunt  of  tlie  early  Cliristian  basilica  was 
jireserved  almost  intact  with  the  added  enrich- 
ment of  marble  and  mosaic  incrustations  and 
new  architectural  details.  It  was  the  same  in 
most  of  Germany  and  northern  France  until  the 
Twelfth  Century.  Some  sections,  as  Venice  and 
Sicily,  were  even  strongly  affected  by  Byzantine 
art.  "  But  the  most  fertile  novelty  of  the  age  was 
the  development  of  the  vault,  which  found  ex- 
pression particularly  in  central  and  southern 
France  and  northern  Italy.  The  dome  (Peri- 
gord),  the  tunnel  vault  (Provence,  Burgundy, 
Spain,  etc.),  and  the  groin  or  cross- vault  (Lom- 


bardy)  were  all  successfully  u.sed  to  cover 
churches  of  the  basilical  type.  The  future  of 
arcliitecture  lay  in  this  development.  Gradually 
the  ribbed  groin-vault  gained  the  supremacy  and 
spread  to  Germany,  Xiu-mandy,  and  other  prov- 
inces of  France,  preparing  the  way  for  Gothic. 
The  great  crypts,  the  porches,  towers,  fagades  of 
rich  and  varied  types,  a  decoration  of  figured  and 
ornamental  sculjiture,  made  possible  by  the  use 
of  stone  in  place  of  brick,  were  among  the  promi- 
nent features.  This  phase  of  A'aulted  Roman- 
esque was  ricli,  heavy,  and  impi'essive.  It  was 
particularly  the  style  of  the  monastic  orders. 

Gothic.  Out  of  it  there  gradually  grew,  in  the 
course  of  the  Twelfth  Centurj-,  in  tlie  north  of 
France,  the  Gothic  architecture  (q.v.  for  illustra- 
tion) ,  the  perfect  embodiment  of  vaulted  construc- 
tive architecture,  formed  of  three  main  elements: 
a  ribbed  groin-vault,  receiving  all  superincumbent 
weight;  piers,  receiving  their  vertical  thrust; 
and  flj'ing  buttresses,  receiving  their  diagonal 
thrust.  This  skeleton,  when  perfected,  freed 
architecture  from  the  tliraldom  of  heavy  walls; 
hence  the  development  of  large  windows  with 
their  tracery  and  stained  glass,  the  slender  piers, 
the  lofty  vaults.  The  new  style  was  hailed 
e^■erv\^■here  and  spread  from  the  region  of  Paris 
gradually  over  Europe,  being  best  understood  in 
Spain  and  England,  less  so  in  Germany,  and  least 
of  all  in  Italy.  It  coincided  with  the  bloom  of 
all  the  other  arts,  which  remained  the  handmaids 
of  architecture,  contributing  to  the  rich  harmony 
of  the  style.  For  the  first  time  since  Roman 
days,  a  single  style  prevailed  everywhere,  break- 
ing through  local  schools  and  national  peculiar- 
ities. Gothic  was  essentially  of  one  type  and 
allowed  little  fur  individual  idiosyncrasies.  The 
typical  catliedrals  are  those  of  Paris,  Amiens 
(q.v.  for  illustration),  Rheinis,  and  Strassburg, 
having  great  choirs  with  radiating  chapels  and 
aisles,  a  transept  with  facades,  a  nave  with  two 
or  four  aisles,  a  western  facade  in  three  sections 
with  two  flanking  towers.  Single  towers  -in  the 
centre,  as  at  Ulm ;  square  screen  facades,  as  at 
Peterboi'ough ;  plain  square-ending  apses,  as 
often  in  England;  all  such  features  are  varia- 
tions from  the  orthodox  type.  So  are  the  many 
cases,  especially  in  Italy,  when  wooden  roofs  in 
place  of  ribbed  vaults  are  used  with  Gothic 
forms,  but  in  violation  of  Gothic  principles.  The 
development  of  t4othic  was  progressive.  The 
French  churches  of  the  Twelfth  Century  retained 
many  Romanesque  forms  and  heavyproportions— 
as  at  Sens,  Senlis,  Noyon,  and  Laon.  Larger  win- 
dows and  tracery,  slender  proportions,  and  height 
of  vaulting  ciime  with  the  Golden  Age  of  the 
Thirteenth  Century,  with  Notre  Dame  in  Paris, 
Chartres,  Rheims,  Amiens,  and  Saint  Denis.  The 
attenuated  geometric  style  reigned  in  France  in 
the  Fourteenth  Century;  then  the  flamboyant 
until  the  Sixteenth  Century.  In  England  the 
Early  English  corresponds  to  the  Thirteenth,  the 
Decorated  to  the  F'ourtccnth,  and  the  Perpendicu- 
lar to  the  two  succeeding  centuries.  Other  coun- 
tries had  corresponding  but  less  clearly  marked 
divisions.  The  general  tendency  was  increase  of 
decorative  richness  and  variety  of  form,  a  loss  of 
scientific  as  well  as  artistic  values,  the  invasion 
of  prettiness  in  place  of  breadth  and  strength. 

The  Italian  Renais.sance.  Italy  had  seen 
some  large  Gothic  monuments :  monastic  churches, 
such  as  Santa  Croce  and  Santa  Maria  Novella  in 
Florence,  and  the  Frari   in  Venice;   cathedrals. 


ARCHITECTUBE. 


752 


AECHITECTtJRE. 


such  as  Siena  anil  ililan  (q.v.  for  illustration)  ; 
but  Italian  artists  were  ri])e  for  tlie  Renaissance 
style  founded  by  Brunelleschi  and  his  followers 
early  in  the  Fifteentli  Centviry,  a  style  based  on 
the  study  of  Roman  monuments  adapted  •  to 
mcdiieval  needs.  The  new  style  employed  the 
dome  very  successfully  in  its  churches,  but  it  was 
preeminently  a  decorative  and  not  a  constructive 
style,  and,  like  the  Roman  architecture  which  it 
followed,  found  its  best  expression  in  civil  not 
in  religious  monuments.  Single  artists  stamped 
their  works  with  a  special  style.  Brunellcsclii, 
Alberti,  Bramante,  Sansovino,  ilichelangelo,  Pal- 
ladio,  arc  not  merely  names — they  are  types. 
The  Roman  scheme  of  iising  the  constructive  arch 
within  a  decorative  framework  of  pilasters  or 
columns  and  architrave  became  a  Renaissance 
conmionplace.  The  palaces  and  civic  buildings  of 
Florence,  Rome,  Venice.  Lombardy.  Genoa  (for 
illustration  see  these  titles),  represent  the  essen- 
tial features  of  the  style  rather  than  such 
churches  as  those  of  Santo  Spirito  at  such  Italian 
cities  as  Fiorcnco.  Mantua.  Loreto,  Saint  Peter's 
at  Rome,  La  Salute  at  Venice.  Although  early 
Renaissance  decoration  is  so  exquisitely  delicate, 
the  heaviness  and  size  of  its  details  grew  to 
be  a  characteristic.  The  imitation  of  classic 
style  was  at  first  not  complete;  Alberti  aimed  at 
it"  but  it  did  not  reach  its  cold  perfection  until 
Palladio.  just  before  the  opposite  school  of  fan- 
tastic irregularity,  called  the  Barocco,  came  to 
the  front  before  the  close  of  the  Sixteenth  Cen- 
tury. Tlie  style  was  at  first  almost  entirely  in 
the' hands  of  Florentine  artists,  who  introduced 
it  everywhere ;  then  the  Lombards  took  the  lead 
under  Bramante,  with  a  branch  in  Venice; 
finally  the  Roman  school,  with  Jlichelangelo, 
Raphael,  Vignola,  and  many  others,  obtained 
sujiremacy.  Meanwhile  the  new  style  was  spread- 
ing o\er  Europe,  where  it  first  blended  with  and 
then  superseded  Gothic.  This  occupied  nearly 
the  entire  Sixteenth  Century,  for  although  it 
penetr'&ted  to  France  about  1.500,  it  did  not 
obtain  national  foothold  in  Germany  until  about 
1.550,  or  in  England  much  before  1600.  In  none 
of  these  countries  was  it  used  in  its  original 
purity,  being  everywhere  affected  by  national 
peculiarities.  The  most  artistic  changes  were 
those  in  France,  whose  chateau  architecture, 
especially  in  the  Loire  region  and  near  Paris, 
produced  masterpieces  of  composition  worthy  of 
comparison  Avitli  the  best  Italian  work.  Blois, 
Cliambord,  the  Louvi-e.  the  Tuileries,  the  Luxem- 
bourg, and  Versailles  form  an  unsurpassed  series. 
For  illustrations  of  the  Louvre,  the  Luxembourg, 
and  Versailles,  see  these  titles. 

Germany  was  more  foreign  to  the  elassicspirit : 
and  the  percentage  here  and  in  England  of  ]iurely 
classic  design  was  uuich  smaller  than  in  Italy  or 
France.  German  art,  even  at  the  Heidelberg 
Schloss,  was  too  finical  and  barocqvie ;  English 
art,  as  soon  as  under  Inigo  .Tones  it  had  shaken 
off  all  remnants  of  civil  Gothic,  adopted  an  ex- 
tremely pure  Palladian  Renaissance,  as  at  Wliite- 
hall  and  Saint  Paul's,  but  this  soon  passed  into 
a  more  picturesque  style,  as  at  Blenheim. 

The  Ni>-ETEEXTn  Centiry.  The  regular  se- 
quence of  develo])ing  styles  ceases  in  an  abrupt 
way  with  the  wars  of  the  French  Revolution. 
Before  that  time  no  style  of  architecture  had 
ever  existed  which  was  not  in  the  main  the 
result  of  natural  evolution.  Since  the  close  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century,  however,  a  marked  change  is 


evident.  Since  tlien  tliere  lias  liecn  no  true  stvle 
anywhere,  but  merely  a  series  of  fashions  of  imi- 
tation chasing  one  another  rapidly  across  the 
background  of  equally  mutable  social  conditions. 

The  first  of  these  fashions  which  attracts  our 
attention  is  the  so-called  ,S7j//(>  Empire,  the  char- 
acter of  decorative  design  infiuenced  in  part  by 
new  study  of  Roman  antiquity  and  partly  repro- 
duced from  the  work  of  the  preceding  re'ign  and 
fitted  to  the  grandiose  requirements  of  Napole- 
on's brief  dominion.  The  French  Republic  had 
shown  a  marked  deference  to  what  were  sup- 
posed to  be  the  thoughts  and  ambitions  of  the 
Roman  Republic  as  before  the  civil  war  of 
-Marius  and  Sulla,  or  before  B.C.  100.  and  a 
fancied  attempt  to  reproduce  the  Roman  forms 
is  evident  in  all  the  Avork  of  the  Xapoleonie 
epoch.  This,  however,  applies  only  to  the  larger 
masses,  for  in  the  furniture  and  metal  work 
of  the  time  there  is  more  of  Louis  Quinze  than 
of  .-Emilius  Paulus — a  formalized  rococo  rather 
than  a  modernized  Greco-Roman  style.  The 
endurance  of  this  fashion  was  brief,"  however. 
The  Arc  de  I'Etoile  and  the  great  Church  of  the 
iladeleine  in  Palis  were  begun  and  their  char- 
acter determinea  during  this  period.  Also  the 
character  which  we  associate  with  Paris  of  wide 
and  elegant  avenues  was  fixed  by  Percier  and 
Fontaine,  although  such  arcades"  as  those  of 
the  Rue  de  Rivoli  and  the  Rue  Royale  were  not 
destined  to  become  a  favorite  /addition  to  im- 
portant streets.  The  influence  of  the  Empire 
style  was  hardly  felt  outside  of  Paris;  and  for 
succeeding  students  it  has  been  rather  a  fashion 
in  costly  furniture  and  the  hanging  of  walls 
with  silk  than  an  architecture  of  dignity. 

With  the  return  of  peace  there  came  to  Europe 
the  most  complctel_y  non-artistic  time  which 
had  there  been  known  since  iiuiii  emerged  from 
the  period  of  rough-stone  implements.  It  is 
a  matter  not  settled  to  the  satisfaction  of  any 
inquirer,  the  cause  of  the  coiii])lete  disappear- 
ance from  the  European  mind  of  decorative 
ability  during  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  In  Great  Britain  the  unassuming  and, 
on  the  whole,  agreeablv  simple  buildings  of  the 
Georgian  period  were  copied,  as  they  were  also 
in  the  L'nited  States;  and  contemporaneously 
with  this,  in  the  countries  above  named,  there 
was  a  strong  inclination  to  study  the  newly 
discovered  monuments  of  pure  Grecian  art,  the 
buildings  of  Athens  and  Ionia,  and  also  the  re- 
mains of  Roman  imperial  art  existing  in  Italy 
and  its  neighborhood.  The  closing  years  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century  had  produced  a  number  of 
extraordinarily  important  books,  in  which,  for 
the  first  time,  the  facts  concerning  those  an- 
cient buildings  were  made  known  to  Europe. 
Under  the  influences  thus  introduced  into  the 
mind  of  the  Nineteenth  Century,  there  were  built 
Roman  porticoes  with  square  box-like  churches 
behind  them,  such  as  the  magnificent  Cathedral 
of  Saint  Isaac  in  Saint  Petcrsburs;  and  in  such 
buildings  as  this  the  Imperial  Roman  feeling 
for  costly  and  splendid  material  revived.  Smaller 
churches  of  this  sort  are  somewhat  abundant, 
as  in  London.  Saint  Pancras;  and  in  America, 
the  imitations  of  marble  churches  executed  elab- 
orately in  pine  wood.  The  same  influence  in 
other  architecture  than  that  of  churches  is  seen 
in  the  famous  Walhalla  on  the  hills  near  Regens- 
burg.  the  Hall  of  Fame  at  JVIunich.  the  Capi- 
tol    at      Washington     (q.v.     for      illustration). 


ARCHITECTURE. 


753 


ARCHITECTURE. 


Saint  George's  Hall  in  Liverpool,  the  Bourse  in 
Paris,   and  the  great  theatre  of   Bordeaux.     It 
is  curious  to  find  this  Kouian  style  of  colonnades 
and  pediments  decorating  an  otherwise  severely 
plain  huilding  revived  without  essential  changes 
at  the  olose  of  the  Nineteenth  Century.     The  rea- 
son  for  it   is   not   far  to   seek — it   is   in   the   ini- 
practical)ility   of   producing   an    interesting   new 
style    founded    upon    classical    traditions,    unless 
with  the  willing  and  continuous  labor  of  several 
decades   at    least.      To   copy   Roman    forms   has 
jiroved  easy  to  able  and  well-tauglit  men,  as  all 
that    is    needed    is    free    expenditure    upon    the 
building  and  tlie  possession  by  the  designer  of  a 
number  of  measured  drawings.     To  found  a  new 
style   upon    it,   whether   deliberately,    as   by   the 
careful    thought    of    men    who    can    design    and 
wlio   are   also   students,   or   more   uneonseiously 
and  natiirally  by  the  work  of  uninformed  build- 
ers   who    take    the    details    their    masters    used 
before   them   and  modify   them   to   suit   the   new 
requirements — to   do   either  has   proved   imprac- 
ticable.    The   immediate   result,  chronologically 
speaking,    of    the    first    Xeo-Roman    revival    was 
the  introduction  into  domestic  and  civil  building 
of  the  insignificant  architecture  kno«ni  to  us  all 
from  the  abiindant  remains  left  from  the  years 
l)etween  1830  and  1870.     The  Hotel  de  Ville,  in 
Paris,  as  it  was  under  Louis  Philippe  and  until 
its  destruction   in   1871,  contained  only  the  cen- 
tral   mass   of   the    building   of    Henry    IV.,   the 
wings  being  wholly  of  the  "bourgeois"  and  un- 
impressive style  of  which  we  are  speaking.     The 
\'ast  structure   in   Washington   occupied  by  the 
departments  of  State,  War,  and  the  Navy  is  an 
almost  perfect  e.xample  of  the  class  of  buildings 
in   question.      There   was   more   sincerity   in   the 
work  of  sojne  English  architects,  apart  from  the 
tiothic    revival    named    below.      Thus    the    club- 
houses   designed    by    the    elder    Charles    Barry 
(Sir  Charles),   such   as   the   Travellers"   and   the 
Reform  in  Pall  Hall,  and  Bridgcwater  House,  by 
the  same  artist,  were  all  built  between  1830  and 
18.50,  and  all  have  some  architectural  character. 
This  epoch  saw  also  the  work  of  King  Ludwig 
I.   in   ilunich.   often   of  a   character  wholly   dif- 
ferent  from    the    p.seudo-Greek   buildings   named 
above.      Thus,    the   Royal    Library    was    finished 
before    1843,   in   a   style   borrowed   from   Italian 
palazzi    of   the    Fifteejith    Century,   as   was   also 
the  southern  front  of  the  royal  palace   (Kijnigs- 
bau)  ;  and  of  this  time  also  was  the  Hauptwache, 
a    reduced    coj)y    of    the    Loggia    de'    Lanzi    at 
Florence.     The    buildings    of    the    new    Louvre, 
built  during  the  reign  of  Napoleon  III., just  miss 
this  expressionless  vulgarity  of  style :  they  miss 
it   in   that   they  arc   large   in   their   parts,   built 
at  great  cost,  and  adorned  by  a  sclmol  of  highly 
trained  architectural   sculptors  to  whom   it  was 
impossible    to    turn    out    other    than    interesting 
details.     Even  the  dismal  Hotel  de  Ville  above 
mentioned  would  have  had  some  interest  had  it 
been  covered  with  elaborate  architectural  sculp- 
ture  of   admiralde   workmanship.      The   reign   of 
dullness  continued  until  18(i0  or  later;  but  there 
was   much   that   was   interesting   in   the   way   of 
individual  buildings.    The  Liln-ary  of  Sainte  Gene- 
vieve, in  Paris,  is  an  example  of  the  very  small 
group     of     buildings     called     Neo-Cireek — which 
term    is    a    misnomer,    pointing    rather    to    the 
studies   of  the   founders  of   the   school   than   to 
their   finished    work.      The   buildings   especially 
classed   under    this    term,    as    the   librarj'    above 


named  and  the  rebuilding  of  the  Palais  de  Jus- 
tice, have  no  tJreek  character:  and  even  Vis- 
conti's  tomb  of  Napoleon  1.  is  rather  Neo-Roman 
— as  if  a  prolongation  of  the  ,S7(/7c  I'mpire  rather 
than  a  novel  departure.  Of  this  epoch,  too.  are 
the  basilica  churclies— Saint  Vincent  de  Paul  and 
Notre  Dame  de  Lorette,  in  Paris,  and  .Saint 
Boniface,  in  Munich— buildings  of  a  style  most 
promising  to  one  who  hopes  for  original"  work  in 
the  future,  but  not  as  yet  carried  farther. 

This   epoch,    1830    to"   1870,    includes   also   the 
time  of  the  Gothic   revival,  properly  so  called; 
that  IS,  of  the  earlier  years  of  that  "movement— 
of    tlie    time    wlien    the    reformers    were    full    of 
liope    and    courage,    and    believed    that    the    sin- 
cerity and   the   logi<'al   construction   and  decora- 
tion of  Gothic  churches  were  capable   of  being 
reproduced.     The  intellectual  movement  assumed 
that  modern  churches  were  cold,  devoid  alike  of 
ornament   and   of   interest;    while   the   churches 
of  the  Eourteentli  Century— for  it  \\-as  the  later 
Gothic  whicli   first  attracted  the  student— were 
full    of    interest.      Therefore,    tlio.se    en"a<'ed    in 
the  movement  undertook  to  studv  the  forms  and 
the  details,  and  to  rejiroduce  them  exactly  for 
a    while,    believing    that    there    would    com"e    in- 
evitably a  (iothic  style  which   would  be  either 
the  old  one  re\ived  or  some  modification  of  it 
still     more     nearly     suited     to     modern     needs 
Again,   as   to   civic   and   domestic   buildings,   the 
enthusiasts   believed   also   that   these   would   be 
far   more   admirable    if    thev   were    built   as    the' 
Fourteenth   Century   Italians  and   the   Fifteenth 
Century  Frenchmen  built.     Moreover,  this  style 
admits  of  all  kinds  of  adornment  by  means  of 
the    colors    of   natural    material.      lii    England, 
in   France,   and   in   Germany,   preceding  venera- 
tions had  done  little  of  that;   but  in  Italy  they 
did  much,  and  it  was  deemed  clear  that  modern 
architects  might  study   Italian  as  well   as  other 
forms  of  Gothic.    All  this  can  be  found  at  len<Ttli 
in   the   writings   of   the   authors   of   tliat   tini?— 
authors  of  whom  some  are  still   in   repute— and 
in  the  work  of  a  host  of  later  writers,  men  who 
also  were  inspired  with  the  same  hope  of  speedy 
improvement  of  the  artistic  situation.     One  set 
of  studies  of  the  past  having  failed,  another  was 
thought  sure  to  succeed;   and  only  after  twenty 
years   of   efl'ort   did    it   begin    to  "be   clear   tha't 
nothing  complete  was  to  come   from  the  Gothic 
revival.     The  most  costly  building  of  the  style 
was  almost  the  earliest,' the  great  Westniins"ter 
Palace     (q.y.),    designed    by    the    elder    Charles 
Barry,   who   was    knighted   as   having   been    the 
architect    of   the    home    of    the    British    Parlia- 
ment.     This   building   is   studied   from    the   most 
formal    type    of    tlie    Tudor    style,    and    the    at- 
tcni]]t    to    cover    it    with    rich'  decoration    only 
enhances  the  evident  formalism  of  the  constantly 
repeated  details  of  ornament.     In  spite  of  this, 
in  Germany  and  in  England,  the  style  became  al- 
most  e.xclusively    ecclesiastical,    wiiile    the    clas- 
sical methods  prevailed  for  eiyic  buildings.     In 
France  it  had  so  little  efi'eet  upon  the  strongly 
organized    and   deeply   convinced   workmen   and 
thinkers  of  that  most  artistic  of  modern  nations 
that  only  a  few  l)uildiiigs  of  completely  mediipval 
character  were  built,  either  in  France  itself  or 
in  the  countries  under  immediate  French  inllu- 
enee.     These,   when   they  were  built,   had,   how- 
ever, this  great  superiority,  that  they  were  com- 
pletely   constructional,    vaulted    in    masonry    if 
not  according  to  the  strict  Gothic  principle  of 


ARCHITECTURE. 


754 


ARCHITECTURE. 


rib  vaulting,  which  was  as  yet  barely  under- 
stood, and  consistent  in  all  their  parts,  while 
the  English  work  of  the  same  period  and  Ameri- 
can imitations  of  it  were  very  apt  to  be  dis- 
figured within  by  plaster  imitations  of  niedifeval 
forms.  Since  1870  there  have  been  some  evi- 
dences of  more  thoughtful  and  therefore  more 
original  ways  of  working.  There  have  been  some 
designs  wl\ich  are  not  based  upon  buildings  of 
the  past  more  tlian  this,  that  the  old  systems 
of  ]jroportion.  the  old  methods  of  making  a 
building  efl'ective,  ha\e  been  in  the  designer's 
mind.  One  of  the  most  carefully  studied  of 
these  is  the  great  building  on  the  Trocadero 
hill  at  Paris,  which  was  begun  about  1875  and 
fmislied  in  time  for  the  great  E.\position  of  1878. 
This  is  a  vast  building,  more  than  a  quarter  of 
a  mile,  measured  in  a  straight  line,  from  out 
to  out,  occupying  a  most  advantageous  position 
and  richly  adorned  by  sculpture  on  a  large 
scale  in  its  immediate  surroundings  and  out- 
skirts rather  than  in  its  own  walls  and  door- 
ways. It  is  not  possible  to  say  to  what  his- 
torical style  it  belongs ;  it  belongs  to  none.  Less 
entirely  free  from  possible  classification  under 
an  ancient  name  is  the  best  of  American  free 
work,  such  as  Trinity  Church  in  Boston,  which, 
although  entirely  Romanesque  in  spirit,  is 
studied  from  the  Romanesque  of  Europe,  and 
contains  features  dimly  traceable  to  French, 
to  Spanish,  and  to  English  antiquity,  while  all 
are  harmonized  into  a  modern  design.  Such  a  de- 
sign, too,  ^^■as  All  Souls  Church  in  New  York,  a 
study  indeed  of  Italian  Romanesque,  but  as  com- 
pletely a  modern  design  as  the  Trocadero  Palace 
itself.  So  there  are  some  smooth-faced  street 
fa(;ades  in  which,  the  question  being  merely  to 
design  a  front  and  to  arrange  the  fenestration 
agreeably,  great  independence  has  been  shown. 
Great  Britain  has  been  rich  in  buildings  of 
this  sort,  for  the  devotion  of  many  of  her  best 
designers  to  the  Gothic  revival  had  at  all  events 
given  them  the  habit  of  constructional  design- 
ing; they  have  been,  on  the  whole,  far  less  con- 
trolled by  tradition  than  the  Frenchmen,  while 
also  far  less  successful  in  producing  buildings 
of  permanent  charm  such  as  results  from  thor- 
oughly matured  designing.  It  is  to  be  noted 
that  a  tasteful  and  satisfactory  design  is  much 
more  quickly  got  in  a  style  alread.y  familiar  to 
the  artist  and  to  his  critics,  the  cultivated  pub- 
lic. Cultivation  in  such  matters  must  go  far 
beyond  the  knowledge  gained  by  travel  and  by 
general  reading  before  the  student  can  recog- 
nize the  attempt  at  new  methods  of  design  and 
partlj-  judge  them.  There  is,  therefore,  a  very 
strong  inducement  to  every  designer  to  work  on 
the  old  lines. 

The  novel  systems  of  building  caused  by  mod- 
ern scientific  advance  have  not  had  so  nuich 
influence  upon  design  as  had  been  anticipated. 
In  France,  as  earlj'  as  the  middle  of  the  Nine- 
teenth Century,  it  was  seen  that  wrought-iron 
was  to  become  an  important  element  in  future 
building,  and  those  who  sought  to  influence  for 
good  the  designing  of  the  time  pointed  out 
many  ways  in  which  it  could  be  utilized.  At  the 
same  time,  in  the  United  States,  cast-iron  in  hol- 
low columns  and  in  shells,  imitating  cut-stone 
work,  was  introduced ;  and  while  the  shop  fronts 
of  all  American  citiei?  came  to  be  made  of  this 
material,  there  were  also  very  many  fagades 
which,  though  apparently  of  stone  masonry, 
were    from    street    level    to    roof   composed   ex- 


clusively of  a  series  of  cast-iron  members  held 
together  by  riveting.  Again,  at  a  later  time, 
when  the  steel-cage  construction  for  high  build- 
ings was  introduced,  as  is  shown  below,  the 
opportunity  for  a  fresh  movement  in  design 
seemed  to  be  given;  but  this  was  rendered  im- 
practicable, partly  by  the  legal  requii'emont  that 
iron  should  every^vhere  be  protected  from  the 
efl'ect  of  heat  in  case  of  conflagration,  and  partly 
by  the  same  willingness  to  repeat  old  forms 
under  new  conditions  which  had  controlled  the 
designing  of  the  cast-iron  fronts  mentioned 
above.  Still  another  opportunity  seemed  to  be 
aft'orded  for  the  use  of  ironwork  in  design; 
namely,  in  the  buildings  of  the  great  expositions, 
from  tlieir  commencement  in  London  tn  18.51 
through  the  entire  half-century:  but  here  it 
has  been  the  exception  rather  than  the  rule  to 
base  the  design  upon  the  ironwork  itself.  The 
disposition  to  make  the  buildings  of  one  of  these 
great  fairs  as  attractive  as  possible  to  a  multi- 
tude of  people,  and  the  need  of  great  haste  in 
their  construction,  has  prevented  thoughtful  con- 
sideration from  being  given  to  their  design, 
and  the  introduction  of  staff  and  of  plaster 
boards  has  facilitated  the  imitation  of  rec- 
ognized architectural  forms  in  mere  outside 
work,  in  the  simulacra  of  architectural  structures, 
supported,  indeed,  by  an  iron  frame,  but  not 
recognizing  that  framework  as  part  of  the 
building  proper.  Thus,  in  one  of  the  great  halls 
of  Chicago  of  1893,  or  of  Paris  in  IIIOO,  there 
was,  without,  what  passed  for  a  cut-stone  facade 
of  great  elaboration  and  necessary  cost;  but 
within,  this  character  disappeared  completely, 
and  the  whole  interior  was  a  vast  cage — a 
greenhouse  as  completely  non-architectural  as 
the  original  building  in  Hyde  Park  in  1851. 
Here  and  there  a  building  has  been  built  con- 
structionally  of  wrought-ii'on.  having  the  spaces 
between  the  members  of  its  light  frame  filled  in 
with  colored  brickwork  or  the  like.  Such  a 
building  was  that  of  the  municipality  of  Paris 
at  the  E.xposition  of  1878.  Its  walls  were  of 
common  hard  brick,  between  uprights  and  hori- 
zontals of  wrought-iron.  while  its  wide  and 
very  high  doorways  were  enriched  beyond  all 
modern  practice  by  a  combination  of  terra- 
cotta in  high  relief  and  glazed  and  richly  painted 
tiles.  .Similar  attempts  have  not  been  more 
numerous  during  the  later  years  of  the  cen- 
tury than  when  the  subject  first  excited  atten- 
tion. Thus,  the  excellent  reading-room  of  the 
National  Librar3-  at  Paris,  roofed  by  means  of 
wrought-iron  arches  carrying  cupolas  of  brick- 
work faced  witli  tiling,  dates  from  the  years 
before  1865.  The  most  efl'ective  ornamentation 
in  the  days  of  the  Gothic  revival  is  that  of  the 
Oxford  Museum,  completed  abovit  1860;  and 
the  most  efl'ective  artistic  ironwork  in  any  of 
the  larger  buildings  of  the  great  expositions 
was  that  of  the  square  domes  of  the  Paris 
building  of  1889.  In  this  way  the  few  attempts 
at  artistic  ironwork  have  been  scattered  over  a 
half-century,  without  resulting  in  any  deter- 
mined school  of  design.  In  like  manner  a  few 
houses  have  been  built  fronting  on  the  streets 
of  Paris,  and  in  certain  Belgian  cities,  in  which 
the  iron  framework  is  treated  on  the  same 
Bound,  constructional  principles  as  those  in- 
volved in  the  wooden  "half-timbered"  construc- 
tion of  the  Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth  centuries. 
These,  however,  are  very  rare  exceptions,  and 
the  only   recent  development  of  the   same   fine- 


"ELEVATOR"  ARCHITECTURE 

ST.   PAUL'S  CHURCH,   NEW  YORK,   AND  SURROUNDING  BUILDINGS 


ARCHITECTURE. 


ARCHITECTURE. 


art  treatment  of  metal  has  been  in  the  very 
moderate  attempts  at  logical  building  of  shop 
fronts,  balconies,  greenhouses,  and  shelters  above 
doorways  of  entrance.  The  few  attempts  to 
treat  strictly  engineering  structures,  bridges, 
and  the  like,  in  an  artistic  way  have  not  been 
successful. 

The  steel-cage  system  of  building  dates  from 
about  1880.  It  was  ten  years  earlier  when  it 
was  first  noted  in  the  greater  cities  of  the  United 
States  that  business  offices  could  not  be  rented 
to  advantage  nor  large  hotels  managed  success- 
fully without  a  free  use  of  tlie  elevator  (the 
lift).  Offices  in  the  fifth  stor\-  would  not  rent 
at  all,  nor  those  on  the  fourth  story  easily,  im- 
less  the.y  had  this  "elevator  service."  But  with 
the  introduction  of  elevators  into  office  build- 
ings and  hotels  there  came  the  easy  possibility 
of  building  to  the  height  of  eight  and  nine  stories 
instead  of  to  five.  Ten  years  later  there  ap- 
peared suddenly  the  possibility  of  building  what 
appeared  to  be  an  ordinary  edifice  of  masonry 
with  an  actual  structure  of  steel  u])rights  and 
horizontals  firmly  bolted  together,  braced  where 
necessary,  and  of  any  conceivable  height.  All 
the  exterior  walls,  which  were  thin  and  of 
masonry,  were  supported  by  the  steel  structure, 
and  therefore  the  walls  of  the  basement  story 
occupied  no  more  horizontal  space  than  those 
of  any  upper  stor^';  whereas,  in  a  masonry  build- 
ing, the  walls  or  piers  grow  much  thicker  below 
as  the  height  increases,  and  more  valuable  space 
in  the  ground  story  is  lost  in  the  attempt  to 
get  less  valuable  space  above.  Immediately  upon 
the  introduction  of  the  constructional  steel 
frame,  buildings  were  increased  in  height  from 
nine  or  ten  to  twenty  or  more  stories.  Elevators 
were  built  which  ran  at  greatly  increased  speed, 
and  these  could  be  arranged  in  groups,  some  to. 
run  "express"  to  the  twelfth  story,  perhaps, 
while  others  stopped  at  every  floor  from  the 
first  to  the  eleventh. 

In  spite  of  the  radical  character  of  these 
changes  in  construction  and  plan,  no  sign  of 
any  architectural  result  has  appeared.  This  is 
in  part  owing  to  the  purely  commercial  char- 
acter of  the  buildings.  They  must  be  built  as 
quicklj-  as  possible,  because  of  the  monthly  loss 
of  rent  to  the  owner  while  his  plot  of  ground 
remains  unproductive,  and  they  must  be  as  in- 
expensive as  possible,  in  order  that  the  annual 
rental  may  bear  a  better  proportion  to  the  cost. 
Hitherto  in  the  history  of  the  world  no  archi- 
tecture of  any  value  has  been  developed  out  of 
any  such  conditions.  The  efforts  of  two  or 
three  architects  to  invest  these  buildings  with 
a  logical  and  appropriate  system  of  external 
design  are  worthy  of  the  highest  praise,  but 
have  not  been  followed  generally;  nor  have  they 
prodiu'ed  marked  results  as  yet. 

In  this  brief  survey  there  has  been  no  place  for 
the  architecture  of  Farther  .Asia,  of  India,  and 
the  neighboring  provinces;  of  China  and  Japan: 
still  less  for  the  architecture  of  Mexico,  Central 
America,  Peru,  etc.  All  these  are  described  under 
their  especial  heads.  The  details  of  all  the 
styles  here  mentioned  are  also  given  under  the 
separate  titles  EGTPTIA^•  .\rt;  B.a,byi.oxi.\x 
Art;  Assyri.\n  Art;  Piue.nician  Art;  Persi.vx 
Art;  Greek  .\rt;  Roit.vN  Art;  C'iiristi.\n 
Art;  Byz.\ntine  Art;  JIoiiammedan-  .-\rt:  Ro- 
stANESQiE  Art;  Gothic  Art;  Renaissance 
Art;  and  Architecture,  Ancient  .Ajierican. 
Under    the    general    head    Art.    History   of,    a 


review  is  given  of  all  the  various  classes  of  titles 
under  which  the  architectural  material  in  the  cy- 
clopiedia  is  classified,  svieh  as  biographies  of 
architects,  descriptions  of  various  kinds  of  build- 
ings, definitions  of  terms,  etc.  This  history  of  the 
science  and  material  of  construction  as  distin- 
guished from  the  purely  a'sthetic  side  of  archi- 
tecture is  given  under  Biilding. 

Bibliography.  An  excellent  systematic  hand- 
book is  Roseiigarten,  A  Handbook  of  Archilec- 
tural  Styles  (English  translation,  London,  1878). 
Jlore  recent,  and  with  references  and  a  larger 
enumeration  of  monuments,  is  Hamlin,  A  Text- 
hook  of  the  History  of  Architeeture  (New  York, 
1897).  The  only  full  history  of  architecture  in 
English,  but  uneven  and  unreliable,  is  Fergusson, 
A  History  of  Architecture  in  All  Countries 
(London,  1893).  Liibke,  Geschichte  der  Archi- 
teklur  (Leipzig,  1884),  is  somewhat  antiquated, 
but  more  accurate.  Ramee,  Histoire  de  I'arehi- 
tecture  (Paris,  1885),  is  still  useful.  A  critical 
history,  from  the  standpoint  of  pure  construc- 
tion and  form,  has  now  been  given  in  Choisy, 
Histoire  de  Vnrrhitccturc  (Paris,  1899),  without 
an  enumeration  of  monuments,  and  extremely 
technical.  Two  series  of  separate  handbooks,  each 
covering  some  special  style  or  country,  and  to- 
gether forming  a  complete  whole,  are  being  pub- 
lished, one  in  France,  the  other  in  Germany.  The 
general  title  of  the  French  series  is  Bibliothcriuc 
de  Vcnseignenient  des  heaux  arts  (see  Art, 
History  of)  ;  Lalou.x,  L'architecture  grecque 
(Paris,  1888)  ;  Corroj'er,  L'urehilecture  romaine 
(Paris,  1887),  and  L'architecture  gothique 
(Paris,  1891);  and  Palustre,  L'urehHecture  de 
la  renaissuucc  (Paris,  1802),  are  the  only  vol- 
umes on  architecture  alone;  but  the  rest  of 
the  field  is  covered  in  the  architectural  sections 
of  the  following  general  volumes:  Maspero, 
Egyptian  Archccology  (London,  1895)  ;  Babelon, 
Oriental  Antiquities,  translated  by  B.  T.  Evetts 
(New  York,  1889);  Martha,"  L'archiologie 
etrnsque  et  romaine  (Paris,  1884);  Perate, 
L'archeologie  ehretienne  (Paris,  1892)  ;  Bayet, 
L'art  byzantin  (Paris,  1SS3);  and  Gayet,  L'art 
arabe  (Paris,  1893),  and  L'art  persan  (Paris, 
1895). 

The  German  series  is  more  detailed,  and  is 
solely  architectural.  It  is  the  Handbuch  der 
Architektur,  ed.  Dunn  (Darmstadt,  1895),  and 
contains  special  volumes  on  the  theory  and 
practice  of  architecture,  as  well  as  its  history. 
Its  four  sections  are  entitled:  I.  Allgemeine 
Hochbaukunde  (materials;  statics;  methods; 
forms)  ;  II,  Baustile  (History,  in  four  sections; 
-Ancient,  Medieval,  Renaissance,  and  Modern)  ; 
Hoehbau-Constructionen  (elements  of  structure; 
foundations;  extei-nal  features;  internal  feat- 
ures; specific  details)  ;  Entwerfen,  Anhigc  mid 
Einrichtung  der  Gehiiude  (composition;  build- 
ings for  dwelling  and  trade;  buildings  for  agri- 
cultural and  provisioning  purposes ;  public- 
houses,  clubs,  and  halls,  etc. ;  buildings  for 
health,  charity,  etc, ;  educational,  scientific,  and 
artistic  establishments;  civic,  governmental, 
administrative,  and  military  buildings;  religious 
and  memorial  structures;  the  city).  There  are 
a  number  of  quarto  volumes  in  each  of  these 
sections  and  subsections,  several  of  which  have 
been  published.  In  the  historical  section  the 
most  valuable  are:  Dunn,  Die  Baukunst  der 
Griechen  (Darmstadt,  1892)  ;  and  Die  Bau- 
Icunst  der  Etrusker  und  der  Romer  (Darm- 
stadt,  1885),     The  others  are:    Essen wein,  Die 


AECHITECTURE. 


756 


ARCHITECTURE. 


Ausgiinge  tier  cla.isischeii  liaukuiist  (Early 
Christian),  and  Die  Fortsetsuiig  der  classischen 
Baukiinst  im  osfromischen  Rcivhe  (Byzantine); 
Franz  Pascha,  liaukunst  des  Islam  (Darmstadt, 
189C)  ;  and  Essenwein,  a  series  of  works  on  Die 
roinanixche  und  die  gothische  Baukunst  (Darm- 
stadt, 1889-92),  including  his  volumes  on  Mili- 
tary Architecture  (Kriegsbaukunst) ,  and  Do- 
mestic Architect  lire  (Wohnhau) . 

There  are  tivn  principal  dictionaries  of  archi- 
tecture in  En^'li^li:  TJte  Diefi(tnnrtf  of  Archi- 
tecture of  the  English  Architectural  Publication 
Society,  on  a  large  scale,  never  com])leted :  and 
Russell  Sturgis,  Dictionary  of  Architecture 
(New  York,  1901-02),  in  3  vols.,  covering  the 
ground  of  technique,  history,  classification  of 
monuments,  and  biography.  Gwilt,  Enelycopce- 
dia  of  Architecture  (London,  1888),  is  handy  to 
consult.  In  French  there  is  Planat,  Encyclope- 
dic de  I'architecture  ct  de  la  construction  (Paris, 
1890-93). 

ARCHITECTURE,  Ancient  American.  No 
historical  sketch  of  aboriginal  American  archi- 
tecture is  possible  with  our  lack  of  reliable  data 
as  to  the  history  of  the  American  races  and  their 
relation  to  each  other.  The  tribes  whom  we  are  ac- 
customed to  group  under  such  heads  as  "Mound 
Builders"  and  "Clill'  Dwellers"  (for  illustration 
see  these  titles),  although  far  from  being  the 
earliest  inhabitants  of  our  continent,  never  pro- 
duced any  works  that  enter  the  domain  of  art, 
though  some  of  the  "pueblos"  show  careful  con- 
struction and  plan,  especially  in  Arizona  and 
New  Mexico;  for  example,  Casa  Grande  (q.v.  for 
illustration)  ;  Chihuahua;  and  Bonito.  The  peo- 
ples of  Maya  and  Xahuatl  nationality  who  found- 
ed the  confederacies  of  Mexico,  Central  America, 
Peru,  and  other  South  American  States,  devel- 
0))ed  an  architecture  that  may  fairly  be  compared 
v.'ith  that  of  Farther  Asia,  especially  India.  But 
no  sure  historic  records  of  the  age  of  these  monu- 
ments gives  an  earlier  date  than  the  Twelfth 
Century  a.d.  :  though  plausible  conjecture  goes 
back  to  the  Fifth  Century  n.c.  for  the  earliest 
Maya  examples.  The  earliest  ruins  are  those  of 
the  jMayas,  and  among  them  we  can  distinguish 
local  variations  and  historic  development;  for 
example,  those  of  Chiapas,  of  which  the  most  im- 
portant are  at  Palenque,  differ  from  those  in 
Yucatan,  which  are  much  later.  The  ruins  at 
Copan,  in  Honduras,  form  the  connecting  link 
between  the  Palenque  style  and  that  found  at 
U.\mal,  Cliichen-Itza,  Izamal,  and  other  ruined 
cities  of  Yucatan.  Guatemala  also  has  monu- 
ments of  the  Palenque,  and  later  types,  at  Utat- 
lan,  Cahuinal,  Tikal,  etc.  The  fortified  city  of 
Tenampua,  in  Honduras,  is  especially  interesting. 
It  is  important  that  the  Maya  ruins  of  Central 
America  are  the  more  monumental  the  nearer 
they  approach  the  frontier  of  Yucatan.  The 
arrangement  of  the  buildings  is  according  to  one 
general  scheme;  they  rise  from  a  mound,  sur- 
mounted by  a  platform  on  which  the  building 
or  buildings  stand.  Tliis  mound  is  entirely  or 
partly  natural,  cut  into  terraces  about  five  feet 
high  or  lines  of  stone  steps.  The  lines  of  the 
mound  are  made  by  rubble,  and  retaining  walls, 
faced  cither  with  colored  stucco,  or  large  slabs 
(Palenque),  or  with  dressed  stone  (Chichen-Itza 
and  Uxmal).  The  separate  buildings  rise  from 
a  base  in  the  form  of  a  truncated  pyramid,  and 
the  chambers  and  passages  are  covered  with 
vaults  formed  of  the  triangular  corbel  arch  of 


projecting  horizontal  courses.  Among  the  most 
impressive  structures  are  the  pyramids;  one  at 
Izamal  is  between  700  and  800  feet  long,  and  eon- 
tains  several  cliambers.  Tliev  usually  rose  in 
front  of  each  temple.  These  pyramids  were 
crowned  by  shrines,  and  bear  some  resemblance 
to  Buddhist  buildings  in  India.  The  greatest 
variety  of  monuments  is  at  Chichen-Itza.  Tliere 
was  a  lavish  use  of  decorative  sculpture  either 
as  integral  part  of  the  architecture,  or  in  the 
form  of  accessory  steles,  pillars,  obelisks,  statues. 
The  famous  "Tablet  of  the  Cross"  from  Palenque 
is  the  most  tasteful  simple  piece.  An  idea  of 
the  way  in  which  the  JIaya  buildings  were 
grouped  is  given  by  the  ruins"  of  Palenque,  Uma- 
land,  and  Chichen-Itza.  For  illustrations,  see 
these  titles. 

The  Mayas  suffered  from  invasions  of  Nahuatl 
peoples  in  the  Sixth  Century  a.d.,  but  though 
more  recent,  the  Xahuatl  monuments  appear  not 
to  have  survived  so  well;  perhaps  because  this 
people  preferred  the  less  durable  material  of 
adobes,  cemented  together  with  mortar,  to  the 
stonework  of  the  Mayas.  This  is  exemplified  in 
the  Pyramid  of  Choliila,  originallv  crowned  by  a 
magnificent  temple  destroyed  bv  Cortes.  "  It 
measures  1440  feet  square— an  area  nearly  four 
times  tliat  of  the  Pyramid  of  Cheops ;  its  height 
was  177  feet,  and  it  was  divided  into  four  ter- 
races. Ruinsof  debated  character  occur  at  Xoehi- 
calco.  in  Mexico,  Huatusco,  and  Centla.  Here,  as 
with  the  Mayas,  the  truncated  pyramid  is  the 
main  form  of  substructure.  It  is"  curious  that 
even  less  remains  of  the  Aztec  monuments,  erected 
only  during  the  t^-o  centuries  preceding  the 
Spanish  Conquest.  Probably  it  was  because, 
being  the  centres  of  civilization  at  that  time, 
they  bore  the  brunt  of  Spanish  vandalism,  while 
the  older  cities,  long  since  deserted,  remained 
immune  and  often  unknown.  Perhaps  slightly 
earlier  than  the  .\ztee  domination  are  the  cities 
of  tlie  Zajiotees  in  Central  America,  whose  capi- 
tal. Mitla,  was  captured  and  ruined  by  Aztecs 
c.IoOO  A.D.  The  palace  at  Mitla  has  called 
forth  the  most  enthusiastic  praise  for  the 
beauty  of  its  masonry,  the  symmetry  of  its 
proportions,  and  the  classic  restraint  of  its  or- 
nament. This  ])alace  consists  of  an  interior 
quadrangle.  130x120  feet,  surrounded  on  three 
sides  by  mounds  crowned  by  other  buildings.  It 
is  built  not  entirely  of  dressed  stones,  a.%  at 
Palenque.  but  of  faced  rubble,  as  in  Yucatan. 
The  main  hall  was  supported  by  six  columns, 
sup)iorting  heavy  beams,  a  most  unusual  arrange- 
ment. It  must  be  remembered  that  the  manual 
labor  of  facing  the  masonry  and  executing  the 
sculptured  decoration  in  all  these  buildings  of 
Central  -America  and  Yucatan,  was  vastly  in- 
creased by  the  lack  of  metal  implements.  We 
finally  come  to  Peru,  which  is  studded  with 
ruins  of  the  greatest  interest. bold  in  construction 
and  massiveness.  though  lacking  in  that  richness 
of  sculptured  ornament  so  characteristic  of  the 
stylos  thus  f,ar  mentioned.  Pachacaniac.  Chimu, 
Tiaguanaco.  Titicaca,  and  Cuzco  are  the  most 
important  sites.  The  fortresses  are  of  especial 
interest;  also  great  engineering  works,  such  as 
aqiU'ducts,  reservoirs,  and  bridges.  The  temples, 
called  huacn.1,  are  composed  of  truncated  pyra- 
mids, usuall,v  of  stone.  That  of  Obispo  is  150 
feet  high,  with  a  base  .580  feet  square,  covering 
eight  acres.  Some  of  these  p,vramids  .served  as 
sepulchres,  like  one  near  Obispo,  surrounded  by 


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AECHITECTURE.  7 

an  inolosiiif;  wall  14  feet  hiffh.  Another 
at  Moche  was  800  x  470  feet,  ami  about  2O0  feet 
hi<;h.  The  palaoes  were  liuilt  of  adobes,  and 
were  formed  of  an  irregular  series  of  buildings 
on  a  terraced  mound.  That  at  Chimu  is  typical. 
The  ruins  at  Tiaguanaco  are,  perhaps,  the 
earliest,  and  belong  to  a  civilization  prior  to 
that  of  the  Incas.  Most  remarkable  are  the 
numerous  erect  monoliths  comparable  to  the 
Celtic  monoliths  in  the  Mediterranean  (e.g. 
ilalta).  and  in  England  (e.g.  Stonehenge).  For 
books  of  reference,  consult  the  bibliography  un- 
der  AKtll.EOLOGY,   AmEKIC.\N. 

ABCHITRAVE,  ar'kitrav  (Gk.  a,,,^;-,  ar- 
chi-,  chief  +  Lat.  irabs.  beam).  The  lowest  part 
of  the  entablature  (q.v. ),  or  that  which  rests 
immediately  upon  the  columns,  also  called 
the  epistyle.  It  also  designates,  in  the  case  of 
a  square  opening,  the  beam  over  the  window  or 
doorjambs.  It  is  even  applied  to  a  curved  or 
vertical  molding  in  connection  with  such  open- 
ings or  ental>latvires.  being  in  the  first  case  the 
same     as     an     arcliivnlt.      For     illustration,     see 

liNT.VDL.VTlHE. 

ARCHIVES,  iir'kiv/.     See  Records,   Piblic. 
ARCHIVOLT,  ar'ki-volt  (It.  archivolto,  from 
arclii,   chief   -|-    volto.  vault,   arch).     The   stone 
or    niarl>le    band,    corresponding    to    the    archi- 
trave,    which      frames     a 
curved  opening.     In  early 
Christian    architecture     it 
is    extremely    simple,    but 
in     the     Jliddle     Ages     it 
grows    into    an    elaborate 
bundle     of     moldings,     or 
sculptured   ornament. 

ARCHLUTE,  iireh'lut' 
(It.  arcliiliulo) .  A  large 
double-necked  lute  about  4 
feet  .5  inches  long,  used  in 
the  Seventeenth  Century 
for  the  lowest  part  in  in- 
strumental 7nusic  and  ac- 
companiments. The  neck 
contained  two  sets  of  tun- 
ing-pegs, the  strings  were  of  catgut  or  metal, 
and  the  compass  was  two  octaves,  from  C  below 
the  bass  clef.  The  sound-lioard,  with  a  circular 
hole,  was  of  pine,  while  the  back  was  nuide  of 
strips  of  pine  and  cedar  glued  together  and 
richly  ornamcnteil.     Sec  Lt'TE:  Tiieorbo. 

ARCH  OF  ARCADIUS,  HONORITJS, 
AND  THEODOSIUS.  See  Tiieoi)Osu-.s,  Aucii 
OF. 

ARCH  OF  AUGUS'TUS.  See  Augustus, 
Arc'k  of. 

ARCH    OF    CLAU'DIUS.       See    Cl.a.udius 

Arch  of.  ' 

ARCH  OF  CON'STANTINE.  See  Constan- 
Ti.XE.  Arch  of. 

ARCH  OF  DRU'SUS.    See  Drusus,  Arch  of. 

ARCH  OF  HA'DRIAN.    See  Hadrian,  Arch 

OF. 

ARCH  OF  JA'NUS  QUAD'RIFRONS.  See 

Janfs  Quadrifrons.  Arch  of. 

ARCH  OF  SEPTIM'IUS  SEVE'RUS.     See 

Septimius  Severu.s,  .\Reii  of. 

ARCH  OF  TI'TUS.     See  Titus,   Arch  of. 
ARCH  OF  TRA'JAN.     See    Tbajan,  Arch 

OF. 


')"  ARCHYTAS. 

ARCHON,  iir'kon  (Ck.  Spx"''.  arihOn,  liter- 
ally li'ader,  chief,  from  ipxtiv,  iirchciii.  to  begin, 
lead,  rule).  The  highest  nuigistratc  in  Atlfens 
an<l  other  Greek  cities.  As  the  name  shows, 
it  denotes  the  one  in  power  as  opposed  to  'king' 
(^aaiXfis).  The  Athenian  archon  is  the  onh- 
one  whose  history  and  duties  are  well  knowii. 
There  were  nine  archons  at  Athens,  later 
chosen  yearly  by  lot.  The  first  was  called  "The 
Archon,"  or,  as  he  gave  his  name  to  tlic  year, 
Archon  Eponymos:  the  second  was  the  Archon 
Basileus,  the  third  Archon  Polemarchus,  the 
other  six  were  Thesmothet;e.  During  the 
Athenian  democracy  the  archons  were  hi'w-ofti- 
cers,  the  Archon  JCponymos  having  charge  of 
suits  relating  to  the  family,  the  Basileus  of 
religious  cases,  the  Polemarch  of  those  involving 
foreigners,  and  the  Thesmotheta'  of  a  variety  of 
other  cases.  According  to  Athenian  tradition  the 
last  king,  Codrus  (q.v.),  was  succeeded  by  a  life 
archon,  but  in  B.c  752  the  oIKcc  was  liniited  to 
ten  years,  and  in  b.c  713  opened  to  all  nobles 
(Eupatrida>),  and  in  B.C.  683  it  was  made  an- 
nual, and  in  B.C.  457  opened  to  citizens  of  the 
three  upper  classes,  and  in  practice  to  all  citi- 
zens. The  historical  development  seems  rather 
to  have  been  the  reduction  of  the  power  of  the 
Basileus,  by  giving  first  the  militarv  command 
to  a  new  officer,  Polemarch  (-general''),  and  then 
adding  a  civil  ruler  as  the  civil  head  of  the 
State, thus  restricting  the  'king'  to  religious  func- 
tions. The  military  command  was  still  held  bv 
the  Polemarch  at  the  time  of  the  battle  of 
Marathon  (b.c.  490).  The  same  Greek  word  is 
often  used  to  denote  rulers  of  other  official  titles. 

Among  the  Jews  of  the  Dispersion  the  title 
was  used  to  denote  members  of  the  official  body 
exercising  control  over  their  independently  or- 
ganized communities,  as  at  Alexandria,  Antioch, 
and  Rome.  In  the  New  Testament  it  is  used 
specifically  by  members  of  the  Sanhedrin  (e.g., 
Nicodemus,  John  iii.  1)  of  the  officer  presiding 
over  the  synagogue  (e.g.,  Jairus,  Luke  viii.  4)  ; 
and  generally  for  rulers,  magistrates,  and  men 
of  influence.  In  the  sense  of  ruler  it  is  applied  to 
Christ  in  Rev.  i.  5:  "Ruler  [archon]  of  the  kings 
of  the  earth,"  and  to  Satan  in  John  xii.  31: 
"The  prince  [archonl  of  this  world."  In  the 
m.vstical  jargon  of  the  Gnostics,  the  term  archon 
was  frequently  employed:  and  hence  one  of  their 
sects,  especially  opposed  to  Judaism,  received  the 
name  Archontics.  See  Gno.stics  ;  Heresy  ;  Here- 
tics. 

ARCH-PRIEST,  arch'prest'.  A  name  datino 
from  the  Fourth  C'entury,  and  equivalent  to 
the  Greek  protopreshi/ter.'  It  was  usually  ap- 
plied to  a  senior  priest  attached  to  a  cathedral, 
whose  duties  were  to  assist  the  bishop,  to 
act  as  his  substitute  in  the  performance  of  the 
Church  offices,  and  to  have  general  oversight  of 
the  cathedral  clergy;  also  to  those  placed  in 
large  towns  to  occupy  similar  jjositions  respect- 
ing the  local  clergy."  This  title  in  later  times 
gave  way  to  that  of  dean,  as  applied  to  the 
former  and  rural  dean,  to  the  latter  class  of 
arch-priests. 

ARCH'WAY  (arrh  +  way).  A  passage 
closed  on  both  sides  and  covered  by  a  vault,  or 
at  least  ending  in  arches  at  each  end,  and  dilTer- 
ing  from  an  arcade,  which  is  open  at  least  on 
one  side  in  a  series  of  arches. 

ARCHYTAS,  iir-ki'tas  (Gk.  'Ap,r>-af ) .  The 
son  of  Mnesagoras,  or  Hestia-us,  of  Tarentuni,  a 


ARCHYTAS. 


758 


ARgON. 


distinguished  philosopher,  inathematician.  gen- 
.eral,  and  statesman.  He  lived  in  the  first  half 
of  the  Fourth  Century  B.C.,  and  was  thus  a  con- 
temporary of  Plato,  whose  life  he  is  said  to  have 
saved  by  his  influence  with  the  tyrant  Dionysius. 
He  was  seven  times  elected  general  of  his  city, 
though  it  was  customary  for  the  office  to  be  held 
for  one  year  only.  His  connection  with  Plato 
belongs  to  the  time  of  the  latter's  visit  to  lower 
Italy.  He  was  drowned  on  the  Apulian  coast, 
and  is  said  to  have  been  buried  near  Matinum, 
in  Apulia.  Archytas  was  a  man  marked  for  his 
morality,  self-control,  and  gentleness.  As  a  phi- 
losopher, he  belonged  to  the  Pythagorean  School. 
His  services  to  the  science  of  mathematics  were 
many  and  important,  and  he  passed  as  the 
founder  of  scientific  mechanics.  He  was  the 
first  to  distinguish  harmonical  progression  from 
arithmetical  and  geometrical  progression ;  he  also 
solved  the  problem  of  doubling  the  cube.  ( See 
Cube.)  Among  his  mechanical  contrivances 
was  a  flving  pigeon  made  of  wood.  He  is  said 
to  have  invented  the  piilley.  As  an  astrono- 
mer, he  taught  that  the  earth  is  a  sphere  rotat- 
ing on  its  axis  once  in  twenty-four  hours,  and 
that  the  heavenly  bodies  move  about  it.  He  fur- 
ther made  original  contributions  to  the  knowledge 
of  musical  tones.  In  a  philosophical  way  he 
must  have  influenced  Plato  not  a  little,  and  per- 
haps Aristotle.  The  mathematical  fragments  of 
Archytas  have  been  carefully  collected  by  Blass 
in  Melanges  Graux  (Paris,  1884).  The  other 
fragments  which  are  attached  to  the  name  of 
Archytas,  and  which  relate  to  ethics,  logic,  and 
physics,  are  probably  for  the  most  part  not  gen- 
uine. They  are  to  be  found  in  Mullach,  Philo.io- 
phorum  Grcecorum  Fragmcnta,  Vol.  I.  (Paris, 
1800-81)  ;  also  the  two  letters  of  Archytas,  one 
to  Dionysius  and  the  other  .to  Plato,  and  the 
work  Oil  ihc  Ten  Categories,  are  spurious. 

ARCHYTAS  of  AiipnissA  (c.300  B.C.).  A 
Greek  poet,  to  whom  some  hexameter  lines  are 
attributed  by  Plutarch,  Athenfeus,  and  Stobjeus. 
He  is  spoken  of  by  Diogenes  Laertius  as  an  epi- 
grammatist upon  whom  Bion  wrote  an  epigram. 
Nothing  is  known  of  the  details  of  his  life  and 
work  beyond  the  scanty  information  given  by  the 
authors  named. 

ARCIF'ERA  (Lat.  arciis,  bow  +  ferre,  to 
bear,  carrj- ) .  A  group  of  anurous  amphibians,  the 
toads,  having  a  tongue,  with  the  clavicle  and 
coracoid  of  each  side  connected  by  a  longitudinal 
arelied  cartilage,  allowing  contraction  and  ex- 
pansion.    See  Toad. 

ARCIS-SUR-AUBE,  ar'.ss'su'-r6b'  (Fr.,  Ar- 
cis  on  the  Aube).  Capital  of  the  arrondisse- 
ment  of  the  same  name  in  the  French  Depart- 
ment of  the  Aube,  and  remarkable  on  account  of 
the  battle  fought  here. March  20-21,1814,  between 
Napoleon  and  the  Allied  forces  under  Prince 
Schwartzenherg  (Map:  France,  L  3).  The  bat- 
tle, beginning  with  several  skirmishes  on  the 
first,  and  ending  in  a  general  engagement  on  the 
second  day,  when  the  French  retreated  over  the 
Aube,  was  not  in  itself  very  important.  But 
Napoleon  now  formed  the  plan  of  operating  in 
the  rear  of  the  Allies,  and  left  the  road  to  Paris 
open;  assuming  that  thej'  would  not  venture  to 
proceed  without  attempting  first  to  secure  their 
rear.  The  Allies  marched,  nevertheless,  on  the 
capital,  and  thus  decided  the  campaign.  Arcis- 
sur-Aube  is  the  birthplace  of  Danton.  Its  indus- 
tries   are    silk    and    cotton    spinning,    stocking 


weaving,  and  it  has  also  an  important  trade  in 
grain.      Pop.,   1001,   2774. 

AR'CITE.  One  of  the  two  Theban  knights 
who,  in  Chaucer's  Knight's  Tale,  are  at  first 
close  friends,  but  who,  having  seen  the  lovely 
sister-in-law  of  Theseus  from  tlieir  prison  win- 
dow, both  claim  her  as  mistress,  and  later  joust 
fiercely  for  her  hand,  in  which  tourney  Arcite  is 
slain. 

ARC  LAMPS  AND  ARC  LIGHT'ING. 
See  Electric  Lighti.xg,  paragraph  Arc  Lamps. 

AR'CO,  Carlo  d'  (1799-1872).  An  Italian 
art  critic  and  historian.  He  was  born  at  Man- 
tua, studied  painting  at  Florence  and  Rome,  and 
as  a  result  of  a  study  of  the  galleries  of  Mantua 
published,  in  1827-37,  a  series  of  descriptions  of 
paintings,  with  engravings  from  drawings  by 
himself.  His  most  important  work  was  Delle 
arti  e  degli  artifici  di  Mantova  (2  vols.,  1857- 
59),  a  study  of  Mantuan  art  from  the  earliest 
times.  His  further  publications  include  Htudj 
intorno  al  municipio  di  Mantova  (1871-74) 
and  a  Chronicon  Manlii/iniim,  1095-1299. 

ARCO  DEI  LEONI,  dfi'e  la-o'ne  (It.,  Arch 
of  the  Lions).  A  gate  in  Verona,  built  suppos- 
edly in  the  third  century  x.d.  Originally  it  had 
two  arches;  but  at  present  only  one  remains.  It 
is  a  dainty  bit  of  architecture,  with  Corinthian 
columns,  above  which  is  a  story  pierced  with 
three  openings  between  pilasters.  It  is  situated 
in  the  Via  Leoni  and  is  coeval  with  the  Porta 
de'  Borsari. 

ARCO  DELLA  PACE,  del'la  pii'cha  (It., 
Arch  of  the  Peace).  A  large  arch  of  white  mar- 
ble, with  smaller  ones  on  either  side,  surmounted 
by  a  bronze  figure  of  Peace  driving  a  six-horse 
chariot.  It  was  erected  in  Milan,  Italy,  in  1807, 
in  honor  of  Napoleon,  but  not  completed  until 
1838,  and  was  consecrated  to  Peace  in  1815. 

ARCOLE,  :ir'k6-la.  A  village  of  Venetia,  situ- 
ated on  the  left  bank  of  the  Alpone,  a  tributary 
of  the  Adige,  and  famous  for  the  victoi-y  gained 
by  Bonaparte  over  the  Austrian*  under  the  chief 
command  of  Alvinczy,  November  17,  179G.  From 
the  14th  to  the  IGth  the  French  vainly  attempted 
to  rush  the  bridge  across  the  Alpone  held  by  the 
Austrians  under  Mittrowsky;  on  the  17th  they 
forded  the  stream  l^elow  the  bridge  and  took  the 
enemy  in  the  rear.  In  the  series  of  battles 
around  Arcole  the  Austrians  lost  eighteen  tliou- 
sand  men,  and,  as  a  result  of  the  battle,  they 
were  compelled  to  abandon  the  relief  of  Mantua, 
which  was  besieged  bj-  the  French. 

ARQON,  ar'soN',  Jean  Claude  d'  (1733- 
1800).  A  distinguished  French  engineer.  He 
was  born  at  Pontarlier,  and  was  educated  as  an 
engineer  at  the  military  school  at  Mczidres. 
During  the  Seven  Years'  War,  he  acquired  consid- 
erable reputation,  especially  in  the  defense  of 
Cassel,  his  work  being  distinguislied  by  a  re- 
markable fertility  of  invention.  His  most  famous 
scheme  was  a  system  of  floating  batteries  de- 
signed to  reduce  Gibraltar  (1780).  then  in  the 
hands  of  the  English,  and  defended  by  Governor 
Elliot.  The  attempt,  however,  was  not  success- 
ful, mainly  liecause  of  the  fact  that  his  efforts 
were  indifl'erently  supported.  When  the  French 
under  Dumouriez  overran  Holland,  Argon  took 
several  strongly  fortified  places,  among  others, 
Breda.  After  his  retirement  from  the  army,  he 
was  called  to  the  Senate  ( 1799).     His  important 


ARgON.  - 

work    is    ('(DisiJcratiuns    iiiilitaircs   ct    poUtifjucs 
t»c  Us  fiirlificntionK  (Paris,  1795). 
ARCO'NA.     Spf  Arkona. 

AECOS  DE  LA  FRONTERA,  iir'kos  ilA  lu 
fiuii-tri'ia  iSji.,  Buw  of  the  Frontier,  alhuling 
to  its  being  built  in  bow-sliape  and  to  its  position 
on  the  frontier).  A  town  on  the  ri{.'ht  bank  of 
the  Guadalete,  in  the  province  of  Cadiz,  Spain 
(Map:  Spain,  C  4).  It  is  situated  on  a  conical 
height  ,i44  feet  above  sea-level,  and  is  a  remarka- 
bly picturesque  city  with  steep,  crooked  streets. 
Above  the  city  stands  the  old  castle  of  the 
dukes  of  Arcos.  now  in  ruins.  Beyond  apjiear 
the  Ronda  ^Mountains.  There  are  seven  mon- 
asteries, two  parish  churches,  with  the  main 
church  of  Gothic  style,  interesting  among  its 
buildings.  The  manufactures  include  leather, 
mats,  thread,  and  rope.  There  is  considerable 
trade  in  oil.  wine,  and  fruit.     Pop.  1900,  14,393. 

Arcos  is  the  Arcohriga  (Celt,  briya,  town)  of 
the  Roi7ians.  It  was  wrested  from  the  Moors  by 
Alfonso  the  Wise,  and  strongly  fortified  as  a 
frontier  town,  in   1204. 

AR'COSO'LIUM  (Lat.  arcus,  arch  +  solium, 
seat,  chair  of  state).  A  name  given  to  the 
niches,  surmounted  by  an  arch,  that  were  used, 
for  example,  in  the  early  Christian  catacombs, 
for  the  burial  of  the  more  illustrious  dead.  They 
usually  contained  a  carved  marble  sarcophagus, 
and  were  ornamented  with  frescoes. 

ARCOT,  iirkot'  (Tamil  Arkat,  Si.x  Woods). 
A  city  in  the  presidency  of  Jladras,  India,  the 
capital  of  the  district  of  North  Arcot,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Palar  River,  65  miles  west  of 
Madras  (Map:  India,  0  6).  It  is  a  railway 
junction,  has  a  military  cantonment,  contains 
some  mosques  in  a  tolerable  state  of  repair,  and 
the  ruins  of  the  Nawab's  palace.  Of  great  an- 
tiquity and  mentioned  by  Ptolemy,  it  is  note- 
worthy because  of  its  history,  the  most  brilliant 
incident  of  which  was  its  capture  and  defense  by 
Clive  (q.v.),  in  1751.  The  walls  of  the  famous 
fort  now  serve  as  a  dyke  which  protects  the  city 
against  periodical  inundations.     Pop.  11,000. 

ARCTIC  (Gk.  apuriKoc,  nrktikos,  northern, 
from  Gk.  aparoc,  urktos,  bear,  north).  A  term 
meaning  "lying  near  the  constellation  of  the 
Bear."  The  Arctic  Circle  is  a  circle  drawn 
round  the  Xorth  Pole,  at  a  distance  from  it 
equal  to  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  or  23%°. 
The  corresponding  circle  round  the  South  Pole 
is  the  Antarctic  Circle.  Within  each  of  these 
circles  there  is  a  period  of  the  year  when  the 
sun  does  not  set,  and  another  when  it  is  never 
seen,  this  period  increasinE;  as  we  approach  the 
pole  itself.  At  the  pole  it  is  six  months  in 
length,  if  we  neglect  the  effects  of  refraction 
(q.v.). 

ARCTIC  CUR'RENT,  HIGH'LANDS.  See 
Arctic  Rriiiox 

ARCTIC  DISCOVERY.  See  Polar  Re- 
search. 

ARCTIC  O'CEAN.     See  Arctic  Region. 

ARCTIC  PLANTS.     See  Arctic  Reoiox. 

ARCTIC  RE'GION.  Broadly  speaking,  that 
portion  of  tlie  surface  of  our  globe  which  sur- 
rounds the  Xorth  Pole  within  the  limits  of  the 
Arctic  Circle,  and  thus,  extending  twenty-three 
and  one-half  degrees  in  every  direction  from  the 
pole,  covers  an  area  of  8,2()0.OO0  square  miles. 
It  includes  the  northern  coast-lands  of  Europe, 
North  America,  and  Asia,  ancj  the  outlying  isl- 


59 


ARCTIC  REGION. 


ands  to  the  luirth  of  these  continents,  as  well  as 
the  middle  and  northern  parts  of  Greenland,  the 
northern  part  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  the 
whole  of  the  Arctic  Ocean.  The  northern  islands 
comprise  the  great  archijielago  north  of  the  con- 
tinent of  North  America,  including  the  Parry 
Islands,  BatKn  Land,  Prince  Albert  Land,  Banks 
Land,  Prince  of  Wales  Land.  North  Somerset, 
Grinnell  Land,  etc..  and  the  islands  north  of  Eu- 
rope and  .\sia  :  the  S])itzbcrgen  group,  Nova  Zem- 
bla,  the  Franz-. loscf  group,  and  the  New  Siberian 
group.  It  is  a  region  of  snow  and  ice ;  for 
months  in  the  winter  the  sun  is  below  the 
horizon,  and  though  for  other  months  in 
summer  it  never  sets,  its  heat  is  not  strong 
enough  in  most  quarters  to  reduce  the  quantity 
of  snow  and  ice  which  forms  in  the  cold  season. 
The  longest  day  and  the  longest  night  at  latitude 
70°  are  about  two  months  each ;  ten  degrees 
farther  north  they  are  about  tliree  months  each; 
at  the  pole  they  divide  the  year  almost  equally. 

Topography.  The  land  surface  of  the  Arctic 
region  has  been  as  yet  but  incompletely  explored, 
although  the  unremitting  interest  in  Arctic  ex- 
ploration is  gradually  adding  to  our  knowledge 
of  its  extent  and  details.  The  loftiest  region  is 
Greenland,  along  the  east  and  west  coasts  of 
which  there  are  mountains  rising  from  3000  to 
8000  feet  above  sea  level,  culminating  in  Peter- 
mann  Peak,  with  an  estimated  altitude  of  11,000 
feet.  The  name  "Arctic  Highlands"  was  given 
to  that  portion  of  the  American  Continent  which 
lies  between  Hudson's  Bay  and  the  mouth 
of  the  Mackenzie  River,  reaching  far  below  the 
Arctic  Circle.  The  district  lies  partly  within 
and  partly  without  tlie  barren  or  treeless 
stretches  of  northern  North  America.  The 
southern  portion  has  elevations  of  1700  to  2000 
feet  above  sea  level.  The  portion  north  of  Great 
Slave,  Great  Bear,  and  Athabasca  Lakes  has  a 
gentle  and  regular  slope  toward  the  Arctic 
Ocean.  The  usage  of  the  term  "Arctic  Highlands" 
may,  perhaps,  be  extended  so  as  to  include  the 
highlands  west  of  Smith  Sound.  The  name  was 
also  applied  by  Ross  in  1818  to  the  region  around 
Cape  York  (latitude  76°  to  78°,  longitivde  67° 
W.),  in  Greenland;  and  the  most  northern  Eski- 
mos, who  live  on  the  seacoast  at  the  foot  of 
these  mountains,  have  until  recently  borne  the 
name  of  "Arctic  Higlilanders,"  given  to  them  by 
Ross.  The  northern  part  of  Seward  Peninsula  is 
characterized  also  by  a  broken  topography,  with 
mountains  rising  5000  feet  or  more  above  sea 
level.  Banks  Land  and  other  large  islands  oiT 
the  coast  of  the  North  American  Continent,  in- 
cluding Bafiin,  Ellesmere,  Grinnell,  and  Grant 
Lands,  are  comparatively  low,  with  rounded 
mountains  in  the  interior.  In  Baffin  Land  the 
central  iilateau  is  from  000  feet  to  800  feet 
above  the  sea,  and  isolated  mountains  attain  a 
height  of  2000  feet.  In  the  eastern  part  of  Si- 
beria the  surface  is  broken  by  low  mountain 
ranges  and  by  wide  river  valleys!  The  portion  of 
Siberia  lying  west  of  the  Yenisei  River,  however, 
is  a  low,  almost  unbroken  plain,  covered  with  a 
dense  growth  of  moss,  and  containing  numerous 
and  extensive  swamps,  features  that  are  compre- 
hended under  the  general  term  of  tuiidra  (q.v.). 
Portions  of  Franz-Josef  Land  and  Crown-Prince 
Rudolf  Land  (latitude  80°  to  83°)  are  elevated, 
the  mountains  and  plateaus  rising  2000  feet  or 
more  aboie  the  sea.  Upon  these  plateaus,  and 
that  of  Spitzbergen,  and  particularly  upon  that 


AKCTIC  BEGION. 


rco 


ARCTIC  REGION. 


of  Greenland,  extensive  "icecaps"  have  formed. 
The  outer  edges  of  these  masses  of  ice  are  forced 
through  the  hords  in  the  form  of  glaciers,  which 
discliarge  icebergs.  See  Glacier,  and  the  gen- 
eral article  Geology. 

Geology.  The  geology  of  the  Arctic  lands 
presents  a  great  variety  of  features,  which,  how- 
ever, are  comparable  in  general  to  those  exhibited 
in  more  southern  latitudes.  Extensive  coal  beds 
and  numerous  fossil  remains  in  sedimentary 
strata  bear  evidence  that  the  conditions  prevail- 
ing in  former  ages  were  favorable  for  the  de- 
velopment of  a  diversified  fauna  and  flora,  such 
as  do  not  at  present  exist.  The  Carboniferous 
strata  arc  the  most  significant  as  to  the  past  cli- 
matic conditions  obtaining  in  this  region.  They 
have  been  found  in  Banks  Land,  North  Devon, 
and  Spitzbergen.  Coal  beds  and  strata  of  the 
Tertiary  Age  have  been  discovered  in  Grinnell 
Land,  and  similar  deposits  are  known  to  occur  as 
far  north  as  82°,  in  which  poplar,  pine,  birch, 
and  hazel  Hora  are  represented.  In  Spitzbergen  a 
Carboniferous  flora  has  been  obtained,  comprising 
no  less  than  twenty-six  species,  some  of  which 
are  new,  but  of  which  others  are  forms  common 
to  the  coal  measures  of  England  and  the  Lnited 
States,  Greenland  (q.v. )  consists  principally 
of  gneisses,  schists,  and  granite,  with  later  in- 
trusions of  basalt,  and  is  noteworthy  as  the 
source  of  the  mineral,  cryolite.  Most  of  the 
islands  off  the  North  American  Continent  are 
made  up  of  crystalline  rocks  and  Paleozoic  sedi- 
ments, of  probably  Cambrian  and  Silurian  Age. 
The  northern  part  of  Seward  Peninsula  luis  been 
found  recently  to  be  composed  of  metamorplu>se<l 
sediments  of  undetermined  age,  and  of  Cretace- 
ous limestones.  The  great  island  groups  north  of 
Euro-Asia,  including  Franz-Josef  Land,  are 
formed  of  early  Paleozoic  and  pre-Cambrian 
rocks  overlaid  by  basalt.  Very  little  is  known 
as  to  the  geological  features  of  northern  Siberia. 

The  Arctic  Ocean  is  the  body  of  water  en- 
circling tlie  North  Pole,  and  included  between  the 
northern  boundaries  of  Europe,  Asia.  North 
America,  Greenland,  and  the  north  Atlantic 
Ocean  above  the  Arctic  Circle,  with  which  latter 
ocean  it  is  in  open  connection,  while  it  is  in 
communication  with  the  Pacific  Ocean  only 
tlirough  the  narrow  Bering  Strait.  It  drains 
a  vast  area,  including  the  northern  parts  of 
North  America  and  of  Asia.  The  great  rivers. 
Obi,  Yenisei,  and  Lena,  in  Asia,  and  the  Mac- 
kenzie, in  Canada,  empty  into  this  ocean.  Its 
area  is  estimated  at  between  4.000,000  and 
5,000,000  square  miles.  How  nuich  of  this  area 
is  covered  by  land  is  uncertain ;  but  the  con- 
siderable depth  of  soundings  taken  by  Arctic 
explorers  would  seem  to  indicate  an  extensive 
polar  -sea.  It  is  hardly  probable  that  any  im- 
portant land  areas  exi.st  in  the  region  that 
stretches  from  the  pole  southward,  to  the  north- 
ern point  of  the  archipelago  above  Greenland, 
to  the  mouth  of  the  JIackenzie,  to  Bering 
Strait,  to  the  northern  point  of  Siberia,  and  to 
the  northern  point  of  Franz-.Josef  Land.  The 
water  region  immediately  surrounding  the  pole 
is  covered  with  great  fields  of  ice,  which  are 
frozen  together  in  winter,  but  become  separated 
to  a  greater  or  less  degree  (especially  at  the 
edges  where  ice  floes  are  formed )  during  the 
summer.  This  ice  area  is  called  the  ice-pack,  and 
it  extends  somewhat  to  the  southward  of  latitude 
75°   N.   above   Bering  Strait   and  the  adjoining 


American  and  Asiatic  coast,  between  the  limits 
of  longitude  160°  E.  and  130°  W. :  to  the  west- 
ward and  eastward  of  this  region  the  pack- 
limit  retreats  northward:  and  in  longitude  120° 
W.,  it  is  found  at  about  latitude  78°  N. ;  in  longi- 
tude 90°  W.,  at  about  latitude  78°  N. ;  in  longi- 
tude 85°  W.,  at  about  latitude  81°  N. ;  in  longi- 
tude 50°  W.,  at  about  latitude  83°  N.  On  the 
east  coast  of  Greenland  the  ice-pack  descends  to 
latitude  78°  N.,  to  retreat  again  to  82°  or  83° 
N.,  north  of  Spitzbergen  and  Franz-.Josef  Land, 
where  this  latitude  is  preserved  as  far  east 
as  longitude  100°  east  of  Greenwich,  when 
the  detour  toward  the  south  begins,  which 
reaches  its  limit  at  about  longitude  173°  E. 
This  ice  is  kept  in  sluggish  motion,  principally 
by  the  winds,  in  such  a  manner  that  a  vessel 
lodged  in  the  ice  at  a  point  north  of  Alaska,  or 
even  of  Siberia,  would  gradually  drift  toward 
the  pole  and,  passing  bej'ond  that,  would  con- 
tinue soutliward  until  set  free  from  the  ice  near 
Spitzbergen  or  Greenlaiul.  Nansen  made  such  J 
a  drift  in  1893-96.  The  depth  of  the  Arctic  ■ 
Ocean  is  variable,  being  very  shoal  (only  a  few 
hundred  feet  deep)  north  of  western  North 
America  and  eastern  Asia,  where,  however,  meas- 
urements have  not  been  made  above  latitude 
75°  north,  and  very  deep  (7000  to  15,000  feet) 
near  where  its  waters  join  the  North  Atlantic. 
Northward  of  the  continent  of  Europe  the  depth 
is  from  600  to  1200  feet,  and  northward  of  Spitz- 
bergen and  Franz-.Josef  Land  10.000  feet.  The 
Arctic  Ocean  is  apparently  afl'ccted  by  tides,  in 
uhicli  the  monthly  variations  are  more  important 
than  are  the  semi-diurnal,  but  both  the.se  are 
masked  by  the  influence  of  the  winds  and  the 
ice.  The  assumption  that  a  great  portion  of  the 
Arctic  Ocean  has  for  a  long  time  been  covered 
with  solid  pack  of  ice  has  suggested  for  it  the 
name  of  Paleocrystie  Sea,  or  the  Sea  of  Ancient 
Ice. 

Arctic  Currents.  The  open  connection  be- 
tween the  North  Atlantic  and  the  Arctic  Oceans 
offers  an  opportimity  for  a  free  interchange  of 
waters  between  the  two.  On  the  east  side  of  the 
North  Atlantic  the  drift  of  the  surface  water  is 
northward,  and  on  the  west  side  the  current 
flows  southward.  This  latter,  called  the  Arctic 
Current.  i)asses  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  through 
tlie  Irmingen  Sea  of  Nordenskjiild,  between  Ice- 
land and  Greenland ;  thence  along  the  eastern 
coast  of  Cireenland ;  rounds  Cape  Farewell,  and 
flows  up  Davis  Strait  to  about  latitude  64°  N. 
Here  it  probably  turns  toward  the  west  and  joins 
the  Labrador  Current.  There  is  another  move- 
ment of  water  southward  from  the  Arctic  Ocean 
through  the  straits  and  bays  which  communicate 
with  Bartin's  Bay.  The  Labrador  Current  flows 
southward  along  the  west  coast  of  Baffin's  Bay, 
past  Labrador  and  Newfoundland,  until  it  dips 
into  the  eastward  drift  of  the  warmer  waters 
off  the  Banks  of  Newfoundland,  where  the  divers 
currents  prevailing  are  but  feeble.  It  has  been 
supposed  that  a  part  of  this  current  continued 
southward  along  the  Nova  Scotian  and  New 
England  coast,  but  some  other  explanation  must 
be  offered  for  the  cold  current  which  exists  on 
that  coast.  The  Labrador  Current,  which  has  a 
very  low  water  temperature,  carries  with  it  ice- 
bergs and  floes,  which  eventually  disappear  by 
melting  in  the  vicinity  of  Cape  Kace.  In  this 
latter  region  heavy  fogs  ])revail  whenever  winds 
from  the  south  carrv  moist,  warm  air  over  the 


<^ 


b 


AECTIC  REGION. 


roi 


ARCTIC  REGION. 


cold  water.  There  is  anotlicr  drift  of  water 
northward  through  Beriiigf  Strait,  l)ut  its  vol- 
ume is  not  great. 

Climate.  The  annual  avei-age  temperatures 
of  the  Arctic  region  are  below  32°  F.  On  the 
island  of  .Tan  jtaven,  29°  F. ;  in  Spitzbergen, 
22°  F. ;  Sea  of  Kara.  13°  F. :  Point  Barrow, 
8°  F. ;  Lady  Franklin  Bay,  2°  F.  In  Spitz- 
bergen  the  average  temperatures  are  in  .Tuly  40° 
F. ;  in  December.  — 2°  F. ;  those  of  Lady  Frank- 
lin Bay,  in  July,  37°  F.;  and  February,  —30°  F. 
In  other  Incnlities,  Xares  experienced  a  mini- 
mum temperature  of  — 74°  F. ;  Greely,  a  mini- 
mum of  — 02°  F. ;  Nansen,  — 52°  F.,  and  De 
Long.  —  72°  F.  The  distribution  of  average 
temperatures  for  .Tanuary  sliows  a  great  area 
extending  northward  of  the  central  and  eastern 
part  of  the  Asiatic  and  American  continents, 
from  aliout  latitude  75°  to  beyond  the  pole,  over 
which  the  average  temperature  is  below  — 35° 
F.,  from  which  central  ar<'a  the  temperatures 
increase  in  all  directions,  save  on  one  side,  to 
the  following  temperatures  along  tlie  Arctic 
Circle:  — 30°  F.  on  the  North  American  Con- 
tinent, +  30°  F.  in  Iceland  and  the  North  At- 
lantic, +  5°  F.  in  north  Europe,  —  10°  F.  at 
Bering  Strait,  — 31°  F.  in  eastern  north  Asia; 
but  there  is  actually  a  decrease  of  temperature 
from  the  Polar  region  to  — 60°  F.  in  central 
north  Asia,  which  is  the  cold  pole  of  the  globe. 
The  distribution  of  average  temperatures  for 
July  shows  a  circunipolar  area  of  +  35°  F., 
which  lies  mostly  north  of  latitude  80°.  between 
North  America  and  Europe,  but  lies  below  80° 
latitude  elsewhere,  and  descends  to  latitude  70° 
in  northern  Alaska.  From  this  central  cold  area 
the  temperatures  increase  in  all  directions  to  the 
following  values  along  the  Arctic  Circle:  West- 
ern North  Atlantic,  +45°  F. ;  eastei-n  North 
Atlantic,  +  50°  F. ;  northern  Europe,  +  55°  F. ; 
northern  Asia,  +  ti0°  F. ;  Bering  Strait,  +45° 
F.,  and  northern  North  America,  +  55°  F.  The 
winds  in  .Tanuary  near  the  pole  are  generally 
frotn  the  north  in  the  neighborhood  of  BaflSn's 
Bay  and  northward  of  Nortli  America.  l)ut  north 
of  Asia  they  appear  to  be  from  the  south,  veering 
toward  the  east  over  nortliern  Euro])e.  In  .Tilly 
the  winds  are  from  the  southwest  in  Baffin's 
Bay.  from  the  northwest,  in  the  archipelago 
northward  of  North  America,  from  the  east 
north  of  Alaska,  from  the  northeast  north  of 
Asia,  from  the  north  or  northeast  north  of 
Europe,  and  from  the  north-northeast  or  north- 
west in  the  North  Atlantic.  The  cloudiness 
averages  probably  between  40  and  50  per  cent. 
in  .Tanuary,  and  between  CO  and  70  per  cent,  in 
July.  The  annual  precipitation  is  in  general 
less  than  10  inches  in  the  Arctic  regions,  and 
most  of  it  falls  as  snow-. 

The  temperature  of  the  Arctic  waters  varies 
from  several  degrees  above  freezing  to  even 
slightly  below  freezing  at  and  near  the  surface: 
but  from  a  distance  of  500  or  000  feet  below  the 
surface  down  to  great  depths  the  temperature  is 
about  1°  F.  above  freezing. 

Inhabit.\nts.  Hanging  across  the  North 
American  continent,  above  the  Arctic  Circle, 
from  Alaska  to  the  eastern  end  of  the  archipela- 
go, and  also  settled  on  both  the  west  and  the  east 
coasts  of  Greenland,  are  tribes  of  Eskimos,  a 
race  of  aborigines,  believed  by  certain  authorities 
to  bo  of  Mongolian  origin ;  by  other  authorities 
to  be  derived  from  American  Indian  stock.  They 
Vol.  I.— 50, 


live  by  hunting  and  fishing,  s]icak  an  aggluti- 
nate langiuigc,  have  no  written  characters  and  no 
vvell-define<l  form  of  government.  Whether  they 
have  a  well-dclincd  form  of  religion  has  not  been 
detinitely  determined.  Peary,  who  examined 
with  some  care  the  isolated  tribe  in  the  Whale 
Sound  region  of  Greenland,  reports  that  the 
nearest  approach  to  religion  is  "simply  a  collec- 
tion of  miscellaneous  superstitions  and  beliefs 
in  good  and  evil  spirits."  Otlier  observers,  how- 
ever, report  that  they  have  some  belief  in  a 
future  life.  For  further  information  see  Eski- 
mo: Greenland:  Alaska,  etc  The  other  im- 
portant Arctic  inhabitants  arc  the  Lapps  and 
Finns,  an<l  a  series  of  tribes,  probably  of  jlongo- 
lian  origin,  living  in  the  northern  part  of  Si- 
beria ;  the  Samoyedes,  Tunguses,  Yakuts,  Yuka- 
hires,  and  Tchuktchis.  These  tribes  are  sup- 
ported, some  by  hunting  and  fishing,  but  most  by 
herds  of  reindeer,  which  find  sustenance  in  the 
moss  of  the  tundra.  But  all  the  tribes  are  more 
or  less  nomadic  in  their  habits — even  tho.se  that 
build  villages  of  timber.  Tho.se  that  depend  for 
livelihood  upf)n  their  herds  of  reindeer  are  some- 
times forced  to  wander  to  fresh  tundra ;  those 
that  depend  upon  hunting  and  fishing  follow  the 
game  from  j)hice  to  place. 

Flora  and  Fauna.  The  general  similarity  of 
modern  life-forms  throughout  the  Arctic  lands, 
which  has  liecn  noted  by  Heilprin  and  others,  is 
interesting  from  a  geological  standpoint,  in  that 
it  shows  that  areas  now  separated  by  stretches  of 
water  were  probably  connected  in  past  ages.  It 
seems  quite  certain  that  the  area  now  occupied 
by  Bering  Sea  and  Bering  Strait  was  in  com- 
paratively recent  times  a  land  surface,  and  that 
there  was  a  migration  of  fauna  and  flora  between 
the  American  and  the  Euro-Asian  continents. 
However,  the  uniformity  of  conditions  over  wide 
areas  is  also  undoubtedly  a  factor  causing  simi- 
larities of  life-forms,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
isolated  Antarctic  islands  have  closely  similar 
floras. 

Arctic  Plant.s.  In  many  respects  these 
plants,  wliose  natural  habitats  are  in  high  lati- 
tudes, resemble  alpine  plants  (q.v.),  and,  like 
them,  form  one  of  tlie  three  climatic  groups  of 
xerophytes  (q.v.).  Dwarf  growth  is  one  of  the 
chief  characteristics  of  Arctic  vegetation,  and  is 
remarkably  well  illustrated  in  a  juniper  stem 
reported  by  Kihlman:  The  stem  was  but  3^,^ 
inches  thick,  and  yet  showed  544  growth  rings. 
Plants  that  grow  to  a  height  of  one  or  two  feet 
in  S.weden  are  but  one  or  two  inches  high  in  the 
far  North.  As  in  the  case  of  alpine  plants,  re- 
duction is  confined  to  the  stems  and  leaves,  the 
roots'  and  Mowers  being  as  large  as  in  warmer 
climates.  Cushion  and  rosette  plants  are  well 
developed.  The  leaf  structure  is  highly  xero- 
phytic,  leathery  and  thick-skinned  evergreen 
leaves  being  particularly  abundant. 

The  Arctic  life  conditions  have  been  especially 
well  described  by  Kihlman  (PflanzenhioJoijische 
i^tiidien  aus  Russifich-Lapliiitd.  1800,  etc.).  The 
cold  and  darkness  of  the  long  winter  nights  have 
but  little  influence  on  the  vegetation.  Of  greater 
importance  are  the  short  vegetative  period,  which 
excludes  many  plant  species  from  life  in  Arctic 
regions,  and  the  jirevalence  of  dry  winds  at  times 
when  transpiration  losses  cannot  be  made  good. 
Kihlman  thinks  that  this  latter  factor  is  the 
chief  cause  of  Arctic  phenomena.  The  absence 
of  trees,  then,  is  due  not  to  the  shortness  of  the 


AKCTIC  BEGION. 


762 


ARCTIC  REGION. 


period  of  vegetation,  nor  to  the  cold,  but  to  dry 
winds;  this  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  trees 
thrive  in  the  coldest  known  place  in  the  world 
(Verkhoyansk,  Siberia),  and  also  by  the  fact 
that  the"  height  of  shrubs  is  determined  by  the 
level  of  the  snow  in  winter.  The  continuous 
though  not  intense  light  of  Arctic  regions  checks 


DRABA  ALPINE 

Showing  the  densely  compacted  cuehion-form  of 
Arctic-alpine  plants. 

growth,  but  favors  photosynthesis.  One  of  the 
]ieculiarities  of  Arctic  plant  life  is  that  there  are 
no  gradual  seasonal  transitions.  The  buds  are 
largely  laid  down  in  the  preceding  season,  and 
spring  into  active  life  at  once :  growth  is  checked 
with  equal  suddenness  in  the  fall. 

The  -Arctic  diflers  radically  from  the  temperate 
zone  in  tliat  plant  structures  are  xerophytic.  re- 
gardless of  water  and  soil  conditions.  In  fact, 
one  may  refer  all  of  the  Arctic  vegetation  to  one 
great  plant  formation,  the  tundra  (q.v.).  While 
Arctic  plants  closely  resemble  alpine  plants  eco- 
logically, there  are  interesting  Horistic  differ- 
ences. Alpine  plants  (q.v.)  ai'e  noted  for  their 
endemism  (q.v.),  while  Arctic  plants  are  similar 
over  wide  areas.  Indeed,  the  Arctic  floras  of 
Eurojip  and  America  are  almost  identical. 

.Mxnit  seventeen  hundred  species  of  plants 
have  been  found  in  the  Arctic  region.  In  the 
zone  nearest  the  circle  grow  a  few  trees,  mainly 
junipers,  dwarf  willows,  and  birches.  The  tree 
line  in  the  Samoyed  region  ends  near  the  07th 
parallel  of  latitude;  at  the  Yenisei  River,  near 
the  (i.Tth  parallel;  at  the  Lena,  near  the  71st 
parallel:  at  the  Mackenzie,  near  the  (iSth  par- 
allel;   at  Hudson  Bay,  it  runs  down  to  the  60th 


parallel ;  in  Labrador,  to  the  52d  parallel.  In 
Greenland  it  lies  near  the  C2d  parallel.  Flower- 
ing plants,  grasses,  mosses,  and  lichens  extend  to 
the  most  northern  land  seen  by  man.  Examples 
of  those  found  in  all  sections  of  the  Arctic  world 
are  saxifrages  ({•laxifraga  oppositifolia  is  ubiqui- 
tous), several  varieties  of  ranunculus,  potentil- 
las,  poppies  (the  Arctic  poppy,  Pupai-er  nudi- 
cauh-.  is  found  even  upon  tl\e  crests  of  the  cliffs 
in  nortliern  Greenland,  where  it  thrusts  its  head 
through  the  edge  of  the  ice-ca])  to  reach  the  sun- 
light) ,  drabas,  cochlearia,  etc.  The  country  richest 
in  variety  is  Lapland,  where  are  found  three- 
fourths  of  the  species  known  in  the  Arctic 
regions.  For  the  varieties  characteristic  of  each 
country,  see  Lapland;  Greenland;  Sideria; 
Alaska  ;  Spitzdergen  ;  Franz-.Josef  Land  ; 
Ellesmere  Land;  Grinnell  Land,  etc.  See  also 
Musci;  Lichen;  Grasses;  Distribution  of 
Plants,  etc. 

Arctic  Mammals.  The  similarity  of  species 
of  Arctic  mammals  throughout  the  circle  of  the 
globe  is  even  closer  than  that  of  plants.  Of  land 
mammals  there  are  but  few,  and  many  of  these 
are  of  the  same  species  wherever  found.  The 
polar  bear  (Vrsus  maritimus)  has  the  highest 
range.  Specimens  have  been  found  upon  the 
icepack  north  of  every  known  land.  The  bear, 
however,  is  never  found  far  from  the  coast, 
either  inland  or  at  sea.  (See  Bear.)  The  Arctic 
fox  {Vulpes  lagopits)  has  almost  as  high  a 
range,  and  is  also  found  throughout  the  entire 
Arctic  land  area.  The  lemming  is  found  in 
every  Arctic  country  except  Franz-.Josef  Land. 
Tlie  reindeer  (Kangifer  tarundi(s)  isfound  around 
the  globe  occasionally  as  far  north  as  about  the 
7'Jth  parallel,  but  does  not  inhabit  the  great 
islands  in  the  .\rctic  Ocean.  The  musk-ox  lOci- 
hos  iiioscliatus)  has  been  common  witliin  the 
memory  of  man  as  far  west  as  Point  Barrow;  but 
at  present  its  range  extends  from  the  ^Mackenzie 
P>iver  east  across  the  continent  to  Grinnell  Land, 
and  again  across  the  northern  part  of  Greenland. 
The  Arctic  hare  [hepus  gUicialis)  is  found  in 
the  northern  part  of  Xorth  America  and  of 
Greenland,  and  in  these  regions  it  reaches  the 
highest  known  land.  Among  the  other  Arctic 
land  animals  are  the  wolverine  or  glutton  (Gulo 
orclicus),  which  is  found  in  North  America  and 
is  reported  to  have  existed  in  Greenland,  though 
such  reports  lack  scientific  verification;  the 
Arctic  wolf;  and  the  Eskimo  dog,  which  is  sup- 
posed by  most  authorities  to  have  been  derived 
from  the  wolf  by  taming. 

The  most  important  of  the  sea-mammals  are 
the  whales  and  seals.  Tlie  right  whale  {Utikviius 
vti/stivcliis)  is  found  in  the  waters  east  of  Green- 
land, in  Baffin's  Bay,  and  again  north  of  Bering 
Strait.  The  range  of  individuals  is  exceedingly 
wide ;  a  whale  bearing  a  Greenland  harpoon  has 
been  found  in  the  Bering  Strait  region.  The 
ra2orl)ack,  the  hump-back,  and  the  bottle-nose, 
the  grampus,  the  white  whale,  and  the  narwhal, 
are  also  found  in  the  Arctic  Ocean.     See  Whale. 

.\mong  the  pinnipeds,  the  most  remarkable  is 
the  walrus  (q.v.),  which  formerly  inhabited  the 
seas  near  the  coasts  of  all  Arctic  lands,  but  on 
account  of  slaughter  by  fishermen  for  ivory,  skin, 
and  oil,  has  been  driven  from  Europe  and  from 
the  southern  part  of  Baffin  Bay.  The  North  At- 
lantic species  iOtlob(riius  roKinanif:)  is  still  plen- 
tiful in  the  Smitli  Sound  region  and  in  Spilzber- 
gcn   and   Franz-Josef  Land,  and   the   Pacific   spe- 


ARCTIC   REGION.  763 

fies  (OdohiTiiiif!  ohrsus)  is  funnel  on  flie  nortli- 
em  coast  of  Alaska  and  Kanichatka.  Anionj]; 
species  of  hair  seals  which  inluibit  the  Arctic 
seas,  the  most  important  is  the  Phorn  foctidn, 
whose  range  covers  the  Arctic  regions  near  the 
shores  and  ice-fields,  and  extends  south  to  Labra- 
dor, the  Orkneys,  the  Hebrides,  the  gulfs  of  Both- 
nia and  of  Finland,  and  along  the  coasts  of  Si- 
beria and  Alaska,  into  Bering  Sea.  The  harp 
seal  {J'hdcii  (imnlamlica)  and  the  bearded  seal 
[Phoca  harhatus) .  which  is  the  largest  of  the 
North  Atlantic  pinnipeds  ne.xt  to  tlie  walrus, 
also  have  a  circnnipolar  distribution.  The  blad- 
der-nose or  hooded  seal  (tiystoiihoru  cristata) 
ranges  from  Greenland  to  Spitzbergen  and  along 
the  nortliern  coast  of  Europe.  For  other  seals, 
see  the  article  Seal. 

Arctic  Birds.  Birds  are  very  plentiful 
throughout  the  whole  of  the  Arctic  region.  The 
little  auk  {Meri/itlus  olle)  and  the  guillemot 
{Uria  nrra)  are  found  in  thousands  in  whatever 
legion  there  are  cliH's  to  serve  as  nesting  spots. 
Ravens  (('orriis  corox) ,  snow  buntings  iPlectro- 
phenax  nivalis),  and  sandpipers,  have  been  seen 
in  the  remotest  northern  land  regions.  The 
snowj'  owl  (\yctea  nivea)  and  the  falcon, 
though  in  certain  regions  rare — as,  for  instance, 
Greenland  and  Franz-.Tosef  Land — still  inhabit 
all  Arctic  lands.  Various  species  of  gulls — 
Ross's  gull  { Rhodostcthia  rosea),  the  glaucus 
gull  {l,arus  glaiicu.'i),  the  ivory  gull  ( Pagophila 
(burnea) — also  I'ange  very  far  north:  Xansen 
saw  Ross's  gulls  and  ivory  gulls  upon  the  ice- 
pack above  Franz-Josef  Land.  Among  the  other 
characteristic  Arctic  birds  are  the  eider  duck, 
kittiwakes,  skuas,  teal,  petrels,  puffins,  and  ptar- 
migans. Further  information  concerning  the 
mammals  and  birds  of  the  Arctic  region  will  be 
found  under  the  names  of  the  animals.  See  also 
Distribution  of  Animals,  and  the  titles  of  the 
cnintries  included  in  the  Arctic  region. 

Arctic  Insects.  Insects  have  been  collected 
wlierever  exploration  has  extended  and  vegeta- 
tion was  known.  Bees  and  parasitic  hymenop- 
terans  occur  as  far  as  the  Pedicularis  or  other 
flowers  bloom — up  to  82°  or  more  in  Grinnell 
Land,  and  in  Greenland.  Beetles  are  less  hardy, 
and  few  are  known  north  of  the  Arctic  Circle, 
but  flies,  butterflies  and  moths  have  been  taken 
up  to  83°  on  the  American  side  of  the  pole. 
Thus  the  Xares  expedition  brought  back  several 
species  of  Lepidoptera,  mostly  of  common  genera 
(Argj'nnis,  Colias.  Lyciena,  etc.)  of  butterflies, 
while  the  few  moths  represent  various  families. 
These  insects  have  only  about  six  weeks  in  which 
their  larva'  can  hatch  and  feed,  and  probably  do 
not  mature  in  a  single  season ;  but  it  must  also 
be  remembered  that  the  whole  twenty-four  hours 
of  the  days  of  their  brief  career  are  sunny,  and 
they  fly  about  continuously. 

Marine  Life.  More  than  one  hundred  and 
twenty- five  species  of  fishes  have  been  taken 
within  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  valuable  fisheries 
exist  on  the  northern  coasts  of  Russia,  in  the 
waters  about  Spitzbergen  and  Xova  Zembla, 
and  might  be  organized  north  of  Bering  Strait. 
The  most  important  are  cod,  halibut,  flatfish, 
and  related  forms;  but  many  bottom-feeding 
families  are  represented  as  far  north  as  knowl- 
edge extends.  Several  species  of  salmon  or 
trout  ascend  Arctic  rivers,  the  most  northerly 
ease  being  that  of  Salmo  arcturus,  taken  in 
Grinnell  Land    (latitude  82°).     Food  for  many 


ARCTIC  REGION. 


of  these  fishes,  and  for  seals  and  walruses,  is 
afforded  by  a  large  variety  of  mollusks.  includ- 
ing squids,  clams,  and  mussels,  and  a  long  list 
of  gastropods,  chiefly  of  the  families  Pleuro- 
tomida!,  Buccinid.T,  Xatacida>,  and  Trochidae. 
Nearly  one  hundred  species  have  been  cata- 
logued, a  large  proportion  of  which  also  exi.st 
in  temperate  latitudes.  The  great  abundance 
of  diatoms  and  the  general  prevalence  of  low 
alga-  sustain  these  and  similar  low  animals. 
Xo  mollusks  are  more  widesjiread  and  numer- 
ous, however,  than  the  pteropods,  especially  of 
the  genera  Clione  and  Limacina,  and  they  fur- 
nish an  important  element  in  whale  diet.  There 
are  also  chitons  and  sea-slugs.  Crustacea 
abound  in  the  Arctic  seas.  A  few  are  of  the 
higher  forms,  allied  to  crabs  and  shrimps,  but 
mainly  they  are  entomostracans  of  small  size 
and  pelagic  life.  Such  amphipods  as  Anonyx 
and  Hippolyte  are  well  re])resented  in  the  ex- 
treme north  at  various  depths,  as  also  are  the 
copepods,  isopods,  barnacles,  and  pycnogonids; 
and  the  specimens  of  such  species  as  are  also 
known  southward  are  very  much  larger  than 
their  southern  equivalents.  All  of  these,  and 
especially  the  copepods,  are  of  great  economic 
importance  as  food  for  whales.  They  are  an  ex- 
ample of  the  power  of  resisting  cold  possessed 
by  these  creatures,  for  they  survive  freezing  for 
a  long  period,  and  their  eggs  are  still  more 
hardy.  The  shores  and  shallows  of  the  Arctic 
Ocean  also  abound  in  annelids,  of  which  twenty 
or  more  species  have  been  collected,  and  which 
form  an  important  element  in  the  diet  of  the 
larger  denizens  of  those  seas;  and  the  still 
humbler  ranks  of  life  are  represented  by  jelly 
fishes  and  hydroids,  especially  varied  and  nu- 
merous north  of  .\laska.  and  by  polyzoans  and 
test-bearing  protozoans  in  great  numbers.  Sea- 
weeds diminish  toward  the  extreme  north  to  a 
very  few  olive-colored  kinds,  and  seem  to  be 
more  abundant  north  of  Europe  than  in  the 
American   .\retie  regions. 

Discoveries.  For  explorers  the  principal  en- 
trance to  the  Arctic  Ocean  is  the  passage  be- 
tween Xova  Zembla  and  Franz-.Josef  Land; 
the  next  most  convenient  entrance  is  through 
Davis  Strait.  American  expUuers  have  gen- 
erally passed  up  Davis  Strait,  Baffin's  Bay,  and 
Smith  Sound,  and  through  the  very  narrow  Ken- 
nedy Channel,  but  have  not  as  yet  succeeded  in 
steaming  or  sailing  by  this  route  into  the 
open  Arctic  Ocean;  although  Peary,  above  Green- 
land, and  ilarkham,  in  Grinnell  Land,  reached 
the  ocean  by  traveling  along  the  shore. 

As  to  the  cH'orts  to  reach  the  Xorth  Pole 
itself,  it  may  be  stated  that  by  the  use  of 
sledges.  Parry,  in  1S27,  reached  82°  45',  far  out- 
stripping all  ju'cvious  records;  Markham,  of  the 
British  expedition  under  Xares,  attained  83°  20'; 
Lockwood.  of  Greelv's  exjiedition,  reached  S3° 
24';  and  Peary,  in  1900,  reached  83°  50'.  By  the 
passage  eastward  toward  the  New  Siberian 
Islands  and  the  subsequent  drift  in  the  ice-floe, 
Nansen's  ship,  the  Fniiii,  in  1895.  reached  85° 
57';  but  having  previously  left  the  ship,  by  a 
sledge  journey  over  the  ice-pack,  Xansen  and 
.Johannsen  reached  80°  14'.  On  April  26,  1900, 
Cagni,  of  Abruzzi's  expedition,  by  a  rapid  march 
northward  from  Franz-Josef  Land,  reached  80° 
33'. 

Bibliography.  A  very  good  bibliography  of 
the  Arctic  region  is  Chavanne,  aided  by  Karpf 


ARCTIC  KEGIOBT.  764 

and  Jloniniior.  Dir  LiUernliir  iiher  die  Polar- 
Regionen  der  Erde  (Vienna.  1878).  In  thia 
work  may  be  found  the  titles,  classified,  of 
most  of  the  important  books  that  had  been 
written  up  to  the  time  of  its  publication. 
General  Greely's  Handbook  of  Arctic  Discov- 
eries (Boston,  1806)  also  gives  valuable  lists 
of  books,  classi(ied  according  to  the  various 
spheres  of  Arctic  exploration.  A  fairly  com- 
prehensive work  covering  The  Xatural  History, 
Oeologt/,  and  Physics  of  Greenland  and  Adjacent 
Regions  (London,  1875),  was  prepared  by  T. 
Jones  as  a  manual  for  the  British  Admiralty 
Expedition  of  1875-76.  The  information  pre- 
sented by  the  contributors  to  this  work  extends 
somewhat  beyond  the  regions  "adjacent"  to 
Greenland,  but  needs  to  be  supplemented,  and 
in  a  few  passages  corrected,  by  tlie  reports  of 
later  explorations.  Of  such  reports,  the  most 
important  are  ( 1 )  those  of  the  International 
Polar  Expeditions  of  1881-83,  published  by  tne 
various  cooperating  governments.  Those  of  the 
United  States  appeared  (a)  by  Greely  under 
the  title,  Report  on  the  Proceedings  of  the 
United  Imitates  Expedition  to  Lady  Franklin  Bay 
(Washington,  1888)  :  (b)  l>y  Ray,  under  the 
title,  Report  of  the  Expedition  to  Point  Barron: ; 
that  of  Austria,  by  Wohlgemuth,  appeared 
under  the  title,  Osterreichische  Polarstation  Jan 
Mayen  (Vienna,  1886)  :  that  of  Denmark,  by 
Paulsen,  under  the  title,  Expedition  Danoise, 
Godthaab  (Copenhagen,  1889-93)  :  that  of  Great 
Britain,  by  Dawson,  under  the  title.  Fort  Rae 
(London.  1886);  that  of  Russia,  by  Andreyeff 
and  Lentz,  under  the  title,  Beobachtungen  der 
russischen  Polarstationen  atif  A'oicn/n  Senila 
(Saint  Peterlburg,  1886-95),  etc.  (2)  Wright, 
Greenland  Ice  Fields  and  Life  in  the  North 
Atlantic  (New  York,  1896),  which  contains  a 
brief  description  of  the  flora  and  fauna  of 
Greenland  and  a  discussion  of  Arctic  glacial 
phenomena;  (3)  Conway,  The  First  Crossing  of 
i<l>it~bergen  (London,  1897)  ;  (4)  .Jackson,  .1 
Thousand  Days  in  the  Arctic  (New  York,  1899), 
which  deals  witli  Franz-.Josef  Land,  and  The 
Great  Frozen  Land  (New  Y'ork,  1895),  which 
deals  with  the  Samoyed  peninsula;  (5)  Peary, 
Norlhn-ard  Over  the  Great  Ice  (New  York, 
1898).  whicli  contains  a  valuable  chapter  on  the 
most  northern  Eskimos;  (6)  Nansen,  Farthest 
'Xorth,  which  sets  forth  the  drift  of  a  vessel 
frozen  in  the  ice  across  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
Books  on  Arctic  currents  are:  Dittmar,  Das 
yord-Pohirnierr  (Hanover,  1901),  and  the  re- 
port pul)lished  liy  the  Norwegian  (Government 
of  the  investigations  of  the  ship  Ingolf  in  the 
region  of  east  Greenland  and  Iceland. 

Valuable  works  on  the  inhabitants  are:  Boas, 
"The  Eskimo  of  Baffin  Land  and  Hudson  Bay" 
{Bulletin,  American  Museum  of  yatural  His- 
tory, Vol.  XV.)  ;  Pecher,  The  Races  of  Man 
and  Their  tlem/rapliical  Distribution  (London, 
1876)  ;  Ratzel.'  The  History  of  Mankind  (3 
vols.,  translate.l;  New  Y'ork.  1896).  For  the 
distribution  of  animals  consult  Heilprin,  The 
(leographirnl  and  Geological  Distribution  of 
Animals  (New  York,  1887);  for  the  distribu- 
tion of  plants  consult  Heer,  Flora  Fossila  Arc- 
iica   (7  vols.,  Zurich,  1868-80). 

For  iin  account  of  exploration  in  the  Arctic 
regions,  see  PoL.\n  Re.searcti.  For  further  in- 
formation  concerning   the   magnetic   phenomena, 

see    ^I.VGXETISM,   TeRRESTRI.\L. 


ARCY. 

ARCTIUM,  ark'shi-um.     See  Birdock. 

ARCTOID'EA.     See  Cabnivora. 

ARCTOSTAPH'YLOS  (Gk.  a,«rof,  ark- 
tos,  bear  -f  crrd^i//,,  ataphylf,  grape-bunch).  A 
genus  of  shrubs  and  small  trees  closely  related 
to  Arbutus.  Jlost  of  the  .species  are  American; 
two,  however,  are  circumpolar.  Tlie  red  bear- 
berry  {Arctostaphylos  uva-ursi)  is  one  of  them. 
It  is  a  trailing  evergreen  shrub,  which  bears  small 
flowers  and  red  berries  tliat  are  eaten  by  birds, 
especially  grouse  and  ptarmigan.  Its  associated 
species,  Arctostaphylos  alpina,  has  berries  which 
are  black  when  ripe  and  leaves  which  are  not 
evergreen.  The  leaves  of  Arctostaphylos  uva- 
ursi  are  used  in  medicine.  They  contain  tannin, 
gallic  acid,  arbutin,  erieolin,  and  ursone,  and 
possess  tonic,  diuretic,  astringent,  and  nephri- 
tic properties.  The  manzanita  of  California  is 
Arctostaphylos  pungens  or  Arctostaphylos  man- 
zanita. It  is  a  shrub  or  small  tree  30  feet  high 
tnat  sometimes  forms  almost  impassable  thickets. 
A  number  of  other  species  are  believed  worthy  of 
cultivation  in  regions  adapted  to  them.  Only  the 
trailing  forms  are  entirely  hardy.  Fossil  speci- 
mens of  Arctostaphylos  ura-ursi  have  been  found 
in  the  clays  of  the  glacial  period  in  northern 
Europe. 

ARCTTJ'RtJS  (Gk.  apKTo^,  arktos,  bear,  the 
Great  Bear  +  oi'pof,  ouros,  guardian).  The  prin- 
cipal star  in  the  constellation  Bootes  (the 
"herdsman").  Arcturus  is  of  the  first  magni- 
tude, and  is  very  conspicuous  in  the  northern 
heavens. 

AR'CTJA'TION.      See  Layerixg,  Arcuation. 

ARCUEIL,  ur'ke'y'  (anciently,  Lat.  Arcus 
lulianus).  A  suburb  of  Paris  lying  four  miles 
south  of  that  city  (Map:  Paris  and  vicinity).  It 
is  a  place  of  resort  for  Parisian  holiday  crowds, 
and  is  noted  for  the  ruins  of  an  aqueduct  built 
by  order  of  the  Roman  Emperor  Julian,  and  for 
several  aqueducts  of  modern  times. 

AR'CTIS  SENI'LIS  (Lat.,  bow  of  old  age). 
A  not  very  well-chosen  term  for  a  change  occur- 
ring in  the  cornea  of  the  eye,  in  consequence  of 
fatty  degeneration  of  its  marginal  part.  The 
term  is  objectionable,  because  the  change  usually 
commences  before  the  advent  of  old  age ;  and  fur- 
ther, because  the  arcus,  or  arch,  is  usually  con- 
verted into  a  complete  circle  by  the  time  that 
the  patient  has  reached  the  age  of  60  or  70 
years.  The  arcus  senilis  usually  commences  at 
or  even  before  the  age  of  40  years,  as  an  opaque 
whitish  crescent,  skirting  either  the  upper  or 
lower  margin  of  the  cornea;  and  from  this  l)e- 
ginning  it  extends  along  the  edge,  till  it 
finally  becomes  a  complete  circle,  which  some- 
times assumes  a  chalky  whiteness,  and  gives  to 
the  eye  a  very  peculiar  appearance.  On  careful 
examination,  it  may  be  seen  that  a  narrow  inter- 
val of  partially  clear  cornea  always  intervenes 
between  the  arcus  and  the  opaque  sclerotic.  As 
far  as  the  eye  is  concerned,  the  formation  of  this 
circle  is  of  little  importance.  It  is  usually  asso- 
ciated with  arteriosclerosis  of  the  blood  vessels 
and  fatty  degeneration  of  other  portions  of  the 
body,   including  the  heart. 

ARCY,  ar'se',  Grotto  of.  A  cavern  of 
remarkable  beauty  twelve  miles  east  of  Auxerre, 
I'rance.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  used  in 
early  times  as  a  stone  quarry,  and  possibly  the 


AKCY. 

material  for  the  Auxeire  cathedral  was  taken 
from  it.  One  of  its  divisions  is  400  yards  long, 
26  high,  and   14  wide. 

ABD,  or  AIBD.  A  Celtic  root,  meaning 
'height'  (cf.  Lat.  ardiius,  high),  which  appears 
in  many  geographical  names,  especially  in  Ire- 
land and  Scotland. 

ARDAHAN,  arda-hiin'.  The  capital  of  a 
district  in  the  territory  of  Kars,  Transcaucasian 
Russia  (Map:  Russia,  F  6).  It  is  situated  on 
the  Kur  River.  Its  strategical  importance  as 
the  point  of  Juncture  of  the  roads  to  Batum, 
Akhaltsikh,  Kars,  and  Erzerum  was  recog- 
nized by  the  Turks,  who  by  constantly  im- 
proving its  fortifications,  nuxdc  it  finally  a  very 
strong  fortress.  In  1877,  20,000  Russians  under 
Devel  and  Heiman  successfully  stormed  it.  By 
the  treaty  of  San  Stefano  and  the  Berlin  Con- 
gress (1878),  Ardahan  and  the  surrounding 
country  were  ceded  to  Russia. 

ARDASHIR,  ar'dasher'  (Pahlavi  Ailaxsa- 
tar,  later  Pers.  Ardasir).  The  name  of  three 
monarchs  of  the  Sassanian  dynasty  of  Persia 
(see  Sass.^nid.e)  ,  and  a  later  form  of  the  old 
name  Artakhshathra,  or  Artaxcrxes  (q.v. ).  The 
most  important  of  the  three  was  Ardashir  I.,  or 
Artakhshatar  Papakan,  who  founded  the  Sas- 
sanian dynasty  by  overthrowing  Artabanus,  the 
last  of  the  Parthian  kings,  and  strengthened  his 
power  by  further  conquests,  and  ruled  over  Per- 
sia A.n.  220-240.  The  other  two  of  the  name  were 
Ardashir  II.,  379-383;  Ardashir  III.,  6'28-G29. 
See  Persia. 

ABDEBIL,  ar'de-bel',  or  ARDABIL,  iir'di- 
bel'.  A  celebrated  town  of  Persia,  situated  in 
latitude  38°  l.'i'  north,  longitude  48°  19'  east, 
on  a  highly  elevated  plain,  forty  miles  from  the 
Caspian  Sea  (ilap:  Persia,  C  2).  It  has 
a  moderate  climate,  and  its  picturesque  environs 
and  the  mineral  springs  in  its  vicinity  make  it 
the  favorite  abode  of  the  Persian  rulers,  whose 
tombs  it  contains.  Before  the  Russo-Persian  War 
(182(3-28)  the  city  was  strongly  fortified  under 
the  direction  of  a  French  general.  During  the 
war  it  was  captured  l)y  the  Russians,  and  was 
subsequently  nearly  ruined  by  earthquakes.  It 
derives  some  importance  from  its  proximity  to 
the  Lenkoran-Tabriz  caravan  route.  Its  popula- 
tion is  estimated  at  1,5,000. 

ARDECHE.  ar'desh'.  A  department  in  the 
soutli  of  France.  It  takes  its  name  from 
the  river  Ard^che,  a  tributary  of  the  Rhone,  and 
includes  the  northernmost  part  of  the  ancient 
province  of  Languedoc.  Area,  2136  square 
miles:  population,  1896,  360,599;  1901,  353,564. 
Ardfiche  is  almost  wholly  mountainous.  The  up- 
land, which  has  winter  for  aliout  six  months,  is 
devoted  to  pasturage;  the  terraces  and  valleys 
near  the  Rhone  have  a  warm  climate  and  pro- 
duce good  white  and  red  wine,  olives,  dates,  al- 
monds, chestnuts,  etc.  Lead,  iron,  copper,  and 
manganese  are  mined.     Capital,  Privas. 

AR'DEN,  EnwiN  Hunter  Pendleton  ( 1864 
— ).  An  American  actor  and  manager.  He  was 
born  February  13,  1864.  in  St.  Louis,  Mo.  He 
I.eft  hojne  at  the  age  of  17,  and  after  a  variety 
of  experiences  in  the  \\'est  went  upon  the  stage 
in  1882.  with  ,T.  W.  Keene's  company,  in  Chi- 
cago. Besides  his  engagements  with  other  man- 
agers, he  has  traveled  for  a  number  of  years  with 
his  own  company,  and  appeared  in  plays  of  his 
own   axithorship.      He   lias   written,   either   alone 


705 


ARDEN    OF    FEVERSHAM. 


i>r    in    collaboration,    Eaiih'x    \,sl.   Haired    Out, 
Kaglnn's  May,  and  Zorah. 

ARDEN,  Forest  of.  A  wood  in  Warwick- 
shire, in  old  times  very  extensive.  It  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  a  hunting-ground  of  Robin 
Hood's.  Certain  authorities  believe  tliat  Shake- 
speare used  it  as  a  background  in  .Is  Yuii  Likcit ; 
others  assert  that  his  scenerv  was  taken  from 
the  forest  of  Ardennes. 

ARDENNES,  iir'den'  (Celt.,  high  wooded  val- 
ley, from  (/)•(/;  Lat.  ardiius,  high;  the  ancient 
Lat.  Ardiicniia  Silra,  Ardenne  Forest).  A  wild, 
hilly  region,  extending  over  portions  of  Belgium 
and  France,  and  graduallv  sloping  tow^ard  the 
plains  of  Flanders.  In  earlv  times,  the  name 
was  given  to  a  vast  forest  lying  between  the 
Rhine  and  the  Sambre,  a  distance  of  about  160 
miles.  The  average  height  of  the  hills  is  less 
than  1600  feet;  but  in  the  east,  Mont  St. Hu- 
bert attains  an  elevation  of  2100  feet.  Large 
tracts  of  this  region  consist  of  gently  undulating 
plateaus  densely  covered  with  oak  and  beech 
forests,  while  other  portions  are  marshy,  heathv 
and  barren.  The  districts  through  which  tlie 
Meuse  and  other  rivers  How  present  some  extra- 
ordinary appearances.  The  channel  of  the  river 
IS  sometimes  bound  in  by  rugged  and  precipitous 
cliffs  more  than  600  feet  high.  The  principal 
rocks  of  the  Ardennes  are  clay  slate,  graywacke 
quartz,  etc.,  interspersed  with  extensive"  strata 
of  Paleozoic  limestone.  There  are  coal  and  iron 
mines  in  the  northwest;  lead,  antimony,  and 
manganese  are  also  found.  There  is  little  culti- 
vation of  grain,  but  cattle  and  sheep  are  exten- 
sively reared.  Consult  A.  Jleyrac,  }illes  et  i-il- 
lafics  des  Ardennes  (Charlevill'e,  1898). 

ARDENNES.  A  frontier  department  in  the 
northeast  of  France.  It  forms  a  part  of  the 
old  province  of  Champagne.  Area,  2020  square 
miles:  population,  in  1896,  318,865;  in  1901, 
315,589.  The  northeastern  part  of  Ardennes 
belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Meuse;  the  south- 
west is  watered  by  the  Aisne;  and  both  of 
the.se  rivers,  united  by  the  Canal  of  Ardennes 
receive  several  afiiuents.  About  one-eighth  of 
the  surface  is  hilly  and  covered  with  forests 
and  wide  tracts  of  pasturage.  The  valleys 
alone  are  fertile  and  produce  corn.  The  viiie 
is  cultivated  at  Mezifres,  in  the  southwest.  In 
the  north,  near  Givet,  marble  is  obtained;  but 
the  prevailing  rock  is  limestone,  veined  with  lead 
and  iron.  Slate,  marble  and  iron,  porcelain 
clay,  and  sand  for  making  glass  are  obtained. 
Capital.  Mezi^res,  Consult  A.  .Toanne,  Le  de- 
partement  dcs  Ardennes   (Paris,  1898). 

ARDENNES,  The  Wild  Boar  of.  An  ap- 
pellation of  William  de  la  Jlarck,  a  lawless 
baron  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XL,  whom  Scott  has 
introduced  in  several  chapters  of  Quentin  Dur- 
ward. 

AR'DEN  OF  FEVERSHAM.  The  first  Eng- 
lish ■■bouriieois  tragedy."  It  deals  with  a  murder 
by  a  wife  and  her  paramour.  The  plot  was 
drawn  from  an  actual  o<'currence,  contemporary 
with  it.  It  was  first  printed  in  1592;  its  author- 
ship is  unknown.  The  play  has  been  attributed 
both  to  Shakespeare  and  to' Kyd.  In  1736.  Lillo, 
author  of  fleor<ie  liiirnweU.  began  an  adaptation 
of  it.  which  was  completed  after  his  death  bv  Dr. 
Hoadley  and  produced  in  1790.  For  further  in- 
formation, consult:  Saintsbury,  History  of 
Elizabethan  Literature  (London,  1887). 


ABDITI. 


766 


ARECA. 


ARDITI,  iir-de'te.  LuiGl  ( 1 822-1  OO.-J) .  An 
Italian  toniposer  and  musical  conductor.  He 
was  born  at  Crescentino,  Piedmont,  July  16, 
1822.  After  graduating  from  the  Milan  Con- 
servator}' in  1842,  he  began  his  career  as  a  violin 
virtuoso"  traveling  with  Bottesini,  the  famous 
double-bass  player.  With  the  Havana  Opera 
Company,  of  which  he  became  conductor,  he  vis- 
ited New  York  in  1847  and  during  subsequent 
seasons,  conducting  in  1854  the  first  ])erformance 
at  the  Academy  of  JIusic,  where  lie  brought  out 
his  opera.  La  ^pia  (based  on  Cooper's  novel,  The 
iipy),  with  Brignoli  and  La  Grange.  In  1857  he 
was  conductor  at  Her  Majesty's  Theatre  in  Lon- 
don. In  1869  he  conducted  The  Flying  Dutch- 
man, the  first  performance  of  a  Wagner  opera  in 
England.  In  1878,  and  many  subsequent  sea- 
sons, he  again  conducted  opera  in  New  York. 
His  waltz  songs,  II  Bacio  (to  whicli  Piccolomini 
gave  great  vogue)  and  Fior  di  ilarffhaiita  (sung 
by  Patti  and  other  great  prima  donnas),  are 
famous.  He  was  Patti's  favorite  conductor.  His 
other  operas  are  /  Briganti  (1841)  and  II  Cor- 
saro  (1850).  He  published  My  Reminiscences 
(New  York,  1896),  containing  a  good  deal  of 
valuable  information,  besides  interesting  chit- 
chat. 

ARD'MOEE.  A  city  in  the  Chickasaw  Nation, 
Indian  Territory,  al)out  400  miles  south  by  west 
of  Kansas  City,  Mo. ;  on  the  Gulf,  Colorado,  and 
Santa  Fe  and  other  railroads.  It  is  the  seat  of 
Hargrove  College,  and  controls  important  com- 
mercial interests  in  cotton,  coal,  and  asphalt. 
Ardmore  was  settled  in  1886  and  incorporated  in 
1898  under  a  charter  providing  for  a  government 
administered  by  a  mayor,  elected  every  two  years, 
and  a  municipal  council.  Population  in  1900, 
5681. 

ARDOCH,  iir'doG.  A  small  village  in  Perth- 
shire. Scotland,  eight  miles  south-southwest  of 
Crieff,  with  the  best-preserved  Roman  camp  in 
Britain  (Map:  Scotland,  E  3).  Tlie  camp  is  21/2 
miles  north  of  Greenloaning  station  on  the  Cale- 
donian Railway,  in  the  grounds  of  Ardoch  House. 
The  intrenched  works  form  a  rectangle  500  by 
430  feet,  the  four  sides  facing  the  cardinal 
points.  Tlie  north  and  east  sides  are  protected 
by  five  ditches  and  six  ramparts,  these  works 
being  270  feet  broad  on  the  north  side  and  180 
feet  on  the  east.  A  deep  morass  exists  on  the 
soutlieast,  and  the  perpendicular  banks  of  Knaig 
Water,  rising  50  feet  liigh,  protect  the  camp  on 
the  west.'  Tlie  pi'a"torium,  or  general's  quarter, 
now  called  Cliapel  Hill,  rises  above  the  level  of 
the  camp,  but  is  not  exactly  in  the  ccjitre,  and  is 
nearly  a  square  of  60  feet  each  side.  Three  of 
the  four  gates  usual  in  Roman  camps  are  still 
seen.  A  subterranean  passage  is  said  to  have 
formerly  extended  from  the  prjptorium  under  the 
bed  of  the  Knaig.  Not  far  north. of  this  station, 
on  the  way  to  Crieff,  maj'  be  traced  three  tem- 
porary Roman  camps  of  different  sizes.  Portions 
of  the  ramparts  of  these  camps  still  exist. 

ARDROS'SAN  (Gael,  ard,  high  +  rossan, 
point ) .  A  small  seaport  town  and  summer  re- 
sort in  Ayrshire,  Scotland,  on  the  Firth  of  Clyde, 
about  30  miles  southwest  of  Glasgow  ( Map : 
Scotland,  T>  4).  Its  harbor,  sheltered  by  an 
island  off  the  coast,  is  one  of  the  safest  and  most 
accessible  on  the  west  coast  of  Scotland,  and  has 
been  greatly  improved  by  the  earls  of  Eglinton. 
There  is  a  large  export  of  coal  and  pig  iron  from 


this  place,  and  ship-building  is  carried  on  to  a 
considerable  extent.  On  a  hill  above  the  town 
stand  the  ruins  of  Ardrossan  Castle,  said  co  have 
been  surprised  by  Wallace  when  held  by  the 
forces  of  Edward  I.  Population  of  the  police 
burgh  in  1901,  5933. 

ARE,  iir  (Lat.  area,  piece  of  level  ground). 
The  unit  of  the  French  land  measure;  a  square, 
the  side  of  which  is  10  metres  (or  32.809  feet) 
long,  and  which,  therefore,  contains  100  square 
metres  =  1076  English  square  feet.  The  next  de- 
nomination in  the  ascending  scale  is  the  decare, 
containing  10  ares;  but  the  denomination  com- 
monly used  in  describing  a  quantity  of  land  is 
the  hectare  of  100  ares  =  2.47  English  statute  or 
imperial  acres.    See  Metric  System. 

A'REA  (Lat.,  piece  of  level  ground,  vacant 
place ) .  The  superflces  of  any  bounded  surface  or 
space.  The  calculation  of  areas,  or  mensuration 
of  surfaces,  is  one  of  the  ultimate  objects  of 
geometry.  Area  is  commonly  measured  by  a 
square  unit,  as  the  square  inch,  square  yard, 
square  metre,  square  degree.  (See  Men.suration  ; 
and  Ql'.\DR.\TrRE. )  In  antiquity  this  word  meant 
any  space  free  of  buildings,  such  as  a  square, 
inclosure,  court,  arena  of  a  circus,  space  around 
a  temple  or  any  other  public  building.  In  this 
connection,  the  area  was  consecrated  ground. 
So,  in  connection  with  early  Christian  churches 
there  were  areas  protected  by  law,  in  which  the 
faithful  were  buried.  The  modern  use  of  the 
word  is  restricted  to  the  open  space  of  a  narrow 
fi'ont  yard  or  back  court,  or  in  connection  with  a 
basement.  ' 

ARE'CA  (Sp.  Portug.,  from  Canarese  ad- 
iki) .  A  genus  of  palms  containing  about  twenty 
species,  liaving  pinnate  leaves  and  tliree  or  more 
spathes.  The  fruit  is  a  fibrous  one  -  seeded 
drupe,  a  nut  with  an  outer  fibrous  husk.  Areca 
catechu,  the  Pinang  palm,  or  betel-nut  palm,  is 
a  native  of  the  East  Indies,  wliose  nut  yields  a 
sort  of  catechu.  (See  Catechu.)  This  areca-nut. 
or  betel-nut,  is  very  much  used  in  all  parts  of 
the  East,  the  chewing  of  it  with  quick-lime  and 
the  leaf  of  the  betel-pepper  being  one  of  the  most 
prevalent  habits  of  the  people.  (See  Betel.)  The 
fruit  is  about  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg,  smooth, 
orange  or  scarlet,  the  fibrous  liusk  about  half  an 
inch  thick.  When  chewed  it  reduces  the  saliva 
and  stains  the  lips  and  teeth.  It  is  said  to  stimu- 
late the  digestive  organs  and  to  prevent  dyseti- 
tery.  Areca-nuts  form  a  considerable  article 
of  trade  in  the  East.  The  timber  of  the  palm 
which  produces  them,  and  its  leaf-stalks  and 
spathes,  are  also  used  for  domestic  purposes. 
The  tree  is  often  40  to  100  feet  high,  and  in  gen- 
eral less  than  a  foot  in  diameter.  Tlie  leaves  are 
few,  but  very  large,  their  leaflets  one  to  two  feet 
long.  In  Malabar,  an  inebriating  lozenge  is  pre- 
pared from  the  sap.  Areca  oleracca,  or  Oreodoxa 
oleracea.  the  "cabbage  palm'  of  tlie  West  Indies, 
is  a  very  tall  tree,  100  to  200  feet,  whose  huge 
terminal  leaf-bud  is  sweet  and  nutritious,  and  is 
sometimes  used  for  the  table  as  cabbage;  but 
when  it  is  cut  oft'  the  tree  is  destroyed.  Tlie 
stem  of  this  tree,  notwithstanding  its  great 
height,  is  remarkably  slender.  Tlie  nuts  are  pro- 
duced in  great  numbers ;  they  are  about  the  size 
of  a  filbert,  and  have  a  sweet  kernel.  Areca  sa- 
pida,  now  called  Rhopalostylis  sapida,  the  New 
Zealand  palm,  is  remarkable  as  extending  south- 
ward lieyond  the  geograpliical  limits  of  any  other 


AKECA. 


767 


ABEITST. 


of  its  order,  as  f;'.7,  indceil,  as  latitude  38°  22'  S. 
It  is  a  small  [laiiii,  only  from  six  to  ten  feet 
high,  with  leaves  four  to  six  feet  long.  The 
young  inrioreseence  is  eaten.  Areca  vestiaria,  a 
native  of  the  East,  is  so  called  because  clothing 
is  made  from  its  fibres.  For  illustrations,  see 
Pal.m.s. 

AEECIBO,  ii'ra-se'n.*.  The  chief  city  of  the 
department  of  the  same  name,  rather  pictur- 
esquely situated  on  the  northern  coast  of  Porto 
Rico  (ilap:  Porto  Rico,  B  2).  It  is  about 
forty  miles  west  of  San  Juan,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  rail,  and  lias  a  rather  shallow  har- 
bor and  some  sugar  mills.  Population,  in  1899, 
8U08. 

AR'EIOP'AGTIS.    See  Areopagus. 

ARE'NA  (Lat.,  sand,  sandy  place,  beach, 
eoast).  The  central  part  of  an  amphitheatre, 
inclosed  by  the  seats.  In  it  the  gladiatorial 
contests  and  other  games  were  held,  and  the 
name  arena  was  given  to  it  because  of  the  sand 
which  was  spread  to  soak  up  the  blood.  The 
term  is  extended  to  mean  any  flat  inclosure  for 
the  exhibitions  of  shows,  games,  sports,  and  con- 
tests, and  even  figuratively  to  political  and 
other  intellectual  contests.      See  Amphitheatre. 

AB'ENA'CEOUS  ROCKS  (from  Lat.  arena, 
sand),  or  Psammites,  (iravel  and  Sand  Rocks, 
composed  mainly  of  quartz  particles  deposited 
through  water  or  air.  They  are  mechanical  sedi- 
ments produced  by  the  disintegration  and  re- 
moval of  silicious  rocks  by  the  action  of  atmos- 
phere, rain,  rivers,  frost,  lake  and  ocean  waves, 
and  other  superficial  agencies.  The  arenaceous 
rocks  or  p.sammites,  include  plain  sand,  river 
sand,  sea  sand,  sandstone,  graywackes,  quartzite, 
gravel,  shingle,  and  conglomerate  (q.v. ).  Seldom 
are  they  composed  entirely  of  quartz;  the  quartz 
being  commonly  associated  with  fragments  of 
other  minerals  such  as  feldspar,  mica,  iron  ore, 
hornblende,  etc.,  all  of  which  may  be  cemented 
by  carbonate  of  lime  or  magnesia,  quartz,  or  iron. 
See  Argillaceou.s  Rock.s  ;  Calcareous  Rock.s  ; 
RoCK.s.  Arenaceous  rocks  grade  by  intermediate 
stages  into  argillaceous  rocks  through  increasing 
admixtures  of  clay,  and  into  calcareous  rocks  by 
admixture  of  lime. 

ARENALES,  ii'ra-na'Ies,  Juan  Antonio  Al- 
varez DE  ( 1755- 182.')).  An  officer  in  the 
patriot  army  in  the  Peruvian  revolution  against 
Spain.  In  1820,  with  a  body  of  a  thousand  men, 
he  was  sent  from  Pisco  with  orders  to  strike  into 
the  country  across  the  Andes  and  proceed  by  a 
circuitous  route  to  Lima,  there  to  meet  the  main 
army — a  feat  not  unlike  Sherman's  famous 
march,  which  he  accomplished  most  successfully, 
completelv  defeating  the  Spanish  army  at  Cerro- 
Pasto. 

AR'ENA'RIA  (Lat.  arrnnrius.  pertaining  to 
sand,  from  arena,  sand),  or  Sandwort.  A  large 
genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Caryophyl- 
lacew.  difl'ering  from  Htellaria  (Stitchwort,  ^r.t'.) 
chiefly  in  the  undivided  petals.  The  species, 
about  two  hundred  in  number,  are  annual  and 
perennial  herbaceous  plants  of  humble  growth, 
rarely  somewhat  shrubby,  and  natives  of  the 
temperate  and  colder  parts  of  the  world.  Some 
of  them  are  arctic  and  alpine  plants.  Many  of 
them  are  chiefly  found  in  sandy  soils.  The 
flowers  are  generally  small   and  inconspicuous, 


but  if  closely  examined,  are  seen  to  possess  no 
little  beauty. 

ARENBERG,    a'ren-berK,  or   AREMBEBO, 

ii'rem-ljt'rK,  .\i\iUST  JIaria  Raimunu,  Prince 
(1753-1833).  A  Belgian  soldier  anu  author — 
also  known  as  Count  Lamarck — a  brother  of 
the  Duke  of  Arenberg.  He  served  in  India  in 
1780,  and  participated  in  the  Belgian  revolt 
of  1789,  but  afterwards  swore  allegiance  to  the 
Emperor  Leopold  II.  He  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Mirabeau  during  the  French  Revolution,  and 
his  Correspondance  entre  le  Comte  de  Mirabetju 
et  le  Comte  de  Lamarck  (edited  by  Vacourt, 
two  volumes,  Brussels,  1851)  must  be  considered 
a  valuable  contribution  to  the  history  of  the 
French  Revolution. 

ARENBERG,  Leopold  Piiilipp  Karl  .Joseph, 
Duke  of(  1090-1754).  An  Austrian  field-marshal. 
He  was  born  at  Mons.  of  one  of  the  most  illus- 
trious families  of  Belgium.  At  sixteen  he  was 
colonel  of  a  regiment,  and  councillor  of  state 
to  Charles  III.,  the  Austrian  pretender  to  the 
Spanish  throne,  who  subsequently  became  Em- 
peror as  Charles  VI.  He  fought  at  JIalplaquet 
in  1709  and  in  thesame  yearbecame  grand  bailitf 
of  Hainault.  In  1716  he  served  in  Hungary 
under  Prince  Eugene,  and  fought  at  Belgrade  in 
the  following  year;  on  returning  to  the  Nether- 
lands in  1718  he  was  made  military  governor 
of  Hainault,  and  subsequently  commander-in- 
chief  of  all  the  Austrian  forces  in  the  Nether- 
lands, with  the  rank  of  field-marshal.  In  1743 
he  led  his  troops  with  great  gallantry  at  Det- 
tingen.  Afterwards  he  served  in  Silesia  under 
Charles  of  Lorraine,  and  in  1747  was  president 
of  the  commission  in  control  of  the  Netherlands. 
He  was  a  lover  of  the  sciences  and  of  letters,  and 
was  a  patron  of  J.  .J.  Rousseau.  He  also  cor- 
responded with  Voltaire  and  with  Frederick  the 
Creat.  The  fullest  account  of  Leopold  of  Aren- 
berg is  that  given  by  Gachard,  in  the  Biographie 
Nationale,  published  by  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Belgium,  and  founded  on  documents  in  the  Bel- 
gian royal  archives. 

ARENDAL,  a'ren-dal.  A  town  on  the  south- 
east coast  of  Norway,  situated  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Nid  Elf  in  the  Bay  of  Christiania,  forty 
miles  northeast  of  the  city  of  Cliristiansand 
(Jlap:  Norway,  C  ".).  It  is  built  partly  on 
piles,  partly  on  rock,  with  numerous  canals  in- 
tersecting it,  and  this  circumstance,  as  well  as 
its  situation,  gives  it  a  very  romantic  aspect, 
and  has  caused  it  to  be  called  "The  Little 
Venice."  The  bay,  which  is  protected  by  the 
island  of  Tromii,  forms  an  excellent  harbor,  and 
favors  the  commerce  of  the  town.  The  exports 
are  iron  from  the  neighboring  mines,  and  wooden 
articles.  Ship-building  is  also  carried  on,  and  on 
a  smaller  scale,  distilleries  and  tobacco  factories. 
Population,  in  1000,  4370. 

ARENDT,  ii'rent,  Otto  ( 1854 — ) .  A  German 
economist  and  politician,  bom  in  Berlin.  He 
studied  law  and  political  science  at  Leipzig  and 
Freiburg,  and  with  the  appearance  in  1880  of  his 
work.  Die  fertragnmiissige  Doppelniihriuig,  be- 
came an  active  advocate  of  bimetallism.  He 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  society  for  the 
introduction  of  international  bimetallism  (1882), 
and  became  the  real  head  of  the  party  in  Ger- 
many. In  1885  he  was  elected  to  the  Prussian 
House  of  Repiesentatives  as  a   member  of  the 


AKENDT. 


res 


AREOPAGUS. 


Liberal  Conservative  party.  In  1888  lie  imder- 
took  the  editorship  of  the  Deiit.icJics  ^Yochellhlatt, 
and  began  to  advocate  colonial  expansion  and 
the  coalition  of  national  parties.  His  published 
vorks  include  Leitfaden  der  WijIiniiKisfnige 
(IVth  ed.,   1805). 

ABENDT,  -i'rent,  Rudolf  (1828—).  A 
German  chemist,  born  at  Frankfurt-on-the-Oder. 
He  studied  at  the  University  of  Leipzig,  and 
after  1801  taught  at  the  commercial  higli  school 
there.  His  published  works  include  text-books 
of  chemistry,  and  valuable  manuals  of  the 
methods  of  teaching  chemistry.  The  best-known 
among  his  works  is  his  Technik  der  Experimental 
Chemie  (two  volumes,  ed.  1,  Leipzig,  1881:  ed. 
2,  1891).  Arendt  was  also  for  many  3'ears 
editor  of  the  Chemisclies  Centralhlatt. 

ARilNE,  a'ren',  Paul  Auguste  (1843-96).  A 
French  writer,  born  at  Sisteron.  He  was  director 
of  the  Lyceum  at  Marseilles,  and  afterwards  of 
that  at  \'anves,  and  gained  his  first  success  as 
an  author  with  his  Pierrot  heritier  (presented 
in  1865),  a  one-act  comedy  in  verse.  His  further 
publications  include  the  dramatic  works  Jean 
des  figues  (IS'O) .  Let)  comcdiens  errants  (1873), 
and  Le  duel  uux  Innternes  (1875),  some  prose 
fiction,  such  as  An  bon  soleil  (1879),  and  Le 
canot  des  six  cnpitaines  (1888),  and  a  volume  of 
descriptions  of  travel,  Vingt  jours  en  Tiiiiisie 
(1884).  Most  of  his  work  was  marked  by  a 
very  delicate  humor.  He  was  a  regular  contri- 
butor to  /.ir  Reiiublique  Frangaise,  L'Erciieiiieiit, 
and  t!il  lilns. 

ARENCy  PALM.     See  Gomuti. 

ARENTS,  a'rents,  Albert  (1840—).  A 
German-American  metallurgist.  He  was  bom 
at  Klausthal,  Germany,  and  studied  mining  en- 
gineering there,  and  at  Berlin.  In  1865  he  came 
to  the  L'nited  States  and  undertook  to  treat  the 
lead  ores  in  Hampden  County,  Mass.  He  was 
subseqiiently  connected,  as  metallurgist  and  min- 
ing engineer,  with  a  number  of  enterprises  in 
the  Western  States,  and  patented  many  valuable 
industrial   improvements. 

ARENTZEN,  a'rents-en,  Kkistian  August 
Emtl  (1823-1900).  A  Danish  poet.  He  was 
born  at  Copenhagen,  and  after  extensive  travels, 
he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  aesthetics  in  the 
L  niversity  of  Copenhagen.  He  published  two 
dramas,  Gunliig  Ormetunge  (1852),  and  Knud 
den  Hellige  ( 1853 ) ,  and  a  volume  of  Digte  ( 1854, 
republished  as  Xy  Digtsamling,  1867).  He  is 
chiefly  known  for  his  important  critical  work, 
Bagqcsrn  oi)  Vehlenschliiger  (eight  volumes, 
1870-78). 

AREOIS,  A'rwii'.  The  society  of  the  Areois 
was  a  famous  institution  among  the  natives  of 
the  Society  Islands  (Tahiti),  organized  for 
literary,  dramatic,  and  especially  religious  pur- 
poses. The  members  traveled  from  place  to 
place,  singing,  dancing,  and  representing  his- 
torical events  and  scenes  in  the  lives  of  gods 
and  heroes.  They  also  devoted  themselves  to 
erotic  pleasures  (love  adventures  and  sexual 
congress  of  an  absohite  reality  were  acted). 
which  has  made  the  Areois  stand  for  a  sort  of 
artistic  sexualism.  Upon  the  women  belong- 
ing to  the  society,  infanticide  was  imposed  by 
oath.  The  Areois  represent  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable sides  of  Poh-nesian  life,  for  which 
a  parallel  has  to  be  sought  in  the  European  Mid- 
dle Ages. 


A'REOM'ETER.     See  Hydrometer. 

AR'EOPAGIT'ICA.  A  speech  advocating 
liberty  oi  unlicensed  printing.  It  is  the  greatest 
Ijrose  work  of  Milton  (1644),  a  plea  for  freedom 
of  thought. 

AR'EOP'AGUS  (Gk.  •Apmoc  nayoc,  Areios 
pagos.  the  hill  of  Ares).  A  bare,  rocky  hill 
at  the  west  of  the  Acropolis  of  Athens,  about 
350  feet  high.  The  ancients  explained  the  name 
by  saying  that  here  Ares  had  been  tried  for  the 
murder  of  Halirrhothius,  or  that  the  Amazons, 
the  worshii)ers  of  Ares,  had  attacked  the  Acro- 
polis from  this  point.  Some  modern  writers  pre- 
fer to  connect  it  with  the  Eumenides,  and  the 
blood-guiltiness,  which  was  tried  here,  and  de- 
rive the  name  from  'Apal,  so  that  the  meaning 
would  be  'hill  of  tlie  curse.'  At  the  south  end 
steps  hewn  in  the  rock  lead  to  a  series  of  rock- 
cuttings  which  cannot  now  be  satisfactorily 
explained.  C)n  the  north  side,  which  overlooks 
the  city,  and  is  near  the  deep  cleft  where  the 
Eumenides  were  worshiped,  seems  to  have  been 
the  place  where  the  court  of  Areopagus  tried 
cases  of  willful  murder.  The  Areopagus  gave 
its  name  to  the  most  venerable  court  of 
Athens  ( Gk.  ^  ev  'Apeiu  ~dyu  jSovA?/^  the 
Council  on  the  Areopagus).  It  met  in  the  open 
air,  and  accuser  and  accused  stood  on  plat- 
forms hewn  from  tlie  rock.  The  Areopagus 
seems  originally  to  have  been  the  council  of 
nobles,  such  as  surrounds  the  king  in  the 
Homeric  poems,  and  naturally,  therefore,  the 
'king'  archon  remained  its  presiding  officer. 
This  council  appears  to  have  gradually  taken  into 
its  hands  the  entire  governing  power,  since  we 
are  told  that  it  appointed  all  officials,  including 
the  archons,  who  entered  the  Areopagus  at  the 
end  of  their  term  of  oHiee.  This  was  certainly 
an  ancient  custom,  as  it  prevailed  through  the 
historical  period,  in  spite  of  its  undemocratic 
character.  The  Areopagus  doubtless  exercised 
the  supreme  judicial  power,  and  could  bring 
to  an  account  any  official,  so  that  its  indirect 
influence  must  have  sufficed  to  control  the  State. 
In  the  code  of  Draco,  the  Areopagus  kept  its 
place  as  the  court  for  all  cases  of  willful  mur- 
der, and  even  under  the  Solonian  Constitution  it 
seems  to  have  preserved  its  place  as  a  guardian 
of  the  laws,  with  the  jiower  of  procedure  against 
any  official,  or  even  private  citizen,  whose  con- 
duct was  an  offense  against  good  morals  or  the 
well-being  of  the  community.  Clisthenes  seems 
to  have  made  no  change  in  the  rights  of  the 
.\reopagus;  but  his  creation  of  the  Senate  of 
Five  Hundred  and  the  power  given  the  popular 
assembly  certainly  must  have  lessened  its  real 
influence.  It  continued,  however,  to  enjov  a 
considerable  amoimt  of  power,  even  in  public 
affairs,  for  some  writers  represented  it  as  di- 
recting the  policy  of  Athens  from  the  time  of 
the  battle  of  Sa'lamis  (B.C.  480)  to  B.C.  402. 
Certain  it  is  that  in  the  latter  year  the  leaders 
of  the  democracy,  Ephialtes  and  Pericles,  suc- 
ceeded in  carrying  a  law  which  deprived  the 
Areopagiis  of  all  those  powers  by  which  it 
exercised  a  general  control  over  officials  and 
T'ublic  morals,  leaving  it  only  the  right  of 
judgment  in  murder  cases,  and  the  oversight  of 
the  sacred  olive  trees  of  Athena  and  some 
sacred  lands.  In  spite  of  this  reduction  of  its 
powers,  it  remained  the  most  venerated  body 
in  Athens,  and  we  find  it  appointed  at  times 
to  act  for  the  State,  or  to  conduct  investigations 


i 


AREOPAGUS. 


709 


ARETINO. 


of  treasonable  coiuluet,  as  a  sort  of  commission 
of  the  popular  assembly.  In  the  reforms  of 
Denietri-.is  of  Plialprum  (B.C.  317),  tlie  .Vreopagus 
seems  to  have  been  given  once  more  an  over- 
sight over  public  morals,  and  especially  over 
oll'enses  against  the  new  sumptuary  laws.  In 
Roman  times  it  was  one  of  the  governing 
bodies  of  Athens,  and  its  name  appears  on 
decrees  with  that  of  the  senate  and  people.  Its 
jurisdiction  was  also  widely  e.Ktended,  and  its 
decisions  still  commanded  great  respect.  It  is 
doubtful  whether  the  Apostle  Paul  was  actually 
brought  before  the  court  of  Areopagus.  It 
seems  more  probable  that  his  speech  was  de- 
livered before  a  body  of  curious  philosophers 
on  the  hill  of  Areopagus,  a  convenient  spot 
somewhat  retired  from  the  confusion  of  the 
neighboring  market-place.  In  Athenian  legend 
the  court  was  famed  as  the  body  which,  under 
the  presidency  of  Athena,  acquitted  Orestes  of 
the  charge,  brought  against  him  by  the  Furies, 
of  blood-guiltiness  in  uuirdering  his  mother, 
Clytemnestra.  The  story  forms  the  subject  of 
the  Euinenides  of  rlilschylus.  Consult:  Philippi, 
Areopag  und  Epheien  (Berlin,  1874);  Busolt, 
Handbiich  (NJirdlingen,  1887)  ;  Schomann, 
Griechisclw  Alterthiimrr.  ed.  Lipsius  (Berlin, 
1897)  ;  Meier  and  SchJiniann,  Der  attische 
Pi-ozess.  ed.  Lipsius  (Berlin.  1883-87);  and 
Botsford,  The  Athenian  Constitution  (New 
York,    18!)3). 

AREQUIPA,  ii'ra-ke'pa.  A  maritime  de- 
partment of  Peru,  bounded  by  the  departments 
of  Ayacucho  and  .Cuzco  on  the  north,  Puno  on 
the  east,  Moquegua  on  the  south,  and  the  Pacific 
on  the  west  (Map:  Peru,  C  7).  Area,  21,947 
square  miles.  It  is  mountainous  in  the  east 
and  has  a  fertile  soil,  but  is  sparsely  settled. 
The  population  was  officially  estimated  in  1896 
at  220,007.     Capital,  Are(iuipa   (q.v.). 

AREQTJIPA.  An  episcopal  city,  capital  of 
the  department  of  Arequipa,  Peru;  situated  on 
the  Chile  River,  105  miles  northeast  of  the 
port  of  MoUendo,  with  which  it  is  connected 
by  railroad.  Another  line  runs  to  Puno,  on 
Lake  Titicaca,  225  miles  to  the  east.  Its  situa- 
tion, on  a  plateau  7000  feet  above  sea  level,  at 
the  foot  of  the  half-extinct  volcano  Misi,  gives 
it  a  very  dry  and  temperate  climate.  The  air 
is  exceedingly  dry  and  the  water  is  impregnated 
with  salts.  It  is  the  second  city  in  Peru,  is 
regularly  laid  out,  and  has  a  cathedral, 
a  university,  and  two  national  schools.  The 
inhabitants  are  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of 
jewelry,  the  cutting  of  precious  stones,  and 
in  commerce,  the  city  being  the  centre  of  trade 
for  the  interior  of  Peru.  Arequipa  was  founded 
in  1340  by  Francisco  Pizarro.  and  has  ever  since 
been  important  in  the  history  of  Peru,  occu- 
pying a  prominent  place  in  the  war  for  inde- 
pendence. From  the  13th  to  the  15th  of  August, 
1868.  the  city  was  subjected  to  earthquake  shocks 
which  overthrew  nearly  all  its  building.s  and 
killed  more  than  fJOO  iieople.  Population,  in 
1889.  30.000;   in   1901,  3.-),000. 

AREQUIPA,  or  Mi.sri.  .\  volcanic  mountain 
of  the  Andes,  Peru,  over  20,000  feet  high.  The 
volcano  has  been  in  a  dormant  state  since  1831. 
To  the  northeast  of  the  volcano  is  the  town  of 
Arequipa    (q.v.). 

A'RES,  fi'rez.      See  Mars. 

AR'ET^'US  (Gk.  'Aperatoc,  Aretaios) .  A 
(amous    Greek    physician    and    writer    of    Cap- 


padocia,  who  flourished  in  the  latter  half  of 
the  First  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  Second 
Century  after  Christ.  He  is  considered  to  rank 
next  to  Hippocrates  in  the  skill  with  which  he 
treated  diseases.  He  was  noted  for  his  total 
want  of  professional  bigotry;  and  in  his  accu- 
racy in  the  detail  of  symptoms  and  the  diagnosis 
of  disease  he  is  superior  to  most  of  the  ancient 
physicians.  His  great  work,  written  in  singu- 
larly elegant  and  concise  Ionic  Greek,  is  divided 
into  two  parts.  The  first  four  books  treat  of 
the  causes  and  symptoms  of  acute  and  chronic 
diseases;  the  last  four,  the  cure  of  the  same. 
They  have  been  translated  into  various  Euro- 
pean languages,  besides  having  been  frequently 
edited  in  the  original.  The  finest  edition  is  the 
Oxford  one  of  1723,  by  J.  Wigan.  A  German 
translation  appeared  at  Vienna  (1790-1802); 
an  English  one.  by  T.  F.  Reynolds,  London,  1837 ; 
and  there  is  a  CJreek  and  English  edition  by  Dr. 
F.  Adams   (London,   1850). 

ARETE,  a-re'te.  ( 1 )  The  wife  of  the  Phieacian 
King  Alcinous,  and  mother  of  Nausicaa,  in 
Homer's  Odyssey.  ( 2 )  The  personification  of 
virtue  in  Ben  .Jonson's  Cynthia's  Revels. 

AR'ETHU'SA.      See  Alpjieus. 

ARETHUSA  BULBO'SA.  A  beautiful  ter- 
restrial orchid  growing  in  wet  bogs  of  the 
northern  L^nited  States.  The  plant  is  small,  and 
consists  of  a  slender  scape,  six  to  ten  inches  in 
height,  which  arises  from  a  corm.  The  lower 
portion  of  the  scape  bears  a  few  green  bracts, 
and  the  summit  is  crowned  by  a  brilliant  rose- 
pink  rtower  one  to  two  inches  in  length.  The 
plant  blooms  in  late  spring,  and  is  often  found 
associated  with  the  pitcher-plant  (Sarracenia) 
and  two  other  orchids — Calopogon  and  Pogonia 
— which  plants,  however,  bloom  at  a  later  period 
than  does  Arethusa.  For  illustration,  see  plate 
of  Anemone. 

ARETIN'IAN  SYL'LABLES.  The  sylla- 
bles lit,  /■'•,  mi.  fa,  .so/.  III,  used  by  Guido 
D'Arezzo  (q.v.)  for  his  system  of  hexachords, 
to  which  SI  was  added  afterwards,  thus  com- 
pleting tlie  modern  scale.     See  Scale. 

ARETINO,  ii'ra-te'no.  Carlo  (properly 
Carlo  Mah«uppini)  (c.l3n9-1453) .  An  Italian 
humanist.  He  was  born  at  Arezzo  (whence  his 
surname),  studied  the  Latin  language  and  lit- 
erature at  Florence  under  Giovanni  da  Ravenna 
and  Greek  under  Manuel  Chrysoloras;  and, 
with  the  patronage  of  the  Medici,  lectured 
learnedly  and  successfully  on  the  classics.  His 
first  lecture,  indeed,  seems  at  once  to  have 
establislied  his  fame;  for  on  that  occasion,  we 
are  told,  lie  amazed  all  by  quotations  from 
every  known  author,  Greek  or  RonuuL  But  it 
also  seems  to  have  begun  the  quarrel  between 
him  and  the  renowiied  Filelfo,  who  eventually, 
through  Medicean  hostility,  was  compelled  to 
withdraw  to  Siena.  He  was  appointed  first 
apostolic  secretary,  and  became  in  1444  chan- 
cellor of  the  Republic  of  Florence.  His  writings 
include  translations  into  Latin  of  the  Batracho- 
myomachia  and  Book  I,  of  the  Iliad.  His  finely 
sculptured  tomb  is  still  to  be  seen  at  Florence, 
in  the  Church  of  Santa  Croce. 

ARETINO,  GuiDO.     See  Gmoo  d'Arezzo. 

ARETINO,  Leonardo.     See  Bruni. 

ARETINO,  PiETRO  (1492-1556).  A  notorious 
and  profligate  Italian  author  of  the  Sixteenth 
Century,  who,   apart   from   his  comedies,   is   in- 


ARETINO. 


770 


ARGALL. 


teresting  chiefly  for  liis  colossal  and  successful 
impudence.  He  was  born  at  Arezzo,  the  son  of 
a  shoemaker,  Luca,  whose  surname  is  unknown ; 
for  Pietro,  being  ashamed  of  his  origin,  as- 
sumed that  of  Aretino.  While  still  young  he 
came  to  Rome  and  found  favor  with  Pope  Leo  X. 
and  Cardinal  Giulio  de  Medici,  but  lost  it 
through  writing  some  licentious  sonnets.  For 
a  while  he  frequented  the  Medicean  court,  where 
lie  attached  himself  closely  to  Giovanni  de 
Medici,  but  in  a  few  years  withdrew  to  Venice, 
where  he  soon  acquired  powerful  friends,  and 
where  he  remained  almost  continually  till  his 
death.  Aretino  has  best  been  summed  up  as  a 
systematic  blackmailer.  His  letters  are  an 
astonishing  record  of  audacity,  they  show  him 
to  have  been  equally  adept  in  the  art  of  threats 
and  of  successful  flattery,  and  extorted  from 
many  of  the  greatest  figures  of  the  time — even 
froni  Francis  I.  and  Charles  V. — rich  gifts  of 
jewelry,  large  suras  of  money,  and  in  some  cases 
even  annuities,  which  enabled  him  to  lead  at 
Venice  a  life  of  lavish  opulence.  He  was  a  re- 
markably prolific  writer  in  various  fields  of  lit- 
erature,' and  has  left  dialogues,  biograpliies, 
sonnets  and  other  poems,  comedies,  one  tragedy, 
and  six  volumes  of  letters.  Aside  from  the 
tragedy  Oruzia,  which  was  good,  judged  by  con- 
temporary standards,  the  comedies,  of  which  the 
principal  ones  are  the  Cortiqiana  and  Talanta, 
are  alone  of  any  merit,  and  their  interest  is  due 
mainly  to  their  vivid  and  convincing  portrayal  of 
life;  but,  in  the  words  of  John  Addington  Sy- 
monds,  it  is  life  seen  "from  the  standpoint  of 
the  servants'  hall."  Aretino's  greatest  strength 
lay  in  his  satire.  There  is  an  edition  of  Le 
commedie  e  L'Orazia  tragedia  di  Pietro  Aretino 
(Milan,  1870).  Consult  Graf,  Attraverso  il 
Ciiujuecciito  (Turin,  1888). 

ARETINO,   Spineli.o.     See  Spinelio. 

AREZZO,  a-ret'so  (ancient  Lat.  Arrctium). 
An  episcopal  city  of  Italy,  the  capital  of  the  pro- 
vince of  Arezzo,  Tuscan}'  (Map:  Italy,  F  4).  It  is 
beautifully  situated  on  the  slope  of  a  hill,  54 
miles  southeast  of  Florence  and  6  miles  from 
the  confiucnce  of  the  Chiana  and  the  Arno.  It 
has  broad  streets,  impressive  buildings,  a  famous 
academy  of  science,  a  museum  and  picture  gal- 
lery, a  library,  many  convents,  and  excellent 
mineral  springs.  Externally,  the  cathedral,  which 
was  begun  in  the  Thirteenth  Century,  is  un- 
attractive; but  the  proportions  of  the  interior 
are  pleasing  and  the  decorations  are  elaborate 
and  by  master  hands  of  several  centuries. 
The  church  of  San  Francisco  contains  some  fine 
Fifteenth  Century  frescoes.  The  Pieve,  begun 
in  the  Eleventh  Century  on  the  site  of  a 
heathen  temple,  also  contains  art  treasures. 
Arezzo  was  one  of  the  twelve  richest  and  most 
populous  cities  in  ancient  Etruria,  and  ex- 
celled in  i)ottery  and  in  copper  work.  In  the 
Social  War.  Sulla  sacked  it,  banished  its  citizens, 
and  replaced  them  with  his  own  followers. 
It  was  also  sacked  by  the  Goths  under  Totila 
and  restored  under  .Justinian.  During  the  con- 
test of  the  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines  in  a  later  age, 
it  became  subject  to  Florence,  being  defeated  in 
the  battle  of  Campaldino,  in  which  Dante  took 
part.  Among  celebrated  men  born  here  were 
Msecenas,  the  famous  patron  of  letters  in  the 
time  of  the  Emperor  Augustus;  Petrarch;  Pietro 
Aretino;  Guido  Aretino,  inventor  of  the  gamut; 
Leonardo  Aretino,  the  historian;  Cesalpino,  the 


botanist;  Redi,  the  physician;  Pope  Julius  II.; 
the  notorious  Marshal  d'Ancre;  and  Vasari, 
author  of  Lives  of  the  Painters.  The  principal 
manufactures  are  cloth,  silk  fabrics,  and  leather. 
The  country  is  unusually  fertile,  and  produces 
grain,  wine,  oil  and  fruit.  Population,  in  1881, 
39,000:  in  1901    (commune),  44,310. 

ARGJE'XJS,    ar-je'us.    Mount.      See    Ak.jisii. 

AR'GALI  (Mongolian  name).  A  mountain 
sheep,  specifically  Ovis  umtiioii,  formerly  com- 
mon to  all  the  mountain  ranges  of  northeastern 
Asia,  but  lately  killed  ofi'  in  Siberia  and  re- 
stricted to  the  heights  of  Mongolia,  where  it 
is  found  near  timber  line.  Its  size  is  that  of  a 
large  donkey,  and  it  is  covered  by  short,  coarse, 
gray-bi'own  hair,  with  the  short  mane  and  a 
stripe  down  the  forelegs  dark  and  the  rump  and 
under  surface  of  the  body  white.  The  massive 
horns  of  the  ram  coil  like  tho.se  of  the  bighorn 
(sometimes  called  American  argali),  and  meas- 
ure 40  to  48  inches  along  the  curve  and  10  or 
more  around  the  base;  the  horns  of  the  ewes 
reach  about  half  these  dimensions.  A  closely 
allied  species  is  the  nyan,  or  Thil)etan  argali 
(Oris  Bodgsoni),  which  is  distinguished  by  a 
white  rutt'  upon  the  throat.  It  frequents  the 
barren  and  desolate  regions  of  high  Thibet. 
Sportsmen  regard  these  sheep  as  among  the 
most  difficult  game  to  stalk,  and  good  speci- 
mens are  rare  in  collections.  See  Bighokn  ; 
and  Plate  accompanying  .Sheep. 

AR'GALL,  Sir  Samuel  (c.l580-162e) .  An 
English  navigator,  and  deputy  governor  of  the 
Virginia  colony,  born  about  1580  or  1585.  In 
1609  he  was  sent  to  Virginia  in  charge  of  a 
vessel,  with  orders  to  find  a  more  direct  route 
than  that  previously  followed,  and  he  succeeded 
in  considerably  shortening  the  time  ordinarily 
occupied  by  the  passage.  After  his  arrival,  in 
1009,  he  was  employed  in  surveying  Chesapeake 
Bay  and  a  large  part  of  the  coast  northward  to 
Cape  Cod.  Returning  to  Virginia,  he  took  part 
in  the  fighting  with  the  Indians,  and  in  1012 
he  conducted  the  negotiations  with  the  chief 
of  a  Potomac  tribe  to  whose  care  the  women  of 
the  Powhatan  tribe  had  been  intrusted  during 
hostilities,  by  which  the  English  secured  pos- 
session of  Pocahontas,  a  favorite  daughter  of 
the  chief,  Powhatan,  in  exchange  for  a  copper 
kettle.  Her  marriage  to  .John  Rolfe  followed 
soon  after,  and  the  troubles  with  the  natives 
were  settled,  leaving  Argali  free  to  go  to  sea 
again.  In  1013  he  was  given  eomnuxnd  of  a 
powerful  war  vessel,  and  instructed  to  keep  all 
intruders  out  of  the  territory  claimed  for  Eng- 
land. He  sailed  to  Mount  Desert  Island,  where 
he  found  a  French  Jesuit  settlement,  which  he 
destroyed,  carrying  off  the  settlers  to  James- 
town as  prisoners.  French  establishments  at 
Port  Royal  and  Saint  Croix  received  the  same 
treatment.  At  New  Amsterdam  ( now  New 
York)  Argali  found  a  Dutch  colony,  and  forced 
the  governor  to  haul  down  his  flag  and  display 
the  English  colors  in  its  place — a  recognition  of 
English  supremacy  which  lasted  so  long  as  Ar- 
gali was  in  the  harbor.  In  1017  Argali  was 
promoted  to  be  deputy  governor  and  admiral  of 
Virginia.  He  conducted  artairs  in  a  high- 
handed fashion,  and  was  accused  of  engaging 
in  illegal  trade,  especially  with  the  Spanish 
settlements  in  the  West  'indies.  He  ignored 
several  peremptory  orders  to  return  to  England 
to  answer  the  charges  against  him,  but  eventu- 


ARGALL. 


771 


ARGEMONE. 


ally  went  back  to  stand  trial.  No  serious 
action,  however,  was  taken,  probably  because 
of  tlie  protection  atTorded  him  by  the  Earl  of 
Warwick,  who  is  supposed  to  have  participated 
in  the  prolits  of  Argall's  ventures.  In  1620 
Argall  was  captain  in  a  fleet  which  attacked  the 
Algerine  pirates  in  the  Mediterranean.  A  year 
later  he  was  knighted.  In  102.5  he  was  ap- 
pointed admiral  of  an  Anglo  ■  Dutch  fleet  of 
twenty-eight  vessels,  which  took  Spanish  prizes 
valued  at  over  £100,000,  and  later  in  the  same 
year  took  part,  as  commander  of  the  flagship, 
in  Cecil's  expedition  against  the  Spaniards.. 

AR'GAN  (Ar.  arjan) ,  Argnniu  nitleroxylon. 
The  common  species  of  the  order  Sapotace;p.  It 
is  a  low,  s])iny  evergreen  tree,  native  of  the 
southern  parts  of  Morocco,  and  it  bears  an 
ovate  drupe  the  size  of  a  plum,  dotted  with 
white,  and  full  of  a  white  milky  juice.  The 
Moors  extract  from  the  fruit  an  oil  known  as 
'"argan  oil,"  which  they  use  with  their  food. 

ARGAN,  jir'giiN'.  The  hypochondriac  in 
Moli&rc's  Lc  nirildflc  ima<iiiin>re,  who  allows 
himself  to  be  cozened  by  apothecaries  even  to 
the  extent  of  forcing  his  daughter  to  receive 
the  addresses  of  one.  He  is  finall\'  effectively 
disillusioned  and  cured  by  his  brother-in-law. 

ARGAND,  iir'g'ind.  Fr.  pron.  iir'giiN',  AiMfi 
(175.5-1803).  The  inventor  of  the  well-known 
Argand  burner.  The  chief  difficulty  that  at- 
tended the  use  of  lamps  as  a  source  of  light  be- 
fore Argand  introduced  his  invention,  consisted 
in  procuring  complete  combustion  of  the  oil,  so 
as  to  keep  the  flame  from  smoking.  The  round 
thick  column  of  oil-vapor  rising  from  the  wick 
of  an  old-fashioned  lamp  presented  an  insufficient 
extent  of  surface  to  the  air:  a  large  proportion 
of  the  carbon  of  the  oil,  therefore,  not  reached 
by  the  air,  remained  unburnt  and  ascended  in 
the  form  of  smoke.     Argand's  improvement  con- 


sisted in  making  the  wick  ring-shaped.  The 
flame  procured  by  means  of  a  circular  wick  has 
naturally  the  form  of  a  hollow  cylinder,  with 
a  current  of  air  ascending  through  the  inside, 
so  that  the  burning  surface  is  doubled.  Even 
when  supplied  with  this  form  of  burner,  how- 
ever, the  lamp  remained  unsatisfactory  until 
Argand's  yovmger  brother  accidentally  discov- 
ered the  efl'ect  of  the  glass  chimney,  by  which 
the  flame  is  steadied,  a  draught  created,  and 
thus  the  greatest  possible  amount  of  light  pro- 
duced. The  Argand  burner  is  now  extensively 
used  in  gas-lighting. 

ARGANTE,  ar'gii.xt'.  (I )  A  witty  portrait 
in  Molifere's  gallery  of  dupes — the  father  who, 
in  />c.s  foiirheries  dc  .SVop/n,  is  trickily  per- 
suaded by  Scapin  to  give  up  his  own  plans  in 
favor  of  those  of  his  son  and  daughter.      (2)    A 


giantess  typifying  Licentiousness  in  the  Faerie 
Quccnc,  by  Spenser. 

ARGANTES,  ar-gan'tez.  A  fierce  Circassian. 
the  bravest  of  the  inlidel  warriors,  in  Tasso's 
".Icnisalciu  Delivered." 

ARGAO,  ar-ga'6.  A  town  of  Cebu,  Philip- 
pines, situated  about  .33  miles  southwest  of  Cebu. 
Population    (official   estimate),    1898,   34,050. 

ARGEL,  ar'gel,  or  ARGHEL  (Syrian),  .Vo/e- 
iiijsleiiiDia  urgel.  A  plant  of  the  natural  or- 
;ler  Asrleiiiiidncttr,  a  native  of  Arabia  and  of 
the  north  of  Africa,  deserving  of  notice  because 
of  the  frequent  use  of  its  leaves  for  the  adultera- 
tion of  senna.  They  are  lanceolate  and  leathery, 
and  may  readily  be  distinguished  from  genuine 
senna  leaves  by  their  te.xture,  their  being  downy, 
their  greater  heaviness,  the  comparative  absence 
of  veins,  and  the  symmetry  of  their  sides,  the 
sides  of  the  true  senna  leaves  being  unequal. 
They  are  acrid,  and  cause  sickness  and  griping; 
but  a  difference  of  opinion  prevails  as  to  their 
possessing  purgative  properties. 

ARGELANDER,  iir'ge-litn'der,  Friedricii 
VViLiiELM  Aruu.sT  (1799-1875).  One  of  the 
nost  eminent  German  astronomers  of  the  Nine- 
teenth Century.  He  was  born  at  Memel,  Prus- 
sia. He  studied  at  Konigsberg,  where  the 
political  sciences  first  attracted  him ;  but  he 
was  subsequently  drawn  away  to  astronomy 
by  the  lectures  of  Bessel,  by  whom  he  was 
employed  to  make  calculations  and  obser- 
vations. In  1820  he  was  appointed  assistant 
to  Bessel  in  the  Konigsberg  Observatory,  and  in 
1823  succeeded  Walbeck  as  astronomer  at  the 
obser\-atory  of  Abo,  in  Finland.  Here  he  be- 
gan a  series  of  observations  on  the  fixed  stars 
which  have  a  perceptible  "proper  motion." 
His  studies  were  unfortunately  interrupted  by 
a  fire  which  destroyed  the  observatory;  but 
after  a  time  he  resimied  them  in  a  new  observa- 
tory at  Helsingfors,  and  published  a  catalogue 
of  not  less  than  560  stars  having  "proper  mo- 
tions." This  contained  the  results  of  his  ob- 
servations at  Abo,  and  received  from  the  Acad- 
emy of  Saint  Petersburg  the  DemidofT  Prize.  In 
1837  he  was  invited  to  fill  the  chair  of  astron- 
omy at  the  University  of  Bonn.  Argelander 
was  long  engaged  in  a  series  of  observations  on 
the  changes  of  light  in  variable  stars,  and  he 
also  added  to  our  ideas  concerning  the  progres- 
sive motion  of  the  solar  system  in  space.  Arge- 
lander's  works  include:  Observntiones  Astro- 
noyniccF  in  Speculce'Universitatis  Fennico  Factw 
(3  vols.,  Helsingfors,  1830-32)  ;  Neue  Ura- 
nomctric  (Berlin,  1843),  containing  eighteen 
celestial  charts  of  fixed  stars  seen  with  the 
naked  eye:  Mittlere  Oerter  i'Oh  33,811  Stenicn 
(Bonn,  18C7)  ;  and  a  few  others  of  considerable 
importance.  His  greatest  work,  however,  is 
the  Atlas  des  nijrdlichen  gestirnten  Himmeh 
(Bonn,  1857),  with  a  Sternverzeichnis  (Bonn, 
1859-62,  Vols.  III.-V  of  the  Astroiiomische 
Beobachtungen  auf  der  Hternwarte  zu  Bont>)- 
This  work  contains  an  enormous  number  of  ob- 
servations carried  out  by  Argelander  and  his 
assistants  during  the  nine  years  from  1852  to 
1801. 

ARGEMO'NE  (Lat.,  an  herb,  Gk.  apyefiuvt), 
argemOne,  a  kind  of  poppy).  A  genus  of  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Papaveraceoe,  distinguished 
by  four  to  six  petals,  four  to  seven  radiating 
concave  stigmas,  and  an  obovate  capsule,  open- 


ARGEMONE.  7: 

ing  b.v  valves  at  tlie  point.  Argemone  Mexicann, 
sometimes  called  Mexican  poppy  and  prickly 
poppv.  is  an  annual  herbaceous  plant  one  to  two 
feet  iiigli.  with  large  yellow  flowers,  and  sessile, 
waved  and  sinuated,"  spiny  leaves,  variegated 
with  white.  It  is  a  native  of  Mexico  and  of  the 
southern  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  is  now 
also  common  in  many  tropical  and  sub-tropical 
countries,  in  which  it  has  been  naturalized.  In 
parts  of  Australia  it  has  become  a  troublesome 
weed.  Its  seeds  are  narcotic,  purgative,  and 
diuretic,  exhibiting  in  a  strong  degree  those 
qualities  of  the  order  of  which  the  seeds  of  the 
poppy  are  devoid.  They  are  used  in  the  West 
Indies  as  a  substitute  for  ipecacuanha ;  also 
instead  of  opium;  and  the  juice  of  the  plant  is 
employed  as  a  remedy  for  ophthalmia.  This 
plant 'is  not  infrequently  to  be  seen  in  flower 
borders  in  Great  Britain  and  elsewhere;  but  in 
the  nortliern  parts,  at  least,  the  seed  is  gen- 
erally sown  in  a  hot-bed.  Aryemone  platyceras, 
a  similar  species  with  white  petals  and  a  cap- 
sule armed  with  stout  spines,  is  common  from 
Kansas  and  Nebraska  southward  and  westward. 
Argemone  grandiflora,  a  Mexican  species,  has 
large  white  flowers,  and  the  plant  is  almost 
devoid  of  prickles.  All  these  plants  are  occa- 
sionally met  with  in  gardens. 

AR'GENIS.  An  allegorical  romance  by  John 
Barclay,  published  in  1621.  It  purports  to 
narrate  the  history  of  a  war  waged  by  Lycogenes, 
a  Sicilian  rebel, "  and  Poliarchus,  a  prince  of 
Gaul,  for  the  hand  of  the  daughter  of  Meliander, 
King  of  Sicily.  But  under  this  thin,  figurative 
veneer,  one  can  easily  trace  a  history  of  con- 
temporary happening's.  Poliarchus  represents 
Henry  IV..  Hyanisbe,  Queen  Elizabeth,  and 
Radirobanes.  Philip  II.  The  book  has  exerted 
not  a  little  literary  influence.  Fenelon's  TiU- 
maqiie  is  modeled  after  it.  It  was  also  the 
favorite  work  of  Cardinal  Riclielieu,  suggesting 
to  him  some  of  his  political  moves.  Cowper  said 
of  it  that  it  was  "the  most  amusing  romance 
that  ever   was   written." 

ARGENS,  iir'zbiiN',  Jean  Baptiste  de  Boyer, 
Marquis  d'  (1704-71).  A  French  philosophical 
writer,  born  at  Aix,  in  Provence.  His  Left  res 
chinoises  (1739),  Lettres  cabalistigues  (1741), 
and  Lettres  jith-es  (1742)  attracted  the  notice 
of  Frederick  II.,  and  their  author  was  invited 
to  Potsdam,  and  in  1744  was  made  director  of 
fine  arts  in  the  Academy  of  Berlin,  with  a  large 
salary.  Soon  he  was  the  friend  and  daily  com- 
panion of  the  King,  who  liked  exceedingly  his 
frank  and  vivacious  character.  When  almost 
sixty  he  married  an  actress,  without  Frederick's 
permission.  Deprived  of  his  pension,  he  returned 
to  Provence  and  died  at  Toulon.  Among  his 
other  numerous  writings  shoiild  be  mentioned 
Histoire  de  Vesprit  humain  (14  vols.,  1705-()8), 
and  Reflections  eritir/ites  sur  les  ccoles  de  peiii- 
ttire   (17521. 

ARGENSOLA,  iir'iien-so'la,  Lupercio  Lto- 
NARDO  DE  (  looll-ltil.'!)  and  Bartolomko  Leo- 
nardo de  (1.5(;2-1(!31).  Two  Spanish  poets, 
sometimes  overrated  as  the  "Spiinish  Horaces." 
They  were  born  at  Barbastro,  in  Aragon,  the 
elder  brother  December  14,  1550,  the  younger 
August  20,  1562.  Both  studied  at  the  University 
of  Huesca,  and  botli  later  enjoyed  the  patronage 
of  Maria  of  Austria,  widow  of  the  Emperor 
Maximilian   II..  who  made  Lupercio  her  secre- 


2  ARGENSON. 

tary  and  Bartolomeo  lier  chaplain.  The  former 
was  subsequently  appointed,  by  Philip  III.,  his- 
toriographer of  Aragon.  Bartolomeo  was  com- 
missioned by  the  Conde  Lemos,  then  president 
of  the  Indian  Council,  to  write  the  CoiKjuista  de 
las  Mohiciis  (1600)  :  and  when  that  nobleman  be- 
came viceroy  of  Xaples,  both  brothers,  who  had 
meanwhile  acquired  fame  as  poets,  were  included 
in  his  suite,  thereby  arousing  the  anger  of  Cer- 
vantes, who  had  hoped  to  obtain  a  like  honor. 
Lupercio  died  in  Xaples,  in  1613,  while  filling  the 
office  of  secretary  of  state.  Bartolomeo  succeed- 
ed his  brother  as  historiographer  of  Aragon.  He 
returned  to  Spain  and  busied  himself  with 
Lupercio's  unfinished  work,  a  continuation  of 
Zurita's  Annals  of  Aragon,  a  task  which 
occupied  him  until  his  death  in  1G31.  Only 
the  first  part,  which  deals  with  the  years 
1516-20,  was  completed,  and  treats  every  detail 
with  such  conscientious  minuteness  as  to  be 
wearisome  reading.  The  collected  poems  of  the 
two  brothers  were  first  published  posthumously 
by  Lupercio's  son,  under  the  title  of  Rimas 
( Saragossa,  1634),  and  received  from  no  less  a 
personage  than  Lope  de  Vega  the  indorsement 
that  the  authors  "had  come  from  Aragon  to  re- 
form among  our  poets  the  Custilian  language." 
Although  an  overstatement,  this  verdict  indi- 
cates the  real  merit  of  tlieir  verse.  They  are 
both  models  of  correct  form  and  pure  idiom, 
with  the  Horatian  model  and  the  classic  stand- 
ard ever  before  them ;  yet  their  influence  on  the 
literature  of  their  countr_y  was,  on  the  whole, 
small.  Lupercio  is  also  remembered  as  a  dram- 
atist whom  Cervantes  pronounced  almost  equal 
to  himself;  but  of  his  three  known  plays,  one, 
the  Fills,  is  lost,  wliile  his  Isabela  and  Alejandra 
show  little  to  jvistify  Cervanteo  s  praise.  The 
best  edition  of  the  Ohras  sueltas  of  both  broth- 
ers is  that  edited  by  Conde  de  la  Vinaza  (2 
vols.,  Madrid,  1880).  which  includes  the  plays 
and   shorter  prose  writings. 

ARGENSON,  ilr'zhaN'soN',  Marc  Antoine 
IIen6  de  Voyer,  Marquis  de  Paulmy  (1722- 
87).  A  French  diplomat  and  author,  son  of 
Louis  XV.'s  minister  of  foreign  afl'airs.  He 
was  envoy  to  Poland.  SwitiIcrland^  and  Venice: 
a  member  of  the  Pioyal  Academy,  and  gatliered 
a  library  of  about  100.000  volumes,  which  was 
purchased  by  the  Comte  d'Artois  in  1785  and  be- 
came the  nucleus  of  the  Biblioth&que  de  I'Arsenal. 
He  was  editor  of  forty  volumes  of  the  Universal 
Bibliography  of  Romance,  in  which  are  some 
novels  of  his  own. 

ARGENSON,  "Marc  Pierre  de  Voyer.  Count  d' 
(1606-1764).  A  celebrated  French  statesman, 
brother  of  Rene  Louis  Voyer  d'Argenson  (q.v.). 
After  holding  a  nimiber  of  inferior  offices,  he 
*\icceeded  M.  de  Breteuil  in  the  War  Office  in 
1742.  On  the  death  of  Cardinal  Fleury.  in  the 
following  year,  the  whole  care  of  the  war  then 
raging  devolved  upon  him.  He  found  matters 
in  the  most  deplorable  condition.  The  French 
troops,  decimated  by  sword  and  disease,  were 
in  full  retreat  across  the  Rhine;  the  Austrians 
already  swarmed  in  Alsace  and  Lorraine,  and 
the  very  political  existence  of  France  was  im- 
periled;' but  Argonson.  by  his  vigor  and  lucky 
choice  of  generals,  changed  the  fortunes  of  war 
in  the  course  of  one  year.  After  the  vic- 
tories of  Fontenoy  and  Louffeld.  and  the  cap- 
ture  of  Bergenop-Zoom,  peace  was   secured  by 


ARGENSON. 


73 


ARGENTINA. 


the  famous  Treaty  of  Aixla-Cliapelle,  signed 
in  1748.  Aifrenson,  however,  did  not  remain  in- 
active; he  introduced  reforms  in  the  army, 
established  the  Ecole  Militaire  in  1751,  and,  by 
various  measures,  kept  alive  the  military  spirit 
of  the  nation.  He  was  an  illustrious  patron  of 
literature.  Diderot  and  D'Alembert  dedicated 
to  him  their  p;reat  Encyclop^die :  and  to  Voltaire, 
whose  fellow-student  he  had  been,  he  furnished 
materials  for  his  Sii'Cle  de  Louis  XI^  .  In  17.t7 
he  was  exiled  to  his  estate,  it  is  supposed  by  the 
machinations  of  Madame  Pompadour.  On  her 
death   he  returned  to   Paris. 

ARGENSON,  Mahc  Rene  de  Voyer  d'  (1771- 
184"2).  A  jirandson  of  JIarc  Pierre  d'Argenson. 
A  French  soldier  and  statesman.  Though  he  was 
an  aristocrat  by-  birth  and  possessed  immense 
wealth,  he  embraced  the  cause  of  the  Revolution 
and  served  as  Lafa_yette's  adjutant  till  the  ex- 
cesses of  1792  drove  him  from  jiublic  life.  In 
1809,  while  prefect  of  Antwerp  (then  Deux- 
N6thcs),  he  took  part  in  the  expulsion  of  the 
Englisli  from  Walcheren.  In  1813  he  resigned 
rather  than  unjustly  confiscate  the  property  of 
the  mayor  at  tlie  order  of  the  French  ministry. 
He  was  elected  deputy  for  Belfort  in  the  Hundred 
Days,  and  reelected  after  the  second  Restoration. 
In  1830  he  appeared  in  the  Cluimber  to  represent 
Strassburg.  and  in  1832  was  one  of  the  members 
who  signed  the  famous  compte  rendu.  In  1833  he 
put  his  name  to  the  manifesto  of  the  "'Society 
of  the  Rights  of  Man."  D'Argenson  was  a  man 
of  great  charity,  a  lover  of  freedom,  and  fearless 
in  the  defense  of  his  principles. 

ARGENSON,  JIarc  Een£;,  Marquis  d'  (1652- 
1721).  A  member  of  an  ancient  French  family 
possessed  of  a  domain  in  wliat  is  now  the  De- 
partment of  Indre-et-Loire.  Passing  through 
many  minor  othces,  he  was  made  Keeper  of  the 
Seal  in  1718,  and  minister  of  state  in  1720.  He 
resigned  the  same  year,  and  died  shortly  after. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  French  Academy  and  an 
honorary  member  of  the  Academy  of   Sciences. 

ARGENSON,  Ren£  Louis  de  Voyer,  Marquis 
d'  (1094-1757).  Minister  of  foreign  affairs  for 
Louis  XV.  from  1744  to  1747,  when  he  was 
forced  to  resign  on  account  of  the  intrigues  of 
Spain,  whose  policy  he  had  frustrated  in  his 
negotiations  with  Italy.  He  was  more  of  a  stu- 
dent and  idealist  than  a  diplomat,  and  his  min- 
istry was  not  very  successful.  After  his  retire- 
ment he  devoted  liimself  to  literature.  He  was 
a  profound  student  of  political  science,  and 
wrote,  among  other  works,  Considerations  sur  le 
ifouvcrnement  nncien  et  prrxent  de  la  France 
(Amsterdam.  1764).  His  journal  and  memoirs, 
in  nine  volumes,  were  publislicd  at  Paris.  1861-67. 
Consult  Ogle.  The  Marriids  d'Ari/cnson  (Oxford, 
1893). 

AR'GENT  (Fr.,  silver).  The  metal  silver 
in  hcralcliy    ((|.v. ) . 

ARGENTEUIL,  Ur'zhiiN'te'y'.  A  town  in 
the  Department  of  Seine-et-()ise.  France,  twelve 
miles  northwest  of  Paris  (Maj):  Paris  and  vicin- 
ity). It  has  manufactures  of  files,  pasteboards. 
watches,  and  alcohol.  Its  priory,  now  in  ruins, 
was  foinuled  in  the  Seventh  Century,  and  was 
turned  by  Charlemagne  into  a  ntuinery,  of  which 
the  famous  Heloi'se  afterward  became  abbess. 
Population,  in  1896.  15.126. 

ARGEN'TETJS  CO'DEX.     See  Ilfilas. 


-  ARGENTINA,  ar'jwi-te'na  :  Kimn.  pran.  ;ir'- 
iii-M  te'na.  or  .\R(iENTiNE  Repiulic  (ollicially, 
Repvblila  Argentina).  (From  I.at.  arfirntiim. 
silver;  cf.  the  name  Rio  de  la  Plata,  Span.,  River 
of  Silver.)  A  federal  republic,  next  to  Brazil 
the  largest  State  in  South  America  (Map:  South 
America,  C  6).  In  the  beginning  it  was  styled 
"the  United  Provinces  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata."  It 
is  included  betw^ecn  latitudes  22°  and  55°  south, 
longitudes  53°  30'  and  73°  30'  west,  and  is  bound- 
ed on  tlie  north  by  Bolivia  and  Paraguay;  on  the 
east  by  Paraguay,  Brazil,  and  Uruguay,  and  the 
Atlantic  Ocean;  on  the  south  by  the  Atlantic; 
and  on  the  west  by  Chile,  the  watershed  indicated 
liy  the  highest  sunmiits  of  the  Andes  separating 
the  two  countries.  It  forms  a  blunted  wedge- 
shaped  area  about  2100  miles  long,  with  a  width 
of  nearly  1000  miles  at  the  north  and  less  than 
200  miles  at  the  Strait  of  Magellan.  A  number 
of  islands  are  inchided ;  the  Falkland  Islands, 
oH'  the  Atlantic  coast,  which  were  at  one  time 
claimed  by  the  Republic,  are  held  by  Cireat 
Britain.  'The  total  area,  including  eastern  Pata- 
gonia and  part  of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  is  aljout 
1,114,000  square  miles,  divided  between  fourteen 
organized  Provinces  and  nine  territories. 

'Topography.  The  surface  is  diversified  liy 
the  Andean  Cordilleras  on  the  western  border, 
and  by  the  interior  highlands;  but  the  greater 
part  of  the  area  is  a  tlat  plain  sloping  gently 
toward  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  Andes  system 
in  tlie  northwest  is  a  broad  plateau,  broken 
into  parallel  or  slightly  diverging  ridges,  which 
reach  well  to  the  east  of  the  Chilean  frontier, 
and  occupy  large  areas  in  the  Provinces  of  .Jujuy, 
Salta,  Tucuman,  Catamarca,  Rioja,  and  San 
,Tuan.  Above  the  plateau  rise  ninuerous  crests 
to  a  height  of  over  17,000  feet,  attaining  extreme 
elevations  in  Aconcagua  (22,800),  Mercedario 
(22,315),  Famatina  (about  20,700),  and  Tupan- 
gato  (20,286).  In  the  western  Province  of  Men- 
doza,  the  Andes  contract  laterally,  and  gradually 
fall  otT  in  height  toward  the  south,  wliere  they 
end  in  the  highlands  of  Tierra  del  Fuego.  East 
of  the  Cordilleras,  the  most  notable  elevations 
are  the  north  and  south  ridge  of  the  Sierra  de 
Cordoba,  on  the  western  boundary  of  the  Province 
of  Cordoba;  the  Tandil  and  Ventana  Highlands, in 
the  Province  of  Buenos  Ayres ;  and  the  continua- 
tion of  the  mountain  range  of  Lower  Brazil,  in  the 
Territory'  of  Misiones.  'These  independent  moun- 
tain ranges,  however,  are  of  no  great  areal  or 
topographic  importance:  the  entire  region  east- 
ward from  the  base  of  the  Andean  Plateau  is 
generally  flat,  or  slightly  undulating,  and  falls 
gradually  from  an  elevation  of  about  2000  feet 
to,  or  nearly  to.  the  level  of  the  sea.  'That  part 
of  the  plain  north  of  the  Rio  Salado  (affluent  of 
the  Paran:1)  is  called  the  "Gran  Chaco"  (great 
hunting-ground),  and  contains  extensive  forests. 
Between  the  Rio  Salado  and  the  Rio  Negro,  in 
central  Argentina,  are  the  characteristic  pampas, 
monotonous  stretches  of  level  ground  covered 
with  grass  during  the  wet  season.  Northward 
t!ie  pampas  graduate  into  more  forested  country, 
and  are  also  marked  by  a  large  interior  drainage 
system  and  by  saline  swamps,  while  to  the 
south  they  merge  into  the  higher  plains  or 
steppes  of  Patagonia,  which  are  disposed  at  an 
elevation  ranging  from  2000  feet  at  the  base  of 
the  Andes  to  500  feet  or  less  on  the  coast.  Be- 
tween the  Rio  Parana  and  the  Rio  Uruguay  are 
tlie  Provinces  of  Corrientes  and  Entre  Rios,  which 


AKGENTINA. 


774 


ARGENTINA. 


are  geneiallj-  low,  the  latter  Province,  however, 
containing  a  snuvll  area  of  hills  in  the  west. 

Hydrography.  Aside  from_  a  few  inclosed 
basins  in  the  interior,  the  entire  area  is  drained 
■by  easterly  flowing  rivers  into  the  Atlantic. 
The  great  river  system  of  the  Plata,  formed  by 
the  confluence  of  the  Uruguay  and  the  Parana, 
belongs  only  partly  to  Argentina,  as  both  its 
branches  rise  in  the  interior  of  Brazil,  and  for 
a  large  part  of  their  course  flow  along  the 
frontiers  of  Brazil,  Paraguay,  and  Uruguay. 
The  Parana  is  of  great  importance  to  Argentina 
as  a  commsrcial  highway.  With  the  Paraguay, 
it  drains  the  Gran  Chaeo,  tliro\igh  the  cliannels 
of  the  Pilcomayo,  Bermejo,  and  Salado,  and 
also  the  northern  pampas,  wliere  in  past  times 
there  were  several  important  tributaries  that 
are  now  represented  by  smaller  streams  with 
intermittent  flow.  The  Parana  is  navigable  by 
steamers  for  a  distance  of  about  1200  miles,  and 
by  light-draught  boats  for  nearly  its  whole 
length.  From  the  confluence  of  tlie  Paraguay  to 
the  sea,  the  fall  amounts  only  to  about  225  feet, 
so  that  a  slight  depression  would  separate  the 
Plata  system  into  three  independent  branches — 
the  Parana,  the  Paraguay,  and  the  Uruguay. 
In  the  central  Provinces  of  Argentina,  between 
the  Kio  Salado  on  the  north  and  the  Rio  Colo- 
rado on  the  south,  there  is  an  area  of  inclosed 
drainage,  with  extensive  saline  marshes,  which 
deposit  alkaline  salts  during  the  dry  season. 
South  Argentina  is  drained  by  the  Colorado  and 
Negro,  both  rising  on  the  slopes  of  the  Andes. 
The  drainage  basin  of  the  Colorado  formerly 
covered  a  much  larger  territory,  as  the  prov- 
inces of  San  Juan,  San  Luis,  and  Mendoza  were 
drained  by  a  northern  tributary  that  now  ends 
in  a  swampy  reservoir.  Patagonia  has  several 
large  streams,  including  the  Chubut,  Deseado, 
Salado,  and  Chico,  which  receive  their  water  sup- 
plies from  the  slo))es  of  the  Andes,  where  there 
are  numerous  glacial  lakes.  See  the  articles  on 
Plata,  Rio  de  la;  ParanA,  etc. 

Climate.  The  northern  part  of  Argentina 
projects  well  within  the  equatorial  hot  belt, 
while  the  central  and  southern  parts  extend 
throvigli  the  south  temperate  zone.  The  peculiar 
location  of  Argentina,  with  oceanic  conditions 
on  the  east  and  higli  mountains  on  the  west, 
make  its  climatic  details  very  dependent  on 
the  direction  of  the  winds.  The  northern  sec- 
tion lies  within  the  region  of  prevailing  east 
winds,  which  convey  inland  the  warm,  moist  air 
from  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  cause  a  very  uni- 
form temperature,  with  lieavy  precipitation  on 
the  coast,  but  decreasing  in  amount  with  prog- 
ress inland.  South  of  the  Plata  the  west  and 
northwest  winds  of  middle  latitudes  prevail, 
and  these  cr>nvey  across  the  narrow  territory 
the  air  from  the  Pacific  Ocean,  which  has  been 
deprived  of  most  of  its  moisture  on  the  wind- 
ward slopes  of  the  Chilean  Andes.  Thus  the 
air  becomes  drier,  and  the  precipitation  de- 
creases witli  apiJroach  toward  tlu>  Atlantic  coast. 
The  monsoon-effects  considerably  modify  these 
general  conditions,  so  that  for  tlie  northern  and 
more  imiiortaut  half  of  Argentina,  in  winter, 
northerly  winds  are  very  common. 

The  temperature  decreases  with  increase  of 
latitude,  and  varies  in  the  annual  average  from 
70°  F.  at  the  north  to  less  than  45°  V.  at  the 
south.  In  tlio  nortli  tlie  temperatures  range 
from  a  maximum  of   lO.'i"   1''.  to  a  mininuim  of 


30°  F. ;  the  hottest  month  averages  about  80° 
F.,  and  the  coldest  month  about  55°  F.  Toward 
the  middle  of  Argentina  the  hottest  month 
averages  only  75°  F.  and  the  coldest  a  little 
less  than  50°  V.,  and  at  the  extreme  south  the 
hottest  month  averages  less  than  50°  F.,  and 
the  coldest  month  has  a  temperature  near  that 
of  freezing  water.  There  is  in  general  a  great 
difference  between  the  day  and  night  tempera- 
tures; but  the  intense  cold  waves  of  the  middle 
latitudes  of  the  continents  of  the  Northern 
Hemisphere  are  entirely  lacking.  In  general, 
the  rainy  season  is  in  sununer,  with  a  winter 
season  that  is  dry,  even  to  the  utter  lack  of 
rain  in  the  interior.  Three  rain  belts  lying 
nearly  parallel  to  the  Andes  are  noticeable;  in 
tlie  extreme  northeast  tlie  raii\fall  is  moderately 
heavy,  from  50  to  70  inches.  To  tlie  west  of 
this  there  is  a  zone  of  moderately  light  rainfall, 
extending  as  far  south  as  the  mouth  of  the 
Plata,  ^\llere  the  annual  average  is  about  30 
inches.  Still  farther  west  there  is  a  rapid  de- 
crease to  the  Andean  slopes.  On  the  pampas 
the  weather  is  variable,  changes  from  the  cool, 
dry  south  winds  to  the  moist,  hot  north  winds 
frequently  occurring  with  great  suddenness. 
The  foi'iner  winds,  which  sometimes  blow  with 
stormy  violence,  are  called  "Pamperos."  They 
come  with  little  warning,  and  are  sometimes  of 
day-long  continuance.  The  moist,  hot  wind  from 
the  north,  called  "Zonda"  (somewhat  similar 
to  the  sirocco),  causes  intense  discomfort  to 
the  inhabitants.  The  dry  Zonda  of  the  east 
side  of  the  Andes  region  is  of  Fiihn  character. 
Flor.\.  In  the  north  and  northeast  are  found 
tropical  woodlands,  to  the  south  and  west  of 
which  are  scattered  forests  containing  most  of 
the  species  usual  in  the  warm  temperate  zone. 
The  slopes  of  the  Andes  are  well  wooded,  espe- 
cially with  thorny  and  shrubby  plants,  as  are 
the  banks  of  the  Parana  and  the  rivers  flowing 
from  the  west  into  the  Paraguay;  although  the 
trees  do  not  attain  great  size.  Palms  are  a 
distinctive  feature  of  the  base  of  the  Sierra  de 
Cordoba  and  of  the  northwestern  foothills.  The 
pampas,  in  the  wet  season,  are  covered  with 
clover  and  thistles,  or  with  tall  grass  and 
flowers,  gay  verbenas,  geraniums,  etc. ;  but  here, 
as  well  as  on  the  Gran  Cliaco,  there  is  little 
to  form  thickets,  except  mimosas  and  cacti.  The 
algaroba,  a  shrub  resembling  a  honey  locust, 
is  widely  distributed;  it  is  used  for  fence  posts; 
from  the  pulp  of  the  pod  are  made  a  kind  of 
flour,  and,  by  fermentation,  an  intoxicating 
liquor  called  Chica.  Patagonia  has  herbs,  shrubs, 
cacti,  some  tufty  grass,  brambles,  and  copse; 
but  is  almost  treeless,  except  in  the  south,  and 
even  there  but  four  species  of  trees  are  found, 
two  of  them  being  beeches.  Among  the  in- 
digenous trees  and  plants  are  the  quince,  aloe, 
coca,  cinchona,  mate  (or  Paraguay  tea),  manioc, 
the  prickly  pear,  with  edible  fruit ;  the  Cactus 
foliosns,  on  which  the  cochineal  insect  feeds, 
and  a  shrub  harboring  an  insect  yielding  a 
handsome  green  dye.  The  apple-tree,  introduced 
from  Chile  by  the  Indians,  flourishes  in  the 
soulhwestern  Provinces;  the  grape  is  extensively 
grown  in  thewestcrn  Provineesof  Rioja,San,Iuan, 
and  Mendoza  ;  tlie  Province  of  Salta  is  famed  for 
its  bananas  and  coffee;  and  the  peach,  flg,  orange, 
and  walnut  are  grown  in  many  parts.  The 
scarcity  of  wood  in  some  Provinces  compels  the 


I 


ARGENTINA. 


ARGENTINA. 


use   of   drv   thistles   anil   jjeach-tree   cuttings   for 
fuel. 

F.\UN.\.  The  larger  wild  animals,  found 
mainly  in  the  northern  forests,  are  the  jaguar, 
puma,  ocelot,  ant-eater,  tapirs,  sloths,  and  pec- 
caries. The  pampas  and  plains  are  inhabited 
by  deer,  wildcats,  wild  dogs,  pumas,  skunks, 
armadillos,  the  red  wolf,  foxes,  and  several  bur- 
rowing qnadrupeds,  notably  the  viseacha.  The 
guanaco,  vicuiia,  and  llama  range  from  the 
mountains  to  the  plains;  the  capybara  and 
coypu  frequent  the  rivers;  the  condor,  vulture, 
the  Khea  Americana  range  north  of  the  Rio  Xe- 
gro,  and  the  Khea  Darwinia,  south  of  it.  Several 
species  of  game  birds,  ami  birds  of  prey,  llaniin- 
gos,  and  water  fowl  of  many  kinds,  jmrrots,  hum- 
ming-birds, and  other  birds  of  gay  plumage  are 
seen  in  the  forested  regions  or  on  tlie  ofjen  plains, 
where  bird-life  greatly  Hourishes.  There  are 
several  vaiieties  of  reptiles  in  Argentina ;  boas 
and  rattlesnakes  occur  in  the  north,  together 
with  iguanas,  alligators,  and  turtles.  Spiders  also 
and  mos([uitoes  of  great  size,  destructive  locusts 
and  ants,  ami  chigoes  abound.  Fish  are  very 
numerous  in  the  coast  and  inland  waters.  Seals, 
sea-lions,  and  sea-elephants  are  captured  along 
the  coast,  and  the  rivers  sui)ply  many  edible  fish. 
Mo.st  interesting  fossil  remains  are  found  in 
different  parts  of  the  Republic,  a  large  number 
of  species  having  been  obtained,  among  them 
the  megatherium,  toxodon,  glyptodon,  and  gigan- 
tic ratite  birds. 

Geology  .^nd  jriNEBAL  Resources.  The  in- 
terior highlands  have  usually  a  granitic  core, 
overlaid  by  Paleozoic  fonnations,  while  the 
Andean  system  is  largely  composed  of  ilesozoic 
strata,  broken  through  by  igneous  rocks  and 
covered  by  extensive  volcanic  sheets.  The  pam- 
pas are  made  up  of  Tertiary  sandstone  and  lime- 
stone, with  sandy  or  clayey  material  on  the 
surface.  In  Patagonia  the  northwest  and  south- 
east ridges  are  denuded  I'emnants  of  former 
mountain  ranges,  and  rise  out  of  layers  of 
coarse  gravel  that  cover  the  region  to  a  depth 
of  50  feet  or  more.  The  gravel  consists  of 
granite,  gneiss,  and  schist,  and  has  been  de- 
rived by  disintegration  and  glacial  action  from 
the  underlying  formations.  Large  areas  are 
also  occupied  by  sand  dunes,  that  shift  their 
position  with  the  winds.  The  region  of  the 
Andes  was  once  the  scene  of  enormous  volcanic 
development,  when  streams  of  lava  flowed  down 
the  slopes  and  spread  out  over  the,  adjacent 
plains  in  the  form  of  thick  and  extensive  sheets. 
The  lower  stretches  of  the  rivers  in  Argentina 
are  bordered  by  recent  deposits  of  alluvium. 
The  mineral  lesources  of  the  countr_y  have  re- 
ceived but  little  attention  as  j'et,  although  they 
are  extensive,  and  include  a  large  variety  of 
ores  and  minerals.  Gold  is  found  in  the  Andes 
and  in  the  mountains  of  >San  Luis,  coal  in  Tierra 
del  Fuego,  marble  in  the  Sierra  de  Cordoba, 
while  copper,  lead,  silver,  and  iron  ores  and 
sodium  salts  occur  at  numerous  localities.  The 
output  of  silver  annually  exceeds  .$200,000  in 
value.  The  gold  product  in  UIOO  was  valued 
at  $75,000.  Mica  is  mined  in  the  mountain<jus 
parts  of  Cordoba,  and  the  product  is  shipped  to 
European  countries.  Some  petroleum  is  ob- 
tained, and  a  number  of  companies  are  organiz- 
ing for  the  further  exploration  of  the  petroleum, 
borax,  and  other  mineral  resources. 


.\GRicrLTfRi;.  This  is  naturally  the  most  im- 
portant industry  in  a  country  so  rich  in  land 
and  so  sparsely  settled  as  Argentina.  Although 
the  land  under  actmil  cultivation  constitutes 
less  than  5  per  cent,  of  the  total  available  area, 
Argentina  already  figures  as  an  important  fac- 
tor in  the  world's  grain  markets.  In  1895,  at 
the  time  of  the  last  census,  the  total  land  under 
cultivation  was  4,81)2,005  hectares  (nearlv  12,- 
000,000  acres)  ;  in  1888,  at  the  time  of  the  first 
agricultural  census,  the  area  under  cultivation 
was  2,459,120  hectares  (nearly  0.000,000  acres)  ; 
while  in  1872  it  was  but  580.008  hectares  (or 
about  1,450,000  acres).  The  area  under  culti- 
\ation,  therefore,  doubled  in  seven  years,  and 
increased  more  than  eightfold  since  1872.  The 
total  available  .agricultural  area  is  estimated 
at  250,000,000  acres,  or  more  than  was  taken 
up  in  1900  by  the  combined  grain,  cotton,  to- 
bacco, and  vegetable  crops  in  the  I'nited  States. 
The  census  estimates  the  number  of  people  en- 
gaged in  agriculture  at  one-fourth  the  entire 
[lopulation. 

There  were  more  than  180,000  farms  in  Ar- 
gentina in  1895,  of  which  CO  per  cent,  were 
cultivated  by  their  owners,  30  per  cent,  by 
tenants  paying  rent,  and  8  per  cent,  by  persons 
working  for  a  share  of  the  crop.  Although 
there  are  no  statistics  to  show  the  growth  of 
each  of  these  groups,  it  is  a  matter  of  common 
observation  that  the  luimber  of  farmers  owning 
their  land  is  growing  apace,  as  free  land  is 
abundant  and  its  acquisition  extremely  easy. 
Renting  for  a  share  of  the  crop  is  the  first  step 
on  the  |)art  of  the  agricultural  laborer  toward 
becoming  a  landowner.  Land  being  productive 
and  population  scarce,  labor  is  naturally  dear 
and  well  rewarded;  so  that  it  is  a  matter  of 
conunon  occu)-rence  for  the  laborer  to  get  from 
one-fourth  to  one-half  of  the  share  of  the  crop, 
the  proprietor  furnishing  land,  implements,  and 
seeds,  as  well  as  a  house  and  food  for  the 
laborer  and  his  family.  Under  these  conditions, 
it  takes  the  laborer  only  a  few  j-ears  to  acquire 
land  of.  his  own.  In  fi'fteen  out  of  the  twenty- 
three  Argentine  Provinces  for  which  there  are 
figures  for  the  two  censuses  of  the  country,  the 
luunber  of  farms  increased  from  43,74lj  in  1888 
to  107,274  in  1895.  The  average  size  of  farms 
is  about  125  acres,  the  number  of  larger  planta- 
tions and  of  farms  of  smaller  area  being  in- 
considerable. 

The  rapid  increase  in  the  cultivated  area  is 
to  a  great  extent  due  to  European  immigration, 
the  newcomers  settling  in  colonies,  living  in 
accordance  with  their  own  customs,  and  using 
their  own  methods  of  cultivation.  The  first 
colony  thus  founded  consisted  of  Swiss  peasants, 
who  came  to  Argentina  in  185G;  in  1874  there 
were  32  colonies,  tilling  12,900  acres;  in  1884 
the  number  of  colonies  increased  to  85,  the 
area  under  cultivation  to  80,000  acres;  in  1895 
the  census  records  709  colonies,  witu  a  very 
large  increase  in  the  number  of  acres  luider  cul- 
tivation. The  wonderfully  rapid  growth  of 
colonies  is  explained  by  the  very  liberal  inuni- 
gration  laws  of  the  Republic,  alluring  induce- 
ments being  held  out  to  innnigrants,  who  are 
given,  in  some  of  the  provinces,  large  tracts 
of  land,  provisions,  and  implements  with  which 
to  begin  farming  life  in  the  new  counti-y. 

The  most  important  crop  in  Argentma,  from 
a   commercial   point  of  view,   is  wheat.      Barley, 


ARGENTINA.  77 

oats,  potatoes,  flax,  tobacco,  and  other  European 
crops  are  also  extensively  raised.  Sugar-cane 
is  cultivated  in  the  northeast  with  considerable 
success,  and  the  cultivation  of  cotton  has  been 
recently  introduced.  The  fruits  raised  are  of 
the  tropical  and  serai-tropical  varieties,  includ- 
ing oranges,  olives,  figs,  grapes,  and  dates. 
Silk-worm  culture,  for  which  the  climate  seems 
to  be  splendidly  adapted,  is  also  receiving  con- 
siderable attention.  The  following  figures  illus- 
trate the  growth  of  the  agricultural  industry 
in  Argentina :  In  1888  the  area  devoted  to  the 
cultivation  of  wheat  was  2,014,947  acres,  in 
1895  it  was  5,064,707,  an  increase  of  about 
150  per  cent,  in  seven  years.  The  area  de- 
voted to  the  cultivation  of  corn  in  the  corre- 
sponding years  was  respectively  1,080,724  and 
3,074,.374  acres,  showing  an  increase  of  over 
50  per  cent.  The  area  under  fla.x  increased 
from  299,246  acres  in  1888  to  957,073  acres  in 
1895,  or  more  than  200  per  cent.  The  area 
under  barley  increased  from  23,937  acres  in 
1888  to  54,9"ll  acres  in  1895,  or  about  130  per 
cent.  The  following  are  the  chief  wheat-raising 
I'rovinces,  with  their  acreage  in   1895: 

Acres, 

Santa  Fe 2.547,349 

Buenos  ,\yre8 907,959 

Cordoba 726.733 

Entre  Uios 721,799 

Salta 34,001 

While  the  progress  in  sugar-cane  and  tobacco 
planting  keeps  pace  with  that  of  cereals,  the 
growing  of  cotton  has  not  reached,  as  yet,  any 
large  proportions,  although  it  is  also  on  the  in- 
crease. The  increase  in  the  area  under  sugar- 
cane has  been  as  follows:  1855,  551  acres:  1875, 
7759;  1888,  52,044;  1895,  151,406.  The  area 
under  tobacco  was;  1872,  8551  acres;  1888, 
7991 ;  1895,  39,029.  The  cotton  crop  covered  an 
area  of  about  1500  acres  in  1895;  but  there  is 
no  doubt  that  the  beginning  thus  made  is 
fraught  with  great  possibilities,  especially  for 
the  northern  provinces,  which  are  best  adapted 
to  its  cultivation. 

Stock-raisiny  is  no  less  important— if  not, 
indeed,  more  important — than  the  cultivation 
of  land.  The  following  table  shows  the  number 
of  various  kinds  of  animals  at  the  time  of 
the  taking  of  the  first  and  second  censuses: 

1888  1895 

Cattle 21,961.657  21,701,526 

Horses 4,234,032  4,446,859 

Assea  and  Mules 417.494  483,369 

Sheep 66,706,097  74.379.562 

Hogs 393,758  6.52,766 

Goats 1,894,386  2,748,860 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  figures  that  the 
raising  ot  sheep  constitutes  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant branches  of  the  animal  industry.  Their 
increase  has  been  steady  and  large,  as  the  fol- 
lowing figures  show:  In  1830,  their  total  num- 
ber in  the  countrv  was  estimated  at  2,500.000; 
1800,  14,000,000;  1870,  41,000,000;  1880,  61.000,- 
000.  As  to  tlic  wool  product,  it  increased  from 
6,000.000  pounds  in  1830  to  130.000,000  in 
1870;  from  310,000.000  in  1S91  to  about  500,- 
000,000  pounds  in  1900.  The  significance  of  these 
figures  will  be  clear  if  it  is  remembered  that  in 
the  United  States  there  were  only  42.000.000 
sheep  in  1895,  a  number  which  did  not  increase 
up  to  1900.  On  the  other  hand,  the  number  of 
cattle  in  the  United  States  is  double  that  in 
Argentina. 


6  ARGENTINA. 

Manufacture.?.  The  manufacturing  indus- 
tries of  Argentina  are  largely  in  foreign  hands. 
This  is  especially  true  of  the  larger  industries, 
requiring  investments  of  considerable  capital 
and  management  on  a  large  scale,  such  as  elec- 
tric-light and  power  plants,  flour  mills,  mines, 
smelting  works,  etc.  The  census  of  1895  re- 
ports in  the  country  22,204  manufacturing 
establishments,  18,706  of  which  belonged  to 
foreigners,  3498  to  natives.  The  proportion  of 
native  workmen  in  these  establishments  was 
more  than  one-third  of  the  total  number  of 
145,650,  52,356  being  Argentinians,  03,294  for- 
eigners. Tlie  total  number  of  people  engaged 
in  manufactures,  including  employers  and  em- 
ployees, was  167.854.  The  various  industries 
are  classed  by  the  census  in  nine  large  groups, 
as  follows : 


iNDrSTRIES 

C  =3  1 

-1  = 

Owners 

Na- 
tive 

For- 
eign 

I. 

4,082 

5,713 

3,955 

2,259 

949 

3,163 

317 

427 

1,339 

608 
647 
9611 
326 
173 
389 
56 
122 
317 

3,.574 

5,066 

II. 

Clothing  Industrv 

III. 

IV. 
V. 

Furniture  and  Household  Goods 

1.993 

VI. 

Metallic  Products  

2,774 

VII 

VIII 

Printing  Trades 

305 

IX. 

1,022 

otal 

1 

22,204 

3,498 

iNnr.sTBiEs 

No.  of  Persons  Employed 

Capital 
(in  pesos) 

Men 

Wo- 
men 

Na- 
tive 

For- 
eign 

Total 

Peso. 
96.5  cents 

I.  Food 

■ 

Products 

23,669,  3,402 

8,345 

18,726 

27,071 

67,285,696 

II.  Clotliing 

Industry 

21,037 

11.562 

10,414 

22,186 

32,599 

45,086,764 

III.  Building 

Industry 

29,124 

1,395 

12,702 

17,817 

30,519 

46,531,872 

IV.  Furniture  & 

Household  G'ds 

11,341 

1,380 

4,123 

8,598 

12,721 

23,010,006 

V.  Art  and 

Ornaments 

2,252[      308 

803 

1,757 

2,560 

8,568,925 

VI.  Metallic 

Products 

13.9631      668 

4,018 

10,613 

14,631 

26.478,585 

VII.  Chemicals.. 

3,695    1.017 

2.203 

2,509 

4.712 

12,902,462 

VIll.  I'rinting 

Trades 

4.514 

966 

2.55H 

2,622 

5,080 

9,q09,8:i8 

IX.  Miscel- 

laneous 

13.144    2,613 

7,190 

8..567 

15,757 

45.227.219 

Total 

122.739|2-2.9II 

52,366 

93,294 

145,650 

284.101.367 

Thus,  nearly  $280,000,000  of  capital  was  in- 
vested in  1805  in  the  infant  industries  of  Ar- 
gentina. The  table  shows  that  the  manufacture 
of  food  products  is  fcu'emost  among  the  indus- 
tries. That  does  not  include,  however,  the  two 
largest  industries  of  the  country,  which  have 
contributed  more  than  any  others  to  its  pros- 
perity— viz.,  the  flour  mills,  employing  a  capital 
of  about  $20.000.0(.)0,  and  tlu^  meat  -  packing 
houses,  with  a  capital  of  more  than  .$22,000,000. 
Xor  does  it  include  sugar  plantations  and  re- 
fineries, with  a  capital  of  over  .I*  1 7 .000.000 ;  the 
Avine-making  establishments,  with  a  capital  of 
$8.500.000 ;  breweries,  with  a  capital  of  nearly 
$3,000,000:  and  distilleries,  with  a  capital  of 
over  $5,000,000.  The  growth  of  the  flour-milling 
industry  is  shown,  not  so  much  by  the  increase 
of  the  total  number  of  flour  mills — from  638  in 
1888  to  059  in  1895 — as  bv  the  increase  of  steam- 


ARGENTINA. 


AKGENTINA. 


•driven  mills  from  18(1  in  18S8  to  -.234  in  1895, 
acfoni]):>nie(l  by  ;i  shutting-down  of  mill-i  driven 
by  animal  power,  which  numbered  l~'A  in  1888 
and  only  50  in  1895.  It  is  the  only  industry, 
too,  in  which  the  proportion  of  native  owners 
is  comparativelv  high — viz.,  344  out  of  a  total 
of  G59. 

These  facts  illustrate  the  direction  taken  by 
the  development  of  the  Argentine  industry — 
viz.,  the  building-up  of  those  branches  of  manu- 
facture in  which  the  natural  products  of  the 
country  can  be  converted  into  more  valuable 
finished  or  half-finished  products.  As  a  con- 
sequence, the  country  is  being  gradually  relieved 
of  the  necessity  of  paying  a  tribute  to  foreign 
nations  for  articles  of  prime  necessity;  and 
what  is  equally  important,  employment  is  pro- 
vided in  the  country  for  a  large  and  steadily 
increasing  number  of  people,  nearly  equal  to 
that  engaged  in  agriculture.  The  growth  of 
the  sugar-refining  industry  is  another  case  in 
point.  Previous  to  1870  the  country  imported 
annually  .some  22,000  tons  of  sugar,  and  hardly 
produced  1000  tons  at  home;  in  the  decade  of 
1870-80  the  imports  increased  to  about  30,000 
tons,  but  the  home  jiroduction  increased  to  some 
8000  tons  per  annum.  In  the  following  decade 
the  imports  remained  stationary,  while  the  home 
product  rose  to  40.000  tons  per  year;  and  this 
figure  subsequently  increased  to  70,000  tons. 
Among  the  industries  carried  on  on  a  large 
scale,  the  manufacture  of  gas  .should  be  men- 
tioned. It  is  almost  exclusively  in  foreign 
hands  (largely  English),  and  in  1895  there  was 
invested  in  it  a  rapital  of  nearly  .$40,000,000. 
Electric-lighting  plants  have  made  nuich  less 
progress,  the  capital  invested  in  such  i)lants  in 
1895  being  only  $1,000,000.  The  more  distinc- 
tive native  numufactures  are  those  of  baskets 
from  the  willows  of  the  Parana  Islands :  the 
homespun  cotton  and  woolen  cloths,  blankets, 
rugs,  laces,  and  embroideries  of  the  northwestern 
highland  ])rovinces;  the  tanned  leather,  wooden 
ware,  laces,  blankets,  etc.,  of  Cordoba;  and  the 
harness,  belts,  ponchos,  horse-blankets,  ropes, 
etc.,  of  the  Indians  in  various  States.  The 
growth  and  diversification  of  Argentine  indus- 
tries are  best  brouglit  out  by  the  following  table, 
showing  the  absolute  and  relative  values  of  the 
products  of  the  various  industries  exported  from 
the  country  at  three  different  periods : 

Value  in  gold  pesos  (96.5  cents) 


Products 


1872 
Pesos 


lThe.\niniall 
Industry. 

2  Apric'iture 

3  All  other 

Industries 

Total.... 


43,340,000 
98.000 


Per 
ct. 


1888 
Pesos 


Per 
ct. 


1895 
Pesos 


94.7:   71.070,OOOj   70.9J   74.630,000 
41.4.50,000 


0,4;   16.300,000    16,3 
2,332,000:     4.9|   12,730,000    12.8 


45,770,0001100.0,100,100,000  100.0 


Per 

ct. 


62,1 
:)4,5 


i 


120,070.000  100.0 


Thus  the  value  of  animal  prodiu'ts,  which  for- 
merly made  up  nearly  the  entire  amount  of  its 
exports,  has  dwindled  to  less  than  two-thirds, 
while  agricultural  products  have  risen  from  next 
to  nothing  to  over  one-third  the  total  value.  The 
small  exports  of  manufactured  products  does  not 
indicate  lack  of  industrial  progress,  since  the 
manufactures  go  mainly  to  satisfy  the  home  mar- 
ket, and  do  not  appear  in  the  above  table. 

Commerce.     Being    an    agricultural    country, 

Vol,  I.— 51. 


with  the  manufacturing  industry  still  in  its 
infancy,  Argentina  nuist  on  the  one  liand  import 
most  of  the  numufacturcd  products  needed  by  its 
people,  and  on  the  other  hand  seek  to  dispose  of 
its  enormous  agricultural  surplus  to  the  nations 
of  Europe.  ()f  the  total  imports  brought  into 
the  country,  manufactured  articles  of  all  kinds, 
including  textiles,  metal  ware,  chemicals,  paints, 
and  liquors,  constitute  more  than  86  per  cent., 
while  vegetable  and  animal  substances  constitute 
less  than  13  per  cent.;  and  even  these  include 
many  manufactured  products,  such  as  refined 
sugar,  cigars  and  cigarettes,  dried  fruit,  manu- 
factures of  rul)ber,  and  preserved  meats.  Jlak- 
ing  allowance  for  such  articles,  the  value  of 
really  crude  products  of  the  farm  barely  exceeds 
1  per  cent,  of  the  total  imports ;  on  the  other 
hand,  the  only  manufactured  articles  exported 
from  Argentina  consist  of  semi-crude  products  of 
the  farm  and  mine,  sucli  as  refrigerated  meat, 
washed  wool,  hides  and  furs,  lard,  animal  oil, 
linseed  oil,  flour,  copper  bars,  etc.  The  imports 
into  Argentina,  in  the  order  of  importance,  are 
textiles  and  apparel,  iron  and  iron  manufactures, 
food  substances,  coal,  coke,  oil,  drinks,  wood  and 
wood  manufactures,  chemicals,  paper  and  paper 
manufactures,  etc.  The  trade  with  Europe  has 
been  facilitated  by  the  establishment  of  branches 
of  foreign  mercantile  houses  in  Argentina. 

Since  British  capital  has  contributed  more  to 
the  development  of  the  material  resources  and 
the  industries  of  Argentina  than  the  investments 
of  any  other  nation,  (ireat  Britain  naturally  gets 
the  lion's  share  of  Argentina's  trade.  The  prin- 
cipal countries  sharing  in  the  import  trade  of 
Argentina  are:  Great  Britain,  34  per  cent.; 
Germany,  15  per  cent.;  Italy,  13  per  cent.;  the 
United  States,  12  per  cent. ;  and  France,  10  per 
cent.  Of  those  taking  Argentine  products,  the 
most  important  are:  Great  Britain,  15  per  cent.; 
Germany,  13  per  cent.;  France,  12  per  cent;  Bel- 
gium, 11.5  per  cent.;  the  United  States,  4.5  per 
cent.  The  growth  of  Argentine  trade  is  shown 
by  the  following  figures: 


(Millions  of  Pesos.) 
Imports, 

1870 38,50 

1880 43,10 

1885 92,25 

1890 142.25 


CMillions  of  Pesos.) 
Exports. 
29,6 
54.9 
83.9 
100.8 


Early  in  1890  a  severe  commercial  and  finan- 
cial crisis  struck  the  country,  from  the  eflfeets  of 
which  it  took  her  several  years  to  recover.  The 
following  figures  show  the  downiward  movement 
of  the  trade  within  the  few  years  following  1890, 
and  the  gradual  recovery  until  in  1894  the  ex- 
ports began  to  exceed  the  high-water  mark  of 
1890: 


Exports. 

Exports, 

Imports 

Peso 

Imports 

Peso 

in 

equals 

in 

equals 

pesos 

96,6c. 

pesos 

96.5c. 

1891 

67,207,000 

96,708,000 

1896 

112,164,000 

116,802,000 

1892 

97.899.000 

114.607,00(1 

1897 

98,289,000 

101.169.000 

1893  1100,913,000 

94,',tnt',,oiit) 

1898 

107.429.000 

133,829,000 

1894     92,789,000 

101,2.-|C],0(H) 

1899 

116,850.000 

184,918.000 

1895     94,849,000 

118,937,000 

1  1900 

113,485,000 

154,600.000 

The  growth  of  the  trade  with  the  United 
States  during  the  last  half  century  is  shown  by 
the  following  figures: 


ARGENTINA.  7 

Imports  into  Exports  from 

Arj^eiitina  Arfjentina 

from  the  into  tlie 

United  States.  United  States. 

1850 $KOO.0O0  *2,70ll,UIJ0 

1860 900,000  4.()U0.n00 

1870 £,600,000  r..i(in.ouo 

1880 1,900,000  6.200,000 

1890 8.900,000  6.400,000 

The  crisis  of  1890  had  a  similar  effect  on  the 
trade  with  the  United  States  as  it  had  on  the 
general  trade  of  Argentina,  the  decline  continu- 
ing for  several  j'ears.  Since  1896,  however,  the 
trade  has  again  been  increasing  as  follows: 

Imports.  Exports. 

1896 $6,000,000  $9,300,000 

1897 6,4011.11110  lO.HIjo.uOO 

1898 6.400.000  a.'.WU.OOO 

1899 9,000.000  o.lOO.OOO 

1900 11.600,000  8.10O.O0O 

The  trade  with  the  United  States  increased,  not 
only  absolutely,  but  also  relatively.  In  189()  the 
imports  from  the  United  States  constituted  9.9 
per  cent,  of  the  total  imports;  in  1897  the}'  rose 
to  10.3  per  cent.;  in  1898  to  10.4  per  cent.;  in 
1899  they  were  13.2  per  cent.,  and  in  1900  11.9 
per  cent.  The  exports  from  Argentina  to  the 
United  States  were  4.4  per  cent,  in  1898,  4.2  per 
cent,  in  1899,  and  4.4  per  cent,  in  1900.  The 
chief  articles  of  import  from  the  United  States 
are  machinery  and  all  kinds  of  tools  and  imple- 
ments, having  an  annual  value  of  some  .$4,500,- 
000.  The  value  of  agricultural  implements  alone 
is  rapidly  approaching  $2,000,000  annualh';  that 
of  oil  (illuminating  and  lubricating)  is  nearly 
$1,500,000 ;  that  of  boards,  wooden  manufactures, 
and  lumber  exceeds  $1,500,000;  and  that  of  man- 
ufactures of  linen,  hemp,  and  jute  is  over  $1,000,- 
000.  The  chief  articles  of  export  to  the  United 
States  are  wool,  valued,  in  1900,  at  more  than 
$4,500,000  (a  decline  from  $20,000,000  in  1897)  ; 
and  hides  and  skins,  valued,  in  1900,  at  nearly 
$1,000,000  (a  decline  from  nearly  $0,000,000  in 
1890), 

Transportation  and  Communication,  Ship- 
ping.— The  increase  in  shipping  facilities  has 
kept  pace  with  commercial  progress.  In  1869  there 
was  a  total  of  1698  sailing  vessels  and  steamships 
in  the  country.  In  1895  there  were  2654;  but  as 
progress  in  shipbuilding  made  it  possible  to  build 
larger  vessels,  the  total  increase  in  tonnage  was 
much  greatei',  viz.,  from  151.177  tons  in  1869  to 
368,634  in  1895,  an  increase  of  144  per  cent.  In 
1895,  406  of  these  ships  were  steamei's,  the  rest 
being  sailing  vessels.  The  tonnage  of  the  steam- 
ers, however,  was  190,242,  or  more  than  one-half 
of  the  total.  More  than  66  per  cent,  of  the 
steamers  and  88  per  cent,  of  the  sailing  vessels 
carried  the  Argentine  Hag,  English  and  German 
vessels  being  next  in  importance.  The  actual 
shipping  done  by  these  vessels  is  shown  by  the 
following  figures  of  foreign  trade: 

Number.  Tons. 

1890 13,873  6,340.9.55 

1897 10,363  6,064.064 

1899 10.184  6.939.567 

RAILWAY.S.  Perhaps  in  no  other  field  has  the 
economic  progress  of  Argentina  been  so  well 
exemplified  as  in  its  railway  development,  Argen- 
tina has  a  larger  railway  mileage  than  any  other 
country  in  America  south  of  the  United  States, 
although  it  has  only  half  the  area  and  about  one- 
fourth  the  population  of  Brazil,  and  less  than 
half  the  population  of  Mexico.    The  railwav  mile- 


rs  ARGENTINA. 

age  in  1900  aggregated  10,505  miles,  being  dis- 
tributed among  26  lines.  Four  are  owned  and  op- 
erated by  the  nation,  six  are  owned  and  operated 
by  the  provinces,  with  a  mileage  of  8  per  cent,  of 
the  total ;  the  rest  are  managed  by  private  com- 
panies. The  first  railway  in  Argentina  was  built 
in  1854,  and  extended  for  about  12  miles  west  of 
Buenos  Ayres.  In  1860  there  were  19  miles  of 
railway.  In  1870  there  were  454  miles,  including 
the  Central  Argentina  Railway,  extending  from 
Rosario  on  the  Parana  River  to  Cordoba  in  the 
heart  of  the  country.  Between  1870  and  1880 
were  constructed  the  great  trunk  lines  leading 
north  from  Cordoba  to  Tucuman,  and  from  Villa 
^laria  to  Villa  Mercedes,  bringing  the  mileage  in 
1880  up  to  1434.  The  decade  that  followed 
eclipsed  all  previous  records,  and  the  mileage  was 
increased  four-fold,  reaching  a  total  of  5860 
in  1890.  By  that  year  the  countiy  was  covered 
with  a  network  of  railways  branching  out  from 
the  three  great  indiistrial  centres  on  the  Parana 
River — Buenos  Ayres,  Santa  Fe  and  Rosario.  On 
the  .south,  the  railway  reached  the  .sea  at  Bahi'a 
Blanca ;  on  the  west,  it  was  extended  to  Mendoza 
at  the  foot  of  the  Andes,  and  not  far  from  the 
Chilean  boimdary ;  on  the  north,  to  Salta,  also 
close  to  Chile.  I'lnally,  in  the  decade  between 
1890  and  1900,  the  mileage  was  nearly  doubled, 
one  line  stretching  southward  as  far  as  Xeuquen, 
another,  the  Trans-Andean,  being  opened  from 
ilendoza  to  Punta  de  las  Vacas. 

On  the  economic  side  Argentina  did  not  escape 
the  experience  which  has  been  the  lot  of  all  coun- 
tries where  railway  building  has  been  allowed  to 
go  unchecked  under  private  management.  Exces- 
sive issues  of  capital  stock,  over-speculation  and 
kindred  abuses  accompanying  the  great  railway 
"boom"  of  the  eighties  had  their  day  of  reckoning 
in  and  contributed  in  no  small  share  to  the  great 
connnercial  panic  of  1890,  when  the  Government 
found  it  impossible  to  pay  interest  on  railway 
securities  guaranteed  by  it.  It  was  that  experience 
that  led  to  the  gradual  withdrawal  of  guarantees 
to  railways,  and  the  radical  reform  in  railway 
management  which  culminated  in  the  creation 
of  a  special  Ministry  of  Railways,  a  sharp  super- 
vision of  railway  management,  and  a  strong 
tendency  toward  Government  ownership  and  man- 
agement of  railways.  Of  the  existing  trunk  lines 
of  the  country  five,  with  a  mileage  of  1500.  were 
built  bv  the  national  Government  at  a  cost  of 
80.000,600  pesos  gold  (about  $76,000,000)  ;  three 
lines,  with  a  mileage  of  1240,  were  built  by  the 
tlu'ee  richest  provinces — Buenos  Ayres,  Santa  Fe, 
and  Entre  Rios— at  a  total  cost  of  56,000,000 
pesos  ($53,000,000),  In  a  word,  more  than  one- 
fourth  of  the  total  railway  mileage  of  the  country 
has  been  built  by  the  national  and  provincial 
Governments.  While  the  cost  of  the  Government 
railways  has  been  about  28.650  pesos  per  kilo- 
metre, that  of  the  |u-ivate  lines  has  been  35.320 
pesos  per  kilomeli'e.  In  all,  the  Government  paid 
out  over  $44,000,000  in  guarantees  for  private 
roads.  At  the  end  of  1898  the  total  capital  in- 
vested in  Argentine  railways  amounted  to  523,- 
000.000  pesos,  of  which  435,000,000  pesos  repre- 
sented private  roads;  55,000.000,  national  rail- 
ways; and  33,000,000,  provincial  railways.  The 
railways  emploved  over  37,000  men  in  1898  as 
against  20,000  in   1893. 

TELEfiRAPii.s.  More  than  one-half  of  all  the  tel- 
egraph lines  belong  to  the  Government,  less  than 


ABGENTINA. 


79 


ARGENTINA. 


a  tenth  to  private  companies,  and  the  rest  to  the 
railways.  There  were  27,584  niiU-s  of  tcU'graph 
lines  in  Argentina  in  1900  as  against  20,415  miles 
in  1891.  A  "snow  cal)le"  connects  Buenos  Ayres 
with  ^'alparaiso.  whence  a  submarine  cable  con- 
nects with  San  Francisco,  C'al.  Buenos  Ayres  is 
connected  with  Montevideo  by  submarine  cable, 
and  also  with  Europe  by  way  of  Rio  de  .Janeiro 
and  the  Cape  Verde  Islands;  and  in  this  indirect 
way  with  the  United  States  also.  There  is  be- 
sides a  cable  between  Buenos  Ayres  and  Lisbon. 

Banking.  The  first  bank  established  in  Argen- 
tina was  the  Banco  de  la  Provincia  Buenos  Ayres, 
opened  in  1822.  It  was  followed  by  a  number 
of  other  banks,  but  none  of  them  managed  to 
exist  long,  as  the  insignificant  commerce  of  the 
country  was  not  sufficient  to  maintain  such  in- 
stitutions. The  real  banking  history  of  the 
country  dates  from  1872,  when  the  Banco  Na- 
cional,  with  a  capital  of  50.090.0(10  ])esos,  was 
founded.  In  1882  the  first  foreign  bank,  the 
Banco  Italiano  del  Eib  de  la  Plata,  was  estab- 
lished, and  the  growing  commerce  of  the  country 
soon  led  to  the  establishment  of  French,  German, 
and  Spanish  banks,  which  the  respective  nations 
established  in  the  interests  of  their  own  com- 
merce. By  law  of  November  3,  1887,  national 
banks,  resembling  those  of  the  United  States, 
were  established.  The  creation  of  these  banks 
without  projjer  safeguards  thrown  around  them, 
followed  by  great  abuse  of  the  inadequate  law  by 
Government  officials,  soon  resulted  in  Hooding  the 
country  with  worthless  pa])er  money.  Specula- 
tion on  a  scale  that  left  far  behind  the  worst 
features  of  the  German  flriinder  fever  in  the 
early  seventies,  and  resembling  much  the  excesses 
of  the  days  of  -John  Law  ( q.v. )  in  France,  gave 
the  country  for  a  time  the  appearance  of  genuine 
prosperity;  the  'boom'  was  skillfully  utilized 
through  the  medium  of  the  Paris  Exposition  of 
1889  to  attract  still  more  foreign  capital,  and 
the  scramble  for  wealth  went  on,  imtil  it  culmi- 
nated in  a  financial  panic.  The  panic  swept 
away  the  numerous  national  banks,  most  of 
which  had  nothing  but  paper  and  a  political 
"pull"  with  the  directors  of  the  National  Bank 
at  Buenos  Ayres  as  their  chief  assets.  The  Na- 
tional Bank  itself,  robbed  of  its  capital  by  its 
directors  and  by  politicians,  was  declared  in- 
solvent, and  was  reorganized  in  1891,  under  the 
name  of  the  Banco  de  la  Nacion  Argentina,  with 
a  capital  of  .$.50,000,000.  In  addition,  there  are 
14  State  banks.  In  1899  the  paper  peso  was 
fixed  by  the  Congress  of  -Argentina  at  .44  of 
the  gold  peso,  thus  contributing  to  the  stability 
of  the  currency. 

Government.  The  constitution  of  Argentina, 
adopted  in  1853,  and  modified  in  ISfiO  and  in 
1898,  is  modeled  closely  upon  that  of  the  United 
States;  and  the  entire  system  of  government, 
both  federal  and  provincial,  is  almost  identical 
in  its  chief  features  with  our  own.  The  legisla- 
tive power  is  vested  in  a  Congress  consisting  of 
a  Senate  and  a  House  of  Representatives.  The 
Senate  is  composed  of  30  members,  elected  2  each 
by  the  legislatures  of  the  14  ])rovinces,  and  2 
by  the  city  of  Buenos  Ayres.  They  serve  for  nine 
years,  but  one-third  of  the  Chamber  ]>asses  out 
every  three  years.  The  Lower  House  consisted  in 
1901  of  133  members,  elected  directly  by  the  peo- 
ple for  a  term  of  four  years,  one-half  of  the 
House  being  renewed  every  two  years.     To  the 


H<inse  of  Representatives  is  reserved  the  right 
of  initiating  bills  dealing  witli  taxation  and 
military  conscription,  and  of  imi)eacliing  the  na- 
ti(.nal  executive  and  judiciary.  The  executive 
]jower  is  vested  in  a  President,  elected  for  a 
])eriod  of  six  years  by  tlie  same  method  as  that 
pursued  in  the  United  States,  except  that  the  luuu- 
ber  of  electors  chosen  by  each  Province  is  twice 
(he  number  of  its  representatives  in  Congress. 
The  President  acts  through  his  ministers,  eight 
in  number,  who  preside  over  the  Departments  of 
the  Interior,  Foreign  Affairs  and  \\'orshi]).  Fi- 
nance (Hacienda),  Justice  and  Pulilic  Instruc- 
tion, War,  Navy,  Agriculture  and  I'ldilic  Works. 
The  ministers  niaj'  appear  and  s])eak  in  Congress, 
though  they  have  no  vote,  and  are  responsible 
for  the  acts  of  the  chief  executive,  whose  decrees 
they  must  countersign  separately  or  jointly. 
Tlirough  the  ministers,  the  President  may  initiate 
legislation  in  cither  house.  The  Supreme  Court 
of  the  Republic  consists  of  five  judges  and  an 
attorney-general,  appointed  by  the  President, 
witli  the  approval  of  the  Senate.  It  exercises 
similar  jurisdiction  to  that  of  the  United  States 
Sujireme  Court. 

The  Provinces,  fourteen  in  luunber,  have  each 
their  own  constitution,  and  exercise  complete  con- 
trol over  their  own  afiairs.  They  possess  even 
greater  powerthan  the  Statesof  ourUnion,in  that 
they  may  conclude  treaties  (with  the  consent  of 
Congress),  for  the  fostering  of  industr\',  immi- 
gration, colonization,  railways,  and  canals.  The 
governor  is  elected  directly  by  the  people  for 
a  period  of  three  or  four  years.  The  national  do- 
main is  divided  into  nine  I'erritories,  controlled 
by  Congress,  and  ruled  by  governors  appointed 
by  the  President.  When  a  territory  acquires  a 
population  of  30,000  it  is  granted  the  power  of 
choosing  a  legislature,  and  when  its  inhabitants 
number  (iO.OOO.  it  must  of  right  be  admitted  as 
a  Province  with  boundaries  determined  b_v  Con- 
gress. For  purposes  of  administration  and 
police,  the  Republic  is  divided  into  424  depart- 
ments and  1750  districts.  The  national  capital 
is  Buenos  Ayres. 

Local  Government.  Every  community  of  more 
than  1000  inhabitants  may  be  erected  into  a 
municipal  corjun-ation.  In  the  Provinces  of 
Buenos  .\yres,  Santa  F(;  Entre  Rios,  San  Juan, 
and  Corrientes.  the  numicipalities  are  supreme- 
in  the  sphere  of  local  government,  and  are  amen- 
able to  the  Province  or  court  only  in  case  of  a 
violation  of  a  general  law.  The  municipal  presi- 
dents and  councils  are  elected  by  the  people, 
except  the  iiiteiidentc  (governor)  of  Buenos 
.\yres,  which  comprises  the  Federal  District,  who 
is  appointed  by  the  President  of  the  Republic. 
In  the  other  provinces  the  numicipalities  are 
subject  to  ins|)cction  and  regulation  liy  the  Ciov- 
ernment  officials  and  judicial  authorities.  For- 
eigners are  eligible  to  any  municipal  office. 

Immigration  and  Emigration.  Since  1857, 
when  the  statistics  of  incoming  foreigners  were 
first  taken,  there  has  been  a  growing  stream  of 
immigration,  which  swelled  the  country's  popu- 
lation in  the  period  from  1857-99  by  2,504,000 
people.  Immigration  received  a  great  setback 
in  1890,  and  altliough  it  has  been  recovering  since 
that  year  it  has  not  yet  reached  the  liigli-water 
mark  of  the  year  preceding  the  crisis.  In  1SS9 
the  total  immigration  into  the  country  was  201,- 
000,  of  whom  219,000  came  by  sea  and  42,000  by 


ARGENTINA. 


780 


ARGENTINA. 


l.ind.  In  the  fono\ving  year  there  was  a  drop 
of  one-half,  the  total  immigration  in  1890  being 
132,000.  In  ISOl  there  was  a  further  drop  to 
52,000,  but  since  then  there  has  been  a  gradual 
increase,  the  total  immigration  in  1899  exceeding 
111,000.  On  the  other  hand,  the  emigration 
from  the  country,  which  was  only  40,000  in  1889. 
rose  to  83,000  in  1890.  It  has'  averaged  about 
50,000  per  year  since  then.  About  70  per  cent, 
of  the  immigrants  are  Italians,  about  10  per 
cent.  Spaniards,  and  nearly  8  per  cent,  are 
French,  the  rest  being  made  up  of  the  various 
nationalities  mentioned  below  under  Population. 

The  Argentinians  have  long  understood  the 
great  value  of  immigration  to  a  naturally  rich 
and  fertile,  but  sparsely  settled,  country  like 
their  own.  Hence  their  great  efforts  to  attract 
foreign  labor,  as  well  as  foreign  capital,  to  their 
country.  In  addition  to  very  liberal  immigra- 
tion laws,  and  generous  distribution  of  land  to 
colonists,  enormous  sums  of  money  have  been 
spent  in  bringing  over  and  aiding  immigrants 
before  they  are  able  to  support  themselves.  Be- 
sides the  sums  thus  spent  by  the  Province  of 
Buenos  Ayres  and  by  the  private  Colonization 
Association,  the  national  treasury^  has  been 
spending  annu.ally  from  one  to  three-quarters  of 
a  million  pesos  during  the  last  decade  of  the 
century,  and  on  the  average  a  sum  close  to  a 
quarter  of  a  million  annually  since  1870.  The 
number  of  people  gratiiitously  brought  over, 
lodged,  and  finally  settled  at  public  expense  in 
the  forty  voars  from  1857  to  1897  was  897,805, 
697,398,"  and  57(i.:!9(].  respectively.  To  what  ex- 
tent the  free  distribution  of  land  to  immigrants 
and  the  planting  of  agricultural  colonies  have 
added  to  the  national  wealth  has  already  been 
shown  under  AGRici'LTtHE. 

Education.  The  public-school  system  of  Ar- 
gentina was  admirably  organized  by  President 
Sarmiento  (lSOS-74).  but  on  the  whole  it  has 
not  been  kept  up  to  the  standard  he  set  for  it. 
Primary  education  is  free  and  obligatory  for 
all  children  between  the  ages  of  6  and  14.  Tlie 
elementary  schools  are  supported  by  the  individ- 
ual Provinces, although  subsidized  by  the  Fedei-al 
Government.  They  are  under  the  general  control 
of  Provincial  boards  of  education,  while  tlie  de- 
tails of  administration  are  left  to  district  school 
boards.  The  schools  in  the  Territories  and  the 
Federal  district  are  managed  bya  Xational  Board 
of  Education  under  the  supervision  of  the  ilinis- 
ter  of  Justice  and  Public  Instruction.  Besides 
the  regular  elementary  schools,  there  are  kinder- 
gartens, schools  for  adults,  and  in  sparsely  set- 
tled districts,  ambulatory  schools.  In  some  of 
the  provinces,  and  in  the  Federal  schools,  relig- 
ious instruction  of  any  kind  may  be  imparted 
outside  of  school  hours:  in  others  only  the 
Catholic  faith  n)ust  be  taught;  in  one,  Entre 
Eios,  no  religious  instruction  is  permitted.  In 
1899  there  were  4,291  primary  schools,  with 
427,311  enrolled  pu])ils,  l)ut  probably  a  far  great- 
er number  of  children  were  receiving  no  instruc- 
tion. Secondary  education  is  provided  for  by  16 
lyceums  and  35  normal  schools,  under  the  control 
of  the  Goveriunent,  and  higher  education  by  na- 
tional universities  of  Buenos  Ayres  and  Cordoba, 
and  provincial  universities  at  La  Plata,  Santa 
Fe,  and  Parana.  There  are  also  a  school  of 
mines,  a  college  of  agriculture,  and  a  naval  and 
military  school. 


Religion.  The  constitution  guarantees  free- 
dom of  religion  to  all,  but  makes  the  Roman 
Catholic  faith  that  of  the  State.  The  country 
is  divided  into  seven  dioceses  and  one  archiepis- 
copate.  The  Government  builds  churches  and 
supports  the  Catholic  priesthood,  but  it  controls 
all  ecclesiastical  appointments,  and  sanctions  or 
rejects  the  decrees  of  tlie  Papal  See.  Marriage 
was  made  the  subject  of  a  civil  contract  in  1888. 
The  native  Argentinians  are  nearly  all  Roman 
Catholics.  Of  the  3.954,911  people' returned  by 
the  census,  3,921,136  were  Catholics,  26,750 
Protestants,  6085  Jews,  and  940  belonged  to 
other  denominations. 

Finance.  The  economic  progress  of  Argentina 
has  been  accompanied  throughout  its  course  by 
extremely  unfavorable  financial  conditions.  The 
chief  cause  of  the  unsatisfactory  state  of  public 
finance  has  been  the  inordinate  increase  of  ex- 
penditure, Axhich  was  incurred  without  reference 
to  the  capacity  of  the  paople  to  shoulder  new 
burdens.  All  thoughtful  students  of  Argentine 
affairs  unite  in  the  opinion  that  the  politicians 
of  the  country  embarked  with  too  li.ght  hearts 
on  all  kinds  of  undertakings — some  productive, 
others  wasteful  and  useless,  and,  to  make  mat- 
ters worse,  the  administration  of  the  Ijudget  was 
until  recently  extremely  loose.  In  1870  the  total 
budget  of  the  Governj'nent  was  .$12,635,000;  in 
1880  it  was  .$16,815,000,  or  an  increase  of  33 
per  cent,  in  one  decade:  in  1890  it  was  $71,508,- 
000,  or  a  further  increase  of  325  per  cent. :  and 
in  1900  it  was  $95,000,000  paper  and  $33,000,000 
gold,  or  reducing  it  all  to  a  paper  basis,  .$194,- 
000,000,  or  a  further  increase  of  171  ])er  cent. 
Dr.  Albert  B.  Martinez,  formerly  Assistant  Min- 
ister of  Finance,  ascribes  the  great  increase  in 
public  expenditure  to  the  following  principal 
causes:  (a)  Increase  of  administrative  func- 
tions, due  to  rapid  growth  of  population:  (b) 
increase  of  public  debt:  (e)  depreciation  of  paper 
money;  (d)  wars,  foreign  and  civil:  (e)  guar- 
antee by  the  State  of  the  payment  of  interest  on 
costly  public  works:  ff)  imperfect  administra- 
tive machinery;  (g)  defective  control  of  public 
expenses,  etc.  In  1800,  on  the  eve  of  the  great 
financial  crisis,  the  revenues  of  the  Republic 
amounted  to  $73,408,000  paper,  as  aaainst  an 
expenditure  of  $92,854,000.  The  enormous  defi- 
cit, together  with  the  general  unsettled  financial 
condition  of  the  country,  forced  the  Government 
to  suspend  payment  on  the  national  debt,  and 
during  the  following  years  the  revenue  continued 
to  decline.  Although  since  1895  the  revenue  has 
been  steadily  increasing,  the  expenditure  con- 
tinued to  be  in  excess  of  it,  as  is  sho\\-n  by  the 
following  figures: 


Revenue 

Expenditure 

Pesos 
(paper). 

Pesos 
(gold). 

Pesos 
(paper). 

Pesos 
(gold). 

1895 
1896 
1897 
1898 
1899 
I90O 
1901' 

29.000.000 
28..')00.000 
61.000.000 
49,700.(K)O 
fil.4.no.ooo 
67,100.000 
63.:J00,000 

29.800.000 
32,000.000 
.30.600,000 
33.900,000 
■l,'j,70O.000 
46,000,000 
38,000,000 

1 

83.900,800 
92,100,000 
93,400,000 
93.100.000 

103.900.0111) 
'.),'.. 41111, 11(111 
M.S, 4(1(1,11011 

24,200,000 
46,000.000 
29."2()(1,00() 
20,91 1(1, (H)0 

:^(i,;i()i),(Hio 
3'2,'.irH),o{)0 
2o!oO(l,000 

•Estimated. 


ARGENTINA. 


781 


ARGENTINA. 


Of  the  total  revenue,  import  duties  furnish  less 
than  one-sixth,  the  bulk  of  the  revenue  beinp 
derived  from  excise  taxes  on  spirits,  wines,  and 
tobacco  (one-fifth),  land  and  stamp  taxes  (about 
7  per  cent,  of  total  revenue),  proceeds  from  rail- 
ways, telegraphs,  and  posts  (about  0  per  cent,  of 
revenue),  and  a  number  of  other  taxes.  The  in- 
crease of  internal  taxation  took  place  in  the  early 
nineties  to  close  the  widening  gap  in  the  na- 
tional finances,  created  by  the  growing  deficits, 
and  to  put  the  country  in  a  position  to  resiune 
pajnnents  on  the  debt.  The  growth  of  the  Ar- 
gentine debt  during  the  last  three  decades  of  the 
eenturv  was  in  round  figures  as  follows:  1870, 
$47,000,000:  1880,  $85,000,000:  1800,  .$3,53,000,- 
000.  In  1900.  according  to  the  report  of  the 
Minister  of  Finance,  the  total  debt  exceeded 
$440,000,000.  and  was  distributed  as  follows: 
External  debt,  38fi,004,118  pesos  gold;  inter- 
nal debt,  98,751,300  pesos  paper,  6,375,000  pesos 
gold. 

The  annual  service  of  the  debt  required  more 
than  .$27,000,000  in  gold,  or  nearly  one-half  the 
revenue  of  the  country.  That  the  Government 
was  unable  to  meet  its  obligations  is  shown  by 
the  large  deficit  in  one  of  the  foregoing  tables. 
According  to  the  agreement  entered  into  by  the 
Argentine  Government  with  Lord  Rothschild  in 
1893.  it  was  practically  relieved  from  payment 
of  interest  for  five  years  ( the  interest  for  that 
period  being  converted  into  a  new  debt),  and 
was  to  pay  interest  alone  from  1898  to  1901.  On 
.Tanuary  12,  1901,  the  full  payment  of  interest 
and  sinking  funds  was  to  be  resumed.  Not- 
withstanding the  respite  thus  secured,  the  finances 
of  tile  Government  in  1001  continued  to  be  as 
little  satisfactory  as  before  1893.  The  chief 
items  of  expenditure  are:  For  the  arnij'  and 
navy,  service  of  the  public  debt,  Department  of 
the  Interior,  Department  of  Justice  and  Public 
Instruction,  and  Department  of  Finance,  In 
spite  of  the  cry  of  economy  raised  since  the  great 
crisis  of  1890,  the  cost  of  the  army  and  navy 
has  gone  up  from  11,000,000  pesos  in  that  year 
lo  nearlv  29,000,000  pesos  in  1897;  pensions, 
from  1.587.000  to  3,496,000  pesos;  justice  and 
public  instruction,  from  8,303,000  to  14,108,000 
pesos;  and  the  administration  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  Interior,  from  19,828,000  to  24,801,- 
000  pesos. 

MUitari/  Equipment. — See  Argentina,  under 
Armies. 

}yei(!hts.  Measures,  and  Money. — The  metric 
system  was  oflieially  adopted  in  1887.  Gold  is 
the  standard  of  value.  A  gold  peso  ($)  equals 
06.5  cents  in  I'nitcd  States  money.  A  peso  has 
100  centavos.  The  paper  peso  is  equal  to  44 
centavos  gold  money. 

Population.  The  following  table  shows  the 
population  of  Argentina  by  Provinces  for  1869 
and  1895. 

Thus  there  was  an  increase  of  2.226,424.  or 
120  per  cent,  in  26  years.  The  urban  population 
constituted  34.6  per  cent,  of  the  total  population 
of  the  country  in  1869.  and  42.8  per  cent,  in  1895, 
thus  keeping  pace  with  the  industrial  develop- 
ment of  the  coiuitry.  Only  in  three  Eurnjiean 
countries,  viz.,  England,  Germany,  and  Italy,  is 
the  percentage  of  the  urban  pojjulation  greater 
than  in  Arsentiiia.  In  the  United  States,  the 
urban  population  constituted  32.9  per  cent,  of  the 
total  in  1890.  and  37.3  per  cent,  in  1900.  Of 
the    3,954.911    persons    reported   by    the   census. 


I'rovinces. 

Population 
1809. 

Population 
1895. 

Area  in 
.Square 
Miles. 

1.  Eastern  Littoral. 
Buenos  A.vres  (cit.T).. 
Buenos  Ajres 

187.346 
307.761 
80,117 
134,271 
129,023 

663,854 
921,168 
397.188 
292.019 
239.618 

72 

117.777 
50,916 
28,784 
32.580 

.Santa  V6 

Entre  Rios 

Total  1 

838,518 

210,508 
53,294 
132.895 

2,513,847 

361.223 
81.450 
161.502 

2.  Central. 

Cordoba  

62,160 
28,535 
39,764 

San  Luie 

Santiago  del  Estero, 

Total  2 

3.  Western  .\ndes. 

396,697 

65,413 
60,319 
48,746 
79,962 

594,176 

116,136 
84,251 
69,502 
00,161 

56.502 
33.715 
34,546 
47,531 

San  Juan 

Catamarca 

Total  3 

254,440 

108,953 
88,933 
40,379 

360,050 

215,742 
118.016 
49,713 

4.  Northern. 

Tuciiman 

8,926 
62.184 
18,977 

Salta 

Jujuv 

Total  4 

238,265 

383,470 

33,163 

4.829 
10.422 

Territories  (northern). 

Chaco 

Total 

48,414 

25,914 

14,517 

9,241 
3,748 
1,058 

477 

Central. 

I'anipa 

■Western. 

Southern. 

Chubut  

153 

Los  Andes  and 
Tierra  del  Fuego... 

153 

14,524 

Total  5 

153 
1,728,073 

103,369 

3,054,911 

60,000 
30,000 

Total  population 

Population  not  returned 

Indians 

93,138 

Total 

1,821,211 
47,276 

4,044,911 
60.000 

Argentinians  abroad 

Grand  Total 

1,868,487 

4,094,911 

1,113,849 

2,088,919  were  males,  and  1,865,992  females,  the 
great  excess  of  males  being  a  common  phenom- 
enon in  young  countries  attracting  large  num- 
bers of  imfnigrants.  There  were  2,950.384  na- 
tives, as  against  1,004.527  foreigners,  or  in  other 
words,  more  than  one-third  of  the  population  con- 
sisted of  immigrants,  among  whom  the  propor- 
tion of  males  to  females  was  about  7  to  4.  The 
best  represented  nationalities  among  the  foreign 
population  were:  Italians,  492,030;  Spaniards, 
198,685;  Frenchmen,  94,098;  and  South  Ameri- 
cans (Brazilians,  Chileans,  etc.) ,  117,000.  Next 
in  order  were  Englishmen,  Germans,  Swiss,  and 
Austrians,  ranging  from  21,788,  to  12.803,  The 
Indians  seem  to  be  fast  dying  out,  their  number 
having  dwindled  from  more  than  93,000  in  1869, 
to  30,000  in  1895,  The  density  of  population 
increased  from  1.6  per  square  mile  in  1869,  to 
3.7  per  square  mile  in  1895,  ranging  in  the  latter 


ARGENTINA. 


782 


ARGENTINA. 


year  from  0.10  per  square  mile  in  the  we.stem 
territory  of  Xeuquen,  to  11.1  in  the  Province  of 
Cuencs  Ayres. 

Estimates  made  of  the  population  in  December, 
1900,  place  the  total  for  that  date  at  4,794,149, 
or  an  increase  since  1895  of  21  per  cent.  This 
increase  was  shared  by  all  of  the  provinces.  Of 
the  territories,  Pampa  alone  made  large  gains. 

History.  The  river  Plata  was  entered  in  1.515 
by  Juan  Diaz  de  Solis,  who  was  searching  for  a 
southwest  passage  to  the  East  Indies,  and  in 
1527-8  Sebastian  Cabot  ascended  the  Parana  to 
its  confluence  with  the  Paraguay,  there  founding 
a  colony,  and  giving  the  name  La  Plata  (silver) 
to  the  latter  stream,  from  the  stories  of  hoards 
of  silver  which  he  heard  from  the  Indians,  who 
told  him  that  the  metal  came  from  the  head- 
waters of  the  river  in  the  west,  i.e.  Peni.  In 
1535  Don  Pedro  de  Jtendoza  visited  the  new- 
country,  and  founded  Buenos  Ayres,  whicli  was 
abandoned  by  the  colonists  in  1537  ;  was  rebuilt  in 
1542,  was  abandoned  again  in  1543,  and  was  not 
permanently  established  until  1580.  Jleanwhile 
Ascuneion  (1537).  Santa  Fe  (1573),  and  other 
places  had  been  settled,  and  horses  and»  cattle 
had  been  introduced.  Spanish  colonists  from 
Peru  had  founded  cities  in  the  northwest,  Tucu- 
man  (1505).  and  Cordoba  (1573),  and  down  to 
1776  the  basin  of  the  river  Plata  was  a  depend- 
ency of  the  viceroyalty  of  Peru.  In  that  year  the 
viceroyalty  of  Buenos  Ayres  was  formed,  includ- 
ing Bolivia,  Paraguay,  and  Uruguay,  and  the 
country  was  governed  liy  viceroys  until  180G, 
when,  during  the  war  of  France  and  Spain 
against  England,  Buenos  Ayres  and  Montevideo 
were  occupied  by  the  English.  Buenos  Ayres, 
however,  was  reca])tured  by  the  inhabitants,  who, 
forced  to  defend  themselves,  saw  the  need  and 
advisability  of  independence  of  the  mother  coun- 
try. Accordingly,  they  refused  in  1808  to  acknowl- 
edge .Joseph  Bonaparte  as  King  of  Spain,  and 
in  1810  the  struggle  for  independence  began. 
A  provisional  government  was  instituted  under 
a  junta  guhernalivu,  which  was  replaced  early 
in  1814  by  a  "Supreme  Board  of  the  L'nited 
Provinces,"  under  the  virtual  control  of  one  man, 
Antonio  de  Posados.  Civil  strife  followed,  and  in 
1816  a  general  congress  declared  the  independence 
of  the  "I'nited  Provinces  of  Rio  de  la  Plata." 
though  this  was  not  substantially  attained  with- 
out war  (1817-24).  and  was  not  recognized 
by  Spain  until  1842.  During  1820-28  there  was 
war  witli  Brazil  for  the  possession  of  the  Banda 
Oriental  I  Uruguay!,  which  in  1828  was  finally 
recognized  by  both  as  an  independent  State,  and 
from  1827-31  the  Plata  provinces  were  practically 
isolated  fmm  each  otlicr.  In  1831  Buenos  Ayres, 
Entre  Rios,  Corrientcs.  and  Santa  Fe  formed 
a  federal  comj)act.  and  invited  the  others  to  join 
them;  b>it  little  but  anarchy  resulted  till  1835, 
when  General  Rosas  Iq.v.)  was  installed  as  dic- 
tator. His  effort*  (o  make  Buenos  Ayres  supreme 
led  to  his  downfall  in  1852.  In  1853  a  constitu- 
tion, still  in  force,  was  adopted  for  the  "Argen- 
tine Republic,"  but  Buenos  Ayres  refused  to  ac- 
cept the  document,  and  in  1854  declared  itself  in- 
dependent, but  was  defeated  in  1859,  and  obliged 
to  reenter  the  Confederation.  Hostilities  were 
soon  renewed  (1861),  however,  and  though  the 
province  did  not  again  become  independent,  it  in- 
creased greatly  in  relative  importance,  and  the 
city  of  Buenos  Ayres  supplanted  Parana  as  the 


capital  of  the  Confederation.  During  1865-70, 
under  the  presidency  of  General  Mitre  and  of 
Sanniento,  a  war  was  waged  against  Paraguay 
by  the  Argentine  Republic,  Brazil,  and  Uruguay, 
with  little  benefit  to  the  Republic.  In  1881  a 
treaty  was  made  with  Chile  by  which  Argentina 
acquired  all  the  country  ea-st  of  t!ie  Andes, 
comprising  Patagonia  and  the  eastern  part  of 
Tierra  del  Fuego.  In  July,  1890,  a  revolution 
broke  out,  aided  by  the  army  and  navy — the 
result  of  the  political  and  financial  corruption 
of  the  cabinet  oHicers  and  the  stagnation  in  busi- 
ness produced  by  debasement  of  the  currency. 
President  Celman  was  forced  to  resign,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Dr.  Carlos  Pellegrini,  who  held 
office  until  Octolier,  1892,  when  Dr.  Luis  Saenz- 
Peiia  was  inaugurated.  Saenz-Peiia  made  a 
vigorous  effort  to  put  the  country  on  a  proper 
financial  basis,  conditions  having  continued  very 
bad  since  the  failure  of  the  Barings,  which  was 
largely  brought  about  by  their  extensive  dealings 
in  unproductive  Argentine  securities.  Repeated 
political  disturbances  at  the  various  provincial 
capitals,  however,  prevented  any  successful  finan- 
cial reorganization  or  sufficient  commercial  im- 
provement, and  in  .lanuan',  1895,  S.aenz-Peiia 
resigned,  and  the  Vice-President,  S.  Jose  L^ri- 
buri'i,  took  the  executive  chair.  He  held  office 
until  1898,  when  Lieut.-Gen.  Julio  A.  Roca.  who 
had  occupied  the  place  between  1880  and  1886, 
was  again  elected  President.  The  boundary 
difficulties  with  Cliile  and  Bolivia,  whicli  very 
frequently  threatened  serious  trouble  between 
the  States  during  the  later  years  of  the  Nine- 
teenth Century,  are  referred  to  in  the  accounts  of 
those  countries. 

Bibliography.  General  description  and  sta- 
tistics: Greger,  Die  Republik  Argentina  (Basel, 
1883)  ;  Bovio,  Geografia  de  la  liepiiblica  Argen- 
tina (Buenos  Ayres,  1888)  ;  van  Bruyssel,  La 
Repuhlique  Argentine,  ses  r'essoiirees  natiinlles, 
etc.  (Brussels,  1888)  ;  Guilaine,  La  Republii/ue 
Argentine,  plii/sigue  et  economique  (Paris,  1889)  ; 
Child,  The  Spanish-American  Republics  (New 
York,  1891)  ;  Latzina,  Geugrnfia  de  la  Reptiblica 
Argentina  (Buenos  Ayres  and  Paris,  1891); 
Turner,  Argentina  and  the  Argentines  (London, 
1892)  :  Mulhall,  Handbook  of  the  River  Plate 
Republics  (London,  1893)  ;  Latzina,  Diccionario 
geografico  argentino  (Buenos  Ayres,  1894)  ;  .S'e- 
gundo  censo  de  la  Reptiblica  Argentina  de  1S95 
(Buenos  Ayres.  1898),  contains  a  wealth  of  in- 
forumtion  de.scriptive.  statistical,  historical,  on 
every  important  subject  with  regard  to  the 
country  and  people:  Gubernatis.  L' Argentina, 
ricordi  e  letture  (Florence,  1898)  ;  Maertens, 
Siid-Amerika  tinter  besonderer  Beriicksiehtigung 
Argcntiniens  (Berlin,  1899)  :  Lix-Klett,  Eslu- 
dios  sobre  produccii'in,  comercio,  finanzos  f  intcr- 
eses  geneniles  de  la  Repr'iblica  Argentina  (Buenos 
Ayres,  1900).  Climate:  Anales  de  la  Oficina 
meteoroldgica  Argentina  (Buenos  Ayres.  18S0 — 
date,  annual).  Flora  and  Fauna:  Hudson.  The 
'Katuralist  in  La  Plata  (London.  1892)  :  Philip- 
pi.  Comparacion  de  las  floras  y  faunas  dr  las 
rrpuhlicas  de  Chile  y  Argentina  (Santiago, 
1803)  :  Sclatter  and  Hudson.  Argentine  Orni- 
thology (London.  1888-89).  History:  Dominguez, 
History  of  the  Argentine  Republic,  translated  by 
Williaius  (Buenos  Ayres.  1860)  :  Merou.  His- 
ti'iria  de  la  RepubVwu  Argentina  (Buenos  Ayres, 
1900). 


ARGENTINE.  783 

AR'GENTINE.  A  city  in  Wyandotte  County, 
Kan.,  three  miles  from  Kansas  City,  on  the 
Atchison,  Topeka,  and  .Santa  Fe  Railroad  (Map: 
Kansas,  H  2 ) .  It  is  a  suburb  of  Kansas  City, 
and  has  large  smelting  and  refining  works  for 
gold,  silver,  copper,  and  lead,  besides  grain 
elevators  and  railroad  repair  shops.  Pop.  1890, 
4732;    1900,  5878. 

ARGENTINE  (Fr.  argentin,  silvery,  from 
Lat.  aiyjcntii}!!^  silver).  A  small  deep-sea  smelt, 
most  abundant  on  the  southern  coasts  of  Eu- 
rope, where  it  is  seined  in  schools,  with  ancho- 
vies and  sardines.  These  fishes  are  chiefiy 
remarkable  and  valuable  for  the  resplendent  sil- 
very lustre  of  their  sides  and  the  abundance 
of  nacre,  the  substance  used  in  making  artificial 
pearls,  with  which  their  air-bladder  is  ex- 
ternally loaded.  It  consists  of  a  coat  of  silvery 
fibres.  Representatives  of  the  genus  (Argen- 
tina )   are  found  on  both  shores  of  America.     See 

Plate   of   WlIITKFlSII,   S.MELT,   ETC. 

AR'GENTORA'TUM.  The  Latin  name  for 
Strassburg,  derived  from  an  old  Celtic  term  sig- 
nifying "the  Stone  of  Argantos." 

ARGHOOL,  iir-gool'.  A  wood  wind-instru- 
ment of  the  Arabs,  invented  in  post-iloham- 
niedan  times.  It  consists  of  two  tubes,  made  of 
common  cane,  with  a  reed  mouthpiece.  One  tube 
is  always,  the  other  usually,  perforated. 

ARGILE  PLASTIQUE,  iir'zhel'  pla'stek' 
(Fr.,  plastic  clay).  A  series  of  beds  at  the  base 
of  the  Tertiary  system  in  France,  which  con- 
sist of  extensive  deposits  of  sand,  with  occa- 
sional beds  of  plastic  clays,  used  for  pottery. 
The  Argile  Plastique  is  the  equivalent  in  the 
Paris  basin  of  the  Woolwich  and  Reading  series, 
or  Lower  Eocene  of  the  English  geologists.  See 
Tertiary  System. 

AR'GILLA'CEOTTS  ROCKS  (Lat.  arfiiUa- 
ceus,  clayey,  from  argilla,  Gk.  a/j)(/l^of,  argillos, 
white  clay,  potter's  earth;  cf.  ap;df,  argos,  .shin- 
ing, white).  Rocks  consisting  of  or  contain- 
ing more  or  less  clay.  Pure  clay,  or  kaolinite, 
a  hydrated  silicate  of  aluminum,  is  always 
an  alteration  product  of  other  minerals,  par- 
ticularly of  feldsjiars.  However,  the  term  'clay' 
is  applied  to  practically  all  plastic  or  sticky 
masses  of  eartli  or  shale,  which  may  include, 
besides  kaolinite,  a  variety  of  minerals, 
such  as  quartz,  feldspar,  limonite,  hematite, 
magnetite,  etc.  Clay  deposits  may  be  either 
residual  or  transported — i.e.,  formed  in  place, 
or  'carried  to  the  point  of  deposition  by  water, 
wind,  or  glaciers.  They  are  derived  from  the 
alteration  of  igneous  rocks,  limestone,  sand- 
stone, or  shale.  When  consolidated  without  de- 
formation, so  that  they  have  partings  or  capa- 
city to  part  along  planes  of  deposition,  clay 
deposits  form  shale.  When  consolidated  and 
so  metamorphosed  that  new  planes  of  cleavage 
are  developed  at  angles  to  the  deposition  planes, 
the  clay  is  known  as  a  slate  or  clay-slate. 
When  still  more  metamorphosed,  the  clay  may 
be  known  as  a  phyllite.  Argillaceous  rocks 
may  be  readily  identified  by  the  peculiar  odor 
which  they  emit  when  breathed  upon.  These 
rocks  grade  by  admixture  of  lime  into  calcare- 
ous rocks  or  limestones.  See  Arenaceous 
RocK.s ;  Rocks  ;  Geology  ;  Clay. 

AR'GILLITE.     See  Shale. 
AR'GINU'S.iE.      Three    islets    o(T   the    south 
coast  of  the  island  of  Mytilene  (Lesbos).  Asiatic 


ARGOLIS. 


Turkey.  Near  their  shores  the  Spartan  fleet 
under  Callicratides  was  defeated  by  the  Athenian 
fleet  under  Conon,  September,  B.C.  400. 

AR'GI'VES,  or  Arqi\t  (Lat.  Argivi,  Gk. 
'Apyehit,  Aryciui) .  (See  Argolis.)  The  inhabit- 
ants of  Argos.  In  Homer,  the  name  is  applied 
to  all  the  Greeks. 

AR'GO.     See  Argonauts. 

ARGO.  A  large  southern  constellation  in 
which  is  commemorated  tlie  mythical  ship  of 
the  expedition  of  the  Argonauts  (q.v. ).  Cano- 
pus,  a  star  of  the  first  magnitude,  is  its  chief 
ornament.  Its  declination  (52°  38'  S. )  renders 
it  invisible  in  the  northern  and  central  I'nited 
States.  Eta  Argus,  a  star  in  this  constellation, 
has  undergone  greater  changes  in  brightness 
than  any  other  variable  star  of  its  class.  It  is 
situated  in  a  remarkable  nebula,  named  by  Sir 
John  Herschel  the  "keyhole"  nebula,  on  account 
of  its  shape.  Very  recent  photographic  observa- 
tions at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  Observatory 
leave  little  room  to  doubt  the  existence  of  some 
connection  between  Eta  Argus  and  the  nebula. 

AR'GOB.  A  district  in  Bashan,  which,  ac- 
cording to  Deut.  iii.  4  contained  three- 
score walled  cities,  "the  kingdom  of  Og."  Its 
exact  location  is  uncertain.  The  Targums  trans- 
late Argob  by  Trakona — i.e.,  Traclionitis,  the 
modern  El  I^eja — which,  indeed,  abounds  in  de- 
serted towns  and  villages.  Some  of  these  are 
cave  dwellings  or  subterranean  chambers;  oth- 
ers are  built  above  ground,  of  massive  blocks 
■of  black  basalt,  with  heavy  doors  moving  on 
pivots,  staircases  and  roofs  of  the  same  ma- 
terial. The  latter  belong  to  the  period  from 
the  First  to  the  Seventh  Century  a.d.,  according 
to  De  Vogiie,  Barton  and  Drake,  Wetzstcin  and 
Waddington :  though  it  is  possible  that  the 
Greek  cities  may  have  been  built  on  the  sites 
of  earlier  towns,  as  Driver  suggests.  In 
Deut.  iii.  14,  .Jair,  son  of  Manasseh,  is  said  to 
have  conquered  the  region  of  Argob  as  far  as 
Cieshur  a.nd  JIaacha.  But  the  Hawoth  Jair 
were  tent-villages  in  Gilead,  not  walled  cities  in 
Bashan.  Argob  may  have  been  situated  on  the 
western  slopes  of  Jebel  Hauran,  north  of  Salchil, 
but  this  is  far  from  certain.  A  most  careful  de- 
scription of  the  region  is  given  b\'  -J.  G.  Wetz- 
stcin, Reisebericht  iiber  Hauran  uiid  die  Track- 
onei\  (Berlin,  1860)  ;  cf.  also  the  excellent  plates 
in  De  Vogue's  iSj/rie  Centrale  (Paris,  1869). 
Porter,  Fire  Years  in.  Damascus  (London.  1870). 
and  lliant  Cities  of  BasJian  (London,  1869).  are 
interesting  but  somewhat  uni'eliable. 

AR'GOL  (of  uncertain  origin,  perhaps  from 
Gk.  ap-j6(,  argos,  white).  The  crude  potas- 
sium bi-tartrate  which  is  found  as  a  crust  in 
wine  vats.  It  exists  originally  in  the  juice 
of  the  grape,  but  is  deposited  during  fermenta- 
tion, as  it  is  sparingly  soluble  in  an  alcoholic 
liquid.  Accordingly  as  it  is  deposited  from 
the  red  or  white  grape,  it  is  called  red  argol 
or  wldte  argol.  In  addition  to  the  potassium 
bi-tartrate  it  usually  contains  small  qvuintities 
of  calcium  tartrate  with  coloring  and  extrac- 
tive matters.  Crude  argol  is  purified  by  dis- 
solving in  water  and  heating  for  several  days; 
on  cooling,  the  clear  liquor  is  run  off,  the  de- 
posited crystals  constituting  the  commercial 
cream  of  tartar. 

AR'GOLIS  (Gk.  'Apyolic).  A  division  of 
ancient  Greece,  in  its  wider  sense  it  is  the 
northeast  portion  of  the  Peloponnesus,  bounded 


AKGOLIS. 


784 


ARGONAUTS. 


on  the  west  by  Achaea,  Arcadia,  and  Laconia ; 
on  the  north  bordering  on  tlie  Corinthian  and 
Saronic  Gulfs:  and  penetrated  on  the  south  by 
the  Argolie  Gulf,  which  separates  the  portion  bor- 
dering on  Laconia,  the  Kynuria,  from  the  east- 
ern peninsula.  This  district,  containing  about 
1700  square  miles,  is  filled  with  mountains,  and 
never  in  historical  times  formed  one  kingdom ; 
and  the  northern  states — Sicyon,  Corinth,  and 
Phlius — were  often  considered  outside  of  Argolis 
proper.  The  cliief  towns  of  the  eastern  penin- 
sula were  Epidaurus,  Trcezen,  and  Hermione. 
The  plain  of  Argos,  in  the  middle  portion,  was 
famed  for  its  fertility,  and  contained  the  cities 
of  Myceme,  Tiryns,  and  Argos,  and  was  called 
Argeia.  The  edge  of  this  plain  is  now  swampy; 
and  the  southeast  portion  contained,  even  in 
ancient  times,  the  swamp  of  Lerna.  home  of  the 
Hydra  ((|.v.),  slain  by  Hercules.  In  the  legends 
Argolis  plays  an  important  part.  Myccnse  is  the 
home  of  Agamemnon  and  the  capital,  though 
other  chiefs  rule  at  Argos,  ilidea,  and  Tiryns. 
Here,  also,  was  placed  the  birth  of  Hercules, 
and  his  contests  with  the  Nemean  lion  and  the 
Lernean  liydra.  Still  earlier,  the  plain  was  the 
scene  of  the  story  of  Inachus  and  his  daughter, 
lo,  of  Danaus  and  his  daughters,  and  of  the  rule 
of  Perseus  and  Pelops. 

In  historic  times  the  chief  city  was  Argos, 
which  held  possession  of  the  Argive  plain,  and 
was  at  the  head  of  a  somewhat  loosely  organized 
league  of  several  of  the  Argolie  States,  which 
under  King  Phicdon  ICOTO  B.C.)  became  a  great 
power  in  the  Peloponnesus.  Later  the  growing 
po\\er  of  Sparta  greatly  lessened  the  influence 
of  Argos,  which,  however,  always  remained 
a  jealous  rival,  and  during  the  Fifth  and  Fourth 
centuries  B.C.  usually  appears  in  alliance  with 
Athens. 

The  principal  divinity  of  Argos  was  Hera, 
who  had  a  very  ancient  sanctuary  to  the  east 
of  the  city,  the  Hera'um,  where  was  a  cele- 
brated gold  and  ivory  statue  of  the  goddess, 
the  work  of  Polycletus.  This  sanctuary  was 
excavated  by  the  American  School  of  Classical 
Studies  at  Athens,  from  1892  to  1895,  result- 
ing in  the  discovery  of  a  large  number  of  build- 
ings, including  the  earlier  and  later  temples, 
much  interesting  sculpture,  and  a  great  mass  of 
pottery,  showing  that  this  had  been  a  place 
of  worship  from  the  earliest  times.  Argos  was 
the  seat  of  a  celebrated  school  of  artists  in 
bronze,  and  was  also  famed  for  its  musicians. 
The  modern  town  is  a  flourishing  place  on  the 
site  of  the  ancient  city,  of  which  few  traces  re- 
main in  siglit.  Argolis  is  one  of  the  names  of 
the  kingdom  of  Greece.     The  capital  is  Nauplia. 

AR'GON  (Gk.  apydr,  neut.  of  apyd^ .  argos, 
inactive,  inert,  alluding  to  its  incapacity  for 
entering  into  chemical  combination).  A  gase- 
ous element  discovered  in  1895  by  Lord  Eay- 
leigh  and  William  Ramsay,  although  Cavendish 
had  already  mentioned  it  as  a  constituent  of  at- 
mospheric air  a  century  ago.  Argon  is  contained 
jn  the  atmosphere  to  the  extent  of  nearly  1 
per  cent.  It  was  obtained  by  its  discoverers 
by  passing  air  through  a  combustion  tube 
packed  with  metallic  c'o|)per,  which  absorbed  the 
oxy»en,  after  which  the  gas  was  passed  through 
an  iron  tube  packed  with  magnesium  turnings 
and  heated  in  a  combustion  furnace.  The  mag- 
nesium absorbed  the  nitrogen,  and  the  argon,  in 
its  gaseous  form,  was  then  collected  in  a  holder. 


It  was  also  obtained  by  adding  o.xygen  to  air, 
subjecting  the  mixture  to  the  action  of  an  elec- 
tric current  in  the  presence  of  an  alkali,  and 
removing  all  oxygen  by  means  of  pyrogallie  acid. 
The  density  of  the  argon  made  by  means  of  mag- 
nesium was  19.94;  that  of  argon  prepared  by  the 
second  method  was  20.6  (the  density  of  hydrogen 
being  taken  as  unit,  or  rather  that  of  oxygen 
as  10) .  The  elementary  nature  of  argon  has  been 
demonstrated  by  a  comiiarison  of  its  specific 
heats  at  constant  pressure  and  at  constant  vol- 
ume, which  showed  that  a  molecule  of  argon  is 
made  up  by  a  single  atom  and  hence  is  not 
compound.  But  if  this  is  true,  then  the  molecu- 
lar weight  (i.e.  twice  the  density)  of  argon  is 
identical  with  its  atomic  weight,  and  hence  the 
latter  is  concluded  to  be  about  40.  Sir  William 
Crookes  found  in  the  spectrum  of  argon  two 
characteristic  lines  near  the  red  end  that  could 
not  be  mistaken  for  the  lines  of  nitrogen  or  of 
any  other  element.  Argon  cannot  be  liquefied 
unless  its  temperature  is  reduced  at  least  121 
degrees  below  zero  C.  At  — 121°  C.  n  pres- 
sure of  50. l!  atmospheres  (759  pounds  per  square 
inch)  is  siithcient  to  produce  liquefactinu.  Un- 
der ordinarv  atmosjiheric  pressure,  liquid  argon 
boils  at  —187°  C.  At  the  temperature  of  —190° 
C.  it  freezes.  Xo  well-defined  chemical  com- 
pound of  argon  with  other  substances  is  as 
yet  known.  Its  discoverers  received  the  first 
kodgkins  iledal  and  the  grand  prize  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution  at  Washington.  Consult : 
Lord  Rayleigh  and  W.  Ramsay,  Argon,  a  Xeic 
Coii.stitueiit  of  the  Atmosphere,  Smithsonian  Con- 
tributions to  Knowledge  (Washington,  1896). 

AR'GONATJT.  A  small  pelagic  octopod  cut- 
tlefish of  the  genus  Argonauta  ;  specifically,  the 
paper  sailor  or  paper  nautilus  (Argonautti  argo) . 
The  female  is  many  times  longer  than  the  male, 
and  secretes  a  thin,  iridescent,  crenolateil  and 
somewhat  boat-shaped  shell,  which  serves  as  a 
brood-pouch.  In  calm  weather  the  aninuil  rises 
to  the  surface  and  seems  to  voyage  about,  whence 
the  fanciful  name  and  sundry  fables.  For  fuller 
description,  see  Octopus. 

AR'GONAU'TICA.  An  epic  poem,  narrating 
the  deeds  of  the  Argonauts,  written  by  Apol- 
lonius  of  Rhodes  in  n.c.  194. 

AR'GON AUTS  (Gk.'Apjwai'ra;,  Argonauta! — 
i.e.  "the  sailors  on  the  ship  Argo").  A 
name  given  to  those  who,  under  command  of 
Jason,  undertook  a  voyage  famous  in  Greek 
legend.  The  Argo  is  mentioned  in  the  Odgsseg, 
and  incidents  of  the  story  appear  in  the  Hesi- 
odic  poems.  Allusions,  often  contradictory  and 
influenced  by  local  legends,  are  scattered 
through  the  fragments  of  lyric  poetry,  and 
single  episodes  were  used  by  the  tragedians, 
though  only  the  Medea  of  Euriindes  has  sur- 
vived. These  fragments,  and  the  somewhat 
more  satisfactory  scraps  from  the  prose  writers, 
are  the  chief  sources  for  the  earlier  versions; 
but  our  most  coni])lete  and  valuable  account  is 
contained  in  the  poem,  in  four  books,  by  the 
Alexandrian  librarian,  Apollonius  Rhodius,  who 
tried  to  combine  the  mass  of  materia]  with 
which  his  studies  had  made  him  familiar  into 
a  connected  and  consistent  narrative.  A  brief 
narrative  is  also  found  in  the  mythological 
handbook  which  goes  under  the  name  of  Apol- 
Indorus.  In  its  main  outlines  the  story  is  as 
follows;  Pelias.  King  of  lolcus,  in  Tliessaly, 
having  reason  to  fear  his  nephew,  Jason,  com- 


ARGONAUTS.  785 

nianded  him  to  fetch  from  King  jS^etes,  in  Col- 
chis,  the   golden   tleece   of   the   ram   which   had 
borne    away    Phrixiis    and    Helle    (q.v.).      With 
the  help  of  Hera  and  Athena,  Jason  and  Argos, 
son  of   Phrixus,   built  a   wonderful   ship,   strong 
and   swift,   but   light,   and  with  a   piece  of   the 
oracular  oak  from   Dodona  in  her  keel,  capable 
of    delivering     prophecies.       About     him     .Jason 
gathered   a   band   of   heroes,    whose   names   and 
number  vary  greatly,  though  the  party  is  usu- 
ally  estimated   to   have   comprised   about   fifty. 
The   earlier   versions   seem   to   have   placed   the 
land   of   ^etes   in   the   far   east,   but   the   later 
\\riters  placed  it  in  Colchis,  on  the  Black  Sea. 
On    the    voj'age    the    most    notable    adventuies 
were :    ( 1 )    The   landing  on  Lemnos,   where  the 
Argonauts     found     a     State    of     women,     under 
Queen  Hypsipyle.  all  the  men  having  been  mur- 
dered shortly  before.     Here  they  remained  some 
time,    and    two   sons    were   born   to   ,Tason    and 
Hypsipyle.     (2)   Xear  the  Bosporus  Pollux  con- 
quered Amyeus,  King  of  the  Bebryces,  in  a  bo.x- 
ing  match,  iind   so  secured  for  his  companions 
access  to  a  spring.     (3)   In  these  same  Thracian 
regions   they   found   the   blind   prophet   Phineus, 
tormented    by    the    Harpies     (q.v.),    whom    the 
sons  of  Boreas,  Calais,  and  Zetes  put  to  flight, 
and    in   return   Phineus   showed   the   Argonauts 
how  to  pass  the  ever-clashing  rocks  of  the  Syni- 
plegades.      (4)     This     adventure     they     accom- 
plished   by   hard    rowing,   after   they   had   been 
encouraged  by  the  sight  of  a  dove,  which   flew 
through   the   passage   with   only   the   loss   of  her 
tail    feathers.      When    tbey    arrived    at    Colchis, 
.■Eetes    demanded    that    .Tason    should   yoke    fire- 
breathing   bulls   with   brazen   hoofs,   plow   with 
them    a    field,    sow    the    dragon's    teeth    given 
him  b}^  Cadmus,  and  then  destroy  the  crop  of 
giants  which  would  spring  from  such  seed.     All 
this  Jason  accomplished,  with  the  help  of  -Eetes's 
daughter,  Jledea,  who  had   fallen   in   love  with 
the  hero.     With  her  help,  also,  he  foiled  further 
plots    of   the    King,    and    securing   the    fleece   by 
stealth,  fled  with  iledea  and  her  young  brother. 
Pursued  by  .Eetes,  Sledea  saved  the  Argonauts 
from  capture  by  killing  her  brother  and  strew-- 
ing  the  fragments  of  his  body  into  the  sea,  thus 
delaying  her  father,   who   piously   collected   his 
son's    remains    for   burial.      The    return    of   the 
Argonauts  was  very  diversely  narrated.     Some 
brought    them   by    way    of   the   Tanais    into    the 
Xorthern   Sea,  while  others  led  them   eastward 
to  the  ocean   and  back  across  Africa,  carrying 
their  ship  through  the  Libyan  desert  on  their 
shoulders.      After     many     adventures     they     at 
length   reached   lolcus,   and   delivered   the   fleece 
to  Pelias.      (For  the  further  legends  see  articles 
JIede.v,    Peli.\,s.)       There    are    indications    that 
lioth  .Jason  and  ^Jedea  were  originally  worshi]ied 
as  gods  at  Corinth  and  elsewhere,  but  later  sank 
to  the  rank  of  heroes,  and  became  connected  with 
the  common  folk-tale  of  the  lover  who  must  per- 
form impossible  tasks  to  win  his  mistress,  but 
who    overcomes    all    obstacles    by    magic    help. 
Whatever  the  origin  of  the  story,  there  can  be 
no  doubt  that  it  was  developed  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  voyages  that  marked  the  great  period 
of  Greek  colonization  in  the  Eighth  and  Seventh 
centuries  B.C.     The  wonders  and  adventures  en- 
countered by  the  first  explorers  of  the  Black  Sea 
and  the  west  were  thrown  back  into  the  mvthical 
past,  and  told  of  gods  and  heroes — Hercules,  .Ja- 
son, and  Odysseus. 


ABGUELLES. 


ARGONAUTS  OF  '49.  A  name  applied  to 
the  fortune-seekers  who  emigrated  to  California 
in  the  .years  immediately  following  the  discovery 
of  gold  there  in  1,S48,'  the  largest  number  of 
whom  went  out  in  1849.     See  Forty-Niners. 

ARGONNE,  ar'gun'.  A  rocky  plateau  in 
nortlieast  J'rance,  extending  along  "the  border  of 
Lorraine  and  Champagne,  and  forming  parts  of 
the  departments  of  Ardennes  and  Jleuse.  The 
Argonne  forest  proper,  or  western  Argonne,  has 
a  length  of  over  thirty  miles  and  a  width  of  from 
one  to  eight  miles.  The  forest  of  eastern  Ar- 
gonne includes  the  forest  of  Apremont.  Argonne 
has  been  the  scene  of  several  stirring  historical 
events,  notably  in  connection  with  Dumouriez's 
"Argonne  campaign"  of  1792,  and  with  the  Fran- 
co-I'russian  War. 

AB'GOS.     See  Aroolis. 

ARGOSTOLI,  iir'gos-to'le.  An  episcopal  city, 
capital  of  the  island  of  Cephalonia,  on  the  east 
shore  of  Argostoli  Bay,  an  inlet  of  Livada  Bay 
(Map:  Greece,  B  3).  The  town  is  famous  for 
its  mills,  which  are  driven  by  a  current  of  sea- 
water,  flowing  through  an  artificial  channel 
about  1.50  feet  long,  then  disappearing  through 
fissures  in  the  rocks.  It  has  an  excellent  harbor. 
It  finds  considerable  trade  in  exjiorting  wine, 
oil,  and  currants.  A  long  bridge  connects  the 
north  shore  of  the  bay  with  the  KoutavOs  La- 
goon, which  lies  to  the  south.  Poiuilation,  in 
189U,  9241. 

ARGOT,  jir'gii'.  The  French  tenn  for  what 
in  English  is  called  "slang,"  especially  the  dia- 
lect of  thieves  and  vagabonds.  Like  all  such 
dialects,  argot  is  often  sparkling  with  wit  and 
remarkable  for  aptness  and  comp'rehensiveness  of 
expression.  JIany  specimens  of  it  are  to  be  found 
in  Mctor  Hugo's  i.e.'!  Miscrahlcs,  in  Zola's  As- 
soiiimoir,  and  in  the  lower  grade  of  Parisian  jour- 
nals. Consult:  Barr&re,  Argot  and  iSlaiig  (Lon- 
don, 1887),  and  see  the  article  Slang,  in  this 
Encvclopa>dia. 

ARGOUT,  iir'goo'.  Antoine  Maurice  Apol- 
LiNAiRE,  Count  d'  (1782-1858).  A  French  finan- 
cier. He  was  born  in  Is6re,  and  after  acting  as 
auditor  to  the  Council  of  State  (1810),  became 
prefect  of  Card  (1817),  and  a  peer  of  France 
(1819).  As  mediator  between  Cliarles  X.  and 
the  popular  leaders,  during  July,  1830,  he  ob- 
tained concessions  from  Charles)  but  not  until 
it  was  too  late.  He  was  appointed  minister  of 
the  marine  in  1830.  and  act.ed  as  minister  of 
commerce  (1831),  and  minister  of  the  interior 
(1833).  He  was  governor  of  the  Bank  of  France 
from  1834  until  1848.  About  18.52  Louis  Xapo- 
leon  appointed  him  president  of  the  section  of 
finance. 

ARGUELLES,  ar'ga'lyAs,  Augustine  (1770- 
1844).  A  Spanish  politician  of  the  liberal 
school.  He  was  born  at  Kivadisella,  in  Asturias. 
On  the  breaking  out  of  the  War  of  Independence 
in  1808,  he  went  to  Cadiz,  where  he  agitated  for 
the  organization  of  a  regency  with  a  free  con- 
stitution. In  1812  he  was  sent  as  representative 
of  his  native  province  to  the  Cortes,  where  he 
was  appointed  one  of  the  members  of  a  commit- 
tee to  draft  a  constitution.  His  splendid  talents  as 
a  public  speaker  soon  won  him  the  admiration  of 
the  Liberal  party,  who  used  to  call  him  the 
Spanish  Cicero.  But  on  the  return  of  Ferdinand 
VII..  Arguelles  fell  a  victim  to  the  reactionary 
spirit  which  ensued.     On  Mav  10.  1814.  he  was 


ARGUELLES. 


jm 


ARGYLL. 


arrested,  and  after  a  trial  that  was  a  mockery 
of  justice,  condemned  by  the  King  to  ten  years' 
imprisonment  in  the  galleys  at  Ceuta.  The 
revolution  of  1820  restored  him  to  freedom.  Ar- 
guelles  became  minister  of  the  interior,  but  soon 
resigned,  provoked  beyond  measure  by  the  nar- 
row bigotry  of  the  court.  He  continued  a  con- 
stitutional Liberal  always.  In  the  Cortes  held  at 
Seville,  in  1823,  he  voted  for  the  suspension  of  the 
ro3"al  power;  but  after  the  violation  of  the  con- 
stitution he  Hed  to  England,  where  he  remained 
till  the  amnesty  of  18,'!2.  On  his  return  to  Spain 
he  was  repeatedlj'  made  president  and  vice-presi- 
dent of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  and  always 
showed  himself  a  moderate  but  unwavering  re- 
former. In  tluly,  1841,  in  the  discussion  of  the 
law  regarding  the  sale  of  Church  property,  he 
delivered  liimself  strongly  against  all  concordats 
with  tlic  I'opc.  Next  to  Espartero,  he  was  the 
most  popular  man  in  the  kingdom  with  the  en- 
lightened party.  During  the  regency  of  Espar- 
tero he  was  guardian  to  the  young  Queen  Isa- 
bella. In  his  old  age  he  still  exhibited  the  tiery 
elocfuence  that  marked  his  youth.  Consult:  Eva- 
risto  fSan  Jliguel,  Vida  deD.  A.  Arguclles  (Ma- 
drid,  18.31). 

AR'GUMENT.  In  law,  the  address  by- 
counsel  to  the  court  or  jury,  in  which  he  argues 
upon  the  merits  of  his  client's  case  in  order  to 
affect  the  decision  or  \erdict  to  be  rendered. 
Arguments  to  the  jury  are  based  upon  the  facts 
established  or  disputed  in  evidence  at  the  trial 
of  a  cause,  and  upon  matter  of  common  knowl- 
edge of  which  the  court  may  take  judicial  cog- 
nizance. Arguments  addressed  to  the  court  may 
be  based  either  upon  the  facts  before  it  or  ujjon 
the  law.  The  time  to  be  devoted  to  the  argu- 
ment, its  scope,  and  order,  are  subject  to  the 
discretionary  control  of  the  court.  It  is  the 
usual  practice  to  permit  the  attorney  for  a 
plaintiff  or  appellant  both  to  open  and  close  the 
argument.  If  in  the  argument  the  attorney  goes 
beyond  proper  conmient  upon  the  evidence,  or 
indulges  in  abuse  of  a  party  or  attorney  in  the 
case,  or  comments  upon  failure  of  a  privileged 
witness  to  testify,  or  otherwise  so  conducts  him- 
self as  to  unwarrantably  inflame  or  prejudice 
the  minds  of  the  jurj',  it  may  be  ground  for  set- 
ting aside  tlie  verdict.  See  .Tl  ry  and  the  author- 
ities referred  to  linder  Practice. 

ARGUMENT  {l,a.t.  argumentum) .  In  logic, 
either  the  ground  or  premise  on  which  a  conclu- 
sion is  rested,  and,  more  specifically,  the  minor 
premise  (see  Logic),  or  a  whole  syllogism. 
Popularly,  it  is  applied  to  a  series  of  arguments, 
or  to  a  controversy.  Argumentum  ad  hoininem 
is  an  appeal  to  the  knowai  prepossessions  or  ad- 
mi.ssions  of  the  persons  addressed.  For  instance, 
an  attempt  may  be  made  to  silence  an  opponent, 
who  has  recently  changed  his  mind,  by  sa^-ing: 
"Your  well-known  speech  last  winter  leaves  you 
the  single  course  open  of  admitting  that  so-and-so 
is  the  case."  Argujiientum  ad  rem  is  an  argument 
pertinent  to  the  issue.  Argumentum  c  eunseiisu 
gentium,  or  nd  judicium,  is  an  appeal  to  the 
common  belief  of  mankind.  The  Argumentum  a 
Into  rests  upon  the  supposed  safety  or  pruihmce 
of  adopting  a  certain  conclusion.  Argumentum 
ad  populum  is  an  appeal  to  popular  passions  or 
prejudices.  Argumentum  ad  ignorantiani  is  an 
artful  attempt  to  estal)lish  a  statement  by  show- 
ing that  we  do  not  know  the  truth  of  its  op- 
posite. Argumentum  ad  verecundiam  is  an  ap- 
peal to  a  revered  authority.     Lastly,  the  arjru- 


mr.ntum  a  haculo  is  the  use  of  the  cudgel  or  of 
a  browbeating  manner  to  settle  a  dispute.  Tliis 
form  of  argument  is  concise  in  its  style,  and  has 
quickly  adjusted  many  controversies. 

ARGUN,  iir-goon'.  A  river  of  Asia,  which 
unites  with  the  Shilka  at  Ust-Strielka,  on  the 
borders  of  Siberia  and  Manchuria,  to  form  the 
Amur.  It  rises  on  the  northern  borders  of  Mon- 
golia, and  has  a  generally  easterly  course  of 
about  1100  miles,  in  the  lower  half  of  which  it 
forms  the  boundary  between  Trans-Baikalea  and 
Manchuria.  Xot  far  from  the  middle  point  of 
its  course  it  flows  through  a  considerable  lake 
called  Dalai-Nor.  In  its  upper  course  it  bears 
the  name  of  Kerulen. 

ARGUN  KHAN,  ar-goon'  Kan.  See  Mongol 
Dyna.sties. 

AR'GUS  (Lat.  for  Gk.  "ApTos,  Argos).  (1) 
The  son  of  Zeus  and  Niobe.  He  was  the  mj-th- 
ical  ancestor  of  the  Argives,  and  founder  of  Ar- 
gos, and  wae  worshiped  at  his  grave,  near  that 
city.  He  was  said  to  have  introduced  agricul- 
ture from  Libya.  Argus,  surnamed  Panoptes 
(all-seeing),  had  100  eyes,  some  of  which  were 
always  awake.  For  his  watchfulness  Hera  chose 
him  to  guard  lo  (q.v.),  who  had  been  trans- 
formed into  a  cow.  Hermes,  sent  by  Zeus  to 
steal  the  cow,  killed  Argus  by  stoning  him,  or, 
in  the  later  version,  charmed  all  his  eyes  to  sleep 
and  struck  off  his  head.  Hera  used  the  eyes  of 
Argus  to  decorate  the  peacock's  tail.  (2) 
Argus,  the  builder  of  the  ship  Argo.  (See  Argo- 
nauts.) (3)  Argus  is  also  the  name  of  sev- 
eral Greek  cities,  of  which  the  most  celebrated 
was  the  historic  capital  of  the  Argolic  plain. 
In  Homer,  Argus  denoted  the  kingdom  of 
Agamemnon,  the  entire  Peloponnesus,  and  even 
the  whole  of  Greece.  (4)  ArguSj  the  dog  of 
Odysseus,  who,  after  twenty  years,  recognized  his 
master  on  his  return  in  spite  of  his  disguise,  and 
died  of  joy. 

ARGUS,  The.     See  Ao.EN,  William  Henby. 

ARGUS  PHEASANT.     See  Pheasant. 

ARGYLL,  tir-gll',  Arciiib.\ld  Campbell,  Mar- 
quis of  (1508-1001).  A  Scotch  political  char- 
acter of  the  Seventeenth  Century.  Iii  his  six- 
teenth year  he  saw  service  under  his  father, 
whom  he  succeeded,  as  eighth  earl,  in  1038.  Al- 
ready he  had  given  proofs  of  that  strength  of  re- 
ligious principle  which  marked  his  whole  life  and 
of  a  periloiis  union  of  attachment  to  Charles  I., 
and  of  faith  in  the  principles  against  which  the 
King  made  Avar.  In  the  General  Assembly  at 
Glasgow,  in  November,  1038,  he  openly  took  the 
side  of  the  Covenanters,  and  thenceforth  became 
recognized  as  their  political  head.  In  1640  he 
commanded  a  military  expedition  through  Bade- 
noch,  Athole,  Mar,  and  Angus,  for  the  purpose  of 
enforcing  subjection  to  the  Scottish  Parliament. 
The  King,  on  his  visit  to  Scotland  in  1641, 
found  it  convenient  to  show  peculiar  favor  to 
Argyll,  and  created  him  a  marquis.  On  the 
breaking  out  of  hostilities,  Argyll  was  still  de- 
sirous for  negotiation,  but  was  linally  com])elled 
to  take  the  field.  In  April,  1044,  he  dispersed 
the  Royalist  forces  under  the  Marquis  of  Huntly 
in  Aberdeenshire.  He  was  less  successful  in 
withstanding  the  genius  of  Montrose,  who,  on 
February  2,  1645,  almost  annihilated  his 
army  at  Invcrlochj'.  His  estates  had  sufl'ered  so 
much  in  the  preceding  year  from  the  ravages  of 
the  brilliant  Cavalier  that  a  sum  of  public 
money  was  voted  for  his  support.     In   August, 


AKGYLL. 


ARGYLL. 


164G,  ho  went  to  Londun,  with  Louilon  and  Dun- 
fermline, to  treat  with  tlie  Parliament  for  a 
mitigation  of  the  articles  i)resentcd  to  the  King. 
He  was  at  the  same  time  the  bearer  of  a  secret 
commission  from  the  King  to  treat  with  the 
l)uke  of  Richmond  and  the  Marquis  of  Hertford. 
on  the  proprii'ty  of  a  Soottish  demonstration  in 
favor  of  Charles.  On  the  defeat  of  the  "engage- 
ment" pl.an,  to  which  he  had  been  decidedly  op- 
posed, the  government  of  Scotland  devolved  on 
Argyll  and  the  other  Presbyterian  leaders.  In 
the  Parliament  of  February,  1(14!).  Charles  11. 
was  proclaimed  king,  and  at  Scone,  on  Janu- 
ary 1,  1651,  Argyll  put  the  crown  on  his 
head.  At  this  time,  it  was  even  said  that  the 
complaisant  monarch  intended  to  marry  one  of 
his  daughters.  As  head  of  the  committee  of 
estates,  Argyll  took  vigorous  measures  to  ojipose 
Cromwell's  invasion  of  Scotland,  and  still  ad- 
hered to  the  King,  after  the  subjugation  of  the 
country.  After  the  battle  of  Worcester,  he  re- 
tired to  Inverary,  where  he  held  out  for  a  year 
against  Cromwell's  troops.  Falling  ill,  he  was 
taken  prisoner  by  General  Dean.  He  refused  sub- 
mission to  the  Protector,  but  made  an  engage- 
ment to  live  peaceably,  which  he  strictly  kept. 
On  the  Restoration,  he  repaired  to  Whitehall, 
encouraged  by  a  llattering  letter  from  the  King 
to  his  son.  Impeached  with  the  crime  of  having 
submitted  to  the  usurper  (to  whom  he  had  re- 
fused allegiance),  he  was  committed  to  the 
Tower,  and  on  February  1.3,  1601,  was 
brought  before  the  Scottish  Parliament  on  the 
charge  of  treason.  He  defended  himself  with 
spirit,  but  in  vain.  On  the  27th  of  May,  he 
was  executed  at  Edinburgh — having  displayed 
throughout  his  whole  trial,  and  on  the  seafTold, 
,  the  dignity  of  a  true  nobleman,  and  the  meekness 
of  a  Christian.  Conflicting  estimates  of  Argj'll's 
character  have  been  written;  cowardice  in  the 
field  has  been  proved  against  him,  and  Scott 
places  him  in  an  unfavorable  light  in  his  Legend 
of  Montrose. 

AEGYLL,  Akciiib.\ld  Campbell,  ninth  Earl 
of  (?-llJ85).  Eldest  son  of  the  preceding.  He 
was  early  distinguished  by  personal  accomplish- 
ments, and  exhibited  great  bravery  on  the  dis- 
astrous day  of  Dunbar,  where  he  commanded  a 
regiment  on  the  Royalist  side.  After  Worcester, 
he  continued,  like  his  father,  in  arms,  and  made 
himself  so  obnoxious  to  the  Parliamentary  lead- 
ers that  he  was  specially  e.xcepted  by  Cromwell 
from  the  Act  of  Grace  in  1654.  After  much 
harassing  persecution,  he  submitted  to  the  Par- 
liament, but  continued  to  be  closely  watched. 
On  the  restoration  of  Charles  11.,  he  was  received 
into  high  favor  (as  a  balance  to  the  execution  of 
his  father),  and,  unfortunately  for  his  own  fame, 
participated  in  some  of  the  iniquitous  acts  of  the 
Scottish  Legislature.  He  had,  however,  numer- 
ous and  active  enemies;  and,  on  the  ground  of 
an  intercepted  letter,  in  which  he  had  complained 
of  neglect,  he  was  tried  and  condemned  to  death 
by  the  Scottish  Parliament  for  the  imaginary 
crime  of  Icesa  majestas.  The  influence  of  Claren- 
don restored  him  to  liberty  and  favor;  even  the 
King  himself  was  prejudiced  in  his  favor,  but 
in  taking  the  test  oath  framed  by  the  Scottish 
Parliament  in  1681,  his  added  reservation,  "So 
far  as  consistent  with  the  Protestant  faith,"  was 
declared  treasonable,  and  he  was  again  con- 
demned to  death.  The  devotion  of  his  wife  en- 
abled him  to  escape  from  Edinburgh  Castle  in 
the  disguise  of  a  page,  and,  after  remaining  con- 


cealed some  time,  he  lied  to  Holland.  On  the 
accession  of  .Tames  II.,  he  landed  in  the  north  of 
Scotland,  in  May,  1685,  with  an  armed  force, 
to  cooperate  in  the  revolt  of  Monmouth,  but  after 
a  series  of  misfortunes,  was  taken  prisoner, 
hastily  condemned,  and  beheaded,  .June  30,  1085. 
His  son  Archibald,  one  of  the  deputation  sent  by 
the  Scottish  Convention  to  present  the  crown  to 
the  Prince  of  Orange,  was  in  1701  created  Duke 
of  Argyll. 

ARGYLL,  iir-gil',  (Jeorge  .Totix  Doitglas 
Cajifbell,  eighth  Duke  of  ( 1823-1  r.uO) .  lie  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  1847.  At  the  age  of  nineteen, 
while  ilarquis  of  Lornc,  he  wrote  a  pamphlet 
entitled  .1  I.etter  to  the  Peers  frotii  a  Peer's  >S'o)i, 
on  the  struggle  which  ended  in  the  disruption 
of  the  Scottish  Church.  In  1848  he  published 
an  essay  on  presbytery,  which  contains  a  his- 
torical vindication  of  the  Presbyterian  system. 
On  the  fornuition  of  the  coalition  ministry  by 
Lord  Aljerdeen  he  was  invested  with  the  office  of 
Lord  f^rivy  Seal,  which  he  continued  to  hold  in 
Lord  Palnierston's  administration.  In  1855  he 
relinquished  his  office  and  became  Postmaster- 
General.  In  1850,  on  Palnierston's  return,  he 
again  accepted  office.  He  was  secretary  of  state 
for  India  under  Mr.  Gladstone  in  1868-74,  and 
Lord  Privy  Seal  in  1880-81 ;  lie  resigned  office 
in  1881.  disapi)roving  the  Irish  Land  Bill.  In 
1874  he  had  supported  the  abolition  of  patron- 
age in  the  Church  of  Scotland.  In  1854  he  was 
chosen  Lord  Rector  of  the  University  of  Glas- 
gow: in  1855  presided  at  a  meeting  of  the 
British  Asoeiation  in  that  city,  and  in  1861 
was  elected  president  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
lulinburgh.  He  was  hereditary  master  of  the 
t^ueen's  household  in  Scotland,  Chancellor  of  the 
Cniversity  of  Saint  Andrews,  a  trustee  of  the 
British  Museum,  also  hereditary  sheriff  and 
lord-lieutenant  of  Argjdlshire.  Besides  numer- 
ous papers  on  zoology,  geology,  etc.,  he  wrote 
The  Reign  of  Lair  (1866)  ;  Primeval  Man 
(180!))  ;  A  History  of  the  Antiquities  of  lona 
(1871)  ;  The  Unity  of  'Nature  (1884)  ;  a  volume 
of  poems.  The  Burdens  of  Belief  (1894);  and 
Organic  Eroliition  (1898).  Though  Argj-11  is 
best  known  by  The  Reign  of  Laic,  which  has 
become  a  classic  in  the  defense  of  theism,  all  his 
work  shows  very  great  ability.  He  was  also  one 
of  the  most  finished  orators  of  his  time. 

ARGYLL,  John  Douglas  Sutherland 
Campblll,  ninth  Duke  of  (1845 — ).  An  English 
statesman  and  author.  He  was  born  in  London, 
and  was  educated  at  Eton,  Saint  Andrews  I'ni- 
versity,  and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  He  was 
returned  to  Parliament  as  a  Liberal  from  Argyll- 
shire, which  he  represented  from  1868  to  1878. 
In  1871  he  married  Louise,  fourth  daughter  of 
Queen  Victoria.  From  1878-83.  as  Marquis  of 
Lome,  he  was  Governor-General  of  Canada,  his 
administration  being  markedly  popular  and  suc- 
cessful. In  1805  he  was  returned  to  Parliament 
from  South  JIanchester.  He  succeeded  to  the 
dukedom  of  Arg\'ll  in  1900.  He  has  published 
.'i  Trip  to  the  Tropics  (1867)  ;  Ouido  and  Lita 
(1S75)  ;  The  Psalms  Literally  Rendered  in  Verse 
(1877)  ;  Imperial  Federation  (1885)  ;  and  Cana- 
dian Pictures  (1885)  ;  and  he  was  appointed  to 
prepare  the  official  life  of  the  late  Queen  Victoria 
(1002). 

ARGYLL,  John  Campbell,  second  Duke  of 
(1678-1743).  A  Scotch  general  and  statesman. 
He  was  the  son  of  the  first  duke,  and  took  an 


ARGYLL. 


7S8 


ARIALDUS. 


important  part  in  the  political  and  military 
affairs  of  his  time.  As  royal  commissioner  in 
1705,  he  had  a  principal  share  in  bringing  about 
the  union  of  England  and  Scotland.  As  a  soldier 
he  distinguished  himself  under  Marlborough  at 
Ramillies,  Oudenardt',  Lille,  Ghent,  and  Jlal- 
plaquet.  Previous  to  the  change  of  ministry  in 
1710,  Argyll  had  been  a  strong  Whig.  He  now 
joined  the  Tories  in  opposing  the  Duke  of  Marl- 
Ijorough.  As  a  reward  he  was  appointed  by 
the  Tories  generalissimo  of  the  British  army  in 
Spain ;  but,  considering  himself  to  have  been 
slighted  by  the  ministry,  he  soon  after  returned, 
and  finding  his  influence  greatly  diminished,  he 
again  became  a  Whig.  His  career  up  to  the  re- 
bellion of  1715  was  tortuous,  and  seriously  de- 
tracts from  his  meritorious  services  during  that 
critical  period.  He  was,  however,  placed  in 
command  of  the  King's  forces  in  Scotland,  and 
was  completely  successfiil  in  quelling  the  Jaco- 
bite rising.  His  services  were  rewarded  in  1718 
with  an  English  peerage,  and  the  title  of 
Duke  of  Greenwich.  In  1721  he  again  played 
into  the  hands  of  the  Tories,  for  the  purpose  of 
securing  the  entire  patronage  of  Scotland.  In 
1737  he  rose  into  immense  popularity  in  his  own 
country  by  his  spirited  defense  before  Parlia- 
ment of  the  city  of  Edinburgh  in  regard  to  the 
Porteous  mob.  Pride  and  passion  rather  than 
ambition  were  the  motives  which  chiefly  con- 
trolled him.  He  was  endowed  with  remarkable 
oratorical  gifts,  but  the  shiftiness  of  his  policy 
prevented  him  from  ever  attaining  a  place  com- 
mensurate with  his  seeming  abilities.  He  was 
noted  for  his  kindness  and  courtesy  in  private 
life.  The  benevolence  of  his  disposition  procured 
liim  the  title  of  "the  Good  Duke  of  Argj-ll."  See 
the  flattering  description  of  him  in  Scott's  Heart 
of  Midlothian.  See  also  his  Life,  by  Robert 
Campbell   (1745). 

ARGYLL  AND  THE  ISLES,  J.\mes 
Robert  Alexander  Chinjjery-Hai.dane,  Lord 
Bishop  of  (1843—).  A  Scottish  prelate.  He 
was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
took  orders  in  I860,  and  was  curate  of  All 
Saints,  Edinburgh,  from  1869  to  1876.  From 
1876  to  181(5  he  was  rector  of  Nether  Locliahcr. 
and  in  1881-83  was  Dean  of  Argyll  and  the  Isles. 
In  1883  he  became  bishop.  Among  his  publica- 
tions may  be  mentioned  The  Scottish  Communi- 
cant and  The  Communicant's  Guide. 

ARGYLL'SHIRE  (Argyle,Gaet.  Airer-Gaedh- 
el,  district  of  the  Gaels ) .  A  county  in  the  west 
midland  division  of  Scotland,  bounded  west  and 
south  by  the  sea  ( Map :  Scotland,  C  3 ) .  Its 
greatest  length  is  about  115  miles;  greatest 
breadth,  about  55  miles ;  its  extent  of  coast  line 
is  very  great,  amounting  to  2289  miles,  owing  to 
the  Jndentation  of  the  coast  by  the  numerous 
lochs  running  inland.  Next  to  Inverness,  it  is  the 
largest  county  in  Scotland;  area,  3210  M|uare 
miles,  of  which  623  are  occupied  by  numerous 
islands.  The  county  is  divided  into  the  districts 
of  Cantire,  North  and  South  Arg>'ll,  Lorn,  Appin, 
Cowal,  Morven,  and  Sunart.  The  chief  islands 
are  Mull,  Islay,  .Tura,  Tirec,  Coll,  Lismore,  and 
Colonsay,  with  lona  and  Staffa.  There  are  up- 
wards of  30  other  islands  of  smaller  size.  The 
general  aspect  of  Arg^'ll  is  wild  and  picturesque, 
marked  by  rugged  and  lofty  mountains  and  deep 
inland  bays.  Some  fertile  valleys  exist.  Sheep 
and  cattle  rearing  are  the  chief  occupations  of  the 
people.     More  sheep  are  reared  in  Argyll  than 


in  any  other  Scotch  county,  and  nearly  1,000,000 
acres  are  in  permanent  pasture.  Argyll  abounds 
in  deer  and  other  game.  Loch  Yyne  is  famed  for 
its  herrings.  Loch  Awe  abounds  in  salmon  and 
trout.  There  are  also  some  mineral  industries. 
The  chief  towns  and  villages  are  Inverary,  the 
capital.  Campbelton,  Oban.  Dunoon,  Appin.  Loch- 
gilphead and  Tarbert.  Population,  in  1801,  81,- 
300;  in  1851.  89,300;  in  ISOl.  75,000;  in  1901, 
73,700,  the  decrease  being  chiefly  due  to  emigra- 
tion. Consult:  Lord  A.  Campbell,  Records  of  Ar- 
gyll (Edinburgh,  1885). 

ARGYROPTJLOS,  iir'ge-ro-pUo'los,  Johannes 
ll41tj-7ol.  A  Greek  humanist,  who  contributed 
largely  to  the  revival  of  Greek  learning  in  the 
West.  He  was  born  at  Constantinople,  but 
wpnt  to  Italy  at  an  early  age,  and  in  1456  was 
called  by  Cosmo  de  Jledici  to  the  chair  of  Greek 
and  the  Aristotelian  philosophy  at  Florence. 
There  his  pupils  included  Lorenzo  and  Pietro  de' 
iledici,  Politianus,  Eeuchlin,  and  Aeciaioli.  In 
1471  he  removed  to  Rome,  where  he  died.  His 
chief  works  were  Latin  translations  of  Aristotle, 
and  a  commentary  on  the  Ethics  of  that  philoso- 
pher. 

ARIA,  a're-a  or  a'ri-a.  or  AIR  (It.,  from 
Lat,  Of)-,  Engl,  air,  in  the  meaning  style,  manner; 
for  similar  development  of  meaning,  cf.  modus, 
mode,  nuisical  mode).  In  music,  a  rhythmic 
song  or  melody  as  distinguished  from  recitative 
(q.v.).  At  one  time  the  term  was  applied  to  a 
broad,  flowing  melody  or  set  number  in  any 
music — even  instnimentfil  nnisic,  as  e.g.  Bach's 
Aria  for  the  violin.  At  present  it  almost  ex- 
clusively denotes  a  lyrical  piece  for  one  voice, 
with  instrumental  accompaniment.  It  is  sung 
either  by  itself,  when  it  bears  the  name  of 
concert  aria,  or  in  an  opera,  cantata,  or  oratorio. 
In  its  modern  form,  it  represents  the  grand,  or 
da  capo,  form  invented  by  Alessandro  Scarlatti 
(q.v.),  and  consists  of  three  sections:  (1)  the 
general  theme,  the  lyric  outburst  introduced 
(sometimes  after  an  instrumental  prelude — ritor- 
nello)  and  worked  out  in  broad  style;  (2)  a 
less  agitated  part  richly  harmonized  and  contra- 
puntally  elaborated;  (3)  a  repetition  of  the 
first  section  with  various  embellishments.  Ari- 
ETT.v  ( Italian,  diminutive  of  aria  )  is  a  short  aria. 
Aricso  is  a  melody  which  follows  less  strictly  the 
rigid  form  of  the  aria,  and  has  more  of  the 
effect  of  recitative.     Ari.a  Buffa  is  a  comic  aria. 

A'RIAD'NE  (Gk.  ".VaSnj).  A  daughter  of 
Minos.  King  of  Crete,  by  Pasiphae.  In  the  earli- 
est form  of  the  story  Ariadne,  while  on  her  way 
to  Athens  with  Theseus,  was  killed  by  Artemis. 
The  more  common  version  told  how,  when  The- 
seus (q.v.)  landed  in  Crete  with  the  offerings 
for  the  Minotaur.  .Ariadne  loved  the  youthful 
stranger,  and  enabled  him  to  slay  the  monster 
and  escape  from  the  labyrinth.  Theseus  secretly 
carried  her  with  him  from  Crete,  but  abandoned 
her  on  the  island  of  Naxos.  The  earlier  writers 
seem  to  have  attributed  this  desertion  to  the  will 
of  Dionysus,  Mhile  later  the  faithlessness  of 
Theseus  was  made  prominent.  Dionysus  found 
the  deserted  Ariadne,  and  made  her  his  bride, 
placing  her  crown  among  the  stars,  .\riadne.  as 
left  forsaken  by  Theseus,  and  as  found  and  mar- 
ried by  Dionysus,  has  been  a  favorite  subject 
with  artists. 

A'RIAL'DTJS.  A  deacon  of  the  Church  of 
Milan,  wljo  flourished  during  the  Eleventh  Cen- 
tury, and  was  called  the  Patarene,  an  opprobri- 


ARIALDUS. 


TsO 


ABIEGE. 


<.us   epithet,    meanin-   "the   ragpicker,     because 
l,i^  followers  assembled  in  the  slum  fiuartcr  of 
Milan,  where  the  ragpickers  lived.     He  led  them 
in  vigorous  protest,  even  insurrections,  against 
the  clerical   marriages   and  incontinence  and   in 
support    of    the    strict   enforcement    of    clerical 
celibacy.      Although    successively   sanctioned   by 
Popes     Stephen     IX.     (1057-58),     Nicholas     II 
(lOr.9-01),   Alexander   11.    (1061-73),   he   found 
little  svmpathv  among  his   brethren,   and   used 
to  complain  that   he  could  get  only  layinen  to 
assist  him  in  his  agitation.     Having  at  length 
succeeded  in  obtaining  a  Papal  1">.'  ';'/^>;';''';.'i\'- 
nication  against  the  Archbishop  ol  Milan  (  10(,.,) 
a  tierce  tumult  ensued  in  the  city,  whose  inhalnt- 
ants  declared  against   Arialdus  and  his  coadju- 
tors, not  because  they  opposed  clerical  marriages, 
but  because  thev  thought  them  bent  on  subjugat- 
in<r  the  Church  of  Milan  to  Rome.    Arialdus  now 
fled  to  the  country,  but  his  hiding-place  being 
betraved,  he  was  conveyed  captive  to  a   desert 
isle  in  Lake  Maggiore,  where  he  was  murdered 
bv   the   emissaries   of    the   archbishop,    and   his 
remains  thrown  into  the  lake.  June  28,  106o.    He 
^\as  afterwards  canonized  by  Pope  Alexander  II. 
ABIANE,   a're-aii'.      One   of   Corneille's   less 
excellent    tragedies,    composed    in    his    period    of 
decline,  in  1672,  and  founded  on  Ariane  s   (Ari- 
adne's)   adventures  after  her  unhappy  marriage 
with  Theseus. 

A'RIANISM.     See  Awus. 
ABIANO,    a're-iv'no     (anciently,    Lat     Ana- 
mtm ) .    An  episcopal  city  of  southern  Italy,  3400 
feet    above    the     sea,    84    miles    northeast    of 
Naples   (Map:   Italy,  K  6).       In  the  limestone 
of  the  surrounding  mountains,  eaves  have  been 
hollowed  out,  in  which  many  of  the  poorer  people 
dwell      The  chief  manufacture   is   earthenware. 
Population,  in  1881,  14,398;  in  1901   (commune), 
17,6.50. 
A'RIANS.     See  Abius;  Heresy;  Heretics. 
ARIAS    a'ri-(Ts,  BENEDifxr.s,  surnamed  MoN- 
TANUS     (1.527-98).      A    Roman    Catholic    divine 
noted  for  his  great  linguistic  attainments      He 
was  born  at  Fregenal  de  la  Sierra.     He  studied 
first   at   Seville,    and   afterwards   at    A  <■»'''    j^^^ 
Henares,  where  he  distinguished  himself  by  the 
ardor  he   manifested   in   the   acquisition   of   the 
Oriental    languages,    Arabic,    Syriac,   and    Oha  - 
dee       He    next    proceeded    on    a    tour    through 
Itaiv,  France,  Germany,  England,  and  the  Neth- 
erlands,  in  the  course  of  which   he  obtained  a 
knowledge  of  various  modern  tongues.    He  joined 
the  knightlv  Order  of  Saint  .Tames  as  a  priest, 
and  as  thedlogue  of  Bishop  Martin  Perez  Azala, 
of  Segovia,  attended  the  Council  of  Trent;   but 
on  his  return  home  he  resolved  to  retire  into  se- 
clusion at  Aracena,  and  dedicate  ll';-  whole  time 
to  literature.     In  1568,  however,  Philip  II.  per- 
suaded him  to  repair  to  Antwerp  and  superin- 
tend  the   publication   of   the    famous   edition   of 
the  Polvglot  Bible,  executed   m  that  city  at  the 
suggestion    of    the    printer,    Christopher    Plan- 
tin       After    four    years'    labor,    the    work    xyas 
issued   under   the   title    miinjnrm.    H/^rawe 
Chaldnice,   Grcrce  et   Lalwe,   Phdippi  II.   Regis 
Catholici    Pietate    et     studio    ad     Sacrisanctce 

(Antwerp,  1569-73,  8  vols.,  folio).  Only  500 
sets  were  printed,  and  the  greater  part  of  them 
were  lost  at  sea,  on  their  way  to  Spain.  It 
was  received  with  universal  applause.  The 
Jesuits,  to  whom  Arias  was  sincerely  and  strenu- 


ously opposed,  alone  attempted  to  fasten  the 
charge  of  heresy  on  the  author  because  he  had 
included  so  much  ralibinical  matter,  and  he  made 
several  journeys  to  Rome  to  clear  himself  of  the 
accusation.  Philip  II.  rewarded  him  with  a 
pension  of  2000  ducats,  besides  bestowing  on  him 
various  other  emoluments — as  court  chaplain 
and  librarian  at  the  Escurial.  He  died  at  Se- 
ville in  1598.  His  literary  works  are  very  nu- 
merous. They  relate  principally  to  the  Bible  and 
to  Jewish  antiquities ;  but  he  also  wrote  numer- 
ous Latin  poems  and  a  history  of  nature.  For 
his  biography  and  portrait  consult:  Memorias 
rfr  1,(  real  Academia  de  la  Eistoria,  Vol.  VII. 
(Madrid,  1832). 

ARICA,  a-re'ka.  A  seaport  town  of  northern 
Chile,  situated  in  the  Province  of  Tacna,  about 
40  niibs  by  rail  from  Tacna.  the  capital  of 
the  province  (Jlap:  South  America,  Peru, 
C  7 ) .  It  has  a  safe  roadstead,  and  is  of  im- 
portance to  Bolivia  owing  to  its  connection  by 
road  with  La  Paz.  It  has  a  considerable  export 
trade,  the  chief  products  being  copper,  silver,  al- 
paca, wool,  and  guano.  The  population,  esti- 
mated at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  regime  at  30,- 
000,  is  at  present  only  about  4000.  Arica  was 
founded  over  two  hundred  years  ago  and  has  suf- 
fered considerably  from  earthquakes,  that  of 
1868  being  most  "destructive.  During  the  war 
between  Chile  and  Peru,  the  town  was  bombarded 
bv  the  Chilean  forces  and  was  transferred  to 
Chile  in  1883  along  with  the  Province  of  Tacna 
(q.v.). 

ARICHAT,  ii're-shiit'.  A  seaport  on  Madame 
Island,  Nova  Scotia,  the  capital  of  Richmond 
County.  The  town  is  the  see  of  a  Roman 
Catholic  episcopate,  and  with  West  Arichat  num- 
bers about  2500  inhabitants,  mostly  engaged  in 
fishing.  Its  harbor  accommodates  the  largest 
vessels.  The  United  State.s  is  represented  by  a 
consular  agent. 

ARICI,  a-re'che,  Cesare  (I782-I836).  An 
Italian  poet,  born  at  Bresci.  He  studied  at 
Milan,  and  was  secretary  of  the  departmental 
court  at  Brescia  under"  Bonaparte.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  eloquence  in  the  lyceum 
at  Brescia  in  1810,  subsequently  professor  of 
history  and  literature,  and  in  1824  professor 
of  the"  Latin  language.  His  principal  work  is 
the  didactic  poem  l.a  coltimzione  dcgh  olivi 
(1808),  which  won  for  him  an  important  place 
in  Italian  literature.  He  also  wrote  another 
didactic  poem.  La  paslorhia  (1814),  and  some 
shorter  poems,  such  as  II  campo  saiilu  di  Brescia-, 
and  made  a  translation  of  the  Bucolics  and 
.Unrid  of  Vergil. 

ARID  RE'GIONS.  See  Deserts. 
ARIEGE,  a're-azh'.  A  department  of  France 
Ivin"'  alon"  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Pyre- 
nees" (Map:  France,  H  9).  Area,  1890  square 
miles.  Population  in  1896,  272,028;  in  1901, 
210,527.  The  chief  industries  are  agriculture, 
iron  mining,  and  the  manufacture  of  woolens, 
linens,  and  pottery.  Capital,  Foix.  Consult  H.  L. 
Duclos,  Hist  aire  dcs  Arii^geois,  7  vols.  (Pans, 
1881-87). 

ARIEGE  (anciently,  Lat.  Aurigera,  gold- 
bearing).  A  tributary  of  the  Garonne  (q.v.) 
which  "rises  in  the  Pyrenees,  in  southern  France, 
and  flows  northward  to  join  the  Garonne  above 
Toulouse.  It  is  95  miles  long,  and  of  little  com- 
niercinl  importance. 


ABIEL. 


790 


ARIOSTO. 


A'RIEL.  ( 1 )  An  Arabian  antelope.  See 
GAZEr.LE.     (2)   A  toucan.     See  Toucan. 

AKIEIi.  The  name  given  in  the  Revised 
Version  of  the  JMble  to  ( 1 )  the  father  of  two 
Moabitish  youths  slain  by  Benaiah.  one  of 
David's  "niiphty  men"  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  20). 
(2)  one  of  a  delegation  sent  by  Ezra  (Ezra 
viii.  16).  (3)  .Jerusalem  (Isa.  xxix.  1,  2,  7). 
In  later  Jewish  angelology  it  was  the  name  of 
a  water  spirit. 

ARIEL.  A  guardian  of  the  waters  in 
mediteval  black  art,  several  times  introduced 
into  Englisli  poetry.  The  character  first  appears 
in  Shakespeare's  Tempest,  where  he  is  described 
as  an  "ayrie  sprite,"  Prospero's  servant.  In 
Milton's  Paradise  Lost  he  assumes  the  more 
grandiose  proportions  of  a  fallen  angel.  In 
Pope's  Rape  of  the  Lock  he  is  a  minute  and  in- 
visible guardian  of  Belinda's  head-dress. 

ARIES,  a'ri-ez.     See  Battering  Ram. 

ARIES  ( Lat.,  the  Ram ) .  One  of  the  signs  of 
the  zodiac,  including  the  first  30  degrees  of  the 
ecliptic  measured  from  the  vernal  equinox,  or 
that  point  where  the  vernal  passage  of  the  sun 
across  the  equator  takes  place.  The  vernal  equi- 
nox, or,  as  it  is  also  called,  the  first  point  of 
Aries,  is  constantly  changing  its  position  among 
the  fixed  stars,  in  consequence  of  the  precession 
of  the  equinoxes,  moving  westward  at  the  rate 
of  ,"50". 2  annually.  It  is  from  this  circumstance 
that  the  sign  Aries  no  longer  corresponds  with 
the  constellation  Aries,  or  the  Ram,  which  was 
the  case  about  2000  years  ago,  when  the  ecliptic 
was  divided  into  12  equal  parts  called  signs,  each 
named  after  the  group  of  stars  through  which  it 
passed.  The  present  sign  Aries  is  in  the  con- 
stellation Pisces,  about  30°  west  of  the  original 
sign;  and  although  the  sun  when  passing  the 
vernal  equinox  will  always  be  at  the  first  point 
of  the  sign  Aries,  yet  nearly  24,000  years  will 
elapse  before  that  point  will  again  coincide  with 
the  beginning  of  the  constellation  Aries.  See 
Ecliptic:  Precession;  Zodiac. 

ARIKARA.  a-re'ka-ra.  A  tribe  of  Caddoan 
stock  now  confederated  with  the  JIandans  and 
Grosventres  on  the  Fort  Berthold  Reservation,  in 
North  Dakota,  and  numbering  about  400.  They 
are  a  northern  ofi'shoot  from  the  Pawnee  (q.v.), 
of  whose  language  their  own  is  practically  a  dia- 
lect. About  the  year  1780  they  occupied  several 
villages  some  500  miles  lower  do\^^l  the  Jlissouri 
River,  but  were  driven  out  by  the  Sioux,  since 
whicli  time  they  have  rapidly  declined.  Their 
tribal  name,  frequently  abbreviated  to  Ree, 
seems  to  be  from  the  same  root  as  the  name 
Pawnee. 

AR'IL  (Low  Lat.  nom.pl.  ariUi,  dry  grapes; 
from  Lat.  oridus,  dry).  An  extra  investment 
of  the  seed,  outside  the  ordinary  testa.  It  may 
be  a  more  or  less  complete  investment,  and  is 
often  fleshy.  For  example,  the  aril  of  the  vew 
iTaxus)  is  a  beautiful,  scarlet,  fleshy  cup,  which 
gives  the  seed  the  appearance  of  a  berry.  .See 
Seed. 

AR'IMATHJE'A  (Gk.  'Api/ia^atn,  Arima- 
ihaia).  The  home  of  Joseph,  the  Jewish  coun- 
selor wlu)  favored  .Jesus  (see  llatt.  xxvii.  r,7, 
etc.).  Its  situation  is  not  certainly  known,  but 
was  probably  the  same  as  that  of  Ramathaim 
Zophim  (I.  Sam.  i.  1 ) ,  the  modern  Beit-Rima, 
about  19  miles  northwest  of  Jerusalem. 


ARINO'RI  MO'RI.     See  Mori,  Arinori. 

ARIOCH,  a'ri-ok.  King  of  Ellasar,  accord- 
ing to  Gen.  xiv.  He  may  be  identical  with  Eri- 
Aku.  King  of  J^arsa.  a  son  of  Kudur  ^laluig.  King 
of  Elam  at  the  time  of  Hammurabi  (c.2200 
B.C. ),  although  it  is  not  certain  that  the  moon- 
god  was  called  Aku  in  Elam.  In  Dan.  ii.  14 
Nebuchadnezzar's  captain  of  the  guard  is  named 
Arioch,  which  shows  that  in  B.C.  1C5  the  story  in 
Gen.  -xiv.  was  already  known.  Arioch  is  an 
Elamitish  king  in  league  with  Nebuchadnezzar 
in  the  story  of  Judith   (i.  6). 

ARI'ON  (Gk.  Wpiuv,  AriOi}).  A  celebrated 
lute-player  of  Methymna,  in  Lesbos,  who  lived 
at  the  time  of  Periander,  tyrant  of  Corinth. 
According  to  Herodotus,  Arion,  while  dwell- 
ing at  the  court  of  Periander,  paid  a  visit 
t(i  Sicily  and  Lower  Italy.  When  on  his  way 
back  by  sea,  the  sailors  of  the  vessel  on  which 
he  had  taken  passage  plotted  to  slay  him  and 
seize  his  possessions.  Arion  begged  permission 
to  try  once  more  his  skill  in  music,  and,  having 
been  allowed  to  do  so,  threw  himself  at  the  close 
of  his  strain  into  the  sea.  Several  dolphins, 
charmed  by  the  music,  had  assembled  around  the 
vessel,  and  on  the  back  of  one  of  these  he  was 
carried  in  safety  to  Greece.  The  sailors,  on  their 
return,  were  confronted  with  Arion,  and  paid  the 
penalty  of  their  intended  crime.  Another  account 
makes  the  rescue  take  place  while  Arion  was  on 
his  way  from  Corinth  to  Methj'mna.  In  the  days 
of  Herodotus  and  Pausanias  there  existed  at 
Ta^narum,  where  Arion  landed,  a  bronze  monu- 
ment, representing  Arion  riding  on  a  dolphin, 
which  was  supposed  to  be  a  thank-offering  made 
by  Arion  to  Poseidon.  The  lute  and  dolphin 
were  put  among  the  constellations.  Arion  was 
regarded  as  the  inventor  of  the  dithyramb.  He 
may  have  given  it  its  artistic  form,  but  even  so 
much   is  doubtful. 

ARION  (Gk.  'Apeiav,  Areion) .  A  marvelous 
horse,  the  offspring  of  Poseidon  by  either  Deme- 
ter,  Ga^a,  or  a  harpy,  the  mother  having  fu- 
tilely  changed  herself  into  a  mare  to  escape 
the  Sea  God's  addresses.  Driven,  at  different 
times,  by  Copreus,  Oneus,  Hercules,  and  Adras- 
tus,  it  yet  possessed  astounding  evidences  of  its 
divine  origin.  It  had  full  power  of  speech,  and 
its  right  feet  were  those  of  a  man. 

ARIOSTO,  iir-yos'tA,  LuDOvico  (1474-1533). 
One  of  the  most  celebrated  of  Italian  poets,  the 
author  of  the  Orlando  Furioso,  and,  with  Boi- 
ardo  and  Tasso,  one  of  the  trio  who  showed  Italy 
how  the  material  of  the  old  chivalric  romances 
might  be  remodeled  ,and  endowed  with  classic 
form  and  epic  dignity.  He  was  born  September 
8,  1474,  at  Reggio,  where  his  father  was  then 
military  governor.  Like  Petrarch  and  Boccaccio 
before  him,  he  was  destined  by  his  father  for 
the  law,  but  abandoned  it  after  five  years  of 
half-hearted  study.  His  father's  early  death 
Iriinsferred  to  Ariosto's  shoulders  the  burden  of 
a  large  family,  with  but  a  scanty  inherit- 
ance; and  in  l.")03  he  was  glad  of  the  chance 
offered  him  to  enter  the  service  of  Ippolito,  the 
Cardinal  d'Este,  brother  of  the  Duke  of  Fer- 
rara.  By  this  time  he  had  already  acquired  a 
reputation  for  his  verses,  in  both  Latin  and  Ital- 
ian; but  his  new  position  was  far  from  favorable 
to  poetic  inspiration.  Tlie  Cardinal,  a  rough, 
coarse-natured man, quite  destitute  of  ])oetic  feel- 
ing, kept  Ariosto  actively  employed  upon  diplo- 
matic errands  to  Rome  or  upon  distant  embas- 


AEIOSTO. 


Till 


ARISTiEtrS. 


sies,  and  on  one  occasion  at  least,  sent  him 
into  active  service  against  the  Venetians.  It 
was,  however,  during  the  ten  years  that  Ari- 
osto  spent  in  his  service  that  the  Orlando  Furi- 
oso  was  written,  and  it  was  publislu'd  at  Fer- 
rara,  1516,  in  forty  cantos.  Ostensibly  it 
was  a  continuation  of  Boiardo's  Orlando  Innamo- 
rato;  practically,  it  was  a  glorification  of  the 
House  of  Este,  having  for  its  real  hero  Rug- 
giero,  the  mythical  founder  of  that  House.  In 
payment  for  this  rather  ol)vious  Hattery,  the  Car- 
dinal is  said  to  have  rewarded  him  with  a  golden 
chain  and  the  query,  "Where  he  liad  got  tliat 
rubbish?"  and  the  following  year, having  incurred 
his  patron's  displeasure  by  a  refusal  to  accom- 
pany him  to  Hungary,  Ariosto  passed  into  the 
service  of  his  brother,  the  Duke  of  Ferrara.  The 
Duke,  scarcely  more  munificent  than  the  Car- 
dinal, bestowed  upon  him  the  governorship  of 
the  wild  mountain  district  of  Garfagnana,  over- 
run with  bandits,  which,  with  all  his  endeavors, 
he  could  not  succeed  in  reducing  to  order.  He 
was  finally  recalled  by  the  Duke  in  1.525,  and 
spent  his  remaining  years  in  Ferrara,  nominally 
in  his  patron's  service,  but  in  reality  enjoying 
what  he  prized  most  highly — abundant  leisure 
for  prosecuting  his  studies,  in  the  modest  home 
which  the  Latin  inscription  over  the  door  proud- 
ly states  was  bouglit  from  his  owni  savings.  This 
house  is  still  carefully  preserved  by  the  authori- 
ties of  Ferrara.  He  died  in  that  city  June  6, 
1533,  and  was  buried  there  in  the  Church  of  San 
Benedetto. 

The  manner  in  whicli  the  Orlando  Furioso  is 
engrafted  upon  Boiardo's  earlier  poem  has  been 
aptly  compared  to  the  connection  between  the 
Iliad  and  the  .Uneid  of  Vergil.  Boiardo's  poem 
was  based  upon  the  chivalric  cycle  which  dealt 
with  the  wars  between  Charlemagne  and  the 
Saracens,  confounded  as  tliey  were  with  those  of 
Charles  Martel^  in  which  Orlando,  or  Roland, 
stood  forward  as  champion  of  Christendom.  Or- 
lando is  Boiardo's  hero,  and  falls  in  love  with 
Angelica,  a  clever  and  beautiful  Oriental  princess 
sent  by  the  Paj'nim  to  spw  discord  among  the 
Christian  knights.  The  story,  left  unfinished  by 
Eoiardo,  is  taken  up  by  Ariosto,  who  makes  An- 
gelica fall  in  love  with  an  obscure  young  squire, 
upon  which  Orlando  becomes  insane.  It  is  diffi- 
cult, however,  to  disentangle  the  central  argu- 
ment of  this  poem  from  the  mass  of  extraneous 
episodes  in  which  it  is  involved.  The  Orlando 
Furioso  has  long  been  numbered  among  the 
world's  greatest  epics,  but  it  is  utterly  lacking  in 
epic  unity,  and  probably  the  nearest  parallel  to 
it  which  can  be  found  is  that  pointed  out  by 
Richard  Garnett — Ovid's  l\Ielamorijhoses.  In  so 
far  as  it  has  a  central  theme  at  all,  it  is  not  the 
adventures  of  the  knight  who  has  given  it  his 
name,  but  of  Ruggiero's  conversion  from  pagan- 
ism, his  union  with  Bradamiinte,  and  the  inci- 
dental exaltation  of  tlie  House  of  Este.  Ariosto 
also  left  comedies,  satires,  sonnets,  and  a  number 
of  Latin  poems.  There  are  also  extensive  frag- 
ments of  anotlier  epic,  Rinaldo  Ardito,  which  are 
attributed  to  him ;  but  it  is  a  question  whether 
they  are  not  rather  the  work  of  his  son  Virginio. 

The  first  edition  of  the  Orlando  Fnrioso,  in  its 
present  dimensions  of  forty-six  cantos,  was  pub- 
lished at  Ferrara,  in  1832.  Recent  editions  are 
those  edited  by  Gioberti  (Milan,  1870)  and  Ca- 
sella  (Florence,  1877).  and  an  Mifion  de  luxe, 
with  introduction  by  Carducci  and  illustrations 
by  Dor^    (Milan,   1880).     The  latest  edition  of 


his  lesser  works,  Opvrc  minori  in  verso  e  in 
lirosa,  is  that  of  Polidori  (2  vols.,  Florence, 
185fi).  The  latest  and  most  complete  biography 
is  by  A.  Cappelli,  in  his  collection  of  Ariosto's 
Letters  (Milan,  1887).  Of  translations,  the  fol- 
lowing into  English  may  be  mentioned:  by  Sir 
.John  Harrington  (London,  151)1);  .lohn  Hoole 
( Ijondon,  1783);  and  the  nuicli  more  spirited 
version  of  W.  Stewart  Rose  (London,  1823). 

ARIOSTO  OF  THE  NORTH.  A  title  given 
to  Sir  Walter  Scott,  suggested  liy  tlie  legendary 
subject-matter  and  the  romantic  manner  of  treat- 
ment which  tlie  English  and  the  Italian  poet  are 
alike  in  employing. 

A'RIOVIS'TUS  (OHG.  fieri,  hari.  Ger.  Heer, 
army,  and  furist,  Ger.  Fiirst,  chief).  A  German 
cliief.  He  was  the  leader  of  the  Suevi  and 
other  German  tribes,  and  was  requested  by 
the  Sequani,  a  Gallic  people,  to  assist  them  in 
a  contest  against  the  .F^dui.  Having  gained  a 
victory  for  tlie  Sequani,  Ariovistus  was  so  well 
plea.sed  with  their  country  (now  Burgundy), 
that  he  determined  to  abide  there  with  his  fol- 
lowers. Many  other  Germans  followed  him  into 
Gaul,  where  he  soon  collected  an  army  of  120,000 
men.  The  Gallic  people  now  turned  for  help 
to  the  Romans,  and  C'lesar  demanded  an  in- 
terview with  Ariovistus.  wlio  jiroudly  replied, 
that  "  he  did  not  see  what  Ciesar  had  to  do  with 
Gaul."  After  another  message  from  C;?sar  liad 
been  treated  in  the  same  scornful  manner,  the 
Roman  forces  under  Cfesar  advanced  and  occu- 
pied Vesontio  (now  Besancon),  the  chief  city 
of  the  Sequani.  A  furious  engagement  took 
place  B.C.  58,  in  which  Roman  discipline  pre- 
vailed over  the  German  forces,  which  were  ut- 
terly routed.  Ariovistus,  with  only  a  few  fol- 
lowers, escaped  over  the  Rhine  into  his  own 
country.  His  subsequent  history  is  unknown. 
Consult  Csfsar,  Dc  Bella  dallico. 

ABIPA,  a-rc'p.^.  A  Malay  people  of  Cagayan 
Province,  Luzon.  They  speak  a  distinct  dialect. 
See  Philippines. 

ARISTA,  a-res'ti'i,  Mariano  (1802-55).  A 
Mexican  general.  He  was  in  command  of  the 
Mexican  Army  of  the  North  in  1846.  and  was 
badly  defeated  by  General  Taylor  at  Palo  Alto 
(May  8)  and  Resaca  de  la  Palma  (Jlay  9).  He 
was  minister  of  war  in  1848,  and  was  elected 
President  of  Mexico  in  1851,  but  resigned  in  1853 
to  avert  an  impending  revolution,  and  was  ban- 
ished soon  afterward.     He  died  in  Europe. 

ARIS'TA  and  AWN.      See  Gbaminile. 

AR'IST^N'ETUS  (Gk.  'ApurralMTOs,  Arts- 
taineliis)  I  ■.'-c.484  a.d.  ).  A  Greek  epistolary 
writer.  He  is  thought  to  be  the  author  of  two 
books  of  love-stories  in  the  forms  of  letters 
('En-io-ToXai  'E/jurixaf,  epistolai  erotikai) ,  imita- 
tions ot  Alcephion,  and  taken  almost  entire- 
ly from  Plato.  Lucian.  Philostratus.  and  Plu- 
tarch. They  have  been  edited  by  Boissonade 
(1822),  and  the  text  and  a  Latin  version  are 
contained  in  the  Didot  collection  of  the  Episto- 
lograplii  Graci  (1873).  Arista-netus  should  not 
be  confused  with  Aristienetus  of  Niciea. 

AR'IST.ffi'US  (Gk.  'ApiaTaio;,  Aristaios). 
An  ancient  divinity  whose  worship  in  the  earli- 
est times  seems  to  have  been  widely  diffused 
throughout  Greece,  but  who  is  known  only  in 
scattered  and  fragmentary  traditions.  Accord- 
ing to  the  common  tradition,  he  was  the  son  of 
Apollo  and  Cyrene,  the  latter  the  granddaughter 


ARISTJBTTS. 


792 


ARISTAGORAS. 


of  Peneius,  a  river-god  of  Thessaly.  She  is  said 
to  have  given  birth  to  Aristoeus  on  the  coast  of 
Libya,  in  Africa,  whence  the  region  is  alleged 
to  have  derived  its  name  of  Cyrenaica.  Hermes 
placed  the  child  in  the  care  of  the  Horse  and 
Gaia  (earth).  Another  version  placed  his  birth 
in  Thessaly  and  made  him  a  pupil  of  Chiron 
the  centaur.  He  appears  at  Thebes  in  Boeotia  as 
son-in-law  of  Cadmus  and  father  of  Actteon  (q.v.) . 
Still  another  stoiy  brings  him  from  Arcadia  to 
the  island  of  Ceos,  where  he  was  honored  as  hav- 
ing freed  the  island  from  the  heat  of  the  dog-star 
by  erecting  an  altar  to  Zeus  Icmoeus,  the  rain- 
maker, who  rewarded  this  piety  by  sending  the 
Etesian  winds.  Aristseus  also  appears  in  Cor- 
cyra,  Euba?a,  Sicily,  and  even  Thrace,  where  he 
is  one  of  a  band  of  Dionysus.  These  stories 
are  obviously  not  fragments  of  a  connected  nar- 
rative, but  rather  a  number  of  local  traditions 
connected  with  a  divinity  known  as  "the  Good," 
whose  very  transparent  name  prevented  his  at- 
taining the  rank  of  a  great  god,  though  many 


of  his  activities  are  those  attributed  to  Zeus  and 
Apollo.  He  is  connected  with  the  life  and  inter- 
ests of  hunters  and  herdsmen,  taught  bee-keep- 
ing, the  care  of  the  olive  tree,  and  the  spinning 
of  wood,  and  introduced  to  Cyrene  its  valuable 
plant,  Silphiuni    (asafoetida) . 

AE'ISTAG'ORAS  (Gk.  'Api(rTa;6pas)  (  ?- 
4!I7  B.C. ) .  A  tyrant  of  Miletus  and  brother- 
in-law  of  Histiitus.  During  the  stay  of  His- 
tifeus  at  the  Persian  court,  Aristagoras  was 
made  governor  of  Miletus,  and  in  B.C.  501  made 
an  unsuccessful  attack  on  Naxos,  which  he  had 
promised  to  subdue  for  the  Persians.  Fearful 
of  the  consequences  of  his  failure,  he  induced 
the  Ionian  cities  to  revolt  from.  Persia,  and 
after  vainly  applying  to  Sparta  for  aid,  obtained 
troops  and  twenty  ships  from  the  Athenians.  The 
allies  captured  and  burned  Sardis  (B.C.  499), 
but  were  finally  driven  to  the  coast  by  the 
Persians,  and  Aristagoras,  in  despair,  fled  to 
Thrace,  where  he  was  slain  by  the  Edonians. 


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